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the two tentacles like elastic bands. Aplacophorans (Aplacophora) The largest known of these worm-like, shell-less mollusks are represented in the genus Epimenia, which can reach 30 cm (12 in) long. Most aplacophorans are less than 5 cm (2.0 in) long. Chitons (Polyplacophora) The largest of the chitons is the gumboot c...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
in) long. Cephalopods (Cephalopoda) (See Cephalopod size.) While generally much smaller than the giant Architeuthis and Mesonychoteuthis, the largest of the octopuses, the giant Pacific octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini), can grow to be very large. The largest confirmed weight of a giant octopus is 74 kg (163 lb), with a ...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
off of Nova Scotia weighed 20 kg (44 lb) and its body length was 1.1 m (3.6 ft). The largest land arthropod and the largest land invertebrate is the coconut crab (Birgus latro), up to 40 cm (1.3 ft) long and weighing up to 4 kg (8.8 lb) on average. Its legs may span 1 m (3.3 ft). ==== Arachnids (Arachnida) ==== Both sp...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
from a free finger. Pseudoscorpions (Pseudoscorpiones) The largest pseudoscorpion is Garypus titanius, from Ascension island, which can be 12 mm (0.47 in) long. ==== Thecostracans (Thecostraca) ==== The largest known thecostracan Facetotecta y-larvae are Hansenocaris cristalabri, about 0.5 millimeters long Barnacles an...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
small and little-known but numerous crustaceans is the species Gigantocypris australis females of which reaching a maximum length of 3 cm (1.2 in). Amphipods, isopods, and allies (Peracarida) The largest species is the giant isopod (Bathynomus pergiganteus), which can reach a length of 45 cm (18 inches) and a weight of...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
nearly 189 cm (74 in). Symphylans (Symphyla) The largest known symphylan is Hanseniella magna, originating in Tasmanian caves, which can reach lengths from 25 mm (0.98 in) up to 30 mm (1.2 in). ==== Insects (Insecta) ==== Insects, a class of Arthropoda, are easily the most numerous class of organisms, with over one mil...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
The largest cockroach by body mass is the Australian giant burrowing cockroach (Macropanesthia rhinoceros), also known as the rhinoceros cockroach. This species can attain a length of 8.3 cm (3.3 in) and a weight of 36 g (1.3 oz). It does not have wings. The Brazilian giant cockroach (Blaberus giganteus) of the neotrop...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
the organism extinct by the IUCN, this may no longer be the case, although some believe a small number individuals are still extant. True flies (Diptera) The largest species of this order, which includes the common housefly, is the neotropical species Gauromydas heros, which can reach a length of 6 cm (2+3⁄8 in) and a ...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
weight of 8.5 g (0.30 oz). The ant that averages the largest for the mean size within the whole colony is a ponerine ant, Dinoponera gigantea, from South America, averaging up to 3.3 cm (1.3 in) from the mandibles to the end of abdomen. Workers of the bulldog ant (Myrmecia brevinoda) of Australia are up to 3.7 cm (1.5 ...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
(0.42 oz). One Atlas moth allegedly had a wingspan of 30 cm (12 in) but this measurement was not verified. The larvae in the previous species can weigh up to 58 and 54 g (2.0 and 1.9 oz), respectively. The white witch (Thysania agrippina) of Central and South America, has the largest recorded wingspan of the order, and...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
(Nymphes myrmeleonides) of Australia, which can measure up to 4 cm (1.6 in) in length and span 11 cm (4.3 in) across the wings. Some forms of this ancient order could grow extremely large during the Jurassic period and may have ranked among the largest insects ever. Found in the Early Cretaceous sedimentary rocks, Maka...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
is the katydid Macrolyristes corporalis of Southeast Asia which can range up to 21.5 cm (8.5 in) with its long legs extended and can have a wingspan of 20 cm (7.9 in). Stick insects (Phasmatodea) The longest known stick insects are also the longest known insects, notably species in the tribe Pharnaciini, but they are g...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
thickest part of the body. Lice (Phthiraptera) These insects, which live parasitically on other animals, are as a rule quite small. The largest known species is the hog louse, Haematopinus suis, a sucking louse that lives on large livestock like pigs and cattle. It can range up to 6 mm (0.24 in) in length. Stoneflies (...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
giant, found washed up on the shore of Massachusetts Bay in 1870, had a bell diameter of 2.5 m (8.2 ft), a weight of 150 kg (330 lb). The tentacles of this specimen were as long as 37 m (121 ft) and were projected to have a tentacular spread of about 75 m (246 ft) making it one of the longest extant animals. Corals and...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
