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Top-p sampling, also called nucleus sampling, is a technique for autoregressive language model decoding proposed by Ari Holtzman et al. in 2019. Before the introduction of nucleus sampling, maximum likelihood decoding and beam search were the standard techniques for text generation, but, both of these decoding strategi...	{ "page_id": 74652867, "title": "Top-p sampling" }
The Brazier effect was first discovered in 1927 by Brazier. He showed that when an initially straight tube was bent uniformly, the longitudinal tension and compression which resist the applied bending moment also tend to flatten or ovalise the cross-section. As the curvature increases, the flexural stiffness decreases....	{ "page_id": 34938051, "title": "Brazier effect" }
Pirkle's alcohol is an off-white, crystalline solid that is stable at room temperature when protected from light and oxygen. This chiral molecule is typically used, in nonracemic form, as a chiral shift reagent in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, in order to simultaneously determine absolute configuration and e...	{ "page_id": 16063686, "title": "Pirkle's alcohol" }
== References ==	{ "page_id": 16063686, "title": "Pirkle's alcohol" }
Parity problems are widely used as benchmark problems in genetic programming but inherited from the artificial neural network community. Parity is calculated by summing all the binary inputs and reporting if the sum is odd or even. This is considered difficult because: a very simple artificial neural network cannot sol...	{ "page_id": 1514696, "title": "Parity benchmark" }
An axion () is a hypothetical elementary particle originally theorized in 1978 independently by Frank Wilczek and Steven Weinberg as the Goldstone boson of Peccei–Quinn theory, which had been proposed in 1977 to solve the strong CP problem in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). If axions exist and have low mass within a spec...	{ "page_id": 335054, "title": "Axion" }
of Θ, naturally relaxing the CP-violation parameter to zero. Wilczek named this new hypothesized particle the "axion" after a brand of laundry detergent because it "cleaned up" a problem, while Weinberg called it "the higglet". Weinberg later agreed to adopt Wilczek's name for the particle. Because it has a non-zero ma...	{ "page_id": 335054, "title": "Axion" }
contribute to the axion energy density. However, other bounds that come from isocurvature modes severely constrain this scenario, which require a relatively low-energy scale of inflation to be viable. === Post-inflationary scenario === If at least one of the conditions (a) or (b) is violated, the axion field takes diff...	{ "page_id": 335054, "title": "Axion" }
very weakly coupled axion is also very light, because axion couplings and mass are proportional. Satisfaction with "invisible axions" changed when it was shown that any very light axion would have been overproduced in the early universe and therefore must be excluded. === Maxwell's equations with axion modifications ==...	{ "page_id": 335054, "title": "Axion" }
recent (2008) theoretical models for topological insulators giving an effective axion description of the electrodynamics of these materials. This term leads to several interesting predicted properties including a quantized magnetoelectric effect. Evidence for this effect has been given in THz spectroscopy experiments p...	{ "page_id": 335054, "title": "Axion" }
a cold microwave cavity. ADMX has excluded optimistic axion models in the range 1.9–3.53 μeV. From 2013 to 2018 a series of upgrades were done and it is taking new data, including at 4.9–6.2 μeV. In December 2021 it excluded the range 3.3–4.2 μeV for the KSVZ model. Other experiments of this type include DMRadio, HAYST...	{ "page_id": 335054, "title": "Axion" }
no events, reported in a 2008 Physics Review Letter. ALPS I conducted similar runs, setting new constraints in 2010; ALPS II began collecting data in May 2023. OSQAR found no signal, limiting coupling, and will continue. === Astrophysical axion searches === Axion-like bosons could have a signature in astrophysical sett...	{ "page_id": 335054, "title": "Axion" }
Axions may also be produced within neutron stars by nucleon–nucleon bremsstrahlung. The subsequent decay of axions to gamma rays allows constraints on the axion mass to be placed from observations of neutron stars in gamma-rays using the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. From an analysis of four neutron stars, Berenji e...	{ "page_id": 335054, "title": "Axion" }
