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(GTEx) project === The GTEx project is a human genetics project aimed at understanding the role of genetic variation in shaping variation in the transcriptome across tissues. The project has collected a variety of tissue samples (> 50 different tissues) from more than 700 post-mortem donors. This has resulted in the co...	{ "page_id": 1053858, "title": "Functional genomics" }
An ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) is a field-effect transistor used for measuring ion concentrations in solution; when the ion concentration (such as H+, see pH scale) changes, the current through the transistor will change accordingly. Here, the solution is used as the gate electrode. A voltage between ...	{ "page_id": 2036897, "title": "ISFET" }
a solution. However, it also requires a reference electrode to operate. If the reference electrode used in contact with the solution is of the AgCl or Hg2Cl2 classical type, it will suffer the same limitations as conventional pH electrodes (junction potential, KCl leak, and glycerol leak in case of gel electrode). A co...	{ "page_id": 2036897, "title": "ISFET" }
A crucial factor for ISFET electrodes, as for conventional glass electrodes, remains thus the reference electrode. When troubleshooting electrode malfunctions, often, most of the problems have to be searched for from the side of the reference electrode. == Low-frequency noise of ISFET == For ISFET-based sensors, low-fr...	{ "page_id": 2036897, "title": "ISFET" }
as well as electrochemical nonequilibrium conditions at the insulator solution interface, injection of electrons from the electrolyte at strong anodic polarizations, creating negative space charge inside the insulator films, and slow surface effects. == History == The basis for the ISFET is the MOSFET. Dutch engineer P...	{ "page_id": 2036897, "title": "ISFET" }
(PDF). IEEE Sensor Conference, October 2003. Toronto: IEEE. p. 26. ISFET pH Sensors == Further reading == Rothberg, Johnathan M (2011). "An integrated semiconductor device enabling non-optical genome sequencing". Nature. 475 (7356): 348–52. doi:10.1038/nature10242. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 21776081. Bergveld, P. (1985). "T...	{ "page_id": 2036897, "title": "ISFET" }
ISSN 0017-5749. PMC 1378826. PMID 2013417. Errachid, A.; J. Bausells; N. Jaffrezic-Renault (1999). "A simple REFET for pH detection in differential mode". Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 60 (1): 43–48. Bibcode:1999SeAcB..60...43E. doi:10.1016/S0925-4005(99)00242-7. ISSN 0925-4005. Ghallab, Y.H.; W. Badawy; K.V.I.S. ...	{ "page_id": 2036897, "title": "ISFET" }
EJR Sudhölter; DN Reinhoudt (1990). "Reference field effect transistors based on chemically modified ISFETs". Analytica Chimica Acta. 230: 67–73. Bibcode:1990AcAC..230...67S. doi:10.1016/s0003-2670(00)82762-2. ISSN 0003-2670. Suzuki, Hiroaki; Taishi Hirakawa; Satoshi Sasaki; Isao Karube (1998-02-15). "Micromachined liq...	{ "page_id": 2036897, "title": "ISFET" }
The molecular formula C10H7NO3 (molar mass: 189.168 g/mol) may refer to: α-Cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid Kynurenic acid, a product of the normal metabolism of amino acid L-tryptophan	{ "page_id": 24384674, "title": "C10H7NO3" }
The agouti gene, the Agouti-signaling protein (ASIP) is responsible for variations in color in many species. Agouti works with extension to regulate the color of melanin which is produced in hairs. The agouti protein causes red to yellow pheomelanin to be produced, while the competing molecule α-MSH signals production ...	{ "page_id": 63640741, "title": "Agouti coloration genetics" }
a tan belly. A/at heterozygotes look like AW mice. Nonagouti a mice are almost completely black, with only a few yellow hairs around the ears and the genitals. Extreme nonagouti ae mice are fully black, and is recessive to all other alleles in the series. This is not a complete list of mouse agouti alleles. The nonagou...	{ "page_id": 63640741, "title": "Agouti coloration genetics" }
of black-tipped and/or all-black hairs dispersed throughout) - fawn typically referring to dogs with clearer tan and sable to those with more black shading aw = Wild-type agouti (each hair with 3-6 bands alternating black and tan) - also called wolf sable at = Tan point (black with tan patches on the face and underside...	{ "page_id": 63640741, "title": "Agouti coloration genetics" }
also has a more active ventral promoter. The hair cycle promoter involved in these colors is thought to have arisen about 2 million years ago in an extinct species of canid, which later hybridized with wolves. == Cats == The dominant, wild-type A allows hairs to be banded with black and red (revealing the underlying ta...	{ "page_id": 63640741, "title": "Agouti coloration genetics" }
