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of Theoretical Biology. 67 (3): 603–605. Bibcode:1977JThBi..67..603Z. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(77)90061-3. PMID 904334. Zahavi, Amotz (1977). "The Testing of the Bond". Animal Behaviour. 25: 246–247. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(77)90089-6. S2CID 53197593. == External links == Animal behavior online: Deceit	{ "page_id": 1318175, "title": "Signalling theory" }
Fertility fraud is the failure on the part of a fertility doctor to obtain consent from a patient before inseminating her with his own sperm. This normally occurs in the context of people using assisted reproductive technology (ART) to address fertility issues. The term is also used in cases where donor eggs are used w...	{ "page_id": 70196516, "title": "Fertility fraud" }
$50,000 by the judge in the case, required to repay more than $14,000 in restitution to insurance companies, and had to wear an electronic monitoring device. In the "Egg Affair" in Israel in 2000, police investigated two doctors who were accused of intentionally creating extra eggs in patients needing fertility procedu...	{ "page_id": 70196516, "title": "Fertility fraud" }
one patient who was supposed to have been inseminated with sperm provided by her husband. DNA tests have since linked Jacobson to at least 15 such children, and it has been suspected that he fathered as many as 75 children by impregnating patients with his own sperm. In 2018, a woman in Washington State filed suit in U...	{ "page_id": 70196516, "title": "Fertility fraud" }
two lawsuits filed against him and has been charged with using his own sperm in cases going back 40 years. His license has since been revoked and a $5.25 million judgment in damages was awarded to the first plaintiff. Jos Beek, a gynecologist in the Netherlands, conceived 21 children and potentially dozens more using h...	{ "page_id": 70196516, "title": "Fertility fraud" }
families of a dozen women who became pregnant while being treated for infertility using artificial insemination techniques by doctor Paul Brennan Jones of Grand Junction who used his own sperm while the women were his patients in the 1980s. The jury found Jones liable for negligence, fraud, and other claims. Fertility ...	{ "page_id": 70196516, "title": "Fertility fraud" }
Some physicians have faced ethics charges by the governing bodies of their profession and lost their license to practice medicine. === United States === In the United States, medical students in the 1960s and 1970s donated sperm, and later while trying to develop their practice as a physician, may have gone on to use t...	{ "page_id": 70196516, "title": "Fertility fraud" }
a human egg and sperm Infertility – Inability to reproduce Intracytoplasmic sperm injection – In vitro fertilization procedure In vitro fertilization – Assisted reproductive technology procedurePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Jonathan Jacob Meijer – Dutch serial sperm donor (born 1981) Medical e...	{ "page_id": 70196516, "title": "Fertility fraud" }
I. Glenn; Adashi, Eli Y. (November 2019). "Fertility Fraud, Legal Firsts, and Medical Ethics". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 134 (5): 918–920. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000003516. PMID 31599835. S2CID 204028910. Horton, Adrian (2 December 2020). "Baby God: how DNA testing uncovered a shocking web of fertility fraud". The Guard...	{ "page_id": 70196516, "title": "Fertility fraud" }
May 2022. Mroz, Jacqueline (28 February 2022). "When an Ancestry Search Reveals Fertility Fraud". New York Times. Retrieved 1 March 2022. "Doctor Is Found Guilty in Fertility Case". The New York Times. 1992-03-05. p. 14. Payne, Elizabeth (2 November 2021). "Settlement against disgraced Ottawa fertility doctor Norman Ba...	{ "page_id": 70196516, "title": "Fertility fraud" }
An ecological or environmental crisis occurs when changes to the environment of a species or population destabilizes its continued survival. Some of the important causes include: Degradation of an abiotic ecological factor (for example, increase of temperature, less significant rainfalls) Increased pressures from preda...	{ "page_id": 400679, "title": "Ecological crisis" }
species have been able to adapt to the new conditions by moving their range further towards the poles, other species are not as fortunate. The option to move is not available for polar bears and for some aquatic life. ==== Climate change ==== === Biodiversity extinction === === Animal overpopulation === In the wilderne...	{ "page_id": 400679, "title": "Ecological crisis" }
