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available, distending their bodies to the point of compromising ability to locomote; they can also survive 5 years without food in captivity. According to Kleiber's law, the larger an animal gets, the more efficient its metabolism becomes; i.e., an animal's basal metabolic rate scales to roughly the ¾ power of its mass...	{ "page_id": 20975650, "title": "Deep-sea gigantism" }
of the ocean, as evidence suggests that deep-sea ecosystems can be sensitive to shifts within the climate. Despite appearing relatively unchanging, the dependence of life in the depths on food supply to drift down in the form of marine snow and water currents traveling throughout all depths of the ocean calls into conc...	{ "page_id": 20975650, "title": "Deep-sea gigantism" }
Shelter is a survival game developed by Might and Delight. In the game players control a mother badger who must protect and feed her cubs while travelling from their burrow to a new one. During the journey the cubs must be fed and are in danger from threats such as birds of prey and wildfires. It was released for Windo...	{ "page_id": 40439843, "title": "Shelter (video game)" }
have as many cubs as possible survive the journey to shelter. == Development == Might and Delight began development on Shelter in January 2013 following the release of Pid. The game was announced and listed on Steam Greenlight in April, accepted in July, and released on 28 August of the same year. In December 2013 Migh...	{ "page_id": 40439843, "title": "Shelter (video game)" }
length of the game was also criticised for being too short, with Mike Rose stating that he found the game "rather short" and Ben Textor saying the game was "somewhat pricey considering its runtime." == Sequel == On 9 March 2015, a sequel titled Shelter 2 was released via the software client Steam. This game has the pla...	{ "page_id": 40439843, "title": "Shelter (video game)" }
In physics, the impact parameter b is defined as the perpendicular distance between the path of a projectile and the center of a potential field U(r) created by an object that the projectile is approaching (see diagram). It is often referred to in nuclear physics (see Rutherford scattering) and in classical mechanics. ...	{ "page_id": 10686498, "title": "Impact parameter" }
< 2 R {\displaystyle 0<b<2R} , and ultraperipheral collisions (UPCs) have b > 2 R {\displaystyle b>2R} , where the colliding nuclei are viewed as hard spheres with radius R {\displaystyle R} . Because the color force has an extremely short range, it cannot couple quarks that are separated by much more than one nucleon'...	{ "page_id": 10686498, "title": "Impact parameter" }
Intestines-on-a-chip (gut-on-a-chip, mini-intestine) are microfluidic bioengineered 3D-models of the real organ, which better mimic physiological features than conventional 3D intestinal organoid culture. A variety of different intestine-on-a-chip models systems have been developed and refined, all holding their indivi...	{ "page_id": 69799974, "title": "Intestine-on-a-chip" }
disease modelling. Nevertheless, several limitations restrict their usefulness as an intestinal model. First and foremost, the organoids' closed cystic structure makes their inner (apical) surface inaccessible, and separate treatment of apical and basolateral sides — and thus transport studies — highly cumbersome. More...	{ "page_id": 69799974, "title": "Intestine-on-a-chip" }
pressure and gravity. An example of a gravity-driven microfluidic intestine-on-a-chip device is the OrganoPlate platform by Mimetas, which has been used as a disease model for inflammatory bowel disease by Beaurivage et al. === Mechanical stimulation === Beginning from the early stages of embryonic development up to th...	{ "page_id": 69799974, "title": "Intestine-on-a-chip" }
in a more physiological manner. The 3D support of cell cultures is commonly based on hydrogels, which mimick the native extracellular matrix. Cells can either be embedded into hydrogels or grown on a predefined micro-engineered hydrogel surface. The most commonly used hydrogel for 3D intestinal systems is Matrigel, a s...	{ "page_id": 69799974, "title": "Intestine-on-a-chip" }
gradients and may provide a platform to extensively study intestinal morphogenesis, stem cell maintenance, crypt dynamics, and epithelial regeneration. === Co-culturing === The healthy intestine has a wide range of different functions, which requires a vast set of different cell types to fulfil them. The primary intest...	{ "page_id": 69799974, "title": "Intestine-on-a-chip" }