lightened the coat, some which darkened it. This theory also suggested that seal brown horses were black horses with a trait called pangare. Pangaré is an ancestral trait also called "mealy", which outlines the soft or communicative parts of the horse in buff tan. The combination of black and pangaré was dismissed as t...	{ "page_id": 63640741, "title": "Agouti coloration genetics" }
non-agouti allele causes a black coat. A third allele, possibly a mutation to a regulator or promoter region, is thought to cause black and tan color. The nonagouti allele is estimated to have first appeared before 1700. Agouti is linked to the wideband gene, with about a 30% crossover rate. Like white bellied agouti m...	{ "page_id": 63640741, "title": "Agouti coloration genetics" }
In classical mechanics and ballistics, the parabola of safety or safety parabola is the envelope of the parabolic trajectories of projectiles shot from a certain point with a given speed at different angles to horizon in a fixed vertical plane. The fact that this envelope is a parabola had been first established by Eva...	{ "page_id": 26481832, "title": "Parabola of safety" }
Methylthiophene may refer to: 2-Methylthiophene 3-Methylthiophene	{ "page_id": 60036265, "title": "Methylthiophene" }
Microviscosity, also known as microscopic viscosity, is the friction experienced by a single particle undergoing diffusion because of its interaction with its environment at the micrometer length scale. The concept of microviscosity is intimately related to the concept of single particle diffusion and can be measured u...	{ "page_id": 28775600, "title": "Microviscosity" }
In computer science and operations research, Genetic fuzzy systems are fuzzy systems constructed by using genetic algorithms or genetic programming, which mimic the process of natural evolution, to identify its structure and parameter. When it comes to automatically identifying and building a fuzzy system, given the hi...	{ "page_id": 1840306, "title": "Genetic fuzzy systems" }
of a fuzzy system is expressed by the input and output variables and the rule base, while the parameters of a fuzzy system are the rule parameters (defining the membership functions, the aggregation operator and the implication function) and the mapping parameters related to the mapping of a crisp set to a fuzzy set, a...	{ "page_id": 1840306, "title": "Genetic fuzzy systems" }
based systems has attracted wide interest within the research community and practitioners. It is based on the use of stochastic algorithms for Multi-objective optimization to search for the Pareto efficiency in a multiple objectives scenario. For instance, the objectives to simultaneously optimize can be accuracy and c...	{ "page_id": 1840306, "title": "Genetic fuzzy systems" }
2007, M. Cococcioni, B. Lazzerini, F. Marcelloni, A Pareto-based multi-objective evolutionary approach to the identification of Mamdani fuzzy systems, Soft Computing, V.11, N.11, pp. 1013–1031 2011, M. Cococcioni, B. Lazzerini, F. Marcelloni, On reducing computational overhead in multi-objective genetic Takagi-Sugeno f...	{ "page_id": 1840306, "title": "Genetic fuzzy systems" }
Douglas Houghton Campbell (December 19, 1859 – February 24, 1953) was an American botanist and university professor.: 48 He was one of the 15 founding professors at Stanford University. His death was described as "the end of an era of a group of great plant morphologists." Campbell was born and raised in Detroit, Michi...	{ "page_id": 1774770, "title": "Douglas Houghton Campbell" }
United States." His Lectures on the Evolution of Plants was published in 1899, and became widely used as a botany textbook. University Textbook of Botany was published in 1902, with fears expressed by colleagues that interest in pure research interest would prejudice its worth being found to be misplaced.: 48 He also t...	{ "page_id": 1774770, "title": "Douglas Houghton Campbell" }
NanoDSF is a type of differential scanning fluorimetry (DSF) method used to determine conformational protein stability by employing intrinsic tryptophan or tyrosine fluorescence, as opposed to the use of extrinsic fluorogenic dyes that are typically monitored via a qPCR instrument. A nanoDSF assay is also known as a ty...	{ "page_id": 45552819, "title": "Nano differential scanning fluorimetry" }
of enzyme libraries for biotechnological applications. Currently there are at least four instruments on the market that can measure fluorescence wavelength shifts in a high-throughput manner while heating the samples through a defined temperature ramp. These instruments employ either proprietary quartz capillaries, car...	{ "page_id": 45552819, "title": "Nano differential scanning fluorimetry" }
