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The molecular formula C19H28N4O2 (molar mass: 344.459 g/mol) may refer to: ADB-PINACA ADB-P7AICA | {
"page_id": 43254635,
"source": null,
"title": "C19H28N4O2"
} |
Emulsified fuels are a type of emulsion that combines water with a combustible liquid, such as oil or fuel. An emulsion is a specialized form of dispersion that contains both a continuous phase and a dispersed phase. The most commonly utilized emulsified fuel is a water-in-diesel emulsion (also known as hydrodiesel). I... | {
"page_id": 32310124,
"source": null,
"title": "Emulsified fuel"
} |
the CEN workshop (CWA 15145:2004). These emulsions usually contain between 5% and 30% water by mass. Water-in-diesel emulsions can serve as alternative fuels, offering lower emissions and improved brake thermal efficiency. Since 2006, Nonox Ltd. has offered on-demand water-in-fuel emulsions for heavy fuel oil (HFO) and... | {
"page_id": 32310124,
"source": null,
"title": "Emulsified fuel"
} |
and noise emission using Water-Diesel emulsions', Mohammad Reza Seifi et al. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.10.122 == External links == Serdyuk, Vasily (2008). "In search of the fuel of the future: In the near future, usual types of motor fuel will be replaced by water-fuel emulsions". Oil of Russia. No. 3. Lukoil.... | {
"page_id": 32310124,
"source": null,
"title": "Emulsified fuel"
} |
The switching Kalman filtering (SKF) method is a variant of the Kalman filter. In its generalised form, it is often attributed to Kevin P. Murphy, but related switching state-space models have been in use. == Applications == Applications of the switching Kalman filter include: Brain–computer interfaces and neural decod... | {
"page_id": 53543792,
"source": null,
"title": "Switching Kalman filter"
} |
) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\Pr(\{S_{t},X_{t}^{(1)},\ldots ,X_{t}^{(M)},Y_{t}\})\\={}&\Pr(S_{1})\prod _{t=2}^{T}\Pr(S_{t}\mid S_{t-1})\times \prod _{m=1}^{M}\Pr(X_{1}^{(m)})\prod _{t=2}^{T}\Pr(X_{t}^{(m)}\mid X_{t-1}^{(m)})\times \prod _{t=1}^{T}\Pr(Y_{t}\mid X_{t}^{(1)},\ldots ,X_{t}^{(M)},S_{t}).\end{aligned}... | {
"page_id": 53543792,
"source": null,
"title": "Switching Kalman filter"
} |
Cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting (CVT) is an autophagy-related pathway which occurs in fungi and specifically yeasts. This is a mechanism occurs under starvation conditions and moves molecules from the cytoplasm to vacuoles. This pathway is a production of complex molecules resulting in the digestion of cytoplasm compone... | {
"page_id": 34276211,
"source": null,
"title": "Cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting"
} |
of excess water and removal of waste. Understanding the functions of these organelles is imperative for understanding their complex relationship that occurs in the Cytoplasm to Vacuole Targeting Pathway (CVT). == In yeast == One of the main organisms in which the CVT pathway occurs is in fungi- in the form of yeasts. S... | {
"page_id": 34276211,
"source": null,
"title": "Cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting"
} |
The Thorpe reaction is a chemical reaction described as a self-condensation of aliphatic nitriles catalyzed by base to form enamines. The reaction was discovered by Jocelyn Field Thorpe. == Thorpe–Ziegler reaction == The Thorpe–Ziegler reaction (named after Jocelyn Field Thorpe and Karl Ziegler), or Ziegler method, is ... | {
"page_id": 7340915,
"source": null,
"title": "Thorpe reaction"
} |
Modern spectroscopy in the Western world started in the 17th century. New designs in optics, specifically prisms, enabled systematic observations of the solar spectrum. Isaac Newton first applied the word spectrum to describe the rainbow of colors that combine to form white light. During the early 1800s, Joseph von Fra... | {
"page_id": 35980148,
"source": null,
"title": "History of spectroscopy"
} |
Hooke, Huygens, Young. Subsequent experiments with prisms provided the first indications that spectra were associated uniquely with chemical constituents. Scientists observed the emission of distinct patterns of colour when salts were added to alcohol flames. === Early 19th century (1800–1829) === In 1802, William Hyde... | {
"page_id": 35980148,
"source": null,
"title": "History of spectroscopy"
} |
Talbot made systematic observations of salts using flame spectroscopy. === Mid-19th century (1830–1869) === In 1835, Charles Wheatstone reported that different metals could be easily distinguished by the different bright lines in the emission spectra of their sparks, thereby introducing an alternative mechanism to flam... | {
"page_id": 35980148,
"source": null,
"title": "History of spectroscopy"
