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the cylinder and head. A large amount of water with high speed and temperature of 38-40 °C is circulated in jackets. The cylinder also has an air vacuum chamber, which removes air bubbles from the dough before extruding. Otherwise small bubbles will form in the pasta and decreases the mechanical strength which cause br...	{ "page_id": 50404581, "title": "Pasta processing" }
air to dehydrate the pasta. “Pre-drying” starts immediately after extrusion where the pasta hardens on the outside but is still soft on the inside. It takes one tenth of the whole drying time, and one third of the excess moisture is lost in this stage. “Final drying” removes most of the moisture and gives the pasta a f...	{ "page_id": 50404581, "title": "Pasta processing" }
rest occur at eight drying/stabilizing cycle in total. Process ends in cold air chamber for stabilizing. == Packaging == There are two main packaging systems for dried pasta: cellophane bags which are moisture-proof, easy to use in automatic machines, but difficult to stack, and boxes which are easy to stack and print ...	{ "page_id": 50404581, "title": "Pasta processing" }
Miraculin is a taste modifier, a glycoprotein extracted from the fruit of Synsepalum dulcificum. The berry, also known as the miracle fruit, was documented by explorer Chevalier des Marchais, who searched for many different fruits during a 1725 excursion to its native West Africa. Miraculin itself does not taste sweet....	{ "page_id": 1776871, "title": "Miraculin" }
period after consumption. The duration and intensity of the sweetness-modifying effect depends on various factors, such as miraculin concentration, duration of contact of the miraculin with the tongue, and acid concentration. Miraculin reaches its maximum sweetness with a solution containing at least 4*10−7 mol/L mirac...	{ "page_id": 1776871, "title": "Miraculin" }
candy" with non-approved sweeteners. Miraculin has a novel food status in the European Union. It is approved in Japan as a safe food additive, according to the List of Existing Food Additives published by the Ministry of Health and Welfare (published by the Japan External Trade Organization). == See also == Brazzein Cu...	{ "page_id": 1776871, "title": "Miraculin" }
Hydrogen pinch analysis (HPA) is a hydrogen management method that originates from the concept of heat pinch analysis. HPA is a systematic technique for reducing hydrogen consumption and hydrogen generation through integration of hydrogen-using activities or processes in the petrochemical industry, petroleum refineries...	{ "page_id": 24976623, "title": "Hydrogen pinch" }
Review of process integration by Nick Hallale (University of Manchester) covering hydrogen pinch == References == Citations Sources Nick Hallale, Ian Moore, Dennis Vauk, "Hydrogen optimization at minimal investment", Petroleum Technology Quarterly (PTQ), Spring (2003) == External links == Hydrogen Pinch made easy Archi...	{ "page_id": 24976623, "title": "Hydrogen pinch" }
In molecular biology, TBST (or TTBS) is a mixture of tris-buffered saline (TBS) (a buffer solution) and Polysorbate 20 (a polysorbate-type nonionic surfactant). Polysorbate 20 is also known as Tween 20, a commercial brand name. It is a common detergent used in many buffers for washing nitrocellulose membrane in western...	{ "page_id": 22224112, "title": "TBST" }
In physics, topological order describes a state or phase of matter that arises system with non-local interactions, such as entanglement in quantum mechanics, and floppy modes in elastic systems. Whereas classical phases of matter such as gases and solids correspond to microscopic patterns in the spatial arrangement of ...	{ "page_id": 3087602, "title": "Topological order" }
organize in many ways which lead to many different orders and many different types of materials. Landau symmetry-breaking theory provides a general understanding of these different orders. It points out that different orders really correspond to different symmetries in the organizations of the constituent atoms. As a m...	{ "page_id": 3087602, "title": "Topological order" }
Landau symmetry-breaking theory to describe the chiral spin state. They identified the chiral spin state as a state that breaks the time reversal and parity symmetries, but not the spin rotation symmetry. This should be the end of the story according to Landau's symmetry breaking description of orders. However, it was ...	{ "page_id": 3087602, "title": "Topological order" }
have experimental realizations. The fractional quantum Hall (FQH) state was discovered in 1982 before the introduction of the concept of topological order in 1989. But the FQH state is not the first experimentally discovered topologically ordered state. The superconductor, discovered in 1911, is the first experimentall...	{ "page_id": 3087602, "title": "Topological order" }
