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and was used by the general Li Jinglong in 1400 against Zhu Di, the future Yongle Emperor. The peak of Chinese cannon development prior to the incorporation of European weaponry in the 16th century is exemplified by the muzzle loading wrought iron "great general cannon" (大將軍炮) which weighed up to 360 kilograms and coul...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
over a ton (900 kg), firing stone balls weighing over 100 lbs (45 kg). Philip used large guns to help the French capture the fortress of Odruik in 1377. These guns fired projectiles far larger than any that had been used before, with seven guns that could shoot projectiles as heavy as 90 kilograms. The cannons smashed ...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
fierce defense, the city's fortifications were overwhelmed. ==== Changes to fortifications ==== As a response to gunpowder artillery, European fortifications began displaying architectural principles such as lower and thicker walls in the mid-1400s. Cannon towers were built with artillery rooms where cannons could disc...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
result, sieges lasted longer and became more difficult affairs. By the 1530s the bastion fort had become the dominant defensive structure in Italy. Outside Europe, the star fort became an "engine of European expansion", and acted as a force multiplier so that small European garrisons could hold out against numerically ...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
the same bore size. They are differentiated from older firearms by an assortment of improvements. Their longer length-to-bore ratio imparts more energy into the shot, enabling the projectile to shoot further. Not only longer, they were also lighter as the barrel walls were made thinner to allow for faster dissipation o...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
muzzle side up. Smith observes: "The surviving pieces of ordnance from earlier in the 15th century are big pieces with large bore sizes. They do not look like the long thin gun.… Essentially they are parallel-sided tubes with flat ends. The explanation is, probably, that they were cast muzzle down in the traditional be...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
be sculpted into fanciful designs containing artistic motifs or symbols. It was for all these reasons that the cast-bronze cannon became the preferred type by the late 1400s. Some cannons cast in China during the 1370s may have been of steel rather than iron. ==== Composite metal ==== Composite iron/bronze cannons were...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
15th to 17th centuries, it was originally used to describe "a hand-gun with a hook-like projection or lug on its under surface, useful for steadying it against battlements or other objects when firing." These "hook guns" were in their earliest forms defensive weapons mounted on German city walls in the early 1400s, but...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
fact that they were listed separate from cannons in mid-15th century inventories suggest they were handheld firearms. In Europe, a shoulder stock, probably inspired by the crossbow stock, was added to the arquebus around 1470 and the appearance of the matchlock mechanism is dated to a little before 1475. The matchlock ...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
in the Netherlands listed 28 steps just to fire and load the gun. In 1584 the Ming general Qi Jiguang composed an 11 step song to practice the procedure in rhythm: "One, clean the gun. Two pour the powder. Three tamp the powder down. Four drop the pellet. Five drive the pellet down. Six put in paper (stopper). Seven dr...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
Ottoman army of 12,000 soldiers wielding arquebuses still managed to rout a much larger Mamluk force. The arquebus had become a common infantry weapon by the 16th century due to its relative cheapness – a helmet, breastplate and pike cost about three and a quarter ducats while an arquebus only a little over one ducat. ...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
when taking into consideration misfires and malfunctions which occurred up to half the time. This is not to say that firearms of the 16th century were inferior to the bow and arrow, for it could better penetrate armor and required less training, but the disadvantages of the musket were very real, and it would not be un...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
