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Vijay Raghunath Pandharipande (August 7, 1940 – January 3, 2006) was an Indian-American physicist, who played a leading role in the development of the nuclear many-body problem. == Biography == Pandharipande obtained his bachelor's and master's degree from Nagpur University in 1959 and 1961 respectively. He earned his PhD degree from University of Bombay in 1969. After working at Niels Bohr Institute and Cornell University, Pandharipande joined the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1972, becoming a faculty member there in the next year. He became a full professor in 1977 and stayed there the rest of his life. In recognition of his fundamental contributions to determining the structure of light nuclei by solving the Schrödinger problem with more than three nucleons using realistic nucleon-nucleon interactions supplemented by three-body forces, Pandharipande was awarded the prestigious Tom W. Bonner Prize in Nuclear Physics of the American Physical Society in 1999. His son, Rahul Pandharipande is a leading mathematician working on algebraic geometry. == References ==
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Sage oils are essential oils that come in several varieties: == Dalmatian sage oil == Also called English, Garden, and True sage oil. Made by steam distillation of Salvia officinalis partially dried leaves. Yields range from 0.5 to 1.0%. A colorless to yellow liquid with a warm camphoraceous, thujone-like odor and sharp and bitter taste. The main components of the oil are thujone (50%), camphor, pinene, and cineol. == Clary sage oil == Sometimes called muscatel. Made by steam or water distillation of Salvia sclarea flowering tops and foliage. Yields range from 0.7 to 1.5%. A pale yellow to yellow liquid with a herbaceous odor and a winelike bouquet. Produced in large quantities in France, Russia and Morocco. The oil contains linalyl acetate, linalool and other terpene alcohols (sclareol), as well as their acetates. == Spanish sage oil == Made by steam distillation of the leaves and twigs of S. officinalis subsp. lavandulifolia (syn. S. lavandulifolia). A colorless to pale yellow liquid with the characteristic camphoraceous odor. Unlike Dalmatian sage oil, Spanish sage oil contains no or only traces of thujone; camphor and eucalyptol are the major components. == Greek sage oil == Made by steam distillation of Salvia triloba leaves. Grows in Greece and Turkey. Yields range from 0.25% to 4%. The oil contains camphor, thujone, and pinene, the dominant component being eucalyptol. == Judaean sage oil == Made by steam distillation of Salvia judaica leaves. The oil contains mainly cubebene and ledol. == References ==
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Theories of cloaking discusses various theories based on science and research, for producing an electromagnetic cloaking device. Theories presented employ transformation optics, event cloaking, dipolar scattering cancellation, tunneling light transmittance, sensors and active sources, and acoustic cloaking. A cloaking device is one where the purpose of the transformation is to hide something, so that a defined region of space is invisibly isolated from passing electromagnetic fields (see Metamaterial cloaking) or sound waves. Objects in the defined location are still present, but incident waves are guided around them without being affected by the object itself. Along with this basic "cloaking device", other related concepts have been proposed in peer reviewed, scientific articles, and are discussed here. Naturally, some of the theories discussed here also employ metamaterials, either electromagnetic or acoustic, although often in a different manner than the original demonstration and its successor, the broad-band cloak. == The first electromagnetic cloak == The first electromagnetic cloaking device was produced in 2006, using gradient-index metamaterials. This has led to the burgeoning field of transformation optics (and now transformation acoustics), where the propagation of waves is precisely manipulated by controlling the behaviour of the material through which the light (sound) is travelling. == Ordinary spatial cloaking == Waves and the host material in which they propagate have a symbiotic relationship: both act on each other. A simple spatial cloak relies on fine tuning the properties of the propagation medium in order to direct the flow smoothly around an object, like water flowing past a rock in a stream, but without reflection, or without creating turbulence. Another analogy is that of a flow of cars passing a symmetrical traffic island – the cars are temporarily diverted, but can later reassemble themselves into a smooth flow that holds no information about whether the traffic island
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was small or large, or whether flowers or a large advertising billboard might have been planted on it. Although both analogies given above have an implied direction (that of the water flow, or of the road orientation), cloaks are often designed so as to be isotropic, i.e. to work equally well for all orientations. However, they do not need to be so general, and might only work in two dimensions, as in the original electromagnetic demonstration, or only from one side, as for the so-called carpet cloak. Spatial cloaks have other characteristics: whatever they contain can (in principle) be kept invisible forever, since an object inside the cloak may simply remain there. Signals emitted by the objects inside the cloak that are not absorbed can likewise be trapped forever by its internal structure. If a spatial cloak could be turned off and on again at will, the objects inside would then appear and disappear accordingly. == Space-time cloaking == The event cloak is a means of manipulating electromagnetic radiation in space and time in such a way that a certain collection of happenings, or events, is concealed from distant observers. Conceptually, a safecracker can enter a scene, steal the cash and exit, whilst a surveillance camera records the safe door locked and undisturbed all the time. The concept utilizes the science of metamaterials in which light can be made to behave in ways that are not found in naturally occurring materials. The event cloak works by designing a medium in which different parts of the light illuminating a certain region can be either slowed or accelerated. A leading portion of the light is accelerated so that it arrives before the events occur, whilst a trailing part is slowed and arrives too late. After their occurrence, the light is reformed by
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slowing the leading part and accelerating the trailing part. The distant observer only sees a continuous illumination, whilst the events that occurred during the dark period of the cloak's operation remain undetected. The concept can be related to traffic flowing along a highway: at a certain point some cars are accelerated up, whilst the ones behind are slowed. The result is a temporary gap in the traffic allowing a pedestrian to cross. After this, the process can be reversed so that the traffic resumes its continuous flow without a gap. Regarding the cars as light particles (photons), the act of the pedestrian crossing the road is never suspected by the observer down the highway, who sees an uninterrupted and unperturbed flow of cars. For absolute concealment, the events must be non-radiating. If they do emit light during their occurrence (e.g. by fluorescence), then this light is received by the distant observer as a single flash. Applications of the Event Cloak include the possibility to achieve `interrupt-without-interrupt' in data channels that converge at a node. A primary calculation can be temporarily suspended to process priority information from another channel. Afterwards the suspended channel can be resumed in such a way as to appear as though it was never interrupted. The idea of the event cloak was first proposed by a team of researchers at Imperial College London (UK) in 2010, and published in the Journal of Optics. An experimental demonstration of the basic concept using nonlinear optical technology has been presented in a preprint on the Cornell physics arXiv. This uses time lenses to slow down and speed up the light, and thereby improves on the original proposal from McCall et al. which instead relied on the nonlinear refractive index of optical fibres. The experiment claims a cloaked time interval of
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about 10 picoseconds, but that extension into the nanosecond and microsecond regimes should be possible. An event cloaking scheme that requires a single dispersive medium (instead of two successive media with opposite dispersion) has also been proposed based on accelerating wavepackets. The idea is based on modulating a part of a monochromatic light wave with a discontinuous nonlinear frequency chirp so that two opposite accelerating caustics are created in space–time as the different frequency components propagate at different group velocities in the dispersive medium. Due to the structure of the frequency chirp, the expansion and contraction of the time gap happen continuously in the same medium thus creating a biconvex time gap that conceals the enclosed events. == Anomalous localized resonance cloaking == In 2006, the same year as the first metamaterial cloak, another type of cloak was proposed. This type of cloaking exploits resonance of light waves while matching the resonance of another object. In particular a particle placed near a superlens would appear to disappear as the light surrounding the particle resonates as the same frequency as the superlens. The resonance would effectively cancel out the light reflecting from the particle, rendering the particle electromagnetically invisible. == Cloaking objects at a distance == In 2009, a passive cloaking device was designed to be an 'external invisibility device' that leaves the concealed object out in the open so that it can ‘see’ its surroundings. This is based on the premise that cloaking research has not adequately provided a solution to an inherent problem; because no electromagnetic radiation can enter or leave the cloaked space, this leaves the concealed object of the cloak without ability to detect visually, or otherwise, anything outside the cloaked space. Such a cloaking device is also capable of ‘cloaking’ only parts of an object, such
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as opening a virtual peep hole on a wall so as to see the other side. The traffic analogy used above for the spatial cloak can be adapted (albeit imperfectly) to describe this process. Imagine that a car has broken down in the vicinity of the roundabout, and is disrupting the traffic flow, causing cars to take different routes or creating a traffic jam. This exterior cloak corresponds to a carefully misshapen roundabout which manages to cancel or counteract the effect of the broken down car – so that as the traffic flow departs, there is again no evidence in it of either the roundabout or of the broken down car. == Plasmonic cover == The plasmonic cover, mentioned alongside metamaterial covers (see plasmonic metamaterials), theoretically utilizes plasmonic resonance effects to reduce the total scattering cross section of spherical and cylindrical objects. These are lossless metamaterial covers near their plasma resonance which could possibly induce a dramatic drop in the scattering cross section, making these objects nearly “invisible” or “transparent” to an outside observer. Low loss, even no-loss, passive covers might be utilized that do not require high dissipation, but rely on a completely different mechanism. Materials with either negative or low value constitutive parameters, are required for this effect. Certain metals near their plasma frequency, or metamaterials with negative parameters could fill this need. For example, several noble metals achieve this requirement because of their electrical permittivity at the infra-red or visible wavelengths with relatively low loss. Currently only microscopically small objects could possibly appear transparent. These materials are further described as a homogeneous, isotropic, metamaterial covers near plasma frequency dramatically reducing the fields scattered by a given object. Furthermore, These do not require any absorptive process, any anisotropy or inhomogeneity, and nor any interference cancellation. The "classical theory"
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of metamaterial covers works with light of only one specific frequency. A new research, of Kort-Kamp et al, who won the prize “School on Nonlinear Optics and Nanophotonics” of 2013, shows that is possible to tune the metamaterial to different light frequencies. == Tunneling light transmission cloak == As implied in the nomenclature, this is a type of light transmission. Transmission of light (EM radiation) through an object such as metallic film occurs with an assist of tunnelling between resonating inclusions. This effect can be created by embedding a periodic configuration of dielectrics in a metal, for example. By creating and observing transmission peaks interactions between the dielectrics and interference effects cause mixing and splitting of resonances. With an effective permittivity close to unity, the results can be used to propose a method for turning the resulting materials invisible. == More research in cloaking technology == There are other proposals for use of the cloaking technology. In 2007 cloaking with metamaterials is reviewed and deficiencies are presented. At the same time, theoretical solutions are presented that could improve the capability to cloak objects. Later in 2007, a mathematical improvement in the cylindrical shielding to produce an electromagnetic "wormhole", is analyzed in three dimensions. Electromagnetic wormholes, as an optical device (not gravitational) are derived from cloaking theories has potential applications for advancing some current technology. Other advances may be realized with an acoustic superlens. In addition, acoustic metamaterials have realized negative refraction for sound waves. Possible advances could be enhanced ultrasound scans, sharpening sonic medical scans, seismic maps with more detail, and buildings no longer susceptible to earthquakes. Underground imaging may be improved with finer details. The acoustic superlens, acoustic cloaking, and acoustic metamaterials translates into novel applications for focusing, or steering, sonic waves. Acoustic cloaking technology could be used to
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stop a sonar-using observer from detecting the presence of an object that would normally be detectable as it reflects or scatters sound waves. Ideally, the technology would encompass a broad spectrum of vibrations on a variety of scales. The range might be from miniature electronic or mechanical components up to large earthquakes. Although most progress has been made on mathematical and theoretical solutions, a laboratory metamaterial device for evading sonar has been recently demonstrated. It can be applied to sound wavelengths from 40 to 80 kHz. Waves also apply to bodies of water. A theory has been developed for a cloak that could "hide", or protect, man-made platforms, ships, and natural coastlines from destructive ocean waves, including tsunamis. == See also == Books Metamaterials Handbook Metamaterials: Physics and Engineering Explorations == References ==
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Vanadyl ribonucleoside is a potent transition-state analog of ribonucleic acid and potent inhibitor of many species of ribonuclease formed from a vanadium coordination complex and one ribonucleoside. Vanadium's [Ar] 3d3 4s2 electron configuration allows it to make five sigma bonds and two pi bonds with adjacent atoms. == History == RNA is notoriously unstable and vulnerable to ribonucleases, which has thus been an obstacle to the production and analysis of the cellular transcriptome. First referenced by Berger et al., the substance was used to prevent the digestion of RNA during isolation from white blood cells, and was rapidly adopted for such purposes as the acquisition of RNA from green beans. == Production == Vanadyl ribonucleoside is produced by combining vanadyl sulphate with various ribonucleosides (such as guanosine) in a 1:10 molar ratio. == Use == Vanadyl ribonucleoside, along with other RNase inhibitors, has been a staple of molecular biochemistry since its invention by allowing for the stability of RNA in its storage and use. == References ==
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"page_id": 66521027,
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"title": "Vanadyl ribonucleoside"
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Zinin reaction or Zinin reduction involves reduction of nitro aromatic compounds to the amines using sodium sulfide. It is used to convert nitrobenzenes to anilines. The reaction selectively reduces nitro groups in the presence of other easily reduced functional groups (e.g., aryl halides and C=C bonds) are present in the molecule. == Reaction mechanism and example == The reaction requires water, with thiosulfate being formed as a by-product. A possible stoichiometry for the reaction is: 4 ArNO2 + 6 S2- + 7 H2O → 4 ArNH2 + 3 S2O32- + 6 OH− Mechanistic studies have implicated a role for disulfide that is generated in situ. Nitrosobenzenes (ArNO) and phenylhydroxylamine (ArNHOH) are probable intermediates. Dinitrobenzenes can often be reduced selectively to the nitroaniline, for example in the synthesis of 3-nitroaniline from 1,3-dinitrobenzene == History == The reaction was discovered by a Russian organic chemist Nikolay Zinin (Russian: Николай Николаевич Зинин) (25 August 1812, Shusha – 18 February 1880, Saint Petersburg). == References ==
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"page_id": 32180168,
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"title": "Zinin reaction"
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Walter Minder (August 6, 1905 – April 1, 1992) was a Swiss mineralogist and chemist. In 1931, he became professor of radiology at the Institut du Radium at the University of Bern. He together with Alice Leigh-Smith announced the discovery of element 85 (now called astatine) in 1940 and 1942. He proposed the name helvetium in 1940 and anglohelvetium in 1942 for the new element. Later it was proven that in fact he had not discovered element 85. Later he worked on dosimetry and the effects of ionising radiation. He was a pacifist and regretted that the atomic bomb had been dropped on Hiroshima on his 40th birthday. In 1960 he participated in two pacifist demonstrations against the possibility of Switzerland purchasing nuclear weapons. He retired in 1964. He published a book on the history of radioactivity in 1981. == References ==
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The ionones, from greek ἴον ion "violet", are a series of closely related chemical substances that are part of a group of compounds known as rose ketones, which also includes damascones and damascenones. Ionones are aroma compounds found in a variety of essential oils, including rose oil. β-Ionone is a significant contributor to the aroma of roses, despite its relatively low concentration, and is an important fragrance chemical used in perfumery. The ionones are derived from the degradation of carotenoids. The combination of α-ionone and β-ionone is characteristic of the scent of violets and used with other components in perfumery and flavouring to recreate their scent. The carotenes α-carotene, β-carotene, γ-carotene, and the xanthophyll β-cryptoxanthin, can all be metabolized to β-ionone, and thus have vitamin A activity because they can be converted by plant-eating animals to retinol and retinal. Carotenoids that do not contain the β-ionone moiety cannot be converted to retinol, and thus have no vitamin A activity. == Biosynthesis == Carotenoids are the precursors of important fragrance compounds in several flowers. For example, a 2010 study of ionones in Osmanthus fragrans Lour. var. aurantiacus determined its essential oil contained the highest diversity of carotenoid-derived volatiles among the flowering plants investigated. A cDNA encoding a carotenoid cleavage enzyme, OfCCD1, was identified from transcripts isolated from flowers of O. fragrans Lour. The recombinant enzymes cleaved carotenes to produce α-ionone and β-ionone in in vitro assays. The same study also discovered that carotenoid content, volatile emissions, and OfCCD1 transcript levels are subject to photorhythmic changes, and principally increased during daylight hours. At the times when OfCCD1 transcript levels reached their maxima, the carotenoid content remained low or slightly decreased. The emission of ionones was also higher during the day; however, emissions decreased at a lower rate than the transcript levels. Moreover,
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"page_id": 1771473,
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"title": "Ionone"
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carotenoid content increased from the first to the second day, whereas the volatile release decreased, and the OfCCD1 transcript levels displayed steady-state oscillations, suggesting that the substrate availability in the cellular compartments is changing or other regulatory factors are involved in volatile norisoprenoid formation. The formation of ionones proceeds by a process mediated by the carotenoid dioxygenases. == Organic synthesis == Ionone can be synthesised from citral and acetone with calcium oxide as a basic heterogeneous catalyst and serves as an example of an aldol condensation followed by a rearrangement reaction. The nucleophilic addition of the carbanion 3 of acetone 1 to the carbonyl group on citral 4 is base catalysed. The aldol condensation product 5 eliminates water through the enolate ion 6 to form pseudoionone 7. The reaction proceeds by acid catalysis where the double bond in 7 opens to form the carbocation 8. A rearrangement reaction of the carbocation follows with ring closure to 9. Finally a hydrogen atom can be abstracted from 9 by an acceptor molecule (Y) to form either 10 (extended conjugated system) or 11. == Genetic differences in odor perception == A single-nucleotide polymorphism in the OR5A1 receptor (rs6591536) causes very significant differences in the odor perception of beta-ionone, both in sensitivity and also in subjective quality. Individuals who contain at least one G allele are sensitive to beta-ionone and perceive a pleasant floral scent, while individuals who are homozygous AA are ~100 times less sensitive and at higher concentrations perceive a pungent sour/vinegar odor instead. == See also == Irones, a group of related chemical compounds α-Isomethyl ionone, a type of ionone == References ==
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A complete list of introduced species for even quite small areas of the world would be dauntingly long. Humans have introduced more different species to new environments than any single document can record. This list is generally for established species with truly wild populations— not kept domestically, that have been seen numerous times, and have breeding populations. While most introduced species can cause a negative impact to new environments they reach, some can have a positive impact, just for conservation purpose. == Antarctica == === Insects === Eretmoptera murphyi (midge) on Signy Island == Australia == === Mammals === Platypus in Kangaroo Island Koala in South Australia Tasmanian devil in New South Wales (reintroduced) Water buffalo Cattle (cows) Sheep Pig Dromedary Red deer from Europe Fallow deer from Europe Chital Indian hog deer Javan rusa Sambar deer Donkey Brumby Banteng Goat Brown hare Red fox Dog Cat House mouse Northern palm squirrel - established in Perth European rabbit from Europe Rats Black rat Brown rat === Birds === Acridotheres tristis (common myna) Alauda arvensis (Eurasian skylark) Anas platyrhynchos (mallard) Cacatua galerita (sulphur-crested cockatoo) - Western Australia from east Australia Cacatua tenuirostris (long-billed corella) - to coastal areas from inland Callipepla californica (California quail) Carduelis carduelis (European goldfinch) Cereopsis novaehollandiae (Cape Barren goose) - reintroduced onto Australian islands Chloris chloris (European greenfinch) Cygnus olor (mute swan) Dacelo novaeguineae (laughing kookaburra) - artificially expanded range Dromaius novaehollandiae (emu) - reintroduced onto Australian islands Columba livia (feral pigeon) Australian brushturkey in Kangaroo Island Gallus gallus (red junglefowl) Gallus varius (green junglefowl) on Cocos (Keeling) Islands Padda oryzivora (Java sparrow) - Cocos (Keeling) Islands and Christmas Island Lonchura punctulata (nutmeg mannikin) Meleagris gallopavo (wild turkey) Menura novaehollandiae (superb lyrebird) - Tasmania from mainland Numida meleagris (helmeted guineafowl) Passer domesticus (house sparrow) Passer montanus (Eurasian