Behavioral spillover is the measurable effect that one behavioral intervention has on other behaviors that are not being targeted. Some definitions of behavioral spillover do not require that the first action was the result of an external intervention. Common requirements for defining behavioral spillover include requi...	{ "page_id": 67310773, "title": "Behavioral spillover" }
Carbon (from Latin carbo 'coal') is a chemical element; it has symbol C and atomic number 6. It is nonmetallic and tetravalent—meaning that its atoms are able to form up to four covalent bonds due to its valence shell exhibiting 4 electrons. It belongs to group 14 of the periodic table. Carbon makes up about 0.025 perc...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen. The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4, while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes. The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones, dolomites and carbon dioxide...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
of which the four outer electrons are valence electrons. Its first four ionisation energies, 1086.5, 2352.6, 4620.5 and 6222.7 kJ/mol, are much higher than those of the heavier group-14 elements. The electronegativity of carbon is 2.5, significantly higher than the heavier group-14 elements (1.8–1.9), but close to most...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
abrasive and for making hard tips for cutting tools. The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes: === Allotropes === Atomic carbon is a very short-lived species and, therefore, carbon is stabilized in various multi-atomic structures with diverse molecular configurations called allotropes. The three relati...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
atom to form a π-cloud, graphite conducts electricity, but only in the plane of each covalently bonded sheet. This results in a lower bulk electrical conductivity for carbon than for most metals. The delocalization also accounts for the energetic stability of graphite over diamond at room temperature. At very high pres...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
are a synthetic crystalline formation with a graphite-like structure, but in place of flat hexagonal cells only, some of the cells of which fullerenes are formed may be pentagons, nonplanar hexagons, or even heptagons of carbon atoms. The sheets are thus warped into spheres, ellipses, or cylinders. The properties of fu...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
modulus is 40 times that of the hardest known material – diamond. In 2015, a team at the North Carolina State University announced the development of another allotrope they have dubbed Q-carbon, created by a high-energy low-duration laser pulse on amorphous carbon dust. Q-carbon is reported to exhibit ferromagnetism, f...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
in the oceans or atmosphere (below). In combination with oxygen in carbon dioxide, carbon is found in the Earth's atmosphere (approximately 900 gigatonnes of carbon — each ppm corresponds to 2.13 Gt) and dissolved in all water bodies (approximately 36,000 gigatonnes of carbon). Carbon in the biosphere has been estimate...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
the rock kimberlite, found in ancient volcanic "necks", or "pipes". Most diamond deposits are in Africa, notably in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic of the Congo, and Angola. Diamond deposits have also been found in Arkansas, Canada, the Russian Arctic, Brazil, and in Northern and Western Australia. Diamon...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
part per trillion (0.0000000001%) or more, mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial deposits, particularly of peat and other organic materials. This isotope decays by 0.158 MeV β− emission. Because of its relatively short half-life of 5700±30 years, 14C is virtually absent in ancient rocks. The amount of 14C i...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
accreted planets. The Solar System is one such star system with an abundance of carbon, enabling the existence of life as we know it. It is the opinion of most scholars that all the carbon in the Solar System and the Milky Way comes from dying stars. The CNO cycle is an additional hydrogen fusion mechanism that powers ...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
