text stringlengths 2 4.67k | source dict |
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1 ) h n ] / ( H n − h n ) {\displaystyle V_{n}=[h_{n+1}L_{n+1}+H_{n-1}V_{n-1}-(L_{n+1}+V_{n-1})h_{n}]/(H_{n}-h_{n})} == References == | {
"page_id": 50075073,
"title": "Modelling Condensate Distillation Coloumn"
} |
Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is a means of visualizing the level of similarity of individual cases of a data set. MDS is used to translate distances between each pair of n {\textstyle n} objects in a set into a configuration of n {\textstyle n} points mapped into an abstract Cartesian space. More technically, MDS ref... | {
"page_id": 398786,
"title": "Multidimensional scaling"
} |
space, x i T x j {\displaystyle x_{i}^{T}x_{j}} denotes the scalar product between x i {\displaystyle x_{i}} and x j {\displaystyle x_{j}} , and b i j {\displaystyle b_{ij}} are the elements of the matrix B {\displaystyle B} defined on step 2 of the following algorithm, which are computed from the distances. Steps of a... | {
"page_id": 398786,
"title": "Multidimensional scaling"
} |
Classical MDS assumes metric distances. So this is not applicable for direct dissimilarity ratings. === Metric multidimensional scaling (mMDS) === It is a superset of classical MDS that generalizes the optimization procedure to a variety of loss functions and input matrices of known distances with weights and so on. A ... | {
"page_id": 398786,
"title": "Multidimensional scaling"
} |
f {\displaystyle f} , define the "stress" function: S ( x 1 , . . . , x n ; f ) = ∑ i < j ( f ( d i j ) − d ^ i j ) 2 ∑ i < j d ^ i j 2 . {\displaystyle S(x_{1},...,x_{n};f)={\sqrt {\frac {\sum _{i<j}{\bigl (}f(d_{ij})-{\hat {d}}_{ij}{\bigr )}^{2}}{\sum _{i<j}{\hat {d}}_{ij}^{2}}}}.} The factor of ∑ i < j d ^ i j 2 {\d... | {
"page_id": 398786,
"title": "Multidimensional scaling"
} |
( x 1 , . . . , x n ; f ) {\displaystyle x_{1},...,x_{n}=\arg \min _{x_{1},...,x_{n}}S(x_{1},...,x_{n};f)} by gradient descent or other methods. Return x i {\displaystyle x_{i}} and f {\displaystyle f} Louis Guttman's smallest space analysis (SSA) is an example of a non-metric MDS procedure. === Generalized multidimens... | {
"page_id": 398786,
"title": "Multidimensional scaling"
} |
η Λ η × η ⊙ 1 2 ) T {\displaystyle {\hat {V}}={\Bigl (}U_{M\times \eta }\,\Lambda _{\eta \times \eta }^{\odot {\frac {1}{2}}}{\Bigr )}^{T}} , Procrustes Alignment: Retrieve V ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {V}}} from V {\displaystyle V} via Procrustes Transformation, Compute Coordinates: Solve the following linear equations to... | {
"page_id": 398786,
"title": "Multidimensional scaling"
} |
all i , j ∈ 1 , … , M {\displaystyle i,j\in {1,\dots ,M}} , where ‖ ⋅ ‖ {\displaystyle \|\cdot \|} is a vector norm. In classical MDS, this norm is the Euclidean distance, but, in a broader sense, it may be a metric or arbitrary distance function. For example, when dealing with mixed-type data that contain numerical as... | {
"page_id": 398786,
"title": "Multidimensional scaling"
} |
− d i , j ) 2 . {\displaystyle {\underset {x_{1},\ldots ,x_{M}}{\mathrm {argmin} }}\sum _{i<j}(\|x_{i}-x_{j}\|-d_{i,j})^{2}.\,} A solution may then be found by numerical optimization techniques. For some particularly chosen cost functions, minimizers can be stated analytically in terms of matrix eigendecompositions. ==... | {
"page_id": 398786,
"title": "Multidimensional scaling"
} |
the computer to create. Interpretability of the MDS solution is often important, and lower dimensional solutions will typically be easier to interpret and visualize. However, dimension selection is also an issue of balancing underfitting and overfitting. Lower dimensional solutions may underfit by leaving out important... | {
"page_id": 398786,
"title": "Multidimensional scaling"
} |
configuration or had a random choice, the number of runs, the assessment of dimensionality, the Monte Carlo method results, the number of iterations, the assessment of stability, and the proportional variance of each axis (r-square). == Implementations == ELKI includes two MDS implementations. MATLAB includes two MDS i... | {
"page_id": 398786,
"title": "Multidimensional scaling"
} |
This article attempts to place key plant innovations in a geological context. It concerns itself only with novel adaptations and events that had a major ecological significance, not those that are of solely anthropological interest. The timeline displays a graphical representation of the adaptations; the text attempts ... | {
"page_id": 15537603,
"title": "Timeline of plant evolution"
