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which the expression of non-B-lineage genes is permanently blocked. Part of B cell differentiation is controlling c-MYC protein stability and steady-state levels through CD19, which acts as a PAX5 target and downstream effector of the PI3K-AKT-GSK3β axis. CD19 signaling, independent of BCR functions, increases c-MYC pr...	{ "page_id": 9377328, "title": "CD19" }
of signaling through the BCR, and recruitment of PI3K. The localization of PI3K initiates another signaling pathway leading to Akt activation. Varying expression of CD19 on the cell surface modulates tyrosine phosphorylation and Akt kinase signaling and by extension, MHC class II mediated signaling. Activated spleen ty...	{ "page_id": 9377328, "title": "CD19" }
is rare for CD19 to be absent in neoplastic B cells, as it is essential for development. === Cancer === Since CD19 is a marker of B cells, the protein has been used to diagnose cancers that arise from this type of cell - notably B cell lymphomas, acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL...	{ "page_id": 9377328, "title": "CD19" }
for patients with ALL. == References == == Further reading == == External links == Mouse CD Antigen Chart Human CD Antigen Chart Human CD19 genome location and CD19 gene details page in the UCSC Genome Browser. This article incorporates text from the United States National Library of Medicine, which is in the public do...	{ "page_id": 9377328, "title": "CD19" }
Californium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Cf and atomic number 98. It was first synthesized in 1950 at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (then the University of California Radiation Laboratory) by bombarding curium with alpha particles (helium-4 ions). It is an actinide element, the sixth transuran...	{ "page_id": 5676, "title": "Californium" }
tissue. == Characteristics == === Physical properties === Californium is a silvery-white actinide metal with a melting point of 900 ± 30 °C (1,650 ± 50 °F) and an estimated boiling point of 1,743 K (1,470 °C; 2,680 °F). The pure metal is malleable and is easily cut with a knife. Californium metal starts to vaporize abo...	{ "page_id": 5676, "title": "Californium" }
periodic table. Compounds in the +4 oxidation state are strong oxidizing agents and those in the +2 state are strong reducing agents. The element slowly tarnishes in air at room temperature, with the rate increasing when moisture is added. Californium reacts when heated with hydrogen, nitrogen, or a chalcogen (oxygen f...	{ "page_id": 5676, "title": "Californium" }
Californium was first made at University of California Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, by physics researchers Stanley Gerald Thompson, Kenneth Street Jr., Albert Ghiorso, and Glenn T. Seaborg, about February 9, 1950. It was the sixth transuranium element to be discovered; the team announced its discovery on March 17, 1...	{ "page_id": 5676, "title": "Californium" }
five years. Two years later, in 1960, Burris Cunningham and James Wallman of Lawrence Radiation Laboratory of the University of California created the first californium compounds—californium trichloride, californium(III) oxychloride, and californium oxide—by treating californium with steam and hydrochloric acid. The Hi...	{ "page_id": 5676, "title": "Californium" }
supernova light curves are now thought to follow the decay of nickel-56. The transuranic elements americium to fermium, including californium, occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo, but no longer do so. Spectral lines of californium, along with those of several other non-primordial elements,...	{ "page_id": 5676, "title": "Californium" }
it useful as a startup neutron source for some nuclear reactors and as a portable (non-reactor based) neutron source for neutron activation analysis to detect trace amounts of elements in samples. Neutrons from californium are used as a treatment of certain cervical and brain cancers where other radiation therapy is in...	{ "page_id": 5676, "title": "Californium" }
with boron nuclei. === Hypothetical nuclear weapons === 251Cf has a very small calculated critical mass of about 5 kg (11 lb), high lethality, and a relatively short period of toxic environmental irradiation. The low critical mass of californium led to some exaggerated claims about possible uses for the element. == Pre...	{ "page_id": 5676, "title": "Californium" }