Argentine Patagonia, for example, European species such as the trout and the deer were introduced into the local streams and forests, respectively, and quickly became a plague, competing with and sometimes driving away the local species of fish and ruminants. In Australia, when rabbits were introduced (unwillingly) by ...	{ "page_id": 400679, "title": "Ecological crisis" }
abruptly losing biodiversity, often irreversiblyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Global warming – Human-caused changes to climate on EarthPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Human overpopulation – Proposed condition wherein human numbers exceed the carrying capacity of the env...	{ "page_id": 400679, "title": "Ecological crisis" }
Dibromopropane is a molecule that contains three carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and two bromine atoms. It may refer to any of four isomers: 1,2-Dibromopropane 1,3-Dibromopropane 1,1-Dibromopropane 2,2-Dibromopropane	{ "page_id": 3153191, "title": "Dibromopropane" }
Cold fusion is a hypothesized type of nuclear reaction that would occur at, or near, room temperature. It would contrast starkly with the "hot" fusion that is known to take place naturally within stars and artificially in hydrogen bombs and prototype fusion reactors under immense pressure and at temperatures of million...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
against allocating funding specifically for cold fusion. A second DOE review in 2004, which looked at new research, reached similar conclusions and did not result in DOE funding of cold fusion. Presently, since articles about cold fusion are rarely published in peer-reviewed mainstream scientific journals, they do not ...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
saying that the helium they measured was due to background from the air. In 1927, Swedish scientist John Tandberg reported that he had fused hydrogen into helium in an electrolytic cell with palladium electrodes. On the basis of his work, he applied for a Swedish patent for "a method to produce helium and useful reacti...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
fusion. To investigate, they conducted electrolysis experiments using a palladium cathode and heavy water within a calorimeter, an insulated vessel designed to measure process heat. Current was applied continuously for many weeks, with the heavy water being renewed at intervals. Some deuterium was thought to be accumul...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
time, Fleischmann and Pons described their experiments as generating considerable "excess energy", in the sense that it could not be explained by chemical reactions alone. They felt that such a discovery could bear significant commercial value and would be entitled to patent protection. Jones, however, was measuring ne...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
dependence, anthropogenic global warming was starting to become notorious, the anti-nuclear movement was labeling nuclear power plants as dangerous and getting them closed, people had in mind the consequences of strip mining, acid rain, the greenhouse effect and the Exxon Valdez oil spill, which happened the day after ...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
results. On 10 April 1989, a group at Texas A&M University published results of excess heat and later that day a group at the Georgia Institute of Technology announced neutron production—the strongest replication announced up to that point due to the detection of neutrons and the reputation of the lab. On 12 April Pons...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
who found positive results remained convinced of their findings. The University of Utah asked Congress to provide $25 million to pursue the research, and Pons was scheduled to meet with representatives of President Bush in early May. On 30 April 1989, cold fusion was declared dead by The New York Times. The Times calle...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
sources of energy would result from the phenomena attributed to cold fusion. The panel noted the large number of failures to replicate excess heat and the greater inconsistency of reports of nuclear reaction byproducts expected by established conjecture. Nuclear fusion of the type postulated would be inconsistent with ...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
its group leader John Bockris and one of his graduate students of spiking the cells with tritium. In October 1990 Wolf finally said that the results were explained by tritium contamination in the rods. An A&M cold fusion review panel found that the tritium evidence was not convincing and that, while they couldn't rule ...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