== == External links == MIMETAS OrganoPlate Platform with video: https://www.mimetas.com/en/perfused-tubules/ EMULATE Duodenum Intestine-Chip: https://emulatebio.com/duodenum-intestine-chip/ Homeostatic mini-intestine video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IHKuri9sFEM&list=PLdV2S7pxgq9ZY1IBzIRJxDlq-lNKClsnW	{ "page_id": 69799974, "title": "Intestine-on-a-chip" }
The molecular formula C7H8N4O2 (molar mass: 180.16 g/mol) may refer to: Paraxanthine Theobromine Theophylline	{ "page_id": 9048103, "title": "C7H8N4O2" }
The Polenske value (also known as the Polenske number) is a value determined when examining fat. It is an indicator of how much volatile fatty acid can be extracted from fat through saponification. It is equal to the number of milliliters of 0.1 normal alkali solution necessary for the neutralization of the water-insol...	{ "page_id": 9965607, "title": "Polenske value" }
The Enhanced NeUtrino BEams from kaon Tagging or ENUBET is an ERC funded project that aims at producing an artificial neutrino beam in which the flavor, flux and energy of the produced neutrinos are known with unprecedented precision. Interest in these types of high precision neutrino beams has grown significantly in t...	{ "page_id": 62525480, "title": "ENUBET" }
GeV (FNAL Main Injector), 30 GeV (J-PARC Main Ring). Kaons and pions are momentum and charge selected in a short transfer line by means of dipole and quadrupole magnets and are focused in a collimated beam into an instrumented decay tube. Large angle muons and positrons from kaon decays ( K + → μ + ν μ {\displaystyle K...	{ "page_id": 62525480, "title": "ENUBET" }
built a full-scale demonstrator of the instrumented decay tunnel (3 m length and partial azimuthal coverage) and assesses costs and physics reach of the proposed facility. The first end-to-end simulation of the ENUBET monitored neutrino beam was published in 2023. The ENUBET ERC project was completed in 2022. Since Mar...	{ "page_id": 62525480, "title": "ENUBET" }
Heinz Maier-Leibnitz (28 March 1911, in Esslingen am Neckar – 16 December 2000, in Allensbach) was a German physicist. He made contributions to nuclear spectroscopy, coincidence measurement techniques, radioactive tracers for biochemistry and medicine, and neutron optics. He was an influential educator and an advisor t...	{ "page_id": 21499946, "title": "Heinz Maier-Leibnitz" }
Franck had emigrated from Germany in 1933 and his successor was Joos. Maier-Leibnitz was in the field of atomic physics, and he discovered metastable, negative helium ions, which later had applications in particle accelerators. == Career == Shortly after receipt of his doctorate in 1935, Maier-Leibnitz became an assist...	{ "page_id": 21499946, "title": "Heinz Maier-Leibnitz" }
Maier-Leibnitz left in the spring of 1947. When his contract expired in the spring of 1948, he returned to again work for Bothe. Maier-Leibnitz continued to work on nuclear spectroscopy and radioactive tracers in biochemistry and medicine. He also took up the study of positron annihilation in solids, which became a new...	{ "page_id": 21499946, "title": "Heinz Maier-Leibnitz" }
second reactor built nearby, Forschungsreaktor München II (FRM II, Research Reactor Munich II), went critical for the first time four years after the death of Maier-Leibnitz; it was named the Forschungsneutronenquelle Heinz Maier-Leibnitz in his honor. During 1956 and 1957, Maier-Leibnitz was a member of the Arbeitskre...	{ "page_id": 21499946, "title": "Heinz Maier-Leibnitz" }
biophysics, medicine and archeology. Maier-Leibnitz, along with his colleagues Wilhelm Brenig, Nikolaus Riehl and Wolfgang Wild, in a memorandum in 1962, proposed the establishment of a Physics Department at the Technische Hochschule München. This was used as bargaining tool to bring Mößbauer from the California Instit...	{ "page_id": 21499946, "title": "Heinz Maier-Leibnitz" }
1979. Maier-Leibnitz was a member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, various academies of sciences and humanities (Heidelberg, Bavaria, Flanders, India, Sweden, Finland, France and Austria), of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was co-editor of several journals, among them Nukleonik. Since 1979, the ...	{ "page_id": 21499946, "title": "Heinz Maier-Leibnitz" }