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of eight elements and identified these elements' presence in several natural compounds. They demonstrated that spectroscopy could be used for trace chemical analysis and several of the chemical elements they discovered were previously unknown. Kirchhoff and Bunsen also definitively established the link between absorpti... | {
"page_id": 35980148,
"source": null,
"title": "History of spectroscopy"
} |
advance to shorter wavelengths very fast. In 1871, Stoney suggested using a wavenumber scale for spectra and Hartley followed up, finding constant wave-number differences in the triplets of zinc. : I:375 Liveing and Dewar observed that alkali spectra appeared to form a series and Alfred Cornu found similar structure in... | {
"page_id": 35980148,
"source": null,
"title": "History of spectroscopy"
} |
spectral lines. Bohr had been working on his atom during this period, but Bohr's model had only a single ground state and no spectra until he incorporated the Nicholson model and referenced the Nicholson papers in his model of the atom. In 1913, Bohr formulated his quantum mechanical model of atom. This stimulated empi... | {
"page_id": 35980148,
"source": null,
"title": "History of spectroscopy"
} |
spectrographs and photographed lines down to 4.4 nm (Kα of carbon). Dauvillier used a fatty acid crystal of large crystal grating space to extend soft x-ray spectra up to 12.1 nm, and the gap was closed. In the same period Manne Siegbahn constructed a very sophisticated grazing incidence spectrograph that enabled Erics... | {
"page_id": 35980148,
"source": null,
"title": "History of spectroscopy"
} |
Spitzer, and continued with tokamaks, z-pinches and the laser produced plasmas. Progress in ion accelerators stimulated beam-foil spectroscopy as a means to measure lifetimes of exited states of MIA. Many various data on highly exited energy levels, autoionization and inner-core ionization states were obtained. === Ele... | {
"page_id": 35980148,
"source": null,
"title": "History of spectroscopy"
} |
the first infrared spectrometers. With the development of these commercial spectrometers, Infrared Spectroscopy became a more popular method to determine the "fingerprint" for any molecule. Raman spectroscopy was first observed in 1928 by Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman in liquid substances and also by "Grigory Landsb... | {
"page_id": 35980148,
"source": null,
"title": "History of spectroscopy"
} |
wavelengths and frequencies to keep time. Laser spectroscopic techniques have been used for many different applications. One example is using laser spectroscopy to detect compounds in materials. One specific method is called Laser-induced Fluorescence Spectroscopy, and uses spectroscopic methods to be able to detect wh... | {
"page_id": 35980148,
"source": null,
"title": "History of spectroscopy"
} |
Simonellite (1,1-dimethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-7-isopropyl phenanthrene) is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon with a chemical formula C19H24. It is similar to retene. Simonellite occurs naturally as an organic mineral derived from diterpenes present in conifer resins. It is named after its discoverer, Vittorio Simonelli ... | {
"page_id": 7013240,
"source": null,
"title": "Simonellite"
} |
The National Standard Examination in Chemistry or NSEC is an examination in chemistry for higher secondary school students in India, usually conducted in the end of November. The examination is organized by the Indian Association of Chemistry Teachers. Over 30,000 students, mainly from Standard 12, sit for this examina... | {
"page_id": 8651640,
"source": null,
"title": "National Standard Examination in Chemistry"
} |
The Poisson–Boltzmann equation describes the distribution of the electric potential in solution in the direction normal to a charged surface. This distribution is important to determine how the electrostatic interactions will affect the molecules in solution. It is expressed as a differential equation of the electric p... | {
"page_id": 6161274,
"source": null,
"title": "Poisson–Boltzmann equation"
} |
describes the electrochemical potential of ions in the diffuse layer. The three-dimensional potential distribution can be described by the Poisson equation ∇ 2 ψ = ∂ 2 ψ ∂ x 2 + ∂ 2 ψ ∂ y 2 + ∂ 2 ψ ∂ z 2 = − ρ e ε , {\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\psi ={\frac {\partial ^{2}\psi }{\partial x^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}\psi }... | {
"page_id": 6161274,
"source": null,
"title": "Poisson–Boltzmann equation"
} |
i 0 exp ( − q i ψ ( x , y , z ) k B T ) {\displaystyle c_{i}=c_{i}^{0}\exp \left(-{\frac {q_{i}\psi (x,y,z)}{k_{B}T}}\right)} . Substituting this Boltzmann relation into the local electric charge density expression, the following expression can be obtained ρ e = ∑ i c i q i = ∑ i c i 0 q i exp ( − q i ψ ( x , y , z... | {
"page_id": 6161274,
"source": null,
"title": "Poisson–Boltzmann equation"
} |