hydrocarbon—a large family of organic molecules that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other atoms, known as heteroatoms. Common heteroatoms that appear in organic compounds include oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and the nonradioactive ...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
the chemical-code carriers of life, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the most important energy-transfer molecule in all living cells. Norman Horowitz, head of the Mariner and Viking missions to Mars (1965–1976), considered that the unique characteristics of carbon made it unlikely that any other element could replace ...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
trioxide (CO3), cyclopentanepentone (C5O5), cyclohexanehexone (C6O6), and mellitic anhydride (C12O9). However, mellitic anhydride is the triple acyl anhydride of mellitic acid; moreover, it contains a benzene ring. Thus, many chemists consider it to be organic. With reactive metals, such as tungsten, carbon forms eithe...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
phosphine-gold fragments. This phenomenon has been attributed to the aurophilicity of the gold ligands, which provide additional stabilization of an otherwise labile species. In nature, the iron-molybdenum cofactor (FeMoco) responsible for microbial nitrogen fixation likewise has an octahedral carbon center (formally a...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
a pyramid covered with clay to exclude air. In 1722, René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur demonstrated that iron was transformed into steel through the absorption of some substance, now known to be carbon. In 1772, Antoine Lavoisier showed that diamonds are a form of carbon; when he burned samples of charcoal and diamond ...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
India, Brazil, and North Korea. Graphite deposits are of metamorphic origin, found in association with quartz, mica, and feldspars in schists, gneisses, and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins, sometimes of a metre or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale, Cumberland, England were ...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
was reported mined in the United States, but 118,000 t of synthetic graphite with an estimated value of $998 million was produced in 2009. === Diamond === The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world (s...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
for example, Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe) but the Argyle mine in Australia became the single largest source, producing 14 million carats in 2018. New finds, the Canadian mines at Diavik and Ekati, are expected to become even more valuable owing to their production of gem quality stones. In the United States, diamonds h...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
electroforming, in brushes for electric motors, and as a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors. Charcoal is used as a drawing material in artwork, barbecue grilling, iron smelting, and in many other applications. Wood, coal and oil are used as fuel for production of energy and heating. Gem quality diamond is used in je...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
are used as abrasives in cutting and grinding tools. Carbon compounds make up most of the materials used in clothing, such as natural and synthetic textiles and leather, and almost all of the interior surfaces in the built environment other than glass, stone, drywall, and metal. === Diamonds === The diamond industry fa...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
a semiconductor suitable for microchips, and because of its exceptional heat conductance property, as a heat sink in electronics. == Precautions == Pure carbon has extremely low toxicity to humans and can be handled safely in the form of graphite or charcoal. It is resistant to dissolution or chemical attack, even in t...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
materials to combust. The great variety of carbon compounds include such lethal poisons as tetrodotoxin, the lectin ricin from seeds of the castor oil plant Ricinus communis, cyanide (CN−), and carbon monoxide; and such essentials to life as glucose and protein. == See also == == References == == Bibliography == Greenw...	{ "page_id": 5299, "title": "Carbon" }
Reaktor Serba Guna–Gerrit Augustinus Siwabessy (RSG-GAS) (Multipurpose Reactor–Gerrit Augustinus Siwabessy) is a research reactor located in the Serpong neighborhood of South Tangerang, Banten, Indonesia. The reactor plays an important role in the Centre for Nuclear Industry Development, at Puspiptek, Serpong to serve ...	{ "page_id": 36508850, "title": "Reaktor Serba Guna G.A. Siwabessy" }