of Baden-Württemberg 2000 – Golden Ring of Honor of the Technical University of Munich == Notable Articles by Maier-Leibnitz == Heinz Maier-Leibnitz: Ausbeutemessungen beim Stoß langsamer Elektronen mit Edelgasatomen, Zeitschrift für Physik 95, 499–523 (July, 1935). H. Maier-Leibnitz: Absolute Zählrohrmessungen an γ-St...	{ "page_id": 21499946, "title": "Heinz Maier-Leibnitz" }
The molecular formula C17H20N2O5S (molar mass: 364.41 g/mol, exact mass: 364.1093 u) may refer to: Bumetanide Pheneticillin	{ "page_id": 24711211, "title": "C17H20N2O5S" }
Pannus is an abnormal layer of fibrovascular tissue or granulation tissue. Common sites for pannus formation include over the cornea, over a joint surface (as seen in rheumatoid arthritis), or on a prosthetic heart valve. Pannus may grow in a tumor-like fashion, as in joints where it may erode articular cartilage and b...	{ "page_id": 1904685, "title": "Pannus" }
Sir Noel Stanley Bayliss (19 December 1906 – 17 February 1996) was an Australian chemist and professor of chemistry at the University of Western Australia. He was a Rhodes Scholar and graduated as dux of the academically renowned Melbourne High School. He then attended the University of Melbourne before going to Lincol...	{ "page_id": 26021933, "title": "Noel Bayliss" }
The molecular formula C19H18ClN3O5S (molar mass: 435.881 g/mol, exact mass: 435.0656 u) may refer to: Cloxacillin Rivaroxaban	{ "page_id": 24711216, "title": "C19H18ClN3O5S" }
Archibald Lang McLean (1885–13 May 1922) was an Australian bacteriologist known for his role as chief doctor on the Sir Douglas Mawson's Australasian Antarctic Expedition. == Biography == Archie McLean was born in Balmain, New South Wales on 27 March 1885. He was the grandson of Scottish migrants from Balmaha on the ea...	{ "page_id": 5247034, "title": "Archibald Lang McLean" }
the Red Cross War Chest Farm Colony in Beelbangara, New South Wales, however his condition worsened and he died in 1922. == References == == External links == Mellor, Lise. "McLean, Archibald Lang - Faculty of Medicine Online Museum and Archive". Contributor: Colin Sproule. The University of Sydney School of Medicine. ...	{ "page_id": 5247034, "title": "Archibald Lang McLean" }
Loab ( LOBE) is a fictional character that artist and writer Steph Maj Swanson has claimed to have discovered with a text-to-image AI model in April 2022. In a viral Twitter thread, Swanson described it as an unexpectedly emergent property of the software, saying they discovered it when asking the model to produce some...	{ "page_id": 71700540, "title": "Loab" }
of images and dilution attempts, Swanson was able to eventually generate images without Loab, but found that crossbreeding those diluted images would also eventually lead to a version of Loab to reappear in the resulting images. Swanson has said that "for various reasons" they are declining to disclose the software use...	{ "page_id": 71700540, "title": "Loab" }
rather than showing that there are "dark horror creatures hidden deep within AI", the existence of Loab instead implies that our current "understanding of AI is limited". Mhairi Aitken at the Alan Turing Institute stated that rather than a "creepy" emergent property, output results like Loab are representative of the "...	{ "page_id": 71700540, "title": "Loab" }
The ethics of uncertain sentience refers to questions surrounding the treatment of and moral obligations towards individuals whose sentience—the capacity to subjectively sense and feel—and resulting ability to experience pain is uncertain; the topic has been particularly discussed within the field of animal ethics, wit...	{ "page_id": 64688191, "title": "Ethics of uncertain sentience" }
to treat individuals as if they are not sentient; the precautionary principle, which suggests that in such cases we have a moral obligation to treat them as if they are sentient; and the expected value principle, which asserts that we are "morally required to multiply our credence that they are by the amount of moral v...	{ "page_id": 64688191, "title": "Ethics of uncertain sentience" }
is wrong to inflict it unnecessary pain, in the same way that it is wrong to inflict pain on an animal, unless there are "sufficiently strong morally overriding reasons to do so". They also advocate for the "Principle of Substrate Non-Discrimination", which asserts: "If two beings have the same functionality and the sa...	{ "page_id": 64688191, "title": "Ethics of uncertain sentience" }
