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in this material would lead to a topological insulator with strong electronic correlations. == Theoretical == Theoretical condensed matter physics involves the use of theoretical models to understand properties of states of matter. These include models to study the electronic properties of solids, such as the Drude mod...	{ "page_id": 5387, "title": "Condensed matter physics" }
90–91 This classical model was then improved by Arnold Sommerfeld who incorporated the Fermi–Dirac statistics of electrons and was able to explain the anomalous behavior of the specific heat of metals in the Wiedemann–Franz law.: 101–103 In 1912, The structure of crystalline solids was studied by Max von Laue and Paul ...	{ "page_id": 5387, "title": "Condensed matter physics" }
such as the ground state of a BCS superconductor, that breaks U(1) phase rotational symmetry. Goldstone's theorem in quantum field theory states that in a system with broken continuous symmetry, there may exist excitations with arbitrarily low energy, called the Goldstone bosons. For example, in crystalline solids, the...	{ "page_id": 5387, "title": "Condensed matter physics" }
region, and novel ideas and methods must be invented to find the new laws that can describe the system.: 75ff The simplest theory that can describe continuous phase transitions is the Ginzburg–Landau theory, which works in the so-called mean-field approximation. However, it can only roughly explain continuous phase tra...	{ "page_id": 5387, "title": "Condensed matter physics" }
constant and refractive index. X-rays have energies of the order of 10 keV and hence are able to probe atomic length scales, and are used to measure variations in electron charge density and crystal structure.: 33–34 Neutrons can also probe atomic length scales and are used to study the scattering off nuclei and electr...	{ "page_id": 5387, "title": "Condensed matter physics" }
resonance (EPR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), which are very sensitive to the details of the surrounding of nuclei and electrons by means of the hyperfine coupling. Both localized electrons and specific stable or unstable isotopes of the nuclei become the probe of these hyperfine interactions), which couple the...	{ "page_id": 5387, "title": "Condensed matter physics" }
Research in condensed matter physics has given rise to several device applications, such as the development of the semiconductor transistor, laser technology, magnetic storage, liquid crystals, optical fibres and several phenomena studied in the context of nanotechnology.: 111ff Methods such as scanning-tunneling micro...	{ "page_id": 5387, "title": "Condensed matter physics" }
Physics, second edition, John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 0-470-61798-5. Lillian Hoddeson, Ernest Braun, Jürgen Teichmann and Spencer Weart, eds. (1992). Out of the Crystal Maze: Chapters from the History of Solid State Physics, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-505329-X. == External links == Media related to Condensed matte...	{ "page_id": 5387, "title": "Condensed matter physics" }
Linolelaidic acid is an omega-6 trans fatty acid (TFA) and is a cis–trans isomer of linoleic acid. It is found in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils. It is a white (or colourless) viscous liquid. TFAs are classified as conjugated and nonconjugated, corresponding usually to the structural elements −CH=CH−CH=CH− and −...	{ "page_id": 9704718, "title": "Linolelaidic acid" }
In organic chemistry, methenium (also called methylium, carbenium, methyl cation, or protonated methylene) is a cation with the formula CH+3. It can be viewed as a methylene radical (:CH2) with an added proton (H+), or as a methyl radical (•CH3) with one electron removed. It is a carbocation and an enium ion, making it...	{ "page_id": 38540559, "title": "Methenium" }
Methyllysine is derivative of the amino acid residue lysine where the sidechain ammonium group has been methylated one or more times. Such methylated lysines play an important role in epigenetics; the methylation of specific lysines of certain histones in a nucleosome alters the binding of the surrounding DNA to those ...	{ "page_id": 9180437, "title": "Methyllysine" }
Phyllocladane is a tricyclic diterpane which is generally found in gymnosperm resins. It has a formula of C20H34 and a molecular weight of 274.4840. As a biomarker, it can be used to learn about the gymnosperm input into a hydrocarbon deposit, and about the age of the deposit in general. It indicates a terrogenous orig...	{ "page_id": 52499738, "title": "Phyllocladane" }