matter cryogenic detectors have searched for electron recoils that would indicate axions. CDMS published in 2009 and EDELWEISS set coupling and mass limits in 2013. UORE and XMASS also set limits on solar axions in 2013. XENON100 used a 225-day run to set the best coupling limits to date and exclude some parameters. ==...	{ "page_id": 335054, "title": "Axion" }
by the senior author of the paper, is the known seasonal variation in visibility to XMM-Newton of the sunward magnetosphere in which X-rays may be produced by axions from the Sun's core. This interpretation of the seasonal variation is disputed by two Italian researchers, who identify flaws in the arguments of the Leic...	{ "page_id": 335054, "title": "Axion" }
as the axion mass, decay constant, and abundance, all have implications for cosmology. Inflation theory suggests that if they exist, axions would be created abundantly during the Big Bang. Because of a unique coupling to the instanton field of the primordial universe (the "misalignment mechanism"), an effective dynamic...	{ "page_id": 335054, "title": "Axion" }
additional structure at the galactic scale. If they continuously fall into galaxies from the intergalactic medium, they would be denser in "caustic" rings, just as the stream of water in a continuously flowing fountain is thicker at its peak. The gravitational effects of these rings on galactic structure and rotation m...	{ "page_id": 335054, "title": "Axion" }
Footnotes == == References == == Sources == Peccei, R. D.; Quinn, H. R. (1977). "CP conservation in the presence of pseudoparticles". Physical Review Letters. 38 (25): 1440–1443. Bibcode:1977PhRvL..38.1440P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.38.1440. S2CID 9518918. Peccei, R. D.; Quinn, H. R. (1977). "Constraints imposed by CP c...	{ "page_id": 335054, "title": "Axion" }
Hume-Rothery rules, named after William Hume-Rothery, are a set of basic rules that describe the conditions under which an element could dissolve in a metal, forming a solid solution. There are two sets of rules; one refers to substitutional solid solutions, and the other refers to interstitial solid solutions. == Subs...	{ "page_id": 14425296, "title": "Hume-Rothery rules" }
done to the Hume-Rothery rules. Where they are being considered as critical contact criterion describable with Voronoi diagrams. This could ease the theoretical phase diagram generation of multicomponent systems. For alloys containing transition metal elements there is a difficulty in interpretation of the Hume-Rothery...	{ "page_id": 14425296, "title": "Hume-Rothery rules" }
The cosmic microwave background (CMB, CMBR), or relic radiation, is microwave radiation that fills all space in the observable universe. With a standard optical telescope, the background space between stars and galaxies is almost completely dark. However, a sufficiently sensitive radio telescope detects a faint backgro...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
of decoupling, which results in a characteristic lumpy pattern that varies with angular scale. The distribution of the anisotropy across the sky has frequency components that can be represented by a power spectrum displaying a sequence of peaks and valleys. The peak values of this spectrum hold important information ab...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
the very small degree of anisotropy in the CMB, many aspects can be measured with high precision and such measurements are critical for cosmological theories. In addition to temperature anisotropy, the CMB should have an angular variation in polarization. The polarisation at each direction in the sky has an orientation...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
Lemaître speculated that remnants of the early universe may be observable as radiation, but his candidate was cosmic rays.: 140 Richard C. Tolman showed in 1934 that expansion of the universe would cool blackbody radiation while maintaining a thermal spectrum. The cosmic microwave background was first predicted in 1948...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
1978 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery. === Cosmic origin === The interpretation of the cosmic microwave background was a controversial issue in the late 1960s. Alternative explanations included energy from within the Solar System, from galaxies, from intergalactic plasma and from multiple extragalactic radio ...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
large-scale isotropy by allowing causal connection just before the epoch of last scattering.: 8.5.4 With this and similar theories, detailed prediction encouraged larger and more ambitious experiments. The NASA Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite orbited Earth in 1989–1996 detected and quantified the large-scal...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