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tree sparrow) Pavo cristatus (Indian peafowl) Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant) Pycnonotus jocosus (red-whiskered bulbul) Spilopelia chinensis (spotted dove) Spilopelia senegalensis (laughing dove) Struthio camelus (ostrich) Sturnus vulgaris (common starling) Gang-gang cockatoo in Kangaroo Island Trichoglossus moluccanus (rainbow lorikeet) – to Western Australia from east Australia Turdus merula (Eurasian blackbird) Turdus philomelos (song thrush) Tyto novaehollandiae (Australian masked owl) - Lord Howe Island from mainland Zosterops natalis (Christmas white-eye) - Cocos (Keeling) Islands === Fish === Acanthogobius flavimanus Asian carp Astronotus ocellatus (oscar) Brook trout Brown trout Chameleon goby Common carp Common roach Eastern mosquitofish European perch Goldfish Green swordtail Jack Dempsey Mozambique tilapia Convict cichlid Pearl cichlid Pelmatolapia mariae (spotted tilapia) Pond loach Rainbow trout Rosy barb Rudd Southern platyfish/Variatus platy Tench White Cloud Mountain minnow Siamese fighting fish === Reptiles === House gecko Trachemys scripta elegans (red-eared slider) === Amphibians === Cane toad === Arthropods === Argentine ant Black Portuguese millipede Western honeybee Red imported fire ant from South America via North America Yellow crazy ant Pharaoh ant European wasp Silverleaf whitefly Carcinus maenas Paratrechina Longicornis (Longhorn crazy ant) Apis Cerana (Eastern Honey Bee) Aedes albopictus (tiger mosquito) Aethina tumida (small hive beetle) Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid) Bactrocera cucurbitae (melon fly) Bruchophagus roddi (alfalfa seed chalcid) Cerataphis lataniae (palm aphid) Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly) Corythucha ciliata (sycamore lace bug) Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite) Diuraphis noxia (Russian wheat aphid) Forficula auricularia (common earwig) Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips) Hylurgus ligniperda (red-haired pine bark beetle) Idioscopus nitidulus (mango leafhopper) Maconellicoccus hirsutus (hibiscus mealybug) Pheidole megacephala (coastal brown ant) Phylacteophaga froggatti (leafblister sawfly) Pineus pini (pine adelgid) Sitobion miscanthi (Indian grain aphid) Solenopsis geminata (ginger ant) Spodoptera litura (Oriental leafworm moth) Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant) Tremex fuscicornis (tremex wasp) Trichomyrmex destructor (destructive trailing ant) Vespula vulgaris (common wasp)
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Wasmannia auropunctata (electric ant) Xanthogaleruca luteola (elm-leaf beetle) Xyleborinus saxesenii (fruit-tree pinhole borer) === Molluscs === Asian trampsnail Cernuella virgata Cochlicella acuta Cochlicella barbara Cornu aspersum Maoricolpus roseus Theba pisana Deroceras invadens (tramp slug) Deroceras laeve (marsh slug) Arcuatula senhousia Pacific oyster Perna viridis === Echinoderms === Northern Pacific seastar === Worms === Sabella spallanzanii === Plants === Around 15% of Australia's flora is made up of introduced species. The following is a non-inclusive list of some of the more significant plant species. Bridal creeper Purple viper's-bugloss (locally nicknamed "patterson's curse") Koster's curse – Clidemia hirta Cotton thistle Lantana Bitou bush Monterey pine (established from forestry plantations) Cestrum nocturnum == British Isles and other European islands == Further information can be found at the GB non-native species secretariat, which has a free tool kit of resources on non-native species, including a photo gallery, ID sheets, risk assessments, projects database, case studies and resources for local action groups. === Mammals === Gray squirrel from North America Greater white-toothed shrew from mainland Europe and Africa Erinaceus europaeus (European hedgehog) - Uist Feral horse from mainland Europe Equus asinus (donkey) - Cyprus Feral cat from mainland Europe Brown rat Black rat House mouse Bank vole introduced to Ireland from the UK Edible dormouse from continental Europe Ferret from continental Europe to various islands around the British isles European rabbit from continental Europe Brown hare from continental Europe American mink from North America Reeves's muntjac from China Fallow deer from continental Europe Sika deer from Asia Water deer Reindeer - Iceland Feral goat Kashmir goat in Great Orme Bennett's wallaby from Australia South American coati from South America (occasional escaped pets; not established) Striped skunk from North America (occasional escaped pets; not established) Raccoon dog (occasional escaped pets; not established) === Birds === Tetrao
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urogallus (western capercaillie) - reintroduced into Scotland Tetrao tetrix (black grouse) - reintroduced into parts of England Lagopus scotica (red grouse) - reintroduced into southern England (Dartmoor) Red-legged partridge Golden pheasant from Asia (now died out) Common pheasant Anser anser (greylag goose) - reintroduced over England, Wales, and Ireland Canada goose Barnacle goose (native as winter visitor from Arctic; also introduced as a breeding bird) Egyptian goose from Africa Mandarin duck from Japan and China Ruddy duck from North America (now largely eradicated) Cairina moschata (Muscovy duck) (occasional; not widely established) Netta rufina (red-crested pochard) Columba livia (rock dove) (native, but also widely feral) Haliaeetus albicilla (white-tailed eagle) - reintroduced Pandion haliaetus (osprey) - recolonised Scotland naturally, reintroduced into southern England from Scotland Little owl from mainland Europe Rose-ringed parakeet from Asia Monk parakeet from South America Acridotheres tristis (common myna) - Balearic Islands === Fish === Zander Wels catfish Rainbow trout Walleye Bitterling Bluegill Brook trout Common carp Black bullhead Goldfish Grass carp Orfe Pumpkinseed Topmouth gudgeon Sunbleak Fathead minnow Pink salmon (humpback salmon) Alburnus alburnus (common bleak) Cyprus Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish) Cyprus, Corsica Leuciscus leuciscus (common dace) Ireland Pseudorasbora parva (stone moroko) Rutilus rutilus (common roach) Ireland === Amphibians === Alpine newt Midwife toad Yellow-bellied toad Marsh frog African clawed frog European tree frog Pelophylax esculentus (edible frog) === Reptiles === Aesculapian snake European pond terrapin Pond slider Common wall lizard Western green lizard === Crustaceans === Signal crayfish Chinese mitten crab Killer shrimp Chelicorophium curvispinum (Caspian mud shrimp) Elminius modestus (Australasian barnacle) Hemimysis anomala (bloody-red mysid) Orconectes virilis (Virile crayfish) === Insects === Asian giant hornet Stick insects Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid) Mediterranean Islands Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly) Mediterranean Islands Cinara cupressi (Cypress aphid) Corythucha ciliata (sycamore lace bug) Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid)
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Dreyfusia nordmannianae (silver fir adelges) Drosophila suzukii (spotted wing drosophila) Mediterranean Islands Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips) Gilpinia hercyniae (European spruce sawfly) Hypogeococcus pungens (cactus mealybug) Corsica Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale) Thaumastocoris peregrinus (bronze bug) Sicily Vespula germanica (European wasp) Malta Vespula vulgaris (common wasp) Iceland ==== Butterflies and moths ==== Large blue butterfly from Sweden Psychoides filicivora moth from the Far East Azalea leaf miner moth from East Asia Argyresthia cupressella moth from United States Brown house moth from Asia Tachystola acroxantha moth from Australia Coleotechnites piceaella moth from United States Cotoneaster webworm moth from United States Blastobasis adustella moth Blastobasis lacticolella moth Adoxophyles oporana moth Carnation tortrix Light brown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana from Australia Codling moth Cameraria ohridella (horse-chestnut leaf miner) Cydalima perspectalis (box tree moth) Thaumetopoea processionea (oak processionary) Paysandisia archon (castniid palm borer) Mediterranean Islands ==== Ants ==== Pharaoh ant from United States Crematogaster scutellaris (cork ant) Lasius neglectus Linepithema humile (Argentine ant) Paratrechina longicornis (longhorn crazy ant) Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant) Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant) ==== Coleoptera (beetles) ==== Harlequin ladybird (Harmonia axyridis) Dendroctonus micans (great spruce bark beetle) Diabrotica virgifera (Western corn rootworm) Lilioceris lilii (scarlet lily beetle) === Arachnids === Argiope bruennichi (wasp spider) Euscorpius flavicaudis (European yellow-tailed scorpion) === Molluscs === Arion vulgaris (Spanish slug) Brachidontes pharaonis (variable mussel) Mediterranean Islands Petricolaria pholadiformis (false angel wing) Pinctada radiata (Atlantic pearl-oyster) Potamopyrgus antipodarum (New Zealand mud snail) === Worms === Arthurdendyus triangulatus (New Zealand flatworm) Australoplana sanguinea (Australian flatworm) Bothriocephalus acheilognathi (Asian tapeworm) === Other Animals === Cordylophora caspia (euryhaline hydroid) === Plants === European silver fir (established from forestry plantations) Grand fir (established from forestry plantations) Noble fir (established from forestry plantations) Western hemlock (established from forestry plantations) Douglas-fir (established from forestry plantations) Norway spruce (established from forestry plantations) Sitka
|
{
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"title": "List of introduced species"
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spruce (established from forestry plantations) Scots pine (native in Scotland, and very locally in Ireland and northern England; reintroduced in southern England and Wales) European black pine (established from forestry plantations) Lawson's cypress (established escapes from garden planting) Western Redcedar (established from forestry plantations) American willow herb Autumnal crocus Bermuda buttercup Canadian pond weed Common field speedwell Evening primrose Floating pennywort Fox and cubs Giant hogweed Guernsey fleabane Himalayan balsam Hottentot fig Japanese knotweed Jewelweed Kudzu Least duckweed New Zealand willowherb Oxford ragwort Pigmy weed Purple dewplant Purple pitcher Rhododendron Water fern == Continental Europe == === Mammals === Barbary macaque - Gibraltar (from North Africa) Honey badger - (from Africa, Middle East and India) African civet - (from Africa) South American coati - (from South America) Striped Skunk - (from North America) Javan mongoose - (from Asia) Indian grey mongoose - (from Asia) Common raccoon - (from North America) North African hedgehog - (from Africa) Raccoon dog - throughout Central and Eastern Europe into E Scandinavia (from Asia) European brown bear - reintroduced in parts of its former range in mainland Europe American mink - Spain, N. France, Belgium, The Netherlands, Scandinavia, Lithuania, Belarus, etc. (from North America) Egyptian mongoose - Portugal, southern Spain, island of Mljet (from North Africa) Small Asian mongoose - Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Adriatic islands Common genet - from Africa to Europe Cat Deer: Sika deer - France, Germany, Ireland, Denmark, Poland, Austria (from Asia) Axis deer - Italy, Slovenia, Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, Russia east of Black Sea (from South Asia) White-tailed deer - S Finland (from North America) Chinese water deer - France (from China) Wapiti - at least one example into Italy Barbary sheep - Spain (from Africa) Ovis orientalis (mouflon) - neolithic expansion of range through semi-domestication Goat Greenland
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{
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muskox - Norway, Sweden (reintroduced, from Greenland) European bison - mainland Europe (reintroduced) European beaver - Finland (reintroduced) North American beaver - Finland, Russia Gray squirrel - Italy, Scotland, England, Ireland (from North America) Finlayson's squirrel Pallas's squirrel Siberian chipmunk - France, Germany, Austria, Netherlands, Finland, England (from further east in Eurasia) Muskrat - E Scandinavia, W France, north to Denmark, east to Ukraine, south to N Greece Brown rat - throughout (from Asia) Black rat - throughout (from South-East Asia or China, via India and Middle East) House mouse - throughout (from N Iran border) Coypu - (from South America) Cottontail rabbit - Spain, France, Italy (from North America) Lepus europaeus (brown hare) - Norway, Sweden Bennett's wallaby - from Australia === Birds === Griffon vulture - (reintroduced in parts of its range in Europe) Bubo bubo (Eurasian eagle-owl) - reintroduced into Sweden Sacred ibis - France (from Africa) Phoenicopterus chilensis (Chilean flamingo) Black swan - Poland, Netherlands (from Australia) Canada goose - N Europe (France to Scandinavia) (from North America) Swan goose - (from Asia) Bar-headed goose - Netherlands Egyptian goose - UK, Netherlands (from Africa) Mandarin duck from Asia Ruddy duck - spreading from UK (from North America) Columba livia (rock dove) - into northern Europe Alectoris chukar (chukar partridge) Alectoris rufa (red-legged partridge) - into northern Europe Alectoris barbara (Barbary partridge) Perdix perdix (grey partridge) - reintroduced to many parts of Europe Common pheasant - throughout (from Asia; locally native in extreme SE Europe) Northern bobwhite - C France (from North America) Reeves's pheasant - France, Czech Republic (from China) Wild turkey - Germany (from North America) Rose-ringed parakeet - widespread (from northern India) Monk parakeet - Spain, Italy, Slovakia (from South America) Common myna - Russia (from India) Acridotheres cristatellus (crested myna) Leiothrix lutea (red-billed
|
{
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"title": "List of introduced species"
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leiothrix) Ploceus cucullatus (village weaver) Ploceus melanocephalus (black-headed weaver) Euplectes afer (yellow-crowned bishop) Estrilda troglodytes (black-rumped waxbill) Euodice cantans (African silverbill) Common waxbill - Portugal (from Africa) Red avadavat - Spain, Po Delta (from India) Greater rhea - Germany (from South America) Corvus splendens (House crow) === Reptiles === Pond slider - (from North America) American alligator - (from North America) Snouted Cobra - (from Africa) Mali Cobra - (from Africa) Anchieta's cobra - (from Africa) Boa constrictor - (from South America) Yellow anaconda - (from South America) Southern African rock python - (from Africa) Nile Monitor - (from Africa) Red tegu - (from South America) Black caiman - (from South America) Saltwater crocodile - (from Asia and Australia) Knight anole - (from Cuba) Chamaeleo chamaeleon (common chameleon) Chamaeleo africanus (African chameleon) California kingsnake - Spain Spur-thighed tortoise - Italy, Spain, Malta, Sardinia, Sicily, and Balaeric Islands (from Africa) Chinese softshell turtle - Spain (from China) === Amphibians === Bullfrog - southern Europe (from North America) African clawed frog - (from Africa) Axolotl - in Germany Newt Paramesotriton labiatus - (from Asia) === Fish === Alburnus alburnus (common bleak) Ameiurus melas (black bullhead) - (from North America) Ameiurus nebulosus (brown bullhead) - (from North America) Australoheros facetus (Chameleon cichlid) Carassius auratus (goldfish) Carassius gibelio (Prussian carp) Cyprinus carpio (common carp) Esox lucius (northern pike) Fundulus heteroclitus (mummichog) Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish) - (from North America) Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp) - (from East Asia) Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (bighead carp) - (from East Asia) Lepomis gibbosus (pumpkinseed) - (from North America) Liza haematocheilus (haarder) - (from East Asia) Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass) Neogobius fluviatilis (monkey goby) Neogobius melanostomus (round goby) Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout) Perccottus glenii (Chinese sleeper) - (from China) Pseudorasbora parva (stone moroko) - (from China) Rutilus rutilus (common roach) Sander
|
{
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lucioperca (Sander lucioperca) Tridentiger trigonocephalus (chameleon goby) - (from East Asia) === Crustaceans === Balanus improvisus (Bay barnacle) Cercopagis pengoi (fishhook waterflea) Chelicorophium curvispinum (Caspian mud shrimp) Elminius modestus (Australasian barnacle) Hemigrapsus takanoi (brush-clawed shore crab) Hemimysis anomala (bloody-red mysid) Limnomysis benedeni (Donau-Schwebgarnele) Limnoria lignorum (gribble) Orconectes limosus. Palaemon elegans (rockpool shrimp) Paralithodes camtschaticus (Red king crab) Percnon gibbesi (Sally Lightfoot crab) Pontogammarus robustoides Procambarus clarkii (Louisiana crawfish) === Insects === Adelges piceae (balsam woolly adelgid) Aedes albopictus (tiger mosquito) Aleurodicus dispersus (spiralling whitefly) Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid) Aromia bungii (red necked longicorn) Cacyreus marshalli (geranium bronze) Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly) Chilo suppressalis (striped rice stem borer) Cinara cupressi (Cypress aphid) Corythucha ciliata (sycamore lace bug) Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite) Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid) Cydalima perspectalis (box tree moth) Dendroctonus micans (great spruce bark beetle) Diabrotica virgifera (Western corn rootworm) Dreyfusia nordmannianae (silver fir adelges) Drosophila suzukii (spotted wing drosophila) Dryocosmus kuriphilus (chestnut gall wasp) Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips) Harmonia axyridis (Asian lady beetle) Hypogeococcus pungens (cactus mealybug) Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale) Lasius neglectus (invasive garden ant) Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Colorado beetle) Linepithema humile (Argentine ant) Lysiphlebus testaceipes Opogona sacchari (banana moth) Monomorium pharaonis (Pharaoh ant) Paratrechina longicornis (longhorn crazy ant) Paysandisia archon (castniid palm borer) Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant) Phoracantha semipunctata (Australian Eucalyptus longhorn) Rhagoletis cingulata (eastern cherry fruit fly) Thaumastocoris peregrinus (bronze bug) Vespa velutina (Asian predatory wasp) (in France) Xylosandrus germanus (black timber bark beetle) === Molluscs === Arcuatula senhousia (Asian date mussel) Arion vulgaris (Spanish slug) Brachidontes pharaonis (variable mussel) Corbicula fluminalis Corbicula fluminea (Freshwater bivalve mollusk) Crassostrea gigas (Pacific oyster) Crepidula fornicata (Common slipper shell) Deroceras invadens (tramp slug) Dreissena polymorpha (Zebra mussel) Dreissena rostriformis bugensis (Quagga mussel) Ensis directus (American jack-knife clam) Petricolaria pholadiformis (false angel wing) Pinctada
|
{
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radiata (Atlantic pearl-oyster) Rapana venosa (Veined rapa whelk) Sinanodonta woodiana (Chinese pond mussel) === Other Animals === Anguillicoloides crassus (swim bladder worm) Bothriocephalus acheilognathi (Asian tapeworm) Bugula neritina (brown bryozoan) Cordylophora caspia (euryhaline hydroid) Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Australian tubeworm) Globodera rostochiensis (yellow potato cyst nematode) Lumbricus terrestris (common earthworm) Marenzelleria neglecta (red gilled mud worm) Microcosmus squamiger Mnemiopsis leidyi (warty comb jelly) Polyandrocarpa zorritensis Rhopilema nomadica (nomad jellyfish) Schizoporella errata (branching bryozoan) Styela clava (Stalked sea squirt) Tricellaria inopinata === Plants === Monterey pine (in warmer areas, from California; established from forestry plantations) Mediterranean cypress (in warmer areas; from SW Asia, also locally native [Crete, Cyprus]; long established from ornamental planting) Monterey cypress (in warmer areas, from California; established from forestry plantations) Smooth arizona cypress (in warmer areas, from Arizona; established from forestry plantations) Persian walnut (from SW Asia, established from nut orchards) Northern red oak (from eastern North America; established from forestry plantations) Black cherry (from eastern North America; established from forestry plantations) Black locust (from eastern North America; established from forestry plantations) Silver wattle (in warmer areas, from Australia; established from ornamental planting) Tree-of-heaven (from eastern Asia; established from ornamental planting) Eucalyptus (multiple species in warmer areas, from Australia; established from forestry plantations) Prickly-pear (multiple species in Mediterranean areas, from southwestern North America; established from ornamental planting) Century-plant (in Mediterranean areas, from southwestern North America; established from ornamental planting) == Hawaiian Islands == === Mammals === Wild pig Feral goat Chital deer Mule deer Cattle Sheep Ovis orientalis (mouflon) Feral cat Dog Small Asian mongoose Brown rat Black rat Pacific rat House mouse Brush-tailed rock-wallaby - small population on Oahu === Birds === Primary source for this list is Robert L. Pyle and Peter Pyle, The Birds of the Hawaiian Islands unless otherwise stated Barn owl Branta sandvicensis (nene)
|
{
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- reintroduced onto some islands Anas platyrhynchos (mallard) – vagrant but also introduced Anas wyvilliana (Hawaiian duck) - reintroduced onto some islands Black swan Mute swan Cattle egret Wild turkey California quail Gambel's quail Chukar Black francolin Grey francolin Erckel's francolin Japanese quail Red junglefowl Kalij pheasant Common pheasant Green pheasant - previous considered to be a subspecies of common pheasant Common peafowl Chestnut-bellied sandgrouse Feral pigeon Spotted dove Zebra dove Mourning dove Rose-ringed parakeet Mitred parakeet Red-masked parakeet Red-crowned amazon Mariana swiftlet Eurasian skylark Red-vented bulbul Red-whiskered bulbul Japanese bush warbler White-rumped shama Greater necklaced laughingthrush Chinese hwamei Red-billed leiothrix Japanese white-eye Northern mockingbird Common myna Yellow-faced grassquit Saffron finch Red-crested cardinal Yellow-billed cardinal Northern cardinal Western meadowlark House finch Telespiza cantans (Laysan finch) - artificially expanded range Yellow-fronted canary Atlantic canary House sparrow Red-cheeked cordon-bleu Lavender waxbill Orange-cheeked waxbill Black-rumped waxbill Common waxbill Red avadavat African silverbill Scaly-breasted munia Chestnut munia Java sparrow === Reptiles === Anolis sagrei (brown anole) Anolis carolinensis (Carolina anole) Chamaeleo calyptratus (veiled chameleon) Gehyra mutilata (four-clawed gecko) Hemidactylus frenatus (common House Gecko) Hemidactylus garnotii (Indo-Pacific gecko) Hemiphyllodactylus typus (Indopacific tree gecko) Iguana iguana (green Iguana) Lampropholis delicata (delicate skink) Lepidodactylus lugubris (mourning gecko) Phelsuma grandis (Madagascar giant day gecko) Phelsuma guimbeaui (Mauritius lowland forest day gecko) Phelsuma laticauda (gold dust day gecko) Trioceros jacksonii (Jackson's chameleon) Palea steindachneri (wattle-necked softshell turtle) Pelodiscus sinensis (Chinese softshell turtle) Trachemys scripta (red-eared slider) === Amphibians === Primary source for this list is Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database unless otherwise stated. Common coquí American bullfrog Cane toad Green and black poison dart frog Greenhouse frog Japanese wrinkled frog === Fish === Primary source for this list is Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database unless otherwise stated. Amatitlania nigrofasciata (convict cichlid) Amphilophus citrinellus (Midas cichlid) Amphilophus labiatus (red devil cichlid) Astronotus