with the Ming in the proficiency of matchlock making by the Vietnamese. The Vietnamese matchlock was said to have been able to pierce several layers of iron armour, kill two to five men in one shot, yet also fire quietly for a weapon of its caliber. == Gunpowder Empires == The Gunpowder Empires generally refer to the I...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
to have preceded the initial acquisition of territory constituting the imperial critical mass of any of the three early modern Islamic empires, except in the case of the Mughals. Moreover, it seems that the commitment to military autocratic rule pre-dated the acquisition of gunpowder weapons in all three cases. Whether...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
military use. The Mysorean army, under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, used the rockets effectively against the British East India Company during the 1780s and 1790s. The Indian war rockets were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bam-boo rods, a rocket-body lashed to the rod, and ir...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
used in coal mines. === Tunnel construction === Gunpowder was also extensively used in railway construction. At first railways followed the contours of the land, or crossed low ground by means of bridges and viaducts, but later railways made extensive use of cuttings and tunnels. One 2400-ft stretch of the 5.4 mi Box T...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
the English spelling of "Niter". While carbon and sulfur were readily available throughout the south, potassium nitrate was often produced from the Calcium nitrate found in cave dirt, tobacco barn floors and barn stalls other places. A number of caves were mined, and the men and boys who worked in the caves were called...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
from the Sixteenth to the Mid-Nineteenth Century Ágoston, Gábor (2005), Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-60391-1 Agrawal, Jai Prakash (2010), High Energy Materials: Propellants, Explosives and Pyrotechnics, Wiley-VCH Andrade, ...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
Cambridge Illustrated History of China, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43519-2 Grant, R.G. (2011), Battle at Sea: 3,000 Years of Naval Warfare, DK Publishing. Hadden, R. Lee. 2005. "Confederate Boys and Peter Monkeys." Armchair General. January 2005. Adapted from a talk given to the Geological Society of Am...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
Warfare in China to 1600, Routledge Lorge, Peter A. (2008), The Asian Military Revolution: from Gunpowder to the Bomb, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-60954-8 Lu, Gwei-Djen (1988), "The Oldest Representation of a Bombard", Technology and Culture, 29 (3): 594–605, doi:10.2307/3105275, JSTOR 3105275, S2CID 112...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Utah State University Press. Pauly, Roger (2004), Firearms: The Life Story of a Technology, Greenwood Publishing Group. Perrin, Noel (1979), Giving up the Gun, Japan's reversion to the Sword, 1543–1879, Boston: David R. Godine, ISBN 978-0-87923-773-8 Petzal, David E. (201...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
Robert (1975), Napoleon's Artillery, France: Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-0-85045-247-1 Willbanks, James H. (2004), Machine guns: an illustrated history of their impact, ABC-CLIO, Inc. Williams, Anthony G. (2000), Rapid Fire, Shrewsbury: Airlife Publishing Ltd., ISBN 978-1-84037-435-3 Kouichiro, Hamada (2012), 日本人はこうして戦...	{ "page_id": 12063194, "title": "History of gunpowder" }
The molecular formula C24H46O4 (molar mass: 398.62 g/mol, exact mass: 398.3396 u) may refer to: Nebraskanic acid Dilauroyl peroxide	{ "page_id": 60363228, "title": "C24H46O4" }
A land lab is an area of land that has been set aside for use in biological studies. Thus, it is literally an outdoor laboratory based on an area of land. Studies may be elementary or advanced. For instance, students may simply be given the task of identifying all the tree species in a land lab, or an advanced student ...	{ "page_id": 70111, "title": "Land lab" }
native trees, grasses, and flowers to increase biodiversity Encouraging native riparian plant growth along ponds and streams Installing bird houses, bat houses and owl houses Holding art classes where students can paint flora, fauna and landscapes Collecting and removing trash and other man-made pollutants Designing lo...	{ "page_id": 70111, "title": "Land lab" }