ISBN 978-0-19-850340-8. Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-3365-9. Haire, Richard G. (2006). "Californium". In Morss, Lester R.; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). S...	{ "page_id": 5676, "title": "Californium" }
William H., eds. (1991). Handbook of Metal Etchants. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-3623-2. Weeks, Mary Elvira; Leichester, Henry M. (1968). "21: Modern Alchemy". Discovery of the Elements. Journal of Chemical Education. pp. 848–850. ISBN 978-0-7661-3872-8. LCCN 68015217. == External links == Californium at The Periodic Ta...	{ "page_id": 5676, "title": "Californium" }
A metallurgical assay is a compositional analysis of an ore, metal, or alloy, usually performed in order to test for purity or quality. Some assay methods are suitable for raw materials; others are more appropriate for finished goods. Raw precious metals (bullion) are assayed by an assay office. Silver is assayed by ti...	{ "page_id": 23008816, "title": "Metallurgical assay" }
gold with a known purity. Red radiolarian chert or black siliceous slate were used for this. Differences in precious metal content as small as 10 to 20 parts per thousand can often be established with confidence by the test, using acids and gold samples both of a specific, known concentration. == X-ray fluorescence == ...	{ "page_id": 23008816, "title": "Metallurgical assay" }
platinum ores, the lengthy time required to carry out an assay is generally offset by carrying out large numbers of assays simultaneously, and a typical laboratory will be equipped with several fusion and cupellation furnaces, each capable of taking multiple samples, so that several hundred analyses per day can be carr...	{ "page_id": 23008816, "title": "Metallurgical assay" }
& Dietrich in the early 20th century. Method advancements since that time primarily automate material handling and final finish measurements (i.e., instrument finish rather than physical gold product weighing). Arguably, even these texts are largely an extension of traditions that were detailed in De re metallica by Ag...	{ "page_id": 23008816, "title": "Metallurgical assay" }
of the extreme method precision. European assayers follow bullion traditions based in hallmarking regulations. Reputable North American bullion assayers conform closely to ASTM method E1335-04e1. Only bullion methods validated and traceable to accepted international standards obtain genuine accuracies of 1 part in 10,0...	{ "page_id": 23008816, "title": "Metallurgical assay" }
of the raw materials and finished coins is an important quality control. In the UK, the Trial of the Pyx is a ceremonial procedure for ensuring that newly minted coins conform to required standards. == References == == Further reading == Bugby, Edward E. A Textbook of Fire Assay 3rd ed (1940), Colorado School of mines ...	{ "page_id": 23008816, "title": "Metallurgical assay" }
Ribonuclease II may refer to one of two enzymes: Ribonuclease T2 Exoribonuclease II	{ "page_id": 38934063, "title": "Ribonuclease II" }
In microbiology, in the context of a sterilization procedure, the D-value or decimal reduction time (or decimal reduction dose) is the time (or dose of an antimicrobial drug) required, at a given condition (e.g. temperature) or set of conditions, to achieve a one-log reduction, that is, to kill 90% of relevant microorg...	{ "page_id": 31397428, "title": "D-value (microbiology)" }
the US, the temperature is usually indicated in degrees Fahrenheit; a notation like D230 should be understood to mean D230F (D110C). When describing D-value generally for any temperature, like in the heading of a table, a common abbreviation is DT (where T stands for the temperature), where specific values for T may be...	{ "page_id": 31397428, "title": "D-value (microbiology)" }
The molecular formula C6H7NO3S (molar mass: 173.190 g/mol, exact mass: 173.0147 u) may refer to: Metanilic acid Orthanilic acid Piloty's acid Sulfanilic acid	{ "page_id": 23729712, "title": "C6H7NO3S" }
IEEE Electron Device Letters is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published monthly by the IEEE. It was founded in 1980 by IEEE Electron Devices Society. The journal covers the advances in electron and ion integrated circuit devices. Its editor-in-chief is Sayeef Salahuddin (University of California, Berkeley). Accord...	{ "page_id": 77010482, "title": "IEEE Electron Device Letters" }
Grant Achatz ( AK-its) (born April 25, 1974) is an American chef and restaurateur often recognized for his contributions to molecular gastronomy or progressive cuisine. Achatz has won numerous awards from prominent culinary institutions and publications, including the Food and Wine's "best new chefs" award in 1998, "Ri...	{ "page_id": 7149111, "title": "Grant Achatz" }