|
{
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ocellatus (oscar) Carassius auratus (goldfish) Cephalopholis argus (roi) Channa maculata (blotched snakehead) Cichla ocellaris (butterfly peacock bass) Cichlasoma spilurum (blue-eyed cichlid) Clarias fuscus (whitespotted clarias) Corydoras aeneus (bronze corydoras) Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp) Cyprinus carpio (common carp) Dorosoma petenense (threadfin shad) Fundulus grandis (Gulf killifish) Gambusia affinis (mosquitofish) Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish) Hemichromis elongatus (banded jewelfish) Herklotsichthys quadrimaculatus (bluestripe herring) Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp) Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish) Lepomis cyanellus (green sunfish) Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) Limia vittata (Cuban limia) Lutjanus fulvus (blacktail snapper) Lutjanus kasmira (bluestripe snapper) Micropterus dolomieu (smallmouth bass) Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass) Misgurnus anguillicaudatus (pond loach) Monopterus albus (Asian swamp eel) Morone saxatilis (striped bass) Mugilogobius cavifrons (mangrove goby) Omobranchus ferox (gossamer blenny) Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout) Oreochromis macrochir (longfin tilapia) Oreochromis mossambicus (Mozambique tilapia) Osteomugil engeli (kanda) Parablennius thysanius (tasseled blenny) Parachromis managuensis (jaguar cichlid) Pelvicachromis pulcher (krib) Poecilia latipinna (sailfin molly) Poecilia reticulata (guppy) Pseudotropheus johannii (bluegray mbuna) Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus (long-fin armored catfish) Rocio octofasciata (Jack Dempsey) Salmo trutta (sea trout) Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout) Sardinella marquesensis (marquesan sardinella) Sarotherodon melanotheron (blackchin tilapia) Thorichthys meeki (firemouth cichlid) Tilapia zillii (redbelly tilapia) Upeneus vittatus (bandedtail goatfish) Xenentodon cancila (freshwater garfish) Xiphophorus hellerii (green swordtail) Xiphophorus maculatus (southern platyfish) === Arthropods === Adoretus sinicus (Chinese rose beetle) Aedes albopictus (tiger mosquito) Aethina tumida (small hive beetle) Aleurotrachelus atratus (palm-infesting whitefly) Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant) Aphis spiraecola (Spirea aphid) Apis mellifera (Africanized bee) Argulus japonicus (Japanese fishlouse) Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale) Bactrocera cucurbitae (melon fly) Bactrocera dorsalis (oriental fruit fly) Bactrocera latifrons (solanaceous fruit fly) Blattella germanica (German cockroach) Cactoblastis cactorum (cactus moth) Callinectes sapidus (blue crab) Cerataphis lataniae (palm aphid) Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly) Chilo suppressalis (striped rice stem borer) Chthamalus proteus Coptotermes formosanus (Formosan subterranean termite) Cryptotermes brevis (powderpost termite) Culex quinquefasciatus (southern
|
{
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house mosquito) Darna pallivitta (nettle caterpillar) Drosophila suzukii (spotted wing drosophila) Elatobium abietinum (green spruce aphid) Epiphyas postvittana (light brown apple moth) Euwallacea fornicatus (tea shot-hole borer) Exomala orientalis (oriental beetle) Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips) Glycaspis brimblecombei (red gum lerp psyllid) Homarus americanus (American lobster) Hypogeococcus pungens (cactus mealybug) Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale) Isometrus maculatus (lesser brown scorpion) Lernaea cyprinacea (anchor worm) Linepithema humile (Argentine ant) Litopenaeus vannamei (whiteleg shrimp) Maconellicoccus hirsutus (pink hibiscus mealybug) Macrobrachium lar (Tahitian prawn) Macrobrachium rosenbergii (giant river prawn) Monomorium pharaonis (pharaoh ant) Mythimna unipuncta (rice armyworm) Neocaridina davidi (cherry shrimp) Neolecanium cornuparvum (magnolia scale) Nesticella mogera (cave-dwelling spider) Opogona sacchari (banana moth) Oryctes rhinoceros (coconut rhinoceros beetle) Paratrechina longicornis (crazy ant) Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant) Pineus pini (pine woolly aphid) Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crayfish) Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (mulberry scale) Pseudococcus viburni (obscure mealybug) Quadrastichus erythrinae (erythrina gall wasp) Schistocerca nitens (gray bird grasshopper) Sepedomerus macropus (liverfluke snail predator fly) Sepedon aenescens (snail-killing fly) Simosyrphus grandicornis (common hover fly) Solenopsis papuana (Papuan thief ant) Sophonia orientalis (two-spotted leafhopper) Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant) Trichomyrmex destructor (Singapore ant) Varroa destructor (Varroa mite) Vespula pensylvanica (western yellowjacket) Wasmannia auropunctata (little fire ant) Xyleborinus saxesenii (fruit-tree pinhole borer) Xylocopa sonorina (Sonoran carpenter bee) Xylosandrus compactus (shot-hole borer) Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Asian ambrosia beetle) Xylosandrus germanus (black timber bark beetle) Xylosandrus morigerus (brown twig beetle) === Plants === Canoe plants === Other species === Corbicula fluminea - Asian clam Cornu aspersum (common garden snail) Euglandina rosea (rosy predator snail) Limax maximus (leopard slug) Magallana gigas (Pacific oyster) Mytilus galloprovincialis (Mediterranean mussel) Pomacea bridgesii - spike-topped apple snail Pomacea canaliculata - channeled applesnail Lophopodella carteri - freshwater bryozoan Plumatella repens - a bryozoan Carijoa riisei (snowflake coral) Phyllorhiza punctata (Australian spotted jellyfish) == New Zealand == === Mammals === Common
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{
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brushtail possum from Australia Cat from Europe Deer: Red deer from Europe Elk Sika deer from Asia Rusa deer from Asia White-tailed deer from North America Fallow deer Sambar deer Donkeys: the Ponui donkey from Europe Cattle from Europe Goat from Europe Sheep European hare from Europe Horse from Europe European hedgehog from Europe Himalayan tahr from Himalaya Chamois from Europe Pig Rabbit from Europe Rats: Brown and black rats from Europe Pacific rat (kiore) from Pacific islands House mouse Least weasel from Europe Stoat from Europe Ferret from Europe Wallabies: Parma wallaby - population on Kawau Island Red-necked wallaby Swamp wallaby - population on Kawau Island Tammar wallaby === Birds === Acanthis cabaret (lesser redpoll) Acridotheres tristis (common myna) from India Alauda arvensis (Eurasian skylark) Alectoris chukar (chuckor) Anas platyrhynchos (mallard) Anser anser (greylag goose) Athene noctua (little owl) Branta canadensis (Canada goose) Cacatua galerita (sulphur-crested cockatoo) Eolophus roseicapilla (galah) Callipepla californica (California quail) Carduelis carduelis (European goldfinch) Chloris chloris (European greenfinch) Colinus virginianus (bobwhite quail). Columba livia (rock dove) Corvus frugilegus (rook) Coturnix ypsilophora (brown quail) Cygnus olor (mute swan) Dacelo novaeguineae (laughing kookaburra) Emberiza cirlus (cirl bunting) Emberiza citrinella (yellowhammer) Fringilla coelebs (chaffinch) Gymnorhina tibicen (Australian magpie) from Australia Meleagris gallopavo (wild turkey) Passer domesticus (house sparrow) from UK Pavo cristatus (Indian peafowl) Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant) from Asia Platycercus elegans (crimson rosella) Platycercus eximius (eastern rosella) Prunella modularis (dunnock) from Europe Spilopelia chinensis (spotted dove) Sturnus vulgaris (common starling) from Europe Turdus merula (common blackbird) from Europe Turdus philomelos (song thrush) from Europe === Reptiles === Lampropholis delicata (delicate skink) === Amphibians === Green and golden bell frog Southern bell frog === Fish === Brown trout Salmon Catfish Gambusia affinis (western mosquitofish) Scardinius erythrophthalmus (common rudd) === Insects === Monarch butterfly from US Common housefly from
|
{
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Europe Honey bee from Europe Polistes chinensis (Asian paper wasp) Polistes humilis (common paper wasp) Vespula germanica (European wasp) Vespula vulgaris (common wasp) === Arachnids === Varroa destructor (Varroa mite) Redback spider (from Australia) === Other Animals === Didemnum vexillum (carpet sea squirt) === Plants === Up to 26,000 plants have been introduced into New Zealand. This list is a few of the more common and more invasive species. Gorse from Scotland Common broom – Cytisus scoparius Blackberry Lupin Ragwort Cotton thistle Creeping thistle – Cirsium arvense Mistflower – Ageratina riparia Kahili ginger – Hedychium gardnerianum Japanese honeysuckle Old man's beard - Clematis vitalba == United States and Canada == === Mammals === Equus asinus (feral donkey) from Europe Equus caballus (feral horse) from Europe (known as mustangs) Feral camel from Egypt, Turkey and Tunisia Ammotragus lervia (Barbary sheep) from Africa Antilope cervicapra (blackbuck) in Texas Bison bison (American bison) in California Bos taurus (feral cattle) from Europe Boselaphus tragocamelus (nilgai) in Texas Capra aegagrus (feral goat, bezoar ibex) from Europe Hemitragus jemlahicus (Himalayan tahr) from Asia (in New Mexico) Ovis aries (feral sheep) from Europe Ovis aries musimon Oryx gazella (gemsbok) in New Mexico Sus scrofa (wild boar) from Europe Phacochoerus (warthog) from Africa to Texas Deer Axis axis (chital) from Asia Cervus canadensis (American elk) in Florida Alces alces (moose) in Newfoundland Cervus elaphus (red deer) from Europe Cervus nippon (sika deer) from Asia Dama dama (fallow deer) From Europe Rusa unicolor (sambar deer) from Asia Canis latrans (coyote) into Florida and Georgia through introduction and natural expansion Canis familiaris (feral dog) from Europe Felis silvestris (feral cat) from Europe Nasua narica (white-nosed coati) from South America (in Florida) Procyon lotor (raccoon) onto Prince Edward Island Lemur catta (ring-tailed lemur) from Madagascar (in St. Catherines Island, Georgia) Chlorocebus
|
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}
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pygerythrus (vervet monkey) from Africa (in Florida) Macaca mulatta (rhesus macaque) from Asia (in Florida and South Carolina) Saimiri sciureus (common squirrel monkey) from South America (in Florida) Cricetomys gambianus (Gambian pouched rat) from Africa Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris (capybara) from South America (in Florida) Mus musculus (house mouse) from Europe Myocastor coypus (coypu) from South America Rattus norvegicus (brown rat) from Asia Rattus tanezumi (Asian house rat) from Asia Rattus rattus (black rat) from Europe Sciurus aberti (Abert's squirrel) into non-native areas of Arizona Sciurus aureogaster (Mexican red-bellied squirrel) from Mexico (in Florida) Sciurus niger (fox squirrel) into western US Spermophilus parryii (Arctic ground squirrel) to Unalaska Island, Kavalga Island, and Umnak Island in the Aleutian Archipelago from mainland Alaska Lepus europaeus (European hare) From Europe Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit) from southwest Europe and northwest Africa Didelphis virginiana (Virginia opossum) from Eastern USA (in California) Dasypus novemcinctus (nine-banded armadillo) in Florida - there has been a natural extension of the armadillo's range into the US since 1870, reaching Florida by 1970, however the Florida population originates from established introductions dating to the 1920s. === Birds === Pitangus sulphuratus (great kiskadee) - Bermuda Alauda arvensis (Eurasian skylark) in Vancouver area Red-whiskered bulbul from Asia (in California and Florida) Pycnonotus cafer (red-vented bulbul) Estrilda melpoda (orange-cheeked waxbill) Scaly-breasted munia from Asia Pin-tailed whydah from Africa House crow Carduelis carduelis (European goldfinch) Calocitta collie (black-throated magpie-jay) in California Chukar partridge from Asia Eurasian tree sparrow from Europe House finch (in the rest of mainland North America and Hawaii) Common starling from Europe Shiny cowbird from South America Common hill myna Common myna Grey partridge from Europe Himalayan snowcock from Asia, in Nevada House sparrow from Europe Spot-breasted oriole Budgerigar from Australia (in Florida) Rosy-faced lovebird from Africa Blue-crowned parakeet from South America (in California)
|
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Mitred parakeet from South America (in California) Nanday parakeet from South America Yellow-chevroned parakeet Red-masked parakeet Red-crowned amazon Lilac-crowned amazon in California Red-lored amazon in California Yellow-headed amazon Turquoise-fronted amazon Monk parakeet from South America Rose-ringed parakeet from Africa/Asia White-winged parakeet from South America Chestnut-fronted macaw from South America (in Florida) Blue-and-yellow macaw in Florida from South America Northern cardinal in California from elsewhere in North America Northern red bishop from Africa (in California) Muscovy duck from Central America and South America Anas platyrhynchos (mallard) - artificially expanded range Mandarin duck from Asia Bar-headed goose from Asia Branta canadensis (Canada goose) - reintroduced into many areas lost in North America Cygnus buccinator (trumpeter swan) - artificially expanded range Mute swan from Europe Ortalis vetula (plain chachalaca) - to Georgia from Texas Bonasa umbellus (ruffed grouse) - artificially expanded range Francolinus francolinus (black francolin) Common pheasant from Asia and Europe Common peafowl from Asia (in California) Chicken from Asia Oreortyx pictus (mountain quail) - artificially expanded range Wild turkey from Eastern USA (in California) Callipepla squamata (scaled quail) - artificially expanded range Callipepla californica (California quail) - artificially expanded range Callipepla gambelii (Gambel's quail) - artificially expanded range Colinus virginianus (northern bobwhite) - artificially expanded range Pelecanus occidentalis (brown pelican) - reintroduced into Louisiana Rock dove from Europe Spotted dove from Asia (in California) Barbary dove/African collared dove from Africa Eurasian collared dove from Europe Grey-headed swamphen Sacred ibis from Africa Gymnogyps californianus (California condor) - reintroduced to California and Arizona Falco peregrinus (peregrine falcon) - reintroduced into many areas lost in North America === Reptiles === Spectacled caiman (in the Caribbean islands, Florida, and other states) Jackson's chameleon in Florida and California Brown anole in California, Georgia, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama Green anole in California Hispaniolan green anole in
|
{
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"title": "List of introduced species"
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Florida Puerto Rican crested anole in Florida Largehead anole in Florida Bark anole in Florida Knight anole in Florida Cuban green anole in Florida Jamaican giant anole in Florida Green iguana Brown basilisk in Florida Mexican spiny-tailed iguana Black spiny-tailed iguana in Florida Common agama Oriental garden lizard Common butterfly lizard in Florida Ashy gecko in Florida Ocellated gecko in Florida Common house gecko Indo-Pacific gecko Mediterranean house gecko in Florida and Kansas. Flat-tailed house gecko Ringed wall gecko Moorish wall gecko Tropical house gecko Tokay gecko Western green lizard in Kansas. Ameiva ameiva in Florida Cnemidophorus motaguae Eutropis multifasciata Italian wall lizard in Kansas. Common wall lizard (in northeast United States) Northern curlytail lizard in Florida Hispaniolan curlytail lizard in Florida Nile monitor (in California and Florida) Common snapping turtle (in nonnative parts of USA including California, Nevada, Oregon, Arizona, and other states) Spiny softshell turtle (in California) Chinese softshell turtle Twist-necked turtle Red-eared slider in California, from other parts of US Painted turtle - Phoenix, Arizona, and California Brahminy blind snake Elephant trunk snake Banded water snake into Texas and California introduced from the southern US Nerodia sipedon (northern watersnake) into California from native US Boa constrictor Burmese python (in the Everglades only) === Amphibians === Primary source for this list is Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database unless otherwise stated. Pacific tree frog in Alaska Greenhouse frog Cuban tree frog Eastern tiger salamander into California, Nevada and Arizona from native areas of the US Common mudpuppy (in Maine and other Northeastern states) American bullfrog (in California, Arizona, Utah, non-native parts of Colorado and Nebraska, Oregon, Washington, Hawaii, and Nantucket island) Cane toad (in Florida only) Northern red-legged frog (in Alaska only) African clawed frog (in California and Arizona only) Eleutherodactylus coqui (common coquí) === Fish === Primary source for
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{
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"source": null,
"title": "List of introduced species"
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this list is Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database unless otherwise stated. Acanthogobius flavimanus (Oriental goby) from Japan (in California and Florida) Alosa pseudoharengus (Alewife) (in Great Lakes) Amatitlania nigrofasciata (convict cichlid) from Central America Ameiurus nebulosus (brown bullhead) into western North America from eastern North America Amphilophus citrinellus (Midas cichlid) - Florida Astronotus ocellatus (oscar) from South America Belonesox belizanus (pike topminnow) - Florida Carassius auratus (goldfish) from Asia Channa argus (northern snakehead) Channa marulius (bullseye snakehead) - Florida Chitala ornata (clown featherback) - Florida Cichla ocellaris (butterfly peacock bass) from South America (in Florida) Cichlasoma bimaculatum (black acara) - Florida Clarias batrachus (walking catfish) from Asia (in Florida) Coptodon zillii (redbelly tilapia) Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp) from Asia Cyprinella lutrensis (red shiner) from Mississippi River basin into non-native areas Cyprinus carpio (common carp) from Europe Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish) - from eastern US to non-native areas Gramma loreto (royal gramma) - Florida Gymnocephalus cernua (Eurasian ruffe) from Eurasia Hemichromis letourneuxi (African jewelfish) - Florida Zebrafish - from Asia Heros severus (banded cichlid) - Florida Heterotilapia buttikoferi (zebra tilapia) - Florida Hoplosternum littorale (tamuatá) - Florida Hypomesus nipponensis (wakasagi) - California Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp) from Asia Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (bighead carp) from China Hypostomus plecostomus (suckermouth catfish) - Texas: misidentification, it concerns Pterygoplichthys species Hypsoblennius invemar (tessellated blenny) Ictalurus furcatus (blue catfish) - from Mississippi River basin into non-native areas Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish) - from central North America into non-native areas Ictiobus cyprinellus (bigmouth buffalo) - from the Eastern United States to California Leuciscus idus (ide) Lepomis cyanellus (green sunfish) - from central North America into non-native areas Macrognathus siamensis (peacock eel) - Florida Mayaheros urophthalmus (Mayan cichlid) from Asia (in Florida) Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass) - from central North America into non-native areas Misgurnus anguillicaudatus (pond loach) from Asia
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Monopterus albus (Asian swamp eel) from Asia Morone americana (white perch) - from eastern US into non-native areas Morone chrysops (white bass) from Oklahoma (in California) Mylopharyngodon piceus (black carp) from Asia Neogobius melanostomus (round goby) from Eurasia Oreochromis aureus (blue tilapia) from Africa Oreochromis mossambicus (Mozambique tilapia) Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) Oreochromis urolepis (Wami tilapia) - California Parachromis managuensis (jaguar cichlid) - Florida Pelmatolapia mariae (spotted tilapia) - Florida Petromyzon marinus (sea lamprey) (introduced into the Great Lakes through the Welland canal c. 1921) Poecilia mexicana (shortfin molly) Poecilia reticulata (guppy) from South America Poecilia sphenops (short-finned molly)- Montana and Nevada Proterorhinus semilunaris (Western tubenose goby) from Europe Pterois miles (common lionfish) Pterois volitans (red lionfish) (in Caribbean seas and shorelines on the east coast of the U.S.A only) Pterygoplichthys anisitsi (Paraná sailfin catfish) - Florida Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus (Vermiculated sailfin catfish) - Florida, North Carolina Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus (Orinoco sailfin catfish)- Florida Pterygoplichthys pardalis (leopard pleco) - North Carolina Rhinogobius brunneus (Amur goby) - Washington Rhodeus amarus (European bitterling) - New York Rivulus hartii (giant rivulus) - California Rocio octofasciata (Jack Dempsey) - South Dakota Sander lucioperca (zander) - North Dakota Sarotherodon melanotheron (blackchin tilapia) - Florida Scardinius erythrophthalmus (common rudd) from Europe Tinca tinca (tench) from Eurasia Trichromis salvini (Salvin's cichlid) - Florida Trichopsis vittata (croaking gourami) - Florida Tridentiger barbatus (Shokihaze goby) - California Tridentiger bifasciatus (Shimofuri goby) - California Tridentiger trigonocephalus (chameleon goby) - California Xiphophorus hellerii (green swordtail) Xiphophorus maculatus (southern platyfish) Xiphophorus variatus (variatus platy) === Crustaceans === Primary source for this list is Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database unless otherwise stated. European green crab from Atlantic coasts of Europe and Northern Africa Chinese mitten crab from the coastal rivers and estuaries of the Yellow Sea Japanese shore crab from Japan Orconectes virilis (virile crayfish) native
|
{
