question stringlengths 3 301 | answer stringlengths 9 26.1k | context list |
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what's going on in my body when it suddenly decides to tell me i'm super hungry? | Basicly, there's a part of your brain, called Hypothalamus, that observes the bloodsugar level in your blood. And when it gets low, it sends out signals to other parts of your brain to find food.
The other way around, it also notices when you eat something, and rewards you with a satisfactory feeling, especially if you are hungry. | [
"There are numerous signals given off that initiate hunger. There are environmental signals, signals from the gastrointestinal system, and metabolic signals that trigger hunger. The environmental signals come from the body’s senses. The feeling of hunger could be triggered by the smell and thought of food, the sigh... |
Why is wireless charging so inefficient? | Because we don't control the way the energy propagates from the source. It just does so according to the rigid laws of EM.
The simplest example of the phenomena is to take a flash light and shine it at a wall up close and notice how intense the illumination is. Then step back a few feet and watch how quickly it dulls out.
The energy transmitted via wireless charging scales by 1/r^(4). So if you double the distance between the charger and the chargee then you witness the power transmitted drop to 1/16th of the former amount. There are ways to make this better, but we're talking by small percentages. We can't avoid this effect as a whole. | [
"Wireless charging is making an impact in the medical sector by means of being able to charge implants and sensors long term that are located beneath the skin. Researchers have been able to print wireless power transmitting antenna on flexible materials that could be placed under the skin of patients. This could me... |
why do we elevate a sprained ankle? isn't blood good for it? why should we be draining it away from the injury (if that's the point)? | Blood is good for it, but the amount of blood that causes the swelling isn't. Too much blood can put undue pressure on the injury, which can slow the healing process. Combined with the fact that modern medicine has stuff we can take to help the process along, and the excess of blood isn't necessary in the least, and having it elevated allows it to rest, which is most important. | [
"In cases where the ankle does not heal in an appropriate amount of time, other exercises need to be implemented so that strength and flexibility can be regained. Physical therapists assign different types of ankle sprain exercises that deal with ankle flexibility, strengthening, balance, and agility. If an ankle s... |
Why did the Pope move to Avignon? | ‘Ubi papa, ibi roma (Rome is where the Pope is)’: This is a famous quote from the word of one of the Avignon Popes, Urban V (r. 1362-70). Nevertheless, this passage can actually imply several aspects of the Papacy during this period as well as its pre-history, not only the famous representation of notorious ‘Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy,’ roughly based on the discontent of the contemporary Italians. Especially French researchers have revaluated the institutionalization of the central organization as well as the popes themselves in Avignon for long since WWII, but this trend of research apparently does not be shared out of medievalists, as rather classical evaluation by Reinhardt, specialized in Early Modern Papacy, shows (Reinhardt 2017: 389-432, esp. 389-94). I summarize some backgrounds of the topic below:
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The relationship between the Pope and Rome had been regarded as ‘troublesome often’ since the late 11th century. To give an example, the Roman ‘Senate’, in fact a newly established city commune of Rome in 1143, sometimes opposed the popes in 12th century and forced them to conclude and renew a settlement on the city governance. Several popes in the 13th century used to stay away from Rome during summer, and instead resided in some cities like Orvieto or Viterbo in the Papal States. In other words, short to middle term absence of the Popes from Rome had been no longer regarded as exceptional by the 13th century.
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This problematic relationship worsened further in course of the 13th century: The rising Roman aristocratic families like the Caetani, the Colonna, and the Orsini earnestly advanced into the college of the Cardinals, electoral body of the new pope. The power struggle among these noble families also affect the factional division within the cardinals. Even within the same family, some cardinals in fact sometimes opposed each other. The advancement of the Southern Frenchmen into the cardinals, and into the seat of the Pope like Clement IV further complicated these power struggles already in the late 13th century. Thus, the Frenchmen came into the scene of Papal policy before the Avignon Papacy period.
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This partly owed the political situation of the time: the popes at first allied with the family of Anjou in France to suppress the Hohenstaufens, son of former Emperor Frederick II (d. 1250). Soon, however, Charles of Anjou (d. 1285), younger brother of King Louis IX of France (d. 1270) and now king of Naples, freed the control from the Papacy and acted as he liked. He and his successor also tried to intervene the papal election. And at last, the factional conflicts in the Northern Italian cities, the Guelphs and the Ghibellines became also problematic during this period; While the former can be also tagged as ‘pro-papal factions,’ the ongoing factional power struggle within the cardinals also affected this conflict in the cities so that the whole faction could get in step each other. In short, no one could control these highly complicated circumstances in Italy at that time. This political chaos in Italy indeed culminated in the pontificates of ‘Angel Pope’ Celestine V (r. 1294) and notorious Boniface VIII of the Caetani (r. 1295-1303).
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The conclave in 1305 must have been divided in ex-Boniface and pro-French factions: The new Pope, Clement V (r. 1305-1314) was, so to speak, everybody’s friend, or the least disliked to everyone. He was ex-archbishop of Bordeaux, Bertrand de Got, brother of Cardinal Béraud. Contrary to general assumption, Clement-Bertrand was not just a political pawn of the king of France, Phillip IV the Fair. Bordeaux around 1300 was a kind of enclave in the kingdom, governed by the king of England (as a French aristocrat). Clement indeed kept in good contact in good contact both with Phillip the Fair and King Edward I of England, though these two kings had just begun to oppose each other over the former’s jurisdiction of the former to Gascony, the latter’s fief, since 1294. Thus, the new pope had been set in very difficult political positions, not only in Italy, but also in France from the beginning. He prioritized the urgent circumstances of France to the more difficult ones in Italy.
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Rollo-Koster also argues, however, that Clement had in fact another, more important concern for all the Latin Christendom: the revival of the Crusade in the Levant, where the last Christian foothold had been recently lost to the hands of the Saracens (Rollo-Koster 2015: 34). It is true that he made many concessions to Phillip the Fair of France, but it was not just because of his origin, but rather to achieve this political goal, by allying every powerful ruler as much as he could. From this point of view, he dared to sacrifice old and not so convenient Templers for buying support from a king of France, arguably the most powerful ruler at that time in Medieval West.
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In a sense, the location of Avignon itself was convenient to almost everyone as the new Pope Clement himself was, certainly except for the Italians. While nominally in Holy Roman Empire, Avignon was on the crossroads and easily accessible to Bordeaux (his homeland as well as the power base of king of England), the kingdom of France, and further, to Iberian Peninsula. Above all it was free from the power struggles among the Roman aristocratic families as well as hot summer that sometimes forced the popes to stay away from Rome. Clement is also famous.....rather notorious for his preference of recruiting his fellow Frenchmen. We can interpret this papal personnel policy as a sign of his wish to control the power struggle within the cardinals by eliminating the possible Italian factional influence as much as possible (Rollo-Koster 2015: 34f.) In this city, the pope could build more stable, permanent administrative institutions supervising all over the Latin Christendom rather easily than Rome (Schimmelpfennig 1992: 199-204).
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Selected References:
* Reinhardt, Volker. *Pontifex: Der Geschchte der Päpst von Petrus bis Franziskus*. Munich: C. H. Beck, 2017.
* Rollo-Koster, Joëlle. *Avignon and its Papacy, 1309-1417: Popes, Institutions, and Society*. Lanham: Rowan & Littlefield, 2015.
* Schimmelpfennig, Bernhard / James Sievett (trans.). *The Papacy*. New York: Columbia UP, 1992. [Original: *Das Papsttum von der Antike bis zur Renaissance*. 6th ed. Darmstadt: WBG, 2009.]
[Edited]: fixes paragraph layout and typos. | [
"The Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven successive popes resided in Avignon (then in the Kingdom of Arles, part of the Holy Roman Empire, now in France) rather than in Rome. The situation arose from the conflict between the papacy and the French crown, culminating in the death of Pop... |
How did soldiers in WW1 stay so motivated? | * [What was the motivation for the continuation of the bloody back and forth fighting of WW1 on the Western Front? Why couldn't they just stay in the trenches and just defend rather than attack again and again?] (_URL_6_)
* [How did soldiers, generals, politicians, etc. cope with the carnage of the First World War?] (_URL_2_)
* [With the outbreak of WWI, what caused the stakes of losing the war to become so incredibly high?] (_URL_3_)
* [What was the psychological impact of putting a man in a WW1 trench?] (_URL_5_)
* [What were conditions like in trenches on the Western Front?] (_URL_4_)
* [Given the nationalistic fervour at the beginning of WWI, how many men were 'expected' to die?] (_URL_7_)
* [What was the public reaction to casualties on the Western Front?] (_URL_0_)
^ These answers I've given previously should be pertinent!
> I know there has been mutinies, but most of the time, conscripts were pretty much loyal to their superiors.
Not everyone that fought in WWI was a conscript. Large numbers of professional soldiers and reservists made up the armies of the Great Powers at the outset, and many thousands volunteered. In the case of Britain, of the 5 million soldiers that served in the army during the war 500 000 were regulars and reservists, 2.2 million were volunteers (200 000 volunteering **after** Conscription was introduced), 800 000 were compelled by the Derby Plan in 1915 but at least were allowed a choice of unit and of when to enlist, and the other 1.5 million were conscripts. Though all the other European powers had conscription, it would be wrong to assume that some would not otherwise be willing to serve.
> Considering the horrible conditions of war and extreme likelihood of death or permanent injury, how didn't people uprise against their states in mass numbers to end this war about dying nothing? What would they even be able to do if your whole army turns against you? At least WW2 had a lot of ideological indoctrination and brainwashing, but nationalism in WW1 can't be that strong.
Your problem here seems to be the assumption that the powers were fighting for nothing. The British were hardly fighting for nothing, having gone to war to aid the Belgians and prevent German dominance of the continent. The French Army fought to defend France, and expelling the Germans was imperative considering that the occupied most of France's mines and a considerable amount of it's heavy industry, in addition to millions of French civilians. Belgium and Serbia go without saying, both countries being occupied and subjected to brutal regimes. The Central Powers could argue, with quite some justification, that they were in a war for their survival, the German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires being surrounded by powers that had displayed ambivalence and hostility towards them in the past, even if the fears of 'encirclement' before the war were greatly overblown. Even the Russians could justify their war effort in helping fellow Slavs/Eastern Christians (ex. Serbs, Armenians) escape Germanic and Ottoman rule and to assist their western Allies, while after 1915 they were also fighting a broadly defensive struggle in Europe.
As for horrible conditions, yes, depending on where you served they could indeed be ghastly and demoralizing. At the same time, the Armies on the Western Front at least kept up a fairly consistent rotation that allowed battalions time out of the firing line, while the positions of the German defenders in the West could be quite homely due to their defensive stance. And armies did face serious problems; Russian morale finally caved-in in autumn 1917, the Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian armies surrendered in September-October the next year, and the Germans and Ottomans that November. All the same, comradeship, unit loyalty, and belief in the national cause were all essential parts of morale and motivation, as well as an often strong feeling of indebtedness to the 'sacrifices' of the dead. Ideology may have been more overt in WWII, but even here it was not a necessity for combat motivation. Felix Roemer's examination of prisoner interrogations and recorded conversations in POW camps in the US, as well as the research into the German home front in WWII done by Nicholas Stargardt, both indicate that strict adherence to Nazi ideology was not the norm, and that traditional German nationalism combined with Hitler's cult of personality were more common. It also didn't take being ideologically indoctrinated in Nazi racial policy to commit war crimes, as Christopher Browning's famous work *Ordinary Men* showed. In the same way, it didn't take ardent nationalism to believe in the necessity of defending one's homeland during WWI, though Pan-Slav and *Drang nach Osten* sympathies were certainly present among some combatants on the Eastern Front.
> Also WW2 warfare was not "certain death" like trench warfare of WW1, you could always survive if you were a good soldier and lucky. But I can't wrap my head around the psychology and mentality of a WW1 soldier.
Nor was WWI "certain death," although casualties could be and were often very high in both wars. In fact, casualty rates were far higher in the mobile fighting on the Eastern Front in 1915-16 than on the Western Front at the same time, while casualties in 1914 and 1917-18 in the West outnumbered those of trench warfare in the west in 1915-16. As I demonstrate in [this] (_URL_1_) answer, the Western Front of WWII was far from a picnic, while the Eastern Front of WWII outdid any of the fighting in WWI or WWII for brutality, intensity, and shear loss of human life (combatants and non-combatants alike). If you were a good soldier and lucky, you could certainly survive both wars, and the similarities of the frontline experience and of combat motivation in both wars far outweigh the differences, at least in my opinion.