Dixon rings are a form of random packing used in chemical processing. They consist of a stainless steel mesh formed into a ring with a central divider, and are intended to be packed randomly into a packed column. Dixon rings provide a large surface area and low pressure drop while maintaining a high mass transfer rate,...	{ "page_id": 57939226, "title": "Dixon rings" }
called "wire gauze Lessing rings" in a 1949 publication). == Application == Dixon rings are used for mainly for laboratory distillation applications. == Performance principles == The enhanced performance of the Dixon ring is based on liquid surface tension: when the mesh is wet its surface area increases greatly, with ...	{ "page_id": 57939226, "title": "Dixon rings" }
APV was the name of a company making process equipment, and remains as a brand name. == History == It was founded in 1910 as the Aluminium Plant & Vessel Company Limited, fabricating equipment for breweries and vegetable oil in Wandsworth. In the 1950s it moved to Crawley and expanded considerably, under the name A.P.V...	{ "page_id": 41620765, "title": "APV plc" }
A dispersion is a system in which distributed particles of one material are dispersed in a continuous phase of another material. The two phases may be in the same or different states of matter. Dispersions are classified in a number of different ways, including how large the particles are in relation to the particles o...	{ "page_id": 4855071, "title": "Dispersion (chemistry)" }
all. Experimental evidence suggests dispersions have a structure very much different from any kind of statistical distribution (which would be characteristics for a system in thermodynamic equilibrium), but in contrast display structures similar to self-organisation, which can be described by non-equilibrium thermodyna...	{ "page_id": 4855071, "title": "Dispersion (chemistry)" }
the process of dispersion in cases of little to no turbulence in the bulk, where molecular diffusion is able to facilitate dispersion over a long period of time. These phenomena are reflected in common real-world events. The molecules in a drop of food coloring added to water will eventually disperse throughout the ent...	{ "page_id": 4855071, "title": "Dispersion (chemistry)" }
dimension roughly between 1 nm and 1 μm or that in a system discontinuities are found at distances of that order. A suspension is a heterogeneous dispersion of larger particles in a medium. Unlike solutions and colloids, if left undisturbed for a prolonged period of time, the suspended particles will settle out of the ...	{ "page_id": 4855071, "title": "Dispersion (chemistry)" }
of dairy products. Oxide dispersion-strengthened alloy (ODS) is an example of oxide particle dispersion into a metal medium, which improves the high temperature tolerance of the material. Therefore these alloys have several applications in the nuclear energy industry, where materials must withstand extremely high tempe...	{ "page_id": 4855071, "title": "Dispersion (chemistry)" }
Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth are environments that share potentially relevant astrobiological conditions with Mars. These include sites that are analogues of potential subsurface habitats, and deep subsurface habitats. A few places on Earth, such as the hyper-arid core of the high Atacama Desert and...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
than surface Earth levels. Atmosphere. The Martian atmosphere is a near vacuum while Earth's is not. Through desiccation resistance, some life forms can withstand the vacuum of space in dormant state. UV levels. UV levels on Mars are much higher than on Earth. Experiments show that a thin layer of dust is enough to pro...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
etc. that can be studied as they may exhibit resistance to some conditions present on Mars. == Atacama Desert == The Atacama Desert plateau lies at an altitude of 3,000 meters and lies between the Pacific and the Andes mountains. Its Mars-like features include Hyper arid conditions Cold compared to most arid deserts be...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
Rover Astrobiology Drilling Studies (ARADS) project to improve technology and strategies for life detection on Mars. Experiments conducted on Mars have also been successfully repeated in this region. In 2003, a group led by Chris McKay repeated the Viking Lander experiments in this region and got the same results as th...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
