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used as a building block for multilayer learning architectures. An RBM can be represented by an undirected bipartite graph consisting of a group of binary hidden variables, a group of visible variables, and edges connecting the hidden and visible nodes. It is a special case of the more general Boltzmann machines with t...	{ "page_id": 38870173, "title": "Feature learning" }
raw data as output. The encoder and decoder are constructed by stacking multiple layers of RBMs. The parameters involved in the architecture were originally trained in a greedy layer-by-layer manner: after one layer of feature detectors is learned, they are fed up as visible variables for training the corresponding RBM...	{ "page_id": 38870173, "title": "Feature learning" }
in many different problem settings where labeled data may be limited. Specialization of the model to specific tasks is typically done with supervised learning, either by fine-tuning the model / representations with the labels as the signal, or freezing the representations and training an additional model which takes th...	{ "page_id": 38870173, "title": "Feature learning" }
techniques, including transformation, inpainting, patch discrimination and clustering. Examples of generative approaches are Context Encoders, which trains an AlexNet CNN architecture to generate a removed image region given the masked image as input, and iGPT, which applies the GPT-2 language model architecture to ima...	{ "page_id": 38870173, "title": "Feature learning" }
utilize the temporal sequence of video frames as an additional learned structure. Examples include VCP, which masks video clips and trains to choose the correct one given a set of clip options, and Xu et al., who train a 3D-CNN to identify the original order given a shuffled set of video clips. === Audio === Self-super...	{ "page_id": 38870173, "title": "Feature learning" }
correspondingly a picture of a dog could be captioned with varying degrees of specificity. This limitation means that downstream tasks may require an additional generative mapping network between modalities to achieve optimal performance, such as in DALLE-2 for text to image generation. == Dynamic Representation Learni...	{ "page_id": 38870173, "title": "Feature learning" }
The American Oil Chemists' Society (AOCS) is an international professional organization based in Urbana, Illinois dedicated to providing the support network for those involved with the science and technology related to fats, oils, surfactants, and other related materials. Founded in 1909, AOCS has approximately 2,000 m...	{ "page_id": 8002715, "title": "American Oil Chemists' Society" }
countries participate, creating a who's who list of the finest companies in the fats and oils world. == Publications == AOCS has published over 100 books, three technical journals related to edible oil chemistry: Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society (JAOCS), Lipids, Journal of Surfactants and Detergents, and t...	{ "page_id": 8002715, "title": "American Oil Chemists' Society" }
Tang Xiao’ou (汤晓鸥; 24 January 1968 – 15 December 2023) was a Chinese businessman and computer scientist. He was the founder and chairman of SenseTime, an AI company. He also served as professor of information engineering, associate dean of engineering, and outstanding fellow of engineering at the Chinese University of ...	{ "page_id": 60890271, "title": "Tang Xiao'ou" }
spearheaded the first facial recognition to beat human accuracy. Tang co-founded SenseTime with Xu Li in 2014. Upon SenseTime's IPO in December 2021, Tang was estimated to have a net worth of approximately $3.4 billion. Tang died on 15 December 2023, at the age of 55. SenseTime made the announcement the next day and ch...	{ "page_id": 60890271, "title": "Tang Xiao'ou" }
Pit water, mine water or mining water is water that collects in a mine and which has to be brought to the surface by water management methods in order to enable the mine to continue working. == Origin == Although all water that enters pit workings originates from atmospheric precipitation, the miner distinguishes betwe...	{ "page_id": 38083742, "title": "Pit water" }
Pamela Manzi is an Italian biologist, who is active in the fields of analytical chemistry and food science; she is a researcher of the "Istituto nazionale di ricerca per gli alimenti e la nutrizione" (INRAN) since 1996. == Works == Panfili G, Manzi P, Pizzoferrato L, (1994) HPLC simultaneous determination of tocopherol...	{ "page_id": 58924193, "title": "Pamela Manzi" }