the potential cannot change because of symmetry. Assuming these dimensions are the y and z dimensions, only the x dimension is left. Below is the Poisson–Boltzmann equation solved analytically in terms of a second order derivative with respect to x. d 2 ψ d x 2 = c 0 e ε ⋅ [ e e ψ ( x ) k B T − e − e ψ ( x ) k B T ] {\... | {
"page_id": 6161274,
"source": null,
"title": "Poisson–Boltzmann equation"
} |
and spans a wide variety of cases. ψ = ψ 0 e − K x {\displaystyle \psi =\psi _{0}e^{-\mathrm {K} x}} ==== Low-potential case conditions ==== Strictly, low potential means that e | ψ | ≪ k B T {\displaystyle e\left\vert \psi \right\vert \ll k_{\mathrm {B} }T} ; however, the results that the equations yields are valid fo... | {
"page_id": 6161274,
"source": null,
"title": "Poisson–Boltzmann equation"
} |
one-dimensional case”. In order to obtain the equation, the general solution to the Poisson–Boltzmann equation is used and the case of low potentials is dropped. The equation is solved with a dimensionless parameter y ≡ e ψ k B T {\displaystyle y\equiv {\frac {e\psi }{k_{B}T}}} , which is not to be confused with the sp... | {
"page_id": 6161274,
"source": null,
"title": "Poisson–Boltzmann equation"
} |
{\frac {e\psi }{k_{B}T}}} , substitute this for y in the previous equation and solve for ψ {\displaystyle \psi } . The following equation is rendered. ψ = 2 k B T e ⋅ ln e y 0 / 2 + 1 + ( e y 0 / 2 − 1 ) ⋅ e − K x e y 0 / 2 + 1 − ( e y 0 / 2 − 1 ) ⋅ e − K x {\displaystyle \psi ={\frac {2k_{B}T}{e}}\cdot \ln {\frac {e... | {
"page_id": 6161274,
"source": null,
"title": "Poisson–Boltzmann equation"
} |
on the surface of the molecule, as well as the electrostatic free energy. The linearized Poisson–Boltzmann equation can be used to calculate the electrostatic potential and free energy of highly charged molecules such as tRNA in an ionic solution with different number of bound ions at varying physiological ionic streng... | {
"page_id": 6161274,
"source": null,
"title": "Poisson–Boltzmann equation"
} |
pathway [5c]. The above expression can be rewritten into separate free energy terms based on different contributions to the total free energy Δ G el = Δ G ef + Δ G em + Δ G mob + Δ G solv {\displaystyle \Delta G^{\text{el}}=\Delta G^{\text{ef}}+\Delta G^{\text{em}}+\Delta G^{\text{mob}}+\Delta G^{\text{solv}}} where El... | {
"page_id": 6161274,
"source": null,
"title": "Poisson–Boltzmann equation"
} |
systems such as a mesoscopic system. This is done by solving the Poisson–Boltzmann equation analytically in the three-dimensional case. Solving this results in expressions of the distribution function for the Boltzmann equation and self-consistent average potential for the Poisson equation. These expressions are useful... | {
"page_id": 6161274,
"source": null,
"title": "Poisson–Boltzmann equation"
} |
self-consistent average potential of the system can be found using ρ ρ 1 + ρ 2 {\displaystyle \rho \rho _{1}+\rho _{2}} where ρ 1 ≈ a E z 2 λ D 1 e − λ D 1 z {\displaystyle \rho _{1}\approx {\frac {aE_{z}}{2\lambda _{D1}}}e^{-\lambda _{D1}z}} and ρ 2 ≈ n e π G ( i λ D 1 ) e − t τ 0 − λ D 1 z 3 3 ε λ D 1 ( 1 − e 1 − 2 n... | {
"page_id": 6161274,
"source": null,
"title": "Poisson–Boltzmann equation"
} |
other for the most part. Accounting for non-Coulombic interactions increases the ion concentration at the surface and leads to a reduced surface potential. On the other hand, including the finite size of the ions causes the opposite effect. The Poisson–Boltzmann equation is most appropriate for approximating the electr... | {
"page_id": 6161274,
"source": null,
"title": "Poisson–Boltzmann equation"
} |
In clinical trials, a surrogate endpoint (or surrogate marker) is a measure of effect of a specific treatment that may correlate with a real clinical endpoint but does not necessarily have a guaranteed relationship. The National Institutes of Health (USA) defines surrogate endpoint as "a biomarker intended to substitut... | {
"page_id": 1180539,
"source": null,
"title": "Surrogate endpoint"
} |
in a clinically meaningful endpoint. == Examples == === Cardiovascular disease === A commonly used example is cholesterol. While elevated cholesterol levels increase the likelihood for heart disease, the relationship is not linear - many people with normal cholesterol develop heart disease, and many with high cholester... | {
"page_id": 1180539,
"source": null,
"title": "Surrogate endpoint"
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hepatitis A, etc), the induction of detectable antibodies in blood is used as a surrogate marker for vaccine effectiveness, as exposure of individuals to an actual pathogen is considered unethical. === Alzheimer's disease === A recent study showed that plasma biomarkers have the potential to be used as surrogate biomar... | {
"page_id": 1180539,
"source": null,
"title": "Surrogate endpoint"
} |