humidity a constant 14% at depth of 1 meter, which corresponds to the lowest humidity measured by Curiosity rover on Mars. This region's maximum atmospheric relative humidity is 54.7% compared with 86.8% for the Yungay region. The following living organisms were also found in this region: Actinomycetota: Actinobacteriu...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
that is of great interest for studying the limits of habitability in general. Research using a time-lapse camera shows that it is partly fed by deliquescing salts. The salts absorb water by deliquescence only, at times of high humidity, then flows down the slope as salty brines. These then mix with snow melt, which fee...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
them. Such a metabolic process had never before been observed in nature. This process is of astrobiological importance as an analogue for environments below the Glaciers on Mars, if there is any liquid water there, for instance through hydrothermal melting (though none such has been discovered yet). This process is als...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
sterilized to suit the planetary protection requirements as well as the requirements for subglacial exploration. The probe was sterilized to these protocols using hydrogen peroxide and UV sterilization. Also, only the tip of the probe samples the liquid water directly. == Qaidam Basin == At 4,500 metres (14,800 ft), Qa...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
several sites in the Sahara desert that are analogues of some of the conditions on present day Mars, and used for testing of ESA rovers and astrobiological studies. == Axel Heiberg Island (Canada) == Two sites of special interest: Colour Peak and Gypsum Hill, two sets of cold saline springs on Axel Heiberg Island that ...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
region of Mars and may possibly still exist on the martian surface. Some of the microbes found there are able to survive in Mars-like conditions. "A martian soil survey in the Meridiani Planum region found minerals indicative of saline acidic brines. Therefore acidic cryosol/permafrost habitats may have once existed an...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
highly reducing host rock. == Cave systems == Mines on Earth give access to deep subsurface environments which turn out to be inhabited, and deep caves may possibly exist on Mars, although without the benefits of an atmosphere. === Basaltic lava tubes === The only caves found so far on Mars are lava tubes. These are in...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
to have been isolated from the atmosphere and sunlight for 5.5 million years. Atmosphere rich in H2S and CO2 with 1% - 2% CH4 (methane) It does have some oxygen, 7-10% O2 in the cave atmosphere, compared to 21% O2 in the air Microbes rely mainly on sulfide and methane oxidation. Has 33 vertebrates and a wide range of i...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
Another example is Spotted Lake, which shows a wide variety of minerals, most of them sulfates, with sodium, magnesium and calcium as cations. "Dominant minerals included blöedite Na2Mg(SO4)2·4H2O, konyaite Na2Mg(SO4)2·5H2O, epsomite MgSO4·7H2O, and gypsumCaSO4·2H2O, with minor eugsterite, picromerite, syngenite, halit...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
According to their model, if the polar regions had a subsurface lake perhaps formed originally through friction as a subglacial lake at times of favourable axial tilt, then supplied by accumulating layers of snow on top as the ice sheets thickened, they suggest that it could still be there. If so, it could be occupied ...	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
the Earth. == See also == Life on Mars – Scientific assessments on the microbial habitability of Mars Terrestrial analogue sites – Places on Earth used to mimic extraterrestrial locationsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets == References ==	{ "page_id": 53351715, "title": "Mars habitability analogue environments on Earth" }
Kyl21 is a German ice cream brand that produces vegan and alcoholic popsicles in unusual geometric shapes. == History == The science-food-company Molekyleis Produktionsgesellschaft mbH (Kyl) was founded in 2014 by product designer and marketing specialist David Marx in Berlin. David Marx produces flash-frozen ice using...	{ "page_id": 42472740, "title": "Kyl21" }
A prosection is the dissection of a cadaver (human or animal) or part of a cadaver by an experienced anatomist in order to demonstrate for students anatomic structure. In a dissection, students learn by doing; in a prosection, students learn by either observing a dissection being performed by an experienced anatomist o...	{ "page_id": 18421030, "title": "Prosection" }