Peptide methionine sulfoxide reductase may refer to: Protein-methionine-S-oxide reductase Peptide-methionine (S)-S-oxide reductase	{ "page_id": 38280354, "title": "Peptide methionine sulfoxide reductase" }
Microemulsions are clear, thermodynamically stable, isotropic liquid mixtures of oil, water and surfactant, frequently in combination with a cosurfactant. The aqueous phase may contain salt(s) and/or other ingredients, and the "oil" may actually be a complex mixture of different hydrocarbons. In contrast to ordinary em...	{ "page_id": 2563234, "title": "Microemulsion" }
polymerization is a more complicated system. Polymerization rate is controlled by monomer partitioning between the phases, particle nucleation, and adsorption and desorption of radicals. Particle stability is affected by the amount and type of surfactant and pH of dispersing medium. It is also used in the process of cr...	{ "page_id": 2563234, "title": "Microemulsion" }
mixture of oil, water and surfactant, or to one that is in equilibrium with coexisting predominantly oil and/or aqueous phases, or even to other non-isotropic phases. As in the binary systems (water/surfactant or oil/surfactant), self-assembled structures of different types can be formed, ranging, for example, from (in...	{ "page_id": 2563234, "title": "Microemulsion" }
may not express the true number of phases within a given composition. Apparently clear single phase formulations can still consist of multiple iso-tropic phases (e.g. the apparently clear heptane/AOT/water microemulsions consist multiple phases). Since these systems can be in equilibrium with other phases, many systems...	{ "page_id": 2563234, "title": "Microemulsion" }
In physical cosmology, the Copernican principle states that humans are not privileged observers of the universe, that observations from the Earth are representative of observations from the average position in the universe. Named for Copernican heliocentrism, it is a working assumption that arises from a modified cosmo...	{ "page_id": 7327, "title": "Copernican principle" }
people." While the Copernican principle is derived from the negation of past assumptions, such as geocentrism, heliocentrism, or galactocentrism which state that humans are at the center of the universe, the Copernican principle is stronger than acentrism, which merely states that humans are not at the center of the un...	{ "page_id": 7327, "title": "Copernican principle" }
is violated on large scales. Furthermore, various large-scale structures have been discovered, such as the Clowes–Campusano LQG, the Sloan Great Wall, U1.11, the Huge-LQG, the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, the Giant Arc, and the Local Hole all of which indicate that homogeneity might be violated. On scales compa...	{ "page_id": 7327, "title": "Copernican principle" }
cosmological principle, slightly more general than the Copernican principle, and many tests of these models can be considered tests of the Copernican principle. === Historical === Before the term Copernican principle was even coined, past assumptions, such as geocentrism, heliocentrism, and galactocentrism, which state...	{ "page_id": 7327, "title": "Copernican principle" }
and other possible models. A prominent example in this context is inhomogeneous cosmology, to model the observed accelerating universe and cosmological constant. Instead of using the current accepted idea of dark energy, inhomogeneous-cosmology models propose that the universe is much more inhomogeneous than currently ...	{ "page_id": 7327, "title": "Copernican principle" }
The history of life on Earth seems to show a clear trend; for example, it seems intuitive that there is a trend towards increasing complexity in living organisms. More recently evolved organisms, such as mammals, appear to be much more complex than organisms, such as bacteria, which have existed for a much longer perio...	{ "page_id": 6692007, "title": "Largest-scale trends in evolution" }
largest-scale trends in evolution (McShea, 1998). That is, is there a consistent directional change throughout the history of life on Earth? == Theoretical perspective == Organisms adapt to their local environment. As long as the local environment is stable, we can expect to observe small-scale trends, as organisms bec...	{ "page_id": 6692007, "title": "Largest-scale trends in evolution" }
are compatible with evolutionary theory, the model has not yet been empirically confirmed. == Empirical perspective == Evolutionary theory might not predict largest-scale trends, but there may be such trends nonetheless. McShea (1996) looks at the empirical evidence for a trend towards increasing complexity in Metazoan...	{ "page_id": 6692007, "title": "Largest-scale trends in evolution" }