COBE did not have sufficient resolution. These measurements were able to rule out cosmic strings as the leading theory of cosmic structure formation, and suggested cosmic inflation was the right theory. During the 1990s, the first peak was measured with increasing sensitivity and by 2000 the BOOMERanG experiment report...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
the Antarctic Viper telescope as ACBAR (Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver) experiment—which has produced the most precise measurements at small angular scales to date—and in the Archeops balloon telescope. On 21 March 2013, the European-led research team behind the Planck cosmology probe released the mission...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
and planets, the early universe was more compact, much hotter and, starting 10−6 seconds after the Big Bang, filled with a uniform glow from its white-hot fog of interacting plasma of photons, electrons, and baryons. As the universe expanded, adiabatic cooling caused the energy density of the plasma to decrease until i...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
on the Big Bang model === In the late 1940s Alpher and Herman reasoned that if there was a Big Bang, the expansion of the universe would have stretched the high-energy radiation of the very early universe into the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum, and down to a temperature of about 5 K. They were slight...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
or 0.2348 meV): Tr = 2.725 K × (1 + z) The high degree of uniformity throughout the observable universe and its faint but measured anisotropy lend strong support for the Big Bang model in general and the ΛCDM ("Lambda Cold Dark Matter") model in particular. Moreover, the fluctuations are coherent on angular scales that...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
dark-matter density. The locations of the peaks give important information about the nature of the primordial density perturbations. There are two fundamental types of density perturbations called adiabatic and isocurvature. A general density perturbation is a mixture of both, and different theories that purport to exp...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
of the primordial plasma as fluid begins to break down: the increasing mean free path of the photons as the primordial plasma becomes increasingly rarefied in an expanding universe, the finite depth of the last scattering surface (LSS), which causes the mean free path to increase rapidly during decoupling, even while s...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
time anisotropy ==== Since the CMB came into existence, it has apparently been modified by several subsequent physical processes, which are collectively referred to as late-time anisotropy, or secondary anisotropy. When the CMB photons became free to travel unimpeded, ordinary matter in the universe was mostly in the f...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
when these first stars reached the end of their lives, or the ionizing radiation produced by the accretion disks of massive black holes. The time following the emission of the cosmic microwave background—and before the observation of the first stars—is semi-humorously referred to by cosmologists as the Dark Age, and is...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
mode). This is in analogy to electrostatics, in which the electric field (E-field) has a vanishing curl and the magnetic field (B-field) has a vanishing divergence. === E-modes === The E-modes arise from Thomson scattering in a heterogeneous plasma. E-modes were first seen in 2002 by the Degree Angular Scale Interferom...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
anisotropies are usually presented in terms of power per multipole. The map of temperature across the sky, T ( θ , φ ) , {\displaystyle T(\theta ,\varphi ),} is written as coefficients of spherical harmonics, T ( θ , φ ) = ∑ ℓ m a ℓ m Y ℓ m ( θ , φ ) {\displaystyle T(\theta ,\varphi )=\sum _{\ell m}a_{\ell m}Y_{\ell m}...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
of this term is 1 year, which fits the observation done by COBE FIRAS. The dipole moment does not encode any primordial information. From the CMB data, it is seen that the Sun appears to be moving at 369.82±0.11 km/s relative to the reference frame of the CMB (also called the CMB rest frame, or the frame of reference i...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