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to North America, but now widespread outside its normal habitat Pacifastacus leniusculus (signal crayfish) into California from elsewhere in North America Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crawfish) now widespread in North America, from its native range in the Gulf of Mexico basin Spiny waterflea from northern Europe and western Russia Fishhook waterflea from the Ponto-Caspian region Daphnia lumholtzi Penaeus monodon Macrobrachium rosenbergii Hemimysis anomala Echinogammarus ischnus Bosmina coregoni Eubosmina maritima Argulus japonicus Megacyclops viridis Neoergasilus japonicus Canthocamptus hibernicus Nitokra incerta Schizopera borutzkyi Thermocyclops crassus Amphibalanus amphitrite Amphibalanus improvisus (bay barnacle) Limnoria quadripunctata (gribble) === Mollusks === Marine Arcuatula senhousia (Asian date mussel) Crepidula fornicata (American limpet, common slipper shell) into the coasts of British Columbia and Washington state from the Western Atlantic Ocean Littorina littorea (common periwinkle) from Europe Myosotella myosotis (mouse ear snail) Perna viridis (Asian green mussel) - Florida Potamocorbula amurensis (overbite clam) Rapana venosa (veined rapa whelk) from the Sea of Japan Venerupis philippinarum (Manila clam) Freshwater Bellamya chinensis (Chinese mystery snail) from Asia Bithynia tentaculata (mud bithynia) from Europe Cipangopaludina japonica (Japanese mysterysnail) Corbicula fluminea (Asian clam) from Asia Dreissena bugensis (quagga mussel) from Caspian and Black Seas Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) from the Caspian and Black Seas Marisa cornuarietis (Colombian ramshorn apple snail) Melanoides tuberculata (red-rimmed melania) from northern Africa to southern Asia Pisidium amnicum (greater European peaclam) Pisidium henslowanum (Henslow peaclam) Pisidium moitessierianum (pygmy peaclam) Pisidium supinum (humpbacked peaclam) Pomacea canaliculata (channeled applesnail) Pomacea haustrum (titan applesnail) - Florida Pomacea maculata (island applesnail) Potamopyrgus antipodarum (New Zealand mud snail) from New Zealand Radix auricularia (big-ear radix) Sphaerium corneum (European fingernailclam) from Europe Valvata piscinalis (European stream valvata) - Great Lakes Terrestrial Cepaea hortensis (white-lipped snail) from Europe Cepaea nemoralis (grove snail) from Europe Cornu aspersum (garden snail) from Europe Deroceras invadens (tramp slug) Deroceras reticulatum
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{
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(grey field slug) Limax maximus (leopard slug) from Europe Lissachatina fulica (giant African snail) Theba pisana (white garden snail) from Europe Zachrysia provisoria (Cuban brown snail) Xerolenta obvia (Heath Snail) === Worms === Medicinal leech Ficopomatus enigmaticus - Australian tubeworm Dendrodrilus rubidus - trout worm Platydemus manokwari Anguillicoloides crassus (swim bladder worm) Bothriocephalus acheilognathi (Asian tapeworm) Globodera rostochiensis (golden nematode) Lumbricus rubellus (leaf worm) Lumbricus terrestris (common earthworm) === Insects === ==== Beetles and relatives ==== Mottled water hyacinth weevil from South America Rhinocyllus conicus (thistle-head weevil) Gonipterus platensis Gonipterus pulverulentus Diaprepes abbreviatus Asian long-horned beetle European chafer Brown spruce longhorn beetle from Europe Harlequin ladybug Emerald ash borer from Asia European elm bark beetle Elm leaf beetle Japanese beetle Paropsisterna m-fuscum Xyleborus glabratus Xyleborus dispar (pear blight beetle) Xyleborus similis Eucalyptus Longhorned Borer Aethina tumida (small hive beetle) Diabrotica virgifera (Western corn rootworm) Euwallacea fornicatus (Polyphagous and Kuroshio shot hole borers) Epitrix tuberis (tuber flea beetle) Lilioceris lilii (scarlet lily beetle) Metamasius callizona (bromeliad beetle) Scolytus schevyrewi (banded elm bark beetle) Xyleborinus saxesenii (fruit-tree pinhole borer) Xylosandrus compactus (black twig borer) Xylosandrus germanus (black timber bark beetle) ==== Crickets ==== Southern mole cricket ==== Flies and allies ==== Asian tiger mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus (southern house mosquito) European crane fly Birch leafminer Olive fruit fly Anastrepha ludens (Mexican fruit fly) Anastrepha suspensa (Greater Antilliean fruit fly) Drosophila suzukii Liriomyza huidobrensis Rhagoletis pomonella (apple maggot) ==== Termites ==== Formosan subterranean termite Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite) ==== Sawflies ==== Larch sawfly European pine sawfly European spruce sawfly Diprion similis (introduced pine sawfly) ==== Aphids, whiteflies, and scale insects ==== Hemlock woolly adelgid from Japan Balsam woolly adelgid Phorid fly from South America Ash whitefly Silverleaf whitefly Aleurocanthus woglumi (citrus blackfly) Singhiella simplex Aleurodicus dugesii Beech scale Saissetia oleae Aonidiella aurantii
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{
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Coccus pseudomagnoliarum (citricola scale) Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale) Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale) Neolecanium cornuparvum (magnolia scale) Paratachardina pseudolobata (lobate lac scale) Diaphorina citri Glycaspis brimblecombei Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid) Shivaphis celti Toxoptera citricida Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid) Cerataphis lataniae (palm aphid) Elatobium abietinum (green spruce aphid) Pineus pini (pine woolly aphid) Planococcus ficus Hypogeococcus pungens (cactus mealybug) Maconellicoccus hirsutus (pink hibiscus mealybug) Paracoccus marginatus (papaya mealybug) Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug) Pseudococcus viburni (obscure mealybug) Homalodisca vitripennis (glassy-winged sharpshooter) ==== Ants ==== Pharaoh ant from Africa Red imported fire ant from South America Black imported fire ant from Argentina Black-headed ant from Africa or Eurasia Hairy ant from Africa Argentine ant from Argentina Singapore ant from Singapore Floral ant from Asia European fire ant from Europe Caribbean crazy ant from Caribbean islands Asian needle ant from Asia Big-headed ant from Cameroon Technomyrmex albipes from Indonesia Electric ant from South America Plagiolepis alluaudi (the little yellow ant) from Madagascar ==== Bees ==== Western honeybee from Europe Africanized bee from Africa and South America Green orchid bee from Central America to Florida ==== Wasps ==== Vespula germanica Polistes dominula Sirex noctilio Selitrichodes globulus ==== Moths and butterflies ==== Acrolepiopsis assectella (leek moth) Archips fuscocupreanus (exotic leafroller moth) Cactoblastis cactorum (cactus moth) Coleophora laricella (larch casebearer) Crocidosema plebejana (cotton tipworm) Duponchelia fovealis Epiphyas postvittana (light brown apple moth) Lymantria dispar (gypsy moth) from Europe Operophtera brumata (winter moth) Opogona sacchari (banana moth) Phyllocnistis citrella (citrus leafminer) Pieris rapae (cabbage white or small white) butterfly from Europe Rhyacionia buoliana (European pine shoot moth) Thymelicus lineola (European or Essex skipper) butterfly from Europe ==== Other insects ==== Brown marmorated stink bug from Asia Bagrada hilaris Scantius aegyptius Thaumastocoris peregrinus Pseudacysta perseae Taeniothrips inconsequens Scirtothrips dorsalis Scirtothrips perseae Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips)
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{
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Thrips palmi (melon thrips) Forficula auricularia (common earwig) === Arachnids === Lesser brown scorpion from Asia European false widow spider from Europe Latrodectus geometricus Varroa mite from Asia Oligonychus perseae Acarapis woodi (honey bee tracheal mite) Aculops fuchsiae (fuchsia gall mite) Raoiella indica (red palm mite) === Jellyfishes === Craspedacusta sowerbii from China Blackfordia virginica Australian spotted jellyfish from Australia === Other animals === Cordylophora caspia - freshwater hydroid Lophopodella carteri - freshwater bryozoan Stephanella hina - bryozoan Diadumene lineata - orange-striped green sea anemone Botrylloides violaceus - a colonial sea squirt Botryllus schlosseri - star ascidian Styela clava - stalked sea squirt === Plants === This is a non-exhaustive list of some of the more significant plant species Nymphaea odorata – American waterlily in California from native parts of North America Ailanthus altissima – tree-of-heaven from eastern Asia Falcataria moluccana -Batai wood Prunus cerasus – dwarf cherry from Eurasia Ficus benjamina – weeping fig from Asia Ficus benghalensis – banyan from Asia Ficus religiosa – sacred fig from Asia Acer platanoides – Norway maple from Europe Acer campestre – field maple from Europe Eurasian watermilfoil from Europe, Asia and northern Africa Ice plant from South Africa Eucalypts from Australia Celastrus orbiculatus – Oriental bittersweet Elaeagnus umbellata – autumn-olive Kali tragus – a tumbleweed from Eurasia Cynanchum louiseae (black swallow-wort) Reynoutria japonica (syn. Fallopia japonica) (Japanese Knotweed) Alliaria petiolata – garlic mustard Hesperis matronalis – dame's rocket from Eurasia Radish Rosa multiflora – multiflora rose Vicia cracca – cow vetch from Eurasia Vicia villosa – hairy vetch from Eurasia Pueraria montana – kudzu (a.k.a. Pueraria lobata) from Japan Cytisus scoparius – Common broom from Europe Robinia pseudoacacia - black locust (in non-native parts of the United States) Gleditsia triacanthos - Honey-locust (in non-native parts of the United States) Albizia julibrissin
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- Persian silk tree Acacia nilotica - Gum Arabic tree Acacia auriculiformis - Northern black wattle Acacia crassicarpa - Northern wattle Acacia saligna - Port Jackson wattle Acacia melanoxylon - Australian blackwood Samanea saman - Rain tree Lonicera japonica – Japanese honeysuckle Lonicera maackii – amur honeysuckle Lythrum salicaria – purple-loosestrife Ipomoea aquatica – water spinach from India and southeast Asia Conium maculatum – poison hemlock from Europe Daucus carota - wild carrot Hedera helix – common ivy from Europe Heptapleurum actinophyllum - Umbrella tree Taraxacum officinale – dandelion from Europe Centaurea diffusa – diffuse knapweed Bambusa vulgaris - common bamboo from China Phyllostachys aurea - Golden bamboo Phyllostachys aureosulcata - Yellow groove bamboo Allium sativum – garlic Allium neapolitanum - false garlic Hydrilla verticillata – hydrilla from India and Sri Lanka Trapa natans – water caltrop from Eurasia Eichhornia crassipes – water hyacinth from South America Pistia stratiotes – water lettuce from South America Arundo donax – giant reed from the Mediterranean Sorghum halepense – Johnson grass from Europe Salvinia molesta – giant salvinia from Brazil Codium fragile subsp. tomentosoides – green sea fingers Sargassum horneri === Oomycetes === Phytophthora ramorum - the cause of sudden oak death == Central America, Caribbean islands and Mexico == === Mammals === Donkey Horse Fallow deer - Guiana Island and Barbuda Odocoileus virginianus (white-tailed deer) - onto several islands Northern giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) - Mexico [1] Cattle - at least Hispaniola Goat Barbary sheep - Mexico Nilgai - Mexico by natural colonisation from the introduced Texan population Pig Monkeys: Mona monkey from Africa (in Grenada) Green monkey (previously identified as the vervet monkey) (From Africa, In Barbados Stump-tailed macaque - small population on the islands in Laguna Catemaco Rhesus macaque - there were established populations in Puerto Rico up until 2010. There
|
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has since been an unpublicised eradication program by the Puerto Rican government, which may have been successful, which would limit the population to research establishments. Patas monkey from Africa (in Puerto Rico) Small Asian mongoose from Asia (in Caribbean islands) Dog Cat European rabbit - population on Clarion Island not yet eradicated European hare - on Barbados Lowland paca - on Cuba Red-rumped agouti - on Dominica, Grenada, and Virgin Islands Brown rat Black rat House mouse Procyon lotor (raccoon) onto Bahamas, Guadeloupe, and Martinique === Birds === Cathartes aura (turkey vulture) Puerto Rico Chicken Numida meleagris (helmeted guineafowl) Alectoris chukar (chukar partridge) Colinus virginianus (northern bobwhite) artificially expanded range Colinus cristatus (crested bobwhite) artificially expanded range Alectoris barbara (Barbary partridge) Eurasian collared dove Feral pigeon European starling Pin-tailed whydah into Puerto Rico Javan myna into Puerto Rico Common hill myna into Puerto Rico Java sparrow Common waxbill Village weaver Passer domesticus (house sparrow) Euplectes afer (yellow-crowned bishop) Estrilda melpoda (orange-cheeked waxbill) Lonchura cucullata (bronze mannikin) Lonchura punctulata (scaly-breasted munia) Sicalis flaveola (saffron finch) Sicalis luteola (grassland yellow finch) Lesser Antilles Tiaris canorus (Cuban grassquit) Bahamas Icterus icterus (Venezuelan troupial) Quiscalus lugubris (Carib grackle) Molothrus bonariensis (shiny cowbird) Cockatiel Sulphur-crested cockatoo Scarlet macaw into Puerto Rico from native parts of the Americas Red-and-green macaw into Puerto Rico from native parts of the Americas Blue-and-yellow macaw into Puerto Rico from native parts of the Americas Orange-winged amazon Budgerigar Monk parakeet White-winged parakeet into Puerto Rico Nanday parakeet into Puerto Rico Green-rumped parrotlet Eupsittula pertinax (brown-throated parakeet) Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands Amazona ventralis (Hispaniolan amazon) Puerto Rico and US Virgin Is. === Reptiles === Spectacled caiman - Cuba and Puerto Rico Burmese python - Puerto Rico Boa constrictor - Puerto Rico Green Anaconda - Trinidad and Tobago Anolis sagrei (brown anole)
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{
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Anolis wattsi (Watts' anole) Trachemys scripta elegans (red-eared slider) === Amphibians === Common coquí - U.S. Virgin Islands, Dominican Republic Greenhouse frog - Jamaica, Bahamas Cuban tree frog Scinax ruber - Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles Cane toad American bullfrog === Fish === Mozambique tilapia Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish) Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass) Xiphophorus hellerii (green swordtail) === Insects === Leaf-cutting ant into Guadeloupe from South America Cactoblastis cactorum Aethina tumida (small hive beetle) Aleurocanthus woglumi (citrus blackfly) Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid) Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale) Cerataphis lataniae (palm aphid) Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly) Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite) Culex quinquefasciatus (southern house mosquito) Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips) Hypogeococcus pungens (cactus mealybug) Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale) Maconellicoccus hirsutus (pink hibiscus mealybug) Papilio demoleus (common lime butterfly) Paracoccus marginatus (papaya mealybug) Paratachardina pseudolobata (lobate lac scale) Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant) Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug) Phyllocnistis citrella (citrus leafminer) Sternochetus mangiferae (mango seed weevil) Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant) Thrips palmi (melon thrips) Toxoptera citricida (brown citrus aphid) Trichomyrmex destructor (destructive trailing ant) Wasmannia auropunctata (electric ant) Xyleborinus saxesenii (fruit-tree pinhole borer) Xylosandrus compactus (black twig borer) Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Asian ambrosia beetle) Xylosandrus morigerus (brown twig beetle) === Arachnids === Raoiella indica (red palm mite) Rhipicephalus microplus (Asian blue tick) === Worms === Bothriocephalus acheilognathi (Asian tapeworm) Platydemus manokwari (New Guinea flatworm) === Crustaceans === Amphibalanus improvisus (bay barnacle) === Mollusks === Deroceras invadens (tramp slug) Deroceras laeve (marsh slug) Euglandina rosea (rosy wolfsnail) Lissachatina fulica (giant African snail) Marisa cornuarietis (Colombian ramshorn apple snail) Melanoides tuberculata (red-rimmed melania) Pomacea canaliculata (channeled applesnail) Zachrysia provisoria (Cuban brown snail) == South America == === Mammals === Beaver from North America to Tierra del Fuego Muskrat Brown rat Black rat House mouse European hare from Europe to Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay,
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{
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Argentina, Chile, Uruguay and Brazil European rabbit Small Asian mongoose from Asia to Venezuela, Guyana and Suriname American mink Dog Cat Chital from Asia to Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Chile Elk from North America Red deer from Europe Blackbuck from Asia to Argentina and Uruguay Himalayan tahr from New Zealand (originally from Asia) Fallow deer Water buffalo - at least Brazil Cattle Wild boar from Europe Goat Feral horse from Europe Hippopotamus from Africa to Colombia, Originally kept by Pablo Escobar === Birds === Anas platyrhynchos (mallard) Anser anser (greylag goose) Brotogeris versicolurus (white-winged parakeet) – Peru Callipepla californica (California quail) Carduelis carduelis (European goldfinch) Chloris chloris (European greenfinch) Columba livia (rock dove) Estrilda astrild (common waxbill) Passer domesticus (house sparrow) Ploceus cucullatus (village weaver) Rhea pennata (Darwin's rhea) - introduced to Tierra del Fuego from mainland Shiny cowbird (shiny cowbird) – Chile Thraupis episcopus (blue-gray tanager) - Lima === Amphibians === American bullfrog === Fish === Arapaima gigas from the Amazon rivers Cherry barb from Sri Lanka Mozambique tilapia Pterois volitans (Red lionfish) Salmo trutta (Brown trout) Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow trout) Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) Cyprinus carpio (Common carp) Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth bass) Trichogaster pectoralis (Snakeskin gourami) === Insects === Aedes albopictus (tiger mosquito) Anastrepha fraterculus (South American fruit fly) Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid) Bemisia tabaci (silverleaf whitefly) Cerataphis lataniae (palm aphid) Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly) Cinara cupressi (cypress aphid) Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite) Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid) Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale) Linepithema humile (Argentine ant) Maconellicoccus hirsutus (hibiscus mealybug) Nylanderia fulva (Crazy ant) Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug) === Arachnids === Raoiella indica (red palm mite) === Crustaceans === Carcinus maenas (shore crab) Charybdis hellerii (Blue Jaiba crab) Cherax cainii Cherax quadricarinatus (Australian red claw crayfish) Daphnia lumholtzi Macrobrachium rosenbergii (giant river prawn)
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Penaeus monodon (Asian tiger shrimp) Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crawfish) === Mollusks === Achatina fulica (Giant African snail) Deroceras invadens (tramp slug) Deroceras laeve (marsh slug) Cornu aspersum (Garden snail) Melanoides tuberculata (red-rimmed melania) == Asia excluding Japan == === Mammals === Macaca fascicularis (crab-eating macaque) into Hong Kong Canis familiaris (dog) Felis catus (cat) from Africa Neogale vison (American mink) from North America Procyon lotor (common raccoon) from North America Myocastor coypus (nutria) from South America Ondatra zibethicus (muskrat) from North America Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit) from Europe Rattus norvegicus (brown rat) onto islands from mainland Asia Rattus rattus (black rat) Ceratotherium simum (southern white rhinoceros) from Africa to China Equus africanus (donkey) - Sri Lanka Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata (reticulated giraffe) - Arabia (see Sir Bani Yas) Ovibos moschatus (muskox) - Russia Ovis aries (sheep) into Tibet === Birds === Acridotheres cinereus (pale-bellied myna) into Borneo Acridotheres cristatellus (crested myna) artificially expanded range Acridotheres tristis (common myna) into non-native areas Amandava amandava (red avadavat) artificially expanded range Cacatua galerita (sulphur-crested cockatoo) artificially expanded range into eastern Indonesia Cacatua sulphurea (yellow-crested cockatoo) Hong Kong Corvus splendens (house crow) into non-native areas Eclectus roratus (eclectus parrot) artificially expanded range into eastern Indonesia Euodice cantans (African silverbill) Francolinus pintadeanus (Chinese francolin) Philippines from mainland Garrulax canorus (Chinese hwamei) into non-native areas Geopelia striata (zebra dove) artificially expanded range Geronticus eremita (northern bald ibis) reintroduced into Turkey Lonchura atricapilla (chestnut munia) Maluku Islands Lonchura leucogastroides (Javan munia) Singapore and S Malay Peninsula Padda oryzivora (Java sparrow) artificially expanded range Passer montanus (Eurasian tree sparrow) artificially expanded range Perdix dauurica (Daurian partridge) Philippines from mainland Psittacula krameri (rose-ringed parakeet) into Israel Spilopelia chinensis (spotted dove) eastern Indonesia Tanygnathus lucionensis (blue-naped parrot) Borneo Trichoglossus haematodus (coconut lorikeet) Hong Kong === Reptiles === Common snapping turtle
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Pond slider Brown anole into Taiwan Brahminy blind snake into non-native areas Burmese python into Singapore === Amphibians === Cane toad American bullfrog === Fish === Arapaima gigas from South America Abbottina rivularis (Chinese false gudgeon) into non-native areas Amatitlania nigrofasciata (convict cichlid) Atractosteus spatula (alligator gar) Clarias gariepinus (African sharptooth catfish) Colossoma macropomum (tambaqui) from South America Coptodon zillii (redbelly tilapia) Gambusia affinis (mosquitofish) Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish) Hemibarbus maculatus (spotted steed) into non-native areas Hemiculter leucisculus (sharpbelly) into Central Asia Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish) Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) Mayaheros urophthalmus (Mayan cichlid) Micropterus dolomieu (smallmouth bass) Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass) Oreochromis mossambicus (Mozambique tilapia) Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) Poecilia reticulata (guppy) Poecilia sphenops (molly) Pseudorasbora parva (stone moroko) into non-native areas Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus (suckermouth armored catfish) Rhodeus ocellatus (rosy bitterling) into non-native areas Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout) Xiphophorus hellerii (green swordtail) === Insects === Aleurodicus dispersus (spiralling whitefly) Belostoma bifoveolatum (giant water bug) from South America Bemisia tabaci (silverleaf whitefly) Blattella germanica (German cockroach) Cameraria ohridella (horse-chestnut leaf miner) Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly) Chrysomya bezziana (Old World screwworm fly) Cinara cupressi (cypress aphid) Corythucha ciliata (sycamore lace bug) Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid) Cydalima perspectalis (box tree moth) Dendroctonus micans (great spruce bark beetle) Dendroctonus pseudotsugae (Douglas-fir beetle) Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips) Hypera postica (alfalfa weevil) Hyphantria cunea (fall webworm) Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale) Linepithema humile (Argentine ant) Liriomyza sativae (vegetable leaf miner) Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus (rice water weevil) Monomorium pharaonis (pharaoh ant) Oracella acuta (loblolly pine mealybug) Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant) Phenacoccus manihoti (cassava mealybug) Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug) Pineus pini (pine woolly aphid) Quadrastichus erythrinae (Erythrina gall wasp) Solenopsis geminata (fire ant) Solenopsis invicta (red imported fire ant) Spodoptera frugiperda (fall armyworm) Trialeurodes vaporariorum (greenhouse whitefly) Trichomyrmex destructor (destructive trailing ant) Vespa velutina (Asian predatory
|