Microfungi or micromycetes are fungi—eukaryotic organisms such as molds, mildews and rusts—which have microscopic spore-producing structures. They exhibit tube tip-growth and have cell walls composed of chitin, a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine. Microfungi are a paraphyletic group, distinguished from macrofungi only by ...	{ "page_id": 10362025, "title": "Microfungi" }
concentrated Sauternes dessert wines from the Bordeaux region of France. Dutch elm disease, which has ravaged elms across Europe and North America in the last 50 years, is caused by the microfungi of the genus Ophiostoma. Rice blast, a devastating fungal disease of cereals including rice, wheat and millet, is caused by...	{ "page_id": 10362025, "title": "Microfungi" }
Symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) is a culinary symbiotic fermentation culture (starter) consisting of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), acetic acid bacteria (AAB), and yeast which arises in the preparation of sour foods and beverages such as kombucha. Beer and wine also undergo fermentation with yeast, but the...	{ "page_id": 12197034, "title": "SCOBY" }
can be found below. == Co-culture composition and conditions == Based on the desired product of the SCOBY, different species of bacteria and yeast are used. Such cultures generally include aerobic, gram negative AAB species such as Acetobacter, Gluconobacter and Komagataeibacter, aerobic, gram positive LAB such as Lact...	{ "page_id": 12197034, "title": "SCOBY" }
the liquid kombucha product as well as the composition and morphology of the SCOBY pellicle. While there are many species that have the mechanisms necessary to form cellulose such as Acetobacter and Komagataeibacter, Gluconaceobacter are one of the most populous used, residing in 86–99% of both liquid and biofilm cultu...	{ "page_id": 12197034, "title": "SCOBY" }
final, much larger structures known as microfibrils; because of the integrity of the microfibrils and the organized, linear nature of cellulose bonds, the resulting biofilm can also be referred to as a matrix or mat. This biofilm is a natural defense mechanism for the co-culture, and can withstand extreme conditions su...	{ "page_id": 12197034, "title": "SCOBY" }
kombucha SCOBY to produce electronic circuit boards. == See also == Acetic acid bacteria Lactic acid bacteria == References == == Further reading == Program entitled "The Fermentation Revival" on BBC News. N. Padilla "do it yourself article in The Harvard Crimson. == External links == Purported list of kombucha yeast a...	{ "page_id": 12197034, "title": "SCOBY" }
Corn wet-milling is a process of breaking corn kernels into their component parts: corn oil, protein, corn starch, and fiber. It uses water and a series of steps to separate the parts to be used for various products. == History == The corn wet-milling industry has been a primary component of American manufacturing for ...	{ "page_id": 50404522, "title": "Corn wet-milling" }
tester with appropriate sieve number is used to removes particles other than the required grain like cob pieces, foreign seeds, metal pieces, leaves, dirt and the percentage of dockage contained can be calculated. The cleaned corn is then analyzed for its composition using an NIR spectrometer. The compositional analysi...	{ "page_id": 50404522, "title": "Corn wet-milling" }
the final products. Attrition mills such as disk mills are used to coarsely grind the softened corn kernels. The grinding is slow and the elements used to grind are blunt to ensure intact removal of germ. Water is added to the ground material to make a thick slurry of macerated kernels and whole germ. The 40-50% crude ...	{ "page_id": 50404522, "title": "Corn wet-milling" }
approximately 21% protein, 1% fat and 10% fiber and 15% starch. Since it is high in water-soluble nutrients, it is used as one of the main ingredients in animal feed. It can also be used to produce refined corn fiber to be used for human consumption. === Protein recovery === The slurry containing just the protein and s...	{ "page_id": 50404522, "title": "Corn wet-milling" }
steepwater and germ meal are mixed to produce corn gluten feed. As mentioned before, corn gluten meal is also used as animal feed. Although both have ‘gluten’ in the name, no gluten protein is present in them – there is none in corn on whole. A typical solid yield (on db) data for yellow dent corn is shown in the table...	{ "page_id": 50404522, "title": "Corn wet-milling" }
3'-Fluoro-3'-deoxythymidine may refer to: Alovudine (fluorothymidine) Fluorothymidine F-18	{ "page_id": 56040620, "title": "3'-Fluoro-3'-deoxythymidine" }
