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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emolument.com | Emolument is a crowdsourced salary comparison website created in 2012 by Thomas Drewry, Olivier Beau de Loménie and Alice Leguay. It allows its contributors to compare their salary to aggregated entries of other Emolument users, in order to help them negotiate a salary raise, evaluate an offer of employment or change locations.
As of September 2017, Emolument.com had gathered 130,000 entries, each of them automatically and manually verified in order to preserve the accuracy of the data, according to the website.
While Emolument.com is opened to all industries, it is mostly used by Finance, Consultancy and Tech professionals and therefore is often used as a source by newspapers for studies on Banks, Tech firms, or Consultancy companies.
Emolument.com also regularly publishes league tables of best paying universities.
In July 2015, Emolument announced it had raised £1.4 million in funding from 10 angel investors, enabling it to pursue an aggressive user acquisition strategy targeted at financial, technology and professional services globally to further establish Emolument.com, as the leading user-generated remuneration data platform in these sectors. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20trigonometric%20identities | In trigonometry, trigonometric identities are equalities that involve trigonometric functions and are true for every value of the occurring variables for which both sides of the equality are defined. Geometrically, these are identities involving certain functions of one or more angles. They are distinct from triangle identities, which are identities potentially involving angles but also involving side lengths or other lengths of a triangle.
These identities are useful whenever expressions involving trigonometric functions need to be simplified. An important application is the integration of non-trigonometric functions: a common technique involves first using the substitution rule with a trigonometric function, and then simplifying the resulting integral with a trigonometric identity.
Pythagorean identities
The basic relationship between the sine and cosine is given by the Pythagorean identity:
where means and means
This can be viewed as a version of the Pythagorean theorem, and follows from the equation for the unit circle. This equation can be solved for either the sine or the cosine:
where the sign depends on the quadrant of
Dividing this identity by , , or both yields the following identities:
Using these identities, it is possible to express any trigonometric function in terms of any other (up to a plus or minus sign):
Reflections, shifts, and periodicity
By examining the unit circle, one can establish the following properties of the trigonometric functions.
Reflections
When the direction of a Euclidean vector is represented by an angle this is the angle determined by the free vector (starting at the origin) and the positive -unit vector. The same concept may also be applied to lines in a Euclidean space, where the angle is that determined by a parallel to the given line through the origin and the positive -axis. If a line (vector) with direction is reflected about a line with direction then the direction angle of this reflected line (vec |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive%20robotics | Cognitive Robotics or Cognitive Technology is a subfield of robotics concerned with endowing a robot with intelligent behavior by providing it with a processing architecture that will allow it to learn and reason about how to behave in response to complex goals in a complex world. Cognitive robotics may be considered the engineering branch of embodied cognitive science and embodied embedded cognition, consisting of Robotic Process Automation, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Optical Character Recognition, Image Processing, Process Mining, Analytics, Software Development and System Integration.
Core issues
While traditional cognitive modeling approaches have assumed symbolic coding schemes as a means for depicting the world, translating the world into these kinds of symbolic representations has proven to be problematic if not untenable. Perception and action and the notion of symbolic representation are therefore core issues to be addressed in cognitive robotics.
Starting point
Cognitive robotics views human or animal cognition as a starting point for the development of robotic information processing, as opposed to more traditional Artificial Intelligence techniques. Target robotic cognitive capabilities include perception processing, attention allocation, anticipation, planning, complex motor coordination, reasoning about other agents and perhaps even about their own mental states. Robotic cognition embodies the behavior of intelligent agents in the physical world (or a virtual world, in the case of simulated cognitive robotics). Ultimately the robot must be able to act in the real world.
Learning techniques
Motor Babble
A preliminary robot learning technique called motor babbling involves correlating pseudo-random complex motor movements by the robot with resulting visual and/or auditory feedback such that the robot may begin to expect a pattern of sensory feedback given a pattern of motor output. Desired sensory feedback may then b |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-range%20restriction%20mapping | Long-range restriction mapping is an alternative genomic mapping technique to short-range, also called fine-scale mapping. Both forms utilize restriction enzymes in order to decipher the previously unknown order of DNA segments; the main difference between the two being the amount of DNA that comprises the final map. The unknown DNA is broken into many smaller fragments by these restriction enzymes at specific sites on the molecule, and then the fragments can later be analyzed by their individual sizes. A final long-range map can span hundreds to thousands of kilobytes of genetic data at many different loci.
The long-range maps cover very large genomics regions in order to display the physical relationship of DNA segments targeted by restriction enzymes. These restriction sites are an integral component to the formation of long-range mapping. Genetic linkage data can be combined with gel electrophoresis procedures to provide gene order as well as distance on chromosomes. To accomplish this, the genetic linkage information is used to create a theory-based hypothesis: one that can be tested with gel electrophoresis and extended DNA sequencing protocols.
Construction
The formation of a long-range restriction map is similar to a short-range map, but there is an increase in experimental complexity as the size of the genomic section increases. To begin this process, magnification of DNA quantity has to occur. Endonuclease-mediated long polymerase chain reactions allow for DNA fragments of up to 40 kb to be amplified. In some practices, two equivalents of DNA are restricted at one site, and a third equivalent is restricted in both of the sites. With enough purified plasmid DNA and digestive enzymes, the Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) process can begin: alternating voltages are combined with a standard gel electrophoresis that results in a much longer procedure. To run this gel effectively, the DNA of interest must be combined with specific rare-cutting restrict |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round%202%20%28company%29 | Round 2 is an American manufacturing company which produces scale models including die-cast, plastic, slot cars, and other hobby products. The company is based in South Bend, Indiana. The company was founded in 2005 by Thomas E. Lowe who previously owned toy company Playing Mantis. Round 2 holds several hobby brands, most of which were acquired and relaunched by Round 2 under the original brand name. Brands sold under Round 2 includes long-running model kit and diecast brands, including AMT, Hawk, Johnny Lightning, MPC, and Racing Champions.
Brands by Round 2
AMT
AMT, a long-running model kit brand first established in 1948, was bought by Lesney in 1979 and then by Ertl in 1982. In 1999, Ertl was bought by Racing Champions whose primary focus was diecast model. Racing Champions subsequently made a decision to sell off the model kit brands succeeded from the Ertl, including AMT. After the establishment of Round 2, Thomas Lowe showed an interest in purchasing AMT. In 2008, Lowe signed an agreement to produce and market AMT brand under Round 2. AMT brand and toolings were purchased outright by Round 2 in 2012.
Auto World
Auto World is a brand of diecast models and slot cars primarily focused on American-made cars. The brand was originally founded by Sports Car Club of America Hall of Famer Oscar Koveleski in 1958 and it also used to publish how-to magazines on model-car building. Today, Auto World diecast models have lineups for 1:18 and 1:64 scales. 1:64 scale Auto World cars are heavy into detail and accurately made in 1:64 scale, unlike many other diecast and toy car brands which often employ nominal 1:64 scale adjusted by the size of packaging.
Hawk
Hawk Model Company started off in 1928 as a manufacturer of wood aircraft models. Since then the company evolved into producing plastic airplane kits, 1:24 and 1:32 scale model car kits, as well as cartoon figure kits for an animated series Weird-Oh's. New models were released until the 1970s. Since then the compa |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive%20disease | Progressive disease or progressive illness is a disease or physical ailment whose course in most cases is the worsening, growth, or spread of the disease. This may happen until death, serious debility, or organ failure occurs. Some progressive diseases can be halted and reversed by treatment (surgical, dietary, or lifestyle interventions). Many can be slowed by medical therapy. Some cannot be altered by current treatments.
Though the time distinctions are imprecise, diseases can be rapidly progressive (typically days to weeks) or slowly progressive (months to years). The time course of a disease affects whether it is considered acute or chronic. By definition, virtually all slowly progressive diseases are also chronic diseases. Biologically, many of these are also referred to as degenerative diseases due to the cellular changes.
Not all chronic diseases are progressive: a chronic, non-progressive disease may be referred to as a static condition.
Progressive disease can also be a clinical endpoint i.e. an endpoint in a clinical trial.
A progressive disease should not be confused with a terminal disease, the difference being that a terminal disease invariably leads to death.
Examples
There are examples of slowly and rapidly progressive diseases affecting all organ systems and parts of the body. The following are some examples of rapidly and slowly progressive diseases affecting various organ systems:
Brain: Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease progresses rapidly compared to Alzheimer's disease.
Eyes: Cataracts can be static or slowly progressive. Macular degeneration is slowly progressive, while retinal detachment is rapidly progressive.
Lungs: Emphysema due to alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is a slowly progressive pulmonary disease.
Kidneys: Goodpasture's syndrome is a rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis, while diabetic glomerulosclerosis is slowly progressive.
Pancreas: Type 1 diabetes mellitus involves rapidly progressive loss of insulin secretory capacity compared to |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestration | Orchestration is the study or practice of writing music for an orchestra (or, more loosely, for any musical ensemble, such as a concert band) or of adapting music composed for another medium for an orchestra. Also called "instrumentation", orchestration is the assignment of different instruments to play the different parts (e.g., melody, bassline, etc.) of a musical work. For example, a work for solo piano could be adapted and orchestrated so that an orchestra could perform the piece, or a concert band piece could be orchestrated for a symphony orchestra.
In classical music, composers have historically orchestrated their own music. Only gradually over the course of music history did orchestration come to be regarded as a separate compositional art and profession in itself. In modern classical music, composers almost invariably orchestrate their own work. Two notable exceptions to this are Ravel's orchestration of Mussorgsky's solo piano work Pictures at an Exhibition and Malcolm Arnold's orchestration of William Walton's String Quartet in A minor, producing the latter's Sonata for Strings.
However, in musical theatre, film music and other commercial media, it is customary to use orchestrators and arrangers to one degree or another, since time constraints and/or the level of training of composers may preclude them orchestrating the music themselves.
The precise role of the orchestrator in film music is highly variable, and depends greatly on the needs and skill set of the particular composer.
In musical theatre, the composer typically writes a piano/vocal score and then hires an arranger or orchestrator to create the instrumental score for the pit orchestra to play.
In jazz big bands, the composer or songwriter may write a lead sheet, which contains the melody and the chords, and then one or more orchestrators or arrangers may "flesh out" these basic musical ideas by creating parts for the saxophones, trumpets, trombones, and the rhythm section (bass, piano/ja |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Association%20of%20Mathematical%20Physics | The International Association of Mathematical Physics (IAMP) was founded in 1976 to promote research in mathematical physics. It brings together research mathematicians and theoretical physicists, including students. The association's ordinary members are individual researchers, although associate membership is available to organizations and companies. The IAMP is governed by an executive committee elected by the ordinary members.
The association sponsors the International Congress on Mathematical Physics (ICMP), which takes place every three years, and it also supports smaller conferences and workshops. There is a quarterly news bulletin.
IAMP currently awards two kinds of research prizes in mathematical physics at its triannual meetings, the Henri Poincaré Prize (created in 1997) and the Early Career Award (created in 2009).
List of presidents
The presidents of the IAMP since its foundation were:
2021-23: Bruno Nachtergaele
2015-20: Robert Seiringer
2012-14: Antti Kupiainen
2009-11: Pavel Exner
2006-08: Giovanni Gallavotti
2003-05: David Brydges
2000-02: Herbert Spohn
1997-99: Elliott Lieb
1991-96: Arthur Jaffe
1988-90: John R. Klauder
1985-87: Konrad Osterwalder
1982-84: Elliott Lieb
1979-81: Huzihiro Araki
1976-78: Walter Thirring
Prizes awarded by IAMP
Henri Poincaré Prize
The Henri Poincaré Prize is sponsored by the Daniel Iagolnitzer Foundation to recognize outstanding contributions in mathematical physics, and contributions which lay the groundwork for novel developments in this broad field. The Prize was also created to recognize and support young people of exceptional promise who have already made outstanding contributions to the field of mathematical physics.
The prize is usually awarded to three individuals every three years at the International Congress on Mathematical Physics (ICMP). The prize committee is appointed by the IAMP.
IAMP Early Career Award
The prize is awarded at the International Congress on Mathematical Physics (ICMP) in recog |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline%20Pilot | Pipeline Pilot is a desktop software program sold by Dassault Systèmes for processing and analyzing data. Originally used in the natural sciences, the product's basic ETL (Extract, transform, load) and analytics capabilities have broadened over time. The product is now used for data science, ETL, reporting, prediction, and analytics in a number of sectors. The main feature of the program is the ability to design data workflows using a graphical user interface. It is an example of visual and dataflow programming and has use in a variety of settings, such as cheminformatics and QSAR, Next Generation Sequencing, image analysis, and text analytics. It is not an 'object oriented' programming language .
History
Pipeline Pilot was created by SciTegic. BIOVIA subsequently acquired SciTegic and Pipeline Pilot in 2004. BIOVIA was itself purchased by Dassault Systèmes in 2014. The product expanded from an initial focus on chemistry to include general extract, transform and load (ETL) capabilities. Beyond the base product, Dassault has added analytical and data processing collections for report generation, data visualization and a number of scientific and engineering sectors. Currently, the product is used for ETL, analytics and machine learning in the chemical, energy, consumer packaged goods, aerospace, automotive and electronics manufacturing industries.
Overview
Pipeline Pilot is part of a class of software products that provide user interfaces for manipulating and analyzing data. The Vendor says that Pipeline Pilot and similar products allow users with limited or no coding abilities to transform and manipulate datasets. The dataset manipulation is usually a precursor to conducting analysis of the data. Like other graphical ETL products, it enables users to pull from different data sources, such as CSV files, text files and databases.
Components, pipelines, protocols and data records
The graphical user interface, called the Pipeline Pilot Professional Client, allo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Indian%20state%20mottos | India is a country in South Asia. It is made up of 28 states and 8 union territories. 6 states have adopted their own state mottos, while 20 states and 6 union territories use national motto of India as their state mottos. 2 states (Bihar and Uttar Pradesh) and 2 union territories (Chandigarh and Lakshadweep) have no official state mottos.
States
India Satyamev Jayate situated at sarnath.
Union territories
Autonomous administrative divisions
Some of the autonomous administrative divisions established by the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India have adopted their own motto.
See also
Satyameva Jayate, the national motto of India
List of Indian state symbols
List of Indian state flags
List of Indian state emblems
List of Indian state songs
List of Indian state foundation days
List of Indian state animals
List of Indian state birds
List of Indian state flowers
List of Indian state trees |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS%20app%20approvals | Submissions for mobile apps for iOS are subject to approval by Apple's App Review team, as outlined in the SDK agreement, for basic reliability testing and other analysis, before being published on the App Store. Applications may still be distributed ad hoc if they are rejected, by the author manually submitting a request to Apple to license the application to individual iPhones, although Apple may withdraw the ability for authors to do this at a later date.
Non-disclosure agreements have always forbidden developers from publishing the content of their rejection notices, but Apple has now started labeling their rejection letters with an explicit non-disclosure warning. Apple later changed the NDA citing that "it has created too much of a burden on developers" but they did not reverse the decision to forbid publication of rejection notices. Some applications are not available outside region specific App Stores at the request of the developer.
In addition, Apple has removed software licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) from the App Store after complaints from one of the program's developers (the VLC media player), claiming that the App Store's terms of service are inconsistent with the GPL.
Functional restrictions
Applicants have been denied apps for fundamentally duplicating Apple apps, for example by providing an email interface with no added functionality or use, or having the same elements as the built in SMS app. Applications have also been rejected for duplicating the functionality of iTunes. Applications may be rejected if they are of only "limited utility". Some reports indicate that toolbars must be placed at the bottom of the screen, and the vibration function should only be used for alerts.
Approval process
Launched in July 2008, the App Store averaged about $1 million in application sales a day in its first month of existence. To get applications into the App Store, developers were required to submit their app and wait for approval or |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Animals | History of Animals (, Ton peri ta zoia historion, "Inquiries on Animals"; , "History of Animals") is one of the major texts on biology by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who had studied at Plato's Academy in Athens. It was written in the fourth century BC; Aristotle died in 322 BC.
Generally seen as a pioneering work of zoology, Aristotle frames his text by explaining that he is investigating the what (the existing facts about animals) prior to establishing the why (the causes of these characteristics). The book is thus an attempt to apply philosophy to part of the natural world. Throughout the work, Aristotle seeks to identify differences, both between individuals and between groups. A group is established when it is seen that all members have the same set of distinguishing features; for example, that all birds have feathers, wings, and beaks. This relationship between the birds and their features is recognized as a universal.
The History of Animals contains many accurate eye-witness observations, in particular of the marine biology around the island of Lesbos, such as that the octopus had colour-changing abilities and a sperm-transferring tentacle, that the young of a dogfish grow inside their mother's body, or that the male of a river catfish guards the eggs after the female has left. Some of these were long considered fanciful before being rediscovered in the nineteenth century. Aristotle has been accused of making errors, but some are due to misinterpretation of his text, and others may have been based on genuine observation. He did however make somewhat uncritical use of evidence from other people, such as travellers and beekeepers.