If you want further reading, *Enduring the Great War* by Alexander Watson and *The Sharp End* by John Ellis are good places to start. | [
"After World War II, countless veterans came back to America and many of them had a difficult time readjusting to civilian life. They searched for the adventure and adrenaline rush associated with life at war that had now left them. Civilian life felt too monotonous for some men who also craved feelings of exciteme... |
is there an evolutionary reason people think "the good old days" were better? | there are hundreds of studies in this area. as a whole it comes down to one thing, change. change is not received well by humans because change takes us out of our comfort zones. this can give the feeling of uncertainly and ultimately causes a primal response. a good thing to look at in the 'change curve'. this is the process everyone goes through for every change. generally small changes progress along the curve quicker than large changes and different people take different amounts of time to move along the curve. Large employers have trained HR staff to improve the speed of individuals means of coping with a change in their employment. | [
"Good old days is a cliché in popular culture. It is used to reference a time considered by the speaker to be better than the current era. It is a form of nostalgia which can reflect homesickness or yearning for long-gone moments.\n",
"Another of Easterbrook's books, focusing on social science, is \"The Progress ... |
how did banks greatly contribute/ cause to the great recession in the 2000’s? | They made a lot of very bad lending decisions. They gave people money in exchange for pieces of paper saying they will get paid back. The people they gave money to a lot of times weren’t going to be able to pay it back, but the banks still gave them the money. Then, they sold all of their pieces of paper to their bank friend. The other bank then took all the pieces of paper and turned them into a super package of papers and sold pieces of the super package to their bank friends.
When the people couldn’t pay the money back, all of the super pieces of paper were worth nothing. | [
"The recession came at a particularly bad time for banks because of a recent wave of deregulation. The Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980 had phased out a number of restrictions on their financial practices, broadened their lending powers, and raised the deposit insurance limit fr... |
What were the major problems which held back the development of
the French economy in the late 1700s?
| It's important to note geographical bad luck meant it lacked the plentiful and easily accessible coal, iron,etc that allowed Britain to industrialise. It then entered the Eden Treaty with Britain which lowered import duties on British manufactured goods and as a result was swamped with cheap British goods placing strain on their own underdeveloped manufacturing base. | [
"French economic history since its late-18th century Revolution was tied to three major events and trends: the Napoleonic Era, the competition with Britain and its other neighbors in regards to 'industrialization', and the 'total wars' of the late-19th and early 20th centuries. Quantitative analysis of output data ... |
why do some diseases kill so quickly? wouldn’t it be more advantageous to be super slow and stealthy so you can get the biggest bang for your buck out of your host? | The majority of those diseases - often called plagues - are not natural to humans. They're diseases that have jumped the species gap from some other species to humans.
What's the equivalent of a cold to an animal may be far more lethal to the biology of a human. As such they didn't evolve for humans and don't exhibit the kind of behaviour you'd expect of something that wants to survive.
Aside, and this comes up often, but "best bang for buck" isn't the goal of evolution. Evolution is only about surviving and procreating. A disease that only lasts a week, but has an excellent chance of infecting additional people during that week, is just fine from a "propagation of the disease" standpoint. | [
"Generally, if a virus kills its host too quickly, the host will not have a chance to come in contact with other hosts and transmit the virus before dying. However, in serial passage, when a virus was being transmitted from host to host regardless of its virulence, such as Subbaro’s experiment, the viruses that gro... |
how does a long exposure picture (10 plus hours) of other galaxies work when the earth in constantly spinning? | Normally the telescope/camera is attached to a motorised tracking device/"tripod" which ensures the object being photographed remains in the centre of the image. | [
"When light from a star or another astronomical object enters the Earth's atmosphere, atmospheric turbulence (introduced, for example, by different temperature layers and different wind speeds interacting) can distort and move the image in various ways (see astronomical seeing for a full discussion). Visual images ... |
Why does Zinc only rust on the outer layer while iron rust all the way through? | The product of the corrosion (zinc oxide) forms a protective layer preventing further oxidation of the zinc, whereas the iron oxides which are a result of iron rusting are fragile and flaky and don't form a protective layer. | [
"friable, and it provides no protection to the underlying iron, unlike the formation of patina on copper surfaces. Rusting is the common term for corrosion of iron and its alloys, such as steel. Many other metals undergo similar corrosion, but the resulting oxides are not commonly called rust.\n",
"Though usually... |
why is it that butterflies don't need to learn how to fly ? | They are little pre-programmed organic machines. Just as spiders don’t have to learn how to weave a web, and crickets don’t have to learn to chirp.
Lower level insects are reacting to stimuli and running their software loops (with an ultimate goal / focus on successful reproduction). | [
"Butterflies without defences such as toxins or mimicry protect themselves through a flight that is more bumpy and unpredictable than in other species. It is assumed this behavior makes it more difficult for predators to catch them, and is caused by the turbulence created by the small whirlpools formed by the wings... |
What would the uniform of a British officer in the North American frontier have looked like between 1750-say 1800? | Officers uniforms are substantially more difficult to generalize than that of the men under their command- By virtue of the fact that officers had their uniforms privately tailored and not issued *en masse*- The first document regulating officers' dress was issued in 1768 (which we will come to later).
Having said that- An officer's uniform of the Seven Years war consisted of a somewhat voluminous scarlet coat with deep, slashed, cuffs and wide lapels. Cords on the right shoulder indicated rank. Beneath the coat was worn a waistcoat, either in scarlet or the facing color of the regiment.
His accoutrements included a gorget (either gold or silver depending on the color of lace worn by the regiment), a red sash draped across either the left or right shoulder, and a sword belt worn beneath the waistcoat.
His breeches were either of red or blue, the latter being worn by Royal Regiments. Legwear was either white gaiters (usually restricted to parade use), spatterdashes, or boots.
Headgear consisted of a tricorne hat, laced in gold or silver, for battalion companies, with a black Hanoverian cockade. Grenadiers wore a distinguishing high mitre cap. Light infantryman, raised for service in North America, wore small leather caps with turned up peaks and a rear flap to protect the ears and back of the neck- Though they initially improvised by removing the brims of their tricorne caps.
[Lt-Col. Francis Smith, 10th Regiment, c. 1764](_URL_12_)
[Colonel Alexander Campbell, 1763](_URL_11_)
[Captain William Baille, unknown date](_URL_0_)
[Robert Clive at Plassey, 1757](_URL_15_)
[Battalion Officer](_URL_7_) from David Morier's *The Battle of Culloden*, 1746
[Captain Robert Orme, Coldstream Guards and aide-de-camp to General Braddock, 1756](_URL_2_), note the buff riding breeches- worn with riding boots- and similarly colored waist-coat.
From 1768, uniforms assumed a tighter and generally neater appearance. The coat itself assumed a distinctive tail-coat look, known as a coatee. This garment would serve as the full-dress uniform of British soldiers, albeit with many modifications, until 1855. Coat cuffs were small and circular in shape, lined with buttons and laced in the regimental pattern. Lapels were in the facing color, with buttons edged in gold or silver. Tails hung in the rear, lined white, with skirts permanently hooked back. Coat tails were cut short for light infantry. Collars, now present in the uniform, were turned down. The coat cut away to reveal the waist-coat, now plain white (or buff for certain regiments, red for light infantry).
Accoutrements remained broadly similar, though a new form of rank distinction came into use with the 1768 warrant. Epaulettes- either in gold or silver- were worn on the right shoulder for battalion company officers, on both for Grenadiers and Light Infantry. Majors and above wore epaulettes on both shoulders. The sash was now removed to the waist. The gorget remained in use. The sword belt was worn on the right shoulder, over the coat on-duty, under the coat off-duty.
Breeches, like the waistcoats, were now white. Over these were worn black leather boots or high-topped black gaiters- though officers in North America often replaced these with shoes and half-gaiters, as seen in the portrait of the officer of the 4th regiment below.
The tricorne hat of the battalion companies had its fore gradually pushed up, to the point where it assumed a more bicorne shape. Grenadiers shed their cloth mitres for imposing bearskin caps. Light infantry, reintroduced to the service in 1771, wore a variety of small caps.
[Lieutenant Robert Hamilton-Buchanan](_URL_16_) in a Grenadier's Uniform
[Lieutenant Colonel Sir Charles Stuart, 1779](_URL_18_)
[Lady Louisa Lennox and various officers of the 25th Regiment in Minorca, 1769-1771](_URL_9_)
[Officer of the 4th Regiment of Foot, 1780](_URL_14_)
[Center Company Officer, Royal Welch Fusiliers](_URL_1_) showing the Hanoverian cockade in marvelous detail.
[Captain John Hayes St Leger, 1778](_URL_8_)
[Captain Thomas Hewitt, 10th Regiment of Foot](_URL_5_) showing the light infantry's red waistcoat.
In 1797, the coat was fastened to the waist. The coat could now be worn in three ways- fastened up the center with hooks and eyes revealing broad lapels in the facing color, or buttoned over- hiding the lapels and assuming a double-breasted look. It was also common to see the top lapels unbuttoned, revealing a part of the facing color. By this point, the cocked hat had assumed an entirely bicorne shape, and was frequently worn 'fore-and-aft'. This uniform persisted until 1812.
[Captain John Clayton Cowell, 1st Regiment of Foot, 1796 ](_URL_3_)
[Officer of the 56th Foot, 1799](_URL_13_)
[Colonel Fitch and Sisters, 1800-1801 by John Singleton Copley](_URL_6_)
[Captain Charles Davy, 29th Regiment, 1800-1811](_URL_4_)- showing a coat with the top lapel unbuttoned.
[Major James Dunsmore, 1804](_URL_10_)
[Mounted Officer, 1804](_URL_17_)
***
That's regulation dress- What might actually be worn in the field, especially somewhere as far afield as North America, is a different matter entirely.
Some of the earliest adoptions to the terrain faced in North America were seen during the Seven Years War- Earl Howe, one of the early proponents of light infantry tactics, ordered his men "to cut the Brims of their Hats off; no Person, Officer or Private, be allowed to carry more than one blanket and a Bearskin, no Sash or Sword, nor even Lace... the Regulars have left off the their proper Regimentals, that is, the have cut their Coats so as scarcely to reach their Waist... every Officer to carry his own Pack, Provisions." (quoted in Barthorp, pg. 40)
During the American Revolution, there were frequent campaign adaptions- Though very little visual evidence exists to determine just what officers looked like. Officers of Burgoyne's Army at Saratoga, for example, wore single-breasted jackets, worn with breeches and slouch hats. In the winter, soldiers might wear a sheepskin-lined Canadian overcoat or *Capot*.
For more information on the subject of the dress of the British Army in North America, you might want to check out the Osprey Publishing Titles *The British Army in North America 1775-83* and *British Forces in North America 1793-1815*
***
Sources:
* Barthorp, Michael. *British Infantry Uniforms since 1660* (Blandford, 1982)
* Franklin, C.E. *British Napoleonic Uniforms* (History Press, 2008)
* Mollo, John. *Uniforms of the American Revolution* (Blandford, 1975) | [
"Throughout most of the 18th century the regiment's coat was white (originally the grey-white of non-dyed wool), with a blue waistcoat underneath, without turnbacks or a collar, and with pewter buttons. Facings were red (on the cuffs only). Canadian troops wore the same, except with a red waistcoat. Both fusiliers ... |
how should i interpret the new finding "processed meat has been linked to an 18% increased risk for colon cancer"? | According to BBC, it's the latter:
> In the UK, around **six out of every 100** people get bowel cancer at some point in their lives.
If they were all had an extra 50g of bacon a day for the rest of their lives then **the risk would increase by 18% to around seven in 100** people getting bowel cancer.
"So that's one extra case of bowel cancer in all those 100 lifetime bacon-eaters," argued Sir David Spiegelhalter, a risk professor from the University of Cambridge.
| [
"In May 2009, the report was criticised by University College London pharmacologist David Colquhoun on his blog Improbable Science. Colquhoun questioned the Expert Panel's conclusion that there is convincing evidence that processed meat is a cause of cancer, claiming that although the studies mentioned in the repor... |
why spanking your children is becoming less accepted by society. | It's illegal to beat anyone, why would it be legal to beat your child?
Also it's a bad tool to actually instruct your child with. Think about it like this, 2 children join their parents for a birthday party. Both kids misbehave, so the parents of kid A spanks him, but parents of kid B explains to him why what he did was wrong and that he wouldn't want others to behave like that to him.
Next time both kids behave. But here is the thing, once the kids are no longer with the parents kid B still behaves good, as he have actually learned why he should behave. While kid A that only behaved so his parents wouldn't hurt him, why would he keep behaving when the threat of his parents is no longer around? | [
"According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, \"The only way to maintain the initial effect of spanking is to systematically increase the intensity with which it is delivered, which can quickly escalate into abuse\". They note that \"Parents who spank their children are more likely to use other unacceptable for... |
How were teen pop idols such as Elvis Presley or The Beatles perceived among male teens? | Apparently the French boys loved the Beatles even more than the girls did.
> Ringo recalled, “These boys chased us all over Paris. Before, we'd been more used to girls. The audience was a roar instead of a scream; it was a bit like when we played Stowe boys' school.”
[George wasn't very enthused about that though, recounting their Parisian tour in 1964](_URL_0_)
> “The French audience was dreadful. We had visions of all these French girls, ‘Ooh La La’, and all that, but the audience, at least on the opening night, was all tuxedoed elderly people and a bunch of slightly gay looking boys were hanging round the stage door shouting ‘Ringo, Ringo!’ and chasing our car. We didn’t see any of the Brigitte Bardot’s that we were expecting.” | [
"Likewise, Tommy Steele, the Beatles with Beatlemania, the Rolling Stones, and The Beach Boys were teen idols, especially during the earlier part of their careers, although they quickly grew out of that status. The Rolling Stones did it through a more rebellious image, the Beatles did it through their more develope... |
Pre-settlement North America for dummies. | If you're interested in the Amerindians (natives of both North and South America, sans Inuits and a few others) rather than strictly North America, then I'd recommend Charles C. Mann's "1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus".
