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the lining of milk ducts and the lobules that supply these ducts with milk. Cancers developing from the ducts are known as ductal carcinomas, while those developing from lobules are known as lobular carcinomas. There are more than 18 other sub-types of breast cancer. Some, such as ductal carcinoma in situ, develop from...	{ "page_id": 4489, "title": "Breast" }
jogged, for example. To avoid exercise-related discomfort and pain, medical experts suggest women wear a well-fitted sports bra during activity. == Clinical significance == The breast is susceptible to numerous benign and malignant conditions. The most frequent benign conditions are puerperal mastitis, fibrocystic brea...	{ "page_id": 4489, "title": "Breast" }
=== Plastic surgery === Plastic surgery can be performed to augment or reduce the size of breasts, or to reconstruct the breast in cases of deformative disease, such as breast cancer. Breast augmentation and breast lift (mastopexy) procedures are done only for cosmetic reasons, whereas breast reduction is sometimes med...	{ "page_id": 4489, "title": "Breast" }
Middle East. Many female deities representing love and fertility were associated with breasts and breast milk. Figures of the Phoenician goddess Astarte were represented as pillars studded with breasts. Isis, an Egyptian goddess who represented, among many other things, ideal motherhood, was often portrayed as suckling...	{ "page_id": 4489, "title": "Breast" }
of the Amazons, a tribe of fierce female warriors who socialized with men only for procreation and even removed one breast to become better warriors (the idea being that the right breast would interfere with the operation of a bow and arrow). The legend was a popular motif in art during Greek and Roman antiquity and se...	{ "page_id": 4489, "title": "Breast" }
even though the practice may be legal or socially accepted, some mothers may nevertheless be reluctant to expose a breast in public to breastfeed due to actual or potential objections by other people, negative comments, or harassment. It is estimated that around 63% of mothers across the world have publicly breast-fed....	{ "page_id": 4489, "title": "Breast" }
of many different human societies." Many people regard bare female breasts to be aesthetically pleasing or erotic, and they can elicit heightened sexual desires in men in many cultures. In the ancient Indian work the Kama Sutra, light scratching of the breasts with nails and biting with teeth are considered erotic. Som...	{ "page_id": 4489, "title": "Breast" }
they resemble it in appearance and so are objects of religious and ancestral veneration as a fertility symbol and of well-being. In Asia, there was "Breast Mountain", which had a cave where the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma (Da Mo) spent much time in meditation. Other such breast mountains are Mount Elgon on the Uganda–Ken...	{ "page_id": 4489, "title": "Breast" }
The Buell dryer, also known as the "turbo shelf" dryer, is an indirectly-heated industrial dryer once widely used in the Cornwall and Devon china clay mining industry. The Buell dryer was introduced to the china clay industry by English Clays Lovering Pochin & Co. Ltd for their china clay drying plants in Cornwall and ...	{ "page_id": 1577354, "title": "Buell dryer" }
dryers. == Construction == The dryer itself is composed of a large upright cylindrical chamber, inside of which are 25 to 30 layers of trays or "hearths". Indirectly-heated air from an oil-fired (latterly natural gas-fired) furnace or steam heater is distributed throughout the dryer by a series of fans and ducts. At th...	{ "page_id": 1577354, "title": "Buell dryer" }
Plantae Delavayanae: Plants from China collected in Yunnan by Father Delavay. is a book by Adrien René Franchet and Père Jean Marie Delavay, with Franchet describing and establishing the taxonomy for flora found by Delavay in Yunnan. == Background == Père Jean Marie Delavay was a missionary sent to China for Missions E...	{ "page_id": 69341579, "title": "Plantae Delavayanae" }
focused on the taxonomy of Père Jean Marie Delavay's flora collection. The text is written in Latin. The book consists of 240 pages of text and 45 plates of illustrations. The original copy consisted of three fascicles, with pages 1-80 and plates 1-15 released in 1889; pages 81-160 and plates 16-30 later released in 18...	{ "page_id": 69341579, "title": "Plantae Delavayanae" }
Biology – The natural science that studies life. Areas of focus include structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. == History of biology == History of anatomy History of biochemistry History of biotechnology History of botany History of ecology History of genetics History of evolutionar...	{ "page_id": 4493, "title": "Outline of biology" }
starch proteins: primary structure – secondary structure – tertiary structure – conformation – native state – protein folding – enzyme – receptor – transmembrane receptor – ion channel – membrane transporter – collagen – pigments: chlorophyll – carotenoid – xanthophyll – melanin – prion lipids: cell membrane – fats – p...	{ "page_id": 4493, "title": "Outline of biology" }