Fischer, Bob (2025-01-01). "Navigating Uncertainty about Sentience". Ethics. 135 (2): 229–258. doi:10.1086/732624. ISSN 0014-1704.	{ "page_id": 64688191, "title": "Ethics of uncertain sentience" }
In quantum chemistry, Brillouin's theorem, proposed by the French physicist Léon Brillouin in 1934, relates to Hartree–Fock wavefunctions. Hartree–Fock, or the self-consistent field method, is a non-relativistic method of generating approximate wavefunctions for a many-bodied quantum system, based on the assumption tha...	{ "page_id": 20320320, "title": "Brillouin's theorem" }
include the electron correlation into the model, the wavefunction is expressed as a sum of series consisting of different Slater determinants (i.e., a linear combination of such determinants). In the simplest case of configuration interaction (as well as in other single-reference multielectron-basis set methods, like M...	{ "page_id": 20320320, "title": "Brillouin's theorem" }
− ⟨ a b \| b r ⟩ ) = ⟨ a \| h \| r ⟩ + ∑ b ( ⟨ a \| 2 J ^ b − K ^ b \| r ⟩ ) {\displaystyle \langle \psi _{0}\|{\hat {H}}\|\psi _{a}^{r}\rangle =\langle a\|h\|r\rangle +\sum _{b}\langle ab\|\|rb\rangle =\langle a\|h\|r\rangle +\sum _{b}\left(\langle ab\|rb\rangle -\langle ab\|br\rangle \right)=\langle a\|h\|r\rangle +\sum _{b}\left(\la...	{ "page_id": 20320320, "title": "Brillouin's theorem" }
all the right-hand side of the equation zero: ∫ − ∞ ∞ χ a ∗ ( r → ) F ^ χ r ( r → ) d 3 r → = ⟨ ψ 0 \| H ^ \| ψ a r ⟩ = 0 , {\displaystyle \int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\chi _{a}^{\ast }({\vec {r}}){\hat {F}}\chi _{r}({\vec {r}})d^{3}{\vec {r}}=\langle \psi _{0}\|{\hat {H}}\|\psi _{a}^{r}\rangle =0,} which proves the Brillouin...	{ "page_id": 20320320, "title": "Brillouin's theorem" }
Ecological facilitation or probiosis describes species interactions that benefit at least one of the participants and cause harm to neither. Facilitations can be categorized as mutualisms, in which both species benefit, or commensalisms, in which one species benefits and the other is unaffected. This article addresses ...	{ "page_id": 4329538, "title": "Ecological facilitation" }
=== Refuge from physical stress === Facilitation may act by reducing the negative impacts of a stressful environment. As described above, nurse plants facilitate seed germination and survival by alleviating stressful environmental conditions. A similar interaction occurs between the red alga Chondrus crispus and the ca...	{ "page_id": 4329538, "title": "Ecological facilitation" }
interactions under environmental stress than competition. Another example is the positive effects of facilitation on desert plants that face the effects of rising aridification. Shrubs are known to provide favourable abiotic conditions in these dry regions. === Refuge from predation === Another mechanism of facilitatio...	{ "page_id": 4329538, "title": "Ecological facilitation" }
are sites of increased seed germination and seedling survival because the raised substrate of a log frees seedlings from competition with plants and mosses on the forest floor. The crab-coral interaction described above is also an example of refuge from competition, since the herbivory of crabs on seaweed reduces compe...	{ "page_id": 4329538, "title": "Ecological facilitation" }
exchange for digestive services. For example, termites receive nourishment from cellulose digested by microbes inhabiting their gut. Lichens Associations between fungi and algae, wherein the fungus receives nutrients from the alga, and the alga is protected from harsh conditions causing desiccation. Corals Associations...	{ "page_id": 4329538, "title": "Ecological facilitation" }
Facilitation most often affects distribution by simply making it possible for a species to occur in a site where some environmental stress would otherwise prohibit growth of that species. This is apparent in whole-community facilitation by a foundation species, such as sediment stabilization in cobble beach plant commu...	{ "page_id": 4329538, "title": "Ecological facilitation" }
254 published studies of introduced species, 22 of 190 interactions studied between introduced species in the studies were facilitative. 128 of the 190 examined interactions were predator–prey relationships of a single plant-eating insect reported in a single study, which may have overemphasized the importance of negat...	{ "page_id": 4329538, "title": "Ecological facilitation" }