It's popular history and a tertiary source, but unlike many such books, it's generally thought highly of in this subreddit. Search in this sub on "1491" and you'll see. I'm not an historian myself, and I found it a great overview. There's probably nothing new to historian's who specialize in this area, but it's a good introduction. According to the reviews here, there are only a few questionable claims.
Mann says that he wrote the book because much research in this area over the last few decades hasn't found its way into school curricula or popular history yet. For example, the fact that the landscape that the first Europeans found was often anything but natural, with many aspects of it purposely modified by the Indians. An example is that in Eastern North America the Indians frequently set fires that burned out the underbrush in the forest, because it increased the amount of their favorite game (e.g. deer). It also discusses the controversy over the population of the pre-Columbian Americas. I could name other things that were a surprise to me, but you get the point. | [
"One of the first locales to appear on maps of North America, listed as \"Haverstroo\", which means \"oat straw\". It was common for the Lenape to use straw thatch for roofs on their dwellings, or wigwams.\n",
"Although many species of caviomorphs have migrated into Central America since the Great American Interc... |
game engines | A game engine is nothing more than a bunch of code/software that handles the "hard" parts of making a game work so that the developers can focus on creating gameplay and content.
Some things that a game engine may do:
* Read and write graphics files (3D models, textures, sprites, etc.) and display them on the screen
* Automate graphical special effects (animations, rotations, lens flare, etc.)
* Track objects in the game world
* Detect collision between objects
* Provide information about frame rates, performance, and so on
* Control maximum and minimum frame rates
* Scale graphics to different screen sizes
* Detect, report, and record input from keyboard, mouse, joystick, controller, mic, or other input device
Not all game engines have the same features. However, they all provide ways that a programmer may interact with the features of the game engine, usually through code libraries containing functions, methods, classes, and event handlers.
Is that clear enough or do I need to elaborate or clarify anything? | [
"A game engine is a software-development environment designed for people to build video games. Developers use game engines to construct games for consoles, mobile devices, and personal computers. The core functionality typically provided by a game engine includes a rendering engine (\"renderer\") for 2D or 3D graph... |
Why did Iberian colonization typically involve interbreeding with/integrating the natives, while British colonization typically involved displacing natives? | While someone else with deeper knowledge on this issue comes, I can answer one of your questions:
> Was there less stigma on having children with the native people in Spanish colonies?
We have to distinguish between *actual* marriages between Spaniards and natives and other forms of producing mixed children (largely rape). In the case of actual marriages, they usually involved the natives who had converted, either by choice or force, to Catholicism. Those who had adopted Catholicism and Spanish culture were called *gente de razón* ("people of reason"), and those that had not were simply considered uncultured or simply savages, and of course they were stigmatised.
It is very important to clarify that these interracial marriages and especially the children that came out of it were certainly not stigma-free. The Spanish Empire developed a very complex racial classification system called [Casta](_URL_0_), which gave different categories to children born to parents of different races. You had different rights and could face more or less racism (which was very prevalent in the Spanish empire) depending on which category you were placed.
The Casta system is very complex and it includes all possible racial combinations, and you have to think of it as a racial pyramid, with the most privileged classes at the top. At the top obviously were the Spaniards themselves, divided into two categories: the peninsulars (born in Spain) and the criollos (born in the Americas to peninsular parents). Despite being racially European, criollos were excluded from high-level positions in the government, just for the fact of them being born in the Americas. So you can imagine that the lowest you get in the Casta system, the worse off you are. | [
"As colonialism often played out in pre-populated areas, sociocultural evolution included the formation of various ethnically hybrid populations. Colonialism gave rise to culturally and ethnically mixed populations such as the mestizos of the Americas, as well as racially divided populations such as those found in ... |
Why doesn't atoms nuclei collapse? | > The question I'm asking is, if the strong nuclear force is that much stronger than the electromagnetic force at the distances of a atom nucleus, why does it have a radius?
It's the same thing as will the atom. Nucleons occupy discrete orbitals within the nucleus. | [
"Ordinarily, atoms are mostly electron clouds by volume, with very compact nuclei at the center (proportionally, if atoms were the size of a football stadium, their nuclei would be the size of dust mites). When a stellar core collapses, the pressure causes electrons and protons to fuse by electron capture. Without ... |
the restoring internet freedom act | Restoring Internet Freedom Act. This bill nullifies the rule adopted by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on February 26, 2015, relating to the reclassification of broadband Internet access service as a telecommunications service.
_URL_0_
_URL_1_ | [
"On January 4, 2018, the current version of \"Restoring Internet freedom\" was made public, and was officially codified in the Federal Register on February 22, 2018, with the rules taking effect on June 11, 2018.\n",
"The Freedom of Internet Act (formerly Free Internet Act) is an act aimed to legislate the Intern... |
Can satellites be in geostationary orbit at places other than the equator? Assuming it was feasible, could you have a space elevator hovering above NYC? | Hi! I work on the geostationary satellites for NOAA. Since you said you know very little about physics, here's a quick primer on orbits.
Orbits occur when an object is falling sideways fast enough to "miss" the Earth. This might be hard to imagine, so imagine throwing a baseball. The baseball goes up and down, but moves sideways as well. The harder you throw it, the farther it goes. If you threw it hard enough (in a vacuum), it would miss the Earth and keep falling forever.
Now, because gravity is exerted from the centers of mass (but the CoM of our satellite is relatively negligible), any orbit you travel in has to have the center of the Earth in its plane. This means you can't have a "halo" orbit over the North pole, or off to the sides of the Earth. In practical terms, we can say *any* orbit must cross the plane of the Equator at some point.
So, as this relates to your question. A "geostationary" orbit is a geosynchonous orbit (one full orbit is one Earth day) that is in line with the equator. Since this matches the Earth's rotation,, you're always over the same location. Now imagine tilting the orbit so it was inclined. You still orbit in one day, but you are moving North and South as you pass the Ascending Node and Descending Node (The points where you cross the equator). Thus, your ground track is a figure-eight pattern, with the neck centered on the Equator.
So, to answer the second part of your question, no, you couldn't have a space elevator over NYC. That would be in an orbit that doesn't cross the equator, which is not possible. Geostationary satellites (and, by extension, space elevators) are only possible at near-zero latitude.
Let me know if you have any other questions! | [
"A disadvantage of geostationary satellites is the incomplete geographical coverage, since ground stations at higher than roughly 60 degrees latitude have difficulty reliably receiving signals at low elevations. Satellite dishes at such high latitudes would need to be pointed almost directly towards the horizon. Th... |
how do ocean creatures survive such great depths, 2500m plus while even our steel submarines are completely crushed? | Because organic creatures (including humans) are mostly made of water, and water can't compress.
Submarines have a pressure hull which encloses an air-filled space. The strength required to resist the pressure at extreme deeps is extraordinarily high. But we have sent crewed vehicles to the bottom of the deepest ocean. It is possible to make a pressure hull that can withstand those forces. | [
"At great depths, food scarcity and extreme pressure limits the ability of fish to survive. The deepest point of the ocean is about 11,000 metres. Bathypelagic fishes are not normally found below 3,000 metres. It may be that extreme pressures interfere with essential enzyme functions.\n",
"The deep trenches or fi... |
why do different items usually have the same shipping price even if they're completely different in size, weight, shape, etc? | One reason is that the shipping company has price ranges to simplify billing.
A small box that weighs next to nothing costs the same to ship as a box sized exactly the same but containing four books.
If you look at the price ranges of shipping companies it usually says something like this:
Size 1: not larger than AxBxC inches & not heavier than D ounce.
And then they define size ranges. Your package costs as the first category it fits.
Then, to simplify things further Amazon (or any other large retailer) goes I the shipping company and says “hey, we want to offer you the possibility of having five million packages of ours shipped yearly. We want them flat rate. Here is our statistics on the size and weight of all packages sent the last five years. What’s your offer?”
| [
"Many markets for commonly used goods feature products which are perfectly substitutable yet are differently branded and marketed, a condition referred to as monopolistic competition. A good example may be the comparison between store brand and name brand versions of medications - the products may be \"identical\" ... |
Why doesn't Raoult's Law depend on the chemical nature of solute? | I think the issue here is it is not actually a "Law", it only holds in the case of weak interactions. [Real solutions can deviate from these laws.](_URL_0_) | [
"Raoult's law was originally discovered as an idealised experimental law. Using Raoult's law as the definition of an ideal solution, it is possible to deduce that the chemical potential of each component of the liquid is given by\n",
"Henry's law has been shown to apply to a wide range of solutes in the limit of ... |
why is it that you hear about so many new amazing materials / inventions but you rarely see them being used or sold? | A lot of the time these inventions or new “breakthroughs” are sensationalized before they ever even get adequate testing. It’s not uncommon for articles to report on something and make it sound like it’s amazing when in reality scientists/organizations haven’t even tested the stuff enough to definitively say whether or not it’s actually useful/not dangerous/worth anyone’s time. These studies unfortunately often take a lot of time (years) because they must be thoroughly tested to make sure they are safe for the general public/whoever would be using them and to also make sure that they actually work well.
Edit: So to sum it up, the product must be tested before it’s able to be put on the market for sale. | [
"New materials are continuously developed to address the extreme demands of market segments such as petrochemical and aerospace. Metallurgical advances have produced a wide range of high-performance materials (e.g. titanium and high-nickel alloys), but a consequence of their attractive properties is often that they... |
why does stroking (many times) my disposable razor over denim/jeans make it sharpen again? | There are three possibilities:
1) The effect is purely psychological.
2) Rubbing it on your jeans is cleaning out little bits of hair, skin and soap that were clogging it.
3) You are stropping it.
If a blade (either a razor or a knife) is made of good steel, then it will actually retain a sharp edge for quite some time. But because the metal is very thin near that edge, it will kind of "fold over" with use. Stropping or honing pushes the edge back into place. Barbers who use straight razors use a stiff leather strop, in the kitchen, you use a "steel."
You should hone a decent kitchen knife every time before you use it, and it's important to understand that honing is ABSOLUTELY NOT sharpening. Sharpening actually grinds metal away, honing just pushes it back into place. Although this is Knife 101, a certain loudmouthed vulgarian TV chef [apparently does not know the difference between honing and sharpening.](_URL_0_) | [
"A razor strop (or razor strap) is a flexible strip of leather, canvas, denim fabric, balsa wood, or other soft material, used to straighten and polish the blade of a straight razor, a knife, or a woodworking tool like a chisel. In many cases stropping re-aligns parts of the blade edge that have been bent out of al... |
why does a pitch that is slightly flat sound better than one that is slightly sharp? | I think that may be your opinion because flat sounds way worse to me than sharp. Can't say for sure though | [
"If the lower pitch is sharp or the upper pitch is flat, the interval may be said to be flat given that as a whole it is too narrow; while if the lower pitch is flat or the upper pitch is sharp, the interval may be said to be sharp given that as a whole it is too wide. Intervals are conventionally measured from the... |
why is titanium flammable? | This is not really something special about titanium.
Many materials have pretty much the same thing going on.
Metals like titanium can oxidize. When that happens to iron we call it rust. With most metal objects they automatically form a thin layer of oxidized material on the surface. If you scratch that layer you expose the unoxidized metal which on contact with oxygen oxidizes.
The problem comes when the protective layer can not form quickly enough.
If you create lots of metal shavings you end up with a really big amount of surface area per mass of metal and all that surface area is exposed to oxygen in the air. A single spark under this circumstances can set it all aflame and lead to a small (or not so small) explosion.
This can also happen with materials that aren't metal but are at least somewhat flammable. Wood dust can explode too.
A famous example of stuff becoming explosive when turned into powder/shavings/mist are grain silos which can explode in much the same way. | [
"Titanium is often used in medical and military applications because of its strength, weight, and corrosion resistance characteristics. In implantable medical devices, titanium is used because of its biocompatibility and its passive, stable oxide layer. Also, titanium allergies are rare and in those cases mitigatio... |
why do hackers want to use linux os even though it's easier to use windows or mac os? | Once they get through the learning curve it is easier to use linux. Besides, linux is free. The other two will cost eventually. | [
"The greatest barrier to Linux desktop adoption is probably that few desktop PCs come with it from the factory. A.Y. Siu asserted in 2006 that most people use Windows simply because most PCs come with Windows pre-installed; they didn't choose it. Linux has much lower market penetration because in most cases users h... |
How did some ancient sites survive as tourist sites? | Mostly because they were given another use.
For example, the pantheon in Rome was made into a Christian church and the Parthenon in Athens had various uses over the centuries, including as ammunition storage by the Ottoman Empire, which led to part of it exploding.