just 64 guests. Achatz serves diners a small-course tasting menu, consisting of approximately 18 courses. After less than two years of operation, the Mobil Travel Guide bestowed its Five Star Award on Alinea, making Alinea one of just 16 restaurants nationwide to rate five stars for 2007. In October 2006, Gourmet magaz...	{ "page_id": 7149111, "title": "Grant Achatz" }
New York. Reservations for Achatz's restaurant, Next, are so sought after, that tickets could be found on Craigslist for up to $500 per person. In February 2012, Achatz held a Dutch auction for tickets to Next's elBulli-inspired menu, raising over $275,000 for charity in just two days. Auction prices varied between $4,...	{ "page_id": 7149111, "title": "Grant Achatz" }
People Can Achieve Outrageous Success, a book about preventing suicide with sense with stories about famous people that had disasters. Almost at the end of the book, he told the story about Grant's tongue cancer in July 2007 and the success of his restaurant in that time. == Health issues == On July 23, 2007, Achatz an...	{ "page_id": 7149111, "title": "Grant Achatz" }
Rosio Sanchez on the season three finale of The Bear. == Awards == Best New Chefs, Food & Wine, 2002 Best Restaurant in America, Gourmet, 2006 40 Top Chicago Restaurants Ever, Chicago, #1, 2010 AAA Five Diamond Award, AAA, 2007–2017 Mobil Five Star Award, Mobil Travel Guide, 2007–2017 Jean Banchet Award – Best Celebrit...	{ "page_id": 7149111, "title": "Grant Achatz" }
3 Michelin Stars, 2013 3 Michelin Stars, 2014 3 Michelin Stars, 2015 3 Michelin Stars, 2016 3 Michelin Stars, 2017 3 Michelin Stars, 2018 3 Michelin Stars, 2019 3 Michelin Stars, 2020 3 Michelin Stars, 2021 3 Michelin Stars, 2022 3 Michelin Stars, 2023 3 Michelin Stars, 2024 The 2011 Time 100 Elite Traveler Top 100 Res...	{ "page_id": 7149111, "title": "Grant Achatz" }
Dynamic scaling (sometimes known as Family–Vicsek scaling) is a litmus test that shows whether an evolving system exhibits self-similarity. In general a function is said to exhibit dynamic scaling if it satisfies: f ( x , t ) ∼ t θ φ ( x t z ) . {\displaystyle f(x,t)\sim t^{\theta }\varphi \left({\frac {x}{t^{z}}}\righ...	{ "page_id": 52303418, "title": "Dynamic scaling" }
The form of their proposal for dynamic scaling was: f ( x , t ) ∼ t − w x − τ φ ( x t z ) , {\displaystyle f(x,t)\sim t^{-w}x^{-\tau }\varphi \left({\frac {x}{t^{z}}}\right),} where the exponents satisfy the following relation: w = ( 2 − τ ) z . {\displaystyle w=(2-\tau )z.} == Test == In such systems we can define a c...	{ "page_id": 52303418, "title": "Dynamic scaling" }
one of the best examples. It has been expanding ever since the Big Bang. Similarly, growth of networks like the Internet are also ever growing systems. Another example is polymer degradation where degradation does not occur in a blink of an eye but rather over quite a long time. Spread of biological and computer viruse...	{ "page_id": 52303418, "title": "Dynamic scaling" }
Nano aquariums are aquariums with the emphasis on small scale inhabitants inside smaller sized aquariums. They can be either freshwater nano aquariums or saltwater nano aquariums. Nano fish species are chosen from any smaller sized species of tropical fish. Other possible inhabitants are freshwater and seawater shrimps...	{ "page_id": 48567867, "title": "Nano aquarium" }
This is a list of areas of existing old-growth forest which include at least 10 acres (4.0 hectares) of old growth. Ecoregion information from "Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World". (NB: The terms "old growth" and "virgin" may have various definitions and meanings throughout the world. See old-growth forest for more in...	{ "page_id": 4265532, "title": "List of old-growth forests" }
Network == Notes == == References == Davis, Mary Byrd (1996). Eastern Old-Growth Forests: Prospects For Rediscovery And Recovery. Island Press. ISBN 978-1-55963-409-0. Eifert, Larry (2000). Field Guide to Old-Growth Forests: Exploring Ancient Forest Ecosystems from California to the Pacific Northwest. Sasquatch Books. ...	{ "page_id": 4265532, "title": "List of old-growth forests" }
Group Selection is a 1971 book edited by George C. Williams, containing papers written by biologists arguing against the view of group selection as a major force in evolution. The group of biologists writing on a single unified (if somewhat broad) theme contrasts with Williams' earlier seminal 1966 book Adaptation and ...	{ "page_id": 18290237, "title": "Group Selection (book)" }