In physics and in the mathematics of plane curves, a Cotes's spiral (also written Cotes' spiral and Cotes spiral) is one of a family of spirals classified by Roger Cotes. == Description == Cotes introduces his analysis of these curves as follows: “It is proposed to list the different types of trajectories which bodies ...	{ "page_id": 18683059, "title": "Cotes's spiral" }
reference should be made to the individual curves. == Classical mechanics == Cotes's spirals appear in classical mechanics, as the family of solutions for the motion of a particle moving under an inverse-cube central force. Consider a central force F ( r ) = − μ r 3 r ^ , {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {F}}({\boldsymbol {...	{ "page_id": 18683059, "title": "Cotes's spiral" }
par excellence. This has great historical significance as in Proposition 9 of the Principia Book 1, Newton proves that if a body moves along an equiangular spiral, under the action of a central force, that force must be as the inverse of the cube of the radius (even before his proof, in Proposition 11, that motion in a...	{ "page_id": 18683059, "title": "Cotes's spiral" }
of Celestial Mechanics (2nd ed., rev. ed.). Richmond, VA: Willmann-Bell. pp. 69–71. ISBN 978-0-943396-20-0. Symon KR (1971). Mechanics (3rd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-201-07392-8. Samuel Earnshaw (1832). Dynamics, Or an Elementary Treatise on Motion and a Short Treatise on Attractions (1st ed...	{ "page_id": 18683059, "title": "Cotes's spiral" }
In chemical biology and biomolecular engineering, rational design (RD) is an umbrella term which invites the strategy of creating new molecules with a certain functionality, based upon the ability to predict how the molecule's structure (specifically derived from motifs) will affect its behavior through physical models...	{ "page_id": 31462586, "title": "Rational design" }
Seipin is a homo-oligomeric integral membrane protein in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that concentrates at junctions with cytoplasmic lipid droplets (LDs). Alternatively, seipin can be referred to as Berardinelli–Seip congenital lipodystrophy type 2 protein (BSCL2), and it is encoded by the corresponding gene of the ...	{ "page_id": 48370875, "title": "Seipin" }
longer transcript (variant 1) is generated with an alternative first exon containing a translational start site that results in an additional 64 amino acids at the N-terminal extension, 462 amino acids in total (isoform 1). A third coding transcript (variant 3) splices out exon 7 and produces a shortened and altered ca...	{ "page_id": 48370875, "title": "Seipin" }
ER stress response. The seipin protein can also have a modification residue, that can transform the 289’ and 372’ serine into a phosphoserine, an ester of serine and phosphoric acid. Overexpression of mutated seipin proteins N88S or S90L can also activate autophagy, and substantially altering the sub-cellular distribut...	{ "page_id": 48370875, "title": "Seipin" }
Symptoms can vary and include: developmental regression of motor and cognitive skills in the first years of life leading to death (encephalopathy), muscle weakness and spasticity in lower limbs (spastic paraplegia type XVII), weakness of distal muscles of upper limbs (distal hereditary motor neuropathy type V) as well ...	{ "page_id": 48370875, "title": "Seipin" }
In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which both the reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time, so that there is no observable change in the properties of the system. This state results when the forward reaction proceeds at the same ra...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
active masses and k+ and k− are rate constants. Since at equilibrium forward and backward rates are equal: k + { A } α { B } β = k − { S } σ { T } τ {\displaystyle k_{+}\left\{{\ce {A}}\right\}^{\alpha }\left\{{\ce {B}}\right\}^{\beta }=k_{-}\left\{{\ce {S}}\right\}^{\sigma }\left\{{\ce {T}}\right\}^{\tau }} and the ra...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
of acetic acid dissolved in water and forming acetate and hydronium ions, CH3CO2H + H2O ⇌ CH3CO−2 + H3O+ a proton may hop from one molecule of acetic acid onto a water molecule and then onto an acetate anion to form another molecule of acetic acid and leaving the number of acetic acid molecules unchanged. This is an ex...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