The Colloseum is an interesting one. It was left derelict for a very long time and I seem to remember it being filled with water at one point. The sculptor Cellini writing in the late 1500s describes it as a mystical place where people would go to summon the spirits of the dead. So it obviously had a special meaning to people.
| [
"The tourist development observed is mainly attributable to the promotion of important archaeological sites, such as the Palace of Nestor, Ancient Messene, and the Venetian castles of Pylos, Koroni, Methoni and Kalamata, as well as to the beauty of the landscape. \n",
"Archaeological tourism can include all produ... |
What was the largest migration in human history? | The [Partition of India](_URL_0_) in 1947 and the according migration of people to either Pakistan or India as the nations formed is likely the largest migration we have records for. About 12 million people moved. | [
"A specific mass migration that is seen as especially influential to the course of history may be referred to as a 'great migration'. For example, great migrations include the Indo-European invasion of Europe and South Asia during the Bronze Age, Barbarian Invasions during the Roman Empire, the Great Migration from... |
Are quarks really the smallest "form" of matter, or is that just the assumption since we can't effectively see what could be inside of them? | Quarks are almost certainly indivisible, and here's why.
The uncertainty principle states that the product of the uncertainty in an objects position and in that objects momentum must be larger than a certain value. This has nothing to do with measurement, but rather with a fundamental property of the way frequency and magnitude relate - you can learn more by googling Fourier Transform or even just Uncertainty Principle.
Now, experiments have shown that some types of quarks, if they have internal structure, are smaller than 10^(-18) meters - a thousand times smaller than a proton. This means that if there was some particles making up those quarks, those particles would have their position narrowed down to within 10^(-18) meters, and hence the uncertainty in their momentum must be very large indeed - so large, in fact, that the energy those particles would possess would be much larger than the mass of the quarks themselves.
Now if there was a very large binding force, this could be overcome - but then we're talking about not just new particles, but new forces.
It's worth noting, I think, that in all modern string theories, particles taken as elementary in the standard model are represented by a single string.
| [
"Six types of quarks (up, down, strange, charm, bottom and top) have been found experimentally; however, the majority of matter on Earth is made up of only up and down quarks. It is a fundamental question whether there exists stable matter made up of strange quarks in combination with up and down quarks. Particles ... |
Diphenhydramine(Benadryl) is most known as an allergy pill, but it's also a cough suppressant, anti-vomiting/nausea, sedative, local anesthetic, anti-OCD, etc. How does this work? | I find this to be a fascinating area of medicine/pharmacology. [Antihistamines](_URL_0_) and [Phenothiazines](_URL_1_) are closely related families of medicines, please take a look at their similar chemical structure and related derivatives. It's no wonder that the effects are shared. take [Compazine](_URL_2_) and [Stelazine](_URL_3_) for example - only an organic chemist could easily differentiate these two molecules and their effects aren't terribly dissimilar either. They are however marketed quite differently. I agree with u/LostToApathy, first generation drugs do tend to exhibit more of a 'club like' rather than targeted effect. They may be old but they remain quite valuable in the treatment of disease. | [
"Dicycloverine, also known as dicyclomine, is a medication that is used to treat spasms of the intestines such as occur in irritable bowel syndrome. It is taken by mouth or by injection into a muscle. While it has been used in baby colic and enterocolitis, evidence does not support these uses.\n",
"Propylhexedrin... |
Can things spin in space with force coming from just one point? | You're both right and both wrong. The resulting motion will be composed of a translation *and* a rotation. How much of each depends on the details. If you're comfortable with conservation of linear and angular momentum, you can approach it as a collision between some impactor and the end of the pole.
It could be that your friends are intuitively imagining a force *and* a torque being applied to the end. This would be the case if the end were clamped to whatever exerted the force, and that thing traveled strictly in a straight line. The clamp would exert a torque to counter that created by the applied force acting about the pole's centre of gravity. | [
"BULLET::::- The Coriolis effect gives an apparent force that acts on objects that move relative to a rotating reference frame. This apparent force acts at right angles to the motion and the rotation axis and tends to curve the motion in the opposite sense to the habitat's spin. If an astronaut inside a rotating ar... |
Were wild cats selectively bred by humans to give us our current day house cat? | I suspect that dogs and cats were rather similar in their early domestication in that _neither_ was directly selectively bred by humans. It's thought that the wolf ancestors of dogs started following human groups around to basically scavenge kills and eat garbage. The friendliest, most human tolerant wolves got the most food and got killed by people least often, and over time you get dogs as a result. Similarly, but later on, people started growing and storing lots of grain from early agriculture. This attracts rodents and birds, and those attract wildcats. The wildcats best able to tolerate people hang around longer. The friendly ones are tolerated best (and at some point in both instances you can bet people are adopting the cute puppies and kittens). Eventually you get your basic cat.
Now later on, for both dogs and cats people take the basic semi-feral animal and selectively breed for particular traits like color or certain behaviors. This with intentional mating of some animals to others. This has been done in both cats and dogs, but more in dogs because they have been specialized to accomplish so many jobs. | [
"During domestication, cats have undergone only minor changes in anatomy and behavior, and they are still capable of surviving in the wild. House cats often interbreed with feral cats, producing hybrids such as the Kellas cat in Scotland. Hybridisation between domestic and other small wild cat species is also possi... |
Will the hydrophobic wooden ball sink? | It will sink if it's denser than water, it will float otherwise, just as if it didn't have a hydrophobic coating. The buoyancy force on the ball depends on the amount of water displaced by the ball, and if that's higher than the gravitational force on the ball, it'll float. But the amount of water displaced doesn't change very much with a hydrophobic coating - it might slightly increase, but not by much. | [
"Later, he compares the size of two pieces of wood in water. He says that even though the bigger piece of wood does not sink as it would be thought it, it is compared to the amount of water under it that allows it to not sink like the smaller piece does not as well. \n",
"The more fluid a floating object is able ... |
If all movement is relative, is there a cosmic constant zero angular velocity? | Velocity is relative, and there is no way to tell how fast you are moving. We cannot feel the motion of the planet even though we are flying through space at a very high speed.
Acceleration, however, is not frame independent. That is to say, you will be able to tell if you are accelerating because you will feel a force acting on you. you can feel the force of acceleration when you slam on the gas pedal on your car.
Circular motion requires acceleration. Think about the feeling you have when your car goes around a tight curve. Even though you might be going at the same speed, you can feel a force being acted on you.
A body in motion will just keep going straight onwards if nothing acts on it. But, in your example, gravitational field pulls the spaceship around in a circle. The force of gravity acting on the spaceship keeps it in orbit, but only if the ship is moving at the right speed, as you noted. | [
"If the reference point is the instantaneous axis of rotation the expression of the velocity of a point in the rigid body will have just the angular velocity term. This is because the velocity of the instantaneous axis of rotation is zero. An example of the instantaneous axis of rotation is the hinge of a door. Ano... |
Is it true US, French and British forces fought in the Russian civil war? | Please check out my earlier answer on this topic. There is always more to be said though, so feel free to ask if there's anything it does not cover. But in general I will mention that they did not send troops to send the Tsar (who had long since been toppled), but to restore an Eastern Front against the Germans.
[This answer explains the motivations and gives an overview of the Allied Intervention, and also discusses the French participation more specifically.](_URL_1_)
[This one looks specifically at America's role in the civil war.](_URL_0_) | [
"During the Civil War, the Union and Russia were allies against what they saw as their potential enemy, Britain. The Russian blue-water navy was stationed in San Francisco and from 1863 in New York—with sealed orders to attack British naval targets in case war broke out between the United States and Britain. This w... |
why does one full rotation equal 360°? | 360 is a relic of ancient base 12 mathematics from the middle east.
The Mesopotamians were big fans of 12 and its multiples because of how simple the mathematics are.
360 is evenly divisible by: 180, 120, 90, 60, 45, 40, 30, 24, 20, 18, 15, 12, 10, 9, 8, 6, 5, 4, 3, and 2.
It has a *huge* number of clean divisions.
100 is way less functional. 50, 25, 20, 10, 5, 4, 2. | [
"On the other hand, formula_65 in all circumstances, because a 360° rotation of a \"spatial\" configuration is the same as no rotation at all. (This is different from a 360° rotation of the \"internal\" (spin) state of the particle, which might or might not be the same as no rotation at all.) In other words, the fo... |
mood swings due to hormones (like contraception or pms) | Hormones produced by the ovaries act as powerful neurotransmitters. When the amount you have in the body changes, it can affect your mood because it affects your brain. | [
" A large body of research has looked at the effects of positive or negative mood manipulations on performance in tasks of executive function. In most cases, positive mood inductions impair executive function, whereas negative mood has little effect. Overall, the best supported explanation for the observed effects ... |
Why does hair loss always begin from the top region of the head? | I answered a very similar question a few days ago:
_URL_0_
It has to do with varying levels of DHT sensitivity in different follicles of the scalp. Also, some men begin with the balding starting at the temples, which is how receding hairlines begin. | [
"It can be caused by a diverse group of rare disorders that destroy the hair follicle, replace it with scar tissue, and cause permanent hair loss. A variety of distributions are possible. In some cases, hair loss is gradual, without symptoms, and is unnoticed for long periods. In other cases, hair loss is associate... |
In the Middle Ages, where there any roguish adventurer-types like movies and games? | The idea of these types of heroes certainly existed by the 1600s, since Don Quixote was written (in 1605) to mock the chivalric novels that were popular at that time. In a way, Odysseus is also the same type of character, albeit travelling on a ship with a crew not alone on a horse. This doesn't answer the question, but it shows this type of character has a very long history in popular culture. I'm sure someone can expand more on this. | [
"BULLET::::- \"\" (2008): In this second VeggieTales feature film, three lazy wannabe pirates go back in time to the 17th century, to fight real pirates and become heroes in a battle, to rescue a royal family from an evil tyrant. The three slackers learn that a hero doesn't have to be tall, strong, and handsome to ... |
why small smudges/scratches wreak havoc on audio cd's, but don't seem to affect data and game cd's. | part of it is audio cd can detect, but not correct, read errors. data cd employs redundancy and can actually correct a certain amount of read errors. audio cd uses 2352 (i think, it's been a while) byte sectors, while data cd uses 2048 byte sectors- but in reality, both are actually the same size sectors, the difference is that redundancy. the reason behind it- audio doesn't have to be reproduced *exactly*, if there are a couple read errors, some samples are discarded and replaced with interpolation, and it happens so quickly you most likely won't notice it. data cd needs to be more resilient, hence the redundancy. now in the case of a *lot* of read errors, the audio cd will start skipping, that has more to do with not being able to lock on to the "groove" for lack of a better word (showing my age?). the data cd will just fail- but you might get lucky and that missing data might be part of a rarely used file.
\*edit\* - so i'm wrong about audio cds not doing error correction, they do have some- but data has more redundancy, so can correct more errors, so the gist of what i said is still (mostly) correct. | [
"A wide variety of failures can cause physical damage to storage media, which may result from human errors and natural disasters. CD-ROMs can have their metallic substrate or dye layer scratched off; hard disks can suffer from a multitude of mechanical failures, such as head crashes, PCB failure and failed motors; ... |
Has the increased workforce participation of women reduced wages? | It certainly doesn't appear that way. [Here](_URL_1_) is the real median personal income, which has been rising since the 1980s, as has [the humber of dual income householda] (_URL_4_) and the % of [the workforce made up of women](_URL_3_). Furthermore, [mens wages do not appear to drop when women's wages rise](_URL_2_). The economy is not a zero sum game, see [lump labor fallacy](_URL_0_). | [
"Sociologists, economists, and politicians have proposed several theories about the causes of gender wage gap. Some believe that woman's salaries are based on the career path that women choose. They stipulate that the women chose low-paying jobs, clerical work, and to work in services (see also Pink-collar worker).... |
Why does the label on my MSG say it has 0% protein? | Nutrition labels are mandated by law. Like when you buy a bottled water, the nutrition label tells you that it has 0% everything. The deinition of what's protein and what's not is determined by the FDA (in America).
_URL_0_ | [
"The FDA considers labels such as \"no MSG\" or \"no added MSG\" misleading if the food has ingredients which are sources of free glutamate, such as hydrolyzed protein. In 1993, it proposed adding \"contains glutamate\" to the common names of certain hydrolyzed proteins with substantial amounts of glutamate.\n",
... |
When a material is cut or broken, where exactly is the separation happening? | Depends on material:
When you break ice, you break the Van der waals bonds between molecules.
When you break a metal, the metal is all atoms bound by metalic bonds so you break metal to metal bonds.
In some ceramics, the ceramic can be thought of one big molecule, and you are breaking molecules. (Ionic and covalent bonds)
In some you can be breaking between molecule thick plates.
In polymers, you can think of a polymer like a sphagetti. Each individual strand is strong but connections between them are weak. You are most likely pulling apart the strands, not breaking them. However some may have very long strands or interconnected ones. In those cases you are breaking the molecular bonds.