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wasp) Wasmannia auropunctata (electric ant) Xyleborus volvulus === Other arthropods === Latrodectus geometricus (brown widow) Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crawfish) Amphibalanus amphitrite (striped barnacle) Amphibalanus improvisus (bay barnacle) === Molluscs === Ambigolimax valentianus (threeband gardenslug) Brachidontes pharaonis (variable mussel) into Mediterranean Sea Cornu aspersum (garden snail) Euglandina rosea (rosy wolfsnail) Limnoperna fortunei (golden mussel) into non-native areas Lissachatina fulica (giant African snail) Mytilopsis sallei (black-striped mussel) Mytilus galloprovincialis (Mediterranean mussel) Pinctada radiata (Atlantic pearl-oyster) into Mediterranean Sea Pomacea canaliculata (channeled applesnail) Potamopyrgus antipodarum (New Zealand mud snail) Rapana venosa (veined rapa whelk) into Mediterranean Sea Rumina decollata (decollate snail) Venerupis philippinarum (Manila clam) into Mediterranean Sea === Other Animals === Molgula manhattensis (sea grapes) Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (pine wood nematode) Globodera rostochiensis (golden nematode) Platydemus manokwari (New Guinea flatworm) Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Australian tubeworm) Hydroides elegans Bugula neritina (brown bryozoan) == Japan == === Mammals === Macaca cyclopis (Formosan rock macaque) in Japan (from mainland Asia) Macaca mulatta (rhesus macaque) in Japan (from mainland Asia) Canis familiaris (dog) Felis catus (cat) from Africa Neogale vison (American mink) from North America Martes melampus (Japanese marten) Mustela itatsi (Japanese weasel) Mustela sibirica (Siberian weasel) Nyctereutes procyonoides (common raccoon dog) Procyon lotor (common raccoon) from North America Urva auropunctata (small Asian mongoose) in Japan (from mainland Asia) Paguma larvata (masked palm civet) in Japan (from Taiwan) Erinaceus amurensis (Amur hedgehog) to Japan from mainland Asia Pipistrellus abramus (Japanese house bat) from native parts of Japan to Hokkaido Crocidura dsinezumi (Dsinezumi shrew) Eutamias sibiricus (Siberian chipmunk) Mus musculus (house mouse) Rattus exulans (Polynesian rat) Rattus norvegicus (brown rat) Rattus rattus (black rat) Sciurus vulgaris (red squirrel) Callosciurus erythraeus (Pallas's squirrel) into Japan Callosciurus finlaysonii (Finlayson's squirrel) into Japan Myocastor coypus (nutria) from South America Ondatra zibethicus (muskrat) from North America Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit) from Europe
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(see also Ōkunoshima, also known as Japanese rabbit island) Bos taurus (cattle) Capra aegagrus (feral goat) Muntiacus reevesi (Reeves's muntjac) Sus scrofa (wild boar) === Birds === Acridotheres cristatellus (crested myna) Acridotheres tristis (common myna) Amandava amandava (red avadavat) Bambusicola thoracicus (Chinese bamboo partridge) Japan from China Branta canadensis (Canada goose) Colinus virginianus (northern bobwhite) Columba livia (rock dove) into Japan Cygnus atratus (black swan) Cygnus olor (mute swan) into Japan from mainland Asia Garrulax canorus (Chinese hwamei) Garrulax cineraceus (moustached laughing thrush) Garrulax sannio (white-browed laughing thrush) Gracupica contra (Asian pied starling) in Japan from mainland Asia Himantopus mexicanus (black-necked stilt) into Japan. Possible subspecies of the native Himantopus himantopus Leiothrix lutea (red-billed leiothrix) into Japan Padda oryzivora (Java sparrow) Lonchura atricapilla (chestnut munia) Lonchura malacca (tricolored munia) Lonchura striata (white-rumped munia) Melopsittacus undulatus (budgerigar) Paroaria coronata (red-crested cardinal) Pavo cristatus (Indian peafowl) in Japan Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant) into Japan Pica pica (Eurasian magpie) Japan from mainland Psittacula alexandri (red-breasted parakeet) in Japan Psittacula eupatria (Alexandrine parakeet) in Japan Psittacula krameri (ring-necked parakeet) Pycnonotus jocosus (red-whiskered bulbul) in Japan Pycnonotus sinensis (light-vented bulbul) Vidua macroura (pin-tailed whydah) === Reptiles === Chinese box turtle in Japan Chinese pond turtle in Japan Common snapping turtle Pond slider Yellow pond turtle into Japan from Taiwan Pelodiscus sinensis (Chinese softshell turtle) Carolina anole Gekko hokouensis (Hokou gecko) Hemidactylus frenatus (common house gecko) Hemiphyllodactylus typus (Indopacific tree gecko) Japalura swinhonis (Swinhoe's tree lizard) Lepidodactylus lugubris (mourning gecko) Brahminy blind snake Orthriophis taeniurus (beauty rat snake) Protobothrops elegans (elegant pitviper) Protobothrops mucrosquamatus (brown spotted pit viper) === Amphibians === Cane toad American bullfrog Common tree frog into Japan from Philippines African clawed frog Chinese giant salamander into Japan from China === Fish === Acheilognathus cyanostigma (striped bitterling) Acheilognathus macropterus Acheilognathus rhombeus (kanehira) Acheilognathus typus
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(zenitanago) Amatitlania nigrofasciata (convict cichlid) Channa argus (northern snakehead) into Japan Channa asiatica (small snakehead) Clarias batrachus (walking catfish) into at least Okinawa Island from mainland Asia Clarias fuscus (whitespotted clarias) Channa maculata (blotched snakehead) Coptodon zillii (redbelly tilapia) Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp) Cyprinus carpio (common carp) Danio albolineatus (pearl danio) Danio rerio (zebrafish) Gambusia affinis (mosquitofish) Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish) Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver bighead) Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (striped bighead) Ictalurus punctatus (channel catfish) Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) Macropodus ocellatus (paradise fish) Micropterus dolomieu (smallmouth bass) Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass) Monopterus albus (Asian swamp eel) Mylopharyngodon piceus (black carp) Odontesthes bonariensis (Argentinian silverside) Oncorhynchus mykiss (rainbow trout) Oreochromis mossambicus (Mozambique tilapia) Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) Otopharynx lithobates Parambassis ranga (Indian glassy fish) Paramisgurnus dabryanus (kara-dojou) Poecilia reticulata (guppy) Poecilia sphenops (molly) Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus (suckermouth armored catfish) Rhodeus ocellatus (rosy bitterling) Salmo trutta (brown trout) Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout) Salvelinus namaycush (lake trout) Silurus asotus (Amur catfish) Tridentiger brevispinis (numachichibu) Xiphophorus hellerii (green swordtail) === Insects === Agriosphodrus dohrni Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant) Aromia bungii (red-necked longhorn) Bemisia tabaci (silverleaf whitefly) Blattella germanica (German cockroach) Bombus terrestris (buff-tailed bumblebee) Cavelerius saccharivorus (oriental chinch bug) Coptotermes formosanus (Formosan subterranean termite) Corythucha ciliata (sycamore lace bug) Cylas formicarius (sweet potato weevil) Delta pyriforme Drosophila suzukii (spotted wing drosophila) Dryocosmus kuriphilus (chestnut gall wasp) Epilachna varivestis (Mexican bean beetle) Erionota torus (rounded palm-redeye) Euscepes postfasciatus (West Indian sweetpotato weevil) Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips) Hestina assimilis (red ring skirt) Hylurgus ligniperda (red-haired pine bark beetle) Hypera postica (alfalfa weevil) Hyphantria cunea (fall webworm) Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale) Linepithema humile (Argentine ant) Liriomyza sativae (vegetable leaf miner) Liriomyza trifolii (serpentine leafminer) Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus (rice water weevil) Monomorium pharaonis (pharaoh ant) Nealsomyia rufella Opisthoplatia orientalis Paraglenea fortunei Parasa lepida (nettle caterpillar) Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant) Phenacoccus
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solenopsis (cotton mealybug) Protaetia orientalis Quadrastichus erythrinae (Erythrina gall wasp) Rhabdoscelus obscurus (sugarcane weevil borer) Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (red palm weevil) Sericinus montela (sericin swallow-tail butterfly) Solenopsis geminata (fire ant) Thrips palmi (melon thrips) Trialeurodes vaporariorum (greenhouse whitefly) Unaspis yanonensis (arrowhead snow scale) Vespa velutina (Asian predatory wasp) Xyleborus volvulus Xylocopa tranquebarorum (Taiwanese bamboo carpenter bee) === Other Arthropods === Aculops lycopersici (tomato russet mite) Latrodectus geometricus (brown widow) Latrodectus hasseltii (redback spider) Chamberlinius hualinensis Carcinus aestuarii (Mediterranean green crab) Pacifastacus leniusculus (signal crayfish) Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crawfish) Pyromaia tuberculata (tuberculate pear crab) Amphibalanus amphitrite (striped barnacle) Amphibalanus improvisus (bay barnacle) Megabalanus coccopoma (titan acorn barnacle) Crangonyx floridanus (Florida crangonyctid) === Molluscs === Ambigolimax valentianus (threeband gardenslug) Corbicula fluminea (Asian clam) Crepidula fornicata (common slipper shell) Crepidula onyx (onyx slippersnail) Euglandina rosea (rosy wolfsnail) Limnoperna fortunei (golden mussel) Lissachatina fulica (giant African snail) Mytilopsis sallei (black-striped mussel) Mytilus galloprovincialis (Mediterranean mussel) Nassarius sinarus (Nassarius snail) Perna viridis (Asian green mussel) Pomacea canaliculata (channeled applesnail) Potamopyrgus antipodarum (New Zealand mud snail) Rumina decollata (decollate snail) Xenostrobus securis (small brown mussel) === Other Animals === Molgula manhattensis (sea grapes) Polyandrocarpa zorritensis Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (pine wood nematode) Globodera rostochiensis (golden nematode) Platydemus manokwari (New Guinea flatworm) Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Australian tubeworm) Hydroides elegans Bugula neritina (brown bryozoan) == Africa == === Mammals === African elephant in Swaziland (reintroduced) Wild boar (native to certain parts of North Africa; introduced populations rare and concentrated in the southern part of the continent) Black wildebeest (in Namibia) Impala (in Gabon) Sable antelope (in Swaziland) Nyala (in Botswana and Namibia) Feral goat Ammotragus lervia (Barbary sheep) onto Canary Islands from mainland Africa Ovis orientalis (mouflon) onto Canary Islands European rabbit (introduced mainly to islands; native to a small area in northwestern Africa) European hare - on Réunion Indian hare
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Coypu - Kenya Fallow deer Himalayan tahr (largely eradicated) Rusa deer Red deer - South Africa Feral horse - see Namib Desert Horse Feral donkey Feral cat Feral dog House mouse Brown rat Black rat Gray squirrel (restricted to the extreme southwestern corner of the continent) Crab-eating macaque - Mauritius Small Asian mongoose - Mauritius Small Indian civet - Madagascar Asian house shrew Tailless tenrec - Comoros, Mauritius, Réunion, and Seychelles Common brown lemur from Madagascar (in the island of Mayotte) === Birds === Acridotheres tristis (common myna) Agapornis fischeri (Fischer's lovebird) - coastal Tanzania and Kenya from inland Agapornis personatus (yellow-collared lovebird) - Kenya from Tanzania Alectoris barbara (Barbary partridge) - onto Canary Islands from mainland Alectoris rufa (red-legged partridge) Amandava amandava (red avadavat) Anas platyrhynchos (mallard) Bubulcus ibis (cattle egret) – Seychelles Carduelis carduelis (European goldfinch) – Cape Verde Columba livia (rock dove) Corvus splendens (house crow) Coturnix coturnix (common quail) - Réunion Crithagra mozambica (yellow-fronted canary) - numerous islands from mainland Cygnus olor (mute swan) - South Africa Estrilda astrild (common waxbill) - numerous islands from mainland Foudia madagascariensis (red fody) – Indian Ocean islands from mainland Francolinus pintadeanus (Chinese francolin) - Mauritius Francolinus pondicerianus (grey francolin) Fringilla coelebs (chaffinch) - restricted to a few suburbs of Cape Town, a city in the southwest of South Africa Gallus gallus (red junglefowl) Geopelia striata (zebra dove) Padda oryzivora (Java sparrow) Lonchura punctulata (scaly-breasted munia) Oxyura jamaicensis (ruddy duck) Passer domesticus (house sparrow) Ploceus cucullatus (village weaver) - Mauritius Psittacula krameri (rose-ringed parakeet) Pycnonotus jocosus (red-whiskered bulbul) Quelea quelea (red-billed quelea) - on to Réunion Serinus canicollis (Cape canary) - Réunion Spilopelia chinensis (spotted dove) Streptopelia roseogrisea (African collared dove) - onto Canary Islands from mainland Sturnus vulgaris (common starling) Tyto alba (western barn owl) === Reptiles === Wattle-necked
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softshell turtle Emys orbicularis (European pond turtle) Gehyra mutilata (stump-tailed gecko) Hemidactylus frenatus (common house gecko) Lepidodactylus lugubris (mourning gecko) Tarentola mauritanica (Moorish wall gecko) Trachemys scripta ssp. elegans (red-eared slider) Alligator snapping turtle - South Africa === Amphibians === Amietophrynus gutturalis (guttural toad) === Fish === Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp) Cyprinus carpio (common carp) Gambusia affinis (western mosquitofish) Gambusia holbrooki (eastern mosquitofish) Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (silver carp) Lates niloticus (Nile perch) Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill) Micropterus dolomieu (smallmouth bass) Micropterus floridanus (Florida bass) Micropterus punctulatus (spotted bass) Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass) Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) Perca fluviatilis (European perch) Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus (vermiculated sailfin catfish) Salmo salar (Atlantic salmon) Tinca tinca (tench) === Crustaceans === Carcinus maenas (European shore crab) Cherax quadricarinatus (redclaw crayfish) Limnoria quadripunctata (gribble) Percnon gibbesi (Sally Lightfoot crab) Procambarus clarkii (red swamp crawfish) Procambarus fallax (Marmorkrebs) === Insects === Aedes albopictus (Asian tiger mosquito) Aleurodicus dispersus (spiralling whitefly) Aleurothrixus floccosus (woolly whitefly) Aleurotrachelus atratus (palm-infesting whitefly) Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant) Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid) Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale) Bactrocera cucurbitae (melon fly) Bactrocera dorsalis (Oriental fruit fly) Bactrocera invadens (Asian fruit fly) Bactrocera zonata (peach fruit fly) Bemisia tabaci (silverleaf whitefly) Cactoblastis cactorum (cactus moth) Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly) Ceratitis rosa (Natal fruit fly) Chionaspis pinifoliae (pine needle scale insect) Cinara cupressi (cypress aphid) Coptotermes formosanus (Formosan subterranean termite) Cosmopolites sordidus (banana root borer) Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite) Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid) Diuraphis noxia (Russian wheat aphid) Eulachnus rileyi (pine needle aphid) Euwallacea fornicatus (tea shot hole borer) Frankliniella occidentalis (western flower thrips) Harmonia axyridis (Asian lady beetle) Hylastes ater (black pine bark beetle) Hylurgus ligniperda (red-haired pine bark beetle) Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale) Linepithema humile (Argentine ant) Liriomyza trifolii (American serpentine leafminer) Maconellicoccus hirsutus (hibiscus mealybug) Orthotomicus erosus (Mediterranean
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pine engraver) Phenacoccus manihoti (cassava mealybug) Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug) Pineus pini (pine woolly aphid) Polistes dominula (European paper wasp) Prostephanus truncatus (larger grain borer) Pseudococcus calceolariae (Citrophilus mealybug) Sirex noctilio (Sirex woodwasp) Spodoptera frugiperda (fall armyworm) Technomyrmex albipes (white-footed ant) Thaumastocoris peregrinus (bronze bug) Trialeurodes ricini (castor bean whitefly) Trichomyrmex destructor (destructive trailing ant) Vespula germanica (European wasp) Wasmannia auropunctata (electric ant) Xyleborinus saxesenii (fruit-tree pinhole borer) Xyleborus perforans (island pinhole borer) Xylosandrus compactus (black twig borer) === Molluscs === Aplexa marmorata (marbled tadpole snail) Bradybaena similaris (Asian trampsnail) Cochlicella barbara (potbellied helicellid) Cornu aspersum (garden snail) Deroceras invadens (tramp slug) Deroceras laeve (marsh slug) Euglandina rosea (rosy wolfsnail) Limax flavus (yellow slug) Milax gagates (greenhouse slug) Mytilus galloprovincialis (Mediterranean mussel) Pinctada radiata (Gulf pearl oyster) Pseudosuccinea columella (mimic lymnaea) Semimytilus algosus (Pacific mussel) Tarebia granifera (quilted melania) Theba pisana (white garden snail) Zonitoides arboreus (quick gloss) === Worms === Ficopomatus enigmaticus (Australian tubeworm) Boccardia proboscidea (shell worm) === Other Animals === Ciona intestinalis (sea vase) === Plants === Brazilian pepper tree Bugweed Camphor tree Spanish broom Prickly pear Stone pine Cluster pine Pampas grass Guava St John's wort Weeping willow Water hyacinth Acacia cyclops Acacia mearnsii Acacia saligna Valeriana rubra Eucalyptus Hakea Lantana Tipuana tipu == Oceania and remote islands == === Mammals === Bos taurus (cattle) Bubalus bubalis (water buffalo) Canis familiaris (dog) Capra aegagrus (feral goat) Equus africanus (donkey) Felis catus (feral cat) Urva auropunctata (small Asian mongoose) – Fiji Macaca fascicularis (crab-eating macaque) Mus musculus (house mouse) Mustela putorius (ferret) – Azores Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit) Ovis aries (sheep) Rattus norvegicus (brown rat) Rattus rattus (black rat) Rusa marianna (Philippine deer) Sciurus carolinensis (eastern gray squirrel) - Pitcairn Islands Suncus murinus (Asian house shrew) Sus scrofa (wild boar) === Birds === Acridotheres fuscus (jungle myna)
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}
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Acridotheres tristis (common myna) Alectoris chukar (chukar partridge) - Saint Helena Amandava amandava (red avadavat) Anas acuta (northern pintail) - Île Amsterdam Anas platyrhynchos (mallard) - arrived naturally at Macquarie Island from introduced populations in New Zealand and Australia Bubulcus ibis (cattle egret) - Chagos Archipelago Cacatua galerita (sulphur-crested cockatoo) - Palau Callipepla californica (California quail) - Norfolk Island Chloris chloris (European greenfinch) - Azores Circus approximans (swamp harrier) - Tahiti Columba livia (rock dove) Corvus moneduloides (New Caledonian crow) - Maré Island Crithagra flaviventris (yellow canary) - Saint Helena, Ascension Island Dicrurus macrocercus (black drongo) - Mariana Islands Diuca diuca (common diuca finch) - Easter Island Eclectus roratus (eclectus parrot) - Palau Estrilda astrild (common waxbill) Excalfactoria chinensis (king quail) - Guam Foudia madagascariensis (red fody) - Chagos Archipelago, Saint Helena Francolinus francolinus (black francolin) - Guam Gallinula chloropus (common moorhen) - Saint Helena Gallus gallus (red junglefowl) Geopelia striata (zebra dove) - Saint Helena Gymnorhina tibicen (Australian magpie) - Fiji Lonchura atricapilla (chestnut munia) - Palau Lonchura castaneothorax (chestnut-breasted mannikin) Lonchura punctulata (scaly-breasted munia) Neochmia temporalis (red-browed finch) - French Polynesia Nesoenas picturatus (Malagasy turtle dove) - Chagos Archipelago Nothoprocta perdicaria (Chilean tinamou) - Easter Island Padda oryzivora (Java sparrow) Passer domesticus (house sparrow) Passer montanus (Eurasian tree sparrow) Phalcoboenus chimango (chimango caracara) - Easter Island Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant) - Saint Helena Platycercus elegans (crimson rosella) - Norfolk Island Pternistis afer (red-necked spurfowl) - Ascension Island Pycnonotus cafer (red-vented bulbul) Ramphocelus dimidiatus (crimson-backed tanager) – Tahiti Spilopelia chinensis (spotted dove) - New Caledonia, Fiji Streptopelia dusumieri (Philippine collared dove) - Mariana Islands Sturnus vulgaris (common starling) Vini kuhlii (Kuhl's lorikeet) - Kiribati Zosterops lateralis (silvereye) - Tahiti === Reptiles === Boiga irregularis (brown tree snake) Hemidactylus frenatus (common house gecko) Lacerta dugesii (Madeiran wall lizard) - Azores
|
{
"page_id": 395218,
"source": null,
"title": "List of introduced species"
}
|
Iguana iguana (green iguana) – Fiji Trachemys scripta (red-eared slider) === Amphibians === Duttaphrynus melanostictus (Asian common toad) - New Guinea Eleutherodactylus planirostris (greenhouse frog) - Guam Rhinella marina (cane toad) Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog) - Ascension Island === Insects === Adoretus sinicus (Chinese rose beetle) Aedes albopictus (tiger mosquito) Aleurotrachelus atratus (palm-infesting whitefly) – Samoa Anoplolepis gracilipes (yellow crazy ant) Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid) Aulacaspis yasumatsui (cycad aulacaspis scale) Bactrocera cucurbitae (melon fly) Bactrocera dorsalis (Oriental fruit fly) Blattella germanica (German cockroach) Cactoblastis cactorum (cactus moth) Cerataphis lataniae (palm aphid) – Guam Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly) Coptotermes formosanus (Formosan subterranean termite) - Marshall Islands Crocidosema plebejana (cotton tipworm) Cryptotermes brevis (West Indian drywood termite) Ctenarytaina eucalypti (blue gum psyllid) – Azores Culex quinquefasciatus (southern house mosquito) Euwallacea destruens Euwallacea fornicatus (tea shot hole borer) Euwallacea piceus Homalodisca vitripennis (glassy-winged sharpshooter) - French Polynesia Hylurgus ligniperda (red-haired pine bark beetle) - Saint Helena Icerya purchasi (cottony cushion scale) Kallitaxila crini (green tropiduchid) – Guam Linepithema humile (Argentine ant) Maconellicoccus hirsutus (hibiscus mealybug) Macrosiphum euphorbiae (potato aphid) Monomorium pharaonis (pharaoh ant) Omorgus suberosus (hide beetle) Orthotomicus erosus (Mediterranean pine beetle) – Fiji Paratrechina longicornis (longhorn crazy ant) Pheidole megacephala (big-headed ant) Phenacoccus solenopsis (cotton mealybug) - New Caledonia Polistes chinensis (Japanese paper wasp) - Norfolk Island Pseudococcus viburni (obscure mealybug) Quadrastichus erythrinae (Erythrina gall wasp) Simosyrphus grandicornis (common hover fly) Solenopsis geminata (tropical fire ant) Sophonia orientalis (two-spotted leafhopper) - French Polynesia Tapinoma melanocephalum (ghost ant) Tapinoma minutum (dwarf pedicel ant) – Cook Islands Trichomyrmex destructor (destructive trailing ant) Vespula germanica (European wasp) - Ascension Island Vespula vulgaris (common wasp) - Saint Helena Wasmannia auropunctata (electric ant) Xyleborinus saxesenii (fruit-tree pinhole borer) – New Guinea Xyleborus perforans (island pinhole borer) Xyleborus similis Xyleborus volvulus Xylosandrus compactus (black twig
|
{
"page_id": 395218,
"source": null,
"title": "List of introduced species"
}
|
borer) Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Asian ambrosia beetle) Xylosandrus morigerus (brown twig beetle) === Molluscs === Cornu aspersum (garden snail) Deroceras invadens (tramp slug) Deroceras laeve (marsh slug) Euglandina rosea (rosy wolfsnail) Gonaxis kibweziensis (kibwezi gonaxis) Limax maximus (great grey slug) - Saint Helena, Azores Lissachatina fulica (giant African snail) Magallana gigas (Pacific oyster) Mytilopsis sallei (black-striped mussel) – Fiji Oxychilus alliarius (garlic snail) Perna viridis (Asian green mussel) – Fiji Pinctada radiata (Atlantic pearl-oyster) – Azores Pomacea canaliculata (channeled applesnail) – Guam, New Guinea Veronicella cubensis (Cuban slug) === Worms === Globodera rostochiensis (golden nematode) - Norfolk Island Platydemus manokwari (New Guinea flatworm) == See also == Introduced species List of invasive species Invasive species in South America List of adventive wild plants in Israel Norwegian Black List List of introduced bird species List of introduced mammal species == References == DAISIE (eds.). 2009. Handbook of Alien Species in Europe. Springer, Dordrecht. 399 p. ISBN 978-1-4020-8279-5 Macdonald, D. and P. Barrett (1993) Collins Field Guide: Mammals of Britain & Europe. HarperCollins, London. Svensson, L., P.J. Grant, K. Mullarney and D. Zetterström (1999) Collins Bird Guide. HarperCollins, London. (ISBN 0-00-219728-6) == External links == List of Non-native Arthropodos in North America