cadavers are required for in-depth learning and teach skills alternatives cannot. Some scholars and teachers go so far as to argue that cadavers and prosections are irreplaceable in the teaching of medicine. Whether prosections are as effective as dissections in the teaching of medicine is also an unsettled aspect of m...	{ "page_id": 18421030, "title": "Prosection" }
Coal analysis techniques are specific analytical methods designed to measure the particular physical and chemical properties of coals. These methods are used primarily to determine the suitability of coal for coking, power generation or for iron ore smelting in the manufacture of steel. == Chemical properties of coal =...	{ "page_id": 3544358, "title": "Coal analysis" }
it may be done in a vacuum. === Volatile matter === Volatile matter in coal refers to the components of coal, except for moisture, which are liberated at high temperature in the absence of air. This is usually a mixture of short- and long-chain hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons and some sulfur. Volatile matter also e...	{ "page_id": 3544358, "title": "Coal analysis" }
the coal sample. == Physical and mechanical properties == === Relative density === Relative density or specific gravity of the coal depends on the rank of the coal and degree of mineral impurity. Knowledge of the density of each coal play is necessary to determine the properties of composites and blends. The density of...	{ "page_id": 3544358, "title": "Coal analysis" }
on crushed and pulverised coal in a process similar to metallurgical testing on metallic ore. === Abrasion testing === Abrasion is the property of the coal which describes its propensity and ability to wear away machinery and undergo autonomous grinding. While carbonaceous matter in coal is relatively soft, quartz and ...	{ "page_id": 3544358, "title": "Coal analysis" }
are recorded; Deformation temperature: This is reached when the corners of the mould first become rounded. Softening (sphere) temperature: This is reached when the top of the mould takes on a spherical shape. Hemisphere temperature: This is reached when the entire mould takes on a hemisphere shape. Flow (fluid) tempera...	{ "page_id": 3544358, "title": "Coal analysis" }
Mixer settlers are a class of mineral process equipment used in the solvent extraction process. A mixer settler consists of a first stage that mixes the phases together followed by a quiescent settling stage that allows the phases to separate by gravity. == Mixer == A mixing chamber where a mechanical agitator brings i...	{ "page_id": 6165800, "title": "Mixer-settler" }
extraction processes are applied. They are also used in the Nuclear reprocessing field to separate and purify primarily Uranium and Plutonium, removing the fission product impurities. In the multiple countercurrent process, multiple mixer settlers are installed with mixing and settling chambers located at alternating e...	{ "page_id": 6165800, "title": "Mixer-settler" }
when it is copper bearing after reacting in the cell. == See also == Solvent extraction Hydrometallurgy Mineral processing == References == University of Illinois in Chicago (Fall 1999) by Zachary Fijal, Constantinos Loukeris, Zhaleh Naghibzadeh, John Walsdorf, URL: https://web.archive.org/web/20060901162817/http://vie...	{ "page_id": 6165800, "title": "Mixer-settler" }
Tidal heating (also known as tidal working or tidal flexing) occurs through the tidal friction processes: orbital and rotational energy is dissipated as heat in either (or both) the surface ocean or interior of a planet or satellite. When an object is in an elliptical orbit, the tidal forces acting on it are stronger n...	{ "page_id": 5903656, "title": "Tidal heating" }
off with the cube of distance and is only a quarter as strong at Europa. Jupiter maintains the moons' orbits via tides they raise on it and thus its rotational energy ultimately powers the system. Saturn's moon Enceladus is similarly thought to have a liquid water ocean beneath its icy crust, due to tidal heating relat...	{ "page_id": 5903656, "title": "Tidal heating" }
is given by: E ˙ Tidal = − Im ⁡ ( k 2 ) 21 2 G M h 2 R 5 n e 2 a 6 {\displaystyle {\dot {E}}_{\text{Tidal}}=-\operatorname {Im} (k_{2}){\frac {21}{2}}{\frac {GM_{h}^{2}R^{5}ne^{2}}{a^{6}}}} where R {\displaystyle R} , n {\displaystyle n} , a {\displaystyle a} , and e {\displaystyle e} are respectively the satellite's m...	{ "page_id": 5903656, "title": "Tidal heating" }