} |
iron precipitated out of the sea water, and fell to the ocean floor to form sedimentary layers of oxidized iron called Banded Iron Formations (BIFs). These BIFs are part of the geological record of evidence for the evolutionary history of plants by identifying when photosynthesis originated. This also provides deep tim... | {
"page_id": 15537603,
"title": "Timeline of plant evolution"
} |
is ancestral to the land plants. Other major groups of green algae had been established by this time, but there were no land plants with vascular tissues until the mid-Silurian. === Ordovician flora === The evidence of plant evolution changes dramatically in the Ordovician with the first extensive appearance of embryop... | {
"page_id": 15537603,
"title": "Timeline of plant evolution"
} |
and myriapods. Early Devonian plants did not have roots or leaves like the plants most common today, and many had no vascular tissue at all. They probably relied on arbuscular mycorrhizal symbioses with fungi to provide them with water and mineral nutrients such as phosphorus. They probably spread by a combination of v... | {
"page_id": 15537603,
"title": "Timeline of plant evolution"
} |
also appeared at this time. The main Early Carboniferous plants were the Equisetales (Horse-tails), Sphenophyllales (scrambling plants), Lycopodiales (Club mosses), Lepidodendrales (arborescent clubmosses or scale trees), Filicales (Ferns), Medullosales (previously included in the "seed ferns", an artificial assemblage... | {
"page_id": 15537603,
"title": "Timeline of plant evolution"
} |
middle of the Permian there was a major transition in vegetation. The swamp-loving lycopod trees of the Carboniferous, such as Lepidodendron and Sigillaria, were replaced by the more advanced conifers, which were better adapted to the changing climatic conditions. Lycopods and swamp forests still dominated the South Ch... | {
"page_id": 15537603,
"title": "Timeline of plant evolution"
} |
were another group of important plants during this time and are thought to have been shrub to small-tree sized. Ginkgo-like plants were particularly common in the mid- to high northern latitudes. In the Southern Hemisphere, podocarps were especially successful, while Ginkgos and Czekanowskiales were rare. === Cretaceou... | {
"page_id": 15537603,
"title": "Timeline of plant evolution"
} |
Species differentiation == Development of rooted plants Flowering plants vs. Conifers Ferns and other primitive plants Borderline species such as coliform protists == See also == Plant Flora Paleobotany Plant evolutionary developmental biology Evolutionary history of plants Timeline of the evolutionary history of life ... | {
"page_id": 15537603,
"title": "Timeline of plant evolution"
} |
The molecular formula C21H22O10 (molar mass: 434.393 g/mol, exact mass: 434.1213 u) may refer to: Engeletin Prunin | {
"page_id": 31331779,
"title": "C21H22O10"
} |
Calcium oxychloride may refer to: Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) Calcium hydroxychloride (CaOHCl2) | {
"page_id": 21239247,
"title": "Calcium oxychloride"
} |
The molecular formula C12H18ClN may refer to: Mefenorex Xylamine | {
"page_id": 77927892,
"title": "C12H18ClN"
} |
The molecular formula C30H50 (molar mass: 410.72 g/mol, exact mass: 410.3913 u) may refer to: Squalene Hopene diploptene (Hop-22(29)-ene) | {
"page_id": 23729622,
"title": "C30H50"
} |
The mind–body problem is a philosophical problem concerning the relationship between thought and consciousness in the human mind and body. It addresses the nature of consciousness, mental states, and their relation to the physical brain and nervous system. The problem centers on understanding how immaterial thoughts an... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
the relation between mind and body are questions that all fall under the banner of the 'mind–body problem'. == Mind–body interaction and mental causation == Philosophers David L. Robb and John F. Heil introduce mental causation in terms of the mind–body problem of interaction: Mind–body interaction has a central place ... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
impulse it gets from what sets it in motion, or again, on the nature and shape of this latter thing's surface. Now the first two conditions involve contact, and the third involves that the impelling thing has extension; but you utterly exclude extension from your notion of soul, and contact seems to me incompatible wit... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