world, with the exception of the Arctic Ocean. Box jellyfishes (Chirodropida) The largest box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri is the largest of the cubozoans (collectively called box jellyfish), many of which may carry toxic venom. Its bell usually reaches about 16 cm (6.3 in) in diameter but can grow up to 35 cm (14 in). ...	{ "page_id": 34477913, "title": "Largest and heaviest animals" }
Aquatic Microbial Ecology is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering all aspects of aquatic microbial dynamics, in particular viruses, prokaryotes, and eukaryotes in marine, limnetic, and brackish habitats. The journal was originally established as Marine Microbial Food Webs by P. Bougis and F. Rassoulzadeg...	{ "page_id": 61019998, "title": "Aquatic Microbial Ecology" }
A new chemical entity (NCE) is, according to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, a novel, small, chemical molecule drug that is undergoing clinical trials or has received a first approval (not a new use) by the FDA in any other application submitted under section 505(b) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. A...	{ "page_id": 1775454, "title": "New chemical entity" }
advisory committee before the FDA can approve these products. == See also == Molecular/chemical entity Medicinal chemistry Drug development == References == == External links == NME's worldwide and in Germany CDER Drug and Biologic Approval Reports	{ "page_id": 1775454, "title": "New chemical entity" }
The zonule of Zinn () (Zinn's membrane, ciliary zonule) (after Johann Gottfried Zinn) is a ring of fibrous strands forming a zonule (little band) that connects the ciliary body with the crystalline lens of the eye. The Zonular fibers are viscoelastic cables, although their component microfibrils are stiff structures. T...	{ "page_id": 3872608, "title": "Zonule of Zinn" }
around the outer margin of the lens (equator), both anteriorly and posteriorly. == Function == Securing the lens to the optical axis and transferring forces from the ciliary muscle in accommodation. When colour granules are displaced from the zonules of Zinn, caused by friction of the lens, the iris can slowly fade. Th...	{ "page_id": 3872608, "title": "Zonule of Zinn" }
Evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo) is the study of developmental programs and patterns from an evolutionary perspective. It seeks to understand the various influences shaping the form and nature of life on the planet. Evo-devo arose as a separate branch of science rather recently. An early sign of this occur...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
Wilhelm Hofmeister, one of the most brilliant botanists of his times, was the one to diverge away from the idealist way of pursuing botany. Over the course of his life, he brought an interdisciplinary outlook into botanical thinking. He came up with biophysical explanations on phenomena like phototaxis and geotaxis, an...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
developmental processes. Three very basic processes are heterochrony (changes in the timing of developmental processes), heterotopy (changes in the relative positioning of processes), and heteromorphy (changes in form processes). In the meantime, by the beginning of the latter half of the 1900s, Arabidopsis thaliana ha...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
is, they are factual and objective. As such, articulation morphology based on articles offers a common foundation for all morphologists, regardless of their theoretical preferences. While so far plant morphology has been centered around homology, articulation morphology shifts the focus to the transformation of ramific...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
the way to go now. Since the past few years, researchers have indeed begun looking at non-model, "non-conventional" organisms using modern genetic tools. One example of this is the Floral Genome Project, which envisages to study the evolution of the current patterns in the genetic architecture of the flower through com...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
a result of advances in computer sciences. == Evolution of plant morphology == === Overview of plant evolution === Evidence suggests that an algal scum formed on the land 1,200 million years ago, but it was not until the Ordovician period, around 500 million years ago, that land plants appeared. These began to diversif...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
layer of cells divides anticlinally to generate the new cells, while in gymnosperms, the plane of division in the meristem differs for different cells. However, the apical cells do contain organelles like large vacuoles and starch grains, like the angiosperm meristematic cells. Pteridophytes, like fern, on the other ha...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
the planar branches and fusion, where these webbed outgrowths fused to form a proper leaf lamina. Studies have revealed that these three steps happened multiple times in the evolution of today's leaves. Contrary to the telome theory, developmental studies of compound leaves have shown that, unlike simple leaves, compou...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