– Mendel's law of segregation – genetic mosaic – maternal effect – penetrance – complementation – suppression – epistasis – genetic linkage Model organisms: Drosophila – Arabidopsis – Caenorhabditis elegans – mouse – Saccharomyces cerevisiae – Escherichia coli – Lambda phage – Xenopus – chicken – zebrafish – Ciona inte...	{ "page_id": 4493, "title": "Outline of biology" }
genetic drift – sexual reproduction – asexual reproduction – colony – allele frequency – neutral theory of molecular evolution – population genetics – Hardy–Weinberg principle Speciation Species Phylogeny Lineage (evolution) – evolutionary tree – cladistics – species – taxon – clade – monophyletic – polyphyly – paraphy...	{ "page_id": 4493, "title": "Outline of biology" }
– phloem – transpiration – wood – trunk (botany) Plant development tropism – taxis seed – cotyledon – meristem – apical meristem – vascular cambium – cork cambium alternation of generations – gametophyte – antheridium – archegonium – sporophyte – spore – sporangium Plant reproduction angiosperms – flower – reproduction...	{ "page_id": 4493, "title": "Outline of biology" }
Genitalia of marsupials Equine reproductive system Even-toed ungulate#Genitourinary system Bull#Reproductive anatomy Carnivora#Reproductive system Fossa (animal)#External genitalia Female genitalia of spotted hyenas Cat anatomy#Genitalia Genitalia of dogs Canine penis Bulbus glandis Animal development stem cell – blast...	{ "page_id": 4493, "title": "Outline of biology" }
– oil – natural gas – World energy consumption – Climate change feedback – Albedo – water vapor Carbon sink Conservation Biodiversity – habitats – Ecosystem services – biodiversity loss – extinction – Sustainability – Holocene extinction – bioremediation == Branches == Anatomy – study of form in animals, plants and oth...	{ "page_id": 4493, "title": "Outline of biology" }
the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data. Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology. Synthetic biology – research integrating biology and engineering; construction of biological function...	{ "page_id": 4493, "title": "Outline of biology" }
the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment. Behavioral ecology – the study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological pressure Ecosystem ecology – study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an e...	{ "page_id": 4493, "title": "Outline of biology" }
structure and function of DNA Quantitative genetics – study of phenotypes that vary continuously (in characters such as height or mass)—as opposed to discretely identifiable phenotypes and gene-products (such as eye-colour, or the presence of a particular biochemical). Marine biology – study of ocean ecosystems, plants...	{ "page_id": 4493, "title": "Outline of biology" }
biology of the nervous system with molecular biology, molecular genetics, protein chemistry and related methodologies. Neuroanatomy – study of the anatomy of nervous tissue and neural structures of the nervous system. Neuroendocrinology – studies the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system, that...	{ "page_id": 4493, "title": "Outline of biology" }
snakes, lizards, amphisbaenids, turtles, terrapins, tortoises, crocodilians, and the tuataras). Batrachology – subdiscipline of herpetology concerned with the study of amphibians alone. Ichthyology – study of fishes. This includes bony fishes (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fishes (Ag...	{ "page_id": 4493, "title": "Outline of biology" }
the human species. == Biologists == Lists of notable biologists List of notable biologists List of Nobel Prize winners in physiology or medicine Lists of biologists by author abbreviation List of authors of names published under the ICZN Lists of biologists by subject List of biochemists List of ecologists List of neur...	{ "page_id": 4493, "title": "Outline of biology" }
Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that involves the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms and parts thereof for products and services. Specialists in the field are known as biotechnologists. The term biotechnology was first used by Károly Erek...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
application of biotechnology in various industries and fields. == Definition == The concept of biotechnology encompasses a wide range of procedures for modifying living organisms for human purposes, going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
thought of as a related field that more heavily emphasizes higher systems approaches (not necessarily the altering or using of biological materials directly) for interfacing with and utilizing living things. Bioengineering is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells, and m...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process, carbohydrates in the grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol. Later, other cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation, which produced other preserved foods, such as soy sauce. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leave...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