providing a bridge across the mind–body cleavage is the study of bodily actions, which are neither reflexive reactions to external stimuli nor indications of mental states, which have only arbitrary relationships to the motor features of the action (e.g., pressing a button for making a choice response). The shape, timi... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
Dennett, have focused primarily on the body rather than the mind. In this context, neuronal correlates may be viewed as causing consciousness, where consciousness can be thought of as an undefined property that depends upon this complex, adaptive, and highly interconnected biological system. However, it's unknown if di... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
source). High arousal states involve conscious states that feature specific perceptual content, planning and recollection or even fantasy. Clinicians use scoring systems such as the Glasgow Coma Scale to assess the level of arousal in patients with impaired states of consciousness such as the comatose state, the persis... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
idealism, which holds that only thought truly exists and matter is merely a representation of mental processes; and neutral monism, which holds that both mind and matter are aspects of a distinct essence that is itself identical to neither of them. Psychophysical parallelism is a third possible alternative regarding th... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
first-personal facts, is evidence against physicalism. However, according to List, this is also evidence against other third-personal metaphysical pictures, including standard versions of dualism. List also argues that the vertiginous question implies a "quadrilemma" for theories of consciousness. He claims that at mos... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
is not something separate from the body. These approaches have been particularly influential in the sciences, particularly in the fields of sociobiology, computer science, evolutionary psychology, and the neurosciences. Avshalom Elitzur has defended interactionism and has described himself as a "reluctant dualist". One... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
offshoot of psychophysical parallelism which suggests that mental events and bodily events are separate and distinct, but that they are both coordinated by an external agent: an example of such an agent could be God. A notable adherent to the idea of pre-established harmony is Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz in his theor... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
how mind can interact with the body. Leibniz rejected the idea of physical bodies affecting each other, and explained all physical causation in this way. Under pre-established harmony, the preprogramming of each mind must be extremely complex, since only it causes its own thoughts or actions, for as long as it exists. ... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
disposition of created things set up by God", shortly after having identified "nature in its general aspect" with God himself. His conception of the relationship between God and his normative nature actualized in the existing world recalls both the pre-established harmony of Leibniz and the Deus sive Natura of Baruch S... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
laws: biological laws, psychological laws, physical laws, volitional laws, and universal laws. The Buddhist practice of mindfulness involves attending to this constantly changing mind-stream. Ultimately, the Buddha's philosophy is that both mind and forms are conditionally arising qualities of an ever-changing universe... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
it cannot access the abstract reality of the world; it can only experience shadows. This is determined by Plato's essentially rationalistic epistemology. === Aristotle === For Aristotle (384–322 BC) mind is a faculty of the soul. Regarding the soul, he said: It is not necessary to ask whether soul and body are one, jus... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
parts. The first formal concept of a "mind–body" split may be found in the divinity–secularity dualism of the ancient Persian religion of Zoroastrianism around the mid-fifth century BC. Gnosticism is a modern name for a variety of ancient dualistic ideas inspired by Judaism popular in the first and second century AD. T... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