programs open. These small but committed groups of cold fusion researchers have continued to conduct experiments using Fleischmann and Pons electrolysis setups in spite of the rejection by the mainstream community. The Boston Globe estimated in 2004 that there were only 100 to 200 researchers working in the field, most...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
of the subject's marginalization, and they complain of a chronic lack of funding and no possibilities of getting their work published in the highest impact journals. University researchers are often unwilling to investigate cold fusion because they would be ridiculed by their colleagues and their professional careers w...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
and other researchers in the 2003 International Cold Fusion Conference, and a two-volume book by U.S. SPAWAR in 2002. Cold fusion researchers were asked to present a review document of all the evidence since the 1989 review. The report was released in 2004. The reviewers were "split approximately evenly" on whether the...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
60 Minutes, made a grant of $5.5 million to the University of Missouri to establish the Sidney Kimmel Institute for Nuclear Renaissance (SKINR). The grant was intended to support research into the interactions of hydrogen with palladium, nickel or platinum under extreme conditions. In March 2013 Graham K. Hubler, a nuc...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
and Industry sponsored a "New Hydrogen Energy (NHE)" program of US$20 million to research cold fusion. Announcing the end of the program in 1997, the director and one-time proponent of cold fusion research Hideo Ikegami stated "We couldn't achieve what was first claimed in terms of cold fusion. (...) We can't find any ...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
or plasma. Electrolysis cells can be either open cell or closed cell. In open cell systems, the electrolysis products, which are gaseous, are allowed to leave the cell. In closed cell experiments, the products are captured, for example by catalytically recombining the products in a separate part of the experimental sys...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
a higher temperature with no increase in applied current. If the higher temperatures were real, and not an experimental artifact, the energy balance would show an unaccounted term. In the Fleischmann and Pons experiments, the rate of inferred excess heat generation was in the range of 10–20% of total input, though this...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
cobalt, copper and zinc have been reported as detected by several researchers, like Tadahiko Mizuno or George Miley. The report presented to the United States Department of Energy (DOE) in 2004 indicated that deuterium-loaded foils could be used to detect fusion reaction products and, although the reviewers found the e...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
densities. This creates a high partial pressure, reducing the average separation of hydrogen isotopes. However, the reduction in separation is not enough to create the fusion rates claimed in the original experiment, by a factor of ten. It was also proposed that a higher density of hydrogen inside the palladium and a l...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
palladium can absorb up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen gas, storing it at several thousands of times the atmospheric pressure. This led them to believe that they could increase the nuclear fusion rate by simply loading palladium rods with hydrogen gas. Tandberg then tried the same experiment but used electroly...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
follows a particular pathway. The products formed via these decay pathways are: 4He* → n + 3He + 3.3 MeV (ratio=50%) 4He* → p + 3H + 4.0 MeV (ratio=50%) 4He* → 4He + γ + 24 MeV (ratio=10−6) Only about one in a million of the intermediaries take the third pathway, making its products very rare compared to the other path...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
fusion setups utilize an input power source (to ostensibly provide activation energy), a platinum group electrode, a deuterium or hydrogen source, a calorimeter, and, at times, detectors to look for byproducts such as helium or neutrons. Critics have variously taken issue with each of these aspects and have asserted th...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
and its lack led most physicists to believe that the few positive reports could be attributed to experimental error. The DOE 2004 report said among its conclusions and recommendations: Ordinarily, new scientific discoveries are claimed to be consistent and reproducible; as a result, if the experiments are not complicat...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