many different new types of materials remaining to be discovered. The collective motions of condensed strings give rise to excitations above the string-net condensed states. Those excitations turn out to be gauge bosons. The ends of strings are defects which correspond to another type of excitations. Those excitations ...	{ "page_id": 3087602, "title": "Topological order" }
ferromagnetic materials can store gigabytes of information. Liquid crystals that break the rotational symmetry of molecules find wide application in display technology. Crystals that break translation symmetry lead to well defined electronic bands which in turn allow us to make semiconducting devices such as transistor...	{ "page_id": 3087602, "title": "Topological order" }
This observation naturally leads to a question: are topological insulators examples of topologically ordered states? In fact topological insulators are different from topologically ordered states defined in this article. Topological insulators only have short-ranged entanglements and have no topological order, while th...	{ "page_id": 3087602, "title": "Topological order" }
systems. Some suggest that topological order (or more precisely, string-net condensation) in local bosonic (spin) models has the potential to provide a unified origin for photons, electrons and other elementary particles in our universe. == See also == == Notes == == References == == References by categories == === Fra...	{ "page_id": 3087602, "title": "Topological order" }
order === D. Arovas and J. R. Schrieffer and F. Wilczek, Phys. Rev. Lett., 53, 722 (1984), "Fractional Statistics and the Quantum Hall Effect" Wen, Xiao-Gang; Niu, Qian (1990). "Ground state degeneracy of the FQH states in presence of random potential and on high genus Riemann surfaces" (PDF). Phys. Rev. B. 41 (13): 93...	{ "page_id": 3087602, "title": "Topological order" }
"Non-Abelian anyons and topological quantum computation". Reviews of Modern Physics. 80 (3): 1083–1159. arXiv:0707.1889. Bibcode:2008RvMP...80.1083N. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.80.1083. Kitaev, Alexei Yu (2003). "Fault-tolerant quantum computation by anyons". Annals of Physics. 303 (1): 2–30. arXiv:quant-ph/9707021. Bibcod...	{ "page_id": 3087602, "title": "Topological order" }
A. and Olshanetsky M., Hamiltonian Algebroids and deformations of complex structures on Riemann curves, hep-th/0301078v1. Xiao-Gang Wen, Yong-Shi Wu and Y. Hatsugai., Chiral operator product algebra and edge excitations of a FQH droplet (pdf),Nucl. Phys. B422, 476 (1994): Used chiral operator product algebra to constru...	{ "page_id": 3087602, "title": "Topological order" }
Rolf Maximilian Sievert (Swedish: [ˈrɔlf maksɪˈmǐːlɪan ˈsǐːvɛʈ]; 6 May 1896 – 3 October 1966) was a Swedish medical physicist whose major contribution was in the study of the biological effects of ionizing radiation. The sievert (Sv), the SI unit representing the stochastic health risk of ionizing radiation, is named f...	{ "page_id": 1252594, "title": "Rolf Maximilian Sievert" }
links == Media related to Rolf Sievert at Wikimedia Commons Rolf Sievert, the man and the unit Rolf Maximilian Sievert (1896–1966): father of radiation protection	{ "page_id": 1252594, "title": "Rolf Maximilian Sievert" }
In thermodynamics, the Onsager reciprocal relations express the equality of certain ratios between flows and forces in thermodynamic systems out of equilibrium, but where a notion of local equilibrium exists. "Reciprocal relations" occur between different pairs of forces and flows in a variety of physical systems. For ...	{ "page_id": 466164, "title": "Onsager reciprocal relations" }
Peltier (heat flow caused by a voltage difference) and Seebeck (electric current caused by a temperature difference) coefficients of a thermoelectric material. Similarly, the so-called "direct piezoelectric" (electric current produced by mechanical stress) and "reverse piezoelectric" (deformation produced by a voltage ...	{ "page_id": 466164, "title": "Onsager reciprocal relations" }
is the internal energy, T is temperature, S is entropy, P is the hydrostatic pressure, V is the volume, μ {\displaystyle \mu } is the chemical potential, and M mass. In terms of the internal energy density, u, entropy density s, and mass density ρ {\displaystyle \rho } , the fundamental equation at fixed volume is writ...	{ "page_id": 466164, "title": "Onsager reciprocal relations" }