The field of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul Berg's (Stanford) experiments in gene splicing had early success. Herbert W. Boyer (Univ. Calif. at San Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen (Stanford) significantly advanced the new technology in 1972 by transferring genetic mat...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
transistor (DNAFET), gene-modified FET (GenFET) and cell-potential BioFET (CPFET) had been developed. A factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and enforcement—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products. Rising dem...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector. Blue biotechnology is based on the exploitation of sea resources to create products and industrial applications. This branch of biotechnology is the most used for the industries of refining and combustion prin...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
combination of pharmacology and genomics) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs. Researchers in the field investigate the influence of genetic variation on drug responses in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with a drug's ef...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes biochemical tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders. Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, gene...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
2010. As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain. Genetically mo...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
the environmental impact of pesticides as a whole. However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organism...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
bio-based production instead of fossil-based. Synthetic biology can be used to engineer model microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli, by genome editing tools to enhance their ability to produce bio-based products, such as bioproduction of medicines and biofuels. For instance, E. coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in a...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
containment of a harmful microbe are examples of environmental implications of biotechnology. Many cities have installed CityTrees, which use biotechnology to filter pollutants from urban atmospheres. === Regulation === The regulation of genetic engineering concerns approaches taken by governments to assess and manage ...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed. Graduate students in turn compete for acceptance into a BTP; if accepted, then stipend, tuition and health insurance support are provided for two or three years during the course of their PhD thesis work. Nineteen institutions...	{ "page_id": 4502, "title": "Biotechnology" }
Chromium acetate may refer to: Chromium(II) acetate Chromium(III) acetate	{ "page_id": 7541142, "title": "Chromium acetate" }
The Gamow factor, Sommerfeld factor or Gamow–Sommerfeld factor, named after physicists George Gamow or after Arnold Sommerfeld, is a probability factor for two nuclear particles' chance of overcoming the Coulomb barrier in order to undergo nuclear reactions, for example in nuclear fusion. By classical physics, there is...	{ "page_id": 14356889, "title": "Gamow factor" }
rewritten using the Sommerfeld parameter η, such that P G ( E ) = e − 2 π η , {\displaystyle P_{\text{G}}(E)=e^{-2\pi \eta },} where η is a dimensionless quantity used in nuclear astrophysics in the calculation of reaction rates between two nuclei and it also appears in the definition of the astrophysical S-factor. It ...	{ "page_id": 14356889, "title": "Gamow factor" }
k={\sqrt {2mE/\hbar ^{2}}}} and k ′ = 2 m ( V − E ) / ℏ 2 , {\textstyle k'={\sqrt {2m(V-E)/\hbar ^{2}}},} both in [1/m]. This is solved for given A and phase α by taking the boundary conditions at the barrier edges, at x = 0 {\displaystyle x=0} and x = l {\displaystyle x=l} : there Ψ 1 , 3 ( t ) {\textstyle \Psi _{1,3}...	{ "page_id": 14356889, "title": "Gamow factor" }
0 {\displaystyle -(q_{0}+l)<x<-q_{0}} , and emitting waves at both outer sides of the barriers. Solving this can in principle be done by taking the solution of the first problem, translating it by q 0 {\displaystyle q_{0}} and gluing it to an identical solution reflected around x = 0 {\displaystyle x=0} . Due to the sy...	{ "page_id": 14356889, "title": "Gamow factor" }
t ∫ − ( q 0 + l ) ( q 0 + l ) Ψ ∗ Ψ d x = 2 ℏ 2 m i ( Ψ 1 ∗ ∂ Ψ 1 ∂ x − Ψ 1 ∂ Ψ 1 ∗ ∂ x ) , {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\int _{-(q_{0}+l)}^{(q_{0}+l)}\Psi ^{}\Psi \ dx=2{\frac {\hbar }{2mi}}\left(\Psi _{1}^{}{\frac {\partial \Psi _{1}}{\partial x}}-\Psi _{1}{\frac {\partial \Psi _{1}^{*}}{\partial x...	{ "page_id": 14356889, "title": "Gamow factor" }