manure Greenhouses for growing mushrooms and seedlings Raised beds for market garden vegetables Beehives for garden pollination, honey, and wax Rotationally grazed pastures for goats, cattle, pigs, sheep, etc Biochar production to improve soil quality and sequester carbon Aquaponics systems for growing fish and greens ...	{ "page_id": 70111, "title": "Land lab" }
rich soil with an active microbiome Growing local produce, herbs, and flowers Raising livestock with sustainable, ethical methods Producing healthy food for local communities Producing local energy to power the land lab operations Inspiring young people to care about biodiversity, agriculture, and nature Building real-...	{ "page_id": 70111, "title": "Land lab" }
a land lab is to allow students to develop, implement, and learn about practical, sustainable solutions for addressing the five basic physiological needs all humans have: The need for clean water The need for healthy food The need for shelter The need for energy The need for sanitation Our industrial systems of providi...	{ "page_id": 70111, "title": "Land lab" }
our digital landscape of social media has exploded in popularity, depression and mental struggles have increased dramatically in students. Studies also show that student's mental health benefits immensely from being outdoors and participating in hands on projects with meaningful outcomes. == Waste streams used in land ...	{ "page_id": 70111, "title": "Land lab" }
project. Much of the materials listed above can be had for little to no cost as relationships are formed. == References ==	{ "page_id": 70111, "title": "Land lab" }
Methyl salicylate (oil of wintergreen or wintergreen oil) is an organic compound with the formula C8H8O3. It is the methyl ester of salicylic acid. It is a colorless, viscous liquid with a sweet, fruity odor reminiscent of root beer (in which it is used as a flavoring), but often associatively called "minty", as it is ...	{ "page_id": 856544, "title": "Methyl salicylate" }
the genus Gaultheria in the family Ericaceae, including Gaultheria procumbens, the wintergreen or eastern teaberry; some species of the genus Betula in the family Betulaceae, particularly those in the subgenus Betulenta such as B. lenta, the black birch; all species of the genus Spiraea in the family Rosaceae, also cal...	{ "page_id": 856544, "title": "Methyl salicylate" }
agent for some organophosphate pesticides. Methyl salicylate is also used as a bait for attracting male orchid bees for study, which apparently gather the chemical to synthesize pheromones, and to clear plant or animal tissue samples of color, and as such is useful for microscopy and immunohistochemistry when excess pi...	{ "page_id": 856544, "title": "Methyl salicylate" }
to 140 mg/kg of salicylates for a 10 kg child (22 lbs). The lowest published lethal dose is 101 mg/kg body weight in adult humans, (or 7.07 grams for a 70 kg adult). It has proven fatal to small children in doses as small as 4 mL. A seventeen-year-old cross-country runner at Notre Dame Academy on Staten Island died in ...	{ "page_id": 856544, "title": "Methyl salicylate" }
The molecular formula C18H25N5O4 (molar mass: 375.42 g/mol, exact mass: 375.1907 u) may refer to: Metazosin Neldazosin	{ "page_id": 41554401, "title": "C18H25N5O4" }
The squid giant axon is the very large (up to 1.5 mm in diameter; typically around 0.5 mm) axon that controls part of the water jet propulsion system in squid. It was first described by L. W. Williams in 1909, but this discovery was forgotten until English zoologist and neurophysiologist J. Z. Young demonstrated the ax...	{ "page_id": 3215842, "title": "Squid giant axon" }
great experimental advantage for Hodgkin and Huxley as it allowed them to insert voltage clamp electrodes inside the lumen of the axon. While the squid axon is very large in diameter it is unmyelinated which decreases the conduction velocity substantially. The conduction velocity of a typical 0.5 mm squid axon is about...	{ "page_id": 3215842, "title": "Squid giant axon" }
Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr (June 16, 1749, Stuttgart – February 27, 1821, Tübingen) was a German physician, chemist, and naturalist. In 1768 he obtained his doctorate from the University of Tübingen, where he also served as a professor of chemistry, botany, and natural history from 1774 to 1801. He is the taxonomi...	{ "page_id": 1053155, "title": "Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr" }