to transpiration. Herbivory, not only by large mammals, but also small insects has been implicated as a driving force in leaf evolution, an example being plants of the genus Aciphylla, that are commonly found in New Zealand. The now-extinct moas (birds) fed upon these plants, and the spines on the leaves probably disco...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
established from the SAM cells, the new axes for leaf growth are defined, one important (and more studied) among them being the abaxial-adaxial (lower-upper surface) axis. The genes involved in defining this, and the other axes seem to be more or less conserved among higher plants. Proteins of the HD-ZIPIII family have...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
see a rapid development in comparative studies on leaf development, with many EST sequences involved in the process coming online. Molecular genetics has also shed light on the relation between radial symmetry (characteristic of stems) and dorsiventral symmetry (typical for leaves). James (2009) stated that "it is now ...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
It seems that on the level of the organ, the leaf may be the ancestor of the flower, or at least some floral organs. When we mutate some crucial genes involved in flower development, we end up with a cluster of leaf-like structures. Thus, sometime in history, the developmental program leading to formation of a leaf mus...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
to be quite a bit of pattern into how this family has evolved. Consider the evolution of the C-region gene AGAMOUS (AG). It is expressed in today's flowers in the stamens, and the carpel, which are reproductive organs. It's ancestor in gymnosperms also has the same expression pattern. Here, it is expressed in the strob...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
have very dense floral organs. These flowers have been selected by horticulturists since long for increased number of petals. Researchers have found that the morphology of these flowers is because of strong mutations in the AGAMOUS homolog in these plants, which leads to them making a large number of petals and sepals....	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
ecotypes that grow in the cold temperate regions require prolonged vernalization before they flower, while the tropical varieties and common lab strains, do not. Much of this variation is due to mutations in the FLC and FRIGIDA genes, rendering them non-functional. Many genes in the flowering time pathway are conserved...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
may have been integrated into the core flower. === Adaptive function of flowers === In 1878 Charles Darwin published a book “The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom” and in the initial paragraph of chapter XII noted "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from th...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
in their synthesis, coded for by as much as 15–25% of the genome. Many plant secondary metabolites such as the colour and flavor components of saffron and the chemotherapeutic drug taxol are of culinary and medical significance to humans and are therefore of commercial importance. In plants they seem to have diversifie...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
frequent process in plants. One possible reason is the production of large amounts of secondary metabolites in plant cells. Some of them might interfere in the normal process of chromosomal segregation, leading to polypoidy. In recent times, plants have been shown to possess significant microRNA families, which are con...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
Another case is that of cauliflower. The edible cauliflower is a domesticated version of the wild plant Brassica oleracea, which does not possess the dense undifferentiated inflorescence, called the curd, that cauliflower possesses. Cauliflower possesses a single mutation in a gene called CAL, controlling meristem diff...	{ "page_id": 13571938, "title": "Plant evolutionary developmental biology" }
The March of Dimes Prize in Developmental Biology is awarded once a year by the March of Dimes. The Prize honors outstanding scientists who profoundly advance the science that underlies our understanding of pregnancy, parturition, and prenatal development. Created as a tribute to Dr. Jonas Salk shortly before his death...	{ "page_id": 27203428, "title": "March of Dimes Prize in Developmental Biology" }
Bacterial evolution may refer to the biological evolution of bacteria as studied in: Bacterial taxonomy List of Bacteria genera List of bacterial orders List of Archaea genera List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature Bacterial phylodynamics Bacterial phyla Branching order of bacterial phyla (Woese, 1987)...	{ "page_id": 57546599, "title": "Bacterial evolution" }
Bukaleba Central Forest Reserve is located in Mayuge District and 120 km east of Kampala. It was first gazetted in 1932 as forest reserve. == Setting and structure == Bukaleba Central Forest Reserve covers four villages of Nakalanga, Bukaleba, Walumbe, and Namugongo and lies in the Chiefdom of Bunya in Mayuge District....	{ "page_id": 73996135, "title": "Bukaleba Central Forest Reserve" }
Kuroshima Research Station is a marine research institute in Okinawa, Japan, located on the island of Kuroshima. (黒島) It was established in 1973 as the Yaeyama Marine Park Research Institute, for the purpose of managing and utilising the marine park area in Sekisei (石西) lagoon between Ishigaki (石垣) Island and Iriomote ...	{ "page_id": 9639785, "title": "Kuroshima Research Station" }