three-dimensional problem, the spherically symmetric Schrödinger equation reads (expanding the wave function ψ ( r , θ , ϕ ) = χ ( r ) u ( θ , ϕ ) {\displaystyle \psi (r,\theta ,\phi )=\chi (r)u(\theta ,\phi )} in spherical harmonics and looking at the l-th term): ℏ 2 2 m ( d 2 χ d r 2 + 2 r d χ d r ) = ( V ( r ) + ℏ 2...	{ "page_id": 14356889, "title": "Gamow factor" }
0 r {\displaystyle V(r)={\frac {z(Z-z)e^{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}r}}} where ε 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}} is the vacuum electric permittivity, e the electron charge, z = 2 is the charge number of the alpha particle and Z the charge number of the nucleus (Z–z after emitting the particle). The integration limits ...	{ "page_id": 14356889, "title": "Gamow factor" }
≪ 1 {\textstyle x\ll 1} , the x-dependent factor can be replaced by arccos ⁡ 0 = π / 2 , {\textstyle \arccos 0=\pi /2,} giving: λ ≈ e − E G / E {\displaystyle \lambda \approx e^{-{\sqrt {{E_{\mathrm {G} }}/{E}}}}} with E G = π 2 m / 2 [ z ( Z − z ) e 2 ] 2 ( 4 π ε 0 ℏ ) 2 . {\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {G} }={\frac {\pi ^...	{ "page_id": 14356889, "title": "Gamow factor" }
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution factor and the Gamow factor P fusion ( E ) = P MB ( E ) ⋅ P G ( E ) = exp ⁡ ( − E k B T − E G E ) {\displaystyle P_{\text{fusion}}(E)=P_{\text{MB}}(E)\cdot P_{\text{G}}(E)=\exp \left(-{\frac {E}{k_{\mathrm {B} }T}}-{\sqrt {\frac {E_{\rm {G}}}{E}}}\right)} The maximum of the fusion probabi...	{ "page_id": 14356889, "title": "Gamow factor" }
journal Zeitschrift für Physik. Their work was based on previous work on tunnelling by J. Robert Oppenheimer, Gregor Wentzel, Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim, and Ralph H. Fowler. Gurney and Condon cited also Friedrich Hund. In 1931, Arnold Sommerfeld introduced a similar factor (a Gaunt factor) for the discussion of bremsstr...	{ "page_id": 14356889, "title": "Gamow factor" }
In physics, phenomenology is the application of theoretical physics to experimental data by making quantitative predictions based upon known theories. It is related to the philosophical notion of the same name in that these predictions describe anticipated behaviors for the phenomena in reality. Phenomenology stands in...	{ "page_id": 2757018, "title": "Phenomenology (physics)" }
most general set of beyond-the-Standard-Model effects in a given sector of the Standard Model, usually parameterized in terms of anomalous couplings and higher-dimensional operators. In this case, the term "phenomenological" is being used more in its philosophy of science sense. == See also == Effective theory Phenomen...	{ "page_id": 2757018, "title": "Phenomenology (physics)" }
Cell proliferation is the process by which a cell grows and divides to produce two daughter cells. Cell proliferation leads to an exponential increase in cell number and is therefore a rapid mechanism of tissue growth. Cell proliferation requires both cell growth and cell division to occur at the same time, such that t...	{ "page_id": 594336, "title": "Cell proliferation" }
executed mainly by transcription factors including those regulated by signal transduction pathways elicited by growth factors during cell–cell communication in development. Recently it has been also demonstrated that cellular bicarbonate metabolism, which is responsible for cell proliferation, can be regulated by mTORC...	{ "page_id": 594336, "title": "Cell proliferation" }
Menstruation is the shedding of the uterine lining (endometrium). It occurs on a regular basis in uninseminated sexually reproductive-age females of certain mammal species. Although there is some disagreement in definitions between sources, menstruation is generally considered to be limited to primates. It is common in...	{ "page_id": 33100194, "title": "Menstruation (mammal)" }
has a different physiologic cause than menstruation. === Concealed ovulation === A few mammals do not experience obvious, visible signs of fertility (concealed ovulation). In humans, studies show that both males and females can detect the fertility of females through hormonal signaling and alterations in scent (fertili...	{ "page_id": 33100194, "title": "Menstruation (mammal)" }
an egg becomes fertilized or successfully implants in the uterus. This produces more unneeded material per cycle than in non-menstruating mammals, which may explain why the extra material is not simply reabsorbed as done by those species. In essence, menstruating animals treat every cycle as a possible pregnancy by thi...	{ "page_id": 33100194, "title": "Menstruation (mammal)" }
(express estrus) at regular biologically defined intervals. The female is receptive to males only while experiencing estrus. For breeding livestock, there are a number of advantages to be gained by finding methods to induce ovulation on a planned schedule, and thus synchronize the estrus cycle between many female anima...	{ "page_id": 33100194, "title": "Menstruation (mammal)" }