The activity theory of aging, also known as the implicit theory of aging, normal theory of aging, and lay theory of aging, proposes that aging occurs with more positive outcomes when adults stay active and maintain social interactions as they get older. Activity theory suggests that the aging process is slowed or delay...	{ "page_id": 22680876, "title": "Activity theory (aging)" }
outlined successful aging in the early 1960s. The theory was developed by Robert J. Havighurst in 1961. In 1964, Bernice Neugarten asserted that satisfaction in old age depended on active maintenance of personal relationships and endeavors. == In social science research == The activity theory has been found useful in v...	{ "page_id": 22680876, "title": "Activity theory (aging)" }
followed with a questionnaire that examined the participants' activity level and cognitive functioning. Findings revealed that, although data was variable among the sample group, there was a slight positive correlation between high activity level, high affinity to social relationships, and ability to utilize theory of ...	{ "page_id": 22680876, "title": "Activity theory (aging)" }
A biogeochemical cycle, or more generally a cycle of matter, is the movement and transformation of chemical elements and compounds between living organisms, the atmosphere, and the Earth's crust. Major biogeochemical cycles include the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle. In each cycle, the chemical el...	{ "page_id": 398638, "title": "Biogeochemical cycle" }
organic matter and other nutrients. There are biogeochemical cycles for many other elements, such as for oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, sulfur, mercury and selenium. There are also cycles for molecules, such as water and silica. In addition there are macroscopic cycles such as the rock cycle, and human-in...	{ "page_id": 398638, "title": "Biogeochemical cycle" }
weathering, erosion, water drainage, and the subduction of the continental plates, all play a role in this recycling of materials. Because geology and chemistry have major roles in the study of this process, the recycling of inorganic matter between living organisms and their environment is called a biogeochemical cycl...	{ "page_id": 398638, "title": "Biogeochemical cycle" }
of chemical elements and compounds in biogeochemical cycles. In many of these cycles, the biota plays an important role. Matter from the Earth's interior is released by volcanoes. The atmosphere exchanges some compounds and elements rapidly with the biota and oceans. Exchanges of materials between rocks, soils, and the...	{ "page_id": 398638, "title": "Biogeochemical cycle" }
some process from both overlap. == Compartments == Bogeochemical cycles operate by moving substances, which may also undergo chemical rearrangments, through pathways in the biotic compartment and the abiotic compartments of Earth. The biotic compartment is the biosphere and the abiotic compartments are the atmosphere, ...	{ "page_id": 398638, "title": "Biogeochemical cycle" }
are rapidly reshaping microbial assemblages at an unprecedented rate. Global change is, therefore, affecting key processes including primary productivity, CO2 and N2 fixation, organic matter respiration/remineralization, and the sinking and burial deposition of fixed CO2. In addition to this, oceans are experiencing an...	{ "page_id": 398638, "title": "Biogeochemical cycle" }
to obtain energy. Plants and animals temporarily use carbon in their systems and then release it back into the air or surrounding medium. Generally, reservoirs are abiotic factors whereas exchange pools are biotic factors. Carbon is held for a relatively short time in plants and animals in comparison to coal deposits. ...	{ "page_id": 398638, "title": "Biogeochemical cycle" }
reservoir. Thus, if τ is the turnover time, then τ = M/S. The equation describing the rate of change of content in a reservoir is d M d t = Q − S = Q − M τ . {\displaystyle {\frac {dM}{dt}}=Q-S=Q-{\frac {M}{\tau }}.} When two or more reservoirs are connected, the material can be regarded as cycling between the reservoi...	{ "page_id": 398638, "title": "Biogeochemical cycle" }
the annual flux changes due to anthropogenic activities, averaged over the 2000–2009 time period. They represent how the carbon cycle has changed since 1750. Red numbers in the reservoirs represent the cumulative changes in anthropogenic carbon since the start of the Industrial Period, 1750–2011. == Fast and slow cycle...	{ "page_id": 398638, "title": "Biogeochemical cycle" }
Other geologic carbon returns to the ocean through the hydrothermal emission of calcium ions. In a given year between 10 and 100 million tonnes of carbon moves around this slow cycle. This includes volcanoes returning geologic carbon directly to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. However, this is less than o...	{ "page_id": 398638, "title": "Biogeochemical cycle" }