In natural selection, negative selection or purifying selection is the selective removal of alleles that are deleterious. This can result in stabilising selection through the purging of deleterious genetic polymorphisms that arise through random mutations. Purging of deleterious alleles can be achieved on the populatio...	{ "page_id": 8394305, "title": "Negative selection (natural selection)" }
has been reported for the plant, Scots Pine. == See also == Assortative mating Balancing selection Directional selection Disruptive selection Dysgenics Fluctuating selection Genetic purging Koinophilia Mutation–selection balance Stabilizing selection == References ==	{ "page_id": 8394305, "title": "Negative selection (natural selection)" }
A restricted-access barrier system (RABS) is an installation which is used in many industries, such as pharmaceutical, medical, chemical, electrical engineering where a controlled atmosphere is needed. The RABS provides a physical barrier between workers and production areas. == See also == Clean room == References ==	{ "page_id": 20715076, "title": "Restricted-access barrier system" }
This is a list of scattering experiments. == Specific experiments of historical significance == Davisson–Germer experiment Gold foil experiments, performed by Geiger and Marsden for Rutherford which discovered the atomic nucleus Elucidation of the structure of DNA by X-ray crystallography Discovery of the antiproton at...	{ "page_id": 53155398, "title": "List of scattering experiments" }
The lanthanide contraction is the greater-than-expected decrease in atomic radii and ionic radii of the elements in the lanthanide series, from left to right. It is caused by the poor shielding effect of nuclear charge by the 4f electrons along with the expected periodic trend of increasing electronegativity and nuclea...	{ "page_id": 2168393, "title": "Lanthanide contraction" }
are added in outer shells, electrons already present shield the outer electrons from nuclear charge, making them experience a lower effective charge on the nucleus. The shielding effect exerted by the inner electrons decreases in the order s > p > d > f. Usually, as a particular subshell is filled in a period, the atom...	{ "page_id": 2168393, "title": "Lanthanide contraction" }
the chemical separation of period 5 and period 6 transition metals of the same group rather difficult. Even when the mass of an atomic nucleus is the same, a decrease in the atomic volume has a corresponding increase in the density as illustrated by alpha crystals of cerium (at 77 Kelvin) and gamma crystals of cerium (...	{ "page_id": 2168393, "title": "Lanthanide contraction" }
for europium and ytterbium (than their adjacent lanthanides) are associated with larger atomic volumes at 148% and 128% of the average volume for the typical 12 lanthanides (i.e., 28.979, 25.067, and 19.629 cm3/mol, respectively). Because the atomic volume of Yb is 21% more than that of Ce, it is understandable that th...	{ "page_id": 2168393, "title": "Lanthanide contraction" }
to the preceding elements) that differ by one electron in the 4f shell, i.e., 5 to 6 and 12 to 13. === Magnetism of the lanthanides === It has been shown that lanthanide contraction plays a crucial role in determining the magnetic phase diagram of the heavy rare-earth elements, i.e. those from Gadolinium onwards. === I...	{ "page_id": 2168393, "title": "Lanthanide contraction" }
tungsten’s (with four 5d electrons). The radii of the period-6 transition metals are smaller than would be expected if there were no lanthanides, and are in fact very similar to the radii of the period-5 transition metals since the effect of the additional electron shell is almost entirely offset by the lanthanide cont...	{ "page_id": 2168393, "title": "Lanthanide contraction" }
The molecular formula C18H19N3O may refer to: Acridine carboxamide Ondansetron	{ "page_id": 27203146, "title": "C18H19N3O" }
Ribonucleate nucleotido-2'-transferase (cyclizing) may refer to: Ribonuclease T2, an enzyme Bacillus subtilis ribonuclease, an enzyme	{ "page_id": 38934091, "title": "Ribonucleate nucleotido-2'-transferase (cyclizing)" }
Genic capture is a hypothesis explaining the maintenance of genetic variance in traits under sexual selection. A classic problem in sexual selection is the fixation of alleles that are beneficial under strong selection, thereby eliminating the benefits of mate choice. Genic capture resolves this paradox by suggesting t...	{ "page_id": 34149964, "title": "Genic capture" }