Mechanistic models for niche apportionment are biological models used to explain relative species abundance distributions. These niche apportionment models describe how species break up resource pool in multi-dimensional space, determining the distribution of abundances of individuals among species. The relative abunda...	{ "page_id": 22417827, "title": "Niche apportionment models" }
chosen and the size of the resulting fragment (Figure 2). Niche apportionment models have been used in the primary literature to explain, and describe changes in the relative abundance distributions of a diverse array of taxa including, freshwater insects, fish, bryophytes beetles, hymenopteran parasites, plankton asse...	{ "page_id": 22417827, "title": "Niche apportionment models" }
apportionment the species colonize random portion between 50 and 100% of the smallest remaining niche, making this model stochastic in nature. A closely related model, the Geometric Series, is a deterministic version of the Dominance pre-emption model, wherein the percentage of remaining niche space that the new specie...	{ "page_id": 22417827, "title": "Niche apportionment models" }
more recently it has been used to explain the relative abundance distributions of phytoplankton communities, salt meadow vegetation, some communities of insects in the order Diptera, some ground beetle communities, functional and taxonomic groupings of stream fish in Texas bio-regions, and ichneumonid parasitoids. A si...	{ "page_id": 22417827, "title": "Niche apportionment models" }
Fraction model where the probability of colonization is directly proportion to niche size. === MacArthur fraction === This model requires that the initial niche is broken at random and the successive niches are chosen with a probability proportional to their size. In this model the largest niche always has a greater pr...	{ "page_id": 22417827, "title": "Niche apportionment models" }
one site within the River Danube in Austria. === Composite === A composite model exists when a combination of niche apportionment models are acting in different portions of the resource pool. Fesl (2002). shows how a composite model might appear in a study of freshwater Diptera, in that different niche apportionment mo...	{ "page_id": 22417827, "title": "Niche apportionment models" }
Niche. R ( x i ) = μ i ± r σ i n {\displaystyle R(x_{i})=\mu _{i}\pm {\frac {r\sigma _{i}}{\sqrt {n}}}} r=confidence limit of simulated data σ=standard deviation of simulated data n=number of replicates of empirical sample == References ==	{ "page_id": 22417827, "title": "Niche apportionment models" }
Cell Communication and Signaling is a peer-reviewed and open access scientific journal that publishes original research, reviews and commentaries with a focus on cellular signaling research. It was established in 2003 and is currently published by the London-based publisher BioMed Central. Raymond Birge (Center for Cel...	{ "page_id": 36639138, "title": "Cell Communication and Signaling" }
Cressdnaviricota is a phylum of viruses with small, circular single-stranded DNA genomes and encoding rolling circle replication-initiation proteins with the N-terminal HUH endonuclease and C-terminal superfamily 3 helicase domains. While the replication-associated proteins are homologous among viruses within the phylu...	{ "page_id": 63771045, "title": "Cressdnaviricota" }
Chemistry education (or chemical education) is the study of teaching and learning chemistry. It is one subset of STEM education or discipline-based education research (DBER). Topics in chemistry education include understanding how students learn chemistry and determining the most efficient methods to teach chemistry. T...	{ "page_id": 4133285, "title": "Chemistry education" }
working in Liebig's laboratory, Horsford returned to the United States and helped establish the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard University. The school was modeled after Liebig's methodology and established the first chemistry laboratory course. Two years later, Charles W. Eliot started to volunteer at the laborat...	{ "page_id": 4133285, "title": "Chemistry education" }
and instructors who, as opposed to declaring their primary interest in a typical area of laboratory research (organic, inorganic, biochemistry, etc.), take on an interest in contributing suggestions, essays, observations, and other descriptive reports of practice into the public domain, through journal publications, bo...	{ "page_id": 4133285, "title": "Chemistry education" }
of others as opposed to focusing on their own classroom practices. Chemistry education research is typically carried out in situ using human subjects from secondary and post-secondary schools. Chemistry education research utilizes both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. Quantitative methods typically...	{ "page_id": 4133285, "title": "Chemistry education" }
vs. universities) while others cover all education levels. Journal articles range from reports on classroom and laboratory practices to educational research. Australian Journal of Education in Chemistry: Published by the Royal Australian Chemical Institute. Covers both school and university education. Chemical Educatio...	{ "page_id": 4133285, "title": "Chemistry education" }