The History of Animals had a powerful influence on zoology for some two thousand years. It continued to be a primary source of knowledge until zoologists in the sixteenth century, such as Conrad Gessner, all influenced by Aristotle, wrote their own studies of the subject.
Context
Aristotle (384–322 BC) studied at Plat |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldman%20equation | The Goldman–Hodgkin–Katz voltage equation, sometimes called the Goldman equation, is used in cell membrane physiology to determine the reversal potential across a cell's membrane, taking into account all of the ions that are permeant through that membrane.
The discoverers of this are David E. Goldman of Columbia University, and the Medicine Nobel laureates Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Bernard Katz.
Equation for monovalent ions
The GHK voltage equation for monovalent positive ionic species and negative:
This results in the following if we consider a membrane separating two -solutions:
It is "Nernst-like" but has a term for each permeant ion:
= the membrane potential (in volts, equivalent to joules per coulomb)
= the selectivity for that ion (in meters per second)
= the extracellular concentration of that ion (in moles per cubic meter, to match the other SI units)
= the intracellular concentration of that ion (in moles per cubic meter)
= the ideal gas constant (joules per kelvin per mole)
= the temperature in kelvins
= Faraday's constant (coulombs per mole)
is approximately 26.7 mV at human body temperature (37 °C); when factoring in the change-of-base formula between the natural logarithm, ln, and logarithm with base 10 , it becomes , a value often used in neuroscience.
The ionic charge determines the sign of the membrane potential contribution. During an action potential, although the membrane potential changes about 100mV, the concentrations of ions inside and outside the cell do not change significantly. They are always very close to their respective concentrations when the membrane is at their resting potential.
Calculating the first term
Using , , (assuming body temperature) and the fact that one volt is equal to one joule of energy per coulomb of charge, the equation
can be reduced to
which is the Nernst equation.
Derivation
Goldman's equation seeks to determine the voltage Em across a membrane. A Cartesian coordinate system is used to desc |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinery%27s%20Handbook | Machinery's Handbook for machine shop and drafting-room; a reference book on machine design and shop practice for the mechanical engineer, draftsman, toolmaker, and machinist (the full title of the 1st edition) is a classic reference work in mechanical engineering and practical workshop mechanics in one volume published by Industrial Press, New York, since 1914. The first edition was created by Erik Oberg (1881–1951) and Franklin D. Jones (1879–1967), who are still mentioned on the title page of the 29th edition (2012). Recent editions of the handbook contain chapters on mathematics, mechanics, materials, measuring, toolmaking, manufacturing, threading, gears, and machine elements, combined with excerpts from ANSI standards. The work is available in online and ebook form as well as print.
During the decades from World War I to World War II, these phrases could refer to either of two competing reference books: McGraw-Hill's American Machinists' Handbook or Industrial Press's Machinery's Handbook. The former book ceased publication after the 8th edition (1945). (One short-lived spin-off appeared in 1955.) The latter book, Machinery's Handbook, is still regularly revised and updated, and it continues to be a "bible of the metalworking industries" today.
Machinery's Handbook is apparently the direct inspiration for similar works in other countries, such as Sweden's Karlebo handbok (1st ed. 1936).
Machinery's Encyclopedia
In 1917, Oberg and Jones also published Machinery's Encyclopedia in 7 volumes. The handbook and encyclopedia are named after the monthly magazine Machinery (Industrial Press, 1894–1973), where the two were consulting editors.
See also
Machinist Calculator
Kempe's Engineers Year-Book
External links
Industrial Press website
History of Machinery's Handbook |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20syringe | Flying syringe is a phrase that is used to refer to proposed, but not yet created, genetically modified mosquitoes that inject vaccines into people when they bite them.
History
In the 1990s, Bob Sinden of Imperial College, London, and Julian Crampton of the University of Liverpool, developed this idea and filled three related patents between 1997 and 2003.
In 2008, the Gates Foundation awarded $100,000 to Hiroyuki Matsuoka of Jichi Medical University in Japan to do research on them, with a condition that any discoveries that were funded by the grant must be made available at affordable prices in the developing world. If Matsuoka proves that his idea has merit, he will be eligible for an additional $1 million of funding. The Washington Post referred to flying syringes as a "bold idea".
See also
Hunter-seeker |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular%20property | Molecular properties include the chemical properties, physical properties, and structural properties of molecules, including drugs. Molecular properties typically do not include pharmacological or biological properties of a chemical compound.
See also
Biological activity
Chemical property
Chemical structure
Lipinski's rule of five, describing molecular properties of drugs
Physical property
QSAR, quantitative structure-activity relationship |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRPV2 | Transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TRPV2 gene. TRPV2 is a nonspecific cation channel that is a part of the TRP channel family. This channel allows the cell to communicate with its extracellular environment through the transfer of ions, and responds to noxious temperatures greater than 52 °C. It has a structure similar to that of potassium channels, and has similar functions throughout multiple species; recent research has also shown multiple interactions in the human body.
TRP subfamily
The vanilloid TRP subfamily (TRPV) named after the vanilloid receptor 1 consist of six members, four of them (TRPV1-TRPV4) have been related to thermal sensation. TRPV2 shares 50% of its homology with TRPV1. Compared to TRPV1 channels, TRPV2 channels do not open in response to vanilloids like capsaicin or thermal stimuli around 43 °C. This may be due to the composition of the ankyrin repeat domains in TRPV2, which are different than those in TRPV1. However, TRPV2 channels can open by noxious temperatures greater than 52 °C. TRPV2 initially was characterized as a noxious heat sensor channel, but more evidence suggest its importance in various osmosensory and mechanosensory mechanisms. The channel can open in response to a variety of stimuli including hormones, growth factors, mechanical stretching, heat, osmotic swelling, lysophospholipids, and cannabinoids. These channels are expressed in medium to large diameter neurons, motor neurons, and other non-neuronal tissues like the heart and lungs, which indicates its versatile function. The channel has an important role for basic cell function including contraction, cell proliferation, and cell death. The same channel can have different functions depending on the type of tissue. Other roles of TRPV2 continue to be explored in an attempt to define the role of translocation of TRPV2 by growth factors. SET2 is a TRPV2 selective antagonist.
Discovery
TRPV2 was |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malacology | Malacology is the branch of invertebrate zoology that deals with the study of the Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods. Mollusks include snails and slugs, clams, and cephalopods, along with numerous other kinds, many of which have shells. Malacology derives .
Fields within malacological research include taxonomy, ecology and evolution. Several subdivisions of malacology exist, including conchology, devoted to the study of mollusk shells, and teuthology, the study of cephalopods such as octopus, squid, and cuttlefish. Applied malacology studies medical, veterinary, and agricultural applications, for example the study of mollusks as vectors of schistosomiasis and other diseases.
Archaeology employs malacology to understand the evolution of the climate, the biota of the area, and the usage of the site.
Zoological methods are used in malacological research. Malacological field methods and laboratory methods (such as collecting, documenting and archiving, and molecular techniques) were summarized by Sturm et al. (2006).
History
In 1681, Filippo Bonanni wrote the first book ever published that was solely about seashells, the shells of marine mollusks. The book was entitled: In 1868, the German Malacological Society was founded.
Malacologists
Those who study malacology are known as malacologists. Those who study primarily or exclusively the shells of mollusks are known as conchologists, while those who study mollusks of the class Cephalopoda are teuthologists.
Societies
American Malacological Society
Association of Polish Malacologists ()
Belgian Malacological Society () – French speaking
– Dutch speaking
Brazilian Malacological Society ()
Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland
Conchologists of America
Dutch Malacological Society
Estonian Malacological Society
European Quaternary Malacologists
Freshwater Mollusk Conservation Society
German Malacological S |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrent%20point | In mathematics, a recurrent point for a function f is a point that is in its own limit set by f. Any neighborhood containing the recurrent point will also contain (a countable number of) iterates of it as well.
Definition
Let be a Hausdorff space and a function. A point is said to be recurrent (for ) if , i.e. if belongs to its -limit set. This means that for each neighborhood of there exists such that .
The set of recurrent points of is often denoted and is called the recurrent set of . Its closure is called the Birkhoff center of , and appears in the work of George David Birkhoff on dynamical systems.
Every recurrent point is a nonwandering point, hence if is a homeomorphism and is compact, then is an invariant subset of the non-wandering set of (and may be a proper subset). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malapterurus%20melanochir | Malapterurus melanochir is a species of electric catfish endemic to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where it occurs in the upper and middle Congo River basin. This species grows to a length of SL. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphaguttavirus | Alphaguttavirus is a genus of viruses, in the family Guttaviridae. Sulfolobus newzealandicus serve as natural hosts. There is only one species in this genus: Sulfolobus newzealandicus droplet-shaped virus.
Removal
Alphaguttavirus is no longer in the ICTV. It was removed from ICTV in the 2021 version.
Structure
Viruses in the genus Alphaguttavirus are enveloped. The diameter is around 70-95 nm, with a length of 110-185 nm. Genomes are circular, around 20kb in length.
Life cycle
DNA-templated transcription is the method of transcription. Sulfolobus newzealandicus serve as the natural host. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper%20coulometer | The copper coulometer is a one application for the copper-copper(II) sulfate electrode. Such a coulometer consists of two identical copper electrodes immersed in slightly acidic pH-buffered solution of copper(II) sulfate. Passing of current through the element leads to the anodic dissolution of the metal on anode and simultaneous deposition of copper ions on the cathode. These reactions have 100% efficiency over a wide range of current density.
Calculation
The amount of electric charge (quantity of electricity) passed through the cell can easily be determined by measuring the change in mass of either electrode and calculating:
,
where:
is the quantity of electricity (coulombs)
is the mass transported (gm)
is the charge of the copper ions, equal to +2
is the Faraday constant (96485.3383 coulombs per mole)
is the atomic weight of copper, equal to 63.546 grams per mole.
Although this apparatus is interesting from a theoretical and historical point of view, present-day electronic measurement of time and electric current provide in their multiplication the amount of passed coulombs much easier, with greater precision, and in a shorter period of time than is possible by weighing the electrodes.
See also
Mercury coulometer
Coulometry |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal%20difference | Goal difference, goal differential or points difference is a form of tiebreaker used to rank sport teams which finish on equal points in a league competition. Either "goal difference" or "points difference" is used, depending on whether matches are scored by goals (as in ice hockey and association football) or by points (as in rugby union and basketball).
Goal difference is calculated as the number of goals scored in all league matches minus the number of goals conceded, and is sometimes known simply as plus–minus. Goal difference was first introduced as a tiebreaker in association football, at the 1970 FIFA World Cup, and was adopted by the Football League in England five years later. It has since spread to many other competitions, where it is typically used as either the first or, after tying teams' head-to-head records, second tiebreaker. Goal difference is zero sum, in that a gain for one team (+1) is exactly balanced by the loss for their opponent (–1). Therefore, the sum of the goal differences in a league table is always zero (provided the teams have only played each other).
Goal difference has often replaced the older goal average, or goal ratio. Goal average is the number of goals scored divided by the number of goals conceded, and is therefore a dimensionless quantity. It was replaced by goal difference, which was thought to encourage more attacking play, encouraging teams to score more goals (or points) as opposed to defending against conceding. However goal average is still used as a tiebreaker in Australia, where it is referred to as "percentage". This is calculated as points scored divided by points conceded, and then multiplied by 100.
If two or more teams' total points scored and goal differences are both equal, then often goals scored is used as a further tiebreaker, with the team scoring the most goals winning. After this a variety of other tiebreakers may be used.
Goal difference v. goal average
The different schemes can lead to strikingly di |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft%20SEAL | Simple Encrypted Arithmetic Library or SEAL is a free and open-source cross platform software library developed by Microsoft Research that implements various forms of homomorphic encryption.
History
Development originally came out of the Cryptonets paper, demonstrating that artificial intelligence algorithms could be run on homomorphically encrypted data.
It is open-source (under the MIT License) and written in standard C++ without external dependencies and so it can be compiled cross platform. An official .NET wrapper written in C# is available and makes it easier for .NET applications to interact with SEAL.
Features
Algorithms
Microsoft SEAL supports both asymmetric and symmetric (added in version 3.4) encryption algorithms.
Scheme types
Microsoft SEAL comes with two different homomorphic encryption schemes with very different properties:
BFV: The BFV scheme allows modular arithmetic to be performed on encrypted integers. For applications where exact values are necessary, the BFV scheme is the only choice.
CKKS: The CKKS scheme allows additions and multiplications on encrypted real or complex numbers, but yields only approximate results. In applications such as summing up encrypted real numbers, evaluating machine learning models on encrypted data, or computing distances of encrypted locations CKKS is going to be by far the best choice.
Compression
Data compression can be achieved by building SEAL with Zlib support. By default, data is compressed using the DEFLATE algorithm which achieves significant memory footprint savings when serializing objects such as encryption parameters, ciphertexts, plaintexts, and all available keys: Public, Secret, Relin (relinearization), and Galois. Compression can always be disabled.
Availability
There are several known ports of SEAL to other languages in active development:
C++
Microsoft SEAL (Microsoft's source)
C#/F#
NuGet (Microsoft's official package)
Python
PySEAL
SEAL-Python
tf-seal
Pyfhel
JavaScri |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive%20coordinate%20descent | Adaptive coordinate descent is an improvement of the coordinate descent algorithm to non-separable optimization by the use of adaptive encoding. The adaptive coordinate descent approach gradually builds a transformation of the coordinate system such that the new coordinates are as decorrelated as possible with respect to the objective function. The adaptive coordinate descent was shown to be competitive to the state-of-the-art evolutionary algorithms and has the following invariance properties:
Invariance with respect to monotonous transformations of the function (scaling)
Invariance with respect to orthogonal transformations of the search space (rotation).
CMA-like Adaptive Encoding Update (b) mostly based on principal component analysis (a) is used to extend the coordinate descent method (c) to the optimization of non-separable problems (d).
The adaptation of an appropriate coordinate system allows adaptive coordinate descent to outperform coordinate descent on non-separable functions. The following figure illustrates the convergence of both algorithms on 2-dimensional Rosenbrock function up to a target function value , starting from the initial point .
The adaptive coordinate descent method reaches the target value after only 325 function evaluations (about 70 times faster than coordinate descent), that is comparable to gradient-based methods. The algorithm has linear time complexity if update coordinate system every D iterations, it is also suitable for large-scale (D>>100) non-linear optimization.
Relevant approaches
First approaches to optimization using adaptive coordinate system were proposed already in the 1960s (see, e.g., Rosenbrock's method). PRincipal Axis (PRAXIS) algorithm, also referred to as Brent's algorithm, is a derivative-free algorithm which assumes quadratic form of the optimized function and repeatedly updates a set of conjugate search directions.
The algorithm, however, is not invariant to scaling of the objective function and may fai |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20flow%20%28information%20theory%29 | Information flow in an information theoretical context is the transfer of information from a variable to a variable in a given process. Not all flows may be desirable; for example, a system should not leak any confidential information (partially or not) to public observers—as it is a violation of privacy on an individual level, or might cause major loss on a corporate level.
Introduction
Securing the data manipulated by computing systems has been a challenge in the past years. Several methods to limit the information disclosure exist today, such as access control lists, firewalls, and cryptography. However, although these methods do impose limits on the information that is released by a system, they provide no guarantees about information propagation. For example, access control lists of file systems prevent unauthorized file access, but they do not control how the data is used afterwards. Similarly, cryptography provides a means to exchange information privately across a non-secure channel, but no
guarantees about the confidentiality of the data are given once it is decrypted.
In low level information flow analysis, each variable is usually assigned a security level. The basic model comprises two distinct levels: low and high, meaning, respectively, publicly observable information, and secret information. To ensure confidentiality, flowing information from high to low variables should not be allowed. On the other hand, to ensure integrity, flows to high variables should be restricted.
More generally, the security levels can be viewed as a lattice with information flowing only upwards in the lattice.
For example, considering two security levels and (low and high), if , flows from to , from to , and to would be allowed, while flows from to would not.
Throughout this article, the following notation is used:
variable (low) shall denote a publicly observable variable
variable (high) shall denote a secret variable
Where and are the only two securi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make%20Something%20Unreal | Make Something Unreal, also known as $1,000,000 Make Something Unreal Contest and Make Something Unreal Live, was a series of video game development competitions organised by Epic Games which began in 2004, with subsequent competitions in 2008, 2012, and 2013. The contests aimed to reward developers who created mods using the Unreal game engine. Make Something Unreal has not returned since the event in 2013. Epic Games has since launched Epic MegaGrants, a grant based scheme, in 2019.