but is too small to be seen at the scale of the raw data. The most prominent of the foreground effects is the dipole anisotropy caused by the Sun's motion relative to the CMBR background. The dipole anisotropy and others due to Earth's annual motion relative to the Sun and numerous microwave sources in the galactic pla...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
with each other and with both the ecliptic plane and equinoxes. A number of groups have suggested that this could be the signature of quantum corrections or new physics at the greatest observable scales; other groups suspect systematic errors in the data. Ultimately, due to the foregrounds and the cosmic variance probl...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
evolution == Assuming the universe keeps expanding and it does not suffer a Big Crunch, a Big Rip, or another similar fate, the cosmic microwave background will continue redshifting until it will no longer be detectable, and will be superseded first by the one produced by starlight, and perhaps, later by the background...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
and in the following year values of 1.9K and 6.0K. === Microwave background radiation predictions and measurements === 1941 – Andrew McKellar detected a "rotational" temperature of 2.3 K for the interstellar medium by comparing the population of CN doublet lines measured by W. S. Adams in a B star. 1948 – Ralph Alpher ...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
observers and the last scattering surface (see Sachs–Wolfe effect). 1968 – Martin Rees and Dennis Sciama theoretically predict microwave background fluctuation amplitudes created by photons traversing time-dependent wells of potential. 1969 – R. A. Sunyaev and Yakov Zel'dovich study the inverse Compton scattering of mi...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
on the intermediate resolution maps from BOOMERanG). 2004 – E-mode polarization spectrum obtained by the CBI. 2004 – The Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver produces a higher quality map of the high resolution structure not mapped by WMAP. 2005 – The Arcminute Microkelvin Imager and the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich Arra...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
the signal can be entirely attributed to dust in the Milky Way. 2018 – The final data and maps from the Planck telescope is released, with improved measurements of the polarization on large scales. 2019 – Planck telescope analyses of their final 2018 data continue to be released. == In popular culture == In the Stargat...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
background. More in depth than typical online sites. Less dense than cosmology texts. CMBR Theme on arxiv.org Audio: Fraser Cain and Dr. Pamela Gay – Astronomy Cast. The Big Bang and Cosmic Microwave Background – October 2006 Visualization of the CMB data from the Planck mission Copeland, Ed. "CMBR: Cosmic Microwave Ba...	{ "page_id": 7376, "title": "Cosmic microwave background" }
An electrostatic particle accelerator is a particle accelerator in which charged particles are accelerated to a high energy by a static high voltage potential. The reason that only charged particles can be accelerated is that only charged particles are influenced by an electric field, according to the formula F=qE, whi...	{ "page_id": 26877140, "title": "Electrostatic particle accelerator" }
beams of atomic nuclei for research at energies up to several hundreds of MeV. In industry and materials science they are used to produce ion beams for materials modification, including ion implantation and ion beam mixing. There are also a number of materials analysis techniques based on electrostatic acceleration of ...	{ "page_id": 26877140, "title": "Electrostatic particle accelerator" }
style to a conventional conveyor belt, with one major exception: it is seamless. Thus, if the belt is broken, the accelerator must be disassembled to some degree in order to replace the belt, which, owing to its constant rotation and being made typically of a rubber, is not a particularly uncommon occurrence. The pract...	{ "page_id": 26877140, "title": "Electrostatic particle accelerator" }
is around 30 MV. There could be other gases with even better insulating powers, but SF6 is also chemically inert and non-toxic. To increase the maximum acceleration energy further, the tandem concept was invented to use the same high voltage twice. == Tandem accelerators == Conventionally, positively charged ions are a...	{ "page_id": 26877140, "title": "Electrostatic particle accelerator" }