Nanochemistry is an emerging sub-discipline of the chemical and material sciences that deals with the development of new methods for creating nanoscale materials. The term "nanochemistry" was first used by Ozin in 1992 as 'the uses of chemical synthesis to reproducibly afford nanomaterials from the atom "up", contrary ... | {
"page_id": 4653948,
"source": null,
"title": "Nanochemistry"
} |
particles synthesized by Michael Faraday as early as 1857. By the early 1940’s, precipitated and fumed silica nanoparticles were being manufactured and sold in USA and Germany as substitutes for ultrafine carbon black for rubber reinforcements. == Applications == === Medicine === ==== Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) D... | {
"page_id": 4653948,
"source": null,
"title": "Nanochemistry"
} |
nanodiamonds have demonstrated potential in drug delivery due to non-toxicity, spontaneous absorption through the skin, and the ability to enter the blood–brain barrier. The unique structure of carbon nanotubes also gives rise to many innovative inventions of new medical methods. As more medicine is made at the nano le... | {
"page_id": 4653948,
"source": null,
"title": "Nanochemistry"
} |
Cosmetics === Materials in certain cosmetics such as sun cream, moisturizer, and deodorant may have potential benefits from the use of nanochemistry. Manufacturers are working to increase the effectiveness of various cosmetics by facilitating oil nanoemulsion. These particles have extended the boundaries in managing wr... | {
"page_id": 4653948,
"source": null,
"title": "Nanochemistry"
} |
predictable nanostructure of these small-sized enzymes have allowed them to create a complex structure on their surface that can meet the needs of specific applications == Research areas == === Nanodiamonds === ==== Synthesis ==== Fluorescent nanoparticles are highly sought after. They have broad applications, but thei... | {
"page_id": 4653948,
"source": null,
"title": "Nanochemistry"
} |
issued February 5, 2008, assigned to Academia Sinica, Taipei (TW) , and a subsequent patent in 2012 States8168413 B2 United States 8168413 B2, Huan-Cheng Chang; Wunshian Fann & Chau-Chung Han, "Luminescent Diamond Particles", issued May 1, 2012, assigned to Academia Sinica, Taipei (TW) . NV centers can be created by ir... | {
"page_id": 4653948,
"source": null,
"title": "Nanochemistry"
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globular proteins. Nanodiamonds have been mostly studied as potential injectable therapeutic agents for generalized drug delivery, but it has also been shown that films of Parylene nanodiamond composites can be used for localized sustained release of drugs over periods ranging from two days to one month. === Nanolithog... | {
"page_id": 4653948,
"source": null,
"title": "Nanochemistry"
} |
The polymer changes its structure when it is exposed to radiation. The solvent allows the photoresist to be spun and to form thin layers over the wafer surface. Finally, the sensitizer, or inhibitor, controls the photochemical reaction in the polymer phase. Photoresists can be classified as positive or negative. In pos... | {
"page_id": 4653948,
"source": null,
"title": "Nanochemistry"
} |
3.0 nm. Interest in the magnetic properties of nanoclusters exists due to their potential use in magnetic recording, magnetic fluids, permanent magnets, and catalysis. Analysis of Fe clusters shows behavior consistent with ferromagnetic or superparamagnetic behavior due to strong magnetic interactions within clusters. ... | {
"page_id": 4653948,
"source": null,
"title": "Nanochemistry"
} |
thermal properties and can be used potentially as biological sensors. Research under Lieber has delved into the use of nanowires mapping brain activity. Shimon Weiss, a professor at the University of California, Los Angeles, is known for his research of fluorescent semiconductor nanocrystals, a subclass of quantum dots... | {
"page_id": 4653948,
"source": null,
"title": "Nanochemistry"
} |
The Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics in Halle (Saale) is a research institute in Germany focused novel materials with useful functionalities. Active research topics includes spintronics, neuromorphic systems, nano-photonics, topological metals and insulators etc . It was founded in 1992 by Hellmut Fischme... | {
"page_id": 10421112,
"source": null,
"title": "Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics"
} |
Argon is a chemical element; it has symbol Ar and atomic number 18. It is in group 18 of the periodic table and is a noble gas. Argon is the third most abundant gas in Earth's atmosphere, at 0.934% (9340 ppmv). It is more than twice as abundant as water vapor (which averages about 4000 ppmv, but varies greatly), 23 tim... | {
"page_id": 896,
"source": null,
"title": "Argon"
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is 2.5 times more soluble in water than nitrogen. Argon is colorless, odorless, nonflammable and nontoxic as a solid, liquid or gas. Argon is chemically inert under most conditions and forms no confirmed stable compounds at room temperature. Although argon is a noble gas, it can form some compounds under various extrem... | {