flow and of the microscopic internal energy. However, if we assume that the macroscopic velocity of the fluid is negligible, we obtain energy conservation in the following form: ∂ u ∂ t + ∇ ⋅ J u = 0 , {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial u}{\partial t}}+\nabla \cdot \mathbf {J} _{u}=0,} where u {\displaystyle u} is the int...	{ "page_id": 466164, "title": "Onsager reciprocal relations" }
∇ ρ , {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{\rho }=-D\,\nabla \rho ,} where D is the coefficient of diffusion. Since this is also a linear approximation and since the chemical potential is monotonically increasing with density at a fixed temperature, Fick's law may just as well be written: J ρ = D ′ ∇ − μ T {\displaystyle \math...	{ "page_id": 466164, "title": "Onsager reciprocal relations" }
1 T J u + − μ T J ρ = ∑ α J α f α {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{s}={\frac {1}{T}}\mathbf {J} _{u}+{\frac {-\mu }{T}}\mathbf {J} _{\rho }=\sum _{\alpha }\mathbf {J} _{\alpha }f_{\alpha }} Using the continuity equations, the rate of entropy production may now be written: ∂ s c ∂ t = J u ⋅ ∇ 1 T + J ρ ⋅ ∇ − μ T = ∑ α J α ⋅...	{ "page_id": 466164, "title": "Onsager reciprocal relations" }
very often be expressed in an analogous way for many more general and complicated systems. == Abstract formulation == Let x 1 , x 2 , … , x n {\displaystyle x_{1},x_{2},\ldots ,x_{n}} denote fluctuations from equilibrium values in several thermodynamic quantities, and let S ( x 1 , x 2 , … , x n ) {\displaystyle S(x_{1...	{ "page_id": 466164, "title": "Onsager reciprocal relations" }
i k X k {\displaystyle {\dot {x}}_{i}=-\gamma _{ik}X_{k}} where γ i k = λ i l β l k − 1 {\displaystyle \gamma _{ik}=\lambda _{il}\beta _{lk}^{-1}} are called kinetic coefficients The principle of symmetry of kinetic coefficients or the Onsager's principle states that γ {\displaystyle \gamma } is a symmetric matrix, tha...	{ "page_id": 466164, "title": "Onsager reciprocal relations" }
.} Putting t = 0 {\displaystyle t=0} in the above equation, γ i l ⟨ X l x k ⟩ = γ k l ⟨ X l x i ⟩ . {\displaystyle \gamma _{il}\langle X_{l}x_{k}\rangle =\gamma _{kl}\langle X_{l}x_{i}\rangle .} It can be easily shown from the definition that ⟨ X i x k ⟩ = δ i k {\displaystyle \langle X_{i}x_{k}\rangle =\delta _{ik}} ,...	{ "page_id": 466164, "title": "Onsager reciprocal relations" }
A reducing atmosphere is an atmosphere in which oxidation is prevented by the absence of oxygen and other oxidizing gases or vapours, and which may contain actively reductant gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane and hydrogen sulfide that would be readily oxidized to remove any free oxygen. Although Early Ea...	{ "page_id": 335094, "title": "Reducing atmosphere" }
the carbon will bond with and remove the oxygen in the metal oxides used as colorants in the glazes. This loss of oxygen results in a change in the color of the glazes because it allows the metals in the glaze to be seen in an unoxidized form. A reduction atmosphere can also affect the color of the clay body. If iron i...	{ "page_id": 335094, "title": "Reducing atmosphere" }
biosphere, forcing the surviving anaerobic colonies to evolve into symbiotic microbial mats with the newly evolved aerobes. Some aerobic bacteria eventually became endosymbiont within other anaerobes (likely archaea), and the resultant symbiogenesis led to the evolution of an entirely new lineage of life — the eukaryot...	{ "page_id": 335094, "title": "Reducing atmosphere" }
Conformal gravity refers to gravity theories that are invariant under conformal transformations in the Riemannian geometry sense; more accurately, they are invariant under Weyl transformations g a b → Ω 2 ( x ) g a b {\displaystyle g_{ab}\rightarrow \Omega ^{2}(x)g_{ab}} where g a b {\displaystyle g_{ab}} is the metric...	{ "page_id": 3415287, "title": "Conformal gravity" }
wave equation is the scalar 4-derivative wave equation: ◻ 2 ⁡ Φ = 0 {\displaystyle \operatorname {\Box } ^{2}\Phi =0} The solution for this in a central field of force is: Φ ( r ) = 1 − 2 m r + a r + b r 2 {\displaystyle \Phi (r)=1-{\frac {2m}{r}}+ar+br^{2}} The first two terms are the same as a normal wave equation. B...	{ "page_id": 3415287, "title": "Conformal gravity" }
correction to Newtonian gravity like this (where we consider ε {\displaystyle \varepsilon } to be a small correction): ◻ ⁡ Φ + ε 2 ◻ 2 ⁡ Φ = 0 {\displaystyle \operatorname {\Box } \Phi +\varepsilon ^{2}\operatorname {\Box } ^{2}\Phi =0} in which case the general solution is the same as the Newtonian case except there c...	{ "page_id": 3415287, "title": "Conformal gravity" }