The substituted benzothiophenes are a class of chemical compounds based on benzothiophene. They are closely related to the substituted benzofurans, substituted tryptamines, and to other chemical groups such as the substituted benzodioxoles (or methylenedioxyphenyl compounds). Substituted benzothiophenes include the (2-...	{ "page_id": 79040584, "title": "Substituted benzothiophene" }
The Jaffe reaction is a colorimetric method used in clinical chemistry to determine creatinine levels in blood and urine. In 1886, Max Jaffe (1841–1911) wrote about its basic principles in the paper Über den Niederschlag, welchen Pikrinsäure in normalem Harn erzeugt und über eine neue Reaction des Kreatinins in which h...	{ "page_id": 37425225, "title": "Jaffe reaction" }
Professor of Pharmacology at the University of Königsberg. He was promoted to director of the Laboratory for Medical Chemistry and Experimental Pharmacology in 1878 and became a member of the Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina in 1882. Aside from studying creatinine, he is also known for discovering urobili...	{ "page_id": 37425225, "title": "Jaffe reaction" }
improved several quantitative colorimetric procedures, the first of which was for creatinine. He took advantage of technology available at the time, using a Duboscq colorimeter for measurement precision, and is credited for introducing colorimetry into modern biochemical analysis. Folin's research did not focus on crea...	{ "page_id": 37425225, "title": "Jaffe reaction" }
change. Until Folin developed Jaffe's reaction into a clinical procedure, Neubauer's method was how creatinine was measured. As Folin's method evolved, various techniques were implemented to remove Jaffe-reacting substances, mostly protein, from the sample and increase specificity. By the 1950s, precipitated aluminum s...	{ "page_id": 37425225, "title": "Jaffe reaction" }
standards were developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The College of American Pathologists (CAP) and the National Kidney Disease Education Program (NKDEP) collaborated with NIST to develop a new control reference called standard reference material 967 (SRM 967). SRM 967 aims to standard...	{ "page_id": 37425225, "title": "Jaffe reaction" }
Fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl chloride (Fmoc-Cl) is a chloroformate ester. It is used to introduce the fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl protecting group as the Fmoc carbamate. == Preparation == This compound may be prepared by reacting 9-fluorenylmethanol with phosgene: == References ==	{ "page_id": 14028874, "title": "Fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl chloride" }
The Danheiser benzannulation is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry to generate highly substituted phenols in a single step. It is named after Rick L. Danheiser who developed the reaction. == Annulation == An annulation is defined as a transformation of one or more acyclic precursors resulting in the fusion o...	{ "page_id": 44503117, "title": "Danheiser benzannulation" }
in dichloroethane. This reaction utilizes the photochemical Wolff rearrangement of a diazoketone to generate an aryl or vinylketene. These ketene intermediates cannot be isolated due to their high reactivity to form diketenes. These rearrangements are performed in the presence of unsaturated compounds which undergo [2+...	{ "page_id": 44503117, "title": "Danheiser benzannulation" }
excess of the cyclobutenone. Upon addition of the alkyne a [2+2] cycloaddition occurs. The crude annulation product is treated with 10% potassium hydroxide in methanol to saponify the ester side product formed from the reaction of the phenolic product with excess vinylketene (Scheme 6). For the second generation reacti...	{ "page_id": 44503117, "title": "Danheiser benzannulation" }
reaction conditions. Base-promoted dehydrohalogenation of (Z)-2-halovinyl ethers to form alkoxyacetylenes is one of the most well established routes of alkyne synthesis (Scheme 10). The synthesized alkynes are then heated in benzene or toluene in presence of excess cyclobutenone initiating the benzannulation reaction. ...	{ "page_id": 44503117, "title": "Danheiser benzannulation" }
(dba =dibenzylideneacetone) (Scheme 13). == Applications in Total Synthesis == Mycophenolic acid is a Penicillium metabolite that was originally prepared via a key benzannulation step. An alkyne and a cyclobutenone were reacted to form a substituted phenol in a single step in a 73% yield (Scheme 14). Mycophenolic acid ...	{ "page_id": 44503117, "title": "Danheiser benzannulation" }