The competition partnered with companies such as Nvidia and Intel and provided competition winners with Unreal Engine licenses, cash prizes, and PC hardware. Notable games in the competition included Red Orchestra: Combined Arms, Angels Fall First: Planetstorm and Antichamber.
Grand prize winners
$1,000,000 Make Something Unreal Contest (2004)
The first competition, titled $1,000,000 Make Something Unreal Contest, was held in 2004 in partnership with Nvidia, Digital Extremes, and Atari It was described as "a way to reward a growing community of gamers that are helping to spark the evolution of 3D entertainment". The grand prize was US$50,000 and an Unreal Engine 3 license. Additionally, US$300,000 worth of computers were awarded, including 50 computers for schools whose students or faculty submitted an entry to the competition.
During the contest one thousand entrants submitted mods for Unreal Tournament 2003 and Unreal Tournament 2004 across 13 categories. Qualifying entries were required to be freely available for download. The competition was held in three phases, and grand winners were announced at the Game Developers Conference.
The grand prize for best mod was awarded to World War II shooter Red Orchestra, developed by Tripwire Interactive, who earned nearly US$80,000 in cash and computer hardware prizes over the course of the contest. Tripwire Interactive cite the Make Something Unreal contest as the reason the studio exists. Friedrich Kirschner won US$25,000 in the Best |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickering%20emulsion | A Ramsden emulsion, sometimes named Pickering emulsion, is an emulsion that is stabilized by solid particles (for example colloidal silica) which adsorb onto the interface between the water and oil phases. Typically, the emulsions are either water-in-oil or oil-in-water emulsions, but other more complex systems such as water-in-water, oil-in-oil, water-in-oil-in-water, and oil-in-water-in-oil also do exist. Pickering emulsions were named after S.U. Pickering, who described the phenomenon in 1907, although the effect was first recognized by Walter Ramsden in 1903.
If oil and water are mixed and small oil droplets are formed and dispersed throughout the water (oil-in-water emulsion), eventually the droplets will coalesce to decrease the amount of energy in the system. However, if solid particles are added to the mixture, they will bind to the surface of the interface and prevent the droplets from coalescing, making the emulsion more stable.
Particle properties such as hydrophobicity, shape, and size, as well as the electrolyte concentration of the continuous phase and the volume ratio of the two phases can have an effect on the stability of the emulsion. The particle’s contact angle to the surface of the droplet is a characteristic of the hydrophobicity of the particle. If the contact angle of the particle to the interface is low, the particle will be mostly wetted by the droplet and therefore will not be likely to prevent coalescence of the droplets. Particles that are partially hydrophobic are better stabilizers because they are partially wettable by both liquids and therefore bind better to the surface of the droplets. The optimal contact angle for a stable emulsion is achieved when the particle is equally wetted by the two phases (i.e. 90° contact angle). The stabilization energy is given by
where r is the particle radius, is the interfacial tension, and is the contact angle of the particle with the interface.
When the contact angle is approximately 90°, t |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether%27s%20theorem | Noether's theorem or Noether's first theorem states that every differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system with conservative forces has a corresponding conservation law. The theorem was proven by mathematician Emmy Noether in 1915 and published in 1918. The action of a physical system is the integral over time of a Lagrangian function, from which the system's behavior can be determined by the principle of least action. This theorem only applies to continuous and smooth symmetries over physical space.
Noether's theorem is used in theoretical physics and the calculus of variations. It reveals the fundamental relation between the symmetries of a physical system and the conservation laws. It also made modern theoretical physicists much more focused on symmetries of physical systems. A generalization of the formulations on constants of motion in Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics (developed in 1788 and 1833, respectively), it does not apply to systems that cannot be modeled with a Lagrangian alone (e.g., systems with a Rayleigh dissipation function). In particular, dissipative systems with continuous symmetries need not have a corresponding conservation law.
Briefly, the relationships between symmetries and conservation laws are as follows:
1) Uniformity of space distance-wise ⟹ conservation of linear momentum;
2) Isotropy of space direction-wise ⟹ conservation of angular momentum;
3) Uniformity of time ⟹ conservation of energy
Basic illustrations and background
As an illustration, if a physical system behaves the same regardless of how it is oriented in space (that is, it's invariant), its Lagrangian is symmetric under continuous rotation: from this symmetry, Noether's theorem dictates that the angular momentum of the system be conserved, as a consequence of its laws of motion. The physical system itself need not be symmetric; a jagged asteroid tumbling in space conserves angular momentum despite its asymmetry. It is the laws of its motion that |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BESM-6 | BESM-6 (, short for Большая электронно-счётная машина, i.e. 'Large Electronic Calculating Machine') was a Soviet electronic computer of the BESM series. It was the first Soviet second-generation, transistor-based computer.
Overview
The BESM-6 was the most well-known and influential model of the series designed at the Institute of Precision Mechanics and Computer Engineering. The design was completed in 1965. Production started in 1968 and continued for the following 19 years.
Like its predecessors, the original BESM-6 was transistor-based (however, the version used in the 1980s as a component of the Elbrus supercomputer was built with integrated circuits). The machine's 48-bit processor ran at 10 MHz clock speed and featured two instruction pipelines, separate for the control and arithmetic units, and a data cache of sixteen 48-bit words. The system achieved a performance of 1 MIPS.
The CDC 6600, a common Western supercomputer when the BESM-6 was released, achieved about 2 MIPS.
The system memory was word-addressable using 15-bit addresses. The maximum addressable memory space was thus 32K words (192K bytes). A virtual memory system allowed to expand this up to 128K words (768K bytes).
The BESM-6 was widely used in USSR in the 1970s for various computation and control tasks. During the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project the processing of the space mission telemetry data was accomplished by a new computer complex which was based on a BESM-6. The Apollo-Soyuz mission's data processing by soviet scientists finished half an hour earlier than their American colleagues from NASA.
A total of 355 of these machines were built. Production ended in 1987.
As the first Soviet computer with an installed base that was large for the time, the BESM-6 gathered a dedicated developer community. Over the years several operating systems and compilers for programming languages such as Fortran, ALGOL and Pascal were developed.
A modification of the BESM-6 based on integrated circuits, |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdparm | hdparm is a command line program for Linux to set and view ATA hard disk drive hardware parameters and test performance. It can set parameters such as drive caches, sleep mode, power management, acoustic management, and DMA settings. GParted and Parted Magic both include hdparm.
Changing hardware parameters from suboptimal conservative defaults to their optimal settings can improve performance greatly. For example, turning on DMA can, in some instances, double or triple data throughput. There is, however, no reliable method for determining the optimal settings for a given controller-drive combination, except careful trial and error.
Depending on the given parameters, hdparm can cause computer crashes or render the data on the disk inaccessible.
Usage examples
hdparm has to be run with special privileges, otherwise it will either not be found or the requested actions will not be executed properly.
Display information of the hard drive:
sudo hdparm -I /dev/sda
Turn on DMA for the first hard drive:
sudo hdparm -d1 /dev/sda
Test device read performance speed (-t for timing buffered disk reads) of the first hard drive:
sudo hdparm -t /dev/sda
Enable energy saving spindown after inactivity (24*5=120 seconds):
sudo hdparm -S 24 /dev/sda
To retain hdparm settings after a software reset, run:
sudo hdparm -K 1 /dev/sda
Enable read-ahead:
sudo hdparm -A 1 /dev/sda
Change its acoustic management, at the cost of read/write performance (Some drives, such as newer WD drives and all SSDs, ignore this setting.):
sudo hdparm -M 128 /dev/sda
If the disk synchronisation intervals are too short, then even small amounts of data will be written to disk which can have severe consequences for its lifespan. The better way would be to collect small data into bigger chunks and wait until the chunk is big enough to be written to disk.
Current web browsers like Chrome write regularly small chunks when browsing in order not to lose any important data when the application c |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAXELN | VAXELN (typically pronounced "VAX-elan") is a discontinued real-time operating system for the VAX family of computers produced by the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) of Maynard, Massachusetts.
As with RSX-11 and VMS, Dave Cutler was the principal force behind the development of this operating system. Cutler's team developed the product after moving to the Seattle, Washington area to form the DECwest Engineering Group; DEC's first engineering group outside New England. Initial target platforms for VAXELN were the backplane interconnect computers such as the V-11 family. When VAXELN was well under way, Cutler spearheaded the next project, the MicroVAX I, the first VAX microcomputer. Although it was a low-volume product compared with the New England-developed MicroVAX II, the MicroVAX I demonstrated the set of architectural decisions needed to support a single-board implementation of the VAX computer family, and it also provided a platform for embedded system applications written for VAXELN.
The VAXELN team made the decision, for the first release, to use the programming language Pascal as its system programming language. The development team built the first product in approximately 18 months. Other languages, including C, Ada, and Fortran were supported in later releases of the system as optional extras. A relational database, named VAX Rdb/ELN was another optional component of the system. Later versions of VAXELN supported an X11 server named EWS (VAXELN Window Server). VAXELN with EWS was used as the operating system for the VT1300 X terminal, and was sometimes used to convert old VAXstation hardware into X terminals. Beginning with version 4.3, VAXELN gained support for TCP/IP networking and a subset of POSIX APIs.
VAXELN allowed the creation of a self-contained embedded system application that would run on VAX (and later MicroVAX) hardware with no other operating system present. The system was debuted in Las Vegas in the early 1980s, with a variety of amusi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timetree | A timetree is a phylogenetic tree scaled to time. It shows the evolutionary relationships of a group of organisms in a temporal framework.
Therefore, if living organisms are represented, the branch length between the base of the tree and all leafs (e.g., species) is identical because the same time has elapsed, although extinct organisms can be shown in a timetree.
As with a phylogenetic tree, timetrees can be drawn in different shapes: rectangular, circular, or even spiral. The only figure in Darwin's On the Origin of Species, one of the earliest printed evolutionary trees, is a hypothetical timetree. Because the fossil record has always been tightly linked to the geologic record, evolutionary trees of extinct organisms are typically illustrated as timetrees.
History
In the past, timetrees were sometimes called "chronograms," but that term has been criticized because it is imprecise, referring to any graph that shows time, and not indicating that evolutionary relationships are involved. The first use of the single word "timetree," in the context of an evolutionary tree scaled to time, was in 2001. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planar%20process | The planar process is a manufacturing process used in the semiconductor industry to build individual components of a transistor, and in turn, connect those transistors together. It is the primary process by which silicon integrated circuit chips are built, and it is the most commonly used method of producing junctions during the manufacture of semiconductor devices. The process utilizes the surface passivation and thermal oxidation methods.
The planar process was developed at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959.
The planar process proved to be one of the most important single advances in semiconductor technology.
Overview
The key concept is to view a circuit in its two-dimensional projection (a plane), thus allowing the use of photographic processing concepts such as film negatives to mask the projection of light exposed chemicals. This allows the use of a series of exposures on a substrate (silicon) to create silicon oxide (insulators) or doped regions (conductors). Together with the use of metallization, and the concepts of p–n junction isolation and surface passivation, it is possible to create circuits on a single silicon crystal slice (a wafer) from a monocrystalline silicon boule.
The process involves the basic procedures of silicon dioxide (SiO2) oxidation, SiO2 etching and heat diffusion. The final steps involves oxidizing the entire wafer with an SiO2 layer, etching contact vias to the transistors, and depositing a covering metal layer over the oxide, thus connecting the transistors without manually wiring them together.
History
Development
At a 1958 Electrochemical Society meeting, Mohamed Atalla presented a paper about the surface passivation of PN junctions by thermal oxidation, based on his 1957 BTL memos.
Swiss engineer Jean Hoerni (one of the "traitorous eight") attended the same 1958 meeting, and was intrigued by Atalla's presentation. Hoerni came up with the "planar idea" one morning while thinking about Atalla's device. Taking advantage of silic |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphingomonas%20aliaeris | Sphingomonas aliaeris is a rod-shaped, strictly aerobic, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, red-orange-pigmented species of bacteria, which has been isolated primarily from pork steak packed under CO2-enriched modified atmosphere. Its name derives from Latin alius (for “other”) and aer (for “air” or “atmosphere”). It was identified to be a potential food spoilage organism, which is non-pathogenic to humans.
Microbiologic characteristics
The species is cytochrome c oxidase-negative and catalase-positive and grows on R2A agar at temperatures of 3 to 33 °C. It shows growth under 20% CO2-containing atmosphere, which - in combination with 80% O2 - is frequently used for packaging of red meat products. Species of this genus have not been associated with high CO2-containing environments nor food matrices yet. Sphingomonas aliaeris is motile and 1.5 µm by 0.9 µm in dimension.
Like other species belonging to the genus Sphingomonas, the cell membrane of Sphingomonas aliaeris contains sphingolipids. Also cardiolipin, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, mono- and dimethylphosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylglycerol could be detected. Another characteristic is the presence of the C14:0 2-OH fatty acid and ubiquinone Q-10.
Genetic characteristics
The genome was fully-sequenced and uploaded at the NCBI database. It consists of 4.26 mega base pairs. The DNA G+C content is 64.4 mol%. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantifier%20variance | The term quantifier variance refers to claims that there is no uniquely best ontological language with which to describe the world. The term "quantifier variance" rests upon the philosophical term 'quantifier', more precisely existential quantifier. A 'quantifier' is an expression like "there exists at least one ‘such-and-such’". Quantifier variance then is the thesis that the meaning of quantifiers is ambiguous. This thesis can be used to explain how some disputes in ontology are only due to a failure of the disagreeing parties to agree on the meaning of the quantifiers used.
According to Eli Hirsch, it is an outgrowth of Urmson's dictum:
Quantifiers
The word quantifier in the introduction refers to a variable used in a domain of discourse, a collection of objects under discussion. In daily life, the domain of discourse could be 'apples', or 'persons', or even everything. In a more technical arena, the domain of discourse could be 'integers', say. The quantifier variable x, say, in the given domain of discourse can take on the 'value' or designate any object in the domain. The presence of a particular object, say a 'unicorn' is expressed in the manner of symbolic logic as:
∃ x; x is a unicorn.
Here the 'turned E ' or ∃ is read as "there exists..." and is called the symbol for existential quantification. Relations between objects also can be expressed using quantifiers. For example, in the domain of integers (denoting the quantifier by n, a customary choice for an integer) we can indirectly identify '5' by its relation with the number '25':
∃ n; n × n = 25.
If we want to point out specifically that the domain of integers is meant, we could write:
∃ n ∈ ℤ; n × n = 25.
Here, ∈ = is a member of... and ∈ is called the symbol for set membership; and ℤ denotes the set of integers.
There are a variety of expressions that serve the same purpose in various ontologies, and they are accordingly all quantifier expressions. Quantifier variance is then one argument concer |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free%20matroid | In mathematics, the free matroid over a given ground-set E is the matroid in which the independent sets are all subsets of E. It is a special case of a uniform matroid. The unique basis of this matroid is the ground-set itself, E. Among matroids on E, the free matroid on E has the most independent sets, the highest rank, and the fewest circuits.
Free extension of a matroid
The free extension of a matroid by some element , denoted , is a matroid whose elements are the elements of plus the new element , and:
Its circuits are the circuits of plus the sets for all bases of .
Equivalently, its independent sets are the independent sets of plus the sets for all independent sets that are not bases.
Equivalently, its bases are the bases of plus the sets for all independent sets of size . |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20minor-planet%20groups | A minor-planet group is a population of minor planets that share broadly similar orbits. Members are generally unrelated to each other, unlike in an asteroid family, which often results from the break-up of a single asteroid. It is customary to name a group of asteroids after the first member of that group to be discovered, which is often the largest.
Groups out to the orbit of Earth
There are relatively few asteroids that orbit close to the Sun. Several of these groups are hypothetical at this point in time, with no members having yet been discovered; as such, the names they have been given are provisional.
Vulcanoid asteroids are hypothetical asteroids that orbit entirely within the orbit of Mercury (have an aphelion of less than 0.3874 AU). A few searches for vulcanoids have been conducted but none have been discovered so far.
ꞌAylóꞌchaxnim asteroids (previously named Vatira) are asteroids that orbit entirely within the orbit of Venus (have an aphelion of less than 0.718 AU). , one such asteroid is known: 594913 ꞌAylóꞌchaxnim.
Atira asteroids (Apohele; Interior-Earth Objects) are a small group of known asteroids whose aphelion is less than 0.983 AU, meaning they orbit entirely within Earth's orbit. The group is named after its first confirmed member, 163693 Atira. , the group consists of 22 members, 6 of which are numbered.
Mercury-crosser asteroids having a perihelion smaller than Mercury's 0.3075 AU.
Venus-crosser asteroids having a perihelion smaller than Venus's 0.7184 AU. This group includes the above Mercury-crossers (if their aphelion is greater than Venus's perihelion. All known Mercury crossers satisfy this condition except ꞌAylóꞌchaxnim, which has an aphelion smaller than Venus's perihelion and a perihelion slightly smaller than Mercury's aphelion).