of raw intuition'. Kant views the mind–body interaction as taking place through forces that may be of different kinds for mind and body. === Huxley === For Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) the conscious mind was a by-product of the brain that has no influence upon the brain, a so-called epiphenomenon. On the epiphenomen... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
The Concept of Mind, Gilbert Ryle "was seen to have put the final nail in the coffin of Cartesian dualism". In the chapter "Descartes' Myth," Ryle introduces "the dogma of the Ghost in the machine" to describe the philosophical concept of the mind as an entity separate from the body:I hope to prove that it is entirely ... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
(1995). "Mind–Body Problem", Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Ted Honderich (ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jaegwon Kim (2010). Essays in the Metaphysics of Mind. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-162506-0. Massimini, M.; Tononi, G. (2018). Sizing up Consciousness: Towards an Objective Measure of the Capaci... | {
"page_id": 11081176,
"title": "Mind–body problem"
} |
The molecular formula C15H15N (molar mass: 209.28 g/mol, exact mass: 209.1204 u) may refer to: 9-Aminomethyl-9,10-dihydroanthracene (AMDA) Centanafadine (EB-1020) | {
"page_id": 24384985,
"title": "C15H15N"
} |
The molecular formula C23H27NO9 (molar mass: 461.46 g/mol) may refer to: Morphine-3-glucuronide morphine-6-glucuronide | {
"page_id": 24319449,
"title": "C23H27NO9"
} |
WAP four-disulfide core domain protein 2 - also known as Human Epididymis Protein 4 (HE4) - is a protein that in humans is encoded by the WFDC2 gene. HE4 is a tumor marker of ovarian cancer, with 80% sensitivity at a cut-off of 150 pmol/L. == Function == This gene encodes a protein that is a member of the WFDC domain f... | {
"page_id": 14816732,
"title": "WFDC2"
} |
SPEAR (originally Stanford Positron Electron Accelerating Ring, now simply a name)[a] was a collider at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. It began running in 1972, colliding electrons and positrons with an energy of 3 GeV. During the 1970s, experiments at the accelerator played a key role in particle physics re... | {
"page_id": 4855261,
"title": "SPEAR"
} |
The diversity of species and genes in ecological communities affects the functioning of these communities. These ecological effects of biodiversity in turn are affected by both climate change through enhanced greenhouse gases, aerosols and loss of land cover, and biological diversity, causing a rapid loss of biodiversi... | {
"page_id": 1250786,
"title": "Ecological effects of biodiversity"
} |
use and other indicators of ecosystem function are correlated with productivity. Stability is much more difficult to define, but can be generally thought of in two ways. General stability of a population is a measure that assumes stability is higher if there is less of a chance of extinction. This kind of stability is ... | {
"page_id": 1250786,
"title": "Ecological effects of biodiversity"
} |
differences in resource requirements among species. By complementarity, a more diverse plant community should be able to use resources more completely, and thus be more productive. Also called niche differentiation, this mechanism is a central principle in the functional group approach, which breaks species diversity d... | {
"page_id": 1250786,
"title": "Ecological effects of biodiversity"
} |
Additionally, evidence of this relationship has also been found in grassland microcosms. The differing results between studies may partially be attributable to their reliance on samples with equal species diversities rather than species diversities that mirror those observed in the environment. A 2006 experiment utiliz... | {
"page_id": 1250786,
"title": "Ecological effects of biodiversity"
} |
amounts of overyielding (or how much more a species grows when grown with other species than it does in monoculture) should be used rather than absolute amounts as relative overyielding can give clues as to the mechanism by which diversity is influencing productivity, however if experimental protocols are incomplete, o... | {
"page_id": 1250786,
"title": "Ecological effects of biodiversity"
} |
contains more species then it will have a greater likelihood of having redundant stabilizing species, and it will have a greater number of species that respond to perturbations in different ways. This will enhance an ecosystem's ability to buffer perturbations. Resistance to Invasion Diverse communities may use resourc... | {
"page_id": 1250786,
"title": "Ecological effects of biodiversity"