Acoustic ecology, sometimes called ecoacoustics or soundscape studies, is a discipline studying the relationship, mediated through sound, between human beings and their environment. Acoustic ecology studies started in the late 1960s with R. Murray Schafer a musician, composer and former professor of communication studi...	{ "page_id": 2890925, "title": "Acoustic ecology" }
that characterize a soundscape, which are biophony, geophony, and anthrophony. == World Forum for Acoustic Ecology == The World Forum for Acoustic Ecology is an international collective of people and organizations who study the world's soundscapes. There are eight groups that make up the World Forum for Acoustic Ecolog...	{ "page_id": 2890925, "title": "Acoustic ecology" }
disrupt the natural order of these sounds, even putting certain species in danger of predators. For example, some frogs synchronize in a way that protects individuals from attracting attention. The noise of a jet can cause the frogs to stop or fall out of sync, temporarily breaking this effect and exposing them to othe...	{ "page_id": 2890925, "title": "Acoustic ecology" }
of the World, Schafer used new terms like 'soundmarks' -- a specific community's distinctive sounds—and 'keynotes' -- prevalent but overlooked background sounds such as traffic—to help categorize the different elements of a soundscape. === Biophony === Biophony is the study of sounds emerging from animal sources, like ...	{ "page_id": 2890925, "title": "Acoustic ecology" }
some restricted knowledge about the extent of aircraft activity over traditional harvest areas. It is actually very impressive to see the amount of aircraft overflight around the rural subsistence, because the activity is increasing significantly and they have reached a median of 12 overflights per day near human devel...	{ "page_id": 2890925, "title": "Acoustic ecology" }
lack of activity in uncontested bandwidths. Biological invasions can also result in interference in the acoustic niche, with non-native species altering the dynamics of the native community by producing signals that mask or degrade native signals. This can cause a variety of ecological impacts, such as decreased reprod...	{ "page_id": 2890925, "title": "Acoustic ecology" }
virtual world setting. == See also == Biophony Bernie Krause Human auditory ecology Lombard effect Marine mammals and sonar Fisheries acoustics Noise map Soundscape Ecomusicology == References == == Bibliography == Keller, Marcello Sorce (2013). "The Windmills of my Mind – Musings about Haydn, Kant, Sonic Ecology, and ...	{ "page_id": 2890925, "title": "Acoustic ecology" }
A nanoparticle–biomolecule conjugate is a nanoparticle with biomolecules attached to its surface. Nanoparticles are minuscule particles, typically measured in nanometers (nm), that are used in nanobiotechnology to explore the functions of biomolecules. Properties of the ultrafine particles are characterized by the comp...	{ "page_id": 31726766, "title": "Nanoparticle–biomolecule conjugate" }
the basis upon which the molecules are built around. Carbon can bond with nearly any element, allowing many possibilities when it comes to creating a specific molecule. Scientists can create thousands upon thousands of individual nanomolecules from a simple carbon basis. Some of the most famous nanomolecules currently ...	{ "page_id": 31726766, "title": "Nanoparticle–biomolecule conjugate" }
of producing reactions and are inherently valuable in the chemical industry. The same property makes them valuable in interactions with molecules. == Applications with biomolecules and biological processes == Nanoparticles have the potential to greatly influence biological processes. The potency of a nanoparticle incre...	{ "page_id": 31726766, "title": "Nanoparticle–biomolecule conjugate" }
a largely cationic active site. When a-chymotrypsin is incubated with anionic (negatively charged) nanoparticles, ChT activity is inhibited as anionic nanoparticles bind to the active site. Enzyme activity can be restored by the addition of cationic surfactants. Alkyl surfactants form a bilayer around ChT, whereas thio...	{ "page_id": 31726766, "title": "Nanoparticle–biomolecule conjugate" }
=== Medical implications === Small molecules in vivo have a short retention time, but the use of larger nanoparticles does not. These nanoparticles can be used to avoid immune response, which aids in the treatment of chronic diseases. It has been investigated as a potential cancer therapy and also has the potential to ...	{ "page_id": 31726766, "title": "Nanoparticle–biomolecule conjugate" }