|
{
"page_id": 395218,
"source": null,
"title": "List of introduced species"
}
|
Bioactive glasses have been synthesized through methods such as conventional melting, quenching, the sol–gel process, flame synthesis, and microwave irradiation. The synthesis of bioglass has been reviewed by various groups, with sol-gel synthesis being one of the most frequently used methods for producing bioglass composites, particularly for tissue engineering applications. Other methods of bioglass synthesis have been developed, such as flame and microwave synthesis, though they are less prevalent in research. == History and methodology == === Melt quench synthesis === The first bioactive glass, developed by Larry Hench in 1969, was produced by melting a mixture of related oxide precursors at relatively high temperatures. This original bioactive glass, named Bioglass, was melt-derived with a composition of 46.1 mol% SiO2, 24.4 mol% Na2O, 26.9 mol% CaO, and 2.6 mol% P2O5. The selection of glass composition for specific applications is often based on a comprehensive understanding of how each major component influences the properties of the glass, considering both its final use and its manufacturing process. Despite extensive research over the past 40 years, only a limited number of glass compositions have been approved for clinical use. Among these, the two melt-derived compositions approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)—45S5 and S53P4—consist of four oxides: SiO2, Na2O, CaO, and P2O5. In general, a large number of elements can be dissolved in glasses. The effect of Al2O3, B2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, SrO, BaO, ZnO, Li2O, K2O, CaF2 and TiO2 on the in vitro or in vivo properties of certain compositions of bioactive glasses has been reported. However, the influence of composition on the properties and compatibility of bioactive and biodegradable glasses is not fully understood. Scaffolds fabricated by the melt quench technique have much less porosity, which causes issues with healing and tissue integration during in-vivo testing. === Sol–gel process ===
|
{
"page_id": 39585748,
"source": null,
"title": "Synthesis of bioglass"
}
|
The sol–gel process has a long history in the synthesis of silicate systems and other oxides and has become a widely researched field with significant technological relevance. This process is used for the fabrication of thin films, coatings, nanoparticles, and fibers. Sol-gel processing technology at low temperatures, an alternative to traditional melt processing of glasses, involves the synthesis of a solution (sol), typically composed of metal-organic and metal salt precursors. This is followed by the formation of a gel through chemical reaction or aggregation, and finally, thermal treatment for drying, organic removal, and sometimes crystallization and cooling treatment. The synthesis of specific silicate bioactive glasses using the sol–gel technique at low temperatures, employing metal alkoxides as precursors, was demonstrated in 1991 by Li et al. Typical precursors for bioactive glass synthesis include tetraethyl orthosilicate, calcium nitrate and triethyl phosphate. Following hydrolysis and poly-condensation reactions, a gel is formed, which is then calcined at 600–700°C to form the glass. Sol–gel derived products, such as thin films or particles, are highly porous and exhibit a high specific surface area. Recent research by Hong et al. has focused on fabricating bioactive silicate glass nanoparticles through a combination of the sol–gel route and the co-precipitation method. In this process, the mixture of precursors is hydrolyzed in an acidic environment, condensed in an alkaline condition, and then subjected to freeze-drying. The morphology and size of bioactive glass nanoparticles can be tailored by varying the production conditions and the feeding ratio of reagents. Different ions can be incorporated into bioactive glasses, including zinc, magnesium, zirconium, titanium, boron and silver, to enhance functionality and bioactivity. However, synthesizing bioactive glasses at the nanoscale with these ions can be challenging. Recently, Delben et al. developed sol–gel-derived bioactive glass doped with silver, reporting that the Si–O–Si bond number increased with
|
{
"page_id": 39585748,
"source": null,
"title": "Synthesis of bioglass"
}
|
higher silver concentrations, resulting in structural densification. It was also observed that quartz and metallic silver crystallization increased with higher silver content, while hydroxyapatite crystallization decreased. The sol–gel technique is widely regarded for its versatility in synthesizing inorganic materials and has proven suitable for producing various bioactive glasses. However, it is limited in the range of compositions that can be produced. Residual water or solvent content may complicate its application in biomedical fields, necessitating high-temperature calcination to eliminate organic remnants. Additionally, sol–gel processing is time-consuming and, being a batch process, can result in batch-to-batch variations. === Other methods === Beginning in 2006, researchers have produced alternate methods of synthesizing bioglass; these methods include flame synthesis and microwave synthesis. Flame synthesis works by baking the powders directly in a flame reactor. Microwave synthesis is a rapid and low-cost method where precursors are dissolved in water, transferred to an ultrasonic bath, and then irradiated. == References ==
|
{
"page_id": 39585748,
"source": null,
"title": "Synthesis of bioglass"
}
|
Since the first printing of Carl Linnaeus's Species Plantarum in 1753, plants have been assigned one epithet or name for their species and one name for their genus, a grouping of related species. Many of these plants are listed in Stearn's Dictionary of Plant Names for Gardeners. William Stearn (1911–2001) was one of the pre-eminent British botanists of the 20th century: a Librarian of the Royal Horticultural Society, a president of the Linnean Society and the original drafter of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants. The first column below contains seed-bearing genera from Stearn and other sources as listed, excluding those names that no longer appear in more modern works, such as Plants of the World by Maarten J. M. Christenhusz (lead author), Michael F. Fay and Mark W. Chase. Plants of the World is also used for the family and order classification for each genus. The second column gives a meaning or derivation of the word, such as a language of origin. The last two columns indicate additional citations. == Key == Latin: = derived from Latin (otherwise Greek, except as noted) Ba = listed in Ross Bayton's The Gardener's Botanical Bu = listed in Lotte Burkhardt's Index of Eponymic Plant Names CS = listed in both Allen Coombes's The A to Z of Plant Names and Stearn's Dictionary of Plant Names for Gardeners G = listed in David Gledhill's The Names of Plants St = listed in Stearn's Dictionary of Plant Names for Gardeners == Genera == == See also == Glossary of botanical terms List of Greek and Latin roots in English List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names List of plant genera named for people: A–C, D–J, K–P, Q–Z List of plant family names with etymologies == Notes == ==
|
{
"page_id": 65800149,
"source": null,
"title": "List of plant genus names with etymologies (D–K)"
}
|
Citations == == References == Bayton, Ross (2020). The Gardener's Botanical: An Encyclopedia of Latin Plant Names. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-20017-0. Burkhardt, Lotte (2018). Verzeichnis eponymischer Pflanzennamen – Erweiterte Edition [Index of Eponymic Plant Names – Extended Edition] (pdf) (in German). Berlin: Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum, Freie Universität Berlin. doi:10.3372/epolist2018. ISBN 978-3-946292-26-5. S2CID 187926901. Retrieved January 1, 2021. See http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ for license. Christenhusz, Maarten; Fay, Michael Francis; Chase, Mark Wayne (2017). Plants of the World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Vascular Plants. Chicago, Illinois: Kew Publishing and The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-52292-0. Coombes, Allen (2012). The A to Z of Plant Names: A Quick Reference Guide to 4000 Garden Plants. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. ISBN 978-1-60469-196-2. Cullen, Katherine E. (2006). Biology: The People Behind the Science. New York, New York: Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7221-7. Gledhill, David (2008). The Names of Plants. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86645-3. The Linnean Society (August 1992). "Publications by William T. Stearn on bibliographical, botanical and horticultural subjects, 1977–1991; a chronological list". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 109 (4): 443–451. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1992.tb01443.x. ISSN 0024-4074. Stearn, William (2002). Stearn's Dictionary of Plant Names for Gardeners. London: Cassell. ISBN 978-0-304-36469-5. == Further reading == Brown, Roland (1956). Composition of Scientific Words. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 978-1-56098-848-9. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Lewis, Charlton (1891). An Elementary Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-910205-1. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Available online at the Perseus Digital Library. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (2013) [1888/1889]. An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon. Mansfield Centre, Connecticut: Martino Fine Books. ISBN 978-1-61427-397-4. Available online at the Perseus Digital Library. Quattrocchi, Umberto (2000). CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names, Volume II, D–L. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-2676-9.
|
{
"page_id": 65800149,
"source": null,
"title": "List of plant genus names with etymologies (D–K)"
}
|
In statistical physics, the Bogoliubov–Born–Green–Kirkwood–Yvon (BBGKY) hierarchy (sometimes called Bogoliubov hierarchy) is a set of equations describing the dynamics of a system of a large number of interacting particles. The equation for an s-particle distribution function (probability density function) in the BBGKY hierarchy includes the (s + 1)-particle distribution function, thus forming a coupled chain of equations. This formal theoretic result is named after Nikolay Bogolyubov, Max Born, Herbert S. Green, John Gamble Kirkwood, and Jacques Yvon. == Formulation == The evolution of an N-particle system in absence of quantum fluctuations is given by the Liouville equation for the probability density function f N = f N ( q 1 … q N , p 1 … p N , t ) {\displaystyle f_{N}=f_{N}(\mathbf {q} _{1}\dots \mathbf {q} _{N},\mathbf {p} _{1}\dots \mathbf {p} _{N},t)} in 6N-dimensional phase space (3 space and 3 momentum coordinates per particle) ∂ f N ∂ t + ∑ i = 1 N p i m ∂ f N ∂ q i + ∑ i = 1 N F i ∂ f N ∂ p i = 0 , {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial f_{N}}{\partial t}}+\sum _{i=1}^{N}{\frac {\mathbf {p} _{i}}{m}}{\frac {\partial f_{N}}{\partial \mathbf {q} _{i}}}+\sum _{i=1}^{N}\mathbf {F} _{i}{\frac {\partial f_{N}}{\partial \mathbf {p} _{i}}}=0,} where q i , p i {\displaystyle \mathbf {q} _{i},\mathbf {p} _{i}} are the position and momentum for i {\displaystyle i} -th particle with mass m {\displaystyle m} , and the net force acting on the i {\displaystyle i} -th particle is F i = − ∑ j = 1 ≠ i N ∂ Φ i j ∂ q i − ∂ Φ i ext ∂ q i , {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{i}=-\sum _{j=1\neq i}^{N}{\frac {\partial \Phi _{ij}}{\partial \mathbf {q} _{i}}}-{\frac {\partial \Phi _{i}^{\text{ext}}}{\partial \mathbf {q} _{i}}},} where Φ i j ( q i ,
|
{
"page_id": 5703638,
"source": null,
"title": "BBGKY hierarchy"
}
|
q j ) {\displaystyle \Phi _{ij}(\mathbf {q} _{i},\mathbf {q} _{j})} is the pair potential for interaction between particles, and Φ ext ( q i ) {\displaystyle \Phi ^{\text{ext}}(\mathbf {q} _{i})} is the external-field potential. By integration over part of the variables, the Liouville equation can be transformed into a chain of equations where the first equation connects the evolution of one-particle probability density function with the two-particle probability density function, second equation connects the two-particle probability density function with the three-particle probability density function, and generally the s-th equation connects the s-particle probability density function f s ( q 1 … q s , p 1 … p s , t ) = ∫ f N ( q 1 … q N , p 1 … p N , t ) d q s + 1 … d q N d p s + 1 … d p N {\displaystyle f_{s}(\mathbf {q} _{1}\dots \mathbf {q} _{s},\mathbf {p} _{1}\dots \mathbf {p} _{s},t)=\int f_{N}(\mathbf {q} _{1}\dots \mathbf {q} _{N},\mathbf {p} _{1}\dots \mathbf {p} _{N},t)\,d\mathbf {q} _{s+1}\dots d\mathbf {q} _{N}\,d\mathbf {p} _{s+1}\dots d\mathbf {p} _{N}} with the (s + 1)-particle probability density function: ∂ f s ∂ t + ∑ i = 1 s p i m ∂ f s ∂ q i − ∑ i = 1 s ( ∑ j = 1 ≠ i s ∂ Φ i j ∂ q i + ∂ Φ i e x t ∂ q i ) ∂ f s ∂ p i = ( N − s ) ∑ i = 1 s ∫ ∂ Φ i s + 1 ∂ q i ∂ f s + 1 ∂ p i d q s + 1 d p s + 1 . {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial f_{s}}{\partial t}}+\sum _{i=1}^{s}{\frac {\mathbf {p} _{i}}{m}}{\frac {\partial f_{s}}{\partial \mathbf
|
{
"page_id": 5703638,
"source": null,
"title": "BBGKY hierarchy"
}
|
{q} _{i}}}-\sum _{i=1}^{s}\left(\sum _{j=1\neq i}^{s}{\frac {\partial \Phi _{ij}}{\partial \mathbf {q} _{i}}}+{\frac {\partial \Phi _{i}^{ext}}{\partial \mathbf {q} _{i}}}\right){\frac {\partial f_{s}}{\partial \mathbf {p} _{i}}}=(N-s)\sum _{i=1}^{s}\int {\frac {\partial \Phi _{i\,s+1}}{\partial \mathbf {q} _{i}}}{\frac {\partial f_{s+1}}{\partial \mathbf {p} _{i}}}\,d\mathbf {q} _{s+1}\,d\mathbf {p} _{s+1}.} The equation above for s-particle distribution function is obtained by integration of the Liouville equation over the variables q s + 1 … q N , p s + 1 … p N {\displaystyle \mathbf {q} _{s+1}\dots \mathbf {q} _{N},\mathbf {p} _{s+1}\dots \mathbf {p} _{N}} . The problem with the above equation is that it is not closed. To solve f s {\displaystyle f_{s}} , one has to know f s + 1 {\displaystyle f_{s+1}} , which in turn demands to solve f s + 2 {\displaystyle f_{s+2}} and all the way back to the full Liouville equation. However, one can solve f s {\displaystyle f_{s}} , if f s + 1 {\displaystyle f_{s+1}} could be modeled. One such case is the Boltzmann equation for f 1 ( q 1 , p 1 , t ) {\displaystyle f_{1}(\mathbf {q} _{1},\mathbf {p} _{1},t)} , where f 2 ( q 1 , q 2 , p 1 , p 2 , t ) {\displaystyle f_{2}(\mathbf {q} _{1},\mathbf {q} _{2},\mathbf {p} _{1},\mathbf {p} _{2},t)} is modeled based on the molecular chaos hypothesis (Stosszahlansatz). In fact, in the Boltzmann equation f 2 = f 2 ( p 1 , p 2 , t ) {\displaystyle f_{2}=f_{2}(\mathbf {p} _{1},\mathbf {p_{2}} ,t)} is the collision integral. This limiting process of obtaining Boltzmann equation from Liouville equation is known as Boltzmann–Grad limit. == Physical interpretation and applications == Schematically, the Liouville equation gives us the time evolution for the whole N {\displaystyle N} -particle system in the form D f N = 0 {\displaystyle Df_{N}=0} , which expresses
|
{
"page_id": 5703638,
"source": null,
"title": "BBGKY hierarchy"
}
|
an incompressible flow of the probability density in phase space. We then define the reduced distribution functions incrementally by integrating out another particle's degrees of freedom f s ∼ ∫ f s + 1 {\textstyle f_{s}\sim \int f_{s+1}} . An equation in the BBGKY hierarchy tells us that the time evolution for such a f s {\displaystyle f_{s}} is consequently given by a Liouville-like equation, but with a correction term that represents force-influence of the N − s {\displaystyle N-s} suppressed particles D f s ∝ div p ⟨ grad q Φ i , s + 1 ⟩ f s + 1 . {\displaystyle Df_{s}\propto {\text{div}}_{\mathbf {p} }\langle {\text{grad}}_{\mathbf {q} }\Phi _{i,s+1}\rangle _{f_{s+1}}.} The problem of solving the BBGKY hierarchy of equations is as hard as solving the original Liouville equation, but approximations for the BBGKY hierarchy (which allow truncation of the chain into a finite system of equations) can readily be made. The merit of these equations is that the higher distribution functions f s + 2 , f s + 3 , … {\displaystyle f_{s+2},f_{s+3},\dots } affect the time evolution of f s {\displaystyle f_{s}} only implicitly via f s + 1 . {\displaystyle f_{s+1}.} Truncation of the BBGKY chain is a common starting point for many applications of kinetic theory that can be used for derivation of classical or quantum kinetic equations. In particular, truncation at the first equation or the first two equations can be used to derive classical and quantum Boltzmann equations and the first order corrections to the Boltzmann equations. Other approximations, such as the assumption that the density probability function depends only on the relative distance between the particles or the assumption of the hydrodynamic regime, can also render the BBGKY chain accessible to solution. == Bibliography == s-particle distribution functions were introduced
|
{
"page_id": 5703638,
"source": null,
"title": "BBGKY hierarchy"
}
|
in classical statistical mechanics by J. Yvon in 1935. The BBGKY hierarchy of equations for s-particle distribution functions was written out and applied to the derivation of kinetic equations by Bogoliubov in the article received in July 1945 and published in 1946 in Russian and in English. The kinetic transport theory was considered by Kirkwood in the article received in October 1945 and published in March 1946, and in the subsequent articles. The first article by Born and Green considered a general kinetic theory of liquids and was received in February 1946 and published on 31 December 1946. == See also == Fokker–Planck equation Vlasov equation Cluster-expansion approach == References ==
|
{
"page_id": 5703638,
"source": null,
"title": "BBGKY hierarchy"
}
|
Sucrose:1,6-, 1,3-α-D-glucan 3-α- and 6-α-D-glucosyltransferase may refer to:- Sucrose—1,6-alpha-glucan 3(6)-alpha-glucosyltransferase, an enzyme Alternansucrase, an enzyme
|
{
"page_id": 38799320,
"source": null,
"title": "Sucrose:1,6-, 1,3-α-D-glucan 3-α- and 6-α-D-glucosyltransferase"
}
|
Palatability (or palatableness) is the hedonic reward (which is pleasure of taste in this case) provided by foods or drinks that are agreeable to the "palate", which often varies relative to the homeostatic satisfaction of nutritional and/or water needs. The palatability of a dish or beverage, unlike its flavor or taste, varies with the state of an individual: it is lower after consumption and higher when deprived. It has increasingly been appreciated that this can create a hunger that is independent of homeostatic needs. == Brain mechanism == The palatability of a substance is determined by opioid receptor-related processes in the nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum. The opioid processes involve mu opioid receptors and are present in the rostromedial shell part of the nucleus accumbens on its spiny neurons. This area has been called the "opioid eating site". The rewardfulness of consumption associated with palatability is dissociable from desire or incentive value which is the motivation to seek out a specific commodity. Desire or incentive value is processed by opioid receptor-related processes in the basolateral amygdala. Unlike the liking palatability for food, the incentive salience wanting is not downregulated by the physiological consequences of food consumption and may be largely independent of homoeostatic processes influencing food intake. Though the wanting of incentive salience may be informed by palatability, it is independent and not necessarily reduced to it. It has been suggested that a third system exists that links opioid processes in the two parts of the brain: "Logically this raises the possibility that a third system, with which the accumbens shell, ventral pallidum, and basolateral amygdala are associated, distributes the affective signals elicited by specific commodities across distinct functional systems to control reward seeking... At present we do not have any direct evidence for a system of this kind, but
|
{
"page_id": 12126172,
"source": null,
"title": "Palatability"
}
|
indirect evidence suggests it may reside within the motivationally rich circuits linking hypothalamic and brainstem viscerogenic structures such as the parabrachial nucleus. It has also been suggested that hedonic hunger can be driven both in regard to "wanting" and "liking" and that a palatability subtype of neuron may also exist in the basolateral amygdala. == Satiety and palatability == Appetite is controlled by a direct loop and an indirect one. In both the direct and indirect loops there are two feedback mechanisms. First a positive feedback involving its stimulation by palatability food cues, and second, a negative feedback due to satiation and satiety cues following ingestion. In the indirect loop these cues are learnt by association such as meal plate size and work by modulating the potency of the cues of the direct loop. The influence of these processes can exist without subjective awareness. The cessation of a desire to eat after a meal "satiation" is likely to be due to different processes and cues. More palatable foods reduce the effects of such cues upon satiation causing a larger food intake, exploited in hyperpalatable food. In contrast, unpalatability of certain foods can serve as a deterrent from feeding on those foods in the future. For example, the variable checkerspot butterfly contains iridoid compounds that are unpalatable to avian predators, thus reducing the risk of predation. == See also == Acquired taste Flavor Food craving Motivation Nutrition Pleasure center == References ==
|
{
"page_id": 12126172,
"source": null,
"title": "Palatability"
}
|
Ferrous lactate, or iron(II) lactate, are coordination complexes of iron(II) with one or more lactate ligands. One example is Fe(lactate)2(H2O)2(H2O) where lactate is CH3CH(OH)CO−2. It is a colorless solid. == Production == Iron(II) lactate can be produced through several reactions, among which are calcium lactate with iron(II) sulfate according to the following reaction: Ca(C3H5O3)2(aq) + FeSO4(aq) → CaSO4↓ + Fe(C3H5O3)2(aq) Another route yielding iron(II) lactate is to combine lactic acid with calcium carbonate and iron(II) sulfate. == Uses == Iron (II) lactate is used as a reagent in the production of proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), specifically in the production of cathode catalytic converters used in these cells. It is an acidity regulator and, since it oxidizes on contact with air, it has found use as a color retention agent for foodstuffs such as olives. It is also used to fortify foods with iron, as a remedy for anemia due to iron deficiency, and as a nutritional supplement in tablet or pill form. As a food additive it is coded under the E number E585. == References ==
|
{
"page_id": 15665118,
"source": null,
"title": "Iron(II) lactate"
}
|