their original positive results. A group at Georgia Tech found problems with their neutron detector, and Texas A&M discovered bad wiring in their thermometers. These retractions, combined with negative results from some famous laboratories, led most scientists to conclude, as early as 1989, that no positive result shou...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
fall of 1989, after much of the response to the initial reports had turned negative. He tried to publish his theoretical paper "Cold Fusion: A Hypothesis" in Physical Review Letters, but the peer reviewers rejected it so harshly that he felt deeply insulted, and he resigned from the American Physical Society (publisher...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
making the transition to "normal" science more difficult. Cold fusion reports continued to be published in a few journals like Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Il Nuovo Cimento. Some papers also appeared in Journal of Physical Chemistry, Physics Letters A, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, and a numbe...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
section above—but reverted to the old name in 2008. Cold fusion research is often referenced by proponents as "low-energy nuclear reactions", or LENR, but according to sociologist Bart Simon the "cold fusion" label continues to serve a social function in creating a collective identity for the field. Since 2006, the Ame...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
12 April. An MIT graduate student applied for a patent but was reportedly rejected by the USPTO in part by the citation of the "negative" MIT Plasma Fusion Center's cold fusion experiment of 1989. On 2 December 1993 the University of Utah licensed all its cold fusion patents to ENECO, a new company created to profit fr...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
used in cold fusion, have been granted by the USPTO. The inventor of three such patents had his applications initially rejected when they were reviewed by experts in nuclear science; but then he rewrote the patents to focus more on the electrochemical parts so they would be reviewed instead by experts in electrochemist...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
bars (Cold Fusion Foods). It has also appeared in advertising as a synonym for impossible science, for example a 1995 advertisement for Pepsi Max. The plot of The Saint, a 1997 action-adventure film, parallels the story of Fleischmann and Pons, although with a different ending. In Undead Science, Simon posits that film...	{ "page_id": 7463, "title": "Cold fusion" }
Wageningen Marine Research (WMR) is a research institute of Wageningen University & Research (WUR) which is focused on strategic and applied marine ecological research. Wageningen Marine Research was created in 2006 by the merger of the National Institute for Fisheries Research (Rijksinstituut voor Visserijonderzoek, R...	{ "page_id": 80026924, "title": "Wageningen Marine Research" }
Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy is one of the two branches of extractive metallurgy which pertains to the processes of reducing valuable, non-iron metals from ores or raw material. Metals like zinc, copper, lead, aluminium as well as rare and noble metals are of particular interest in this field, while the more commo...	{ "page_id": 39197996, "title": "Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy" }
Prehistory of non-ferrous extractive metallurgy === In general, prehistoric extraction of metals, particularly copper, involved two fundamental stages: first, the smelting of copper ore at temperatures exceeding 700 °C is needed to separate the gangue from the copper; second, melting the copper, which requires temperat...	{ "page_id": 39197996, "title": "Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy" }
technology predates silver by at least 3 millennia. Silver and lead extractions are also associated because the argentiferous (silver-bearing) ores used in the process often contains both elements. In general, prehistoric silver recovery was broken down into three phases: First, the silver-lead ore is roasted to separa...	{ "page_id": 39197996, "title": "Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy" }
and heated for several hours until the chlorides bind with the silver, creating silver chloride (AgCl). Finally, the silver chloride powder is then removed and smelted to recover the silver, while the pure gold remains intact. === Hydrometallurgy in Chinese antiquity === During the Song dynasty, Chinese copper output f...	{ "page_id": 39197996, "title": "Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy" }