The resistive ballooning mode (RBM) is an instability occurring in magnetized plasmas, particularly in magnetic confinement devices such as tokamaks, when the pressure gradient is opposite to the effective gravity created by a magnetic field. == Linear growth rate == The linear growth rate γ {\displaystyle \gamma } of ...	{ "page_id": 13307983, "title": "Resistive ballooning mode" }
The word foliaceus is a specific epithet used in the name of several species. Foliaceus is Latin and is used to describe something that is leafy or looks like a leaf. It is applied to plants with large or showy foliage, and to animals with features that resemble leaves (such as the wings of the fly Exilibittacus foliac...	{ "page_id": 76419152, "title": "Foliaceus" }
Botany, also called plant science, is the branch of natural science and biology studying plants, especially their anatomy, taxonomy, and ecology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field. "Plant" and "botany" may be defined more narrowly to include only land plants and their study, whi...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
Research topics include the study of plant structure, growth and differentiation, reproduction, biochemistry and primary metabolism, chemical products, development, diseases, evolutionary relationships, systematics, and plant taxonomy. Dominant themes in 21st-century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
contributions to botanical science until the Middle Ages, almost seventeen centuries later. Another work from Ancient Greece that made an early impact on botany is De materia medica, a five-volume encyclopedia about preliminary herbal medicine written in the middle of the first century by Greek physician and pharmacolo...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
c. 1611) published herbals covering the supposed medicinal uses of plants. Naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605) was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants. In 1665, using an early microscope, Polymath Robert Hooke discovered cells (a term he coined) in cork, and a short time la...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
Candollean system reflected his ideas of the progression of morphological complexity and the later Bentham & Hooker system, which was influential until the mid-19th century, was influenced by Candolle's approach. Darwin's publication of the Origin of Species in 1859 and his concept of common descent required modificati...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
for more than half a century. The discipline of plant ecology was pioneered in the late 19th century by botanists such as Eugenius Warming, who produced the hypothesis that plants form communities, and his mentor and successor Christen C. Raunkiær whose system for describing plant life forms is still in use today. The ...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
synthetic herbicides. 20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis, such as spectroscopy, chromatography and electrophoresis. With the rise of the related molecular-scale biological approaches of molecular biology, genomics, proteomics and metabolomi...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
of botany include bacteriology, mycology (or fungology), and phycology – respectively, the study of bacteria, fungi, and algae – with lichenology as a subfield of mycology. The narrower sense of botany as the study of embryophytes (land plants) is called phytology. Bryology is the study of mosses (and in the broader se...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis, a process that uses the energy o...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life, even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte. Other groups of organisms that were previously studied by botanists include bacteria (now studied in bacteriology), fungi (mycology) – in...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
what ecologists call the first trophic level. The modern forms of the major staple foods, such as hemp, teff, maize, rice, wheat and other cereal grasses, pulses, bananas and plantains, as well as hemp, flax and cotton grown for their fibres, are the outcome of prehistoric selection over thousands of years from among w...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