Earth-crosser asteroids having a perihelion smaller than Earth's 0.9833 AU. This group includes the above Mercury- and Venus-crossers, apart from the Apoheles. They are also divided into the
Aten a |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20Gicumbi | Strengthening climate resilience of rural communities in Northern Rwanda, commonly known as the Green Gicumbi Project, is a six-year governmental project, launched on 26 October 2019 by the Government of Rwanda, through the Ministry of the Environment and the Rwanda Green Fund (FONERWA) with target of strengthening climate resilience of rural communities in Northern Rwanda, especially in Gicumbi District.
Background
The project is to be implemented by the National Fund for the Environment. Jean Marie Vianney Kagenza is Project Director.
Project Components
According to Ministry of environment of Rwanda, Green Gicumbi Project includes the following components:
Watershed protection and climate resilient agriculture
Forest management and sustainable energy
Climate resilient settlements
Knowledge development and transfer and mainstreaming
Implementations
In January 2022, the Government of Rwanda, through the Green Gicumbi Project, has started constructing 200 green and climate resilient houses for Gicumbi residents, most relocated citizens will be in Ubudehe category I and category II, high risk zones. The green housing project is located in the Rubaya and Kaniga sectors, and is considered a model village where beneficiaries will receive additional support such as cows and the resources to start horticulture farms around the village, the Project Director has stated.
Ongoing results
Controlled soil erosion, thus increasing productivity before there were land affected by erosion but now the green gicumbi is solution to control soil erosion and increasing productivity by farmers.
Climate resilient settlement is a third component of the Green Gicumbi project is “Climate Resilient Settlements”. So far 40 climate-resilient houses have been constructed and occupied by most vulnerable beneficiaries from high-risk zones in Rubaya sector, while 60 more houses are under construction in Kaniga sector, Mulindi cell to host the most vulnerable families living in hi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food%20protein-induced%20enterocolitis%20syndrome | Food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome (FPIES) is a systemic, non IgE-mediated response to a specific trigger within food - most likely food protein. FPIES presents in two different forms: an acute form and a chronic form. In its acute form, FPIES presents with vomiting that usually begins 1 to 4 hours after trigger food ingestion (can be 30 minutes to 6 or more hours). Vomiting is often followed by a paleness to the skin, lethargy, and potentially watery, perhaps blood-tinged diarrhea. In the severe form of acute FPIES, a person will vomit until dehydration and until a shock-like state, which occurs in 15% of patients. In its chronic form, which can be difficult to diagnose until a person has already met diagnostic criteria for acute FPIES, after repeated or regular ingestion of the trigger food, the person presents with chronic or episodic vomiting, failure to thrive, and watery, perhaps blood-tinged diarrhea. FPIES can potentially develop at any age but seems most commonly to develop within the first few years of life. FPIES has mainly been documented in young infants, but can exist in older children and adults. Some people develop both FPIES and an IgE-mediated type of reaction to the same food, and having FPIES can increase a person's risk of also developing IgE-mediated food allergies.
Signs and symptoms
In the severe form, symptoms include abdominal pain, profuse vomiting, lethargy, potentially diarrhea, and even shock. Additional symptoms could potentially include - but are not limited to - headache, pallor, lethargy, constipation, and abdominal swelling (distension). Laboratory studies might reveal hypoalbuminemia, anemia, eosinophilia, and an elevated white blood cell count with a left shift. Over half of patients experiencing an acute FPIES reaction may develop thrombocytosis (platelets >500x109/L). In both chronic and acute FPIES, both methemoglobinemia and metabolic acidosis (mean pH around 7.03 in one study) have been reported. Endoscopy |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligamenvirales | Ligamenvirales is an order of linear viruses that infect archaea of the phylum Thermoproteota (formerly Crenarchaeota) and have double-stranded DNA genomes. The order was proposed by David Prangishvili and Mart Krupovic in 2012 and subsequently created by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).
Name
The name is derived from the Latin , meaning string or thread.
Taxonomy
There are three families in this order – Lipothrixviridae, Rudiviridae and Ungulaviridae.
The virons are filamentous with a helical nucleocapsid. At either end are attached either fibers or more complex structures involved in host adhesion.
The major coat proteins of both lipothrixviruses and rudiviruses have an unusual four-helix bundle topology. The genome is non-segmented linear double stranded DNA. Viruses from the two families share up to ten genes. The major difference between the two families is that members of the family Rudiviridae are not enveloped, whereas nucleocapsids of lipothrixviruses are surrounded by a lipid membrane. Furthermore, whereas the capsid of rudiviruses is constructed from a single major capsid protein, that of lipothrixviruses is formed from two paralogous major capsid proteins. In both groups of viruses, the major capsid proteins form a claw-like dimer (homodimer in rudiviruses and heterodimer in lipothrixviruses), which wraps around the dsDNA.
Members of the Ligamenvirales are structurally related to archaeal viruses of the family Tristromaviridae which, similar to lipothrixviruses, encode two paralogous major capsid proteins with the same fold as in ligamenviruses. Due to these structural similarities, order Ligamenvirales and family Tristromaviridae were proposed to be unified within a class 'Tokiviricetes' (toki means ‘thread’ in Georgian and viricetes is an official suffix for a virus class). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony%20NEWS | The Sony NEWS ("Network Engineering Workstation", later "NetWorkStation") is a series of Unix workstations sold during the late 1980s and 1990s. The first NEWS machine was the NWS-800, which originally appeared in Japan in January 1987 and was conceived as a desktop replacement for the VAX series of minicomputers.
History
1980s
Sony's NEWS project leader, Toshitada Doi, originally wanted to develop a computer for business applications, but his engineers wanted to develop a replacement for minicomputers running Unix that they preferred to use:
Initial development of the NEWS was completed in 1986 after only one year of development. It launched at a lower price than competitors (–16,300), and it outperformed conventional minicomputers. After a successful launch, the line expanded and the new focus for the NEWS became desktop publishing and CAD/CAM.
1990s
In 1991, Sony broadened the NEWS range with the 3250 portable workstation, reportedly described in product literature as a laptop but weighing 18 pounds and having more in common with portable computers, being "designed to be set up on a desk and plugged in". Featuring an 11-inch monochrome liquid crystal display with a resolution of and keyboard with "75 full travel keys", the machine was fitted with an internal hard drive and a 3.5-inch floppy drive. A SCSI port permitted the addition of other storage devices, and Ethernet, parallel and serial ports were provided, along with a mouse port and audio in/out ports for audio processing. In terms of its fundamental computing facilities, the system employed a 20 MHz MIPS R3000 CPU with R3010 floating-point coprocessor, offered 8 MB of RAM expandable to 36 MB, running an implementation of Unix System V Release 4 and providing an Open Software Foundation Motif graphical environment. In the United States, a configuration with 240 MB hard drive cost $9,900, with the 406 MB configuration costing $11,900.
Early PlayStation development kits were based on Sony NEWS hardware, |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound%20limiter | A sound limiter or noise limiter is a digital device fitted with a microphone to measure the sound pressure level of environmental noise, expressed by the decibel logarithmic unit (dB). If the environmental noise level as measured by the microphone exceeds a pre-set level for a certain amount of time (e.g. 5 seconds), the limiter’s circuitry will cut the power supply to the musical equipment and PA system requiring the venue's staff to reset the system.
Sound limiters are commonly installed at live music venues, including private venues and particularly those that host wedding receptions with live wedding bands.
The visual indicator on the limiter works most commonly on a “traffic light” system: green = no problem, amber = sound levels approaching the threshold, red = threshold breached. If the light stays red for more than a few seconds, then the limiter will take action and cut the power.
Sound limiters are often set quite aggressively, effectively making it impossible for some types of performance to take place without tripping the limiter, for example an unamplified drumkit may trip a limiter on its own. While limiters can help reduce disturbance of other properties nearby, if set badly they can spoil live performances.
Although there is no legal requirement to install a sound limiter, they are a reasonably inexpensive piece of equipment, which can help prevent complaints as part of a sound control plan and also protect the health of staff by ensuring that the levels do not exceed those set by The Control of Noise at Work regulations 2005. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crandall%20syndrome | Crandall syndrome is a very rare congenital disorder characterised by progressive sensorineural hearing loss, hair loss associated with pili torti, and hypogonadism demonstrated through low levels of luteinising hormone and growth hormone. It is thought to be an autosomal recessive disorder closely related to Björnstad syndrome which presents similarly but without hypogonadism.
The condition was first reported by B. F. Crandall in 1973. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozilla%20Sunbird | Mozilla Sunbird is a discontinued free and open-source, cross-platform calendar application that was developed by the Mozilla Foundation, Sun Microsystems and many volunteers. Mozilla Sunbird was described as "a cross platform standalone calendar application based on Mozilla's XUL user interface language". Announced in July 2003, Sunbird was a standalone version of the Mozilla Calendar Project.
It was developed as a standalone version of the Lightning calendar and scheduling extension for the Mozilla Thunderbird and SeaMonkey mail clients. Development of Sunbird was ended with release 1.0 beta 1 to focus on development of Mozilla Lightning. The latest development version of Sunbird remains 1.0b1 from January 2010, and no later version has been announced. Unlike Lightning, Sunbird no longer receives updates to its time zone database.
Sun contributions
Sun Microsystems contributed significantly to the Lightning extension project to provide users with a free and open-source alternative to Microsoft Office by combining OpenOffice.org and Thunderbird/Lightning. Sun's key focus areas in addition to general bug fixing were calendar views, team/collaboration features and support for the Sun Java System Calendar Server. Since both projects share the same code base, any contribution to one is a direct contribution to the other.
Trademark issues and Iceowl
Although it is released under a MPL, MPL/GPL/LGPL tri-license, there are trademark restrictions in place on Mozilla Sunbird which prevent the distribution of modified versions with the Mozilla branding.
As a result, the Debian project created Iceowl, a virtually identical version without the branding restrictions.
Release history
See also
Lightning for Mozilla Thunderbird and SeaMonkey
List of personal information managers |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycophycobiosis | A mycophycobiosis (composed of myco-, from the Ancient Greek: (mukês , "mushroom"), phyco-, from Ancient Greek: , (phûkos, fucus, used for algae), and -biose, from ancient Greek: (bióô, "to spend one's life") is a symbiotic organism made up of a multicellular algae and an ascomycete fungus housed inside the algae (in the thallus for example). The algae and fungus involved in this association are called mycophycobionts.
The essential role of the algae is to carry out photosynthesis, while that of the fungus is less obvious, but it could be linked to the transfer of minerals within the thallus, to a repellent effect on herbivores and, above all, to resistance to desiccation of this living organism in the intertidal zone.
Such symbioses have been reported in a few green algae (Prasiola, Blidingia) and red algae (Apophlaea), both in seawater and in freshwater.
Definition elements
Although compared to lichens by certain authors, mycophycobioses carry out an association of the opposite type: the algal partner is multicellular and forms the external structure of the symbiotic organization. Moreover, the reproduction of the two partners is always disjoint (the algae and the fungus reproduce separately). To explain the nuances of this duality, the ecologists Chantal Delzenne-Van Haluwyn, Michel Lerond propose the analogy of the two symbionts with an "ideal couple". In a lichen, the host is compared to a "macho fungus"; in mycophycobiosis, the host is "the algae that wears the panties".
According to Hawksworth the physiology of this symbiosis could well be comparable to that of lichens, but it remains to be better explored. Unlike lichens, mycophycobioses look like an algal partner, which remains fertile. These associations appear to be less coevolved than lichens, as they exhibit neither joint asexual multiplication of partners nor do they contain the equivalent lichen products.
History
The term mycophycobiosis was introduced by Jan and Erika Kohlmeyer in 1972, base |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littlewood%E2%80%93Offord%20problem | In mathematical field of combinatorial geometry, the Littlewood–Offord problem is the problem of determining the number of subsums of a set of vectors that fall in a given convex set. More formally, if V is a vector space of dimension d, the problem is to determine, given a finite subset of vectors S and a convex subset A, the number of subsets of S whose summation is in A.
The first upper bound for this problem was proven (for d = 1 and d = 2) in 1938 by John Edensor Littlewood and A. Cyril Offord. This Littlewood–Offord lemma states that if S is a set of n real or complex numbers of absolute value at least one and A is any disc of radius one, then not more than of the 2n possible subsums of S fall into the disc.
In 1945 Paul Erdős improved the upper bound for d = 1 to
using Sperner's theorem. This bound is sharp; equality is attained when all vectors in S are equal. In 1966, Kleitman showed that the same bound held for complex numbers. In 1970, he extended this to the setting when V is a normed space.
Suppose S = {v1, …, vn}. By subtracting
from each possible subsum (that is, by changing the origin and then scaling by a factor of 2), the Littlewood–Offord problem is equivalent to the problem of determining the number of sums of the form
that fall in the target set A, where takes the value 1 or −1. This makes the problem into a probabilistic one, in which the question is of the distribution of these random vectors, and what can be said knowing nothing more about the vi. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macro-haplogroup%20L | In human mitochondrial genetics, L is the mitochondrial DNA macro-haplogroup that is at the root of the anatomically modern human (Homo sapiens) mtDNA phylogenetic tree. As such, it represents the most ancestral mitochondrial lineage of all currently living modern humans, also dubbed "Mitochondrial Eve".
Its two sub-clades are L1-6 and L0.
The split occurred during the Penultimate Glacial Period; L1-6 is estimated to have formed ca. 170 kya, and L0 ca. 150 kya. The formation of L0 is associated with the peopling of Southern Africa by populations ancestral to the Khoisan, ca. 140 kya, at the onset of the Eemian interglacial.
L is further subdivided into L1-6 and L1, dated ca. 150 kya and 130 kya, respectively.
Haplogroups L5 (120 kya), L2 and L6 (90 kya), L4 (80 kya) and L3 (70 kya).
Origin
The outgroup for mtDNA phylogeny of modern humans is the mtDNA of archaic humans, specifically Neanderthals and Denisovans.
The split of the modern human lineage from the Neanderthal and Denisovan lineage is dated to between ca. 760–550 kya based on full genome analysis. This is consistent with the estimate based on Y-chromosomal DNA, which places the split between ca. 806–447 kya.
In terms of mtDNA, however, it appears that modern humans and Neanderthals form a sister clade, with Denisovans as basal outgroup. The split of Neanderthal and modern human mtDNA is dated to about 498–295 kya, i.e. significantly younger than the date estimated based on nuclear DNA. This has been explained as reflecting early gene flow from Africa into the Neanderthal genome, around 270 kya or earlier, i.e. around the time of the first emergence of anatomically modern humans (Jebel Irhoud). Posth et al. (2017) suggest the possibility that early Homo sapiens mtDNA from Africa may have replaced the original Neanderthal mtDNA entirely even when assuming minimal admixture. The Neanderthal and Denisovan lineages diverged before about 430 kya, and Denisovan mtDNA was not affected by the introgressio |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level%20set%20%28data%20structures%29 | In computer science a level set data structure is designed to represent discretely sampled dynamic level sets functions.
A common use of this form of data structure is in efficient image rendering. The underlying method constructs a signed distance field that extends from the boundary, and can be used to solve the motion of the boundary in this field.
Chronological developments
The powerful level-set method is due to Osher and Sethian 1988. However, the straightforward implementation via a dense d-dimensional array of values, results in both time and storage complexity of , where is the cross sectional resolution of the spatial extents of the domain and is the number of spatial dimensions of the domain.
Narrow band
The narrow band level set method, introduced in 1995 by Adalsteinsson and Sethian, restricted most computations to a thin band of active voxels immediately surrounding the interface, thus reducing the time complexity in three dimensions to for most operations. Periodic updates of the narrowband structure, to rebuild the list of active voxels, were required which entailed an operation in which voxels over the entire volume were accessed. The storage complexity for this narrowband scheme was still Differential constructions over the narrow band domain edge require careful interpolation and domain alteration schemes to stabilise the solution.
Sparse field
This time complexity was eliminated in the approximate "sparse field" level set method introduced by Whitaker in 1998. The sparse field level set method employs a set of linked lists to track the active voxels around the interface. This allows incremental extension of the active region as needed without incurring any significant overhead. While consistently efficient in time, storage space is still required by the sparse field level set method. See for implementation details.
Sparse block grid
The sparse block grid method, introduced by Bridson in 2003, divides the entire bounding volume of siz |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypergravity | Hypergravity is defined as the condition where the force of gravity exceeds that on the surface of the Earth. This is expressed as being greater than 1 g. Hypergravity conditions are created on Earth for research on human physiology in aerial combat and space flight, as well as testing of materials and equipment for space missions. Manufacturing of titanium aluminide turbine blades in 20 g is being explored by researchers at the European Space Agency (ESA) via an 8-meter wide Large Diameter Centrifuge (LDC).