Custom peptide synthesis is the commercial production of peptides for use in biochemistry, biology, biotechnology, pharmacology and molecular medicine. Custom peptide synthesis provides synthetic peptides as valuable tools to biomedical laboratories. Synthetic oligopeptides are used extensively in research for structur...	{ "page_id": 43851055, "title": "Custom peptide synthesis" }
the synthesized peptides since it is more difficult to synthesize longer peptides at a high quality. The synthesised peptides must undergo a QC procedure by analytical HPLC and mass spectrometry. Often, amino acid analysis and sequencing is also required. == Applications of commercially synthesized peptides == Biologic...	{ "page_id": 43851055, "title": "Custom peptide synthesis" }
János Irinyi (sometimes also spelled János Irínyi; Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈjaːnoʃ ˈiriɲi]; 18 May 1817 – 17 December 1895) was a Hungarian chemist and inventor of the noiseless and non-explosive match. He achieved this by mixing the yellow (also called white) phosphorus with lead dioxide instead of the potassium chl...	{ "page_id": 2694448, "title": "János Irinyi" }
The Einstein solid is a model of a crystalline solid that contains a large number of independent three-dimensional quantum harmonic oscillators of the same frequency. The independence assumption is relaxed in the Debye model. While the model provides qualitative agreement with experimental data, especially for the high...	{ "page_id": 1908016, "title": "Einstein solid" }
T {\displaystyle T} , the temperature of the system, can be found from the entropy 1 T = ∂ S ∂ U . {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{T}}={\frac {\partial S}{\partial U}}.} To find the entropy consider a solid made of N {\displaystyle N} atoms, each of which has 3 degrees of freedom. So there are 3 N {\displaystyle 3N} quantum ...	{ "page_id": 1908016, "title": "Einstein solid" }
is ( q + N ′ − 1 ) ! {\displaystyle \left(q+N'-1\right)!} . However, if partition #3 and partition #5 trade places, no one would notice. The same argument goes for quanta. To obtain the number of possible distinguishable arrangements one has to divide the total number of arrangements by the number of indistinguishable ...	{ "page_id": 1908016, "title": "Einstein solid" }
there are q energy quanta in total in the system in addition to the ground state energy of each oscillator. Some authors, such as Schroeder, omit this ground state energy in their definition of the total energy of an Einstein solid. We are now ready to compute the temperature 1 T = ∂ S ∂ U = ∂ S ∂ q d q d U = 1 ε ∂ S ∂...	{ "page_id": 1908016, "title": "Einstein solid" }
law, the heat capacity noticeably deviates from experimental values at low temperatures. See Debye model for how to calculate accurate low-temperature heat capacities. === Canonical ensemble === Heat capacity is obtained through the use of the canonical partition function of a simple quantum harmonic oscillator. Z = ∑ ...	{ "page_id": 1908016, "title": "Einstein solid" }
β = 1 k T . {\displaystyle \beta ={\frac {1}{kT}}.} Therefore, U = − 2 sinh ⁡ ( ε 2 k T ) − cosh ⁡ ( ε 2 k T ) 2 sinh 2 ⁡ ( ε 2 k T ) ε 2 = ε 2 coth ⁡ ( ε 2 k T ) . {\displaystyle U=-2\sinh \left({\varepsilon \over 2kT}\right){-\cosh \left({\varepsilon \over 2kT}\right) \over 2\sinh ^{2}\left({\varepsilon \over 2kT}\ri...	{ "page_id": 1908016, "title": "Einstein solid" }
a crystal. It is known as the Einstein temperature. Hence, the Einstein crystal model predicts that the energy and heat capacities of a crystal are universal functions of the dimensionless ratio T / T E {\displaystyle T/T_{\rm {E}}} . Similarly, the Debye model predicts a universal function of the ratio T / T D {\displ...	{ "page_id": 1908016, "title": "Einstein solid" }
A sgoldstino is any of the spin-0 superpartners of the goldstino in relativistic quantum field theories with spontaneously broken supersymmetry. The term sgoldstino was first used in 1998. In 2016, Petersson and Torre hypothesized that a sgoldstino particle might be responsible for the observed 750 GeV diphoton excess ...	{ "page_id": 3415348, "title": "Sgoldstino" }
In physics, the cross section is a measure of the probability that a specific process will take place in a collision of two particles. For example, the Rutherford cross-section is a measure of probability that an alpha particle will be deflected by a given angle during an interaction with an atomic nucleus. Cross secti...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