In all cases the crack is likely to follow flaws in the material (or weak points). | [
"Fragmentation occurs when material is separated from a surface by a cutting process and the indenting abrasive causes localized fracture of the wear material. These cracks then freely propagate locally around the wear groove, resulting in additional material removal by spalling.\n",
"Cutting occurs when material... |
Is the influence of the Roman Empire overstated in Western culture when compared to other ancient civilizations like the Chinese or the Persians? | Influence on what, exactly? It's hard deny its influence on European civilization, if anything because of thr sheer amount later people intentionally identifiyng with the Greco-Roman tradition. Any influence on a larger scale is terribly hard to quantify or compare. | [
"Several scholars have made comparative studies of the two empires. As historian Samuel Adshead puts it, \"Other comparisons could be made ... None, however, offers so close a parallel with Han China as the Roman empire\". These have tended to focus on the philosophical and intellectual histories of China and the G... |
My bottle of bleach claims to kill 99.9% of all household germs. | What kind of bleach is it? [Clorox regular bleach](_URL_0_), for one example, is a registered disinfectant. Based on the US EPA [website](_URL_1_) disinfectants are "used on hard inanimate surfaces and objects to destroy or irreversibly inactivate infectious fungi and bacteria but not necessarily their spores." I'm not sure what time frame or concentrations are required for this definition, but I did find one article that looked at the effectiveness of 10% bleach on the spores of Bacillus anthracis, the causitive agent of anthrax. The [article](_URL_2_) clearly demonstrated that anthrax spores can be killed by bleach, however if the spores are at a very high concentration, or if they are exposed to bleach for too little time (30 minutes at high concentrations) some can survive. So if there is a lower cut off for time of exposure required to kill a spore, Bacillus anthracis spores could be one example of that 0.1% of germs that could survive. | [
"Liquid bleaches for domestic use fall in 3 categories: for pool-treatment (10% hypochlorite solutions, without surfactants and detergents) for laundry and general purpose cleaning, at 3–5% active chlorine (which are usually recommended to be diluted substantially before use), and in pre-mixed specialty formulation... |
how does one navigate buying an engagement ring with so many industry pitfalls? | I found a jeweler that was referred to me that wasn’t a national brand. They spent time teaching me about diamonds and how they’re graded and what you can expect for the price you’re paying.
I ended up buying a loose diamond from them after they let me look at a bunch of stones, and then they put it in a setting for me.
It was much cheaper than buying a “pre-made” ring, and I was able to get a fantastic stone too.
I would recommend checking around for an independent jeweler. It seems like they’re more willing to help you learn before you buy. | [
"The online purchase of engagement rings is growing, disrupting the market for the diamonds by bringing greater transparency to an industry that has traditionally relied on opacity. Online diamond retailers and e-commerce platforms include Blue Nile, Brilliant Earth, and Costco.\n",
"One reason for the increased ... |
Why do we care so much about the facial structures of our mates? | To make it clearer, I think what the OP is trying to say is that facial features don't seem to provide any obvious evolutionary advantages, unlike the rest of our body. So we're selecting for an arbitrary set facial features for no apparent reason.
Edit: So apparently I'm both ugly and ignorant, as shown below. | [
"This hypothesis suggests that secondary sexual characteristics such as a low waist-to-chest ratio or masculine facial features (e.g. strong jawline, larger brow ridge, more muscular) are reliable indicators of mate quality as the hormones that cause their development (i.e. testosterone) suppress the immune system ... |
how exactly do the different settings on dryers (i.e. "permanent press") affect clothes? | According to [Sears](_URL_0_):
> A washer on permanent press will wash clothes in warm water and rinse them in cool water, maintaining a mild agitation and spin. The warm water helps relax creases while the slow spin prevents new wrinkles from forming. A permanent press cycle is gentler than a regular cycle, making it good for synthetic fibers like polyester, rayon and knits. Because it does not use hot water, a permanent press cycle will also reduce shrinking and color fading.
> A dryer on permanent press uses medium heat to smooth out wrinkles as it dries, while avoiding the high heat that can shrink clothes and fade colors. | [
"In older washing machines, the permanent press setting sprays moisture during the spin cycle to maintain the moisture content of the permanent press fabrics above a certain specified limit to reduce wrinkling. Most older clothes dryers feature an automatic permanent press setting, which puts clothes through a cool... |
why is thermal clothing warm? | People are walking, talking heat generators. Normally, this heat gets lost into the air and spread out across the Earth. Thermal clothing is designed to trap pockets of air so when you heat it up, rather than blowing away to be replaced by cooler air, it stays next to you, keeping your heat close. | [
"Most heated clothing is designed for cold-weather sports and activities, such as motorcycle riding, downhill skiing, diving, winter biking, and snowmobiling, trekking and for outdoor workers such as construction workers and carpenters. Since the London Olympics, heated clothing has also been used by athletes to ke... |
Can someone help me understand the relationship between mathematical models and not yet observed things / events? | To some degree, mathematical models can predict things in the real world. When Dirac theorized the positron, for instance, he did so almost completely on the basis that some cool equations he came up with predicted it would exist. There was no physical evidence for the positron itself, but there was lots of physical evidence for the model that required the positron to exist.
However, do note that people frequently take this too far. For instance, take a favorite of popsci and science fiction writers: the equations of general relativity allow tachyons to exist. There's nothing at all in the math that could be construed as prohibiting them from existing. But it's ridiculous to say that general relativity *predicts* them, because the math yields things like imaginary mass. We have no idea what an imaginary number for mass could possibly mean, and even if we developed some theory to explain it, that theory wouldn't be part of general relativity.
So to summarize: mathematical models can predict things. In fact, they have to for theories to be falsifiable. But very rarely is every part of a mathematical model used for some physical theory; frequently, only a certain set of values in the model is physically meaningful, so anything "predicted" outside of this range isn't actually a prediction. | [
"Theorists in astronomy endeavor to create theoretical models and from the results predict observational consequences of those models. The observation of a phenomenon predicted by a model allows astronomers to select between several alternate or conflicting models as the one best able to describe the phenomena.\n",... |
how long can someone be "knocked out" or put in a medically induced coma? and are there dangers of doing this ling term? | Medically-induced coma is used for two things: prolonged seizures that do not respond to anything else, and head trauma which is causing pressure within the skull to rise to the point where the brain may be forced down out of the skull. In the former case, it's been shown you can keep somebody induced for months. The latter is not a long-term illness, either it resolves or it kills you.
The main dangers of this therapy are first, that the drug itself drops your blood pressure significantly (and low blood pressure is a far bigger problem than high), which will require even more medication to manage; and second, that this therapy requires extended intubation which puts the patient at significant risk over time for an infection which, considering the state these patients are in, is liable to kill them. | [
"On the tenth day, the first patient, Geller, recovers, and soon it becomes clear that the coma is temporary. There are no ill effects, but the recovered patients have been changed in subtle ways: they discard many of their past, irrational beliefs and fears, and in many cases change their way of life. For instance... |
how do we decipher ancient writings of civilizations that no longer exist? | Cross referencing languages that look similar, and or of same geographic area. There is more to it, but it's the tip of the ice berg. | [
"The difficulty in deciphering these systems can arise from a lack of known language descendants or from the languages being entirely isolated, from insufficient examples of text having been found and even (such as in the case of Vinča) from the question of whether the symbols actually constitute a writing system a... |
Were things as good during the Reagan era as modern-day Republicans say they were? | Hard to evaluate this question as stated, but if you're asking, "Why do Republicans like Reagan", here's an answer I gave a while back: _URL_0_ | [
"Since Reagan left office in 1989, substantial debate has occurred among scholars, historians, and the general public surrounding his legacy. Supporters have pointed to a more efficient and prosperous economy as a result of Reagan's economic policies, foreign policy triumphs including a peaceful end to the Cold War... |
What is the largest stable molecule known? What molecule has the largest number of unique elements contained within it? | To answer part of your question, things like proteins, fats, and DNA strands are just very large molecules known as macromolecules. The largest known protein is Titin. It has the chemical formula C169723 H270464 N45688 O52243 S912.
Some notably large macromolecules are found in the human genome. The genome contains 3.2 billion base pairs which can be seen [here.](_URL_1_) That would amount to almost 100 billion atoms!
But to answer your question in full, **there's no such thing as the largest molecule.** A flawless diamond is just considered one big molecule! Whenever you have the biggest, you can just make it bigger.
**There is also no molecule with the most amount of different elements.** For more info, see: _URL_0_ | [
"The first large molecule whose atomic structure was \"partly\" determined on a molecular computer graphics system was Transfer RNA by Sung-Hou Kim's team in 1976. after initial fitting on a mechanical Richards Box. The first large molecule whose atomic structure was \"entirely\" determined on a molecular computer ... |
how have phone operating systems, today managed to reduce the time required to uninstall an app within a second, irrespective of its size(android os) | I can't destroy a building you're using in a second, but I can lock the main door in a second. The result will be the same for you, you can't use the building anymore. I'll then take my time to actually destroy it properly.
Your phone doesn't completely delete all the stuff in a second. It is just deletes the icon that launches it, then it can take its time to actually delete all the data.
Also, deleting a 200Mb app doesn't mean actually doing something with all the 200Mb of actual switches in your memory. It just tells the phone that it can write something else on that part of the memory, which makes even the deleting process in background faster. | [
"On September 1, 2016, Apple announced that starting September 7, it would be removing old apps that do not function as intended or that don't follow current review guidelines. Developers will be warned and given 30 days to update their apps, but apps that crash on startup will be removed immediately. Additionally,... |
every now and then when you inhale deeply there is that extra room to breathe in really deep that feels great. what is the biological mechanism behind this? | A deep breath increases oxygen to the brain and stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system which promotes calmness. | [
"Diaphragmatic breathing, or deep breathing, is breathing that is done by contracting the diaphragm, a muscle located horizontally between the thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity. Air enters the lungs, the chest does not rise and the belly expands during this type of breathing.\n",
"During heavy breathing, exhal... |
how is it not considered false advertising for a company to make commercial that says an offer is only good for a limited or certain amount of time, then play it for years? | In the fine print they probably reserve the right to alter, extend, cancel any promotions at any time without any obligation to inform customers. | [
"Generally, advertisements are not offers but invitations to treat, so the person advertising is not compelled to sell. In \"Partridge v Crittenden\" [1968] 1 WLR 1204, a defendant who was charged with \"offering for sale protected birds\"—bramblefinch cocks and hens that he had advertised for sale in a newspaper—w... |
why animals can breed with their own family without genetic problems but humans cant | Animals can not be bred with their own families without causing occasional problems.
This is one of the reasons why most pure-bred dogs have a [shorter life-expectancy](_URL_0_) than mixed breed or mongrels. (There are other reasons for this too, though.) | [
"Natural breedings include inbreeding by necessity, and most animals only migrate when necessary. In many cases, the closest available mate is a mother, sister, grandmother, father, brother, or grandfather. In all cases, the environment presents stresses to remove from the population those individuals who cannot su... |
What would the leaders of the American Revolution have expected to happen should the revolution have failed? | I think it's a stretch, without a firm source, to say the revolutionaries would have definitely been hanged for treason if the war went poorly. If the land-owning, formerly-respected members of the revolution sued for peace, there could have been a possibility of some manner of pardon, depending on each side's respective position in the war and their desire to conclude the war on favorable terms.
For example, formal discussions between revolutionary leaders and the British took place on the subject of ending hostilities -- such as the **Staten Island Peace Conference**, where John Adams and Ben Franklin met with Lord Howe after the rebel loss in the Battle of Brooklyn. So I don't think a negotiated peace is out of the question, even though it proved untenable at that point.
But we could say that Franklin and Adams were able to meet with British authorities without being arrested on the spot. They were treated as legitimate negotiators and recognized as such, at least during the period when they had troops in the field. If those troops were decimated, British reception would naturally be less hospitable, but the question is whether the revolutionary leaders would have sued for peace after defeat became apparent, but before the British destroyed their ability to wage war. That question seems impossible to answer. We know the rebel leaders had a "do or die" attitude at the start of hostilities (paraphrasing Patrick Henry), but that was before they had established themselves as enough of a political and military annoyance to merit negotiation.
Another fact of note is that in August 1775, King George proclaimed that any colonist who took up arms was engaged in treason, yet this was not enforced in the actual conflict in the following years. Alan Valentine's biography of Lord Germain notes that despite his command, **British generals did not hold treason trials** and instead held captured rebels as POWs, contrary to official royal decree. The capture of numerous British troops at Saratoga provided additional incentive not to hang captured rebels.
This is not to say that rebel prisoners were treated with hospitality. Far from it. *See, e.g.,* Lang, Patrick J., "The horrors of the English prison ships, 1776 to 1783, and the barbarous treatment of the American patriots imprisoned on them." But what it does show is that the British were not fully committed to treating the uprising as a treason issue, at least so long as military and political considerations were at play.
Interesting footnote - In 1990, lawyers from the US and the UK held a mock trial in a British court where they **tried George Washington for treason**. [The court found Washington not guilty of all charges](_URL_0_). Somehow I doubt that an 18th century UK court would be as forgiving, but again, it's hard to say exactly what terms a Colonial surrender would entail, depending on the strategic situation.