"page_id": 896,
"source": null,
"title": "Argon"
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the alkali solution. The arc was powered by a battery of five Grove cells and a Ruhmkorff coil of medium size. The alkali absorbed the oxides of nitrogen produced by the arc and also carbon dioxide. They operated the arc until no more reduction of volume of the gas could be seen for at least an hour or two and the spec... | {
"page_id": 896,
"source": null,
"title": "Argon"
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stable 40Ar (11.2%) by electron capture or positron emission, and also to stable 40Ca (88.8%) by beta decay. These properties and ratios are used to determine the age of rocks by K–Ar dating. In Earth's atmosphere, 39Ar is made by cosmic ray activity, primarily by neutron capture of 40Ar followed by two-neutron emissio... | {
"page_id": 896,
"source": null,
"title": "Argon"
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Moseley later solved this problem by showing that the periodic table is actually arranged in order of atomic number (see History of the periodic table). == Compounds == Argon's complete octet of electrons indicates full s and p subshells. This full valence shell makes argon very stable and extremely resistant to bondin... | {
"page_id": 896,
"source": null,
"title": "Argon"
} |
700,000 tonnes of argon are produced worldwide every year. == Applications == Argon has several desirable properties: Argon is a chemically inert gas. Argon is the cheapest alternative when nitrogen is not sufficiently inert. Argon has low thermal conductivity. Argon has electronic properties (ionization and/or the emi... | {
"page_id": 896,
"source": null,
"title": "Argon"
} |
it replaces oxygen within the dead bird, argon also enhances shelf life. Argon is sometimes used for extinguishing fires where valuable equipment may be damaged by water or foam. === Scientific research === Liquid argon is used as the target for neutrino experiments and direct dark matter searches. The interaction betw... | {
"page_id": 896,
"source": null,
"title": "Argon"
} |
results in a film usable for manufacturing computer processors. The new process would eliminate the need for chemical baths and use of expensive, dangerous and rare materials. === Preservative === Argon is used to displace oxygen- and moisture-containing air in packaging material to extend the shelf-lives of the conten... | {
"page_id": 896,
"source": null,
"title": "Argon"
} |
of thin films as in microelectronics and for wafer cleaning in microfabrication. === Medical use === Cryosurgery procedures such as cryoablation use liquid argon to destroy tissue such as cancer cells. It is used in a procedure called "argon-enhanced coagulation", a form of argon plasma beam electrosurgery. The procedu... | {
"page_id": 896,
"source": null,
"title": "Argon"
} |
metamorphic, and igneous rocks. Argon has been used by athletes as a doping agent to simulate hypoxic conditions. In 2014, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) added argon and xenon to the list of prohibited substances and methods, although at this time there is no reliable test for abuse. == Safety == Although argon is... | {
"page_id": 896,
"source": null,
"title": "Argon"
} |
Arsenic is a chemical element; it has symbol As and atomic number 33. It is a metalloid and one of the pnictogens, and therefore shares many properties with its group 15 neighbors phosphorus and antimony. Arsenic is notoriously toxic. It occurs naturally in many minerals, usually in combination with sulfur and metals, ... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
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Physical characteristics === The three most common arsenic allotropes are grey, yellow, and black arsenic, with grey being the most common. Grey arsenic (α-As, space group R3m No. 166) adopts a double-layered structure consisting of many interlocked, ruffled, six-membered rings. Because of weak bonding between the laye... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
and is therefore called a monoisotopic element. As of 2024, at least 32 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 64 to 95. The most stable of these is 73As with a half-life of 80.30 days. The majority of the other isotopes have half-lives of under one day, with the exceptions being Isotopes... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
bromine, which like arsenic succeed the 3d transition series, arsenic is much less stable in the +5 oxidation state than its vertical neighbors phosphorus and antimony, and hence arsenic pentoxide and arsenic acid are potent oxidizers. == Compounds == Compounds of arsenic resemble, in some respects, those of phosphorus... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