Opioid food peptides include: Casomorphin (from milk) Gluten exorphin (from gluten) Gliadorphin/gluteomorphin (from gluten) Rubiscolin (from spinach) Soymorphin-5 (from soy) Oryzatensin (from rice)	{ "page_id": 27662186, "title": "Opioid food peptides" }
The molecular formula C11H9N3O (molar mass: 199.21 g/mol) may refer to: 3-Pyridylnicotinamide (3-pna), or N-(pyridin-3-yl)nicotinamide 4-Pyridylnicotinamide (4-PNA)	{ "page_id": 36509544, "title": "C11H9N3O" }
A chemical bond is the association of atoms or ions to form molecules, crystals, and other structures. The bond may result from the electrostatic force between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds or through the sharing of electrons as in covalent bonds, or some combination of these effects. Chemical bonds are des...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
each other seamlessly in various circumstances, so that there is no clear line to be drawn between them. However it remains useful and customary to differentiate between different types of bond, which result in different properties of condensed matter. In the simplest view of a covalent bond, one or more electrons (oft...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
solids that are not composed of discrete molecules (such as diamond or quartz or the silicate minerals in many types of rock) then the structures that result may be both strong and tough, at least in the direction oriented correctly with networks of covalent bonds. Also, the melting points of such covalent polymers and...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
of electrons that reside between many metal atoms. In this sea, each electron is free (by virtue of its wave nature) to be associated with a great many atoms at once. The bond results because the metal atoms become somewhat positively charged due to loss of their electrons while the electrons remain attracted to many a...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
the chemical operations, and reaches not far from the particles with any sensible effect." In 1819, on the heels of the invention of the voltaic pile, Jöns Jakob Berzelius developed a theory of chemical combination stressing the electronegative and electropositive characters of the combining atoms. By the mid 19th cent...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
N. Lewis developed the concept of electron-pair bonds, in which two atoms may share one to six electrons, thus forming the single electron bond, a single bond, a double bond, or a triple bond; in Lewis's own words, "An electron may form a part of the shell of two different atoms and cannot be said to belong to either o...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
and Fritz London. The Heitler–London method forms the basis of what is now called valence bond theory. In 1929, the linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method (LCAO) approximation was introduced by Sir John Lennard-Jones, who also suggested methods to derive electronic structures of molecules of F2 ...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
(binding orbitals) between atoms are indicated in different ways depending on the type of discussion. Sometimes, some details are neglected. For example, in organic chemistry one is sometimes concerned only with the functional group of the molecule. Thus, the molecular formula of ethanol may be written in conformationa...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
electronegativity difference of over 1.7 is likely to be ionic while a difference of less than 1.7 is likely to be covalent. Ionic bonding leads to separate positive and negative ions. Ionic charges are commonly between −3e to +3e. Ionic bonding commonly occurs in metal salts such as sodium chloride (table salt). A typ...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
when such salts dissolve into water, the ionic bonds are typically broken by the interaction with water but the covalent bonds continue to hold. For example, in solution, the cyanide ions, still bound together as single CN− ions, move independently through the solution, as do sodium ions, as Na+. In water, charged ions...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
atoms with moderately different electronegativities and give rise to dipole–dipole interactions. The electronegativity difference between the two atoms in these bonds is 0.3 to 1.7. ==== Single and multiple bonds ==== A single bond between two atoms corresponds to the sharing of one pair of electrons. The Hydrogen (H) ...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
to ionic bonding. Such bonding is shown by an arrow pointing to the Lewis acid. (In the Figure, solid lines are bonds in the plane of the diagram, wedged bonds point towards the observer, and dashed bonds point away from the observer.) Transition metal complexes are generally bound by coordinate covalent bonds. For exa...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
so that H has a partial positive charge, and B has a lone pair of electrons which is attracted to this partial positive charge and forms a hydrogen bond.: 702 Hydrogen bonds are responsible for the high boiling points of water and ammonia with respect to their heavier analogues. In some cases a similar halogen bond can...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