we have added the second acceleration potential from that anion to the positive charge state q emerging from the stripper foil; we are adding these different charge signs together because we are increasing the energy of the nucleus in each phase. In this sense, we can see clearly that a tandem can double the maximum en...	{ "page_id": 26877140, "title": "Electrostatic particle accelerator" }
and four in Europe. == Geometry == One trick which has to be considered with electrostatic accelerators is that usually vacuum beam lines are made of steel. However, one cannot very well connect a conducting pipe of steel from the high voltage terminal to the ground. Thus, many rings of a strong glass, like Pyrex, are ...	{ "page_id": 26877140, "title": "Electrostatic particle accelerator" }
a single-ended electrostatic accelerator the charged particle is accelerated through a single potential difference between two electrodes, so the output particle energy E {\displaystyle E} is equal to the charge on the particle q {\displaystyle q} multiplied by the accelerating voltage V {\displaystyle V} E = q V {\dis...	{ "page_id": 26877140, "title": "Electrostatic particle accelerator" }
elementary charges, so the particle energy is in the low MeV range. More powerful accelerators can produce energies in the giga electron volt (GeV) range. == References == == External links == IAEA database of electrostatic accelerators	{ "page_id": 26877140, "title": "Electrostatic particle accelerator" }
An analyte, component (in clinical chemistry), titrand (in titrations), or chemical species is a substance or chemical constituent that is of interest in an analytical procedure. The remainder of the sample is called the matrix. The procedure of analysis measures the analyte's chemical or physical properties, thus esta...	{ "page_id": 1711318, "title": "Analyte" }
Premature convergence is an unwanted effect in evolutionary algorithms (EA), a metaheuristic that mimics the basic principles of biological evolution as a computer algorithm for solving an optimization problem. The effect means that the population of an EA has converged too early, resulting in being suboptimal. In this...	{ "page_id": 1514713, "title": "Premature convergence" }
the crossover and mutation probabilities. Population diversity is another measure which has been extensively used in studies to measure premature convergence. However, although it has been widely accepted that a decrease in the population diversity directly leads to premature convergence, there have been little studies...	{ "page_id": 1514713, "title": "Premature convergence" }
bounded lower levels of non-zero measurements. A study by Rudolph suggests that self-adaption mechanisms among elitist evolution strategies do resemble the 1/5-success rule, and could very well get caught by a local optimum that include a positive probability. === Panmictic populations === Most EAs use unstructured or ...	{ "page_id": 1514713, "title": "Premature convergence" }
The four-point flexural test provides values for the modulus of elasticity in bending E f {\displaystyle E_{f}} , flexural stress σ f {\displaystyle \sigma _{f}} , flexural strain ε f {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{f}} and the flexural stress-strain response of the material. This test is very similar to the three-point b...	{ "page_id": 44244186, "title": "Four-point flexural test" }
span (rectangular cross section) σ f = F L b d 2 {\displaystyle \sigma _{f}={\frac {FL}{bd^{2}}}} for four-point bending test where the loading span is 1/3 of the support span (rectangular cross section) σ f = 3 2 F L b d 2 {\displaystyle \sigma _{f}={\frac {3}{2}}{\frac {FL}{bd^{2}}}} for three-point bending test (rec...	{ "page_id": 44244186, "title": "Four-point flexural test" }
== Standards == ASTM C1161: Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Advanced Ceramics at Ambient Temperature ASTM D6272: Standard Test Method for Flexural Properties of Unreinforced and Reinforced Plastics and Electrical Insulating Materials by Four-Point Bending ASTM C393: Standard Test Method for Core Shear Pro...	{ "page_id": 44244186, "title": "Four-point flexural test" }
A Bayesian network (also known as a Bayes network, Bayes net, belief network, or decision network) is a probabilistic graphical model that represents a set of variables and their conditional dependencies via a directed acyclic graph (DAG). While it is one of several forms of causal notation, causal networks are special...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