Bacteria
NASA scientists looking at meteorite impacts discovered that most strains of bacteria were able to reproduce under pressures exceeding 7,500 g.
Recent research carried out on extremophiles in Japan involved a variety of bacteria including Escherichia coli and Paracoccus denitrificans being subject to conditions of extreme gravity. The bacteria were cultivated while being rotated in an ultracentrifuge at high speeds corresponding to 403,627 g. Another study that has been published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, reports that some bacteria can exist even in extreme "hypergravity". In other words, they can still live and breed despite gravitational forces that are 400,000 times greater than what's felt here on Earth.
Paracoccus denitrificans was one of the bacteria which displayed not only survival but also robust cellular growth under these conditions of hyperacceleration which are usually found only in cosmic environments, such as on very massive stars or in the shock waves of supernovas. Analysis showed that the small size of prokaryotic cells is essential for successful growth under hypergravity. The research has implications on the feasibility of existence of exobacteria and panspermia. A concern of this practice is rapid spinning. If someone moves their head too quickly while they're inside a fast-moving centrifuge, they might feel uncomfortably like they're tumbling head over heels. This can happen when balance-sensing flu |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von%20Mises%20yield%20criterion | In continuum mechanics, the maximum distortion energy criterion (also von Mises yield criterion) states that yielding of a ductile material begins when the second invariant of deviatoric stress reaches a critical value. It is a part of plasticity theory that mostly applies to ductile materials, such as some metals. Prior to yield, material response can be assumed to be of a nonlinear elastic, viscoelastic, or linear elastic behavior.
In materials science and engineering, the von Mises yield criterion is also formulated in terms of the von Mises stress or equivalent tensile stress, . This is a scalar value of stress that can be computed from the Cauchy stress tensor. In this case, a material is said to start yielding when the von Mises stress reaches a value known as yield strength, . The von Mises stress is used to predict yielding of materials under complex loading from the results of uniaxial tensile tests. The von Mises stress satisfies the property where two stress states with equal distortion energy have an equal von Mises stress.
Because the von Mises yield criterion is independent of the first stress invariant, , it is applicable for the analysis of plastic deformation for ductile materials such as metals, as onset of yield for these materials does not depend on the hydrostatic component of the stress tensor.
Although it has been believed it was formulated by James Clerk Maxwell in 1865, Maxwell only described the general conditions in a letter to William Thomson (Lord Kelvin). Richard Edler von Mises rigorously formulated it in 1913. Tytus Maksymilian Huber (1904), in a paper written in Polish, anticipated to some extent this criterion by properly relying on the distortion strain energy, not on the total strain energy as his predecessors. Heinrich Hencky formulated the same criterion as von Mises independently in 1924. For the above reasons this criterion is also referred to as the "Maxwell–Huber–Hencky–von Mises theory".
Mathematical formulation
Mathe |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep%20and%20creativity | The majority of studies on sleep creativity have shown that sleep can facilitate insightful behavior and flexible reasoning, and there are several hypotheses about the creative function of dreams. On the other hand, a few recent studies have supported a theory of creative insomnia, in which creativity is significantly correlated with sleep disturbance.
Anecdotal accounts of sleep and creativity
Jack Nicklaus had a dream that allowed him to correct his golf swing.
German chemist Friedrich August Kekulé stated that the idea for the ring structure of benzene came to him in a day-dream, in which he saw snakes biting their own tails.
Jasper Johns was inspired to paint his first flag painting as a result of a dream.
Aphex Twin wrote much of the music on his album Selected Ambient Works Volume II by going to sleep in the studio, and then recreating the sounds he heard in dreams as soon as he woke up.
Robert Louis Stevenson came up with the plot of Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde during a dream.
Paul McCartney discovered the tune for the song "Yesterday" in a dream and was inspired to write "Yellow Submarine" during hypnagogia.
Mary Shelley's Frankenstein was inspired by a dream at Lord Byron's villa.
British poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote "Kubla Khan" after finding inspiration from an opium induced dream.
Otto Loewi, a German physiologist, won the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1936 for his work on the chemical transmission of nerve impulses. He discovered in a dream how to prove his theory.
Giuseppe Tartini, a composer, gained inspiration for his Devil's Trill Sonata in a dream where the Devil appeared to him and played the melody on Tartini's violin.
An alternative interpretation of The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters considers Francisco Goya's commitment to the creative process and the Romantic spirit—the unleashing of imagination, emotions, and even nightmares as made possible by the unconscious.
Sleep and creativity studies
REM sleep as a sta |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20fundamental%20physics%20discoveries | This timeline lists significant discoveries in physics and the laws of nature, including experimental discoveries, theoretical proposals that were confirmed experimentally, and theories that have significantly influenced current thinking in modern physics. Such discoveries are often a multi-step, multi-person process. Multiple discovery sometimes occurs when multiple research groups discover the same phenomenon at about the same time, and scientific priority is often disputed. The listings below include some of the most significant people and ideas by date of publication or experiment.
Antiquity
6th century BCE - Ionian school of Greek philosophers: Inception of cosmology and natural philosophy
610-546 BCE - Anaximander: Concept of Earth floating in space
585 BCE - Thales of Miletus: Solar eclipse predicted
460-370 BCE - Democritus: Atomism via thought experiment
384-322 BCE - Aristotle: Aristotelian physics, earliest effective theory of physics
367-282 BCE - Ptolemy: Ptolemaic geocentric system, a phenomenological model of the solar system
300 BCE - Euclid: Euclidean geometry
250 BCE - Archimedes: Archimedes' principle
310-230 BCE - Aristarchos of Samos proposes a Heliocentric model
276-194 BCE - Eratosthenes: Circumference of the Earth measured
190-150 BCE - Seleucus of Seleucia: Support of Heliocentrism based on reasoning
220-150 BCE - Apollonius of Perga and Hipparchus: Invention of Astrolabe
205-86 BCE - Hipparchus or unknown: Antikythera mechanism an analog computer of planetary motions
129 BCE - Hipparchus: Hipparchus star catalog of the entire sky and precession of the equinoxes
Middle Ages
500 CE - John Philoponus: Theory of impetus
984 CE - Ibn Sahl: Law of refraction
1010 - Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen): Optics, finite speed of light
ca 1030 - Ibn Sina (Avicenna): Concept of force
ca 1050 - al-Biruni: Speed of light is much larger than speed of sound
ca 1100 - Al-Baghdadi: Theory of motion with distinction between velocity and accelerat |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20bacterial%20porin%20family | General bacterial porins are a family of porin proteins from the outer membranes of Gram-negative bacteria. The porins act as molecular filters for hydrophilic compounds. They are responsible for the 'molecular sieve' properties of the outer membrane. Porins form large water-filled channels which allow the diffusion of hydrophilic molecules into the periplasmic space. Some porins form general diffusion channels that allow any solute up to a certain size (that size is known as the exclusion limit) to cross the membrane, while other porins are specific for one particular solute and contain a binding site for that solute inside the pores (these are known as selective porins). As porins are the major outer membrane proteins, they also serve as receptor sites for the binding of phages and bacteriocins.
General diffusion porins usually assemble as a trimer in the membrane, and the transmembrane core of these proteins is composed exclusively of beta strands. It has been shown that a number of porins are evolutionarily related.
Structure of Porins
Porins are composed of β-strands, which are, in general, linked together by beta turns on the periplasmic side of the outer membrane and long loops on the external side of the membrane. The β strands lie in an antiparallel fashion and form a cylindrical tube, called a β-barrel[2]. The amino acid composition of the porin β-strands are unique in that polar and non-polar residues alternate along them. This means that the non-polar residues face outwards so as to interact with the non-polar lipid membrane, whereas the polar residues face inwards into the center of the β-barrel to form the aqueous channel. The phospholipids that comprise the outer membrane give it the same semi-permeable characteristics as the cytoplasmic membrane
The porin channel is partially blocked by a loop, called the eyelet, which projects into the cavity. In general, it is found between strands 5 and 6 of each barrel, and it defines the size of solute that |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct%20and%20indirect%20band%20gaps | In semiconductor physics, the band gap of a semiconductor can be of two basic types, a direct band gap or an indirect band gap. The minimal-energy state in the conduction band and the maximal-energy state in the valence band are each characterized by a certain crystal momentum (k-vector) in the Brillouin zone. If the k-vectors are different, the material has an "indirect gap". The band gap is called "direct" if the crystal momentum of electrons and holes is the same in both the conduction band and the valence band; an electron can directly emit a photon. In an "indirect" gap, a photon cannot be emitted because the electron must pass through an intermediate state and transfer momentum to the crystal lattice.
Examples of direct bandgap materials include amorphous silicon and some III-V materials such as InAs and GaAs. Indirect bandgap materials include crystalline silicon and Ge. Some III-V materials are indirect bandgap as well, for example AlSb.
Implications for radiative recombination
Interactions among electrons, holes, phonons, photons, and other particles are required to satisfy conservation of energy and crystal momentum (i.e., conservation of total k-vector). A photon with an energy near a semiconductor band gap has almost zero momentum. One important process is called radiative recombination, where an electron in the conduction band annihilates a hole in the valence band, releasing the excess energy as a photon. This is possible in a direct band gap semiconductor if the electron has a k-vector near the conduction band minimum (the hole will share the same k-vector), but not possible in an indirect band gap semiconductor, as photons cannot carry crystal momentum, and thus conservation of crystal momentum would be violated. For radiative recombination to occur in an indirect band gap material, the process must also involve the absorption or emission of a phonon, where the phonon momentum equals the difference between the electron and hole momentum. It can |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance%20notation | Dance notation is the symbolic representation of human dance movement and form, using methods such as graphic symbols and figures, path mapping, numerical systems, and letter and word notations. Several dance notation systems have been invented, many of which are designed to document specific types of dance while others have been developed with capturing the broader spectrum of human movement potential. A dance score is a recorded dance notation that describes a particular dance.
Usage
The primary uses of dance notation are historical dance preservation through documentation and analysis (e.g., in ethnochoreology) or reconstruction of choreography, dance forms, and technical exercises. Dance notation systems also allow for dance works to be documented and therefore potentially copyrighted.
Two popular dance notation systems used in Western culture are Labanotation (also known as Kinetography Laban) and Benesh Movement Notation. Others include Eshkol-Wachman Movement Notation and DanceWriting.
Many dance notation systems are designed for specific types of dance. Some examples include Shorthand Dance Notation for dances from Israel, Morris Dance Notation for Morris dance, and Beauchamp–Feuillet Notation for Baroque dance. As a result, these systems usually cannot effectively describe other types of dance.
History
In the 1680s, Pierre Beauchamp invented a dance notation system for Baroque dance. His system, known as Beauchamp–Feuillet notation, was published in 1700 by Raoul Auger Feuillet and used to record dances throughout the eighteenth century.
A well-known collection of dance scores is the Sergeyev Collection, recorded using Vladimir Ivanovich Stepanov's notation method (1892). This collection documents the Imperial Ballet's (today the Kirov/Mariinsky Ballet) repertoire from the turn of the 20th century, including Marius Petipa's original choreographic designs for The Sleeping Beauty, Giselle, Le Corsaire, and Swan Lake, as well as Coppélia and the origi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational%20mirage | A gravitational mirage or cosmic mirage is an optical phenomenon affecting the appearance of a distant star or galaxy, seen only through a telescope. It can take the form of a ring or rings partially or completely surrounding the object, a duplicate image adjacent to the object, or multiple duplicate images surrounding the object. Sometimes the direct view of the original object itself is dimmed or absent.
The illusion is caused by a gravitational lens, in space between the object and the observer's telescope, which bends light as it travels. The effect is analogous to the atmospheric mirage, which has been observed since antiquity, in circumstances where the air temperature varies strongly with height over the ground or sea; the rapidly changing refractive index bends light, producing inverted and/or multiple images "floating" in the air.
Ring-shaped gravitational mirages are referred to as Einstein rings, and one multiple-image gravitational mirage is named the Einstein Cross, as tribute for Einstein's predictions regarding gravitational lensing.
History
Gravitational bending of light was predicted by Einstein's general relativity in 1916, and first observed by astronomers in 1919 during a total solar eclipse. Accurate measurements of stars seen in the dark sky near the eclipsed Sun indicated a displacement in the direction opposite to the Sun, about as much as predicted by Einstein's theory. The effect is due to the gravitational attraction of the photons when they pass near the Sun on their way to Earth. This was a direct confirmation of an entirely new phenomenon and it represented a milestone in physics.
The possibility of gravitational lensing was suggested in 1924 and clarified by Albert Einstein in 1936. In 1937, Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky (1898 - 1974), working at the Mount Wilson Observatory in California, realized that galaxies and galaxy clusters far out in space may be sufficiently compact and massive to observably bend the light from even more |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vast%20%28novel%29 | Vast is a science fiction novel by Linda Nagata, part of her loosely connected "Nanotech Succession" sequence.
Background
The main characters of Vast are the crew and passengers of the Null Boundary, who are fleeing from the alien Chenzeme. The Chenzeme, using the "cult virus" and other, more conventional, weapons have destroyed much of human-occupied space, leaving the inhabitants of the Null Boundary to attempt to discover why.
While Vast is a standalone novel, there are links to The Bohr Maker, Tech-Heaven and Deception Well, primarily in the form of two shared technological innovations: advanced nanotechnology and "ghosts", a name given to electronically preserved human memories and personalities.
Literary significance and reception
The SF Site gave the novel a positive review, commenting on the balance between the relatively straightforward plotline and the complex character interaction.
John Clute, in The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, described the "Deception Well" sub-sequence (comprising Deception Well and Vast) as "an immensely complex tale," drawing comparisons with the work of Olaf Stapledon and Larry Niven.
Alastair Reynolds described Vast as "one of the most enjoyable SF books I've read in the last 12 years" and noted its influence on his own novels, particularly Redemption Ark and House of Suns. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuelle%20Charpentier | Emmanuelle Marie Charpentier (; born 11 December 1968) is a French professor and researcher in microbiology, genetics, and biochemistry. As of 2015, she has been a director at the Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology in Berlin. In 2018, she founded an independent research institute, the Max Planck Unit for the Science of Pathogens. In 2020, Charpentier and American biochemist Jennifer Doudna of the University of California, Berkeley, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the development of a method for genome editing" (through CRISPR). This was the first science Nobel Prize ever won by two women only.
Early life and education
Born in 1968 in Juvisy-sur-Orge in France, Charpentier studied biochemistry, microbiology, and genetics at the Pierre and Marie Curie University (which became the Faculty of Science of Sorbonne University) in Paris. She was a graduate student at the Institut Pasteur from 1992 to 1995 and was awarded a research doctorate. Charpentier's PhD work investigated molecular mechanisms involved in antibiotic resistance. Her paternal grandfather was an Armenian who escaped to France during the Armenian genocide and met his wife in Marseille.
Career and research
Charpentier worked as a university teaching assistant at Pierre and Marie Curie University from 1993 to 1995 and as a postdoctoral fellow at the Institut Pasteur from 1995 to 1996. She moved to the US and worked as a postdoctoral fellow at Rockefeller University in New York from 1996 to 1997. During this time, Charpentier worked in the lab of microbiologist Elaine Tuomanen. Tuomanen's lab investigated how the pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae utilizes mobile genetic elements to alter its genome. Charpentier also helped to demonstrate how S. pneumoniae develops vancomycin resistance.
Charpentier worked as an assistant research scientist at the New York University Medical Center from 1997 to 1999. There she worked in the lab of Pamela Cowin, a skin-cell biologist interested in |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher%20category%20theory | In mathematics, higher category theory is the part of category theory at a higher order, which means that some equalities are replaced by explicit arrows in order to be able to explicitly study the structure behind those equalities. Higher category theory is often applied in algebraic topology (especially in homotopy theory), where one studies algebraic invariants of spaces, such as their fundamental weak ∞-groupoid. In higher category theory, the concept of higher categorical structures, such as (∞-categories), allows for a more robust treatment of homotopy theory, enabling one to capture finer homotopical distinctions, such as differentiating two topological spaces that have the same fundamental group, but differ in their higher homotopy groups. This approach is particularly valuable when dealing with spaces with intricate topological features, such as the Eilenberg-MacLane space.
Strict higher categories
An ordinary category has objects and morphisms, which are called 1-morphisms in the context of higher category theory. A 2-category generalizes this by also including 2-morphisms between the 1-morphisms. Continuing this up to n-morphisms between (n − 1)-morphisms gives an n-category.
Just as the category known as Cat, which is the category of small categories and functors is actually a 2-category with natural transformations as its 2-morphisms, the category n-Cat of (small) n-categories is actually an (n + 1)-category.
An n-category is defined by induction on n by:
A 0-category is a set,
An (n + 1)-category is a category enriched over the category n-Cat.