**EDIT**: A bit of checking shows that John Adams learned many years later that his name was on a list of people specifically excluded from any offers of pardon Lord Howe might make to the rebel leaders. *See* Edgar, Gregory T., Campaign of 1776: the Road to Trenton (1995). So that might be the best answer. Pardons were contemplated, but not for all.
| [
"The American Revolution has occurred, but it was carried out with the support of the company, which used it as an opportunity to establish a puppet government in North America. The French Revolution also occurred, prematurely, but was considerably \"less messy\": most aristocrats were either made to live normal li... |
why does it seem that mercury(ii) thiocyanate is creating new mass when heated, therefore defying the law of conservation of mass? | It's not creating new mass, it's creating new _volume_, the same way your mom does when she whips egg whites into a meringue or when a cake or souffle rises in the oven. Whipping egg whites incorporates air bubbles into the protein structure of the egg whites. Similarly when baking a cake, the baking powder in the batter releases carbon dioxide when heated releasing the gas bubbles into the batter, which get trapped in the protein (gluten) structures.
Similarly, the chemical reaction you're seeing is releasing gas (carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide) into the element so it "rises" like a really gross snake cake.
After the reaction the mass is probably somewhat less because some of the matter has been converted to gases that escape. But the volume is greater because of the gas bubbles trapped in the element. | [
"The relativistic conservation law for energy and momentum replaces the three classical conservation laws for energy, momentum and mass. Mass is no longer conserved independently, because it has been subsumed into the total relativistic energy. This makes the relativistic conservation of energy a simpler concept th... |
how can population keep growing, and poverty declining, in a world that has limited resources? | We keep getting better at using/gathering those limited resources... and "limited" in this sense is still a really large number. | [
"An increase in global population can result in a decrease in biocapacity. This is usually due to the fact that the Earth’s resources have to be shared; therefore, there becomes little to supply the increasing demand of the increasing population. Currently, this issue can be resolved by outsourcing. However, resour... |
how does service in a (posh, i suppose) restaurant work - from the maitre d' taking orders, to what happens in the kitchen. | In any proper restaurant, you will have 2 major teams: Front of House, and Back of House. Both of these teams report up to the Owner and his team. Let's look at Front of House. In the front, you will have the Maitre d' running the show. He is responsible for the general operations of the restaurant...open/close, and all the servers and wait staff. It would be unusual for the Maitre d' to be taking orders from customers. He will be certainly watching the tables and service team to make sure things are running properly. If there is a bar, the bartender might be front-of-house also. Back is where the kitchen is... and where the food is prepared. The kitchen is run by the Exec Chef. This guy is responsible for pretty much anything that goes on in there. The Exec will have a Sous Chef who acts as his second-in-command and runs things when the Exec is busy elsewhere. There might also be less-talented junior cooks doing prep, running the deep-fryer, grill, soup or pastries for dessert. The mechanism for "building" the food is called "the line". Basically, the order will come in from the floor (Front of house) and it will be put into an electronic system (with screens) or printed out by a printer. The orders are then stacked up in order...which is critical, as each table should be served at once, and each table might have several orders which take different times to prepare. The Chef basically calls shots...like a quarterback. He decides what to work on, when, and assigns tasks to the team in the kitchen. Some kitchens involve a lot of yelling.
When the dishes come together they are plated (put on plates) and placed on a long counter where a server (often called a runner) will deliver them to the table.
The Chef will very likely be doing a lot of the cooking, but the heavy lifting or simpler tasks (making french fries, making soup) for example will be offloaded to other cooks. The Chef (chef is "chief") generally has the most skill, most knowledge and basically has the ability to run all aspects of the kitchen. He (or she) is the leader in there. Ideally, the Chef will have a good team so things can run smoothly. If not the Chef either has to fill in and get things done, or assign someone else to take of the slack.
Both front and back will report to the Owner, who controls the money, and often the menu. | [
"BULLET::::- In restaurants, you often order each dish as you want it, so that they are not ordered all at once at the beginning of the meal. In informal restaurants, you may be required to share a table. If so, do not force conversation: act as if you are seated at a private table. Waitstaff may be summoned by mak... |
why do you get a closer shave when you go over the same area multiple times? | because the first pass takes some hair, and some of the top layer of dead skin. so the second pass is closer to the root of the hair.
pro tip: exfoliate before you shave. then do one pass. less razor bumps, healthier skin, closer shave. | [
"Shaving is accomplished with bladed instruments, such as razors. The blade is brought close to the skin and stroked over the hair in the desired area to cut the terminal hairs and leave the skin feeling smooth. Depending upon the rate of growth, one can begin to feel the hair growing back within hours of shaving. ... |
What were some true triumphs in Hitler's military control, and what were some undeniable examples of his incompetency? | Triumph: Hitler attacked Poland, and then the following spring France, at a time when most of his generals felt that Germany was far from ready to fight. (They wanted to wait until 1945.) In both cases they achieved near-total success in a breathtakingly short time.
Failure: Hitler felt that because Russia was "rotten" to the core that it could therefore not put up a significant sustained military resistance. His direction of the Russian campaign, therefore, was ill-planned, confused, and did not give nearly enough respect to the tenacity and brutality of both the Red Army and the Russian winter. His insistence on defending captured ground 'to the last man' exacerbated the problem, as perfectly good units in bad positions were sacrificed instead of pulled back. In the end, his whole boneheaded running of the Barbarossa campaign cost millions of lives shed to no purpose, and hastened the end of Nazi Germany by years. | [
"In part because of the unexpected degree of German success in the Battle of France (despite the warnings of the professional military) Hitler believed himself a military genius, with a grasp of the total war-effort that eluded his generals. In August 1941, when Walther von Brauchitsch (commander-in-chief of the \"... |
how did you distinguish friendly and enemy knights during the war of the roses when knights did wear plate armor? | The first example you show is a modern painting by Graham Turner. The second is a manuscript illumination, probably painted by someone who never saw the battle depicted. So I would caution against concluding that, because of these depictions knights did not wear anything to identify thselves. I need to look up my own sources on Livery Coats before I say more. | [
"One of the greatest distinguishing marks of the knightly class was the flying of coloured banners, to display power and to distinguish knights in battle and in tournaments. Knights are generally \"armigerous\" (bearing a coat of arms), and indeed they played an essential role in the development of heraldry. As hea... |
Does it help to read works in their original languages? | Yes and no.
Basically it depends on your Latin. Reading and translating stuff ancient languages is both a science and an art. There is more to Latin than 'Latin': [there are several different sorts](_URL_0_). Hence why there are so many translations of different Latin sources. If you read something using 'your Latin' then you might miss out on stuff within the text.
Which is not to say that you shouldn't try to read the original (known) text, just that there's more to reading Latin than 'reading Latin'. Studying the 'Latin of the ancients' is an intense scholarly field.
Tl;dr it depends. | [
"The most direct way to incorporate a language other than English would be to either simply present it in the foreign form and leave the reader in the unknown or translate it completely into English with the implication that it is meant to be in Japanese and move on. While it may seem redundant or unnecessary, DeWi... |
why does black ink often appear a metallic purple/orange colour? | Because black is all of the colors. It has purple and orange in it. So depending how the light hits it depends what shines | [
"The ink was traditionally prepared by adding some iron(II) sulfate (FeSO) to a solution of tannic acid, but any iron ion donor can be used. The gallotannic acid was usually extracted from oak galls or galls of other trees, hence the name. Fermentation or hydrolysis of the extract releases glucose and gallic acid, ... |
Does the quality of gold impact its conductivity? | The main conductors of electricity in metals are free electrons. Impurities serve as additional scattering sources for electrons, reducing their mean free path and lowering the conductivity. Even if it's impurities of silver or aluminum (metals that conduct better), these atoms do not perfectly merge into the crystalline structure of gold, and these deviations from the ideal crystal are what causes additional scattering. Although I can imagine a situation in which impure gold would have higher conductivity - and that is if it would have large embedded crystallites of said silver or aluminum. Large enough that their grain boundaries don't matter much (so at least a couple hundred nanometers). But that would probably have a visible effect on gold she's trying to sell.
However, I think I know where your player got her idea from. In semiconductors, the situation is usually very different, as certain impurities can greatly affect the number of charge carriers and their mobility. So if your player would be selling specifically doped silicon, she could make such a claim. | [
"The diffusivity and solubility of gold into silicon substrate increases with rising bonding temperatures. A higher temperature than the eutectic temperature is usually preferred for the bonding procedure. This may result in the formation of a thicker Au-Si alloy layer and further a stronger eutectic bond.\n",
"G... |
How did scientists practice chemistry before the mass production of chemicals? | Well for starters you have to forget about molar concentrations, since they didn't know about molecules in the 18th century, let alone Avogadro's number. If they measured concentrations, it was in terms of volume or weight %. Magnesium was not known as such in that time either. They did know of "Epsom salt", which is naturally occurring magnesium sulfate.
People did research by studying if and how things reacted, and the properties of substances. At the time they had various theories (the most famous of which is phlogiston theory), almost none of which were correct. By the late 18th century Lavoisier, the father of modern chemistry, had figured out that mass was conserved in reactions. They had identified things that didn't seem to be able to be broken down into other stuff, and called those 'elements'. However, it wasn't until Dalton's 1805 atomic theory that you have atoms, molecules and elements in fully the same sense as today.
Circa 1795 a chemist might be figuring out that if you take the element sulphur*, and heat it in a vacuum, nothing happens. If you heat it with oxygen you get a nasty gas (sulphur dioxide), which in turn reacts with water to form sulphuric acid. (or 'oil of vitiol'), which could be identified by its properties and how it reacted. Add metallic iron and you get hydrogen gas and a salt they knew then as 'green vitriol'. Heat that and water is given off, heat it further and you get back the nasty SO2 comes back and you get 'red ochre' (iron(III)oxide), or 'mars red'. (Mars being iron, venus copper, mercury is mercury, etc)
It was around this time they did precisely this kind of thing, deducing what elements were part of what compounds, and introduced the beginnings of the nomenclature we use today - the 'vitriols' became known as sulphates, because vitriols contained sulphur (and oxygen), alchemical planet names were substituted for the usual names of metals.
So that's the kind of thing they were busy with at that time. Much of the first half of the 19th century, once you had atomic theory, were spend sorting out the (relative) weights of the elements, the elemental composition of compounds, and their formulas. Which also required sorting out the distinction between the formula and the 'empirical formula' (the ratio of elements). Dalton believed his atoms always combined in the simplest possible ratios, which was false. (e.g. hydrogen peroxide is H2O2 and not HO)
So in short, they were not working with precise concentrations of compounds then, because chemistry was very much a _qualitative_ study. Conservation of mass and stochiometry started in 1774, and only there did they start finding out the things we needed to know to be quantitative.
(* As for where the sulphur came from - child laborers working in horrible slave-like conditions on the slopes of Mount Etna in Sicily. Sad fact.) | [
"The history of chemistry spans a period from very old times to the present. Since several millennia BC, civilizations were using technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include extracting metals from ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine,... |
Is there a particular reason as to why Tutankhamen's tomb wasn't discovered before 1922? | Multiple reasons, as far as I can tell. I don't think it had much to do with his father (by which you mean Akhenaten, I imagine), despite the stigma that we assume came with his progenitor's name. After the glamor and chaos of Akhenaten's rule, and compared to the pharaohs of the past, Tutankhamen (formerly Tutenkhaten) was just a minor blip on the radar. His overall anonymity in the scale of things meant that fewer people realized there was even a pharaoh to steal *from*, as compared to more obvious and notorious kings like Seti I, Khufu or Djoser.
By the late 1800s, despite the frenzy of Egyptomania, most people assumed that there was nothing left to find in the Valley of the Kings. An ironic surprise that may have saved Tut's tomb from looting in more contemporary days is the excavation Seti I's tomb by the flamboyant Italian [Giovanni Belzoni](_URL_1_) (in 1817, I believe). He was little more than a publicly-sanctioned tomb-robber himself, who was not prone towards scientific examination. He was mostly interested in treasure and fortune. While digging into the tomb, he and his workmen may have inadvertently shoveled more dirt over the burial location of Tutankhamen's tomb several hundred feet away.
It was only Howard Carter's dogged determination, luck, and Lord Carnarvon's funds and patience that allowed him to actually uncover the tomb. But he wasn't actually the first to discover it. He was likely the first to *rediscover* it. When they had actually unsealed the tomb, they found a few [looters trenches](_URL_0_),
which only made it into peripheral chambers. These were probably ancient thieves. | [
"His body was removed after the court returned to Thebes, and recent genetic tests have confirmed that the body found buried in tomb KV55 was the father of Tutankhamun, and is therefore \"most probably\" Akhenaten, The tomb contained numerous Amarna era objects, including a royal coffin, the face of which had been ... |
Did pop culture exist in the post-Roman period? | When you write "post-Roman," do you mean the early middle ages?