2^{m}} possible parent combinations. Similar ideas may be applied to undirected, and possibly cyclic, graphs such as Markov networks. == Example == Suppose we want to model the dependencies between three variables: the sprinkler (or more appropriately, its state - whether it is on or not), the presence or absence of ra...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
= y ) {\displaystyle \Pr(R=T\mid G=T)={\frac {\Pr(G=T,R=T)}{\Pr(G=T)}}={\frac {\sum _{x\in \{T,F\}}\Pr(G=T,S=x,R=T)}{\sum _{x,y\in \{T,F\}}\Pr(G=T,S=x,R=y)}}} Using the expansion for the joint probability function Pr ( G , S , R ) {\displaystyle \Pr(G,S,R)} and the conditional probabilities from the conditional probabi...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
To predict the impact of turning the sprinkler on: Pr ( R , G ∣ do ( S = T ) ) = Pr ( R ) Pr ( G ∣ R , S = T ) {\displaystyle \Pr(R,G\mid {\text{do}}(S=T))=\Pr(R)\Pr(G\mid R,S=T)} with the term Pr ( S = T ∣ R ) {\displaystyle \Pr(S=T\mid R)} removed, showing that the action affects the grass but not the rain. These pre...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
a causal relation is identified from an arbitrary Bayesian network with unobserved variables, one can use the three rules of "do-calculus" and test whether all do terms can be removed from the expression of that relation, thus confirming that the desired quantity is estimable from frequency data. Using a Bayesian netwo...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
the non-observed non-query variables one by one by distributing the sum over the product; clique tree propagation, which caches the computation so that many variables can be queried at one time and new evidence can be propagated quickly; and recursive conditioning and AND/OR search, which allow for a space–time tradeof...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
mild regularity conditions, this process converges on maximum likelihood (or maximum posterior) values for parameters. A more fully Bayesian approach to parameters is to treat them as additional unobserved variables and to compute a full posterior distribution over all nodes conditional upon observed data, then to inte...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
search. It requires a scoring function and a search strategy. A common scoring function is posterior probability of the structure given the training data, like the BIC or the BDeu. The time requirement of an exhaustive search returning a structure that maximizes the score is superexponential in the number of variables....	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
in the treewidth k (under the exponential time hypothesis). Yet, as a global property of the graph, it considerably increases the difficulty of the learning process. In this context it is possible to use K-tree for effective learning. == Statistical introduction == Given data x {\displaystyle x\,\!} and parameter θ {\d...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
{\displaystyle x_{1},\dots ,x_{n}\,\!} each with normally distributed errors of known standard deviation σ {\displaystyle \sigma \,\!} , x i ∼ N ( θ i , σ 2 ) {\displaystyle x_{i}\sim N(\theta _{i},\sigma ^{2})} Suppose we are interested in estimating the θ i {\displaystyle \theta _{i}} . An approach would be to estima...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
will not be normalizable and estimates made by minimizing the expected loss will be inadmissible. == Definitions and concepts == Several equivalent definitions of a Bayesian network have been offered. For the following, let G = (V,E) be a directed acyclic graph (DAG) and let X = (Xv), v ∈ V be a set of random variables...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
{\displaystyle \operatorname {P} (X_{1}=x_{1},\ldots ,X_{n}=x_{n})=\prod _{v=1}^{n}\operatorname {P} (X_{v}=x_{v}\mid X_{j}=x_{j}{\text{ for each }}X_{j}\,{\text{ that is a parent of }}X_{v}\,)} The difference between the two expressions is the conditional independence of the variables from any of their non-descendants...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
independence statements of a distribution modeled by a Bayesian network are encoded by a DAG (according to the factorization and Markov properties above), its marginal independence statements—the conditional independence statements in which the conditioning set is empty—are encoded by a simple undirected graph with spe...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
said to be d-separated by a set of nodes Z if any of the following conditions holds: P contains (but does not need to be entirely) a directed chain, u ⋯ ← m ← ⋯ v {\displaystyle u\cdots \leftarrow m\leftarrow \cdots v} or u ⋯ → m → ⋯ v {\displaystyle u\cdots \rightarrow m\rightarrow \cdots v} , such that the middle nod...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