So a 1-category is just a (locally small) category.
The monoidal structure of Set is the one given by the cartesian product as tensor and a singleton as unit. In fact any category with finite products can be given a monoidal structure. The recursive construction of n-Cat works fine because if a category has finite products, the category of -enriched categories has finite products too.
While this concep |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square-free%20word | In combinatorics, a squarefree word is a word (a sequence of symbols) that does not contain any squares. A square is a word of the form , where is not empty. Thus, a squarefree word can also be defined as a word that avoids the pattern .
Finite squarefree words
Binary alphabet
Over a binary alphabet , the only squarefree words are the empty word , and .
Ternary alphabet
Over a ternary alphabet , there are infinitely many squarefree words. It is possible to count the number of ternary squarefree words of length .
This number is bounded by , where . The upper bound on can be found via Fekete's Lemma and approximation by automata. The lower bound can be found by finding a substitution that preserves squarefreeness.
Alphabet with more than three letters
Since there are infinitely many squarefree words over three-letter alphabets, this implies there are also infinitely many squarefree words over an alphabet with more than three letters.
The following table shows the exact growth rate of the -ary squarefree words:
2-dimensional words
Consider a map from to , where is an alphabet and is called a 2-dimensional word. Let be the entry . A word is a line of if there exists such that , and for .
Carpi proves that there exists a 2-dimensional word over a 16-letter alphabet such that every line of is squarefree. A computer search shows that there are no 2-dimensional words over a 7-letter alphabet, such that every line of is squarefree.
Generating finite squarefree words
Shur proposes an algorithm called R2F (random-t(w)o-free) that can generate a squarefree word of length over any alphabet with three or more letters. This algorithm is based on a modification of entropy compression: it randomly selects letters from a k-letter alphabet to generate a -ary squarefree word.
algorithm R2F is
input: alphabet size ,
word length
output: a -ary squarefree word of length .
choose in uniformly at random
set to fol |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kervaire%20manifold | In mathematics, specifically in differential topology, a Kervaire manifold is a piecewise-linear manifold of dimension constructed by by plumbing together the tangent bundles of two -spheres, and then gluing a ball to the result. In 10 dimensions this gives a piecewise-linear manifold with no smooth structure.
See also
Exotic sphere |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20ecosystem | Software Ecosystem is a book written by David G. Messerschmitt and Clemens Szyperski that explains the essence and effects of a "software ecosystem", defined as a set of businesses functioning as a unit and interacting with a shared market for software and services, together with relationships among them. These relationships are frequently underpinned by a common technological platform and operate through the exchange of information, resources, and artifacts.
The term in software analysis
In the context of software analysis, the term software ecosystem is defined by Lungu as “a collection of software projects, which are developed and co-evolve in the same environment”. The environment can be organizational (a company), social (an open-source community), or technical (the Ruby ecosystem). The ecosystem metaphor is used in order to denote an analysis which takes into account multiple software systems. The most frequent of such analyses is static analysis of the source code of the component systems of the ecosystem. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20A.%20Loeb | Peter Albert Loeb (born July 3, 1937) is a mathematician at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. He co-authored a basic reference text on nonstandard analysis (Hurd–Loeb 1985). Reviewer Perry Smith for MathSciNet wrote:
This book is a welcome addition to the literature on nonstandard analysis.
The notion of Loeb measure named after him has become a standard tool in the field.
In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society.
See also
Influence of nonstandard analysis
Notes
Publications
Hurd, Albert E.; Loeb, Peter A. An introduction to nonstandard real analysis. Pure and Applied Mathematics, 118. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, FL, 1985.
Loeb, Peter A. "Conversion from nonstandard to standard measure spaces and applications in probability theory". Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 211 (1975), 113–122.
Loeb, Peter A. "A new proof of the Tychonoff theorem". American Mathematical Monthly 72 1965 711–717.
Bliedtner, J.; Loeb, P. "A reduction technique for limit theorems in analysis and probability theory". Ark. Mat. 30 (1992), no. 1, 25–43.
Loeb, Peter A. "Weak limits of measures and the standard part map". Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society 77 (1979), no. 1, 128–135.
Füredi, Zoltán; Loeb, Peter A. "On the best constant for the Besicovitch covering theorem". Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 121 (1994), no. 4, 1063–1073.
Loeb, Peter A. "A nonstandard functional approach to Fubini's theorem". Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 93 (1985), no. 2, 343–346.
Loeb, Peter; Sun, Yeneng: "Purification of measure-valued maps". Illinois Journal of Mathematics 50 (2006), no. 1-4, 747–762.
Loeb, Peter A.; Osswald, Horst "Nonstandard integration theory in topological vector lattices". Monatsch. Math. 124 (1997), no. 1, 53–82.
Loeb, Peter A. "An axiomatic treatment of pairs of elliptic differential equations". Annales de l'Institut Fourier (Grenoble) 16 1966 fasc. 2, 167–208.
External links
Peter Loeb, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Mathematical logicians
Livi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20liquidator | A computer liquidator buys computer technology and related equipment that is no longer required by one company, and resells ("flips") it to another company. Computer liquidators are agents that act in the computer recycling, or electronic recycling, business.
There are several reasons why companies will sell, or liquidate, used Information Technology (I.T.) equipment: bankruptcy, downsizing and expanding, or technological advancement. Technological advancement is the most common reason, as the equipment is no longer performing the tasks required of it, usually because it has been rendered obsolete by more advanced technology coming on to the market. This used or obsolete technology is often referred to as electronic waste. Equipment designated as outdated for one company is still viable for another company, whose operations may not require advanced solutions. Often, an information technology audit will be performed to help a company decide if their equipment needs updating, and if so, what the requirements are.
Reasons for Liquidation
Computer liquidation is a sustainable solution and is environmentally friendly. Rapid technology change, low initial cost, and planned obsolescence have resulted in a fast-growing surplus of computers and other electronic components around the globe. The purpose of computer liquidators is to keep as many computers and electronic parts out of landfills. As newer and better technology replaces hardware at an ever-increasing speed, the amount of technical trash increases as the technology is being replaced. The speed at which hardware changes and innovates in the last few years follows, to some degree, Moore's Law. Predictions were made that every landfill would soon be overflowing with discarded computer screens and computers, along with associated equipment such as keyboards and mouses and all the other hardware associated with use of the Internet. Most electronic waste is sent to landfills or incinerated, which releases toxic mater |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChucK | ChucK is a concurrent, strongly timed audio programming language for real-time synthesis, composition, and performance,
which runs on Linux, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, and iOS. It is designed to favor readability and flexibility for the programmer over other considerations such as raw performance. It natively supports deterministic concurrency and multiple, simultaneous, dynamic control rates. Another key feature is the ability to live code; adding, removing, and modifying code on the fly, while the program is running, without stopping or restarting. It has a highly precise timing/concurrency model, allowing for arbitrarily fine granularity. It offers composers and researchers a powerful and flexible programming tool for building and experimenting with complex audio synthesis programs, and real-time interactive control.
ChucK was created and chiefly designed by Ge Wang as a graduate student working with Perry R. Cook. ChucK is distributed freely under the terms of the GNU General Public License on Mac OS X, Linux and Microsoft Windows. On iPhone and iPad, ChiP (ChucK for iPhone) is distributed under a limited, closed source license, and is not currently licensed to the public. However, the core team has stated that it would like to explore "ways to open ChiP by creating a beneficial environment for everyone".
Language features
The ChucK programming language is a loosely C-like object-oriented language, with strong static typing.
ChucK is distinguished by the following characteristics:
Direct support for real-time audio synthesis
A powerful and simple concurrent programming model
A unified timing mechanism for multi-rate event and control processing.
A language syntax that encourages left-to-right syntax and semantics within program statements.
Precision timing: a strongly timed sample-synchronous timing model.
Programs are dynamically compiled to ChucK virtual machine bytecode.
A runtime environment that supports on-the-fly programming.
The ChucK Ope |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20protein%20structure%20prediction%20software | This list of protein structure prediction software summarizes notable used software tools in protein structure prediction, including homology modeling, protein threading, ab initio methods, secondary structure prediction, and transmembrane helix and signal peptide prediction.
Software list
Below is a list which separates programs according to the method used for structure prediction.
Homology modeling
Threading/fold recognition
Ab initio structure prediction
Secondary structure prediction
Detailed list of programs can be found at List of protein secondary structure prediction programs
See also
List of protein secondary structure prediction programs
Comparison of nucleic acid simulation software
List of software for molecular mechanics modeling
Molecular design software
Protein design
External links
bio.tools, finding more tools |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-sorted%20sequence | In computer science, a nearly-sorted sequence, also known as roughly-sorted sequence and as -sorted sequence is a sequence which is almost ordered. By almost ordered, it is meant that no element of the sequence is very far away from where it would be if the sequence were perfectly ordered. It is still possible that no element of the sequence is at the place where it should be if the sequence were perfectly ordered.
The nearly-sorted sequences are particularly useful when the exact order of element has little importance. For example Twitter nearly sort the tweets, up to the second, as there is no need for more precision. Actually, given the impossibility to exactly synchronize all computers, an exact sorting of all tweets according to the time at which they are posted is impossible. This idea led to the creation of Snowflake IDs.
-sorting is the operation of reordering the elements of a sequence so that it becomes -sorted. -sorting is generally more efficient than sorting. Similarly, sorting a sequence is easier if it is known that the sequence is -sorted. So if a program needs only to consider -sorted sequences as input or output, considering -sorted sequences may save time.
The radius of a sequence is a measure of presortedness, that is, its value indicate how much the elements in the list has to be moved to get a totally sorted value. In the above example of tweets which are sorted up to the second, the radius is bounded by the number of tweets in a second.
Definition
Given a positive number , a sequence is said to be -sorted if for each and for each , . That is, the sequence has to be ordered only for pairs of elements whose distance is at least .
The radius of the sequence , denoted or is the smallest such that the sequence is -sorted. The radius is a measure of presortedness.
A sequence is said to be nearly-sorted or roughly-sorted if its radius is small compared to its length.
Equivalent definition
A sequence is -sorted if and only if each ra |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20ribbon%20badge | The blue ribbon badge was a symbol of the temperance movement in 19th century North America.
The badge was created by Francis Murphy, 1836–1907, who was a chief advocate of the temperance movement in the United States and abroad in his generation. It was inspired by a Bible verse, Numbers 15:38-39, which says: "Speak unto the children of Israel, and bid them that they make them fringes in the borders of their garments, throughout their generations, and that they put upon the fringe of the borders a ribband of blue : and it shall be unto you for a fringe, that ye may look upon it, and remember all the commandments of the Lord, and do them."
The ribbon was worn by those who agreed with a pledge of abstinence from alcohol consumption as a beverage, as advocated by Francis Murphy. The movement emerged in the northeastern United States during the early 1870s and spread to Canada and Great Britain by the end of the decade. By the mid-1880s, millions had taken the temperance pledge and wore the blue ribbon.
The movement grew out of New England reform clubs. In 1870, Murphy was imprisoned for violating the Maine Law, and when he was released, he began speaking against alcohol and became a leader in reform clubs. He made evangelical Protestantism a central focus of the movement, and also applied evangelical techniques. He spoke in large public halls in a revival-like style encouraging large groups of men to come forward and take the pledge. He focused his speeches on compassion for drunkards, and did not condemn drinkers or the sellers of alcohol.
In 1874, Murphy was invited to Chicago by Frances Elizabeth Caroline Willard, then president of the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), and Murphy began speaking in the Midwest. Murphy was very successful and the movement expanded into the Midwest. After a speech in Pittsburgh on November 26, 1876, 40,000 residents signed the pledge within ten weeks. Henry J. Heinz was among the Pittsburgh residents who adopted the refo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phototaxis | Phototaxis is a kind of taxis, or locomotory movement, that occurs when a whole organism moves towards or away from a stimulus of light. This is advantageous for phototrophic organisms as they can orient themselves most efficiently to receive light for photosynthesis. Phototaxis is called positive if the movement is in the direction of increasing light intensity and negative if the direction is opposite.
Two types of positive phototaxis are observed in prokaryotes. The first is called scotophobotaxis (from the word "scotophobia"), which is observed only under a microscope. This occurs when a bacterium swims by chance out of the area illuminated by the microscope. Entering darkness signals the cell to reverse flagella rotation direction and reenter the light. The second type of phototaxis is true phototaxis, which is a directed movement up a gradient to an increasing amount of light. This is analogous to positive chemotaxis except that the attractant is light rather than a chemical.
Phototactic responses are observed in many organisms such as Serratia marcescens, Tetrahymena, and Euglena. Each organism has its own specific biological cause for a phototactic response, many of which are incidental and serve no end purpose.
Phototaxis in bacteria and archea
Phototaxis can be advantageous for phototrophic bacteria as they can orient themselves most efficiently to receive light for photosynthesis. Phototaxis is called positive if the movement is in the direction of increasing light intensity and negative if the direction is opposite.
Two types of positive phototaxis are observed in prokaryotes (bacteria and archea). The first is called "scotophobotaxis" (from the word "scotophobia"), which is observed only under a microscope. This occurs when a bacterium swims by chance out of the area illuminated by the microscope. Entering darkness signals the cell to reverse flagella rotation direction and reenter the light. The second type of phototaxis is true phototaxis, which |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes%20existence%20and%20smoothness | The Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness problem concerns the mathematical properties of solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations, a system of partial differential equations that describe the motion of a fluid in space. Solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations are used in many practical applications. However, theoretical understanding of the solutions to these equations is incomplete. In particular, solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations often include turbulence, which remains one of the greatest unsolved problems in physics, despite its immense importance in science and engineering.
Even more basic (and seemingly intuitive) properties of the solutions to Navier–Stokes have never been proven. For the three-dimensional system of equations, and given some initial conditions, mathematicians have neither proved that smooth solutions always exist, nor found any counter-examples. This is called the Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness problem.
Since understanding the Navier–Stokes equations is considered to be the first step to understanding the elusive phenomenon of turbulence, the Clay Mathematics Institute in May 2000 made this problem one of its seven Millennium Prize problems in mathematics. It offered a US$1,000,000 prize to the first person providing a solution for a specific statement of the problem:
The Navier–Stokes equations
In mathematics, the Navier–Stokes equations are a system of nonlinear partial differential equations for abstract vector fields of any size. In physics and engineering, they are a system of equations that model the motion of liquids or non-rarefied gases (in which the mean free path is short enough so that it can be thought of as a continuum mean instead of a collection of particles) using continuum mechanics. The equations are a statement of Newton's second law, with the forces modeled according to those in a viscous Newtonian fluid—as the sum of contributions by pressure, viscous stress and an external body force. Since th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image%20compression | Image compression is a type of data compression applied to digital images, to reduce their cost for storage or transmission. Algorithms may take advantage of visual perception and the statistical properties of image data to provide superior results compared with generic data compression methods which are used for other digital data.
Lossy and lossless image compression
Image compression may be lossy or lossless. Lossless compression is preferred for archival purposes and often for medical imaging, technical drawings, clip art, or comics. Lossy compression methods, especially when used at low bit rates, introduce compression artifacts. Lossy methods are especially suitable for natural images such as photographs in applications where minor (sometimes imperceptible) loss of fidelity is acceptable to achieve a substantial reduction in bit rate. Lossy compression that produces negligible differences may be called visually lossless.
Methods for lossy compression:
Transform coding – This is the most commonly used method.
Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) – The most widely used form of lossy compression. It is a type of Fourier-related transform, and was originally developed by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974. The DCT is sometimes referred to as "DCT-II" in the context of a family of discrete cosine transforms (see discrete cosine transform). It is generally the most efficient form of image compression.
DCT is used in JPEG, the most popular lossy format, and the more recent HEIF.
The more recently developed wavelet transform is also used extensively, followed by quantization and entropy coding.
Color quantization - Reducing the color space to a few "representative" colors in the image. The selected colors are specified in the color palette in the header of the compressed image. Each pixel just references the index of a color in the color palette. This method can be combined with dithering to avoid posterization.
Whole-image palette, typically 256 c |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick%20Michael%20Grundy | Patrick Michael Grundy (16 November 1917, Yarmouth, Isle of Wight – 4 November 1959) was an English mathematician and statistician. He was one of the eponymous co-discoverers of the Sprague–Grundy function and its application to the analysis of a wide class of combinatorial games.
Biography
Grundy received his secondary education from Malvern College, to which he had obtained a Major Scholarship in 1931, and from which he graduated in 1935. While there, he demonstrated his aptitude for mathematics by winning three prizes in that subject. After leaving school he entered Clare College, Cambridge, on a Foundation Scholarship, where he read for the Mathematical Tripos from 1936 to 1939, earning first class honours in Part II and a distinction in Part III.