arsenic acid are similar to those between phosphate and phosphoric acid. Unlike phosphorous acid, arsenous acid is genuinely tribasic, with the formula As(OH)3. A broad variety of sulfur compounds of arsenic are known. Orpiment (As2S3) and realgar (As4S4) are somewhat abundant and were formerly used as painting pigment... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
was named from the Greek κακωδία "stink" for its offensive, garlic-like odor; it is very toxic. == Occurrence and production == Arsenic is the 53rd most abundant element in the Earth's crust, comprising about 1.5 parts per million (0.00015%). Typical background concentrations of arsenic do not exceed 3 ng/m3 in the atm... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
by distillation from molten lead-arsenic mixture. == History == The word arsenic has its origin in the Syriac word ܙܪܢܝܟܐ zarnika, from Arabic al-zarnīḵ الزرنيخ 'the orpiment', based on Persian zar ("gold") from the word زرنيخ zarnikh, meaning "yellow" (literally "gold-colored") and hence "(yellow) orpiment". It was ad... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
1760 by Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt through the reaction of potassium acetate with arsenic trioxide. In the Victorian era, women would eat "arsenic" ("white arsenic" or arsenic trioxide) mixed with vinegar and chalk to improve the complexion of their faces, making their skin paler (to show they did not work in the... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
caused by a massive overdose of arsenic. Sydney veterinarian Percy Sykes stated, "In those days, arsenic was quite a common tonic, usually given in the form of a solution (Fowler's Solution) ... It was so common that I'd reckon 90 per cent of the horses had arsenic in their system." == Applications == === Agricultural ... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
greatly reduces arsenic phytotoxicity. Arsenic is used as a feed additive in poultry and swine production, in particular it was used in the U.S. until 2015 to increase weight gain, improve feed efficiency, and prevent disease. An example is roxarsone, which had been used as a broiler starter by about 70% of U.S. broile... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
Dezincification of brass (a copper-zinc alloy) is greatly reduced by the addition of arsenic. "Phosphorus Deoxidized Arsenical Copper" with an arsenic content of 0.3% has an increased corrosion stability in certain environments. Gallium arsenide is an important semiconductor material, used in integrated circuits. Circu... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
in the taxidermy process up until the 1980s. Arsenic was used as an opacifier in ceramics, creating white glazes. Until recently, arsenic was used in optical glass. Modern glass manufacturers have ceased using both arsenic and lead. == Biological role == === Bacteria === Some species of bacteria obtain their energy in ... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
the DNA of GFAJ-1 and found no detectable arsenate incorporated into the DNA backbone. The authors concluded that the original observations were likely due to experimental contamination or insufficient purification methods. Together, these studies reaffirmed phosphorus as an essential element for all known forms of lif... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
and susceptibility. The Chinese brake fern (Pteris vittata) hyperaccumulates arsenic from the soil into its leaves and has a proposed use in phytoremediation. === Biomethylation === Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering the food chain, are progressively metabolized through a process of methylation. For exa... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
with arsenic concentrations elevated above the World Health Organization's standard of 10 parts per billion (ppb). However, a study of cancer rates in Taiwan suggested that significant increases in cancer mortality appear only at levels above 150 ppb. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and is released... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
by IIT Kharagpur found high levels of Arsenic in groundwater of 20% of India's land, exposing more than 250 million people. States such as Punjab, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Gujarat have highest land area exposed to arsenic. In the United States, arsenic is most commonly found in the ground ... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
been demonstrated at contaminations less than 50 ppb. Arsenic is itself a constituent of tobacco smoke. Analyzing multiple epidemiological studies on inorganic arsenic exposure suggests a small but measurable increase in risk for bladder cancer at 10 ppb. According to Peter Ravenscroft of the Department of Geography at... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