Dynamic Markov compression (DMC) is a lossless data compression algorithm developed by Gordon Cormack and Nigel Horspool. It uses predictive arithmetic coding similar to prediction by partial matching (PPM), except that the input is predicted one bit at a time (rather than one byte at a time). DMC has a good compressio...	{ "page_id": 11014633, "title": "Dynamic Markov compression" }
of the trailing bits after the first bit that differs from plow. Compression proceeds as follows. The initial range is set to plow = 0, phigh = 1. For each bit, the predictor estimates p0 = p(xi = 0\|x1x2...xi–1) and p1 = 1 − p0, the probability of a 0 or 1, respectively. The arithmetic coder then divides the current ra...	{ "page_id": 11014633, "title": "Dynamic Markov compression" }
DMC implementation, the initial table is the set of all contexts of length 8 to 15 bits that begin on a byte boundary. The initial state is any of the 8 bit contexts. The counts are floating point numbers initialized to a small nonzero constant such as 0.2. The counts are not initialized to zero in order to allow value...	{ "page_id": 11014633, "title": "Dynamic Markov compression" }
A, there have been 4 zero bits and some number of one bits. In context B, there have been 3 zeros and 7 ones (n = 10), which predicts p1 = 0.7. C is cloned from B. It represents context 111110. Both B and C predict p1 = 0.7, and both go to the same next states, E and F. The count for C is n = 4, equal to n0 for A. This...	{ "page_id": 11014633, "title": "Dynamic Markov compression" }
Polyhaline is a salinity category term applied to brackish estuaries and other water bodies with a salinity between 18 and 30 parts per thousand. It is the most dense saltwater type that is classified as "brackish." == References == == See also == Salinity	{ "page_id": 8851953, "title": "Polyhaline" }
A geopolymer is an inorganic, often ceramic-like material, that forms a stable, covalently bonded, non-crystalline to semi-crystalline network through the reaction of aluminosilicate materials with an alkaline or acidic solution. Many geopolymers may also be classified as alkali-activated cements or acid-activated bind...	{ "page_id": 11932146, "title": "Geopolymer" }
types of engineering process technologies. In addition to their use in construction, geopolymers are utilized in resins, coatings, and adhesives for aerospace, automotive, and protective applications. == Composition == In the 1950s, Viktor Glukhovsky developed concrete materials originally known as "soil silicate concr...	{ "page_id": 11932146, "title": "Geopolymer" }
can in principle replace some of the aluminum or silicon. Geopolymerization usually occurs at ambient or slightly elevated temperature; the solid aluminosilicate raw materials (e.g. metakaolin) dissolve into the alkaline solution, then cross-link and polymerize into a growing gel phase, which then continues to set, har...	{ "page_id": 11932146, "title": "Geopolymer" }
complex, and plays an important role in the discussion of zeolite synthesis, a process which has many details in common with geopolymerization. Example of geopolymerization of a metakaolin precursor, in an alkaline medium The reaction process broadly involves four main stages: Alkaline hydrolysis of the layered structu...	{ "page_id": 11932146, "title": "Geopolymer" }
cements and concretes === Building materials (for example, clay bricks) Low-CO2 cements and concretes Radioactive and toxic waste containment === Geopolymer resins and binders === Fire-resistant materials, thermal insulation, foams Low-energy ceramic tiles, refractory items, thermal shock refractories High-tech resin s...	{ "page_id": 11932146, "title": "Geopolymer" }
composite material resulting from the mixing and hardening of cement with water (or an alkaline solution in the case of geopolymer cement), and stone aggregates. Materials of both types (geopolymer cements and geopolymer concretes) are commercially available in various markets internationally. === Alkali-activated mate...	{ "page_id": 11932146, "title": "Geopolymer" }
to 1.95, particularly 1.60 to 1.85, i.e. user-friendly conditions. It may happen that for research, some laboratory recipes have molar ratios in the 1.20 to 1.45 range. === Examples of materials that are sometimes called geopolymer cements === Commercial geopolymer cements were developed in the 1980s, of the type (K,Na...	{ "page_id": 11932146, "title": "Geopolymer" }
=== CO2 emissions during manufacturing === Geopolymer cements can be designed to have lower attributed CO2 emissions compared to other widely-used materials such as ordinary Portland cement. Geopolymers use industrial byproducts/waste containing aluminosilicate phases in manufacturing, which minimizes CO₂ emissions and...	{ "page_id": 11932146, "title": "Geopolymer" }