and orange/red parts of the spectrum while reflecting and transmitting the green light that we see as the characteristic colour of these organisms. The energy in the red and blue light that these pigments absorb is used by chloroplasts to make energy-rich carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and water by oxygenic photo...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
cell wall is constructed. Vascular land plants make lignin, a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress. Lignin is also used in other cell types like sclerenchyma fibres that provide structural...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid, originally isolated from the bark of willow trees, and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy. Popular stimulants come from plants, such as caffeine from coffee, tea and chocolat...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
alternatives to fossil fuels, such as biodiesel. Sweetgrass was used by Native Americans to ward off bugs like mosquitoes. These bug repelling properties of sweetgrass were later found by the American Chemical Society in the molecules phytol and coumarin. == Plant ecology == Plant ecology is the science of the function...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
are recruited by ant plants to provide protection, honey bees, bats and other animals pollinate flowers and humans and other animals act as dispersal vectors to spread spores and seeds. === Plants, climate and environmental change === Plant responses to climate and other environmental changes can inform our understandi...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
monoecious flowers often have self-incompatibility mechanisms that operate between the pollen and stigma so that the pollen either fails to reach the stigma or fails to germinate and produce male gametes. This is one of several methods used by plants to promote outcrossing. In many land plants the male and female gamet...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
are diploid, with paired chromosomes, but doubling of their chromosome number may occur due to errors in cytokinesis. This can occur early in development to produce an autopolyploid or partly autopolyploid organism, or during normal processes of cellular differentiation to produce some cell types that are polyploid (en...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
of rice (Oryza sativa) and Brachypodium distachyon, has made them important model species for understanding the genetics, cellular and molecular biology of cereals, grasses and monocots generally. Model plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana are used for studying the molecular biology of plant cells and the chloroplast. I...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed. Epigenetic marks may be added or removed from the DNA during programmed stages of development of the plant, and are responsible, for example, for the differences between anthers, petals and normal leaves, despite the fact that ...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
on the other. == Plant evolution == The chloroplasts of plants have a number of biochemical, structural and genetic similarities to cyanobacteria, (commonly but incorrectly known as "blue-green algae") and are thought to be derived from an ancient endosymbiotic relationship between an ancestral eukaryotic cell and a cy...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
seed ferns, as well as the modern gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gymnosperms produce "naked seeds" not fully enclosed in an ovary; modern representatives include conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetales. Angiosperms produce seeds enclosed in a structure such as a carpel or an ovary. Ongoing research on the molecular phylog...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
for plant nutrition come from the chemical breakdown of soil minerals. Sucrose produced by photosynthesis is transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant in the phloem and plant hormones are transported by a variety of processes. === Plant hormones === Plants are not passive, but respond to external signals ...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
discovered in corn, Zea mays, and is a derivative of the purine adenine. Zeatin is produced in roots and transported to shoots in the xylem where it promotes cell division, bud development, and the greening of chloroplasts. The gibberelins, such as gibberelic acid are diterpenes synthesised from acetyl CoA via the meva...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