are shown below: Many biogeochemical cycles are currently being studied for the first time. Climate change and human impacts are drastically changing the speed, intensity, and balance of these relatively unknown cycles, which include: the mercury cycle, and the human-caused cycle of PCBs. Biogeochemical cycles always i...	{ "page_id": 398638, "title": "Biogeochemical cycle" }
Martellivirales is an order of viruses. == Taxonomy == The following families are recognized: Bromoviridae Closteroviridae Endornaviridae Kitaviridae Mayoviridae Togaviridae Virgaviridae == References ==	{ "page_id": 63771951, "title": "Martellivirales" }
Extracellular matrix protein FRAS1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FRAS1 (Fraser syndrome 1) gene. This gene encodes an extracellular matrix protein that appears to function in the regulation of epidermal-basement membrane adhesion and organogenesis during development. == Metastatic prostate cancer == A s...	{ "page_id": 16258350, "title": "FRAS1" }
Triparesis is a medical condition, similar to triplegia, but the major difference between the two is primarily that triplegia is total loss of function in three limbs, and triparesis denotes weakening of three limbs. == References ==	{ "page_id": 25171247, "title": "Triparesis" }
A mitogen is a small bioactive protein or peptide that induces a cell to begin cell division, or enhances the rate of division (mitosis). Mitogenesis is the induction (triggering) of mitosis, typically via a mitogen. == The cell cycle == Mitogens act primarily by influencing a set of proteins which are involved in the ...	{ "page_id": 1643827, "title": "Mitogen" }
enlarged heart. Some growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor, are also capable of directly acting as mitogens, causing growth by directly inducing cell replication. This is not true for all growth factors, as some growth factors instead appear to cause mitogenic effects like growth indirectly by trig...	{ "page_id": 1643827, "title": "Mitogen" }
p28sis. With enough p28sis activity, the cells can proliferate without restriction, resulting in cancer. Second, cancer cells can have mutated cell-surface receptors for mitogens. The protein kinase domain found on mitogenic receptors is often hyperactivated in cancer cells, remaining turned on even in the absence of e...	{ "page_id": 1643827, "title": "Mitogen" }
This resistance to anti-mitogens might simply arise from overstimulation by positive mitogens. In other cases, tumor cells possess loss-of-function mutations in some part of the anti-mitogenic pathway. For example, consider the well-known anti-mitogen, transforming growth factor (TGF-𝝱). TGF-𝝱 works by binding to cel...	{ "page_id": 1643827, "title": "Mitogen" }
stimulate lymphocytes and thereby assess immune function. The most commonly used mitogens in clinical laboratory medicine are: Lipopolysaccharide toxin from gram-negative bacteria is thymus-independent. They may directly activate B cells through the PI3-kinase signalling pathway, regardless of their antigenic specifici...	{ "page_id": 1643827, "title": "Mitogen" }
The molecular formula C22H25NO2 (molar mass: 335.44 g/mol) may refer to: JWH-250, or 1-pentyl-3-(2-methoxyphenylacetyl)indole JWH-302 Lobelanine RTI-120 SKF-89976A	{ "page_id": 39261491, "title": "C22H25NO2" }
Muhiba Muhsinovna Yakubova (Tajik: Мухиба Мухсиновна Якубова) (born January 22, 1937) is a Tajikistani biologist. A native of Bukhara, Yakubova graduated from Tajikistan State University in 1959. From 1961 until 1968 she was a Scientific Worker in the Physiology and Biology of Plants Institute of the Tajikistan Academy...	{ "page_id": 55776565, "title": "Muhiba Yakubova" }
The idea that matter consists of smaller particles and that there exists a limited number of sorts of primary, smallest particles in nature has existed in natural philosophy at least since the 6th century BC. Such ideas gained physical credibility beginning in the 19th century, but the concept of "elementary particle" ...	{ "page_id": 41555255, "title": "History of subatomic physics" }
Ibn Sina, and Mohammad al-Ghazali; and in early modern Europe by physicists such as Pierre Gassendi, Robert Boyle, and Isaac Newton. The particle theory of light was also proposed by Ibn al-Haytham, Ibn Sina, Gassendi, and Newton. Those early ideas were founded through abstract, philosophical reasoning rather than expe...	{ "page_id": 41555255, "title": "History of subatomic physics" }