can major in the following areas: Chemistry Chemical engineering Biochemistry Environmental Chemistry Analytical chemistry Forensic Chemistry == See also == Advancing Chemistry by Enhancing Learning in the Laboratory Constructivism in science education == References == == External links == Media related to Chemistry ed...	{ "page_id": 4133285, "title": "Chemistry education" }
Parental (paternal and maternal) haplarithms are the outputs of haplarithmisis process. For instance, paternal haplarithm represents chromosome specific profile illuminating paternal haplotype of that chromosome (including homologous recombination between the two paternal homologous chromosomes) and the amount of those...	{ "page_id": 51646890, "title": "Haplarithm" }
In biology, a substrate is the surface on which an organism (such as a plant, fungus, or animal) lives. A substrate can include biotic or abiotic materials and animals. For example, encrusting algae that lives on a rock (its substrate) can be itself a substrate for an animal that lives on top of the algae. Inert substr...	{ "page_id": 8327598, "title": "Substrate (biology)" }
made up of polystyrene. After use they should be disposed of properly. Before use they are treated with gamma radiation or electric arc simply to develop charges on the surface of substrate. After cell growth its rate of proliferation should be measured. In addition, the other plastic materials used as substrate are te...	{ "page_id": 8327598, "title": "Substrate (biology)" }
Cobalt is a chemical element; it has symbol Co and atomic number 27. As with nickel, cobalt is found in the Earth's crust only in a chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron. The free element, produced by reductive smelting, is a hard, lustrous, somewhat brittle, gray me...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
radioisotope, used as a radioactive tracer and for the production of high-energy gamma rays. Cobalt is also used in the petroleum industry as a catalyst when refining crude oil. This is to purge it of sulfur, which is very polluting when burned and causes acid rain. Cobalt is the active center of a group of coenzymes c...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
(H2) or nitrogen gas (N2) even when heated, but it does react with boron, carbon, phosphorus, arsenic and sulfur. At ordinary temperatures, it reacts slowly with mineral acids, and very slowly with moist, but not dry, air. == Compounds == Common oxidation states of cobalt include +2 and +3, although compounds with oxid...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
fluorine to fluoride is so high, +2.87 V, cobalt(III) fluoride is one of the few simple stable cobalt(III) compounds. Cobalt(III) fluoride, which is used in some fluorination reactions, reacts vigorously with water. === Coordination compounds === The inventory of complexes is very large. Starting with higher oxidation ...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
(Co(1-norb)4), a transition metal-alkyl complex that is notable for its resistance to β-hydrogen elimination, in accord with Bredt's rule. The cobalt(III) and cobalt(V) complexes [Li(THF)4]+[Co(1-norb)4]− and [Co(1-norb)4]+[BF4]− are also known. == Isotopes == 59Co is the only stable cobalt isotope and the only isotope...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
symmetry can yield broadened signals to an extent that renders the signals unobservable in fluid phase NMR, but still observable in solid state NMR. == Etymology == Many different stories about the origin of the word "cobalt" have been proposed. In one version the element cobalt was named after "kobelt", the name which...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
by Grimm (kob/kof "house, chamber" + walt "power, ruler") was being proposed as more convincing. Somewhat later, Paul Kretschmer (1928) explained that while this "house ruler" etymology was the proper one that backed the original meaning of kobold as household spirit, a corruption later occurred introducing the idea of...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
color glass since the Bronze Age. The excavation of the Uluburun shipwreck yielded an ingot of blue glass, cast during the 14th century BC. Blue glass from Egypt was either colored with copper, iron, or cobalt. The oldest cobalt-colored glass is from the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (1550–1292 BC). The source for the co...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
Saxony and Hungary. With the discovery of cobalt ore in New Caledonia in 1864, the mining of cobalt in Europe declined. With the discovery of ore deposits in Ontario, Canada, in 1904 and the discovery of even larger deposits in the Katanga Province in the Congo in 1914, mining operations shifted again. When the Shaba c...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
crust. Except as recently delivered in meteoric iron, free cobalt (the native metal) is not found on Earth's surface because of its tendency to react with oxygen in the atmosphere. Small amounts of cobalt compounds are found in most rocks, soils, plants, and animals. In the ocean cobalt typically reacts with chlorine. ...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