The work for which he is best known appeared in his first paper, Mathematics and Games, first published in the Cambridge University Mathematical Society's magazine, Eureka in 1939, and reprinted by the same magazine in 1964. The main results of this paper were discovered independently by Grundy and by Roland Sprague, and had already been published by the latter in 1935. The key idea is that of a function that assigns a non-negative integer to each position of a class of combinatorial games, now called impartial games, and which greatly assists in the identification of winning and losing positions, and of the winning moves from the former. The number assigned to a position by this function is called its Grundy value (or Grundy number), and the function itself is called the Sprague–Grundy function, in honour of its co-discoverers. The procedures developed by Sprague and Grundy for using their function to analyse impartial games are collectively called Sprague–Grundy theory, and at least two different theorems concerning these procedures have been called Sprague–Grundy theorems. The maximum number of colors used by a greedy coloring algorithm is called the Grundy number, also after this work on games, as its |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-predator%20adaptation | Anti-predator adaptations are mechanisms developed through evolution that assist prey organisms in their constant struggle against predators. Throughout the animal kingdom, adaptations have evolved for every stage of this struggle, namely by avoiding detection, warding off attack, fighting back, or escaping when caught.
The first line of defence consists in avoiding detection, through mechanisms such as camouflage, masquerade, apostatic selection, living underground, or nocturnality.
Alternatively, prey animals may ward off attack, whether by advertising the presence of strong defences in aposematism, by mimicking animals which do possess such defences, by startling the attacker, by signalling to the predator that pursuit is not worthwhile, by distraction, by using defensive structures such as spines, and by living in a group. Members of groups are at reduced risk of predation, despite the increased conspicuousness of a group, through improved vigilance, predator confusion, and the likelihood that the predator will attack some other individual.
Avoiding detection
Staying out of sight
Animals may avoid becoming prey by living out of sight of predators, whether in caves, burrows, or by being nocturnal. Nocturnality is an animal behavior characterized by activity during the night and sleeping during the day. This is a behavioral form of detection avoidance called crypsis used by animals to either avoid predation or to enhance prey hunting. Predation risk has long been recognized as critical in shaping behavioral decisions. For example, this predation risk is of prime importance in determining the time of evening emergence in echolocating bats. Although early access during brighter times permits easier foraging, it also leads to a higher predation risk from bat hawks and bat falcons. This results in an optimum evening emergence time that is a compromise between the conflicting demands. Another nocturnal adaptation can be seen in kangaroo rats. They forage in relati |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torricelli%27s%20law | Torricelli's law, also known as Torricelli's theorem, is a theorem in fluid dynamics relating the speed of fluid flowing from an orifice to the height of fluid above the opening. The law states that the speed of efflux of a fluid through a sharp-edged hole at the bottom of the tank filled to a depth is the same as the speed that a body (in this case a drop of water) would acquire in falling freely from a height , i.e. , where is the acceleration due to gravity. This expression comes from equating the kinetic energy gained, , with the potential energy lost, , and solving for . The law was discovered (though not in this form) by the Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli, in 1643. It was later shown to be a particular case of Bernoulli's principle.
Derivation
Under the assumptions of an incompressible fluid with negligible viscosity, Bernoulli's principle states that the hydraulic energy is constant
at any two points in the flowing liquid. Here is fluid speed, is the acceleration due to gravity, is the height above some reference point, is the pressure, and is the density.
In order to derive Torricelli's formula the first point with no index is taken at the liquid's surface, and the second just outside the opening. Since the liquid is assumed to be incompressible, is equal to and ; both can be represented by one symbol . The pressure and are typically both atmospheric pressure, so . Furthermore
is equal to the height of the liquid's surface over the opening:
The velocity of the surface can by related to the outflow velocity by the continuity equation , where is the orifice's cross section and is the (cylindrical) vessel's cross section. Renaming to (A like Aperture) gives:
Torricelli's law is obtained as a special case when the opening is very small relative to the horizontal cross-section of the container :
Torricelli's law can only be applied when viscous effects can be neglected which is the case for water flowing out through orif |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platelet | Platelets or thrombocytes (from Greek θρόμβος, "clot" and κύτος, "cell") are a component of blood whose function (along with the coagulation factors) is to react to bleeding from blood vessel injury by clumping, thereby initiating a blood clot. Platelets have no cell nucleus; they are fragments of cytoplasm derived from the megakaryocytes of the bone marrow or lung, which then enter the circulation. Platelets are found only in mammals, whereas in other vertebrates (e.g. birds, amphibians), thrombocytes circulate as intact mononuclear cells.
One major function of platelets is to contribute to hemostasis: the process of stopping bleeding at the site of interrupted endothelium. They gather at the site and, unless the interruption is physically too large, they plug the hole. First, platelets attach to substances outside the interrupted endothelium: adhesion. Second, they change shape, turn on receptors and secrete chemical messengers: activation. Third, they connect to each other through receptor bridges: aggregation. Formation of this platelet plug (primary hemostasis) is associated with activation of the coagulation cascade, with resultant fibrin deposition and linking (secondary hemostasis). These processes may overlap: the spectrum is from a predominantly platelet plug, or "white clot" to a predominantly fibrin, or "red clot" or the more typical mixture. Some would add the subsequent retraction and platelet inhibition as fourth and fifth steps to the completion of the process and still others would add a sixth step, wound repair. Platelets also participate in both innate and adaptive intravascular immune responses.
Structure
Structure
Structurally the platelet can be divided into four zones, from peripheral to innermost:
Peripheral zone – is rich in glycoproteins required for platelet adhesion, activation and aggregation. For example, GPIb/IX/V; GPVI; GPIIb/IIIa.
Sol-gel zone – is rich in microtubules and microfilaments, allowing the platelets to maintain their |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardy%27s%20paradox | Hardy's paradox is a thought experiment in quantum mechanics devised by Lucien Hardy in 1992–1993 in which a particle and its antiparticle may interact without annihilating each other.
Experiments using the technique of weak measurement have studied an interaction of polarized photons, and these have demonstrated that the phenomenon does occur. However, the consequence of these experiments is only that past events can be inferred after their occurrence as a probabilistic wave collapse. These weak measurements are considered to be an observation themselves, and therefore part of the causation of wave collapse, making the objective results only a probabilistic function rather than a fixed reality. However, a careful analysis of the experiment shows that Hardy's paradox only proves that a local hidden-variable theory cannot exist, as there cannot be a theory that assumes that the system meets the states of reality regardless of the interaction with the measuring apparatus. This confirms that a quantum theory, to be consistent with the experiments, must be non-local (in the sense of Bell) and contextual.
Setup description and the results
The basic building block of Hardy’s thought experiment are two Mach–Zehnder interferometers for quantum particles and antiparticles. We will describe the case using electrons and positrons. Each interferometer consists of bent paths and two beam splitters (labeled BS1 and BS2 in the accompanying diagram) and is tuned so that when operating individually, particles always exit to the same particle detector (the ones labeled c in the diagram; c is for "constructive interference" and d is for "destructive interference"). For example, for the right-hand side interferometer, when operating alone, entering electrons (labeled e−) become a quantum superposition of electrons taking the path v− and electrons taking path w− (in the diagram, the latter part of the w− path is labeled u−), but these constructively interfere and thus always exit in |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention%20over%20configuration | Convention over configuration (also known as coding by convention) is a software design paradigm used by software frameworks that attempts to decrease the number of decisions that a developer using the framework is required to make without necessarily losing flexibility and don't repeat yourself (DRY) principles.
The concept was introduced by David Heinemeier Hansson to describe the philosophy of the Ruby on Rails web framework, but is related to earlier ideas like the concept of "sensible defaults" and the principle of least astonishment in user interface design.
The phrase essentially means a developer only needs to specify unconventional aspects of the application. For example, if there is a class Sales in the model, the corresponding table in the database is called "sales" by default. It is only if one deviates from this convention, such as the table "product sales", that one needs to write code regarding these names.
When the convention implemented by the tool matches the desired behavior, it behaves as expected without having to write configuration files. Only when the desired behavior deviates from the implemented convention is explicit configuration required.
Ruby on Rails' use of the phrase is particularly focused on its default project file and directory structure, which prevent developers from having to write XML configuration files to specify which modules the framework should load, which was common in many earlier frameworks.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages of the convention over configuration approach can occur due to conflicts with other software design principles, like the Zen of Python's "explicit is better than implicit." A software framework based on convention over configuration often involves a domain-specific language with a limited set of constructs or an inversion of control in which the developer can only affect behavior using a limited set of hooks, both of which can make implementing behaviors not easily expressed by the provided convent |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Carter%20%28ornithologist%29 | Thomas Carter (1863–1931) was an English ornithologist active in Australia. He made large collections of bird specimens while living and working in remote regions of Western Australia.
Biography
Born in the town of Masham in Yorkshire, England, to Amelia Mary Carter, née Rhodes on the 6 April 1863. His merchant father, James, is said to have shared an interest in wildlife.
Carter had published papers on British birds, and made observations in Iceland, before travelling to Western Australia. He arrived at Carnarvon to work at Boolathanna station, later acquiring a pastoral lease around Point Cloates. Carter married Annie Ward when back in England in 1903, and returned to settle at a Broomehill property. Illness reportedly required his family to return to England in 1914, living in Sutton, Surrey, but he returned to the region for several expeditions, the last in 1928.
Thomas Carter died in Yorkshire, 29 January 1931, and is buried there.
Works
Tom Carter's arrival in Western Australia reopened ornithological study of the region's birds, following a period of few collections and little research. While working in his first job as a Jackaroo, Carter used his spare time to make observations and collect bird skins and eggs in the Gascoyne district. He later studied the North West Cape and Broomehill regions. He also made an expedition to Dirk Hartog Island in 1916, where he made the first observations of the Black-and-white Wren (a subspecies of the White-Winged Fairy-Wren) and the Western Grass-wren since their first collection one hundred years before. Carter made a collection of around five hundred bird skins from Western Australia, which he delivered to England in 1903 and was eventually included in the Tring Collection and at the American Museum of Natural History.
Carter made a significant contribution to the ornithological literature on Australian birds, his notes and papers from Western Australia appearing in The Zoologist and The Emu. In his article, 'Bird |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetware%20%28biology%29 | The term wetware is used to describe the protocols and molecular devices used in molecular biology and synthetic biology.
Where biological components and systems are treated in a similar manner to software, and similar development models and methodologies are applied, the term 'wetware' can be used to imply an approach to their problems as 'bugs' and their beneficial aspects as 'features'. In this manner, genetic code can be subjected to Version Control Systems such as Git, for the development of improvements and new gene edits, therapeutic components and therapies.
Examples
The National Science Foundation (NSF) funded Wiki project Open Wetware (OWW) provides a resource for reagent, project and laboratory notebook sharing.
A somewhat related NSF consortium Synthetic Biology Engineering Research Center (SynBERC) constructs and distributes wetware. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethe%20ansatz | In physics, the Bethe ansatz is an ansatz for finding the exact wavefunctions of certain quantum many-body models, most commonly for one-dimensional lattice models. It was first used by Hans Bethe in 1931 to find the exact eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the one-dimensional antiferromagnetic isotropic (XXX) Heisenberg model.
Since then the method has been extended to other spin chains and statistical lattice models.
"Bethe ansatz problems" were one of the topics featuring in the "To learn" section of Richard Feynman's blackboard at the time of his death.
Discussion
In the framework of many-body quantum mechanics, models solvable by the Bethe ansatz can be contrasted with free fermion models. One can say that the dynamics of a free model is one-body reducible: the many-body wave function for fermions (bosons) is the anti-symmetrized (symmetrized) product of one-body wave functions. Models solvable by the Bethe ansatz are not free: the two-body sector has a non-trivial scattering matrix, which in general depends on the momenta.
On the other hand, the dynamics of the models solvable by the Bethe ansatz is two-body reducible: the many-body scattering matrix is a product of two-body scattering matrices. Many-body collisions happen as a sequence of two-body collisions and the many-body wave function can be represented in a form which contains only elements from two-body wave functions. The many-body scattering matrix is equal to the product of pairwise scattering matrices.
The generic form of the (coordinate) Bethe ansatz for a many-body wavefunction is
in which is the number of particles, their position, is the set of all permutations of the integers , is the parity of the permutation taking values either positive or negative one, is the (quasi-)momentum of the -th particle, is the scattering phase shift function and is the sign function. This form is universal (at least for non-nested systems), with the momentum and scattering functions being model-dep |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandat%20International | Mandat International, also known as the International Cooperation Foundation, is an international non-governmental organization based in Geneva, Switzerland with consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council, the UNDPI, and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
History
Mandat International was established in 1995.
Description
Mandat International is a member of the Internet of Things International Forum and organizes the annual event IoT week. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLOT3D%20file%20format | In computational fluid dynamics, the PLOT3D file format is a standard file format used for storing grid and results data. PLOT3D was created by NASA Ames Research Center in 1982 by Pieter Buning and remains an often used file format. It can only store a structured grid. The structured grid allows random access, that is by knowing the block number, i location, j location, and k location, any grid point value or result value may be extracted. Additionally, given the location of any value, the block number, i location, j location, and k location may be determined. This makes it simple to iterate through a series of volumetric elements and calculate all required properties for the purpose of a CFD analysis.
The most basic format includes two different files, a grid file (G-file) and a solution file (Q-file). The filename extensions used vary, though .q is common for Q-files. Grid files may use .g, .x, .xy, or .xyz, among other extensions. The grid file contains the coordinates of the solution grid, while the solution file contains information typical of a CFD solution, flow density, flow momentum (a vector), and flow energy. Data may be stored in either binary or ASCII text format and floating point values may be either single or double precision. There are also multiblock and unstructured extensions to the format, so it is often unclear how a particular set of nominally PLOT3D-format files is formatted on the binary level without referring to the software that created them. Examination with a hex editor may be useful in determining the format variant.
Additional files may be present containing different kinds of ancillary data.
"Formatted" FORTRAN (ASCII text) data files will typically use CR-LF (0x0d 0x0a) delimiters at the end of the line, though the line breaks are implementation dependent. "Unformatted" FORTRAN (binary) files have the variables laid out in the same order but will normally lack delimiters such as line breaks. The binary format will be implem |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive%20Carriers%20Association | The Competitive Carriers Association (commonly the CCA) was founded in 1992 by nine small wireless carriers in the United States as a 501(c)(6) non-profit trade association to promote the common interests of competitive, regional, and rural wireless services providers. Its counterpart, particularly for non-regional wireless carriers, is the CTIA.
History
The organization was founded in 1992 as the Rural Carriers Association (RCA), but became the Competitive Carriers Association in 2012 as national carriers Sprint and T-Mobile US joined. It has long advocated for policies and standards that promote greater competitive in the wireless industry, particularly with regard to issues around wireless spectrum. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore%27s%20theorem | Ore's theorem is a result in graph theory proved in 1960 by Norwegian mathematician Øystein Ore. It gives a sufficient condition for a graph to be Hamiltonian, essentially stating that a graph with sufficiently many edges must contain a Hamilton cycle. Specifically, the theorem considers the sum of the degrees of pairs of non-adjacent vertices: if every such pair has a sum that at least equals the total number of vertices in the graph, then the graph is Hamiltonian.
Formal statement
Let be a (finite and simple) graph with vertices. We denote by the degree of a vertex in , i.e. the number of incident edges in to . Then, Ore's theorem states that if
then is Hamiltonian.
Proof
It is equivalent to show that every non-Hamiltonian graph does not obey condition (∗). Accordingly, let be a graph on vertices that is not Hamiltonian, and let be formed from by adding edges one at a time that do not create a Hamiltonian cycle, until no more edges can be added. Let and be any two non-adjacent vertices in . Then adding edge to would create at least one new Hamiltonian cycle, and the edges other than in such a cycle must form a Hamiltonian path in with and . For each index in the range , consider the two possible edges in from to and from to . At most one of these two edges can be present in , for otherwise the cycle would be a Hamiltonian cycle. Thus, the total number of edges incident to either or is at most equal to the number of choices of , which is . Therefore, does not obey property (∗), which requires that this total number of edges () be greater than or equal to . Since the vertex degrees in are at most equal to the degrees in , it follows that also does not obey property (∗).
Algorithm
describes the following simple algorithm for constructing a Hamiltonian cycle in a graph meeting Ore's condition.
Arrange the vertices arbitrarily into a cycle, ignoring adjacencies in the graph.
While the cycle contains two consecutive vertices vi and v |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border%20town | A border town is a town or city close to the boundary between two countries, states, or regions. Usually the term implies that the nearness to the border is one of the things the place is most famous for. With close proximities to a different country, diverse cultural traditions can have certain influence to the place. Border towns can have highly cosmopolitan communities, a feature they share with port cities, as traveling and trading often go through the town. They can also be flashpoints for international conflicts, especially when the two countries have territorial disputes.