Loci contributing to C {\displaystyle C} are loosely linked and independent of loci contributing to a {\displaystyle a} and b {\displaystyle b} . Rowe and Houle then find the expected variance of T {\displaystyle T} and ignored higher-order terms (i.e. products of variances): G T ≈ G a + b ¯ 2 G C + C ¯ 2 G b {\display...	{ "page_id": 34149964, "title": "Genic capture" }
Chromosome 17p13.1 deletion syndrome is a phenotype in humans that is designed DEL17P13.1. == References ==	{ "page_id": 37885516, "title": "DEL17P13.1" }
In organic chemistry, an oxocarbenium ion (alternatively spelled oxacarbenium) is a chemical species characterized by a central sp2-hybridized atom of carbon, a substituent atom of oxygen, and an overall positive charge that is delocalized between the central carbon and oxygen atoms (R2[CO]+R). An oxocarbenium ion is r...	{ "page_id": 22484557, "title": "Oxocarbenium" }
a π* orbital that has the large lobe on the carbon atom; the more electronegative oxygen contributes less to the LUMO. Consequently, in an event of a nucleophilic attack, the carbon is the electrophilic site. Compared to a ketone, the polarization of an oxocarbenium ion is accentuated: they more strongly resemble a "tr...	{ "page_id": 22484557, "title": "Oxocarbenium" }
the reaction is conducted under mildly acidic conditions that protonate the imine intermediate to a significant extent, forming the iminium ion, while not being strongly acidic enough to protonate the ketone, which would form the even more electrophilic oxocarbenium ion. Thus, the reaction conditions and reagent ensure...	{ "page_id": 22484557, "title": "Oxocarbenium" }
to a six-membered ring follows a similar procedure to the case of the five-membered ring. The assumption that one makes for this analysis is that the ring is in the same conformation as cyclohexene, with three carbons and the oxygen in a plane with the two other carbon atome puckered out of the plane, with one above an...	{ "page_id": 22484557, "title": "Oxocarbenium" }
of cycloaddition reactions. They are commonly employed as dienophiles in the Diels–Alder reaction. An electron withdrawing ketone is often added to the dienophile to increase the rate of the reaction, and these ketones are often converted to vinyl oxocarbenium ions during the reaction. It is not clear that an oxocarben...	{ "page_id": 22484557, "title": "Oxocarbenium" }
signaling molecules, protein modification and play key roles in the immune system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development. The abundance of sugar chemistry in biological processes leads many reaction mechanisms to proceed through oxocarbenium ions. Several important biological reactions...	{ "page_id": 22484557, "title": "Oxocarbenium" }
The molecular formula C15H18 (molar mass: 198.30 g/mol) may refer to: Cadalene, or cadalin Guaiazulene, also known as azulon or 1,4-dimethyl-7-isopropylazulene Vetivazulene	{ "page_id": 23991886, "title": "C15H18" }
In chemical biology, tonicity is a measure of the effective osmotic pressure gradient; the water potential of two solutions separated by a partially-permeable cell membrane. Tonicity depends on the relative concentration of selective membrane-impermeable solutes across a cell membrane which determine the direction and ...	{ "page_id": 2823760, "title": "Tonicity" }
of a pincushion, and the plasmodesmata almost cease to function because they become constricted, a condition known as plasmolysis. In plant cells the terms isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic cannot strictly be used accurately because the pressure exerted by the cell wall significantly affects the osmotic equilibrium po...	{ "page_id": 2823760, "title": "Tonicity" }
inside the cell. In this case the cell neither swells nor shrinks because there is no concentration gradient to induce the diffusion of large amounts of water across the cell membrane. Water molecules freely diffuse through the plasma membrane in both directions, and as the rate of water diffusion is the same in each d...	{ "page_id": 2823760, "title": "Tonicity" }
An onium (plural: onia) is a bound state of a particle and its antiparticle. These states are usually named by adding the suffix -onium to the name of one of the constituent particles (replacing an -on suffix when present), with one exception for "muonium"; a muon–antimuon bound pair is called "true muonium" to avoid c...	{ "page_id": 13440591, "title": "Onium" }