a Bayesian network with the requirement that the relationships be causal. The additional semantics of causal networks specify that if a node X is actively caused to be in a given state x (an action written as do(X = x)), then the probability density function changes to that of the network obtained by cutting the links ...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
or by restrictions on the conditional probabilities. The bounded variance algorithm developed by Dagum and Luby was the first provable fast approximation algorithm to efficiently approximate probabilistic inference in Bayesian networks with guarantees on the error approximation. This powerful algorithm required the min...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
1991). "Bayesian networks without tears" (PDF). AI Magazine. Kruse R, Borgelt C, Klawonn F, Moewes C, Steinbrecher M, Held P (2013). Computational Intelligence A Methodological Introduction. London: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-1-4471-5012-1. Borgelt C, Steinbrecher M, Kruse R (2009). Graphical Models – Representations fo...	{ "page_id": 203996, "title": "Bayesian network" }
Professor Cuthbert Calculus (French: Professeur Tryphon Tournesol [pʁɔ.fɛ.sœʁ tʁi.fɔ̃ tuʁ.nə.sɔl], meaning "Professor Tryphon Sunflower") is a fictional character in The Adventures of Tintin, the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé. He is Tintin's friend, an absent-minded professor and half-deaf physicist, who in...	{ "page_id": 859356, "title": "Professor Calculus" }
Sea Sharks, although the final product is never shown, with the invention being only merely a sideshow in the overall plot. Much of Calculus's more dangerous work is criticized by Captain Haddock, although Calculus usually interprets this the other way round: his deafness often leads him to misinterpret Haddock's words...	{ "page_id": 859356, "title": "Professor Calculus" }
surrounding him, though it could be that he finds his deafness useful since it enables him to focus on his work (something useful for The Calculus Affair, since he was referencing ultrasonic sound). Calculus maintains a laboratory at Marlinspike Hall, in which he conducts various experiments. He is fairly protective of...	{ "page_id": 859356, "title": "Professor Calculus" }
that Tintin had gone for a row, when Tintin actually was diving to search for treasure. Despite his gentle nature, Calculus is rather sensitive about his work and does not appreciate being ridiculed or belittled for his scientific efforts. In spite of all this, his friends stick by him come what may. Haddock invited hi...	{ "page_id": 859356, "title": "Professor Calculus" }
Eydt, whom Hergé had known at Le Vingtième Siècle where Tintin's adventures had first appeared. Cuthbert Calculus' original French name is "Tryphon Tournesol" and Tryphon was the name of Hergé's plumber. In contrast to his unquestionable scientific merits, Calculus is a fervent believer in dowsing, and carries a pendul...	{ "page_id": 859356, "title": "Professor Calculus" }
looked forward to the end of the world whose prediction he thought would make him famous. In contrast, he showed signs of maturity during the expedition when he called off the search for the meteorite in order to help a ship in distress. Calculus's introduction appears to have supplied Hergé with the bizarre nature he ...	{ "page_id": 859356, "title": "Professor Calculus" }
General Alcazar) and kisses her hand after she bluntly criticizes Tintin and Haddock (a remark that Calculus mistakes for a warm greeting). == In other media == Calculus also featured frequently in the 1957–1963 Belvision TV series, as well as in other adaptations of the comics. The Belvision TV series is notable for d...	{ "page_id": 859356, "title": "Professor Calculus" }
Antibody–drug conjugates or ADCs are a class of biopharmaceutical drugs designed as a targeted therapy for treating cancer. Unlike chemotherapy, ADCs are intended to target and kill tumor cells while sparing healthy cells. As of 2019, some 56 pharmaceutical companies were developing ADCs. ADCs are complex molecules com...	{ "page_id": 28646624, "title": "Antibody–drug conjugate" }
the company to withdraw it. It was reintroduced into the US market in 2017. Brentuximab vedotin (trade name: Adcetris, marketed by Seattle Genetics and Millennium/Takeda) was approved for relapsed HL and relapsed systemic anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (sALCL)) by the FDA on August 19, 2011, and received conditional ma...	{ "page_id": 28646624, "title": "Antibody–drug conjugate" }