Materials Science and Engineering: B — Advanced Functional Solid-State Materials is a peer-reviewed scientific journal. It is the section of Materials Science and Engineering dedicated to "calculation, synthesis, processing, characterization, and understanding of advanced quantum materials" and is published monthly by ...	{ "page_id": 70065399, "title": "Materials Science and Engineering B" }
Mihi itch or Mihisucht is the ambition to describe new species (or other taxa: subspecies, hybrids, genera, etc.) as a means to immortalize one's name. Mihi is the dative form of the Latin word ego, thus "mihi itch" means to satisfy one's egotistical impulses. The expression appeared in print as early as 1884. A conseq...	{ "page_id": 74980602, "title": "Mihi itch" }
The need for fluorescently tracking RNA rose as its roles in complex cellular functions has grown to not only include mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA, but also RNAi, siRNA, snoRNA, and lncRNA, among others. Spinach is a synthetically derived RNA aptamer born out of the need for a way of studying the role of RNAs at the cellular l...	{ "page_id": 46734589, "title": "Spinach aptamer" }
an internal bulge with a G-quadruplex motif. It is at this G-quadruplex that the fluorophore binds. Based on crystallographic data, massive rearrangement of the adjacent bases occurs once the fluorophore binds to accommodate the molecule. This binding is favorable, however, as it promotes base-stacking in a normally un...	{ "page_id": 46734589, "title": "Spinach aptamer" }
Inclusive fitness in humans is the application of inclusive fitness theory to human social behaviour, relationships and cooperation. Inclusive fitness theory (and the related kin selection theory) are general theories in evolutionary biology that propose a method to understand the evolution of social behaviours in orga...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
physical confrontations at meetings of the Sociobiology Study Group and more often intellectual arguments such as Sahlins' 1976 book The use and abuse of biology, Lewontin et al.'s 1984 Not in Our Genes, and Kitcher's 1985 Vaulting Ambition:Sociobiology and the Quest for Human Nature. Some of these later arguments were...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
was held) should increase with the recipient's relatedness to the participant. In effect, we tested whether investment flows differentially down channels of relatedness." From their results, they concluded that "human altruistic behaviour is mediated by Hamilton's rule ... humans behave in such a way as to maximize inc...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
proposes a selective criterion for the potential evolution of social traits in organisms, where social behavior that is costly to an individual organism's survival and reproduction could nevertheless emerge under certain conditions. The key condition relates to the statistical likelihood that significant benefits of a ...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
a more primary and necessary requirement in order for any social interaction to occur in the first place. As Hamilton put it, "Altruistic or selfish acts are only possible when a suitable social object is available. In this sense behaviours are conditional from the start." (Hamilton 1987, 420). In other words, whilst i...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
benefits inclusive fitness and would be selected. In fact, the individual may not need to perform any discrimination so sophisticated as we suggest here; a difference in the generosity of his behaviour according to whether the situations evoking it were encountered near to, or far from, his own home might occasion an a...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
inclusive fitness theory, leading to a sub-field of 'kin recognition' research. === Later theoretical refinements === A common source of confusion around inclusive fitness theory is that Hamilton's early analysis included some inaccuracies, that, although corrected by him in later publications, are often not fully unde...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
significant, since the whole genome of sexual organisms benefits from avoiding close inbreeding; there is a different selection pressure at play compared to the selection pressure on social traits (see Kin recognition for more information). It does not follow… that ability to discriminate degrees of relatedness automat...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
in spatially mediated behaviors is not evidence that these animals can recognize their kin, nor does it support the conclusion that spatially based differential behaviors represent a kin recognition mechanism (see also discussions by Blaustein, 1983; Waldman, 1987; Halpin 1991). In other words, from an evolutionary per...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