Recombineering (recombination-mediated genetic engineering) is a genetic and molecular biology technique based on homologous recombination systems, as opposed to the older/more common method of using restriction enzymes and ligases to combine DNA sequences in a specified order. Recombineering is widely used for bacteri...	{ "page_id": 5117528, "title": "Recombineering" }
dsDNA recombineering has been used to create gene replacements, deletions, insertions, and inversions. Gene cloning and gene/protein tagging (His tags etc., see ) is also common. For gene replacements or deletions, usually a cassette encoding a drug-resistance gene is made by PCR using bi-partite primers. These primers...	{ "page_id": 5117528, "title": "Recombineering" }
enough that alterations can now be made without selection. With optimized protocols, over 50% of the cells that survive electroporation contain the desired change. Recombineering with ssDNA only requires the Red Beta protein; Exo, Gamma and the host recombination proteins are not required. As proteins homologous to Bet...	{ "page_id": 5117528, "title": "Recombineering" }
gene targeting constructs for functional genomics programs such as EUCOMM (European Conditional Mouse Mutagenesis Consortium) and KOMP (Knock-Out Mouse Program). Recombineering has also been automated, a process called "MAGE" -Multiplex Automated Genome Engineering, in the Church lab. With the development of CRISPR tec...	{ "page_id": 5117528, "title": "Recombineering" }
Clinical geropsychology is the application by psychologists in a range of sub-disciplines (clinical psychology, counseling psychology) of "the knowledge and methods of psychology to understanding and helping older persons and their families to maintain well-being, overcome problems and achieve maximum potential during ...	{ "page_id": 43193946, "title": "Clinical geropsychology" }
of independence, and the approach of their mortality. Given the expected growth of the older adult population, many psychologists will end up working with older adults in some way, and all psychologists therefore need to be aware of issues related to aging and their context. However, some older adults may benefit from ...	{ "page_id": 43193946, "title": "Clinical geropsychology" }
Division was held with 13 people in attendance. Despite its modest beginnings, by 1952, the annual meeting of the Adult Development and Aging Division was held jointly with the Gerontological Society in Washington, D.C. At this meeting, Harold Jones, a lifespan psychologist and director of the California-based Institut...	{ "page_id": 43193946, "title": "Clinical geropsychology" }
The conference recommended the creation of an aging institute, and in 1971 The Research on Aging Act was introduced. In 1974, The Research on Aging Act passed in Congress, and President Nixon signed the bill thus creating the National Institute on Aging (NIA). This was a pivotal moment in the emergence of clinical gero...	{ "page_id": 43193946, "title": "Clinical geropsychology" }
participated in the conference. The results of the Older Boulder conference were detailed in the publication Psychology and the Older Adult: Challenges for Training in the 1980s as well as a full report from the conference and many position papers on various topics. Most importantly, Older Boulder was a key first step ...	{ "page_id": 43193946, "title": "Clinical geropsychology" }
mission is fostering the mental health and wellness of older adults through science, practice, education and advocacy and by advancing the field of professional geropsychology. The Society is active in promoting and supporting training in geropsychology at the doctoral, internship, and postdoctoral level, advocating fo...	{ "page_id": 43193946, "title": "Clinical geropsychology" }
In physics and mathematics, the Gibbs measure, named after Josiah Willard Gibbs, is a probability measure frequently seen in many problems of probability theory and statistical mechanics. It is a generalization of the canonical ensemble to infinite systems. The canonical ensemble gives the probability of the system X b...	{ "page_id": 3085914, "title": "Gibbs measure" }
measure conditional on the frozen degrees of freedom. The Hammersley–Clifford theorem implies that any probability measure that satisfies a Markov property is a Gibbs measure for an appropriate choice of (locally defined) energy function. Therefore, the Gibbs measure applies to widespread problems outside of physics, s...	{ "page_id": 3085914, "title": "Gibbs measure" }