the molecule undergoing chemical change. In contrast, molecular orbitals are more "natural" from a quantum mechanical point of view, with orbital energies being physically significant and directly linked to experimental ionization energies from photoelectron spectroscopy. Consequently, valence bond theory and molecular...	{ "page_id": 5993, "title": "Chemical bond" }
Ontogeny and Phylogeny is a 1977 book on evolution by Stephen Jay Gould, in which he explores the relationship between embryonic development (ontogeny) and biological evolution (phylogeny). Unlike his many popular books of essays, it was a technical book, and over the following decades it was influential in stimulating...	{ "page_id": 7608175, "title": "Ontogeny and Phylogeny" }
influence of recapitulationism on such subjects as criminal anthropology, racism, attitudes to child development and primary schooling, and to Freudian psychoanalysis. The second half of the book details how modern concepts such as heterochrony (changes in developmental timing) and neoteny (the retardation of developme...	{ "page_id": 7608175, "title": "Ontogeny and Phylogeny" }
was "a great disappointment." Haeckel could "of course be of historical interest" but Gould had chosen not to research Haeckel's influence. Work on "wrong theories" represented, Løvtrup wrote, "a terrible waste of effort and time, and block[ed] further progress." The anthropologist C. Loring Brace, in American Anthropo...	{ "page_id": 7608175, "title": "Ontogeny and Phylogeny" }
to be found in Gould's essay "Ever Since Darwin". Gorman called the book scholarly, entertaining and informative, expressed "with clarity and wit". The zoologist A. J. Cain, in Nature, called it "a superb analysis of the use of ontogenetic analogy, the controversies over ontogeny and phylogeny, and the classification o...	{ "page_id": 7608175, "title": "Ontogeny and Phylogeny" }
that "along with other work by Gould, such as 'The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm' [the book] is often credited for influencing the rise of a biological approach called evolutionary developmental biology or evo-devo, which worked to integrate evolutionary and developmental biology." == Notes == == ...	{ "page_id": 7608175, "title": "Ontogeny and Phylogeny" }
The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (AJCN) is a monthly peer-reviewed biomedical journal in the fields of dietetics and clinical nutrition. The journal was established in 1952 as the Journal of Clinical Nutrition, edited by S.O. Waife and published by the Nutrition Press. It was continued in series under the pre...	{ "page_id": 23271279, "title": "The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition" }
of interest policy. Nestle subsequently found widespread examples of apparent conflicts of interest resulting in apparently distorted studies published in various major journals of nutrition, including in the AJCN. === Criticism of content === In a February 2022 letter published in AJCN, seven co-authors of the Endocri...	{ "page_id": 23271279, "title": "The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition" }
A gamma counter is an instrument to measure gamma radiation emitted by a radionuclide. Unlike survey meters, gamma counters are designed to measure small samples of radioactive material, typically with automated measurement and movement of multiple samples. == Operation == Gamma counters are usually scintillation count...	{ "page_id": 1841012, "title": "Gamma counter" }
A sinus is a sac or cavity in any organ or tissue, or an abnormal cavity or passage. In common usage, "sinus" usually refers to the paranasal sinuses, which are air cavities in the cranial bones, especially those near the nose and connecting to it. Most individuals have four paired cavities located in the cranial bone ...	{ "page_id": 9639798, "title": "Sinus (anatomy)" }
Function === The function of the sinus cavities within the cranial bone (skull) is not entirely clear. Beliefs about their possible function include: Sinus cavities allow for voice resonance They help filter and add moisture to any air that is inhaled through the nasal passages and in the removal of unwanted particles ...	{ "page_id": 9639798, "title": "Sinus (anatomy)" }
be allergies that have been left untreated, bacterial or fungal infections within one or more of the sinus cavities or any allergic disorders which targets and increases the sensitivity of the mucous membrane linings which surround the sinus cavities and nasal passages. Symptoms of chronic sinusitis are debilitating he...	{ "page_id": 9639798, "title": "Sinus (anatomy)" }
related injuries to the nasal cavity can make it difficult for effective drainage of mucus from the sinus cavities. This mucus is then allowed to develop in these areas making the cavity an ideal area in which bacteria can both attach and thrive. ==== Treatment outlook ==== Sinusitis or sinus infections usually clear u...	{ "page_id": 9639798, "title": "Sinus (anatomy)" }
Bottom trawling is trawling (towing a trawl, which is a fishing net) along the seafloor. It is also referred to as "dragging". The scientific community divides bottom trawling into benthic trawling and demersal trawling. Benthic trawling is towing a net at the very bottom of the ocean and demersal trawling is towing a ...	{ "page_id": 1185654, "title": "Bottom trawling" }