In machine learning and computer vision, M-theory is a learning framework inspired by feed-forward processing in the ventral stream of visual cortex and originally developed for recognition and classification of objects in visual scenes. M-theory was later applied to other areas, such as speech recognition. On certain image recognition tasks, algorithms based on a specific instantiation of M-theory, HMAX, achieved human-level performance. The core principle of M-theory is extracting representations invariant under various transformations of images (translation, scale, 2D and 3D rotation and others). In contrast with other approaches using invariant representations, in M-theory they are not hardcoded into the algorithms, but learned. M-theory also shares some principles with compressed sensing. The theory proposes multilayered hierarchical learning architecture, similar to that of visual cortex. == Intuition == === Invariant representations === A great challenge in visual recognition tasks is that the same object can be seen in a variety of conditions. It can be seen from different distances, different viewpoints, under different lighting, partially occluded, etc. In addition, for particular classes objects, such as faces, highly complex specific transformations may be relevant, such as changing facial expressions. For learning to recognize images, it is greatly beneficial to factor out these variations. It results in much simpler classification problem and, consequently, in great reduction of sample complexity of the model. A simple computational experiment illustrates this idea. Two instances of a classifier were trained to distinguish images of planes from those of cars. For training and testing of the first instance, images with arbitrary viewpoints were used. Another instance received only images seen from a particular viewpoint, which was equivalent to training and testing the system on invariant representation of the images. One can see that the second classifier performed quite well even after receiving a single example from each category,
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while performance of the first classifier was close to random guess even after seeing 20 examples. Invariant representations has been incorporated into several learning architectures, such as neocognitrons. Most of these architectures, however, provided invariance through custom-designed features or properties of architecture itself. While it helps to take into account some sorts of transformations, such as translations, it is very nontrivial to accommodate for other sorts of transformations, such as 3D rotations and changing facial expressions. M-theory provides a framework of how such transformations can be learned. In addition to higher flexibility, this theory also suggests how human brain may have similar capabilities. === Templates === Another core idea of M-theory is close in spirit to ideas from the field of compressed sensing. An implication from Johnson–Lindenstrauss lemma says that a particular number of images can be embedded into a low-dimensional feature space with the same distances between images by using random projections. This result suggests that dot product between the observed image and some other image stored in memory, called template, can be used as a feature helping to distinguish the image from other images. The template need not to be anyhow related to the image, it could be chosen randomly. === Combining templates and invariant representations === The two ideas outlined in previous sections can be brought together to construct a framework for learning invariant representations. The key observation is how dot product between image I {\displaystyle I} and a template t {\displaystyle t} behaves when image is transformed (by such transformations as translations, rotations, scales, etc.). If transformation g {\displaystyle g} is a member of a unitary group of transformations, then the following holds: ⟨ g I , t ⟩ = ⟨ I , g − 1 t ⟩ ( 1 ) {\displaystyle \langle gI,t\rangle =\langle I,g^{-1}t\rangle
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\qquad (1)} In other words, the dot product of transformed image and a template is equal to the dot product of original image and inversely transformed template. For instance, for image rotated by 90 degrees, the inversely transformed template would be rotated by −90 degrees. Consider the set of dot products of an image I {\displaystyle I} to all possible transformations of template: { ⟨ I , g ′ t ⟩ ∣ g ′ ∈ G } {\displaystyle \lbrace \langle I,g^{\prime }t\rangle \mid g^{\prime }\in G\rbrace } . If one applies a transformation g {\displaystyle g} to I {\displaystyle I} , the set would become { ⟨ g I , g ′ t ⟩ ∣ g ′ ∈ G } {\displaystyle \lbrace \langle gI,g^{\prime }t\rangle \mid g^{\prime }\in G\rbrace } . But because of the property (1), this is equal to { ⟨ I , g − 1 g ′ t ⟩ ∣ g ′ ∈ G } {\displaystyle \lbrace \langle I,g^{-1}g^{\prime }t\rangle \mid g^{\prime }\in G\rbrace } . The set { g − 1 g ′ ∣ g ′ ∈ G } {\displaystyle \lbrace g^{-1}g^{\prime }\mid g^{\prime }\in G\rbrace } is equal to just the set of all elements in G {\displaystyle G} . To see this, note that every g − 1 g ′ {\displaystyle g^{-1}g^{\prime }} is in G {\displaystyle G} due to the closure property of groups, and for every g ′ ′ {\displaystyle g^{\prime \prime }} in G there exist its prototype g ′ {\displaystyle g^{\prime }} such as g ′ ′ = g − 1 g ′ {\displaystyle g^{\prime \prime }=g^{-1}g^{\prime }} (namely, g ′ = g g ′ ′ {\displaystyle g^{\prime }=gg^{\prime \prime }} ). Thus, { ⟨ I , g − 1 g ′ t ⟩ ∣ g ′ ∈ G }
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= { ⟨ I , g ′ ′ t ⟩ ∣ g ′ ′ ∈ G } {\displaystyle \lbrace \langle I,g^{-1}g^{\prime }t\rangle \mid g^{\prime }\in G\rbrace =\lbrace \langle I,g^{\prime \prime }t\rangle \mid g^{\prime \prime }\in G\rbrace } . One can see that the set of dot products remains the same despite that a transformation was applied to the image! This set by itself may serve as a (very cumbersome) invariant representation of an image. More practical representations can be derived from it. In the introductory section, it was claimed that M-theory allows to learn invariant representations. This is because templates and their transformed versions can be learned from visual experience – by exposing the system to sequences of transformations of objects. It is plausible that similar visual experiences occur in early period of human life, for instance when infants twiddle toys in their hands. Because templates may be totally unrelated to images that the system later will try to classify, memories of these visual experiences may serve as a basis for recognizing many different kinds of objects in later life. However, as it is shown later, for some kinds of transformations, specific templates are needed. == Theoretical aspects == === From orbits to distribution measures === To implement the ideas described in previous sections, one need to know how to derive a computationally efficient invariant representation of an image. Such unique representation for each image can be characterized as it appears by a set of one-dimensional probability distributions (empirical distributions of the dot-products between image and a set of templates stored during unsupervised learning). These probability distributions in their turn can be described by either histograms or a set of statistical moments of it, as it will be shown below. Orbit O I {\displaystyle O_{I}} is a set of images
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g I {\displaystyle gI} generated from a single image I {\displaystyle I} under the action of the group G , ∀ g ∈ G {\displaystyle G,\forall g\in G} . In other words, images of an object and of its transformations correspond to an orbit O I {\displaystyle O_{I}} . If two orbits have a point in common they are identical everywhere, i.e. an orbit is an invariant and unique representation of an image. So, two images are called equivalent when they belong to the same orbit: I ∼ I ′ {\displaystyle I\sim I^{\prime }} if ∃ g ∈ G {\displaystyle \exists g\in G} such that I ′ = g I {\displaystyle I^{\prime }=gI} . Conversely, two orbits are different if none of the images in one orbit coincide with any image in the other. A natural question arises: how can one compare two orbits? There are several possible approaches. One of them employs the fact that intuitively two empirical orbits are the same irrespective of the ordering of their points. Thus, one can consider a probability distribution P I {\displaystyle P_{I}} induced by the group's action on images I {\displaystyle I} ( g I {\displaystyle gI} can be seen as a realization of a random variable). This probability distribution P I {\displaystyle P_{I}} can be almost uniquely characterized by K {\displaystyle K} one-dimensional probability distributions P ⟨ I , t k ⟩ {\displaystyle P_{\langle I,t^{k}\rangle }} induced by the (one-dimensional) results of projections ⟨ I , t k ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle I,t^{k}\rangle } , where t k , k = 1 , … , K {\displaystyle t^{k},k=1,\ldots ,K} are a set of templates (randomly chosen images) (based on the Cramer–Wold theorem and concentration of measures). Consider n {\displaystyle n} images X n ∈ X {\displaystyle X_{n}\in X} . Let K
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≥ 2 c ε 2 log n δ {\displaystyle K\geq {\frac {2}{c\varepsilon ^{2}}}\log {\frac {n}{\delta }}} , where c {\displaystyle c} is a universal constant. Then | d ( P I , P I ′ ) − d K ( P I , P I ′ ) | ≤ ε , {\displaystyle |d(P_{I},P_{I}^{\prime })-dK(P_{I},P_{I}^{\prime })|\leq \varepsilon ,} with probability 1 − δ 2 {\displaystyle 1-\delta ^{2}} , for all I , I ′ {\displaystyle I,I^{\prime }} ∈ {\displaystyle \in } X n {\displaystyle X_{n}} . This result (informally) says that an approximately invariant and unique representation of an image I {\displaystyle I} can be obtained from the estimates of K {\displaystyle K} 1-D probability distributions P ⟨ I , t k ⟩ {\displaystyle P_{\langle I,t^{k}\rangle }} for k = 1 , … , K {\displaystyle k=1,\ldots ,K} . The number K {\displaystyle K} of projections needed to discriminate n {\displaystyle n} orbits, induced by n {\displaystyle n} images, up to precision ε {\displaystyle \varepsilon } (and with confidence 1 − δ 2 {\displaystyle 1-\delta ^{2}} ) is K ≥ 2 c ε 2 log n δ {\displaystyle K\geq {\frac {2}{c\varepsilon ^{2}}}\log {\frac {n}{\delta }}} , where c {\displaystyle c} is a universal constant. To classify an image, the following "recipe" can be used: Memorize a set of images/objects called templates; Memorize observed transformations for each template; Compute dot products of its transformations with image; Compute histogram of the resulting values, called signature of the image; Compare the obtained histogram with signatures stored in memory. Estimates of such one-dimensional probability density functions (PDFs) P ⟨ I , t k ⟩ {\displaystyle P_{\langle I,t^{k}\rangle }} can be written in terms of histograms as μ n k ( I ) = 1 / | G | ∑ i = 1 |
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G | η n ( ⟨ I , g i t k ⟩ ) {\displaystyle \mu _{n}^{k}(I)=1/\left|G\right|\sum _{i=1}^{\left|G\right|}\eta _{n}(\langle I,g_{i}t^{k}\rangle )} , where η n , n = 1 , … , N {\displaystyle \eta _{n},n=1,\ldots ,N} is a set of nonlinear functions. These 1-D probability distributions can be characterized with N-bin histograms or set of statistical moments. For example, HMAX represents an architecture in which pooling is done with a max operation. === Non-compact groups of transformations === In the "recipe" for image classification, groups of transformations are approximated with finite number of transformations. Such approximation is possible only when the group is compact. Such groups as all translations and all scalings of the image are not compact, as they allow arbitrarily big transformations. However, they are locally compact. For locally compact groups, invariance is achievable within certain range of transformations. Assume that G 0 {\displaystyle G_{0}} is a subset of transformations from G {\displaystyle G} for which the transformed patterns exist in memory. For an image I {\displaystyle I} and template t k {\displaystyle t_{k}} , assume that ⟨ I , g − 1 t k ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle I,g^{-1}t_{k}\rangle } is equal to zero everywhere except some subset of G 0 {\displaystyle G_{0}} . This subset is called support of ⟨ I , g − 1 t k ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle I,g^{-1}t_{k}\rangle } and denoted as supp ( ⟨ I , g − 1 t k ⟩ ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {supp} (\langle I,g^{-1}t_{k}\rangle )} . It can be proven that if for a transformation g ′ {\displaystyle g^{\prime }} , support set will also lie within g ′ G 0 {\displaystyle g^{\prime }G_{0}} , then signature of I {\displaystyle I} is invariant with respect to g ′ {\displaystyle g^{\prime }} . This theorem determines the range
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of transformations for which invariance is guaranteed to hold. One can see that the smaller is supp ( ⟨ I , g − 1 t k ⟩ ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {supp} (\langle I,g^{-1}t_{k}\rangle )} , the larger is the range of transformations for which invariance is guaranteed to hold. It means that for a group that is only locally compact, not all templates would work equally well anymore. Preferable templates are those with a reasonably small supp ( ⟨ g I , t k ⟩ ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {supp} (\langle gI,t_{k}\rangle )} for a generic image. This property is called localization: templates are sensitive only to images within a small range of transformations. Although minimizing supp ( ⟨ g I , t k ⟩ ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {supp} (\langle gI,t_{k}\rangle )} is not absolutely necessary for the system to work, it improves approximation of invariance. Requiring localization simultaneously for translation and scale yields a very specific kind of templates: Gabor functions. The desirability of custom templates for non-compact group is in conflict with the principle of learning invariant representations. However, for certain kinds of regularly encountered image transformations, templates might be the result of evolutionary adaptations. Neurobiological data suggests that there is Gabor-like tuning in the first layer of visual cortex. The optimality of Gabor templates for translations and scales is a possible explanation of this phenomenon. === Non-group transformations === Many interesting transformations of images do not form groups. For instance, transformations of images associated with 3D rotation of corresponding 3D object do not form a group, because it is impossible to define an inverse transformation (two objects may looks the same from one angle but different from another angle). However, approximate invariance is still achievable even for non-group transformations, if localization condition for templates holds
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and transformation can be locally linearized. As it was said in the previous section, for specific case of translations and scaling, localization condition can be satisfied by use of generic Gabor templates. However, for general case (non-group) transformation, localization condition can be satisfied only for specific class of objects. More specifically, in order to satisfy the condition, templates must be similar to the objects one would like to recognize. For instance, if one would like to build a system to recognize 3D rotated faces, one need to use other 3D rotated faces as templates. This may explain the existence of such specialized modules in the brain as one responsible for face recognition. Even with custom templates, a noise-like encoding of images and templates is necessary for localization. It can be naturally achieved if the non-group transformation is processed on any layer other than the first in hierarchical recognition architecture. === Hierarchical architectures === The previous section suggests one motivation for hierarchical image recognition architectures. However, they have other benefits as well. Firstly, hierarchical architectures best accomplish the goal of ‘parsing’ a complex visual scene with many objects consisting of many parts, whose relative position may greatly vary. In this case, different elements of the system must react to different objects and parts. In hierarchical architectures, representations of parts at different levels of embedding hierarchy can be stored at different layers of hierarchy. Secondly, hierarchical architectures which have invariant representations for parts of objects may facilitate learning of complex compositional concepts. This facilitation may happen through reusing of learned representations of parts that were constructed before in process of learning of other concepts. As a result, sample complexity of learning compositional concepts may be greatly reduced. Finally, hierarchical architectures have better tolerance to clutter. Clutter problem arises when the target object
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is in front of a non-uniform background, which functions as a distractor for the visual task. Hierarchical architecture provides signatures for parts of target objects, which do not include parts of background and are not affected by background variations. In hierarchical architectures, one layer is not necessarily invariant to all transformations that are handled by the hierarchy as a whole. Some transformations may pass through that layer to upper layers, as in the case of non-group transformations described in the previous section. For other transformations, an element of the layer may produce invariant representations only within small range of transformations. For instance, elements of the lower layers in hierarchy have small visual field and thus can handle only a small range of translation. For such transformations, the layer should provide covariant rather than invariant, signatures. The property of covariance can be written as distr ( ⟨ μ l ( g I ) , μ l ( t ) ⟩ ) = distr ( ⟨ μ l ( I ) , μ l ( g − 1 t ) ⟩ ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {distr} (\langle \mu _{l}(gI),\mu _{l}(t)\rangle )=\operatorname {distr} (\langle \mu _{l}(I),\mu _{l}(g^{-1}t)\rangle )} , where l {\displaystyle l} is a layer, μ l ( I ) {\displaystyle \mu _{l}(I)} is the signature of image on that layer, and distr {\displaystyle \operatorname {distr} } stands for "distribution of values of the expression for all g ∈ G {\displaystyle g\in G} ". == Relation to biology == M-theory is based on a quantitative theory of the ventral stream of visual cortex. Understanding how visual cortex works in object recognition is still a challenging task for neuroscience. Humans and primates are able to memorize and recognize objects after seeing just couple of examples unlike any state-of-the art machine vision systems
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that usually require a lot of data in order to recognize objects. Prior to the use of visual neuroscience in computer vision has been limited to early vision for deriving stereo algorithms (e.g.,) and to justify the use of DoG (derivative-of-Gaussian) filters and more recently of Gabor filters. No real attention has been given to biologically plausible features of higher complexity. While mainstream computer vision has always been inspired and challenged by human vision, it seems to have never advanced past the very first stages of processing in the simple cells in V1 and V2. Although some of the systems inspired – to various degrees – by neuroscience, have been tested on at least some natural images, neurobiological models of object recognition in cortex have not yet been extended to deal with real-world image databases. M-theory learning framework employs a novel hypothesis about the main computational function of the ventral stream: the representation of new objects/images in terms of a signature, which is invariant to transformations learned during visual experience. This allows recognition from very few labeled examples – in the limit, just one. Neuroscience suggests that natural functionals for a neuron to compute is a high-dimensional dot product between an "image patch" and another image patch (called template) which is stored in terms of synaptic weights (synapses per neuron). The standard computational model of a neuron is based on a dot product and a threshold. Another important feature of the visual cortex is that it consists of simple and complex cells. This idea was originally proposed by Hubel and Wiesel. M-theory employs this idea. Simple cells compute dot products of an image and transformations of templates ⟨ I , g i t k ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle I,g_{i}t^{k}\rangle } for i = 1 , … , | G | {\displaystyle
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i=1,\ldots ,|G|} ( | G | {\displaystyle |G|} is a number of simple cells). Complex cells are responsible for pooling and computing empirical histograms or statistical moments of it. The following formula for constructing histogram can be computed by neurons: 1 | G | ∑ i = 1 | G | σ ( ⟨ I , g i t k ⟩ + n Δ ) , {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{|G|}}\sum _{i=1}^{|G|}\sigma (\langle I,g_{i}t^{k}\rangle +n\Delta ),} where σ {\displaystyle \sigma } is a smooth version of step function, Δ {\displaystyle \Delta } is the width of a histogram bin, and n {\displaystyle n} is the number of the bin. == Applications == === Applications to computer vision === In authors applied M-theory to unconstrained face recognition in natural photographs. Unlike the DAR (detection, alignment, and recognition) method, which handles clutter by detecting objects and cropping closely around them so that very little background remains, this approach accomplishes detection and alignment implicitly by storing transformations of training images (templates) rather than explicitly detecting and aligning or cropping faces at test time. This system is built according to the principles of a recent theory of invariance in hierarchical networks and can evade the clutter problem generally problematic for feedforward systems. The resulting end-to-end system achieves a drastic improvement in the state of the art on this end-to-end task, reaching the same level of performance as the best systems operating on aligned, closely cropped images (no outside training data). It also performs well on two newer datasets, similar to LFW, but more difficult: significantly jittered (misaligned) version of LFW and SUFR-W (for example, the model's accuracy in the LFW "unaligned & no outside data used" category is 87.55±1.41% compared to state-of-the-art APEM (adaptive probabilistic elastic matching): 81.70±1.78%). The theory was also applied to a range
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of recognition tasks: from invariant single object recognition in clutter to multiclass categorization problems on publicly available data sets (CalTech5, CalTech101, MIT-CBCL) and complex (street) scene understanding tasks that requires the recognition of both shape-based as well as texture-based objects (on StreetScenes data set). The approach performs really well: It has the capability of learning from only a few training examples and was shown to outperform several more complex state-of-the-art systems constellation models, the hierarchical SVM-based face-detection system. A key element in the approach is a new set of scale and position-tolerant feature detectors, which are biologically plausible and agree quantitatively with the tuning properties of cells along the ventral stream of visual cortex. These features are adaptive to the training set, though we also show that a universal feature set, learned from a set of natural images unrelated to any categorization task, likewise achieves good performance. === Applications to speech recognition === This theory can also be extended for the speech recognition domain. As an example, in an extension of a theory for unsupervised learning of invariant visual representations to the auditory domain and empirically evaluated its validity for voiced speech sound classification was proposed. Authors empirically demonstrated that a single-layer, phone-level representation, extracted from base speech features, improves segment classification accuracy and decreases the number of training examples in comparison with standard spectral and cepstral features for an acoustic classification task on TIMIT dataset. == References ==