} |
more fully understand the effects of diversity on the temporal stability of ecosystems it is necessary to recognize that they are bound to occur. By constructing null models to test the data against (as in Doak et al. 1998) it becomes possible to find situations and ecological contexts where ecosystems become more or l... | {
"page_id": 1250786,
"title": "Ecological effects of biodiversity"
} |
able to resist consumption and be more stable in the face of consumption. Also, top-down forcing should be reduced in less diverse ecosystems because of the bias for species in higher trophic levels to go extinct first. Lastly, it has recently been shown that consumers can dramatically change the biodiversity-productiv... | {
"page_id": 1250786,
"title": "Ecological effects of biodiversity"
} |
In various interpretations of quantum mechanics, wave function collapse, also called reduction of the state vector, occurs when a wave function—initially in a superposition of several eigenstates—reduces to a single eigenstate due to interaction with the external world. This interaction is called an observation and is ... | {
"page_id": 71138,
"title": "Wave function collapse"
} |
∑ i c i | ϕ i ⟩ . {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle =\sum _{i}c_{i}|\phi _{i}\rangle .} The kets { | ϕ i ⟩ } {\displaystyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}} specify the different available quantum "alternatives", i.e., particular quantum states. The wave function is a specific representation of a quantum state. Wave functions can th... | {
"page_id": 71138,
"title": "Wave function collapse"
} |
| ϕ i ⟩ {\displaystyle |\phi _{i}\rangle } . The sum of the probability over all possible outcomes must be one: ⟨ ψ | ψ ⟩ = ∑ i | c i | 2 = 1. {\displaystyle \langle \psi |\psi \rangle =\sum _{i}|c_{i}|^{2}=1.} As examples, individual counts in a double slit experiment with electrons appear at random locations on the d... | {
"page_id": 71138,
"title": "Wave function collapse"
} |
the orthodox interpretation of quantum theory postulates wave function collapse and uses the Born rule to compute the probable outcomes. Despite the widespread quantitative success of these postulates scientists remain dissatisfied and have sought more detailed physical models. Rather than suspending the Schrödinger eq... | {
"page_id": 71138,
"title": "Wave function collapse"
} |
of the universe, then the wave function collapse corresponds to the receipt of new information. This is somewhat analogous to the situation in classical physics, except that the classical "wave function" does not necessarily obey a wave equation. If the wave function is physically real, in some sense and to some extent... | {
"page_id": 71138,
"title": "Wave function collapse"
} |
by John von Neumann, in his 1932 treatise Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik. Heisenberg did not try to specify exactly what the collapse of the wavefunction meant. However, he emphasized that it should not be understood as a physical process. Niels Bohr never mentions wave function collapse in his published ... | {
"page_id": 71138,
"title": "Wave function collapse"
} |
Decoherence assumes that every quantum system interacts quantum mechanically with its environment and such interaction is not separable from the system, a concept called an "open system".: 1273 Decoherence has been shown to work very quickly and within a minimal environment, but as yet it has not succeeded in a providi... | {
"page_id": 71138,
"title": "Wave function collapse"
} |
Olmec Head, Number 8 is a 7-foot (2.1-meter) tall outdoor colossal head sculpture on the east side of the north entrance to the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, Illinois, created by Mexican sculptor Ignacio Pérez Solano (1931-2021). A plaque on the site of the statue says it was a gift of the government of t... | {
"page_id": 53745124,
"title": "Olmec Head, Number 8"
} |
In coordination chemistry, Tanabe–Sugano diagrams are used to predict absorptions in the ultraviolet (UV), visible and infrared (IR) electromagnetic spectrum of coordination compounds. The results from a Tanabe–Sugano diagram analysis of a metal complex can also be compared to experimental spectroscopic data. They are ... | {
"page_id": 5248484,
"title": "Tanabe–Sugano diagram"
} |
4.0. This ratio changes the relative energies of the levels in the Tanabe–Sugano diagrams, and thus the diagrams may vary slightly between sources depending on what C/B ratio was selected when plotting. == Parameters == The x-axis of a Tanabe–Sugano diagram is expressed in terms of the ligand field splitting parameter,... | {