spatial-cue-based mediation of social cooperation based on limited dispersal and shared developmental context are commonly found in many organisms that have been studied, including in social mammal species. As Hamilton pointed out, "Altruistic or selfish acts are only possible when a suitable social object is available...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
depend on group living vs. solitary living, mating patterns, duration of pre-maturity development, dispersal patterns, and more. For example, in group living primates with females remaining in their natal group for their entire lives, there will be lifelong opportunities for interactions between female individuals rela...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
than genetic relatedness per se. Cross-fostering studies (placing unrelated young in a shared developmental environment) strongly demonstrate that unrelated individuals bond and cooperate just as would normal littermates. The evidence therefore demonstrates that bonding and cooperation are mediated by proximity, shared...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
upon a recognition of shared blood ties. However, independently of the emergence of inclusive fitness theory, from 1960s onwards many anthropologists themselves had reexamined the balance of findings in their own ethnographic data and had begun to reject the notion that human kinship is 'caused by' blood ties (see Kins...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
of social traits and yet its lack of necessary determining role in mediating mechanisms of social bonding and the expression of altruism is key to inclusive fitness theory's proper application to human social behaviour (as well as to other mammals). === Nurture kinship === Compatible with biologists' emphasis on famili...	{ "page_id": 50797822, "title": "Inclusive fitness in humans" }
The molecular formula for C10H12FNO (molar mass: 181.21 g/mol, exact mass: 181.0903 u) may refer to: Flephedrone, also known as 4-fluoromethcathinone (4-FMC) 2-Fluoromethcathinone (2-FMC) 3-Fluoromethcathinone (3-FMC)	{ "page_id": 24255741, "title": "C10H12FNO" }
Wasium was the suggested name of a chemical element found by J. F. Bahr. The name was derived from the House of Vasa the Royal House of Sweden. In 1862 Bahr analysed the mineral Orthite—Allanite-(Y)—from the Norwegian island Rönsholm and found an oxide which he concluded contained a new element. In the following years ...	{ "page_id": 24190207, "title": "Wasium" }
In molecular biology, methylation induced premeiotically (MIP) is a process by which cytosines within repeated DNA sequences are de novo methylated prior to the sexual cycle. This process was first described in the ascomycete Ascobolus immersens. MIP is dependent upon the gene masc1 which encodes a cytosine methyltrans...	{ "page_id": 32709889, "title": "Methylation induced premeiotically" }
Two physical systems are in thermal equilibrium if there is no net flow of thermal energy between them when they are connected by a path permeable to heat. Thermal equilibrium obeys the zeroth law of thermodynamics. A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium with itself if the temperature within the system is spatia...	{ "page_id": 466192, "title": "Thermal equilibrium" }
change is no longer detectable, it is in its own thermal equilibrium. It is not implied that it is necessarily in other kinds of internal equilibrium. For example, it is possible that a body might reach internal thermal equilibrium but not be in internal chemical equilibrium; glass is an example. One may imagine an iso...	{ "page_id": 466192, "title": "Thermal equilibrium" }
transfer of heat, the system is not in thermal equilibrium. While the transfer of energy as heat continues, the system's temperature can be changing. == Bodies prepared with separately uniform temperatures, then put into purely thermal communication with each other == If bodies are prepared with separately microscopica...	{ "page_id": 466192, "title": "Thermal equilibrium" }
reaching equilibrium; glass is an example. Classical thermodynamics in general considers idealized systems that have reached internal equilibrium, and idealized transfers of matter and energy between them. An isolated physical system may be inhomogeneous, or may be composed of several subsystems separated from each oth...	{ "page_id": 466192, "title": "Thermal equilibrium" }
will practically never occur spontaneously within the isolated system; this is a large part of the content of the second law of thermodynamics. Truly perfectly isolated systems do not occur in nature, and always are artificially prepared. === In a gravitational field === One may consider a system contained in a very ta...	{ "page_id": 466192, "title": "Thermal equilibrium" }