mix (62% hydroelectricity). The source of sodium hydroxide also affects geopolymer concrete’s sustainability, with solar salt-based production and hydropower reducing its GWP by 64% compared to conventional concrete (CC). However, geopolymer concrete has higher ozone depletion potential due to CFC emissions from the ch...	{ "page_id": 11932146, "title": "Geopolymer" }
geopolymer concrete has some notable human health implications, primarily due to the use of alkaline activators such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium silicate (Na₂SiO₃). These chemicals are highly caustic and can cause severe skin burns, respiratory issues, and eye damage if not handled properly. Additionally, the...	{ "page_id": 11932146, "title": "Geopolymer" }
the crystallographically disordered geopolymer form to achieve the desired crystalline phases (e.g. leucite, pollucite and others). == Geopolymer applications in arts and archaeology == Because geopolymer artifacts can look like natural stone, several artists started to cast in silicone rubber molds replicas of their s...	{ "page_id": 11932146, "title": "Geopolymer" }
Cerium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ce and atomic number 58. It is a soft, ductile, and silvery-white metal that tarnishes when exposed to air. Cerium is the second element in the lanthanide series, and while it often shows the oxidation state of +3 characteristic of the series, it also has a stable +4 state th...	{ "page_id": 24580596, "title": "Cerium" }
series. In the periodic table, it appears between the lanthanides lanthanum to its left and praseodymium to its right, and above the actinide thorium. It is a ductile metal with a hardness similar to that of silver. Its 58 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Xe]4f15d16s2, of which the four outer electrons are ...	{ "page_id": 24580596, "title": "Cerium" }
it is cooled or compressed. === Chemical properties of the element === Like the other lanthanides, cerium metal is a good reducing agent, having standard reduction potential of E⦵ = −2.34 V for the Ce3+/Ce couple. It tarnishes in air, forming a passivating oxide layer like iron rust. A centimeter-sized sample of cerium...	{ "page_id": 24580596, "title": "Cerium" }
Cooling below approximately −160 °C will start formation of α-cerium but this is only from remaining γ-cerium. β-cerium does not significantly transform to α-cerium except in the presence of stress or deformation. At atmospheric pressure, liquid cerium is more dense than its solid form at the melting point. === Isotope...	{ "page_id": 24580596, "title": "Cerium" }
common processes of stellar nucleosynthesis for elements beyond iron, the s-process (slow neutron capture) and the r-process (rapid neutron capture). This is so because they are bypassed by the reaction flow of the s-process, and the r-process nuclides are blocked from decaying to them by more neutron-rich stable nucli...	{ "page_id": 24580596, "title": "Cerium" }
Cl, Br, I) usually by reaction of the oxides with the hydrogen halides. The anhydrous halides are pale-colored, paramagnetic, hygroscopic solids. Upon hydration, the trihalides convert to complexes containing aquo complexes [Ce(H2O)8-9]3+. Unlike most lanthanides, Ce forms a tetrafluoride, a white solid. It also forms ...	{ "page_id": 24580596, "title": "Cerium" }
used as standard reagents for volumetric analysis in cerimetric titrations. Due to ligand-to-metal charge transfer, aqueous cerium(IV) ions are orange-yellow. Aqueous cerium(IV) is metastable in water and is a strong oxidizing agent that oxidizes hydrochloric acid to give chlorine gas. In the Belousov–Zhabotinsky react...	{ "page_id": 24580596, "title": "Cerium" }
was not until Carl Gustaf Mosander succeeded in removing lanthana and "didymia" in the late 1830s that ceria was obtained pure. Wilhelm Hisinger was a wealthy mine-owner and amateur scientist, and sponsor of Berzelius. He owned and controlled the mine at Bastnäs, and had been trying for years to find out the compositio...	{ "page_id": 24580596, "title": "Cerium" }
is the most common representative of the monazites, with "-Ce" being the Levinson suffix informing on the dominance of the particular REE element representative. Also the cerium-dominant bastnäsite-(Ce) is the most important of the bastnäsites. Cerium is the easiest lanthanide to extract from its minerals because it is...	{ "page_id": 24580596, "title": "Cerium" }