unknown) positively charged substance, and it was later confirmed. Electron became the first elementary, truly fundamental particle discovered. === Radioactivity === Studies of the "radioactivity", that soon revealed the phenomenon of radioactive decay, provided another argument against considering chemical elements as...	{ "page_id": 41555255, "title": "History of subatomic physics" }
element. Special relativity explained how the mass defect is related to the energy produced or consumed in reactions. The branch of physics that studies transformations and the structure of nuclei is now called nuclear physics, contrasted to atomic physics that studies the structure and properties of atoms ignoring mos...	{ "page_id": 41555255, "title": "History of subatomic physics" }
particles and waves. For example, electromagnetic waves were reformulated in terms of particles called photons. It also revealed that physical objects do not change their parameters, such as total energy, position and momentum, as continuous functions of time, as it was thought of in classical physics: see atomic elect...	{ "page_id": 41555255, "title": "History of subatomic physics" }
spinor representations for fermions with their half-integer spins. Improved understanding of the world of particles prompted physicists to make bold predictions, such as Dirac's positron in 1928 (founded on the Dirac Sea model) and Pauli's neutrino in 1930 (founded on conservation of energy and angular momentum in beta...	{ "page_id": 41555255, "title": "History of subatomic physics" }
with more than 100 protons per nucleus one has to use an inventory and methods of particle physics (see details below), namely to accelerate and collide atomic nuclei. Production of progressively heavier synthetic elements continued into 21st century as a branch of nuclear physics, but only for scientific purposes. The...	{ "page_id": 41555255, "title": "History of subatomic physics" }
form mesons and baryons that counted most of then-known particles. === Deeper constituents of matter === The interaction of these particles by scattering and decay provided a key to new fundamental quantum theories. Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman brought some order to mesons and baryons, the most numerous classes o...	{ "page_id": 41555255, "title": "History of subatomic physics" }
Now a large number of particles and (non-fundamental) interactions is explained as combinations of a (relatively) small number of fundamental substances, thought to be fundamental interactions (incarnated in fundamental bosons), quarks (including antiparticles), and leptons (including antiparticles). As the theory dist...	{ "page_id": 41555255, "title": "History of subatomic physics" }
Model has yet been found, although supersymmetry and string theory were believed by many theorists to be a promising avenue forward. The Large Hadron Collider, however, which began operating in 2008, has failed to find any evidence whatsoever that is supportive of supersymmetry and string theory, and appears unlikely t...	{ "page_id": 41555255, "title": "History of subatomic physics" }
about the nature of reality. For now, some physicists are calling it a "Higgslike" particle. Joe Incandela, of the University of California, Santa Barbara, said, "It's something that may, in the end, be one of the biggest observations of any new phenomena in our field in the last 30 or 40 years, going way back to the d...	{ "page_id": 41555255, "title": "History of subatomic physics" }
The Higgs boson achieved a notoriety rare for abstract physics. To the eternal dismay of his colleagues, Leon Lederman, the former director of Fermilab, called it the "God particle" in his book of the same name, later quipping that he had wanted to call it "the goddamn particle". Professor Incandela also stated, This b...	{ "page_id": 41555255, "title": "History of subatomic physics" }
of Einsteinian physics, they can become suffused with energy that exerts an antigravitational force. Such fields have been proposed as the source of an enormous burst of expansion, known as inflation, early in the universe and, possibly, as the secret of the dark energy that now seems to be speeding up the expansion of...	{ "page_id": 41555255, "title": "History of subatomic physics" }
María Dolores Soria Mayor (1948 – 5 June 2004), also known as Loli Soria, was a Spanish paleontologist. == Biography == María Dolores Soria Mayor earned a degree in Biological Sciences in 1971, and until 1973 she was a professor of Natural Sciences at the Corazón de María school in Ciudad Lineal. In 1973 and 1974 she s...	{ "page_id": 57808184, "title": "María Dolores Soria Mayor" }