typically not invariant under the Hamiltonian's symmetry. For example, in the infinite ferromagnetic Ising model below the critical temperature, there are two pure states, the "mostly-up" and "mostly-down" states, which are interchanged under the model's Z 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} _{2}} symmetry. == Markov property...	{ "page_id": 3085914, "title": "Gibbs measure" }
a lattice requires some terminology: The lattice: A countable set L {\displaystyle \mathbb {L} } . The single-spin space: A probability space ( S , S , λ ) {\displaystyle (S,{\mathcal {S}},\lambda )} . The configuration space: ( Ω , F ) {\displaystyle (\Omega ,{\mathcal {F}})} , where Ω = S L {\displaystyle \Omega =S^{...	{ "page_id": 3085914, "title": "Gibbs measure" }
) A ∈ L {\displaystyle \Phi =(\Phi _{A})_{A\in {\mathcal {L}}}} of functions ΦA : Ω → R such that For each A ∈ L , Φ A {\displaystyle A\in {\mathcal {L}},\Phi _{A}} is F A {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}_{A}} -measurable, meaning it depends only on the restriction ω A {\displaystyle \omega _{A}} (and does so measurably)....	{ "page_id": 3085914, "title": "Gibbs measure" }
Λ {\displaystyle \Lambda ^{c}:=\mathbb {L} \setminus \Lambda } . The partition function in Λ ∈ L {\displaystyle \Lambda \in {\mathcal {L}}} with boundary conditions ω ¯ {\displaystyle {\bar {\omega }}} and inverse temperature β > 0 (for the potential Φ and λ) is defined by Z Λ Φ ( ω ¯ ) = ∫ λ Λ ( d ω ) exp ⁡ ( − β H Λ ...	{ "page_id": 3085914, "title": "Gibbs measure" }
{\mathcal {F}}} and Λ ∈ L {\displaystyle \Lambda \in {\mathcal {L}}} . === An example === To help understand the above definitions, here are the corresponding quantities in the important example of the Ising model with nearest-neighbor interactions (coupling constant J) and a magnetic field (h), on Zd: The lattice is s...	{ "page_id": 3085914, "title": "Gibbs measure" }
The molecular formula C21H26N4O3 may refer to: N-Desethylisotonitazene, a designer drug with opiod effects Metonitazene, an analgesic compound	{ "page_id": 60823132, "title": "C21H26N4O3" }
This article uses Chernobyl as a case study of nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem. == Chernobyl == Officials used hydrometeorological data to create an image of what the potential nuclear fallout looked like after the Chernobyl disaster in 1986. Using this method, they were able to determine the distribution of ra...	{ "page_id": 60167773, "title": "Nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem" }
from mere hours, to decades. The shortest half-life for the previous elements is Zr95, an isotope of zirconium which takes 1.4 hours to decay. The longest is Pu235, which takes approximately 24,000 years to decay. While the initial release of these particles and elements was rather large, there were multiple low-level ...	{ "page_id": 60167773, "title": "Nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem" }
decrease. Embryonic mortality increased as well, however, migration patterns of the rodents made the damaged population number increase once again. Among the small rodents affected, it was observed that there were increasing issues in the blood and livers, which is a direct correlation to radiation exposure. Issues suc...	{ "page_id": 60167773, "title": "Nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem" }
radioactive level in each individual hot particle could rise as high as 10 kBq, which is a fairly high dosage of radiation. These liquid hot particle droplets could be absorbed in two main ways; ingestion through food or water, and inhalation. == Evolutionary effects == Mutated organisms themselves also have effects be...	{ "page_id": 60167773, "title": "Nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem" }
In condensed matter physics, the Su–Schrieffer–Heeger (SSH) model or SSH chain is a one-dimensional lattice model that presents topological features. It was devised by Wu-Pei Su, John Robert Schrieffer, and Alan J. Heeger in 1979, to describe the increase of electrical conductivity of polyacetylene polymer chain when d...	{ "page_id": 66590304, "title": "Su–Schrieffer–Heeger model" }
+ w ∑ n = 1 N \| n + 1 , A ⟩ ⟨ n , B \| + h . c . {\displaystyle H=v\sum _{n=1}^{N}\|n,B\rangle \langle n,A\|+w\sum _{n=1}^{N}\|n+1,A\rangle \langle n,B\|+\mathrm {h.c.} } where h.c. denotes the Hermitian conjugate, v is the energy required to hop from a site A to B inside the unit cell, and w is the energy required to hop b...	{ "page_id": 66590304, "title": "Su–Schrieffer–Heeger model" }