rare earths to their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid, but cerium oxide is insoluble in HNO3 and hence precipitates out. Care must be taken when handling some of the residues as they contain 228Ra, the daughter of 232Th, which is a strong gam...	{ "page_id": 24580596, "title": "Cerium" }
iron is added to form the alloy ferrocerium, also invented by von Welsbach. Due to the chemical similarities of the lanthanides, chemical separation is not usually required for their applications, such as the addition of mischmetal to steel as an inclusion modifier to improve mechanical properties, or as catalysts for ...	{ "page_id": 24580596, "title": "Cerium" }
is used as alloying element in aluminium to create castable eutectic aluminium alloys with 6–16 wt.% Ce, to which other elements such as Mg, Ni, Fe and Mn can be added. These Al-Ce alloys have excellent high temperature strength and are suitable for automotive applications (e.g. in cylinder heads). Other alloys of ceri...	{ "page_id": 24580596, "title": "Cerium" }
more dangerous to aquatic organisms because it damages cell membranes; it is not very soluble in water and can cause environmental contamination. Cerium oxide, the most prevalent cerium compound in industrial applications, is not regulated in the United States by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)...	{ "page_id": 24580596, "title": "Cerium" }
The Afrotropical realm is one of the Earth's eight biogeographic realms. It includes Sub-Saharan Africa, the southern Arabian Peninsula, the island of Madagascar, and the islands of the western Indian Ocean. It was formerly known as the Ethiopian Zone or Ethiopian Region. == Major ecological regions == Most of the Afro...	{ "page_id": 201208, "title": "Afrotropical realm" }
Africa's Intertropical Convergence Zone. The Upper Guinean forests of West Africa extend along the coast from Guinea to Togo. The Dahomey Gap, a zone of forest-savanna mosaic that reaches to the coast, separates the Upper Guinean forests from the Lower Guinean forests, which extend along the Gulf of Guinea from eastern...	{ "page_id": 201208, "title": "Afrotropical realm" }
the deserts of southeastern Africa, the countries are Malawi, Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, and the subtropical. === Deserts of Southern Africa === Southern Africa contains several deserts. The Namib Desert is one of the oldest deserts in the world and extends for over 2,000 kilometers along the A...	{ "page_id": 201208, "title": "Afrotropical realm" }
Gondwana, and broke away from Africa millions of years ago. Other Indian Ocean islands, like the Comoros and Mascarene Islands, are volcanic islands that formed more recently. Madagascar contains various plant habitats, from rainforests to mountains and deserts, as its biodiversity and ratio of endemism are extremely h...	{ "page_id": 201208, "title": "Afrotropical realm" }
mammals. Four species of great apes (Hominidae) are endemic to Central Africa: both species of gorilla (western gorilla, Gorilla gorilla, and eastern gorilla, Gorilla beringei) and both species of chimpanzee (common chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes, and bonobo, Pan paniscus). Humans and their ancestors originated in Africa....	{ "page_id": 201208, "title": "Afrotropical realm" }
is characterized by a large number of trees whose leaves are left during the dry season. It appears in areas where the dry period (rainfall below about 100 mm) reaches three months. Then, the evergreen or the semi-evergreen rainforest climatically adapted to somewhat more humid conditions than the semi-deciduous type a...	{ "page_id": 201208, "title": "Afrotropical realm" }
richest habitats for animal species. Today, undisturbed rainforests are remnant but rare. Timber extraction not only changes the edifice of the forest, but it also affects the tree species spectrum by removing economically important species and terminating other species in the process. The species that compose African ...	{ "page_id": 201208, "title": "Afrotropical realm" }
disappear by the year 2020. Africa's rainforest, like many others emergent in the world, has a special significance to the indigenous peoples of Africa who have occupied them for millennia. == Region protection == Many African countries are in economic and political change, overwhelmed by conflict, making various movem...	{ "page_id": 201208, "title": "Afrotropical realm" }
into fallow lands and an additional 9% had been opened up by timber exploitation. Tropical timber was used in Europe following World War II, as trade with East European countries stopped and timber noticeably became sparse in western and southern Europe. Despite efforts to promote lesser-known timber species use, the m...	{ "page_id": 201208, "title": "Afrotropical realm" }