"page_id": 5248484,
"title": "Tanabe–Sugano diagram"
} |
listed, in order of increasing energy, on the y-axis of the diagram. The relative order of energies is determined using Hund's rules. For an octahedral complex, the spherical, free ion term symbols split accordingly: Certain Tanabe–Sugano diagrams (d4, d5, d6, and d7) also have a vertical line drawn at a specific Dq/B ... | {
"page_id": 5248484,
"title": "Tanabe–Sugano diagram"
} |
orbital, it is excited to the 2Eg state energy, +6Dq. This is in accordance with the single absorption band in a UV-vis experiment. The prominent shoulder in this absorption band is due to a Jahn–Teller distortion which removes the degeneracy of the two 2Eg states. However, since these two transitions overlap in a UV-v... | {
"page_id": 5248484,
"title": "Tanabe–Sugano diagram"
} |
a free ion approach a ligand field, is compared to the electron-repulsion energy, which are both sufficient at providing the placement of electrons. However, if the ligand field splitting energy, 10Dq, is greater than the electron-repulsion energy, then Orgel diagrams fail in determining electron placement. In this cas... | {
"page_id": 5248484,
"title": "Tanabe–Sugano diagram"
} |
=== Examples === ==== Manganese(II) hexahydrate ==== In the [Mn(H2O)6]2+ metal complex, manganese has an oxidation state of +2, thus it is a d5 ion. H2O is a weak field ligand (spectrum shown below), and according to the Tanabe–Sugano diagram for d5 ions, the ground state is 6A1. Note that there is no sextet spin multi... | {
"page_id": 5248484,
"title": "Tanabe–Sugano diagram"
} |
The TOP Assay (Total Oxidizable Precursor Assay) is a laboratory method developed in 2012 that oxidatively converts (unknown) precursor compounds of perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) into the latter. This makes quantification possible. Potassium peroxodisulfate is used. This sum parameter can be used to determine the c... | {
"page_id": 77207015,
"title": "TOP Assay"
} |
The molecular formula C5H9ClO (molar mass: 120.58 g/mol) may refer to: Pentanoyl chloride, an acyl chloride derived from pentanoic acid Pivaloyl chloride, a branched-chain acyl chloride | {
"page_id": 59446763,
"title": "C5H9ClO"
} |
This is a list of string theory topics. == String theory == Strings Nambu–Goto action Polyakov action Bosonic string theory Superstring theory Type I string Type II string Type IIA string theory Type IIB string theory Heterotic string N=2 superstring M-theory Matrix theory Introduction to M-theory F-theory String field... | {
"page_id": 660973,
"title": "List of string theory topics"
} |
Bi-specific T-cell engager (BiTE) is a class of artificial bispecific monoclonal antibodies that are investigated for use as anti-cancer drugs. They direct a host's immune system, more specifically the T cells' cytotoxic activity, against cancer cells. BiTE is a registered trademark of Micromet AG (fully owned subsidia... | {
"page_id": 18879982,
"title": "Bi-specific T-cell engager"
} |
for medical use in the European Union in June 2022. === Solitomab === Solitomab links T cells with the EpCAM antigen which is expressed by colon, gastric, prostate, ovarian, lung, and pancreatic cancers. === Talquetamab === === Tarlatamab === === Tebentafusp === After clinical trials, in January 2022, the US FDA approv... | {
"page_id": 18879982,
"title": "Bi-specific T-cell engager"
} |
Pisuviricota is a phylum of RNA viruses that includes all positive-strand and double-stranded RNA viruses that infect eukaryotes and are not members of the phylum Kitrinoviricota, Lenarviricota or Duplornaviricota. The name of the group is a syllabic abbreviation of “picornavirus supergroup” with the suffix -viricota, ... | {
"page_id": 63772144,
"title": "Pisuviricota"
} |
In statistics, additive smoothing, also called Laplace smoothing or Lidstone smoothing, is a technique used to smooth count data, eliminating issues caused by certain values having 0 occurrences. Given a set of observation counts x = ⟨ x 1 , x 2 , … , x d ⟩ {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =\langle x_{1},x_{2},\ldots ,x_{d}\... | {
"page_id": 17110513,
"title": "Additive smoothing"
} |
His rationale was that even given a large sample of days with the rising sun, we still can not be completely sure that the sun will still rise tomorrow (known as the sunrise problem). == Pseudocount == A pseudocount is an amount (not generally an integer, despite its name) added to the number of observed cases in order... | {
"page_id": 17110513,