can find the total cross section. Scattering cross sections may be defined in nuclear, atomic, and particle physics for collisions of accelerated beams of one type of particle with targets (either stationary or moving) of a second type of particle. The probability for any given reaction to occur is in proportion to its...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
quantities are related by σ = 1 n λ , {\displaystyle \sigma ={\frac {1}{n\lambda }},} where σ is the cross section of a two-particle collision (SI unit: m2), λ is the mean free path between collisions (SI unit: m), n is the number density of the target particles (SI unit: m−3). If the particles in the gas can be treate...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
\Phi =\Phi _{0}e^{-n\sigma z},} where Φ0 is the initial flux, and z is the total thickness of the material. For light, this is called the Beer–Lambert law. == Differential cross section == Consider a classical measurement where a single particle is scattered off a single stationary target particle. Conventionally, a sp...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
can be written as d σ d ( cos ⁡ θ ) = ∫ 0 2 π d σ d Ω d φ {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} \sigma }{\mathrm {d} (\cos \theta )}}=\int _{0}^{2\pi }{\frac {\mathrm {d} \sigma }{\mathrm {d} \Omega }}\,\mathrm {d} \varphi } . In situations where the scattering process is not azimuthally symmetric, such as when the beam o...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
}{\frac {\mathrm {d} \sigma }{\mathrm {d} \Omega }}\sin \theta \,\mathrm {d} \theta \,\mathrm {d} \varphi .} It is common to omit the "differential" qualifier when the type of cross section can be inferred from context. In this case, σ may be referred to as the integral cross section or total cross section. The latter ...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
i k r r , {\displaystyle \phi _{+}(\mathbf {r} )\;{\stackrel {r\to \infty }{\longrightarrow }}\;f(\theta ,\phi ){\frac {e^{ikr}}{r}},} where f is some function of the angular coordinates known as the scattering amplitude. This general form is valid for any short-ranged, energy-conserving interaction. It is not true for...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
r = I i N σ , σ = I r I i 1 N = probability of interaction × 1 N . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I_{\text{r}}&=I_{\text{i}}N\sigma ,\\\sigma &={\frac {I_{\text{r}}}{I_{\text{i}}}}{\frac {1}{N}}\\&={\text{probability of interaction}}\times {\frac {1}{N}}.\end{aligned}}} === Relation to the S-matrix === If the reduced m...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
particles of 2–50 μm in diameter: as such, it is widely used in meteorology and in the measurement of atmospheric pollution. The scattering of X-rays can also be described in terms of scattering cross sections, in which case the square ångström is a convenient unit: 1 Å2 = 10−20 m2 = 10000 pm2 = 108 b. The sum of the s...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
{T}}.} Combining the scattering and absorption cross sections in this manner is often necessitated by the inability to distinguish them experimentally, and much research effort has been put into developing models that allow them to be distinguished, the Kubelka-Munk theory being one of the most important in this area. ...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
^ d A {\displaystyle W_{\text{a}}=-\oint _{A}\mathbf {\Pi } \cdot {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}dA} where Π = 1 2 Re ⁡ [ E ∗ × H ] {\textstyle \mathbf {\Pi } ={\frac {1}{2}}\operatorname {Re} \left[\mathbf {E} ^{*}\times \mathbf {H} \right]} is the time averaged Poynting vector. If W a > 0 {\displaystyle W_{\text{a}}>0} energy ...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
i ∗ × H s ] {\displaystyle \mathbf {\Pi } _{\text{ext}}={\frac {1}{2}}\operatorname {Re} \left[\mathbf {E} _{s}^{}\times \mathbf {H} _{i}+\mathbf {E} _{i}^{}\times \mathbf {H} _{s}\right]} . All the field can be decomposed into the series of vector spherical harmonics (VSH). After that, all the integrals can be taken...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
4 π μ 0 ⋅ i 3 μ 2 k 3 b 1 . {\displaystyle \alpha ^{e}=4\pi \varepsilon _{0}\cdot i{\frac {3\varepsilon }{2k^{3}}}a_{1},\qquad \alpha ^{m}=4\pi \mu _{0}\cdot i{\frac {3\mu }{2k^{3}}}b_{1}.} Then the cross sections are given by σ ext = σ ext (e) + σ ext (m) = 1 4 π ε ε 0 ⋅ 4 π k ℑ ( α e ) + 1 4 π μ μ 0 ⋅ 4 π k ℑ ( α m )...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
case of a no-inside-gain particle, i.e. no energy is emitted by the particle internally ( σ abs > 0 {\textstyle \sigma _{\text{abs}}>0} ), we have a particular case of the Optical theorem 1 4 π ε ε 0 ℑ ( α e ) + 1 4 π μ μ 0 ℑ ( α m ) ≥ 2 k 3 3 [ \| α e \| 2 ( 4 π ε ε 0 ) 2 + \| α m \| 2 ( 4 π μ μ 0 ) 2 ] {\displaystyle {\f...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