forty years. Tropical Africa comprises 18% of the world's total land area covering 20 million km2 (7.7 million sq mi) of land in West and Central Africa. The region has been facing deforestation in various degrees of intensity throughout the recent decades. The actual rate of deforestation varies from one country to an...	{ "page_id": 201208, "title": "Afrotropical realm" }
destruction. In its bid to stress forest conservation and development, the World Bank provided $111,103 million to developing countries, especially in Africa, to help in developing long-range forest conservation and management programs meant for ending deforestation. == Historical temperature and climate == In early 20...	{ "page_id": 201208, "title": "Afrotropical realm" }
both a continental and a sea surface temperature record. In comparison, both records show that ocean surface and land temperatures behaved differently during the past 25,000 years. During the last ice age, African temperatures were 21 °C, about 4 °C lower than today, while the tropical Atlantic Ocean was only about 2.5...	{ "page_id": 201208, "title": "Afrotropical realm" }
Head III is an oil painting by Francis Bacon, one of series of works made in 1949 for his first one-man exhibition at the Hanover Gallery, in London. As with the other six paintings in the series, it focuses on the disembodied head of male figure, who looks out with a penetrating gaze, but is fixed against an isolating...	{ "page_id": 53416441, "title": "Head III" }
when the motif of broken glasses appears in Bacon's work, inspired by the image of an injured nurse in the 1925 film Battleship Potemkin. The open-mouthed scream of the nurse in the film would also become a theme of Bacon's work, including Head VI, and Fragment of a Crucifixion. == Commission and provenance == The 1949...	{ "page_id": 53416441, "title": "Head III" }
then in The Listener on 17 November 1949, page 860. He later wrote that "part of the head is rotting away into space". == References == === Notes === === Sources ===	{ "page_id": 53416441, "title": "Head III" }
Elaphidion irroratum is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1767 12th edition of Systema Naturae. == Description == Head very dark brown, almost black; front dappled with cream colour. Antennae dark brown, and about the length of the insect; having spines at each joi...	{ "page_id": 42799608, "title": "Elaphidion irroratum" }
The Indomalayan realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms. It extends across most of South and Southeast Asia and into the southern parts of East Asia. Also called the Oriental realm by biogeographers, Indomalaya spreads all over the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia to lowland southern China, and through Ind...	{ "page_id": 201211, "title": "Indomalayan realm" }
subtropical forests of southern China. === Sunda Shelf and the Philippines === Malesia is a botanical province which straddles the boundary between Indomalaya and Australasia. It includes the Malay Peninsula and the western Indonesian islands (known as Sundaland), the Philippines, the eastern Indonesian islands, and Ne...	{ "page_id": 201211, "title": "Indomalayan realm" }
Borneo, and the Philippines. The tropical forests of Indomalaya and Australasia share many lineages of plants, which have managed over millions of years to disperse across the straits and islands between Sundaland and New Guinea. The two floras evolved in long isolation, and the fossil record suggests that Asian specie...	{ "page_id": 201211, "title": "Indomalayan realm" }
Head V is a 1949 painting by Irish-born British artist Francis Bacon, one of the series of works made in 1949 for his first one-man exhibition at the Hanover Gallery, in London. It measures 82 by 66 centimetres (32 in × 26 in) and is held in a private collection. The painting is part of a series of six works from the l...	{ "page_id": 53416446, "title": "Head V" }
Human genetic resistance to malaria refers to inherited changes in the DNA of humans which increase resistance to malaria and result in increased survival of individuals with those genetic changes. The existence of these genotypes is likely due to evolutionary pressure exerted by parasites of the genus Plasmodium which...	{ "page_id": 24973826, "title": "Human genetic resistance to malaria" }