not one of thermodynamic equilibrium, and can change till thermodynamic equilibrium is reached. Thermal equilibrium is a relation between two bodies or closed systems, in which transfers are allowed only of energy and take place through a partition permeable to heat, and in which the transfers have proceeded till the s...	{ "page_id": 466192, "title": "Thermal equilibrium" }
Thermodynamic equilibrium Radiative equilibrium Thermal oscillator == Citations == == Citation references == Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983). Equilibrium Thermodynamics, third edition, McGraw-Hill, London, ISBN 0-521-25445-0. Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics Press, New York, ISBN 0-...	{ "page_id": 466192, "title": "Thermal equilibrium" }
Peter Morrison Vitousek (born January 24, 1949 ) is an American ecologist, particularly known for his work on the nitrogen cycle. Born in Hawaii, Vitousek graduated from Amherst College in 1971 and received his Ph.D. in biology from Dartmouth College in 1975. Since then, he has worked as an Assistant Professor of Zoolo...	{ "page_id": 31726865, "title": "Peter Vitousek" }
Gene E. Likens, Pamela A. Matson, David W. Schindler, William H. Schlesinger, David G. Tilman (1997) Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: Sources and consequences. Ecological Applications: 7, 737-750. Peter M. Vitousek, Harold A. Mooney, Jane Lubchenco, Jerry M. Melillo. (1997) Human Domination of Earth's Eco...	{ "page_id": 31726865, "title": "Peter Vitousek" }
Yann André Le Cun ( lə-KUN, French: [ləkœ̃]; usually spelled LeCun; born 8 July 1960) is a French-American computer scientist working primarily in the fields of machine learning, computer vision, mobile robotics and computational neuroscience. He is the Silver Professor of the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences...	{ "page_id": 23534873, "title": "Yann LeCun" }
inspired model of image recognition called convolutional neural networks (LeNet), the "Optimal Brain Damage" regularization methods, and the Graph Transformer Networks method (similar to conditional random field), which he applied to handwriting recognition and Optical character recognition (OCR). The bank check recogn...	{ "page_id": 23534873, "title": "Yann LeCun" }
held every year between 1986 and 2012 in Snowbird, Utah. He is a member of the Science Advisory Board of the Institute for Pure and Applied Mathematics at UCLA. He is the Co-Director of the Learning in Machines and Brain research program (formerly Neural Computation & Adaptive Perception) of CIFAR. In 2016, he was the ...	{ "page_id": 23534873, "title": "Yann LeCun" }
of the French Legion of Honour. During the World Economic Forum (WEF) 2024 in Davos, he received the Global Swiss AI Award 2023. In the same year, he received the grand prize of the VinFuture Prize alongside Yoshua Bengio, Jensen Huang, Geoffrey Hinton, and Fei-Fei Li for their groundbreaking contributions to neural ne...	{ "page_id": 23534873, "title": "Yann LeCun" }
The bulbus cordis (the bulb of the heart) is a part of the developing heart that lies ventral to the primitive ventricle after the heart assumes its S-shaped form. The superior end of the bulbus cordis is also called the conotruncus. == Structure == In the early tubular heart, the bulbus cordis is the major outflow pat...	{ "page_id": 4332825, "title": "Bulbus cordis" }
Common coding theory is a cognitive psychology theory describing how perceptual representations (e.g. of things we can see and hear) and motor representations (e.g. of hand actions) are linked. The theory claims that there is a shared representation (a common code) for both perception and action. More important, seeing...	{ "page_id": 19864858, "title": "Common coding theory" }
action are similar. Such a claim suggests that we represent observed, executed and imagined actions in a commensurate manner and makes specific predictions regarding the nature of action and perceptual representations. First, representations for observed and executed actions should rely on a shared neural substrate. Se...	{ "page_id": 19864858, "title": "Common coding theory" }
the same format and dimensionality of representation. Common coding refers to 'late' afferent representations (referring to events in the environment) and 'early' efferent representations (referring to intended events). Such representations are commensurate since they both exhibit distal reference. They permit creating...	{ "page_id": 19864858, "title": "Common coding theory" }