is the study of their external form. All plants are multicellular eukaryotes, their DNA stored in nuclei. The characteristic features of plant cells that distinguish them from those of animals and fungi include a primary cell wall composed of the polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin, larger vacuoles than...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
In fact it is possible to grow an entire plant from a single leaf, as is the case with plants in Streptocarpus sect. Saintpaulia, or even a single cell – which can dedifferentiate into a callus (a mass of unspecialised cells) that can grow into a new plant. In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive ti...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
scientific taxonomy and phylogenetics. Biological classification is the method by which botanists group organisms into categories such as genera or species. Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy. Modern taxonomy is rooted in the work of Carl Linnaeus, who grouped species according to shared physica...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
to determine relationships. As an example, species of Pereskia are trees or bushes with prominent leaves. They do not obviously resemble a typical leafless cactus such as an Echinocactus. However, both Pereskia and Echinocactus have spines produced from areoles (highly specialised pad-like structures) suggesting that t...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
related to plants than animals. Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants. In 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny for flowering plants based on an analysi...	{ "page_id": 4183, "title": "Botany" }
The molecular formula C14H15NO (molar mass: 213.27 g/mol, exact mass: 213.115364 u) may refer to: 1-Naphthylmethcathinone 2-Naphthylmethcathinone Naphthylmorpholine	{ "page_id": 79171677, "title": "C14H15NO" }
Bohrium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Bh and atomic number 107. It is named after Danish physicist Niels Bohr. As a synthetic element, it can be created in particle accelerators but is not found in nature. All known isotopes of bohrium are highly radioactive; the most stable known isotope is 270Bh with...	{ "page_id": 4194, "title": "Bohrium" }
Transfermium Working Group (TWG) concluded that while dubnium-258 was probably seen in this experiment, the evidence for the production of its parent bohrium-262 was not convincing enough. In 1981, a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research...	{ "page_id": 4194, "title": "Bohrium" }
as there was some concern that the name might be confused with boron and in particular the distinguishing of the names of their respective oxyanions, bohrate and borate. The matter was handed to the Danish branch of IUPAC which, despite this, voted in favour of the name bohrium, and thus the name bohrium for element 10...	{ "page_id": 4194, "title": "Bohrium" }
278 (unconfirmed) appear in the decay chains of 282Nh, 287Mc, 288Mc, 294Ts, and 290Fl respectively. The half-lives of bohrium isotopes range from about ten milliseconds for 262mBh to about one minute for 270Bh and 274Bh, extending to about 11.5 minutes for the unconfirmed 278Bh, which may have one of the longest half-l...	{ "page_id": 4194, "title": "Bohrium" }
of the oxide forms the oxychlorides MO3Cl, so BhO3Cl should be formed in this reaction. Fluorination results in MO3F and MO2F3 for the heavier elements in addition to the rhenium compounds ReOF5 and ReF7. Therefore, oxyfluoride formation for bohrium may help to indicate eka-rhenium properties. Since the oxychlorides ar...	{ "page_id": 4194, "title": "Bohrium" }
[Rn] 5f14 6d3 7s2; in contrast, the Re2+ ion is expected to have a [Xe] 4f14 5d5 configuration, this time analogous to manganese and technetium. The ionic radius of hexacoordinate heptavalent bohrium is expected to be 58 pm (heptavalent manganese, technetium, and rhenium having values of 46, 57, and 53 pm respectively)...	{ "page_id": 4194, "title": "Bohrium" }
Although the heavy isotope 274Bh requires a rare and highly radioactive berkelium target for its production, the isotopes 272Bh, 271Bh, and 270Bh can be readily produced as daughters of more easily produced moscovium and nihonium isotopes. == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M...	{ "page_id": 4194, "title": "Bohrium" }

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