at a constant temperature and pressure. What this means is that the derivative of the Gibbs energy with respect to reaction coordinate (a measure of the extent of reaction that has occurred, ranging from zero for all reactants to a maximum for all products) vanishes (because dG = 0), signaling a stationary point. This ...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
chemistry courses. == Thermodynamics == At constant temperature and pressure, one must consider the Gibbs free energy, G, while at constant temperature and volume, one must consider the Helmholtz free energy, A, for the reaction; and at constant internal energy and volume, one must consider the entropy, S, for the reac...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
ξ, must be zero. It can be shown that in this case, the sum of chemical potentials times the stoichiometric coefficients of the products is equal to the sum of those corresponding to the reactants. Therefore, the sum of the Gibbs energies of the reactants must be the equal to the sum of the Gibbs energies of the produc...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
μ T − α μ A − β μ B {\displaystyle \Delta _{\mathrm {r} }G_{T,p}=\sigma \mu _{\mathrm {S} }+\tau \mu _{\mathrm {T} }-\alpha \mu _{\mathrm {A} }-\beta \mu _{\mathrm {B} }\,} . By substituting the chemical potentials: Δ r G T , p = ( σ μ S ⊖ + τ μ T ⊖ ) − ( α μ A ⊖ + β μ B ⊖ ) + ( σ R T ln ⁡ { S } + τ R T ln ⁡ { T } ) − ...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
) T , p = Δ r G T , p = Δ r G ⊖ + R T ln ⁡ Q r {\displaystyle \left({\frac {dG}{d\xi }}\right)_{T,p}=\Delta _{\mathrm {r} }G_{T,p}=\Delta _{\mathrm {r} }G^{\ominus }+RT\ln Q_{\mathrm {r} }} At equilibrium: ( d G d ξ ) T , p = Δ r G T , p = 0 {\displaystyle \left({\frac {dG}{d\xi }}\right)_{T,p}=\Delta _{\mathrm {r} }G_...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
∏ ( a j ) ν j ∏ ( a i ) ν i , {\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {r} }={\frac {\prod (a_{j})^{\nu _{j}}}{\prod (a_{i})^{\nu _{i}}}}~,} the reaction quotient decreases. Then Q r < K e q {\displaystyle Q_{\mathrm {r} }<K_{\mathrm {eq} }~} and ( d G d ξ ) T , p < 0 {\displaystyle \left({\frac {dG}{d\xi }}\right)_{T,p}<0~} The reac...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
It is common practice to assume that Γ is a constant, and to use the concentration quotient in place of the thermodynamic equilibrium constant. It is also general practice to use the term equilibrium constant instead of the more accurate concentration quotient. This practice will be followed here. For reactions in the ...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
Since activity coefficients depend on ionic strength, the activity coefficients of the species are effectively independent of concentration. Thus, the assumption that Γ is constant is justified. The concentration quotient is a simple multiple of the equilibrium constant. K c = K Γ {\displaystyle K_{\mathrm {c} }={\frac...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
2 − ] [ H 3 O + ] [ C H 3 C O 2 H ] [ H 2 O ] {\displaystyle K_{\mathrm {c} }={\frac {\mathrm {[{CH_{3}CO_{2}}^{-}][{H_{3}O}^{+}]} }{\mathrm {[{CH_{3}CO_{2}H}][{H_{2}O}]} }}} For all but very concentrated solutions, the water can be considered a "pure" liquid, and therefore it has an activity of one. The equilibrium co...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
dibasic acid H2A. When dissolved in water, the mixture will contain H2A, HA− and A2−. This equilibrium can be split into two steps in each of which one proton is liberated. H 2 A ↽ − − ⇀ HA − + H + : K 1 = [ HA − ] [ H + ] [ H 2 A ] HA − ↽ − − ⇀ A 2 − + H + : K 2 = [ A 2 − ] [ H + ] [ HA − ] {\displaystyle {\begin{arra...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
equilibrium systems, also see: theory of Response reactions. == Effect of temperature == The effect of changing temperature on an equilibrium constant is given by the van 't Hoff equation d ln ⁡ K d T = Δ H m ⊖ R T 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {d\ln K}{dT}}={\frac {\Delta H_{\mathrm {m} }^{\ominus }}{RT^{2}}}} Thus, for END...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
constant, hydrolysis, buffer solutions, indicators, acid–base homeostasis Metal–ligand complexation: sequestering agents, chelation therapy, MRI contrast reagents, Schlenk equilibrium Adduct formation: host–guest chemistry, supramolecular chemistry, molecular recognition, dinitrogen tetroxide In certain oscillating rea...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
in the case of a dibasic acid, H2A dissolved in water the two reactants can be specified as the conjugate base, A2−, and the proton, H+. The following equations of mass-balance could apply equally well to a base such as 1,2-diaminoethane, in which case the base itself is designated as the reactant A: T A = [ A ] + [ H ...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