= Clσ, where Aλ is the absorbance at a given wavelength λ, C is the concentration as a number density, and l is the path length. The extinction or absorbance of the radiation is the logarithm (decadic or, more usually, natural) of the reciprocal of the transmittance T: A λ = − log ⁡ T . {\displaystyle A_{\lambda }=-\lo...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
words, the total scattering cross section is equal to the area of the circle (with radius r + R) within which the center of mass of the incoming sphere has to arrive for it to be deflected. === Rutherford scattering === In Rutherford scattering, an incident particle with charge q and energy E scatters off a fixed parti...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
relationship between incident and reflected intensity I is I d σ = I d x ( x ) = I r cos ⁡ α d α = I r 2 sin ⁡ ( θ 2 ) d θ = I d σ d θ d θ . {\displaystyle I\,\mathrm {d} \sigma =I\,\mathrm {d} x(x)=Ir\cos \alpha \,\mathrm {d} \alpha =I{\frac {r}{2}}\sin \left({\frac {\theta }{2}}\right)\,\mathrm {d} \theta =I{\frac {\...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
= a cos ⁡ α d α , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}r&=a\sin \alpha ,\\\mathrm {d} r&=a\cos \alpha \,\mathrm {d} \alpha ,\end{aligned}}} while the impact area element is d σ = d r ( r ) × r d φ = a 2 2 sin ⁡ ( θ 2 ) cos ⁡ ( θ 2 ) d θ d φ . {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} \sigma =\mathrm {d} r(r)\times r\,\mathrm {d} \varphi ={...	{ "page_id": 7480, "title": "Cross section (physics)" }
The COVID-19 pandemic has affected animals directly and indirectly. SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, is zoonotic, which likely to have originated from animals such as bats and pangolins. Human impact on wildlife and animal habitats may be causing such spillover events to become much more likely. The largest ...	{ "page_id": 65477948, "title": "COVID-19 pandemic and animals" }
found to have experienced higher levels of infection than previously realized, either due to viral mutations or improved surveillance technology. Dogs, for instance, showcased low levels of infection or transmission early in the pandemic, but were later found to have experienced potentially elevated levels of asymptoma...	{ "page_id": 65477948, "title": "COVID-19 pandemic and animals" }
SARS-CoV-2 in wild white-tailed deer in the province of Ontario. ==== November 2021 ==== In November 2021, a Pennsylvania State University pre-print report awaiting peer review was reported on by news sources. The researchers tested roadkill and hunter-killed deer in Iowa between April 2020 and January 2021. They said ...	{ "page_id": 65477948, "title": "COVID-19 pandemic and animals" }
to infection by SARS-CoV-2. Gorilla Initially a January 2021 outbreak in the San Diego Zoo was documented as the first case of non-human primates contracting COVID-19. The confirmation of at least two of the eight gorillas in the troop testing positive for COVID-19 became a notable news story at the time. However, sinc...	{ "page_id": 65477948, "title": "COVID-19 pandemic and animals" }
diseases have become less common. Infection of human originating diseases, such as measles, has consistently been one of the major causes of illness and death among the endangered mountain gorillas. Researchers and conservationists urge the continued usage of personal protective equipment, pathogen screening, and maint...	{ "page_id": 65477948, "title": "COVID-19 pandemic and animals" }
risk points for the infection of great apes with human originating diseases, and then spreading them to new captive or wild populations. However, since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic the enforcement of personal protective equipment, screening for COVID-19 and other diseases, and vaccinated staff has lowered the...	{ "page_id": 65477948, "title": "COVID-19 pandemic and animals" }
susceptibility. Unfortunately, many of the species at high or moderate risk of the virus are already classified to be endangered or threatened, such as the Amazon River Dolphin, the Northern sea otter, and many others. ==== Impact of personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution ==== Along with the threat of virus entr...	{ "page_id": 65477948, "title": "COVID-19 pandemic and animals" }
to infect the intestinal tract of many patients. Due to its presence in the intestinal tract, it is subject to viral shedding via feces, creating another medium of transmission. Studies have shown the presence of the virus in stool and urine samples of infected patients. This is of high concern due to the potential spr...	{ "page_id": 65477948, "title": "COVID-19 pandemic and animals" }