of action, given intended outcomes. == Related approaches == While most traditional approaches tend to stress the relative independence of perception and action, some theories have argued for closer links. Motor theories of speech and action perception have made a case for motor contributions to perception. Close non-r...	{ "page_id": 19864858, "title": "Common coding theory" }
Alex A.R. Webb is a plant biologist whose computational, genetic, and physiological studies center around plant chronobiology. He currently serves as the head of the Circadian Signal Transduction Group in the University of Cambridge's Department of Plant Sciences researching circadian pathways and what regulates them. ...	{ "page_id": 73473307, "title": "Alex A.R. Webb" }
revealed that circadian oscillations of calcium occur due to the circadian regulation of cyclic ADPR. His work has also revealed that carbohydrate metabolism is capable of altering the core oscillator's phase, as well as entraining to it. Further research identified PRR7 as being involved in the sensing of carbohydrate...	{ "page_id": 73473307, "title": "Alex A.R. Webb" }
regulate circadian oscillators, whether any other metals, like Magnesium, may contribute to the regulation of circadian clocks in plants, and how wheat varieties can be improved through chronoculture or altering their circadian clocks. == Notable publications == The following publications that Webb has co-authored have...	{ "page_id": 73473307, "title": "Alex A.R. Webb" }
University of Adelaide Professor Jorge Goncalves from the University of Luxembourg Dr. Akiko Satake from Kyushu University Dr. Phil Wigge from the University of Potsdam, Germany Additionally, his lab collaborates with individuals from the National Institute of Agricultural Botany and BASF in Ghent, Belgium. Webb is als...	{ "page_id": 73473307, "title": "Alex A.R. Webb" }
Sulfur trioxide pyridine complex is the compound with the formula C5H5NSO3. It is a colourless solid that dissolves in polar organic solvents. It is the adduct formed from the Lewis base pyridine and the Lewis acid sulfur trioxide. The compound is mainly used as a source of sulfur trioxide, for example in the synthesis...	{ "page_id": 5578011, "title": "Sulfur trioxide pyridine complex" }
Lactisole is the sodium salt and commonly supplied form of 2-(4-methoxyphenoxy)propionic acid, a natural carboxylic acid found in roasted coffee beans. Like gymnemic acid, it has the property of masking sweet flavors and is used for this purpose in the food industry. == Chemistry == Chemically, lactisole is a double et...	{ "page_id": 1776926, "title": "Lactisole" }
ppm. Currently, lactisole is manufactured and sold by Domino Sugar and its usage levels are between 50 and 150 ppm. In the European Union lactisole is allowed to be used as a flavouring substance in foods, FL No. 16.041. == See also == Gymnemic acid Hodulcine Ziziphin == References == == External links == List of subst...	{ "page_id": 1776926, "title": "Lactisole" }
Within evolutionary biology, signalling theory is a body of theoretical work examining communication between individuals, both within species and across species. The central question is how organisms with conflicting interests, such as in sexual selection, are expected to provide honest signals rather than deceive or c...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
signalling, demonstrating that a runaway effect could occur in sexual selection. The evolutionary equilibrium depends sensitively on the balance of costs and benefits. The same mechanisms can be expected in humans, where researchers have studied behaviours including risk-taking by young men, hunting of large game anima...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
predation, the sound is not a signal, but a cue. Signalling systems are shaped by mutual interests between signallers and receivers. An alert bird such as a Eurasian jay warning off a stalking predator is communicating something useful to the predator: that it has been detected by the prey; it might as well quit wastin...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
and the other the 'advertising sex' (often males). The choosing sex achieves the highest fitness by choosing the partner of the highest (genetic) quality. This quality cannot be observed directly, so the advertising sex can evolve a signal, which advertises its quality. Examples of these signals include the tail of a p...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
false alarms at random, just in case a predator is nearby. But too much cheating could cause the signalling system to collapse. Every dishonest signal weakens the integrity of the signalling system, and so reduces the fitness of the group. An example of dishonest signalling comes from Fiddler crabs such as Austruca mjo...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