it is possible to control how the nanoparticles adhere to certain patterns present in the ECM, and as a result can understand how changes in the ECM's shape can affect cell functionality. Using nanobiotechnology to study the ECM allows scientists to investigate the binding interactions that occur between the ECM and it...	{ "page_id": 31726766, "title": "Nanoparticle–biomolecule conjugate" }
therapeutic molecules into the brain, doctors must use highly invasive techniques such as drilling directly into the brain, or sabotaging the integrity of the BBB through biochemical means. Due to their small size and large surface area, nanoparticles offer a promising solution for neurotherapeutics. Nanotechnology is ...	{ "page_id": 31726766, "title": "Nanoparticle–biomolecule conjugate" }
Many pāmbīs (Meitei for 'plants') play significant roles in the different elements of Meitei culture, including but not limited to Meitei cuisine, Meitei festivals, Meitei folklore, Meitei folktales, Meitei literature, Meitei mythology and Meitei religion (Sanamahism) of Kangleipak (Meitei for 'Manipur'). == Sacred bot...	{ "page_id": 73538734, "title": "Plants in Meitei culture" }
of white and definitely the season is of this flower. == Real plants mentioned in folklore == === Colocasia/Taro plantation folktale === In Meitei mythology and Meitei folklore of Kangleipak (Meitei for 'Manipur'), Pān (Meitei for 'Colocasia' / 'Taro') plants are mentioned. In the Meitei folktale of the Hanuba Hanubi P...	{ "page_id": 73538734, "title": "Plants in Meitei culture" }
the story, his servants found a big tree growing on the slope of a mountain and by the side of a river. They performed traditional customary rites and rituals before chopping off the tree on the following day. In the dead of the night, Mother nature started weeping in the fear of losing her dear child, the tree. The pa...	{ "page_id": 73538734, "title": "Plants in Meitei culture" }
A fog desert is a type of desert where fog drip supplies the majority of moisture needed by animal and plant life. Examples of fog deserts include the Atacama Desert of coastal Chile and Peru; the Baja California desert of Mexico; the Namib Desert in Namibia; the Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert; and a manmade inst...	{ "page_id": 15735983, "title": "Fog desert" }
plant and animal species. Plant coverage varies greatly, from coverage as high as 50% in the foggiest areas to a near-total absence of plant life above the fog line. Within arid fog deserts with low precipitation levels, fog drip provides the moisture needed for agricultural development. The variation in humidity throu...	{ "page_id": 15735983, "title": "Fog desert" }
In physics, the Callan–Symanzik equation is a differential equation describing the evolution of the n-point correlation functions under variation of the energy scale at which the theory is defined and involves the beta function of the theory and the anomalous dimensions. As an example, for a quantum field theory with o...	{ "page_id": 3415212, "title": "Callan–Symanzik equation" }
)\phi } G ( n ) → ( 1 + n δ η ) G ( n ) {\displaystyle G^{(n)}\to (1+n\,\delta \eta )G^{(n)}} The Callan–Symanzik equation relates these shifts: n δ η G ( n ) = ∂ G ( n ) ∂ M δ M + ∂ G ( n ) ∂ g δ g {\displaystyle n\,\delta \eta G^{(n)}={\frac {\partial G^{(n)}}{\partial M}}\delta M+{\frac {\partial G^{(n)}}{\partial g...	{ "page_id": 3415212, "title": "Callan–Symanzik equation" }
thus lead to two separate functions, γ 2 {\displaystyle \gamma _{2}} and γ 3 {\displaystyle \gamma _{3}} , respectively. The Callan–Symanzik equation was discovered independently by Curtis Callan and Kurt Symanzik in 1970. Later it was used to understand asymptotic freedom. This equation arises in the framework of reno...	{ "page_id": 3415212, "title": "Callan–Symanzik equation" }
Brian H. Brown is a medical physicist specialising in medical electronics. He is especially well known for his pioneering work with David C. Barber on electrical impedance tomography (EIT). He is also noted for his work on the recording and understanding of the electrical activity of the gut, the analysis of nerve acti...	{ "page_id": 36314288, "title": "Brian H. Brown" }
In general relativity, a point mass deflects a light ray with impact parameter b {\displaystyle b~} by an angle approximately equal to α ^ = 4 G M c 2 b {\displaystyle {\hat {\alpha }}={\frac {4GM}{c^{2}b}}} where G is the gravitational constant, M the mass of the deflecting object and c the speed of light. A naive app...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