might arise by a process of mutation in the gene that codes for the protein. If the change is in the gamete, that is, the sperm or egg that join to form a zygote that grows into a human being, the protective mutation will be inherited. Since lethal diseases kill many persons who lack protective mutations, in time, many...	{ "page_id": 24973826, "title": "Human genetic resistance to malaria" }
days. In malaria, as in other diseases, innate immunity leads into, and stimulates, adaptive immunity. Mutations may have detrimental as well as beneficial effects, and any single mutation may have both. Infectiousness of malaria depends on specific proteins present in the cell walls and elsewhere in red blood cells. P...	{ "page_id": 24973826, "title": "Human genetic resistance to malaria" }
random use of antimalarial drugs does not occur. Some early contributions on innate resistance to infections of vertebrates, including humans, are summarized in Table 1. It is remarkable that two of the pioneering studies were on malaria. The classical studies on the Toll receptor in Drosophila fruit fly were rapidly e...	{ "page_id": 24973826, "title": "Human genetic resistance to malaria" }
in hematopoietic cells. Carbon monoxide, a byproduct of heme catabolism by heme oxygenase-1(HO-1), prevents an accumulation of circulating free heme after Plasmodium infection, suppressing the pathogenesis of experimental cerebral malaria. Other mechanisms, such as enhanced tolerance to disease mediated by HO-1 and red...	{ "page_id": 24973826, "title": "Human genetic resistance to malaria" }
corresponds closely to areas of malaria transmission. Sickle-cell heterozygote frequencies up to 20% also occur in pockets of India and Greece that were formerly highly malarious. The thalassemias have a high incidence in a broad band extending from the Mediterranean basin and parts of Africa, throughout the Middle Eas...	{ "page_id": 24973826, "title": "Human genetic resistance to malaria" }
peptide fingerprinting. In the mid-1950s, one of the newest and most reliable ways of separating peptides and amino acids was by means of the enzyme trypsin, which split polypeptide chains by specifically degrading the chemical bonds formed by the carboxyl groups of two amino acids, lysine and arginine. Small differenc...	{ "page_id": 24973826, "title": "Human genetic resistance to malaria" }
membrane protein 1 (PfEMP-1), the parasite's major cytoadherence ligand and virulence factor on the erythrocyte surface. Protection also derives from the instability of sickle hemoglobin, which clusters the predominant integral red cell membrane protein (called band 3) and triggers accelerated removal by phagocytic cel...	{ "page_id": 24973826, "title": "Human genetic resistance to malaria" }
The lower Himalayan foothills and Inner Terai or Doon Valleys of Nepal and India are highly malarial due to a warm climate and marshes sustained during the dry season by groundwater percolating down from the higher hills. Malarial forests were intentionally maintained by the rulers of Nepal as a defensive measure. Huma...	{ "page_id": 24973826, "title": "Human genetic resistance to malaria" }
of clinical malaria in HbAC heterozygotes and of 93% in HbCC homozygotes. HbC represents a 'slow but gratis' genetic adaptation to malaria through a transient polymorphism, compared to the polycentric 'quick but costly' adaptation through balanced polymorphism of HbS. HbC modifies the quantity and distribution of the v...	{ "page_id": 24973826, "title": "Human genetic resistance to malaria" }
anemia, and that those individuals have an inherited deficiency of G6PD in erythrocytes. G6PD deficiency is sex-linked, and common in Mediterranean, African and other populations. In Mediterranean countries such individuals can develop a hemolytic diathesis (favism) after consuming fava beans. G6PD deficient persons ar...	{ "page_id": 24973826, "title": "Human genetic resistance to malaria" }
an inherited metabolic disorder of the enzyme pyruvate kinase. In this condition, a lack of pyruvate kinase slows down the process of glycolysis. This effect is especially devastating in cells that lack mitochondria because these cells must use anaerobic glycolysis as their sole source of energy because the TCA cycle i...	{ "page_id": 24973826, "title": "Human genetic resistance to malaria" }
ankyrin, which connects the membrane skeleton to the band 3 anion transporter. These qualitative defects create a red blood cell membrane that is less tolerant of shear stress and more susceptible to permanent deformation. SAO is associated with protection against cerebral malaria in children because it reduces sequest...	{ "page_id": 24973826, "title": "Human genetic resistance to malaria" }

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