can be bluffing (during contest) or sexual mimicry where males or females mimic the patterns and behaviour of the opposite sex. A famous example is the bluegill sunfish where mimic males look like and behave like females to sneak into the guarded nests of territorial males in order to fertilize some of the eggs. == Han...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
have evolved as displays of ability to overcome handicap, though biologists point out that if the handicap is inherited, its genes ought to be selected against. The essential idea here is intuitive and probably qualifies as folk wisdom. It was articulated by Kurt Vonnegut in his 1961 short story Harrison Bergeron. In V...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
offspring, did have fewer bloodsucking mites, whereas fostered young did not. The effect was therefore genetic, confirming Hamilton's theory. Another example is Lozano's hypothesis that carotenoids have dual but mutually incompatible roles in immune function and signalling. Given that animals cannot synthesize caroteno...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
in his paper was Grafen able to show the necessity of wasteful equilibrium cost (a.k.a. handicap). Grafen's model is a model of condition dependent signalling that builds on a traditional life-history trade-off between reproduction and survival. In general, later models have shown that the key condition of honest signa...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
with showier sons. This can cause the evolutionary dynamic known as Fisherian runaway, in which males become ever showier. Russell Lande explored this with a quantitative genetic model, showing that Fisherian diploid dynamics are sensitive to signalling and search costs. Other models incorporate both costly signalling ...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
strength and coordination. Costly signalling theory is a useful tool for understanding food sharing among hunter gatherers because it can be applied to situations in which delayed reciprocity is not a viable explanation. Instances that are particularly inconsistent with the delayed reciprocity hypothesis are those in w...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
community in the Torres Strait of Australia, publishing their findings in 2001. Here, only some Meriam men were able to accumulate high caloric gains for the amount of time spent turtle hunting or spear fishing (reaching a threshold measured in kcal/h). Since a daily catch of fish is carried home by hand and turtles ar...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
this is also true within the Hadza, based on the documentation on the !Kung, in Megan Biesele's book on !Kung folklore, Women Like Meat. Among the men of Ifaluk atoll, costly signalling theory can also explain why men torch fish. Torch fishing is a ritualized method of fishing on Ifaluk whereby men use torches made fro...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
the statuses of men who signal less successfully. Among northern Kalahari foraging groups, traditional hunters usually capture a maximum of two or three antelopes per year. It was said of a particularly successful hunter: "It was said of him that he never returned from a hunt without having killed at least a wildebeest...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
male who takes a physical risk is sending the message that he has enough strength and skill to survive extremely dangerous activities. This signal is directed at peers and potential mates. When those peers are criminals or gang members, sociologists Diego Gambetta and James Densley find that risk-taking signals can hel...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
members increase their allegiance to the group by signalling their investment in group interests. However, as group size increases among humans, the threat of free riders grows. Costly signalling theory accounts for this by proposing that these religious rituals are costly enough to deter free riders. Irons proposed th...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
when its rituals are costly. Another critique specifically asks: why religion? There is no evolutionary advantage to evolving religion over other signals of commitment such as nationality, as Irons admits. However, the reinforcement of religious rites as well as the intrinsic reward and punishment system found in relig...	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }

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