A lot of the art and culture that has been preserved from that period is sacred, partly because the institutions recording everything were affiliated with the church. You can't really separate religious life from everyday life in this time period (or magical and "real," for that matter), so your question about "pop culture" makes some assumptions that won't necessarily apply to this era. That said, there are a lot of examples of what might be called "pop" culture -- preserved in songs, song texts, folk tales, and visual art. You might be interested in the Carmina Burana (not the Carl Orff music, though), Roman de Fauvel, Perceval, works by Christine de Pizan, the Jeu de Robin et Marion, Beowulf, the poetry and songs of Guillaume de Machaut, and the Roman de la Rose. The Carmina Burana are collected songs of wandering scholars, often dealing with themes of games, drinking, sex, and social criticism. The Roman de Fauvel is a satire making fun of the corruption of those in power, and it was wildly popular. | [
"In Italy, by 1964, pop art was known and took different forms, such as the \"Scuola di Piazza del Popolo\" in Rome, with pop artists such as Mario Schifano, Franco Angeli, Giosetta Fioroni, Tano Festa, Claudio Cintoli, and some artworks by Piero Manzoni, Lucio Del Pezzo, Mimmo Rotella and Valerio Adami.\n",
"Alt... |
Why does hand sanitizer kill the bacteria and viruses on my hands, but not the living skin cells directly adjacent? | Sanitizer kills in two ways: it draws out water and dehydrates things, and it disrupts macromolecules, leading them to precipitate/aggregate and become nonfunctional. Both of these effects contribute to make pathogens non-infectious.
Skin is remarkably resilient and can tolerate both of these effects easily, it can dehydrate, but is hydrated independently from below. It is resistant to the precipitation effect because the proteins that cross-link and make the matrix of the skin are in a way already insoluble and cross-linked. Doing it a bit more makes no difference. | [
"Hand sanitizers are most effective against bacteria and less effective against some viruses. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are almost entirely ineffective against norovirus or Norwalk type viruses, the most common cause of contagious gastroenteritis.\n",
"Despite their effectiveness, non-water agents do not clea... |
how do people make those picture mosaics where the image is made up of hundreds of smaller, different versions of the same subject? | essentially you give a program a folder full of pictures (alot!) and it calculates the color value of each, if reduced to 1x1 pixel. then you give it a picture that you wanna make "a mosaik" this way and it runs through all its pixels, trying to find the closest fitting picture by color-value. Then it just inserts a small version of the found pictures for all pixels (resulting in a bigger picture ofc).
more professional versions also take into account multiple resolutions (not just 1x1), add edge detection and feature detection to have better fits, and ofc theres now also machine learning algorithm that can try to match variable sized patches (these are more like collages) | [
"The simplest way to generate a large image from a sample image is to tile it. This means multiple copies of the sample are simply copied and pasted side by side. The result is rarely satisfactory. Except in rare cases, there will be the seams in between the tiles and the image will be highly repetitive.\n",
"Pho... |
why is the feeling of silverware hitting your teeth so uncomfortable? | Soft material will absorb impact much better than hard material. Think about hitting that spoon on your shin and your calf - the shin will feel much weirder than your calf. As for WHY that sensation is so much more uncomfortable, I could only suppose it’s the way we evolved pain to avoid injuring ourselves - certain things hurt more than others. | [
"or air), sweet or spicy foods, and beverages. Teeth will normally have some sensation to these triggers, but what separates hypersensitivity from regular tooth sensation is the intensity of the pain. Hypersensitivity is most commonly caused by a lack of insulation from the triggers in the mouth due to gingival rec... |
why do defendents on tv court shows defend their case so vigorously if they don't pay settlements out of pocket? | Because people really want to be right, and want to be vindicated about being right on national television. That's why they went on the show on the first place. They don't like to be proven wrong. | [
"Cohen was quoted as saying that \"defenders have to try to balance an inherent media advantage enjoyed by prosecutors.\" His history of winning cases and the large legal fees he commanded put Cohen in the position of being able to choose the cases he wants to handle, including accepting clients that cannot afford ... |
how can big game developers like rockstar or valve seal all the informations about their biggest titles - like gta 6 or half life 3 - despite having hundreds or even thousands employees around the globe? | NDAs (non disclosure agreements), employee contracts and possibly legal action tend to keep employees right lipped | [
"All but the smallest developer companies work on several titles at once. This is necessary because of the time taken between shipping a game and receiving royalty payments, which may be between 6 and 18 months. Small companies may structure contracts, ask for advances on royalties, use shareware distribution, empl... |
what are 'mach' points of speed? | Mach 1 is the speed of sound (340.29 m / s)
Mach 2 is twice the speed of sound (680.58 m / s)
| [
"The Mach number (M) is defined as the ratio of the speed of an object (or of a flow) to the speed of sound. For instance, in air at room temperature, the speed of sound is about . M can range from 0 to ∞, but this broad range falls naturally into several flow regimes. These regimes are subsonic, transonic, superso... |
why do people cough up dark tar when they quit smoking, but it doesn't happen as much when they are still smoking? | There are little hairs in your lungs that move things that don't belong in your lungs out. They are called "cilia" and they have a waving motion that creates this ability. The tar and chemicals in the cigarette smoke paralyze the cilia so they can't do their job. When the person quits smoking the cilia eventually start to work again - and that's when the tar starts coming out because the cilia is doing it's job again. | [
"Tar, when in the lungs, coats the cilia causing them to stop working and eventually die, causing conditions such as lung cancer as the toxic particles in tobacco smoke are no longer trapped by the cilia but enter the alveoli directly. Thus, the alveoli cannot come through with the process that is called ‘gas excha... |
why is it that counting down is universally easy, but keeping rhythm is not? | I'd say it's a practice thing. Also musical meter isn't always directly linked to our understanding of the passage of time. Where most people have a good idea of what a second feels like, not everyone can instantly grasp a what a beat is in a given tempo w/o a metronome. | [
"In music, counting is a system of regularly occurring sounds that serve to assist with the performance or audition of music by allowing the easy identification of the beat. Commonly, this involves verbally counting the beats in each measure as they occur, whether there be 2 beats, 3 beats, 4 beats, or even 5 beats... |
When are the earliest examples of pornography from, and what were the main forms of consumption before mass media? | I have answered this a [few](_URL_2_) [times](_URL_4_] [before](_URL_3_) and you might be interested [in my book](_URL_1_) but here was the most recent summary of this:
I'm adapting this from some older answers.
Here's the tricky thing about your question--do you mean 'porn' in the sense of moving visual art of people doing erotic things? Then in 1894 Edison's studio recorded a vaguely erotic short, titled Carmencita, which featured a Spanish dancer who twirled and posed on film for the first time. The short was considered scandalous in some places because Carmencita's underwear and legs could be seen in the film. A couple of years later, in 1896, the same studio recorded The May Irwin Kiss, an 18 second film of a Victorian couple kissing (in an incredibly awkward and forced manner). According to Maximillien De Lafayette, this scene in particular caused uproar among newspaper editorials, cries for censorship from the Roman Catholic Church, and calls for prosecution—although these calls do not seem like they were followed up on.
Or perhaps you mean film of people actually doing the deed? Then the oldest surviving work we have is *L'Ecu d'Or ou la Bonne Auberge*, which was first distributed in 1908--and features a man coming to an inn somewhere in france. The inn has no food, but the inkeeper is desperate for food and offers a very different type of food -- his daughter. And then, just because a third woman has to come and join in on the fun. However, this film only survives in a few places now, censors managed to destroy most copies of this film.
The earliest surviving American film, available on [Wikipedia of all places,](_URL_0_) **[THIS LINK IS LITERAL PORN, YOUVE BEEN WARNED]** is called *A Free Ride,* and dates from 1915. These types of works were typically shown in brothels, until film projection equipment became cheap in the 1930s.
As with photography before it, and books before that, film eventually became cheaper and more widespread, began appearing in the alleyways and under the counter at stores, and eventually lead to arrests, prosecution and jail time. The Czech movie Ecstasy (1933), for example, featured scenes of nudity, and perhaps the first female orgasm shown in a major theatrical release. The scandal of these scenes lead to cries for the seizing and banning of the offensive material, and lead to the Hayes Code in the United States, which successfully banned erotic material from Hollywood movies for the next 30 years. Full freedom of pornographic expression was not available until 1988's California v. Freeman, which effectively legalized hardcore pornography.
Or do you perhaps mean "porn" as in the concept of pornography as a whole? 'Porn' as we know it is a relatively recent thing, dating from the early 1800's or so, 1857 is when it was really written into law in our modern understanding of it (in england and France, a few years earlier in America). So 'porn' as we know it is only about 150 years old!
This is really surprising to most people, as they tend to think, as you do, of the Karma Sutra and other things as pornography. But they're not, or at least in their original contexts they were not
> “the explicit description or exhibition of sexual subjects or activity in literature, painting, films, etc., in a manner intended to stimulate erotic rather than aesthetic feelings” (OED)
Although pornography is a Greek word literally meaning “writers about prostitutes,” it is only found once in surviving Ancient Greek writing, where Arthenaeus comments on an artist that painted portraits of whores or courtesans. The word seemed to fall more or less out of use for fifteen hundred years until the first modern usage of the word (1857) to describe erotic wall paintings uncovered at Pompeii.
Several ‘secret museums’ were founded to house the discoveries. However, these museums (the first of which was the Borbonico museum in Naples) were only accessible to highly educated upper-class men, who could understand Latin and Greek and pay the admission price.
As literacy rose and the book market developed in England and it began to seem possible that anything might be shown to anyone without control, then the ‘shadowy zone’ of pornography was ‘invented,’ regulating the “consumption of the obscene, so as to exclude the lower classes and women.” (Walter Kendrick, p. 57, *The Secret Museum*) Critics and moralists responded to the growing market, rising literacy, and the developing public sphere by expressing a deep anxiety over the impact and influences of erotic works. Erotic discourse began to be inextricably linked to a ’type’ of work that supposedly had undesirous effects upon the English public. In Lynn Hunt’s words then, “pornography as a regulatory category was invented in response to the perceived menace of the democraticization of culture.”
| [
"Although pornography dates back thousands of years, its existence in the U.S. can be traced to its 18th-century origins and the influx of foreign trade and immigrants. By the end of the 18th century, France had become the leading country regarding the spread of porn pictures. Porn had become the subject of playing... |
if buffets are cheaper than having a restaurant with a waiting staff, why aren't all restaurants buffets? | It may be cheaper to operate, but that doesn't mean it will make more money or more profit. | [
"Nowadays it has become common for fine dining restaurants to offer table reservations to their clients. In fact, this service has become an integral part of a restaurant's operation, because of its multiple benefits. Even though there are still types of restaurants that prefer the modality of first-come, first ser... |
what would happen if one of my eyes are covered for a long time? | If you are a child and still in a developing stage for vision and perception, covering one of your eyes can cause amblyopia. Amblyopia -a disorder also called lazy eye- causes decreased vision in covered eye due to the interruption in the eye-brain pathway.
If done with growing up, i think it is fine to strut around with pirate's eyepatch. | [
"If they continue to enlarge or fail to settle within a few months, smaller lesions may be injected with a corticosteroid, or larger ones may be surgically removed using local anesthesia. This is usually done from underneath the eyelid to avoid a scar on the skin. If the chalazion is located directly under the eyel... |
What's "greener" and/or more energy efficient? Paper towels or Hand Dryers? | There are many variables, but electric dryers are lower in cost to operate and, over a lifetime, can be better for the environment (how much depends on paper source, type of dryer, power source...). However, they may not be as hygienic as paper.
An efficient dryer (like a Dyson Airblade) with a renewable electrical source should always beat paper with transport and disposal costs.
_URL_0_
_URL_1_ | [
"Due to the reduction in litter and waste in comparison with paper towels, which cannot be recycled, hand dryers are claimed to be better for the environment. Another study shows that whereas the majority of the environmental impact of a hand dryer occurs during its use, the environmental impact of paper towels is ... |
Everyone is talking about CO2 and global warming, but could increased water usage (Fossile water from irrigation) make temperature increase? | Water vapor is a huge greenhouse gas.
We are more worried about the ocean warming and evaporating more than we are worried about some irrigation operations.
The ocean has a vastly greater surface area and is much more capable of altering atmospheric moisture content and already is.
| [
"The effects of fossil fuels emissions, the largest contributor to climate change, cause rising CO2 levels in the earth’s atmosphere. This raises atmospheric temperatures and levels of precipitation in the Northwestern Forested Mountains. Being a very mountainous region, weather patterns contribute higher levels of... |
why gifs can't have sound. | Gif, jpg, png, mov, avi, mp4 and any other extension you see like that are really just a set of standards. A standard pretty much says, "act and look this way when this happens, but when this happens do this"
gif has a standard that doesn't include sound.
For some more information about these standards, look here:
[_URL_0_](_URL_0_) (unfortunately gif has no spec on there just yet)
| [
"The sounds are also fake. During a commercial for potato chips, the sound crew tears up cardboard to make it sound loud, crunchy, and delicious. For a commercial for fake plastic swords, they remove the original \"boring\" sound, and replace it with real metal swords clashing with each other on the right timing.\n... |
Do x-rays occur in nature? | X-rays are high energy photons produced by the acceleration of electrons, while gamma rays are higher energy photons produced by nuclei an other particles.