wells 500 feet or deeper to reach purer waters. A recent 2011 study funded by the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences' Superfund Research Program shows that deep sediments can remove arsenic and take it out of circulation. In this process, called adsorption, arsenic sticks to the surfaces of deep sed... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
mainly from minerals and ions in the ground. === Redox transformation of arsenic in natural waters === Arsenic is unique among the trace metalloids and oxyanion-forming trace metals (e.g. As, Se, Sb, Mo, V, Cr, U, Re). It is sensitive to mobilization at pH values typical of natural waters (pH 6.5–8.5) under both oxidiz... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
environments at neutral pH. Therefore, arsenic may be more mobile under reducing conditions. The reducing environment is also rich in organic matter which may enhance the solubility of arsenic compounds. As a result, the adsorption of arsenic is reduced and dissolved arsenic accumulates in groundwater. That is why the ... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
reduction of oxygen or nitrate. They use obtained energy to fix produce organic carbon from CO2. HAO cannot obtain energy from As(III) oxidation. This process may be an arsenic detoxification mechanism for the bacteria. Equilibrium thermodynamic calculations predict that As(V) concentrations should be greater than As(I... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
most concerning to the general public. The vast majority of older pressure-treated wood was treated with CCA. CCA lumber is still in widespread use in many countries, and was heavily used during the latter half of the 20th century as a structural and outdoor building material. Although the use of CCA lumber was banned ... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
environmentally friendly. Bioremediation of ground water contaminated with arsenic aims to convert arsenite, the toxic form of arsenic to humans, to arsenate. Arsenate (+5 oxidation state) is the dominant form of arsenic in surface water, while arsenite (+3 oxidation state) is the dominant form in hypoxic to anoxic env... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
arsine). Small amount of arsenic can be detected by pharmacopoial methods which includes reduction of arsenic to arsenious with help of zinc and can be confirmed with mercuric chloride paper. === Classification === Elemental arsenic and arsenic sulfate and trioxide compounds are classified as "toxic" and "dangerous for... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
and began blocking importation of products in excess of this level; it also required recalls for non-conforming domestic products. In 2011, the national Dr. Oz television show broadcast a program highlighting tests performed by an independent lab hired by the producers. Though the methodology was disputed (it did not d... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
has not recommended any changes in consumer behavior. Consumer Reports recommended: That the EPA and FDA eliminate arsenic-containing fertilizer, drugs, and pesticides in food production; That the FDA establish a legal limit for food; That industry change production practices to lower arsenic levels, especially in food... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
the form of cysteine residues and cofactors such as lipoic acid and coenzyme A, are situated at the active sites of many important enzymes. Arsenic disrupts ATP production through several mechanisms. At the level of the citric acid cycle, arsenic inhibits lipoic acid, which is a cofactor for pyruvate dehydrogenase. By ... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
the long-term effects of arsenic exposure cannot be predicted. Blood, urine, hair, and nails may be tested for arsenic; however, these tests cannot foresee possible health outcomes from the exposure. Long-term exposure and consequent excretion through urine has been linked to bladder and kidney cancer in addition to ca... | {
"page_id": 897,
"source": null,
"title": "Arsenic"
} |
Antimony is a chemical element; it has symbol Sb (from Latin stibium) and atomic number 51. A lustrous grey metal or metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (Sb2S3). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics, often known by... | {
"page_id": 898,
"source": null,
"title": "Antimony"
} |
is metallic, brittle, silver-white, and shiny. It crystallises in a trigonal cell, isomorphic with bismuth and the gray allotrope of arsenic, and is formed when molten antimony is cooled slowly. Amorphous black antimony is formed upon rapid cooling of antimony vapor, and is only stable as a thin film (thickness in nano... | {
"page_id": 898,
"source": null,
"title": "Antimony"
} |