era, extinct lineages of ruminants, and in the evolution of mammals in South America. == Tributes == In 2009 the National Museum of Natural Sciences dedicated the monographic volume Notas para la historia reciente del Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales. Homenaje a Dolores Soria Mayor to her. === Dedicated taxa === Cr...	{ "page_id": 57808184, "title": "María Dolores Soria Mayor" }
PalZ (formerly Paläontologische Zeitschrift) is an international, peer-reviewed periodical focused on palaeontology and published by the palaeontological society of Germany (Paläontologische Gesellschaft). The first issue was released in 1914. Until 1998 the journal was issued semiannually. From there on 4 issues were ...	{ "page_id": 42734906, "title": "PalZ" }
Tsuyoshi Tanaka is a Japanese chemist, who is active in the fields of nanotechnology and environmental science; he is a professor of the Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology (TUAT). == Works == Biological Magnetic Materials and Applications / eds. Tadashi Matsunaga, Tsuyoshi Tanaka, David Kisailus, Springer, ...	{ "page_id": 58922298, "title": "Tsuyoshi Tanaka" }
A glycosyl donor is a carbohydrate mono- or oligosaccharide that will react with a suitable glycosyl acceptor to form a new glycosidic bond. By convention, the donor is the member of this pair that contains the resulting anomeric carbon of the new glycosidic bond. The resulting reaction is referred to as a glycosylatio...	{ "page_id": 22484288, "title": "Glycosyl donor" }
electron-withdrawing towards the anomeric center when they are axial than when they are equatorial, which means that glycosyl donor conformers with more axial oxy functions are more reactive. Protection of a glycosyl donor with bulky silyl groups (tert-butyldimethylsilyl or triisopropyl) cause it to change conformation...	{ "page_id": 22484288, "title": "Glycosyl donor" }
A tension zone is a transitional zone between two distinctive zones, the zones may be influenced by climatic factors, and geological variation. creating a floristic tension zone. A marine tension zone may be affected by variables such as depth, climate or salinity. In a tension zone there is the increased probability o...	{ "page_id": 28120387, "title": "Tension zone" }
The Atwater system, named after Wilbur Olin Atwater, or derivatives of this system are used for the calculation of the available energy of foods. The system was developed largely from the experimental studies of Atwater and his colleagues in the later part of the 19th century and the early years of the 20th at Wesleyan...	{ "page_id": 4330820, "title": "Atwater system" }
G E p ( D p ) + G E f ( D f ) + G E c h o ( D c h o ) , {\displaystyle {\text{Digestible energy}}={{GE}_{\mathrm {p} }(D_{\mathrm {p} })}+{{GE}_{\mathrm {f} }(D_{\mathrm {f} })}+{{GE}_{\mathrm {cho} }(D_{\mathrm {cho} })},} where Dp, Df, and Dcho are respectively the digestibility coefficients of protein, fat and carbo...	{ "page_id": 4330820, "title": "Atwater system" }
correction === The energy/nitrogen ratio in urine shows considerable variation and the energy/organic matter is less variable, but the energy/nitrogen value provided Atwater with a workable approach although this has caused some confusion and only applies for subjects in nitrogen balance. == Modified system == Based on...	{ "page_id": 4330820, "title": "Atwater system" }
that sugars and starch are virtually completely digested and absorbed, and thus provide metabolisable energy equivalent to their heat of combustion. The unavailable carbohydrates (dietary fibre) are degraded to a variable extent in the large bowel. The products of this microbial digestion are fatty acids, CO2 (carbon d...	{ "page_id": 4330820, "title": "Atwater system" }
calculations on cow's milk suggest a value of around 5.5 kcal/g (23.0 kJ/g). ==== Fats ==== Analogously the experimental evidence is limited, but since the fatty acids differ in their heats of combustion one should expect fats to vary in heats of combustion. These differences are, however, relatively small – for exampl...	{ "page_id": 4330820, "title": "Atwater system" }
and there is no evidence to suggest that faecal excretion is in fact related to intake in the way implied by these coefficients. === Practical considerations in calculations of energy value of foods and diets === The calculation of energy values must be regarded as an alternative to direct measurement, and therefore is...	{ "page_id": 4330820, "title": "Atwater system" }
reading == U.S. Department of Agriculture – Agricultural Research Service: Founding American Nutrition Science – Wilbur Olin Atwater	{ "page_id": 4330820, "title": "Atwater system" }

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