"title": "Additive smoothing"
} |
observable in a finite time (see the halting problem). But at least one possibility must have a non-zero pseudocount, otherwise no prediction could be computed before the first observation. The relative values of pseudocounts represent the relative prior expected probabilities of their possibilities. The sum of the pse... | {
"page_id": 17110513,
"title": "Additive smoothing"
} |
analysis. Higher values are appropriate inasmuch as there is prior knowledge of the true values (for a mint-condition coin, say); lower values inasmuch as there is prior knowledge that there is probable bias, but of unknown degree (for a bent coin, say). ==== Frequentist interval ==== One way to motivate pseudocounts, ... | {
"page_id": 17110513,
"title": "Additive smoothing"
} |
empirical estimator happens to equal the incidence rate, i.e. μ i = x i / N , {\displaystyle \mu _{i}=x_{i}/N,} the smoothed estimator is independent of α {\displaystyle \alpha } and also equals the incidence rate. == Applications == === Classification === Additive smoothing is commonly a component of naive Bayes class... | {
"page_id": 17110513,
"title": "Additive smoothing"
} |
The H. H. Bloomer Award is an award of the Linnean Society, established in 1963 from a legacy by the amateur naturalist Harry Howard Bloomer, which is awarded to "an amateur naturalist who has made an important contribution to biological knowledge." The recipients, alternatively a botanist and a zoologist, are presente... | {
"page_id": 31135217,
"title": "H. H. Bloomer Award"
} |
Muton is a term in genetics that means the smallest unit in a chromosome that can be changed by mutations. The term Muton was created by Seymour Benzer in 1955 after his work about the mapping of bacteriophages T4. == References == | {
"page_id": 59774448,
"title": "Muton (genetics)"
} |
The molecular formula C21H22N2O2 may refer to: Strychnine, a toxic, colorless, bitter, crystalline alkaloid used as a pesticide Vinorine, an indole alkaloid isolated from Alstonia | {
"page_id": 23729651,
"title": "C21H22N2O2"
} |
Disulfurous acid, metabisulfurous acid or pyrosulfurous acid is an oxoacid of sulfur with the formula H2S2O5. Its structure is HO−S(=O)2−S(=O)−OH. The salts of disulfurous acid are called disulfites or metabisulfites. Disulfurous acid is, like sulfurous acid (H2SO3), a phantom acid, which does not exist in the free sta... | {
"page_id": 30610933,
"title": "Disulfurous acid"
} |
The Challenge (Russian: Вызов, romanized: Vyzov) is a 2023 Russian space drama film co-written and directed by Klim Shipenko. Filmed on the International Space Station (ISS), it is the first fictional, feature-length film featuring actors to be shot in space. The film stars Yulia Peresild as a surgeon sent to space to ... | {
"page_id": 68818421,
"title": "The Challenge (2023 film)"
} |
admitted to the training program at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City. For about two weeks, Belyaeva prepares for the surgery and trains in a simulator of the ISS. Her training also includes periods of oxygen starvation in a pressure chamber, 6-g exercises in a centrifuge, and 25-second periods of... | {
"page_id": 68818421,
"title": "The Challenge (2023 film)"
} |
by conventional means initially fail. Nikolaev, who has remained on Earth but is watching the broadcast operation, suggests an unexpected and risky solution based upon a shared experience with Belyaeva during training. Improvising both surgical tools and techniques, Belyaeva completes the operation after seven hours. T... | {
"page_id": 68818421,
"title": "The Challenge (2023 film)"
} |
Pyotr Dubrov as Pyotr Kudryavtsev, a test cosmonaut on the ISS Anatoly Zabruskov as Anatoly Kochetkov, an instructor in a zero gravity aircraft Other cast members Maxim Stoyanov as Roman Biker, a mission candidate Benik Arakelyan as Rafik, a mission candidate Arthur Beschastnyy as Vasily 'Vasya', a mission candidate An... | {
"page_id": 68818421,
"title": "The Challenge (2023 film)"
} |
reduced to 20–30. "We selected 20 candidates, and Yulia was not included in this list, because she was filming in another project. As a result, after all the tests of the medical board, all these actresses did not pass the selection. Not because they are ill, but because they are not suitable for flights." —Konstantin ... | {
"page_id": 68818421,
"title": "The Challenge (2023 film)"
} |
started, and on 31 August, the medical committee announced that both the main and reserve crew were healthy for spaceflight. On 12 September, First Channel aired a reality show called The Challenge: The First in Space, about the specifics of the selection and training of project participants. === In space === Principal... | {