(In astrophysics, they instead say that x-rays are below some energy and gamma-rays are above. This is because you don't necessarily know what is producing the photons, and because you have to describe your instrument as an X-ray telescope or a gamma-ray telescope based on how it works.)
Some types of radioactive decay produce both gamma rays and x-rays from both the nucleus and the electron cloud.
Lightning can produce x-rays, and sometimes even gamma rays.
The sun produces x-rays even when quiescent because it has a region around it that is much hotte than the surface. It also produces gamma rays during flares.
Black holes and neutron stars are the most prolific x-ray sources in the sky. | [
"The first picture of the Earth in X-rays was taken in March 1996, with the orbiting Polar satellite. Energetically charged particles from the Sun cause aurora and energize electrons in the Earth's magnetosphere. These electrons move along the Earth's magnetic field and eventually strike the Earth's ionosphere, pro... |
why do car keys (the one with buttons) only unlock your car and none others? not even the same model? | Small computers that are connected to eachother, they’re called immobilizers and they have specific codes to be in sync with a specific computer in a car | [
"A car key or an automobile key is a key used to open and/or start an automobile. Modern key designs are usually symmetrical, and some use grooves on both sides, rather than a cut edge, to actuate the lock. It has multiple uses for the automobile with which it was sold. A car key can open the doors, as well as star... |
why are planes round tubes instead of flattened ovals shaped? | I'm not an engineer, but structurally cylinders are incredibly strong. An "flattened tube" would probably collapse much more easily from all the stresses involved in flight. | [
"The tri-oval is the common shape of the ovals from the construction booms of the 1960s and 1990s. The use of the tri-oval shape for automobile racing was conceived by Bill France, Sr. during the planning for Daytona. The triangular layout allowed fans in the grandstands an angular perspective of the cars coming to... |
if a person had enough money to design and build a functional space ship, capable of traveling and landing and whatnot, would it be legal? would the government be able to do anything? | Well there let's consider these two options.
First let's consider that you are just a rich multi-billionaire and want to build a rocket and fly to the moon. Guess what, someone is already doing that. [SpaceX](_URL_0_) is a private company that is building and launching rockets into space right now. They have flown to the International Space Station several times and will soon be carrying passengers. Now SpaceX works closely with NASA and the US government to license operations and flights. BUT if you had enough mony to build a rocket to reach the moon then hiring a few lawyers to jump trough the regulatory hoops would be chump change. [Blue Origin](_URL_2_) is another private company preparing to fly into space.
Bottom line: Rocket launches are regulated and licensed by the US government, BUT YES, it is legal for a private citizen to build a rocket and fly into space with the right paperwork.
Now let's consider the second option.
Let's say you are a insanely intelligent scientist and discover an entirely new way to fly. Say anti-gravity. So you decide to build an anti-gravity space ship and fly it to the moon. Guess what you can but there are still government issues you would be dealing with. Right now all laws and rules for getting into space are written with rockets in mind. So an anti-gravity powered spacecraft would be considered an aircraft under current us law. Hey it does fly through the air before entering space. So you would have to work with you local [FAA office](_URL_1_) to get an amateur-built aircraft airworthiness certification. Once you built it and were ready to fly it you would have to be properly licensed. Now this is a kicker. There is no license for space craft but you could probably get by if you went and got your private pilots license. But wait you still got one or two more hurdles. If your anti-gravity craft weighed more than 12500 pounds you would need to get a type certificate for it. But guess what that doesn't exist for a anti-gravity craft so you would then have to work with your local field office to get certified to fly the craft you just built. But once all that is done you are ready to go... NOT! there is one more gotcha in US law. US law states that all flights between 18,000 and 60,000 feet in altitude MUST be conducted under IFR, Instrument Flight Rules. So you cant get into space without flying from 18,000 to 60,000 feet. So back to flight school you go to get your Instrument rating. Now you are ready to go. Call your local Flight Service Center and File a IFR flight plan at least 30 minutes before departure. Climb into your space ship and head for the moon. Be sure to contact departure control to activate your flight plan as soon as you are airborne. | [
"In addition, the new law made extensive modifications to the patent law and provided that both employee inventions as well as private contractor innovations brought about through space travel would be subject to government ownership. By making the government the exclusive provider of space transport, the act effec... |
How did people light candles before the invention of matches/lighters? | Starting from a "there's no fire nearby" state would require breaking out a tinderbox and flint and steel. You would strike sparks from the flint and steel into material that would be highly susceptible to catching fire. This might be something super low tech such as ordinary tinder like wood shavings, dry pine needles, or what-have-you. It could be a little bit more sophisticated like chunks of charred wood left over from an old fire (or proper charcoal) or char cloth (the equivalent of charcoal except in cloth form). Once you have smoldering happening in your tinder then you could blow on it to encourage it to come up to a full flame, which you could then transfer elsewhere via a small wood splint or twig. Or if you have a candle you could use the heat to melt some of the wax into your smoldering tinder, which will light more easily, and then use that to catch the wick of the candle.
Keep in mind that the effective labor involved here is not just in the work described above but also in using up some of the materials (tinder, char cloth, etc.) which take labor to replace. So you'd generally avoid having to start a fire when possible. In a home you'd often keep a fire running all day and night, or perhaps simply "banked" overnight (hot coals covered and slowly cooling, ready to be used to start a new fire in the morning with just the addition of tinder, air, and some TLC). Then you'd simply light lamps and candles via splints you lit from the fire.
Toolkits similar to this (flint, steel, tinder) have been commonly in use since at least the Bronze Age if not longer. Otzi the ice man was found to have both flint and pyrite (for making sparks) as well as a tinder fungus (prepared into sheets). | [
"In parts of Europe, the Middle-East and Africa, where lamp oil made from olives was readily available, candle making remained unknown until the early middle-ages. Candles were primarily made from tallow and beeswax in ancient times, but have been made from spermaceti, purified animal fats (stearin) and paraffin wa... |
the california energy crisis of 2000 and the enron scandal | As for the energy crisis, basically Enron would cut off the power supply so that the cost of electricity would skyrocket, and then turn it back on in order to make more money. Enron in general, that was mostly down to a type of accounting they used that let them declare potential earnings, so that it always looked like they were making loads of money when they were, in fact, losing money. I would recommend the documentary "The smartest men in the room" If you want to learn more | [
"On January 17, 2001, Davis declared a state of emergency in response to the electricity crisis. Speculators, led by Enron Corporation, were collectively making large profits while the state teetered on the edge for weeks and finally suffered rolling blackouts on January 17 and 18. Davis stepped in to buy power at ... |
How do groups of photons form electromagnetic waves? | You are mixing two concepts. Photons have both wave-like and particle-like properties. It is not the case that adding up the particle-properties (the quantized packets) yields the wave-like behavior.
_URL_0_ | [
"Pairs of single photons can be generated in highly correlated states from using a single high-energy photon to create two lower-energy ones. One photon from the resulting pair may be detected to 'herald' the other (so its state is pretty well known prior to detection). The two photons need not generally be the sam... |
Has an American President, after serving his term, ever served on a jury? | > In fact, no modern court has had a sitting president on a jury. Ronald Reagan came the closest when he was summoned in the 1980s by Santa Barbara County, Calif. He was granted a deferment until he was out of office.
[Source 1](_URL_3_)
[Source 2 - Former POTUS G.W. Bush's duty](_URL_0_)
That photo is good 'ole W actually serving his duty as a juror, so yes!
Relevant Statute(s):
-2 U.S. Code §* 30a - Jury duty exemption of elected officials of legislative branch:
subsection (a): "Notwithstanding any other provision of Federal, State or local law, no elected official of the **legislative branch of the United States Government** shall be required to serve on a grand or petit jury, convened by any Federal, State or local court, whether such service is requested by judicial summons or by some other means of compulsion."
-28 U.S. Code § 1866 - Selection and summoning of jury panels:
Subsection (c)(1): " excused by the court, or by the clerk under supervision of the court if the court’s jury selection plan so authorizes, upon a showing of undue hardship or extreme inconvenience..."
Subsection (c)(2): "excluded by the court on the ground that such person may be unable to render impartial jury service or that his service as a juror would be likely to disrupt the proceedings..."
*§ = "Paragraph"; bolded text my emphasis
Sources:
[2 US Code 30a](_URL_2_)
[28 US Code para 1866](_URL_1_)
Has it happened to a former president? ~~Indeed~~ Sort of. *Can* it happen to a sitting president? Technically, yes, but in reality its a long shot! Presidents, serving or otherwise, *are not members of the legislative branch*, but of the Executive branch. Naturally of course, a barrister conducting jury selection will have quite a feat on their hands trying to convince all involved that the POTUS or Ex-POTUS is both not greatly inconvenienced nor capable of gross bias in any instance. | [
"On May 22, 1951 he was nominated by President Truman as Chief Judge of a new United States Court of Military Appeals. He was confirmed by the Senate June 19, and was sworn the next day, June 20 of 1951. He was reappointed to his position as Chief Justice by President Johnson for another 15-year term, but he retire... |
Border between East Germany and Czechoslovak Socialist Republic during Cold War | For citizens of the GDR (German Democratic Republic), foreign countries were divided into two categories: 1) 'Socialist Countries' and 2) 'Not Socialist Countries'.
Between the GDR and the CSSR there was a formal border crossing, but no special visas were required. What was somewhat difficult was changing money, which could be done in certain amounts. No country wanted the worthless currency of the other country. If one had D-Mark (which was the de-facto hard currency), then one could easily change on the black market.
Citizens of the GDR living near the CSSR would make unofficial 'shopping trips' into the CSSR to buy certain goods which were cheaper or even available. But one had to be discreet about such shopping trips.
For Poland, there were no strict visa regulations until 1980. After 1980 the visa process for Poland became very complicated. Other fellow Socialist countries, like Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria were visited as summer holiday destinations. Of these countries, Hungary was very expensive for GDR citizens but the most interesting.
As mentioned before, the biggest headache for traveling abroad for GDR citizens was the currency exchange -- GDR citizens were only allowed to exchange a certain amount of money every year. To avoid such headaches, many just took their summer holidays in the GDR itself. Many state-owned companies provided their workers with summer holiday accommodation as well.
Traveling to 'Not Socialist Countries' was far more complicated and involved a long visa process.
Recommended reading (in German): 'Urlaub vom Staat: Tourismus in der DDR'. (C. Goerlich). | [
"The protection of borders between the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (CSSR) and Capitalist countries of Western Europe, namely with West Germany and Austria, in the Cold War era and especially after 1951, was provided by special troops of the Pohraniční Stráž () and system of engineer equipment which created the ... |
Did the SS take measures to reduce the spread of infection to themselves during the Holocaust? | The camps were designed to run with a minimum of SS personnel and not so much personal contact.
Kapos were frequently employed to keep order and handle a lot of the day to day business of the camp, including punishments and physical abuse. Kapos were prisoners themselves but they earned special privileges such as better food, housing, and freedom from abuse in return for working for the SS administrators. The average SS man at a concentration camp would not really need to come into close contact with many prisoners, and thus the camps could be run with a skeleton crew of SS men with a lot of local enforcers.
The most distasteful of tasks, such as preparing and cleaning out the gas chambers was assigned to the Sonderkommando, a work unit made up of camp inmates. They were not necessarily a 'disciplinary' unit like the Kapos but were instead doing a horrid and distasteful job that put them in close contact with lots of corpses. Sonderkommando were kept apart from the rest of the inmates and also given slightly better conditions in order to keep them strong enough to work. The Sonderkommando were not as privileged as the Kapos, and would soon find themselves in the very same gas chambers they knew all too well. It would be the first job of the new 'generation' of Sonderkommando to dispose of the previous one. The Sonderkommando men 'knew too much' and so were disposed of and replaced with a new crew after a few months. Some of them managed to smuggle messages detailing the horror they witnessed and participated in out of the camps.
As you can see, much of the nitty-gritty of running a death-camp is passed down as a duty of the prisoners themselves. Refusing to work for the Nazis would certainly ensure you severe consequences. Working for them would give you a chance to possibly survive, at the cost of betraying your fellow inmates. Some people did this for pure opportunism, others were hateful anti-Semites (camps had a wide range of people, and not just Jews), while others were simply doing anything they can to survive. It is hard to judge them from afar without knowing what it is like to be cold and starving to death and to be offered a job that might improve your situation at the cost of your fellow prisoners. | [
"As part of its race-centric functions during World War II, the SS oversaw the isolation and displacement of Jews from the populations of the conquered territories, seizing their assets and deporting them to concentration camps and ghettos, where they were used as slave labor or immediately killed. Chosen to implem... |
can anyone launch a satellite? or are there laws claiming space territory? | Per the [Outer Space Treaty](_URL_0_) of 1967, governments cannot stake a claim to territory in space—so yes, space is indeed borderless. However, to get to outer space, Spacex's rockets first have to pass through the airspace directly above the US, which the Federal Aviation Administration *does* have jurisdiction over, thus requiring their approval. | [
"BULLET::::- explicitly forbids any government from claiming a celestial resource such as the Moon or a planet, claiming that they are the common heritage of mankind, \"not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means\". However, the State that laun... |
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