}}^{\prime },z)} located at the coordinates ( ξ → ′ , z ) {\displaystyle ({\vec {\xi }}^{\prime },z)} . == Thin lens approximation == In the limit of a "thin lens", where the distances between the source, lens, and observer are much larger than the size of the lens (this is almost always true for astronomical objects),...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
observer to the source, and D d {\displaystyle D_{d}~} is the distance from the observer to the lens. For extragalactic lenses, these must be angular diameter distances. In strong gravitational lensing, this equation can have multiple solutions, because a single source at β → {\displaystyle {\vec {\beta }}} can be lens...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
= ∇ → ψ ( θ → ) {\displaystyle {\vec {\theta }}-{\vec {\beta }}={\vec {\alpha }}({\vec {\theta }})={\vec {\nabla }}\psi ({\vec {\theta }})} κ ( θ → ) = 1 2 ∇ 2 ψ ( θ → ) {\displaystyle \kappa ({\vec {\theta }})={\frac {1}{2}}\nabla ^{2}\psi ({\vec {\theta }})} The deflection potential can also be written as a scaled pr...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
its size while conserving surface brightness. The term involving the shear stretches the image tangentially around the lens, as discussed in weak lensing observables. The shear defined here is not equivalent to the shear traditionally defined in mathematics, though both stretch an image non-uniformly. === Fermat surfac...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
c'={dl/dt}=\left(1+{2\Phi \over c^{2}}\right)c.} So the refraction index n ≡ c c ′ ≈ ( 1 − 2 Φ c 2 ) . {\displaystyle n\equiv {c \over c'}\approx \left(1-{2\Phi \over c^{2}}\right).} The refraction index greater than unity because of the negative gravitational potential Φ {\displaystyle \Phi } . Put these together and ...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
a simple way, in general.) So the Fermat surface becomes t = c o n s t a n t + D d D s D d s c τ , τ ≡ [ ( θ → − β → ) 2 2 − ψ ] {\displaystyle t=constant+{D_{d}D_{s} \over D_{ds}c}\tau ,~\tau \equiv \left[{({\vec {\theta }}-{\vec {\beta }})^{2} \over 2}-\psi \right]} where τ {\displaystyle \tau } is so-called dimensio...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
1 ⁡ \| z − D i \| D i \| θ → − θ → i \| ] \| D i D s + \| D i 0 . {\displaystyle \psi ({\vec {\theta }})=-{\frac {2GD_{ds}}{D_{d}D_{s}c^{2}}}\int dz\int {\frac {d^{3}\xi ^{\prime }\rho ({\vec {\xi }}^{\prime })}{\|{\vec {\xi }}-{\vec {\xi }}^{\prime }\|}}=-\sum _{i}{\frac {2GM_{i}D_{is}}{D_{s}D_{i}c^{2}}}\left[\sinh ^{-1}{\|z-D...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
}},z)={\Sigma \over \Sigma _{cr}}=\sum _{i}{4\pi GM_{i}D_{is} \over c^{2}D_{i}D_{s}}\delta ({\vec {\theta }}-{\vec {\theta }}_{i})} in agreement with earlier definition κ ( θ → ) = Σ Σ c r {\displaystyle \kappa ({\vec {\theta }})={\Sigma \over \Sigma _{cr}}} as the ratio of projected density with the critical density. ...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
2 1 − κ + γ 1 ] {\displaystyle A_{ij}={\partial \beta _{j} \over \partial \theta _{i}}={\partial \tau \over \partial \theta _{i}\partial \theta _{j}}=\delta _{ij}-{\partial \psi \over \partial \theta _{i}\partial \theta _{j}}=\left[{\begin{array}{c c }1-\kappa -\gamma _{1}&\gamma _{2}\\\gamma _{2}&1-\kappa +\gamma _{1}...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
1 − θ E 4 θ 4 ) − 1 . {\displaystyle A=\left(1-{\theta _{E}^{4} \over \theta ^{4}}\right)^{-1}.} Note A diverges for images at the Einstein radius θ E . {\displaystyle \theta _{E}.} In cases there are multiple point lenses plus a smooth background of (dark) particles of surface density Σ c r κ s m o o t h , {\displayst...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
== General weak lensing == In weak lensing by large-scale structure, the thin-lens approximation may break down, and low-density extended structures may not be well approximated by multiple thin-lens planes. In this case, the deflection can be derived by instead assuming that the gravitational potential is slowly varyi...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
both thin and weak, their physical interpretations are the same. == Weak lensing observables == In weak gravitational lensing, the Jacobian is mapped out by observing the effect of the shear on the ellipticities of background galaxies. This effect is purely statistical; the shape of any galaxy will be dominated by its ...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