"page_id": 68818421,
"title": "The Challenge (2023 film)"
} |
film Serf, joined the cast. == Reactions == According to Dmitry Rogozin, the then-head of Roscosmos, the film was an "experiment to see if Roscosmos can prepare two ordinary people to fly in about 3 or 4 months". Filming on the International Space Station was widely criticized by the Russian cosmonauts and space scient... | {
"page_id": 68818421,
"title": "The Challenge (2023 film)"
} |
of the Gazprom-Media holding in the Russian Federation. As reported by Vedomosti, Central Partnership has developed a new cinema format that contains technical characteristics similar to IMAX, called CosMAX. The film had a special screening on 12 April 2023 at a solemn event for politicians dedicated to Cosmonautics Da... | {
"page_id": 68818421,
"title": "The Challenge (2023 film)"
} |
in 15 weeks, which is estimated to be the mark in Russia. === Critical response === In Russian media, reception was mixed, leaning towards positive. Film critics praised the visuals and Peresild's acting, but were divided about the melodramatic parts of the plot, supposed ideology, and how the movie deals with represen... | {
"page_id": 68818421,
"title": "The Challenge (2023 film)"
} |
Coral Reefs is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal dedicated to the study of coral reefs. It was established in 1982 and is published by Springer Science+Business Media on behalf of the International Society for Reef Studies, of which it is the official journal. This journal also acts as the International Cora... | {
"page_id": 529912,
"title": "Coral Reefs"
} |
The coronary arteries are the arterial blood vessels of coronary circulation, which transport oxygenated blood to the heart muscle. The heart requires a continuous supply of oxygen to function and survive, much like any other tissue or organ of the body. The coronary arteries wrap around the entire heart. The two main ... | {
"page_id": 529916,
"title": "Coronary arteries"
} |
free wall. In approximately 33% of individuals, the left coronary artery gives rise to the posterior descending artery which perfuses the posterior and inferior walls of the left ventricle. Sometimes a third branch is formed at the fork between left anterior descending and left circumflex arteries, known as a ramus or ... | {
"page_id": 529916,
"title": "Coronary arteries"
} |
rupture and formation of a thrombus (blood clot) that completely blocks blood flow to a portion of the heart, leading to tissue death (infarct). CAD can also result in heart failure or arrhythmias. Heart failure is caused by chronic oxygen deprivation due to reduced blood flow, which weakens the heart over time. Arrhyt... | {
"page_id": 529916,
"title": "Coronary arteries"
} |
resemblance (compare the photos). The word arterie in Anglo-French (artaire in Old French, and artērium in Latin) means "windpipe" and "an artery". It was applied to the coronary arteries because the arteries do not contain blood after death. == See also == Coronary circulation Left coronary artery Right coronary arter... | {
"page_id": 529916,
"title": "Coronary arteries"
} |
Bioluminescence is the production of light by living organisms. The environment organizes this list of bioluminescent organisms, covering terrestrial, marine, and microorganisms. == Terrestrial animals == Certain arthropods Coleoptera (beetles) Lampyridae (Fireflies) Phengodidae (Glowworm beetles) railroad worms Rhagop... | {
"page_id": 38802940,
"title": "List of bioluminescent organisms"
} |
Gator is a low-background germanium counting facility for high-sensitivity gamma-ray spectrometry at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso in Italy. The Gator facility is primarily employed to quantify radioactivity levels for rare-event search experiments in astroparticle physics, such as for the XENON dark matter r... | {
"page_id": 79500800,
"title": "Gator (facility)"
} |
A chemist (from Greek chēm(ía) alchemy; replacing chymist from Medieval Latin alchemist) is a graduated scientist trained in the study of chemistry, or an officially enrolled student in the field. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms... | {
"page_id": 5636,
"title": "Chemist"
} |
chemistry. Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the chemical elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent ove... | {
"page_id": 5636,
"title": "Chemist"
} |
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