{2}}}\left(\pm e^{i\phi _{k}}\|k,A\rangle +\|k,B\rangle \right),} where tan ⁡ ϕ k = w sin ⁡ k v + w cos ⁡ k . {\displaystyle \tan \phi _{k}={\frac {w\sin k}{v+w\cos k}}.} The eigenenergies are symmetrical under swap of v ↔ w {\displaystyle v\leftrightarrow w} , and the dispersion relation is mostly gapped (insulator) exc...	{ "page_id": 66590304, "title": "Su–Schrieffer–Heeger model" }
one cannot pass from an insulating phase to another without closing the gap (passing by the metallic phase). This phenomenon is called a topological phase transition. === Finite chain solution and edge states === The physical consequences of having different winding number become more apparent for a finite chain with a...	{ "page_id": 66590304, "title": "Su–Schrieffer–Heeger model" }
states. Even if the eigenenergies lie in the gap, the edge states are localized and correspond to an insulating phase. By plotting the spectrum as a function of v {\displaystyle v} for a fixed value of w {\displaystyle w} , the spectrum is divided into two insulating regions divided by the metallic intersection at w = ...	{ "page_id": 66590304, "title": "Su–Schrieffer–Heeger model" }
The International Molecular Exchange Consortium (IMEx) is a group of the major public providers of molecular interaction data to provide a single, non-redundant set of molecular interactions. Data is captured using a detailed curation model and made available in the PSI-MI standard formats. Participating databases incl...	{ "page_id": 50140772, "title": "International Molecular Exchange Consortium" }
Astrochemistry is the study of the abundance and reactions of molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. The discipline is an overlap of astronomy and chemistry. The word "astrochemistry" may be applied to both the Solar System and the interstellar medium. The study of the abundance of elements an...	{ "page_id": 71268, "title": "Astrochemistry" }
given off by different metals have distinct emission spectra. This observation was later built upon by Léon Foucault, who demonstrated in 1849 that identical absorption and emission lines result from the same material at different temperatures. An equivalent statement was independently postulated by Anders Jonas Ångstr...	{ "page_id": 71268, "title": "Astrochemistry" }
of interstellar oxygen, and H2CO (formaldehyde), discovered in 1969 and significant for being the first observed organic, polyatomic molecule in interstellar space The discovery of interstellar formaldehyde – and later, other molecules with potential biological significance, such as water or carbon monoxide – is seen b...	{ "page_id": 71268, "title": "Astrochemistry" }
the most abundant interstellar molecules, and among the easiest to detect with radio waves (due to its strong electric dipole moment), is CO (carbon monoxide). In fact, CO is such a common interstellar molecule that it is used to map out molecular regions. The radio observation of perhaps greatest human interest is the...	{ "page_id": 71268, "title": "Astrochemistry" }
of methane in the atmosphere of Mars. Christopher Oze, of the University of Canterbury in New Zealand and his colleagues reported, in June 2012, that measuring the ratio of dihydrogen and methane levels on Mars may help determine the likelihood of life on Mars. According to the scientists, "...low H2/CH4 ratios (less t...	{ "page_id": 71268, "title": "Astrochemistry" }
(where there are enough particles to attenuate the destructive UV radiation) thin ice layers coat the microscopic particles, permitting some low-temperature chemistry to occur. Since dihydrogen is by far the most abundant molecule in the universe, the initial chemistry of these ices is determined by the chemistry of th...	{ "page_id": 71268, "title": "Astrochemistry" }
except on the longest of timescales. For this reason, molecules and molecular ions which are unstable on Earth can be highly abundant in space, for example the H3+ ion. Astrochemistry overlaps with astrophysics and nuclear physics in characterizing the nuclear reactions which occur in stars, as well as the structure of...	{ "page_id": 71268, "title": "Astrochemistry" }
medium (ISM) conditions, are transformed, through hydrogenation, oxygenation and hydroxylation, to more complex organics – "a step along the path toward amino acids and nucleotides, the raw materials of proteins and DNA, respectively". Further, as a result of these transformations, the PAHs lose their spectroscopic sig...	{ "page_id": 71268, "title": "Astrochemistry" }

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