vector instead of a complex number, though it is not a true vector with regard to transforms: χ = { \| χ \| cos ⁡ 2 ϕ , \| χ \| sin ⁡ 2 ϕ } {\displaystyle \chi =\{\left\|\chi \right\|\cos 2\phi ,\left\|\chi \right\|\sin 2\phi \}} ϵ = { \| ϵ \| cos ⁡ 2 ϕ , \| ϵ \| sin ⁡ 2 ϕ } {\displaystyle \epsilon =\{\left\|\epsilon \right\|\cos 2\...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
parameters: q x x = a 2 cos 2 ⁡ θ + b 2 sin 2 ⁡ θ {\displaystyle q_{xx}=a^{2}\cos ^{2}\theta +b^{2}\sin ^{2}\theta \,} q y y = a 2 sin 2 ⁡ θ + b 2 cos 2 ⁡ θ {\displaystyle q_{yy}=a^{2}\sin ^{2}\theta +b^{2}\cos ^{2}\theta \,} q x y = ( a 2 − b 2 ) sin ⁡ θ cos ⁡ θ {\displaystyle q_{xy}=(a^{2}-b^{2})\sin \theta \cos \the...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
w(x-{\bar {x}},y-{\bar {y}})I(x,y)}}} q x y = ∑ ( x − x ¯ ) ( y − y ¯ ) w ( x − x ¯ , y − y ¯ ) I ( x , y ) ∑ w ( x − x ¯ , y − y ¯ ) I ( x , y ) {\displaystyle q_{xy}={\frac {\sum (x-{\bar {x}})(y-{\bar {y}})w(x-{\bar {x}},y-{\bar {y}})I(x,y)}{\sum w(x-{\bar {x}},y-{\bar {y}})I(x,y)}}} Here w ( x , y ) {\displaystyle ...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
[ γ ] − I m [ γ ] − I m [ γ ] 1 − κ + R e [ γ ] ] = ( 1 − κ ) [ 1 − R e [ g ] − I m [ g ] − I m [ g ] 1 + R e [ g ] ] {\displaystyle A=\left[{\begin{array}{c c }1-\kappa -\mathrm {Re} [\gamma ]&-\mathrm {Im} [\gamma ]\\-\mathrm {Im} [\gamma ]&1-\kappa +\mathrm {Re} [\gamma ]\end{array}}\right]=(1-\kappa )\left[{\begin{...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
measure of the shear induced by foreground mass. === Magnification === While gravitational lensing preserves surface brightness, as dictated by Liouville's theorem, lensing does change the apparent solid angle of a source. The amount of magnification is given by the ratio of the image area to the source area. For a cir...	{ "page_id": 17833137, "title": "Gravitational lensing formalism" }
Arsenic oxide may refer to any of the following: Arsenic dioxide, As2O4 Arsenic trioxide, As2O3 Arsenic pentoxide, As2O5	{ "page_id": 19733687, "title": "Arsenic oxide" }
Biodemography and Social Biology is a semiannual peer-reviewed academic journal covering the intersection between biology, demography, and sociology. The journal is devoted to "furthering the discussion, advancement, and dissemination of knowledge about biological and sociocultural forces interacting to affect the stru...	{ "page_id": 56695992, "title": "Biodemography and Social Biology" }
(2008-2012) Eileen M. Crimmins (University of Southern California), Editor (2013-2021) == References == == External links == Official website	{ "page_id": 56695992, "title": "Biodemography and Social Biology" }
Franz Wittman (16 January 1860 in Hódmezővásárhely – 1932 in Budapest) was a Hungarian electrical engineer and physicist. He was educated at the University of Budapest and continued his studies in Vienna, Berlin, Paris, Frankfurt-am-Main, Darmstadt and Hanover. In 1892, he was appointed professor of physics at the poly...	{ "page_id": 2497720, "title": "Franz Wittmann (physicist)" }
Gene therapy utilizes the delivery of DNA into cells, which can be accomplished by several methods, summarized below. The two major classes of methods are those that use recombinant viruses (sometimes called biological nanoparticles or viral vectors) and those that use naked DNA or DNA complexes (non-viral methods). ==...	{ "page_id": 34217148, "title": "Vectors in gene therapy" }
RNA molecule from the retrovirus must produce a DNA copy from its RNA molecule before it can be integrated into the genetic material of the host cell. The process of producing a DNA copy from an RNA molecule is termed reverse transcription. It is carried out by one of the enzymes carried in the virus, called reverse tr...	{ "page_id": 34217148, "title": "Vectors in gene therapy" }
the most successful application of gene therapy to date. More than twenty patients have been treated in France and Britain, with a high rate of immune system reconstitution observed. Similar trials were restricted or halted in the US when leukemia was reported in patients treated in the French X-SCID gene therapy trial...	{ "page_id": 34217148, "title": "Vectors in gene therapy" }
cancer, Gendicine, is an adenovirus. Gendicine, an adenoviral p53-based gene therapy was approved by the Chinese food and drug regulators in 2003 for treatment of head and neck cancer. Advexin, a similar gene therapy approach from Introgen, was turned down by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2008. Concerns ...	{ "page_id": 34217148, "title": "Vectors in gene therapy" }
extend away from the surface of the virus. The envelope proteins on each of these viruses bind to cell-surface molecules such as heparin sulfate, which localizes them upon the surface of the potential host, as well as with the specific protein receptor that either induces entry-promoting structural changes in the viral...	{ "page_id": 34217148, "title": "Vectors in gene therapy" }