p i [ B ] q i {\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {A} }=[\mathrm {A} ]+\sum _{i}p_{i}\beta _{i}[\mathrm {A} ]^{p_{i}}[\mathrm {B} ]^{q_{i}}} T B = [ B ] + ∑ i q i β i [ A ] p i [ B ] q i {\displaystyle T_{\mathrm {B} }=[\mathrm {B} ]+\sum _{i}q_{i}\beta _{i}[\mathrm {A} ]^{p_{i}}[\mathrm {B} ]^{q_{i}}} It is easy to see how this...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
complex. If the complex is hydrophobic, it will precipitate out of water. This occurs with the nickel ion Ni2+ and dimethylglyoxime, (dmgH2): in this case the lattice energy of the solid is not particularly large, but it greatly exceeds the energy of solvation of the molecule Ni(dmgH)2. === Minimization of Gibbs energy...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
on each molecule which will sum to zero. This is a standard problem in optimisation, known as constrained minimisation. The most common method of solving it is using the method of Lagrange multipliers (although other methods may be used). Define: G = G + ∑ i = 1 k λ i ( ∑ j = 1 m a i j N j − b i 0 ) = 0 {\displaystyle ...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
consistent with those specified by chemical equations. For example, if equilibrium is specified by a single chemical equation:, ∑ j = 0 m ν j R j = 0 {\displaystyle \sum _{j=0}^{m}\nu _{j}R_{j}=0} where νj is the stoichiometric coefficient for the j th molecule (negative for reactants, positive for products) and Rj is ...	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
the Determination of Formation Constants. Plenum Press. Martell, A. E.; Motekaitis, R. J. (1992). The Determination and Use of Stability Constants. Wiley-VCH. == External links == Media related to Chemical equilibria at Wikimedia Commons	{ "page_id": 5306, "title": "Chemical equilibrium" }
Vegetative reproduction (also known as vegetative propagation, vegetative multiplication or cloning) is a form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants in which a new plant grows from a fragment or cutting of the parent plant or specialized reproductive structures, which are sometimes called vegetative propagules. M...	{ "page_id": 332989, "title": "Vegetative reproduction" }
is often not a complete cloning method because seedlings are used as rootstocks. In that case, only the top of the plant is clonal. In some crops, particularly apples, the rootstocks are vegetatively propagated so the entire graft can be clonal if the scion and rootstock are both clones. Apomixis (including apospory an...	{ "page_id": 332989, "title": "Vegetative reproduction" }
subsequent seeds and fruits. Developing an ace cultivar is extremely difficult, so, once farmers develop the desired traits in, for example, a lily, they use grafting and budding to ensure the consistency of the new cultivar and its successful production on a commercial level. However, as can be seen in many variegated...	{ "page_id": 332989, "title": "Vegetative reproduction" }
in herbaceous and woody perennial plants, and typically involves structural modifications of the stem, although any horizontal, underground part of a plant (whether stem, leaf, or root) can contribute to vegetative reproduction of a plant. Most plant species that survive and significantly expand by vegetative reproduct...	{ "page_id": 332989, "title": "Vegetative reproduction" }
==== Bulbs ==== Bulbs are inflated parts of the stem within which lie the central shoots of new plants. They are typically underground and are surrounded by plump and layered leaves that provide nutrients to the new plant. Examples of plants that use bulbs are shallots, lilies and tulips. ==== Tubers ==== Tubers develo...	{ "page_id": 332989, "title": "Vegetative reproduction" }
through seed, in the absence of meiosis and fertilization, generating clonal progeny of maternal origin. === Artificial means === Vegetative propagation of particular cultivars that have desirable characteristics is very common practice. It is used by farmers and horticulturalists to produce better crops with desirable...	{ "page_id": 332989, "title": "Vegetative reproduction" }
tissue, known as the callus, is then cultured in a hormone-ladened medium and eventually develops into plantlets which are then planted and eventually develop into grown plants. An offset is the lower part of a single culm with the rhizome axis basal to it and its roots. Planting of these is the most convenient way of ...	{ "page_id": 332989, "title": "Vegetative reproduction" }