most stable of these is 120m1Sb with a half-life of 5.76 days. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 123Sb tend to decay by β+ decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β− decay, with some exceptions. Antimony is the lightest element to have an isotope with an alpha decay branch, excluding 8Be and other li... | {
"page_id": 898,
"source": null,
"title": "Antimony"
} |
precipitate contains mixed oxides.: 143 The most important antimony ore is stibnite (Sb2S3). Other sulfide minerals include pyrargyrite (Ag3SbS3), zinkenite, jamesonite, and boulangerite. Antimony pentasulfide is non-stoichiometric, which features antimony in the +3 oxidation state and S–S bonds. Several thioantimonide... | {
"page_id": 898,
"source": null,
"title": "Antimony"
} |
Sb3+ salts with hydride reagents such as sodium borohydride. Stibine decomposes spontaneously at room temperature. Because stibine has a positive heat of formation, it is thermodynamically unstable and thus antimony does not react with hydrogen directly. Organoantimony compounds are typically prepared by alkylation of ... | {
"page_id": 898,
"source": null,
"title": "Antimony"
} |
of antimony; the male form is probably the sulfide, while the female form, which is superior, heavier, and less friable, has been suspected to be native metallic antimony. The Greek naturalist Pedanius Dioscorides mentioned that antimony sulfide could be roasted by heating by a current of air. It is thought that this p... | {
"page_id": 898,
"source": null,
"title": "Antimony"
} |
Greek take their names for antimony, is antimonium. The origin of that is uncertain, and all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation. The popular etymology, from ἀντίμοναχός anti-monachos or French antimoine, would mean "monk-killer", which is explained by the fact that many early alchemists w... | {
"page_id": 898,
"source": null,
"title": "Antimony"
} |
ores depends on the quality and composition of the ore. Most antimony is mined as the sulfide; lower-grade ores are concentrated by froth flotation, while higher-grade ores are heated to 500–600 °C, the temperature at which stibnite melts and separates from the gangue minerals. Antimony can be isolated from the crude a... | {
"page_id": 898,
"source": null,
"title": "Antimony"
} |
antimony is considered to be a critical mineral for industrial manufacturing that is at risk of supply chain disruption. With global production coming mainly from China (74%), Tajikistan (8%), and Russia (4%), these sources are critical to supply. European Union: Antimony is considered a critical raw material for defen... | {
"page_id": 898,
"source": null,
"title": "Antimony"
} |
characteristics. For sailboats, lead keels are used to provide righting moment, ranging from 600 lbs to over 200 tons for the largest sailing superyachts; to improve hardness and tensile strength of the lead keel, antimony is mixed with lead between 2% and 5% by volume. Antimony is used in antifriction alloys (such as ... | {
"page_id": 898,
"source": null,
"title": "Antimony"
} |
Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues in animals. Antimony-based drugs, such as meglumine antimoniate, are also considered the drugs of choice for treatment of leishmaniasis. Early treatments used antimony(III) species (trivalent antimonials), but in 1922 Upendranath Brahmachari invent... | {
"page_id": 898,
"source": null,
"title": "Antimony"
} |
the cell (in fact antimony(III) is oxidised to antimony(V) instead). Since methylation of antimony does not occur, the excretion of antimony(V) in urine is the main way of elimination. Like arsenic, the most serious effect of acute antimony poisoning is cardiotoxicity and the resulting myocarditis; however, it can also... | {
"page_id": 898,
"source": null,
"title": "Antimony"
} |
to be toxic, particularly antimony trioxide and antimony potassium tartrate. Effects may be similar to arsenic poisoning. Occupational exposure may cause respiratory irritation, pneumoconiosis, antimony spots on the skin, gastrointestinal symptoms, and cardiac arrhythmias. In addition, antimony trioxide is potentially ... | {
"page_id": 898,
"source": null,
"title": "Antimony"
} |
A nonthermal plasma, cold plasma or non-equilibrium plasma is a plasma which is not in thermodynamic equilibrium, because the electron temperature is much hotter than the temperature of heavy species (ions and neutrals). As only electrons are thermalized, their Maxwell-Boltzmann velocity distribution is very different ... | {
"page_id": 6161283,
"source": null,
"title": "Nonthermal plasma"
} |
However, in practice this confusion has not been an issue. "Cold plasmas" may also loosely refer to weakly ionized gases (degree of ionization < 0.01%). ==== Nomenclature ==== The nomenclature for nonthermal plasma found in the scientific literature is varied. In some cases, the plasma is referred to by the specific te... | {
"page_id": 6161283,
"source": null,
"title": "Nonthermal plasma"
} |
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