antibody–drug conjugate consists of 3 components: Antibody - targets the cancer cell surface and may also elicit a therapeutic response. Payload - elicits the desired therapeutic response. Linker - attaches the payload to the antibody and should be stable in circulation only releasing the payload at the desired target....	{ "page_id": 28646624, "title": "Antibody–drug conjugate" }
human-specific CD30-positive malignant cells. MMAE inhibits cell division by blocking the polymerization of tubulin. Because of its high toxicity MMAE cannot be used as a single-agent chemotherapeutic drug. However, MMAE linked to an anti-CD30 monoclonal antibody (cAC10, a cell membrane protein of the tumor necrosis fa...	{ "page_id": 28646624, "title": "Antibody–drug conjugate" }
Conjugate. Alternatives for the antibody targeting component now include multiple smaller antibody fragments like diabodies, Fab, scFv, and bicyclic peptides. == Research == === Non-natural amino acids === The first generation uses linking technologies that conjugate drugs non-selectively to cysteine or lysine residues...	{ "page_id": 28646624, "title": "Antibody–drug conjugate" }
Summit (July) ADC Process Development Summit (September) ADC Pharmacokinetics & Clinical Pharmacology Summit (October) ADC Target Selection Summit (December) == References ==	{ "page_id": 28646624, "title": "Antibody–drug conjugate" }
A calcium spark is the microscopic release of calcium (Ca2+) from a store known as the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), located within muscle cells. This release occurs through an ion channel within the membrane of the SR, known as a ryanodine receptor (RyR), which opens upon activation. This process is important as it hel...	{ "page_id": 8854753, "title": "Calcium sparks" }
allows Ca2+ to pass into the cell, increasing the local Ca2+ concentration, around the RyR. When four Ca2+ molecules bind to the RyR, it opens, resulting in a larger release of Ca2+, from the SR . This process, of using Ca2+ to activate release of Ca2+ from the SR is known as calcium-induced calcium release. However, i...	{ "page_id": 8854753, "title": "Calcium sparks" }
the movement of the Ca2+ released during a spontaneous spark, can activate other neighbouring RyRs within the same cluster. However, there usually isn't enough Ca2+ present in a single spark to reach a neighbouring cluster of receptors. The calcium can, however, signal back to the DHPR causing it to close and preventin...	{ "page_id": 8854753, "title": "Calcium sparks" }
to relaxation. == Termination == The mechanism by which SR Ca2+ release terminates is still not fully understood. Current main theories are outlined below: === Local depletion of SR Ca2+ === This theory suggests that during a calcium spark, as calcium flows out of the SR, the concentration of Ca2+ within the SR becomes...	{ "page_id": 8854753, "title": "Calcium sparks" }
even if calcium is present (i.e. the RyR is inactivated) or the channel can be reopened, however more calcium is required to activate it than usual (i.e. the RyR is in an adaptation phase). This would mean that one-by-one the RyRs would close, thus ending the spark. === Sticky cluster theory === This theory suggests th...	{ "page_id": 8854753, "title": "Calcium sparks" }
SparkMaster - Automated Ca2+ Spark Analysis with ImageJ - Free software for Ca2+ spark analysis in confocal linescan images	{ "page_id": 8854753, "title": "Calcium sparks" }
Pasta processing is the process in which wheat semolina or flour is mixed with water and the dough is extruded to a specific shape, dried and packaged. Durum wheat semolina or flour, common farina or flour, or combination of both is mixed with water and eggs (for egg noodles) and other optional ingredients (like spinac...	{ "page_id": 50404581, "title": "Pasta processing" }
by two methods: volumetric feed (measurement by volume), and gravimetric feed (measurement by weight). In volumetric feed, a specific volume of semolina is measured by variable speed screws or rotary air-lock valves. This method is not very accurate since the amount depends on the density of the semolina. In gravimetri...	{ "page_id": 50404581, "title": "Pasta processing" }
crumbly dough. The traditional type of pre-mixer is a trough with a cylindrical section inside which rotates a mixing shaft with blades. More advanced systems use a high-speed (centrifuge) pre-mixer in which water and semolina are sprayed into the chamber, so that each particle of semolina absorbs the correct amount of...	{ "page_id": 50404581, "title": "Pasta processing" }

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