many marine species were documented to have increased sightings around the globe. This does not indicate an increase in population sizes, however reflects the change in animal behaviour due to the lack of human disturbance. Specifically looking at marine mammals, a non-systematic review of wildlife sightings in online ...	{ "page_id": 65477948, "title": "COVID-19 pandemic and animals" }
Agriculture. === Opossums === Samples taken from a wild Virginia opossum in 2022 revealed a unique mutation not found circulating in humans, suggesting animal-to-animal spread or viral evolution within the singular opossum. === Snow leopards === An unvaccinated 9-year-old male snow leopard at the San Diego Zoo tested p...	{ "page_id": 65477948, "title": "COVID-19 pandemic and animals" }
In organic chemistry, the Wurtz reaction, named after Charles Adolphe Wurtz, is a coupling reaction in which two alkyl halides are treated with sodium metal to form a higher alkane. 2 R−X + 2 Na → R−R + 2 NaX The reaction is of little value except for intramolecular versions, such as 1,6-dibromohexane + 2 Na → cyclohex...	{ "page_id": 1711423, "title": "Wurtz reaction" }
alkenes, whereas geminal dihalides convert to alkynes. Bicyclobutane was prepared this way from 1-bromo-3-chlorocyclobutane in 95% yield. The reaction is conducted in refluxing dioxane, at which temperature, the sodium is liquid. == Extensions to main group compounds == Although the Wurtz reaction is only of limited va...	{ "page_id": 1711423, "title": "Wurtz reaction" }
Pan Britannica Industries Ltd (PBI) was a household and agrochemical formulation company incorporated in 1932 and based at Britannica House, Stewardstone Road, Waltham Abbey and with a distribution presence in Wisbech in Cambridgeshire. PBI was, in common with many other UK household names, both a manufacturer and mark...	{ "page_id": 27729217, "title": "Pan Britannica Industries" }
Hexaborane can refer to: Hexaborane(10) (B6H10) Hexaborane(12) (B6H12)	{ "page_id": 58268999, "title": "Hexaborane" }
Søren Balling Engelsen, Ph.D. (1992), is a Danish chemist, who is active in the fields of analytical chemistry and food science; he is a professor of the University of Copenhagen (UCPH) since 2004. == References == == Literature == Peter Gedeck, Christian Kramer, Peter Ertl: Computational Analysis of Structure–Activity...	{ "page_id": 58924360, "title": "Søren Balling Engelsen" }
The Abramov reaction is the related conversions of trialkyl to α-hydroxy phosphonates by the addition to carbonyl compounds. In terms of mechanism, the reaction involves attack of the nucleophilic phosphorus atom on the carbonyl carbon. It was named after the Russian chemist Vasilii Semenovich Abramov (1904–1968) in 19...	{ "page_id": 27467080, "title": "Abramov reaction" }
phosphoranes 1 (equation 3) predominate, but these can be easily hydrolyzed to give the corresponding hydroxy phosphonates. (6) When phosphonous acids are employed in the presence of catalytic amounts of base, phosphine oxides can result. The sodium salts of phosphonous acids have historically worked well in this conte...	{ "page_id": 27467080, "title": "Abramov reaction" }
alkylation and olefination (the Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons reaction). When α-amino alkylphosphonates are employed in olefination, the resulting enamines can be hydrolyzed to ketones. (12) Addition to unsaturated carbonyl compounds and deprotonation affords homoenolate equivalents. == Comparison with other methods == Silyl...	{ "page_id": 27467080, "title": "Abramov reaction" }
Photosensitizers are light absorbers that alter the course of a photochemical reaction. They usually are catalysts. They can function by many mechanisms; sometimes they donate an electron to the substrate, and sometimes they abstract a hydrogen atom from the substrate. At the end of this process, the photosensitizer re...	{ "page_id": 2825553, "title": "Photosensitizer" }
physicochemical change upon a substrate after absorbing incident light. Upon imparting a chemical change, the photosensitizer returns to its original chemical form. It is important to differentiate photosensitizers from other photochemical interactions including, but not limited to, photoinitiators, photocatalysts, pho...	{ "page_id": 2825553, "title": "Photosensitizer" }
and comparing these results with the yield of reactive oxygen species. However, it was not until the 1960s that the electron donating mechanism was confirmed through various spectroscopic methods including reaction-intermediate studies and luminescence studies. The term photosensitizer does not appear in scientific lit...	{ "page_id": 2825553, "title": "Photosensitizer" }

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