off-target cell modification would be limited, and many concerns from the medical community would be alleviated. Most attempts to limit tropism have used chimeric envelope proteins bearing antibody fragments. These vectors show great promise for the development of "magic bullet" gene therapies. === Replication-competen...	{ "page_id": 34217148, "title": "Vectors in gene therapy" }
type HSV-1 virus is able to infect neurons and evade the host immune response, but may still become reactivated and produce a lytic cycle of viral replication. Therefore, it is typical to use mutant strains of HSV-1 that are deficient in their ability to replicate. Though the latent virus is not transcriptionally appar...	{ "page_id": 34217148, "title": "Vectors in gene therapy" }
pressure gas. === Physical methods to enhance delivery === ==== Electroporation ==== Electroporation is a method that uses short pulses of high voltage to carry DNA across the cell membrane. This shock is thought to cause temporary formation of pores in the cell membrane, allowing DNA molecules to pass through. Electro...	{ "page_id": 34217148, "title": "Vectors in gene therapy" }
assisted by the elevated hydrostatic pressure caused by the high volume of injected solution. === Chemical methods to enhance delivery === ==== Oligonucleotides ==== The use of synthetic oligonucleotides in gene therapy is to deactivate the genes involved in the disease process. There are several methods by which this ...	{ "page_id": 34217148, "title": "Vectors in gene therapy" }
so attention was turned to the cationic versions. Cationic lipids, due to their positive charge, were first used to condense negatively charged DNA molecules so as to facilitate the encapsulation of DNA into liposomes. Later it was found that the use of cationic lipids significantly enhanced the stability of lipoplexes...	{ "page_id": 34217148, "title": "Vectors in gene therapy" }
can encapsulate either hydrophilic or hydrophobic contents and can be used to deliver cargo such as DNA, proteins, or drugs to cells. Advantages of polymersomes over liposomes include greater stability, mechanical strength, blood circulation time, and storage capacity. ==== Polyplexes ==== Complexes of polymers with DN...	{ "page_id": 34217148, "title": "Vectors in gene therapy" }
properties of the resulting construct are determined by its surface. In particular it is possible to construct a cationic dendrimer, i.e. one with a positive surface charge. When in the presence of genetic material such as DNA or RNA, charge complementarity leads to a temporary association of the nucleic acid with the ...	{ "page_id": 34217148, "title": "Vectors in gene therapy" }
without degradation. Inorganics have also been shown to exhibit improved in vitro transfection for attached cell lines due to their increased density and preferential location on the base of the culture dish. Quantum dots have also been used successfully and permits the coupling of gene therapy with a stable fluorescen...	{ "page_id": 34217148, "title": "Vectors in gene therapy" }
Distal promoter elements are regulatory DNA sequences that can be many kilobases distant from the gene that they regulate. They can either be enhancers (increasing expression) or silencers (decreasing expression). They act by binding activator or repressor proteins (transcription factors) and the intervening DNA bends ...	{ "page_id": 51846334, "title": "Distal promoter" }
== In RNA Polymerase II (RNAP2) == Distal promoters in RNA polymerase II bind at enhancer elements and may act as a marker for active regulatory sequences. == References ==	{ "page_id": 51846334, "title": "Distal promoter" }
The Koenigs–Knorr reaction in organic chemistry is the substitution reaction of a glycosyl halide with an alcohol to give a glycoside. It is one of the oldest glycosylation reactions. It is named after Wilhelm Koenigs (1851–1906), a student of von Baeyer and fellow student with Hermann Emil Fischer, and Edward Knorr, a...	{ "page_id": 6954175, "title": "Koenigs–Knorr reaction" }
and more recently iodides as glycosyl donors. The Koenigs–Knorr reaction can be performed with alternative promoters such as various heavy metal salts including mercuric bromide/mercuric oxide, mercuric cyanide and silver triflate. When mercury salts are used, the reaction is normally called the Helferich method. Other...	{ "page_id": 6954175, "title": "Koenigs–Knorr reaction" }

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