the 14th century, during the reign of Edward III. A petition was presented to Parliament in 1376 calling for the prohibition of a "subtlety contrived instrument called the wondyrchoum". This was an early beam trawl with a wooden beam, and consisted of a net 6 m (18 ft) long and 3 m (10 ft) wide, of so small a mesh, no ...	{ "page_id": 1185654, "title": "Bottom trawling" }
the wider environment, the use of small mesh size, and of industrial fishing for animal feed - were already being raised. Until the late 18th century sailing vessels were only capable of towing small trawls. However, in the closing years of that century a type of vessel emerged that was capable of towing a large trawl,...	{ "page_id": 1185654, "title": "Bottom trawling" }
a long tradition in European waters. It was also recognized in 1704 during the Edo era in Japan as a common fishing method. A slightly different approach was developed where the "Utase Ami" or "trawled bottom net" was deployed from a sideways sailing boat. Bottom trawling has been widely implicated in the population co...	{ "page_id": 1185654, "title": "Bottom trawling" }
and scaring fish towards the net mouth. The net is held open vertically on an otter trawl by floats and/or kites attached to the "headline" (the rope which runs along the upper mouth of the net), and weighted "bobbins" attached to the "foot rope" (the rope which runs along the lower mouth of the net). These bobbins var...	{ "page_id": 1185654, "title": "Bottom trawling" }
Trawling gear produces acute impacts on biota and the physical substratum of the seafloor by disrupting the sediment column structure, overturning boulders, re-suspending sediments and imprinting deep scars on muddy bottoms. Also, the repetitive passage of trawling gear over the same areas creates long-lasting, cumulat...	{ "page_id": 1185654, "title": "Bottom trawling" }
in the trawled seafloor. === Resuspension and biogeochemistry === Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The suspended solid plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments Bottom trawling-induced resu...	{ "page_id": 1185654, "title": "Bottom trawling" }
order to better estimate greenhouse gas emissions and hence the impact on climate change. === Deep sea damage === The Secretary General of the United Nations reported in 2006 that 95 percent of damage to seamount ecosystems worldwide is caused by deep sea bottom trawling. A study published in Current Biology suggests a...	{ "page_id": 1185654, "title": "Bottom trawling" }
program to determine the location of cold-water corals within its exclusive economic zone (EEZ) so as to quickly close those areas to bottom trawling. Canada has acted to protect vulnerable coral reef ecosystems from bottom trawling off Nova Scotia. The Northeast Channel was protected by a fisheries closure in 2002, an...	{ "page_id": 1185654, "title": "Bottom trawling" }
reserve and what harvest limitations may occur therein have not been detailed. Moreover, Kiribati currently has only one patrol boat to monitor this proposed region. Venezuela was the first country to ban industrial trawling in its territorial waters and EEZ in 2009. Hong Kong passed legislation banning trawling on 18 ...	{ "page_id": 1185654, "title": "Bottom trawling" }
on all high seas bottom trawlers to ensure enforcement of the regulations. === Failed United Nations ban === Palau President Tommy Remengesau has called for a ban on destructive and unregulated bottom trawling beyond national jurisdictions. Palau has led the effort at the United Nations and in the Pacific to achieve a ...	{ "page_id": 1185654, "title": "Bottom trawling" }
daily sediment resuspension in the flank of a Mediterranean submarine canyon". Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 104: 174–183. Bibcode:2014DSRII.104..174M. doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2013.05.036. hdl:10261/80451. March, E. J. (1953). Sailing Trawlers: The Story of Deep-Sea Fishing with Long Line and T...	{ "page_id": 1185654, "title": "Bottom trawling" }
Multiple Discriminant Analysis (MDA) is a multivariate dimensionality reduction technique. It has been used to predict signals as diverse as neural memory traces and corporate failure. MDA is not directly used to perform classification. It merely supports classification by yielding a compressed signal amenable to class...	{ "page_id": 13244280, "title": "Multiple discriminant analysis" }
In immunology, a conformational epitope is a sequence of sub-units (usually amino acids) composing an antigen that come in direct contact with a receptor of the immune system. An antigen is any substance that the immune system can recognize as foreign. Antigens are usually proteins that are too large to bind as a whole...	{ "page_id": 18159480, "title": "Conformational epitope" }
Primate Conservation is a journal published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission's Primate Specialist Group about the world's primates. First published as a mimeographed newsletter in 1981, the journal today publishes conservation research and papers on primate species, particularly status surveys and studies on dis...	{ "page_id": 55777147, "title": "Primate Conservation (journal)" }