List of border towns and cities
Transcontinental
Asia/Africa
El-Qantarah el-Sharqiyya, Egypt
Asia/Europe
Istanbul, Turkey
Atyrau, Kazakhstan
Oral, Kazakhstan
Magnitogorsk, Russia
In Africa
Acoacán, Equatorial Guinea
Adré, Chad
Aflao, Ghana
Afoji, Uganda
Ahfir, Morocco
Alexander Bay, South Africa
Andéramboukane, Mali
Ariamsvlei, Namibia
Assamakka, Niger
Badme, Eritrea
Bahaï, Chad
Bakel, Senegal
Bambouti, Central African Republic and Source Yubu, South Sudan
Bang, Central African Republic
Bangassou, Central African Republic
Bangui, Central African Republic and Zongo, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Bariguna, South Sudan
Beitbridge, Zimbabwe
Benena, Mali
Beni Ensar, Morocco
Béni Ounif, Algeria and Figuig, Morocco
Bétou, Republic of the Congo
Blangoua, Cameroon
Bokspits, Botswana
Bolobo, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Boma, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Bomandjokou, Central African Republic
Bomassa, Republic of the Congo
Bongor, Chad
Bosso, Niger
Bray, South Africa and Bray, Botswana
Bugarama, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Bukavu, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Cyangugu, Rwanda
Bulok, Gambia
Bunangana, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Buruntuma, Guinea Bissau
Busia, Kenya and Busia, Uganda
Ceuta, Spain and Belyounech, Morocco
Chembe, Zambia
Chicualacuala, Mozambique
Cinkassé, Togo
Cocobeach, Gabon
Damasak, Nigeria
Débété, Ivory |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodisplay | Autodisplay is a genetic engineering technique which is used to insert a protein of interest on the outer surface of gram-negative bacteria. This is accomplished by attaching the protein of interest to a protein which is known to localize to the surface of the bacterial outer membrane. First introduced in the 1990s, the technique is now widely used in research science and in biotechnology to manipulate bacteria for protein studies, drug discovery, and vaccine development.
Mechanism
Autodisplay is based on the mechanism of bacterial autotransporter proteins.
These proteins have a signal peptide at the N-terminus which allows them to be translocated across the bacterial inner membrane and into the periplasm. In the periplasm a β-barrel domain at the protein's C-terminus inserts into the bacterial outer membrane, forming a channel through which the rest of the protein can pass. The rest of the protein threads through this channel across the outer membrane and to the surface of the bacteria. Once it reaches the surface, the protein may stay connected to the membrane-bound β-barrel or it may be cleaved from the membrane and secreted into the extracellular environment. There are several known Autotransporter pathways.
Autodisplay uses this autotransporter system by inserting a protein of interest between the N-terminal signal peptide and the C-terminal β-barrel of an autotransporter. This allow the protein of interest to be carried to the bacterial surface by the regular autotransporter mechanism.
History
Autodisplay is based on the autotransporter proteins of gram-negative bacteria, which were first discovered in the late 1980s, when the IgA1 protease of Neisseria gonorrhoeae was described. By the early 1990s, several groups had attempted to attach heterologous proteins to IgA1 protease and express the product in Escherichia coli, however the N. gonorrhoeae IgA1 protease was not expressed well in E. coli, limiting the usefulness of this system. Subsequently, the IgA |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stationary%20wavelet%20transform | The Stationary wavelet transform (SWT) is a wavelet transform algorithm designed to overcome the lack of translation-invariance of the discrete wavelet transform (DWT). Translation-invariance is achieved by removing the downsamplers and upsamplers in the DWT and upsampling the filter coefficients by a factor of in the th level of the algorithm. The SWT is an inherently redundant scheme as the output of each level of SWT contains the same number of samples as the input – so for a decomposition of N levels there is a redundancy of N in the wavelet coefficients. This algorithm is more famously known as "algorithme à trous" in French (word trous means holes in English) which refers to inserting zeros in the filters. It was introduced by Holschneider et al.
Implementation
The following block diagram depicts the digital implementation of SWT.
In the above diagram, filters in each level are up-sampled versions of the previous (see figure below).
KIT
Applications
A few applications of SWT are specified below.
Signal denoising
Pattern recognition
Brain image classification
Pathological brain detection
Synonyms
Redundant wavelet transform
Algorithme à trous
Quasi-continuous wavelet transform
Translation invariant wavelet transform
Shift invariant wavelet transform
Cycle spinning
Maximal overlap wavelet transform (MODWT)
Undecimated wavelet transform (UWT)
See also
wavelet transform
wavelet entropy
wavelet packet decomposition |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction%20cosine | In analytic geometry, the direction cosines (or directional cosines) of a vector are the cosines of the angles between the vector and the three positive coordinate axes. Equivalently, they are the contributions of each component of the basis to a unit vector in that direction.
Three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates
If v is a Euclidean vector in three-dimensional Euclidean space, R3,
where ex, ey, ez are the standard basis in Cartesian notation, then the direction cosines are
It follows that by squaring each equation and adding the results
Here α, β and γ are the direction cosines and the Cartesian coordinates of the unit vector v/|v|, and a, b and c are the direction angles of the vector v.
The direction angles a, b and c are acute or obtuse angles, i.e., 0 ≤ a ≤ π, 0 ≤ b ≤ π and 0 ≤ c ≤ π, and they denote the angles formed between v and the unit basis vectors, ex, ey and ez.
General meaning
More generally, direction cosine refers to the cosine of the angle between any two vectors. They are useful for forming direction cosine matrices that express one set of orthonormal basis vectors in terms of another set, or for expressing a known vector in a different basis.
See also
Cartesian tensor |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global%20analytic%20function | In the mathematical field of complex analysis, a global analytic function is a generalization of the notion of an analytic function which allows for functions to have multiple branches. Global analytic functions arise naturally in considering the possible analytic continuations of an analytic function, since analytic continuations may have a non-trivial monodromy. They are one foundation for the theory of Riemann surfaces.
Definition
The following definition is in , but also found in Weyl or perhaps Weierstrass. An analytic function in an open set U is called a function element. Two function elements (f1, U1) and (f2, U2) are said to be analytic continuations of one another if U1 ∩ U2 ≠ ∅ and f1 = f2 on this intersection. A chain of analytic continuations is a finite sequence of function elements (f1, U1), …, (fn,Un) such that each consecutive pair are analytic continuations of one another; i.e., (fi+1, Ui+1) is an analytic continuation of (fi, Ui) for i = 1, 2, …, n − 1.
A global analytic function is a family f of function elements such that, for any (f,U) and (g,V) belonging to f, there is a chain of analytic continuations in f beginning at (f,U) and finishing at (g,V).
A complete global analytic function is a global analytic function f which contains every analytic continuation of each of its elements.
Sheaf-theoretic definition
Using ideas from sheaf theory, the definition can be streamlined. In these terms, a complete global analytic function is a path-connected sheaf of germs of analytic functions which is maximal in the sense that it is not contained (as an etale space) within any other path connected sheaf of germs of analytic functions. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute%20of%20Himalayan%20Bioresource%20Technology | C.S.I.R - Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology or CSIR-IHBT established in 1983 is a constituent laboratory of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. This institute located in Palampur, Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, India is engaged in various advanced research aspects of Himalayan Bio-resources and modern biology. It has also been imparting Ph.D. in Biological and Chemical Sciences.
Location and facilities
Situated among the Dhauladhar ranges, CSIR-IHBT is the only laboratory of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research in the State of Himachal Pradesh (H.P.), India. Institute has a focused research mandate on bioresources for catalysizing bioeconomy in a sustainable manner.
The institute has state-of the art laboratories; remote sensing and mapping facilities; internationally recognised herbarium; animal house facility; pilot plants in nutraceuticals, essential oil and herbals; farms and polyhouses.
The scientists propel the research and work to discover and find solutions to new challenging problems faced by society. International collaborations further strengthens scientific interactions at a global scale.
Research
Promoting industrial growth through technological interventions is a constant endeavour and several technologies developed by the institute are transferred to industries. For socio- economic upliftment, regular training programmes and advisory services are rendered to farmers, floriculturists, tea planters and small entrepreneurs involved in food processing sector. The Institute has been recognised as one of the Incubation Centres by MSME GoI and in the area of Affordable Health Care by DSIR. The Institute encourages industries to share the technological problems faced them, such that efforts could be made in developing a viable solution.
Confidentiality is strictly maintained. Work on plant adaptation studies and high altitude medicinal plants are further strengthened by the field lab ”Centre for High Altitude Biology |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAMAS6%20%28gene%29 | Vitiligo-associated multiple autoimmune disease susceptibility 6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the VAMAS6 gene. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha%2021464 | The Alpha 21464 is an unfinished microprocessor that implements the Alpha instruction set architecture (ISA) developed by Digital Equipment Corporation and later by Compaq after it acquired Digital. The microprocessor was also known as EV8 (codenamed Araña). Slated for a 2004 release, it was canceled on 25 June 2001 when Compaq announced that Alpha would be phased out in favor of Itanium by 2004. When it was canceled, the Alpha 21464 was at a late stage of development but had not been taped out.
The 21464's origins began in the mid-1990s when computer scientist Joel Emer was inspired by Dean Tullsen's research into simultaneous multithreading (SMT) at the University of Washington. Emer had researched the technology in the late 1990s and began to promote it once he was convinced of its value. Compaq made the announcement that the next Alpha microprocessor would use SMT in October 1999 at Microprocessor Forum 1999. At that time, it was expected that systems using the Alpha 21464 would ship in 2003.
Description
The microprocessor was an eight-issue superscalar design with out-of-order execution, four-way SMT and a deep pipeline. It fetches 16 instructions from a 64 KB two-way set-associative instruction cache. The branch predictor then selected the "good" instructions and entered them into a collapsing buffer. (This allowed for a fetch bandwidth of up to 16 instructions per cycle, depending on the taken branch density.) The front-end had significantly more stages than previous Alpha implementation and as a result, the 21464 had a significant minimum branch misprediction penalty of 14 cycles. The microprocessor used an advanced branch prediction algorithm to minimize these costly penalties.
Implementing SMT required the replication of certain resources such as the program counter. Instead of one program counter, there were four program counters, one for each thread. However, very little logic after the front-end needed to be expanded for SMT support. The register fil |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffer%20P2 | Buffer P2 is a lysis buffer solution produced by Qiagen. It contains 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) (w/v) to puncture holes in cellular membranes, and 200mM NaOH. It is used in conjunction with other resuspension buffers and lysis buffers to release DNA from cells, often as part of the alkaline lysis method of purifying plasmid DNA from bacterial cell culture. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAPZA2 | F-actin-capping protein subunit alpha-2 also known as CapZ-alpha2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CAPZA2 gene.
Structure
CapZ-alpha2 is a 33.0 kDa protein composed of 286 amino acids. CAPZA2 is located on human chromosome 7, position q31.2-q31.3. The primary sequence of CapZ-alpha2 contains three C-terminal, regularly spaced leucines at positions 258, 262 and 266 found in consensus sequence of KxxxLxxE/DLxxALxxK/R that are critical for actin binding; these residues are conserved within the CapZ-beta isoform. CapZ-alpha2 is 85% identical to CapZ-alpha1, and differ by a small number of key amino acids; 21 amino acid differences perpetrate isoform specificity. CapZ-alpha2 is expressed in a variety of tissues, including cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle, where it caps sarcomeric actin at Z-discs; the ratio of CapZ-alpha2 to CapZ-alpha1 varies significantly among different tissues.
Function
CapZ binds the barbed end of actin filaments and prevents addition or loss of actin monomers to filaments. It has also been observed that CapZ functions to organize myofilaments during myofibrillogenesis and is present at Z-discs in muscle prior to the striation of actin filaments, suggesting that CapZ may function to direct the polarity and organization of sarcomeric actin during I-band formation. The function of CapZ-alpha2 may be modulated by the calcium-binding protein S100A in skeletal and cardiac muscle tissues, as crosslinking studies have shown S100A to directly interact with the C-terminal region of CapZ-alpha in the presence of calcium. CapZ appears to regulate intracellular signaling of contractile proteins in cardiac muscle. It has been demonstrated that the presence of CapZ at Z-discs modulates the ability of protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) to dephosphorylate cardiac myofilament proteins, including myosin binding protein C, troponin T and myosin regulatory light chain; likely because extraction of CapZ decreased the amount of myofilament-associated PP1.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C1orf109 | Chromosome 1 open reading frame 109 is a protein in humans that is encoded by the C1orf109 gene.
Clinical significance
This gene may play a role in cancer cell proliferation. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIP-8 | BIP-8 (alternatively, BIP8) is an abbreviation for bit-interleaved parity 8. BIP-8 consists of a parity byte calculated bit-wise across a large number of bytes in a transmission transport frame. BIP-8 bits are set such that the overall data stream, including the BIP-8 byte, has even parity. BIP-8 is used in the SONET/SDH and Optical Transport Network standards, as well as in some older PDH framing schemes such as DS3 and E3.
BIP-8 has no error-correcting functionality: like the CRC-6 bits in the much older extended superframe format, it merely provides an approximate method for monitoring link quality at the bit error level.
See also
Errored second |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-Methyltetrahydropteroyltriglutamate%E2%80%94homocysteine%20S-methyltransferase | In enzymology, a 5-methyltetrahydropteroyltriglutamate—homocysteine S-methyltransferase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
5-methyltetrahydropteroyltri-L-glutamate + L-homocysteine tetrahydropteroyltri-L-glutamate + L-methionine
Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are 5-methyltetrahydropteroyltri-L-glutamate and L-homocysteine, whereas its two products are tetrahydropteroyltri-L-glutamate and L-methionine. This enzyme participates in methionine metabolism. It has 2 cofactors: orthophosphate, and zinc.
Nomenclature
This enzyme belongs to the family of transferases, specifically those transferring one-carbon group methyltransferases. The systematic name of this enzyme class is 5-methyltetrahydropteroyltri-L-glutamate:L-homocysteine S-methyltransferase. Other names in common use include tetrahydropteroyltriglutamate methyltransferase, homocysteine methylase, methyltransferase, tetrahydropteroylglutamate-homocysteine transmethylase, methyltetrahydropteroylpolyglutamate:homocysteine methyltransferase, cobalamin-independent methionine synthase, methionine synthase (cobalamin-independent), and MetE.
Structure
The enzyme from Escherichia coli consists of two alpha8-beta8 (TIM) barrels positioned face to face and thought to have evolved by gene duplication. The active site lies between the tops of the two barrels, the N-terminal barrel binds 5-methyltetrahydropteroyltri-L-glutamic acid and the C-terminal barrel binds homocysteine. Homocysteine is coordinated to a zinc ion, as initially suggested by spectroscopy and mutagenesis . |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical%20text%20mining | Biomedical text mining (including biomedical natural language processing or BioNLP) refers to the methods and study of how text mining may be applied to texts and literature of the biomedical domain. As a field of research, biomedical text mining incorporates ideas from natural language processing, bioinformatics, medical informatics and computational linguistics. The strategies in this field have been applied to the biomedical literature available through services such as PubMed.
In recent years, the scientific literature has shifted to electronic publishing but the volume of information available can be overwhelming. This revolution of publishing has caused a high demand for text mining techniques. Text mining offers information retrieval (IR) and entity recognition (ER). IR allows the retrieval of relevant papers according to the topic of interest, e.g. through PubMed. ER is practiced when certain biological terms are recognized (e.g. proteins or genes) for further processing.
Considerations
Applying text mining approaches to biomedical text requires specific considerations common to the domain.
Availability of annotated text data
Large annotated corpora used in the development and training of general purpose text mining methods (e.g., sets of movie dialogue, product reviews, or Wikipedia article text) are not specific for biomedical language. While they may provide evidence of general text properties such as parts of speech, they rarely contain concepts of interest to biologists or clinicians. Development of new methods to identify features specific to biomedical documents therefore requires assembly of specialized corpora. Resources designed to aid in building new biomedical text mining methods have been developed through the Informatics for Integrating Biology and the Bedside (i2b2) challenges and biomedical informatics researchers. Text mining researchers frequently combine these corpora with the controlled vocabularies and ontologies available through |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIST1H4D | Histone H4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HIST1H4D gene.
Histones are basic nuclear proteins that are responsible for the nucleosome structure of the chromosomal fiber in eukaryotes. Two molecules of each of the four core histones (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) form an octamer, around which approximately 146 bp of DNA is wrapped in repeating units, called nucleosomes. The linker histone, H1, interacts with linker DNA between nucleosomes and functions in the compaction of chromatin into higher order structures. This gene is intronless and encodes a member of the histone H4 family. Transcripts from this gene lack polyA tails but instead contain a palindromic termination element. This gene is found in the large histone gene cluster on chromosome 6. |
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