In spectroscopy, collision-induced absorption and emission refers to spectral features generated by inelastic collisions of molecules in a gas. Such inelastic collisions (along with the absorption or emission of photons) may induce quantum transitions in the molecules, or the molecules may form transient supramolecular...	{ "page_id": 39720117, "title": "Collision-induced absorption and emission" }
system which is subject to the same spectroscopic rules as ordinary molecules. Ordinary molecules may be viewed as complexes of atoms that have new and possibly quite different spectroscopic properties than the individual atoms the molecule consists of, when the atoms are not bound together as a molecule (or are not "i...	{ "page_id": 39720117, "title": "Collision-induced absorption and emission" }
result in interaction-induced electric dipole moments that contribute some to interaction-induced emission and absorption intensities. The resulting dipoles are referred to as exchange force-induced dipole and dispersion force-induced dipoles, respectively. Other dipole induction mechanisms also exist in molecular (as ...	{ "page_id": 39720117, "title": "Collision-induced absorption and emission" }
lines (Heisenberg's uncertainty relation). The resulting spectral "lines" usually strongly overlap so that collision-induced spectral bands typically appear as continua (as opposed to the bands of often discernible lines of ordinary molecules). Collision-induced spectra appear at the frequencies of the rotovibrational ...	{ "page_id": 39720117, "title": "Collision-induced absorption and emission" }
the collisional complexes and, under carefully chosen experimental conditions (low temperature, moderate gas density), their rotovibrational band spectra show "sharp" (or resolvable) lines (Heisenberg uncertainty principle), much like ordinary molecules. If the parent molecules are nonpolar, the same induced dipole mec...	{ "page_id": 39720117, "title": "Collision-induced absorption and emission" }
the outer planets. The atmospheres of the inner planets and of Saturn's big moon Titan also show significant CIA in the infrared due to concentrations of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other molecular gases. However, the total CIA contribution of Earth's major gases, N2 and O2, to the atmosphere's natural greenho...	{ "page_id": 39720117, "title": "Collision-induced absorption and emission" }
CIA can be used to infer the hydrogen abundance at the white dwarf photosphere. However, predicting CIA in the atmospheres of the coolest white dwarfs is more challenging, in part because of the formation of many-body collisional complexes. === Other cool stars === The atmospheres of low metallicity cool stars are comp...	{ "page_id": 39720117, "title": "Collision-induced absorption and emission" }
are still high enough so that free electrons exist: electrons are efficient emitters when interacting with neutrals (bremsstrahlung). However, at the lower temperatures in neutral gases, the recombination of hydrogen atoms to H2 molecules is a process that generates enormous amounts of heat that must somehow be radiate...	{ "page_id": 39720117, "title": "Collision-induced absorption and emission" }
In atomic, molecular, and optical physics and quantum chemistry, the molecular Hamiltonian is the Hamiltonian operator representing the energy of the electrons and nuclei in a molecule. This operator and the associated Schrödinger equation play a central role in computational chemistry and physics for computing propert...	{ "page_id": 7148738, "title": "Molecular Hamiltonian" }
Hamiltonian as a Hamiltonian of electrons only. The stationary nuclei enter the problem only as generators of an electric potential in which the electrons move in a quantum mechanical way. Within this framework the molecular Hamiltonian has been simplified to the so-called clamped nucleus Hamiltonian, also called elect...	{ "page_id": 7148738, "title": "Molecular Hamiltonian" }
the nuclear motion (rovibrational) Schrödinger equation can be solved in a special frame (an Eckart frame) that rotates and translates with the molecule. Formulated with respect to this body-fixed frame the Hamiltonian accounts for rotation, translation and vibration of the nuclei. Since Watson introduced in 1968 an im...	{ "page_id": 7148738, "title": "Molecular Hamiltonian" }
particle (electron or nucleus), but from here on we will reserve capital R to represent the nuclear coordinate, and lower case r for the electrons of the system. The coordinates can be taken to be expressed with respect to any Cartesian frame centered anywhere in space, because distance, being an inner product, is inva...	{ "page_id": 7148738, "title": "Molecular Hamiltonian" }

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