Radiation protection, also known as radiological protection, is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as "The protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to ionizing radiation, and the means for achieving this". Exposure can be from a source of radiation external to the human body or due to...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }
on evaluation of the large body of scientific studies available to equate risk to received dose levels. The system's health objectives are "to manage and control exposures to ionising radiation so that deterministic effects are prevented, and the risks of stochastic effects are reduced to the extent reasonably achievab...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }
deemed to be justified. It means "the likelihood of incurring exposures, the number of people exposed, and the magnitude of their individual doses" should all be kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable (or Reasonably Practicable) known as ALARA or ALARP. It takes into account economic and societal factors. === Factors in ...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }
of radioactive material can occur through four pathways: inhalation of airborne contaminants such as radon gas and radioactive particles ingestion of radioactive contamination in food or liquids absorption of vapours such as tritium oxide through the skin injection of medical radioisotopes such as technetium-99m The oc...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }
is an acronym for an important principle in exposure to radiation and other occupational health risks and in the UK stands for As Low As Reasonably Practicable. The aim is to minimize the risk of radioactive exposure or other hazard while keeping in mind that some exposure may be acceptable in order to further the task...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }
Computed tomography, better known as CT scans or CAT scans have made an enormous contribution to medicine, however not without some risk. The ionizing radiation used in CT scans can lead to radiation-induced cancer. Age is a significant factor in risk associated with CT scans, and in procedures involving children and s...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }
Almost any material can act as a shield from gamma or x-rays if used in sufficient amounts. Different types of ionizing radiation interact in different ways with shielding material. The effectiveness of shielding is dependent on stopping power, which varies with the type and energy of radiation and the shielding materi...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }
and electrons. It also absorbs gamma rays, which produces X-ray fluorescence. Each subsequent layer absorbs the X-ray fluorescence of the previous material, eventually reducing the energy to a suitable level. Each decrease in energy produces Bremsstrahlung and Auger electrons, which are below the detector's energy thre...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }
the case of beta+ radiation (positrons), the gamma radiation from the electron–positron annihilation reaction poses additional concern. Neutron radiation is not as readily absorbed as charged particle radiation, which makes this type highly penetrating. In a process called neutron activation, neutrons are absorbed by n...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }
numbers and high density, although neither effect is important compared to the total mass per area in the path of the gamma ray. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is ionizing in its shortest wavelengths but is not penetrating, so it can be shielded by thin opaque layers such as sunscreen, clothing, and protective eyewear. Pro...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }
inside the body. The respiratory protective equipment described below are designed to minimize the possibility of such material being inhaled or ingested as emergency workers are exposed to potentially radioactive environments. Reusable air purifying respirators (APR) Elastic face piece worn over the mouth and nose Con...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }
clothing Flame/water resistant Helmet, gloves, foot gear, and hood Level B equivalent: Non-gas-tight encapsulating suit Designed for environments that are immediate health risks but contain no substances that can be absorbed by skin Level A equivalent: Totally encapsulating chemical- and vapour-protective suit Designed...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }
of a new class of relatively lightweight protective equipment that shields high concentrations of bone marrow to defer the hematopoietic sub-syndrome of acute radiation syndrome to much higher dosages. One technique is to apply selective shielding to protect the high concentration of bone marrow stored in the hips and ...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }
an air of high airborne contamination. Personnel exit monitors (PEM) are used to monitor workers who are exiting a "contamination controlled" or potentially contaminated area. These can be in the form of hand monitors, clothing frisk probes, or whole body monitors. These monitor the surface of the workers body and clot...	{ "page_id": 333692, "title": "Radiation protection" }

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