rocks, typified by the Bou-Azzer district of Morocco. At such locations, cobalt ores are mined exclusively, albeit at a lower concentration, and thus require more downstream processing for cobalt extraction. Several methods exist to separate cobalt from copper and nickel, depending on the concentration of cobalt and th...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
operated by the Central African Mining and Exploration Company (CAMEC) in Katanga Province, may be the richest cobalt reserve in the world. It produced an estimated one-third of the total global cobalt production in 2008. In July 2009, CAMEC announced a long-term agreement to deliver its entire annual production of cob...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
byproduct of copper mining, is an essential material in battery technology. The DRC accounts for approximately 75 percent of the global supply. Within the country, the China Molybdenum Company (CMOC) dominates the industry, contributing roughly 40 percent of the world's cobalt production. Over the past year, CMOC has s...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
in the supply chain production of lithium-ion batteries. These initiatives are already taking place with major mining companies, artisanal and small-scale mining companies (ASM). Car manufacturers and battery manufacturer supply chains: Tesla, VW, BMW, BASF and Glencore are participating in several initiatives, such as...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
that it inspects. In December 2019, International Rights Advocates, a human rights NGO, filed a landmark lawsuit against Apple, Tesla, Dell, Microsoft and Google company Alphabet for "knowingly benefiting from and aiding and abetting the cruel and brutal use of young children" in mining cobalt. The companies in questio...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
believed to lie. Cobalt mined in Canada is a by-product of nickel mining. Even so, in 2023 the country produced more than 5,000 tons of cobalt (43% is mined in Newfoundland and Labrador, the rest in Ontario, Manitoba and Quebec). Exports of cobalt and cobalt products totaled $568 million in 2023. === Cuba === Canada's ...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
do not wear down over time. The development of wear-resistant cobalt alloys started in the first decade of the 20th century with the stellite alloys, containing chromium with varying quantities of tungsten and carbon. Alloys with chromium and tungsten carbides are very hard and wear-resistant. Special cobalt-chromium-m...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
2019, for a battery capacity of 46.3 GWh. As of August 2020 battery makers have gradually reduced the cathode cobalt content from 1/3 (NMC 111) to 1/5 (NMC 442) to currently 1/10 (NMC 811) and have also introduced the cobalt free lithium iron phosphate cathode into the battery packs of electric cars such as the Tesla M...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
and coloring === Before the 19th century, cobalt was predominantly used as a pigment. It has been used since the Middle Ages to make smalt, a blue-colored glass. Smalt is produced by melting a mixture of roasted mineral smaltite, quartz and potassium carbonate, which yields a dark blue silicate glass, which is finely g...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
therapy. Cobalt-57 (Co-57 or 57Co) is a cobalt radioisotope most often used in medical tests, as a radiolabel for vitamin B12 uptake, and for the Schilling test. Cobalt-57 is used as a source in Mössbauer spectroscopy and is one of several possible sources in X-ray fluorescence devices. Nuclear weapon designs could int...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
0.20 mg/kg a day is recommended, because they have no other source of vitamin B12. Proteins based on cobalamin use corrin to hold the cobalt. Coenzyme B12 features a reactive C-Co bond that participates in the reactions. In humans, B12 has two types of alkyl ligand: methyl and adenosyl. MeB12 promotes methyl (−CH3) gro...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
was overcome by the development of "cobalt bullets", dense pellets of cobalt oxide mixed with clay given orally for lodging in the animal's rumen. == Health issues == The LD50 value for soluble cobalt salts has been estimated to be between 150 and 500 mg/kg. In the US, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ...	{ "page_id": 24580536, "title": "Cobalt" }
VFDB also known as Virulence Factor Database is a database that provides scientist quick access to virulence factors in bacterial pathogens. It can be navigated and browsed using genus or words. A BLAST tool is provided for search against known virulence factors. VFDB contains a collection of 16 important bacterial pat...	{ "page_id": 61149626, "title": "VFDB" }

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