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Purification in a chemical context is the physical separation of a chemical substance of interest from foreign or contaminating substances. Pure results of a successful purification process are termed isolate. The following list of chemical purification methods should not be considered exhaustive. Affinity purification purifies proteins by retaining them on a column through their affinity to antibodies, enzymes, or receptors that have been immobilised on the column. Filtration is a mechanical method to separate solids from liquids or gases by passing the feed stream through a porous sheet such as a cloth or membrane, which retains the solids and allows the liquid to pass through. Centrifugation is a process that uses an electric motor to spin a vessel of fluid at high speed to make heavier components settle to the bottom of the vessel. Evaporation removes volatile liquids from non-volatile solutes, which cannot be done through filtration due to the small size of the substances. Liquid–liquid extraction removes an impurity or recovers a desired product by dissolving the crude material in a solvent in which other components of the feed material are soluble. Crystallization separates a product from a liquid feed stream, often in extremely pure form, by cooling the feed stream or adding precipitants that lower the solubility of the desired product so that it forms crystals. The pure solid crystals are then separated from the remaining liquor by filtration or centrifugation. Recrystallization: In analytical and synthetic chemistry work, purchased reagents of doubtful purity may be recrystallised, e.g. dissolved in a very pure solvent, and then crystallized, and the crystals recovered, in order to improve and/or verify their purity. Trituration removes highly soluble impurities from usually solid insoluble material by rinsing it with an appropriate solvent. Adsorption removes a soluble impurity from a feed stream by trapping it on
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the surface of a solid material, such as activated carbon, that forms strong non-covalent chemical bonds with the impurity. Chromatography employs continuous adsorption and desorption on a packed bed of a solid to purify multiple components of a single feed stream. In a laboratory setting, mixture of dissolved materials are typically fed using a solvent into a column packed with an appropriate adsorbent, and due to different affinities for solvent (moving phase) versus adsorbent (stationary phase) the components in the original mixture pass through the column in the moving phase at different rates, which thus allows to selectively collect desired materials out of the initial mixture. Smelting produces metals from raw ore, and involves adding chemicals to the ore and heating it up to the melting point of the metal. Refining is used primarily in the petroleum industry, whereby crude oil is heated and separated into stages according to the condensation points of the various elements. Distillation, widely used in petroleum refining and in purification of ethanol separates volatile liquids on the basis of their relative volatilities. There are several type of distillation: simple distillation, steam distillation etc. Water purification combines a number of methods to produce potable or drinking water. Downstream processing refers to purification of chemicals, pharmaceuticals and food ingredients produced by fermentation or synthesized by plant and animal tissues, for example antibiotics, citric acid, vitamin E, and insulin. Fractionation refers to a purification strategy in which some relatively inefficient purification method is repeatedly applied to isolate the desired substance in progressively greater purity. Electrolysis refers to the breakdown of substances using an electric current. This removes impurities in a substance that an electric current is run through Sublimation is the process of changing of any substance (usually on heating) from a solid to a gas (or from
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gas to a solid) without passing through liquid phase. In terms of purification - material is heated, often under vacuum, and the vapors of the material are then condensed back to a solid on a cooler surface. The process thus in its essence is similar to distillation, however the material which is condensed on the cooler surface then has to be removed mechanically, thus requiring different laboratory equipment. Bioleaching is the extraction of metals from their ores through the use of living organisms. Separation process From Crystallization Plasma-chemical purification... == References == == External links == www.zuiveringstechnieken.nl/purification-techniques Useful information about various purification techniques
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Brinelling is the permanent indentation of a hard surface. It is named after the Brinell scale of hardness, in which a small ball is pushed against a hard surface at a preset level of force, and the depth and diameter of the mark indicates the Brinell hardness of the surface. Brinelling is permanent plastic deformation of a surface, and usually occurs while two surfaces in contact are stationary (such as rolling elements and the raceway of a bearing) and the material yield strength has been exceeded. Brinelling is undesirable, as the parts often mate with other parts in very close proximity. The very small indentations can quickly lead to improper operation, such as chattering or excess vibration, which in turn can accelerate other forms of wear, such as spalling and ultimately, failure of the bearing. == Introduction == Brinelling is a material surface failure caused by Hertz contact stress that exceeds the material limit. It usually occurs in situations where a significant load force is distributed over a relatively small surface area. Brinelling typically results from a heavy or repeated impact load, either while stopped or during rotation, though it can also be caused by just one application of a force greater than the material limit. Brinelling can be caused by a heavy load resting on a stationary bearing for an extended length of time. The result is a permanent dent or "brinell mark". The brinell marks will often appear in evenly spaced patterns along the bearing races, resembling the primary elements of the bearing, such as rows of indented lines for needle or roller bearings or rounded indentations in ball bearings. It is a common cause of roller bearing failures, and loss of preload in bolted joints when a hardened washer is not used. For example, brinelling occurs in
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"page_id": 19531744,
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"title": "Brinelling"
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casters when the ball bearings within the swivel head produce grooves in the hard cap, thus degrading performance by increasing the required swivel force. == Avoiding brinelling damage == Engineers can use the Brinell hardness of materials in their calculations to avoid this mode of failure. A rolling element bearing's static load rating is defined to avoid this failure type. Increasing the number of elements can provide better distribution of the load, so bearings intended for a large load may have many balls, or use needles instead. This decreases the chances of brinelling, but increases friction and other factors. However, although roller and ball bearings work well for radial and thrust loading, they are often prone to brinelling when very high impact loading, lateral loading, or vibration are experienced. Babbitt bearings or bronze bushings are often used instead of roller bearings in applications where such loads exist, such as in automotive crankshafts or pulley sheaves, to decrease the possibility of brinelling by distributing the force over a very large surface area. A common cause of brinelling is the use of improper installation procedures. Brinelling often occurs when pressing bearings into holes or onto shafts. Care must usually be taken to ensure that pressure is applied to the proper bearing race to avoid transferring the pressure from one race to the other through the balls or rollers. If pressing force is applied to the wrong race, brinelling can occur to either or both of the races. The act of pressing or clamping can also leave brinell marks, especially if the vise or press has serrated jaws or roughened surfaces. Flat pressing plates are often used in the pressing of bearings, while soft copper, brass, or aluminum jaw covers are often used in vises to help avoid brinell marks from being forced
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"page_id": 19531744,
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"title": "Brinelling"
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into the workpiece. == False brinelling == A similar-looking kind of damage is called false brinelling and is caused by fretting wear. Fretting wear occurs when localized wear-marks develop in evenly spaced patterns, with raised or unworn portions in between, like frets on a guitar. False brinelling occurs in two types: stationary and by precession. Stationary false-brinelling occurs without any rotational motion in the bearing. This occurs when contacting bodies vibrate against each other in the presence of very small loads, which pushes lubricant out of the contact surface area, all while the bearing assembly cannot move far enough (or rotate far enough) to redistribute the displaced lubricant. The result is a finely polished surface that resembles a brinell mark, but has not permanently deformed either contacting surface. This type of false brinelling usually occurs in bearings during transportation, between the time of manufacture and installation. The polished surfaces are often mistaken for brinelling, although no actual damage to the bearing exists. The false brinelling will disappear after a short break-in period of operation. Fretting wear can also occur during operation, causing deep indentations. This occurs when small vibrations form in the rotating shaft and become harmonically in sync with the speed of rotation, causing circular oscillations in the shaft. The oscillation causes the shaft to move in precession, and the timing of the rotation speed causes the balls or rollers to contact the races only when they are in similar positions. This forms wear marks caused by contact with the bearings and the races in specific areas, but not in others, leaving an uneven wear-pattern that can become quite deep before failure occurs, resembling brinelling. However, the marks are usually too wide, due to the motion of the bearing, and do not exactly match the shape of the rolling
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{
"page_id": 19531744,
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"title": "Brinelling"
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elements, and therefore this type of wear can be differentiated from true brinelling. == References ==
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"page_id": 19531744,
"source": null,
"title": "Brinelling"
}
|
Proteins are a class of macromolecular organic compounds that are essential to life. They consist of a long polypeptide chain that usually adopts a single stable three-dimensional structure. They fulfill a wide variety of functions including providing structural stability to cells, catalyzing chemical reactions that produce or store energy or synthesize other biomolecules including nucleic acids and proteins, transporting essential nutrients, or serving other roles such as signal transduction. They are selectively transported to various compartments of the cell or in some cases, secreted from the cell. This list aims to organize information on how proteins are most often classified: by structure, by function, or by location. == Structure == Proteins may be classified as to their three-dimensional structure (also known a protein fold). The two most widely used classification schemes are: CATH database Structural Classification of Proteins database (SCOP) Both classification schemes are based on a hierarchy of fold types. At the top level are all alpha proteins (domains consisting of alpha helices), all beta proteins (domains consisting of beta sheets), and mixed alpha helix/beta sheet proteins. While most proteins adopt a single stable fold, a few proteins can rapidly interconvert between one or more folds. These are referred to as metamorphic proteins. Finally other proteins appear not to adopt any stable conformation and are referred to as intrinsically disordered. Proteins frequently contain two or more domains, each have a different fold separated by intrinsically disordered regions. These are referred to as multi-domain proteins. == Function == Proteins may also be classified based on their cellular function. A widely used classification is PANTHER (protein analysis through evolutionary relationships) classification system. === Structural === Protein#Structural proteins === Catalytic === Enzymes classified according to their Enzyme Commission number (EC). Note that strictly speaking, an EC number corresponds to the reaction the
|
{
"page_id": 2361314,
"source": null,
"title": "List of proteins"
}
|
enzyme catalyzes, not the protein per se. However each EC number has been mapped to one or more specific proteins. List of enzymes EC 1: Oxidoreductases EC 2: Transferases EC 3: Hydrolases EC 4: Lyases EC 5: Isomerases EC 6: Ligases EC 7: Translocases === Transport === Transport protein Ion channel Solute carrier family === Immune === Acute phase protein Antibody Chemokines and their receptors Cytokines and their receptors MHC Class I MHC Class II Pattern recognition receptors Complement System === Genetic === DNA/RNA synthesis DNA repair replication transcription (Transcription factor, transcriptional coregulator) === Signal transduction === Signal transduction == Sub-cellular distribution == Proteins may also be classified by which subcellular compartment they are found. === Nuclear === Nuclear proteins === Cytosolic === Cytosolic proteins === Cytoskeletal === Cytoskeletal proteins === Organelle === ==== Endoplasmic reticulum ==== Endoplasmic reticulum resident protein ==== Lysosomal ==== ==== Mitochondrial ==== Mitochondrial DNA that encode mitochondial proteins (note that some mitochondial proteins are encoded by nuclear DNA) ==== Chloroplast ==== Chloroplast DNA that encode chloroplast proteins === Cell membrane === Membrane protein Integral membrane protein Peripheral membrane protein === Extracellular matrix === Extracellular matrix proteins === Plasma === Blood protein == Species distribution == Mammalian Vertebrate Plant Bacterial proteins Archaeal proteins Viral proteins == References ==
|
{
"page_id": 2361314,
"source": null,
"title": "List of proteins"
}
|
Glutamate-1-semialdehyde is a molecule formed from by the reduction of tRNA bound glutamate, catalyzed by glutamyl-tRNA reductase. It is isomerized by glutamate-1-semialdehyde 2,1-aminomutase to give aminolevulinic acid in the biosynthesis of porphyrins, including heme and chlorophyll. == See also == Glutamate-5-semialdehyde == References ==
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{
"page_id": 11405282,
"source": null,
"title": "Glutamate-1-semialdehyde"
}
|
The Kiln Site in Yucheon-ri, Buan (Korean: 부안 유천리 요지; Hanja: 扶安柳川里窯址) refers to a Goryeo-era archaeological site in Yucheon-ri, Buan County, North Jeolla Province, South Korea. In the site are the remains of 40 kilns used to produce Goryeo ware. On January 21, 1963, the site was made a Historic Site of South Korea. There are two known major groups of earthenware and celadon kiln sites from the Goryeo period: those in Gangjin County and more in Buan County. Across these two areas, around 400 kiln sites have been discovered. The Yucheon-ri kilns date to the 11th to 14th centuries. Numerous pieces of celadon pottery and ceramics have been recovered from the site. == See also == Kiln Site in Jinseo-ri, Buan == References == == External links == Media related to Kiln Site in Yucheon-ri, Buan at Wikimedia Commons
|
{
"page_id": 79235043,
"source": null,
"title": "Kiln Site in Yucheon-ri, Buan"
}
|
Genetic matchmaking is the idea of matching couples for romantic relationships based on their biological compatibility. The initial idea was conceptualized by Claus Wedekind through his "sweaty t-shirt" experiment. Males were asked to wear T-shirts for two consecutive nights, and then females were asked to smell the T-shirts and rate the body odors for attractiveness. Human body odor has been associated with the human leukocyte antigens (HLA) genomic region. They discovered that females were attracted to men who had dissimilar HLA alleles from them. Furthermore, these females reported that the body odors of HLA-dissimilar males reminded them of their current partners or ex-partners providing further evidence of biological compatibility. == Research == Following research done by Dr. Wedekind, several studies found corroborating evidence for biological compatibility. Garver-Apgar et al. presented evidence for HLA-dissimilar alleles playing a factor in the healthiness of romantic relationships. They discovered that as the proportion of HLA-similar alleles increased between couples, females reported being less sexually responsive to their partners, less satisfaction from being aroused by their partners, and having additional sexual partners (while with their current partner). Additionally, Ober et al. conducted an independent study on a population of American Hutterites by comparing the HLA alleles of married couples. They discovered that married couples were less likely to share HLA alleles than expected from random chance; thus their results were consistent with tendencies for same-HLA alleled partners to avoid mating. Further evidence of the importance of genetic compatibility can be found in the finding that couples sharing a higher proportion of HLA alleles tend to have recurring spontaneous abortions, reduced body mass in babies, and longer intervals between successive births. The application of this research to find romantic partners via genetic testing has been described as "dubious". Analyses of data from the International HapMap Project
|
{
"page_id": 26544101,
"source": null,
"title": "Genetic matchmaking"
}
|
has not found a consistent relationship between marital partners and genes related to the immune system. == Reasons for biological compatibility == There are several biological reasons why women would be attracted to and mate with men with dissimilar HLA alleles: Their offspring would have a greater assortment of HLA alleles theoretically giving them a wider diversity of antigens present on the surface of cells compared to HLA-homozygous offspring. The wider variety of antigens allows the immune system to target a greater number of pathogens making the offspring more immunocompetent. Any HLA allele which becomes a more resistant allele would not simply become an inherent allele in all individuals. Through evolution, there will always be some pathogens that can become resistant to this allele, and spread to create a selection against the allele. HLA-dissortative mating can be considered a method to cause the adaptations that pathogens have to their host to become obsolete in their offspring; In other words, allow us to keep up in the "Red Queen's race". HLA genes are highly polymorphic between individuals. Any two individuals with similar HLA genes could be possibly related. Mating of two related individuals would result in inbreeding which can be harmful to the offspring since it would result in a greater amount of genetic homozygosity thus increasing the chances of recessive mutations. == References ==
|
{
"page_id": 26544101,
"source": null,
"title": "Genetic matchmaking"
}
|
A copiotroph is an organism found in environments rich in nutrients, particularly carbon. They are the opposite to oligotrophs, which survive in much lower carbon concentrations. Copiotrophic organisms tend to grow in high organic substrate conditions. For example, copiotrophic organisms grow in Sewage lagoons. They grow in organic substrate conditions up to 100x higher than oligotrophs. Due to this substrate concentration inclination, copiotrophs are often found in nutrient rich waters near coastlines or estuaries. == Classification and Identification == The bacterial phyla can be differentiated into copiotrophic or oligotrophic categories that correspond and structure the functions of soil bacterial communities. == Interaction with other organisms == Copiotrophic relation between oligotrophic bacteria depends on the amount of concentration the soil has of C compounds. If the soil has large amounts of organic C, it would then favor the copiotrophic bacteria. == Ecology == Copiotrophic bacteria are a key component in the soil C cycle. It is most important during the period of the year when vegetation is photosynthetically active and exudes large amounts of simple C compounds like sugar, amino acids, and organic acids. Copiotrophic bacteria are also found within marine life. == Lifestyle == Copiotrophs have a higher Michaelis-Menten constant than oligotrophs. This constant is directly correlated to environmental substrate preference. In these high resource environments, copiotrophs exhibit a “feast-and-famine” lifestyle. They utilize the available nutrients in the environment rapidly resulting in nutrient depletion which forces them to starve. This is possible through increasing their growth rate with nutrient uptake. However, when nutrients in the environment get depleted, copiotrophs struggle to survive for long periods of time. Copiotrophs do not have the ability to respond to starvation. It is hypothesized that this may be a lost trait. Another possibility is that microbes never evolved to survive these extreme conditions. Oligotrophs
|
{
"page_id": 9504741,
"source": null,
"title": "Copiotroph"
}
|
can outcompete copiotrophs in low-nutrient environments. This causes low-nutrient conditions to continue for extended periods of time, making it difficult for copiotrophs to sustain life. Copiotrophs are larger than oligotrophs and need more energy, requiring larger concentrations of substrate for survival. Copiotrophs are motile. Copiotrophs can have external organelles such as flagella that extend out of a microbe’s cell to facilitate movement. Copiotrophs are also chemotactic, meaning they can detect nutrients in the environment. These help the microbes travel quickly to nearby food sources. Chemotaxis also enables the organism to travel away from a restricting compound. There are multiple methods for chemotaxis in these organisms. This includes the “run and tumble” strategy in which the organism randomly picks a direction to move in. However, if it senses that the concentration gradient is decreasing they stop and choose another random direction to travel in.Another strategy includes the “run and reverse” in which the organism runs towards a nutrient. If it notices the gradient decreasing, it moves back to where the gradient is larger and heads in another direction from this new position. Through their motility and chemotaxis, copiotrophic microbes respond quickly to nutrients in their environment. With the help of these mechanisms, copiotrophs can travel to and stay in nutrient dense areas long enough for transcriptional regulatory systems to increase gene expression. This in turn helps them increase metabolic processes in high nutrient areas allowing them to maximize their growth during these patches. == Growth characteristics == Copiotrophs are characterized by a high maximum growth rate. This high growth rate allows for copiotrophs to have a larger genome and cell size than their oligotrophic counterparts. The copiotrophic genome encompasses more ribosomal RNA operons than the oligotrophic genome. Ribosomal RNA operons are linearly related to growth rate. The ribosomal RNA operons are
|
{
"page_id": 9504741,
"source": null,
"title": "Copiotroph"
}
|
responsible for expression of genes in clusters. The larger amount of ribosomal content allows for more rapid growth. Oligotrophs have one ribosomal RNA operon while copiotrophs can contain up to fifteen operons. Copiotrophs tend to have a lower carbon use efficiency than oligotrophs. This is the ratio of carbon used for production of biomass per total carbon consumed by the organism. Carbon use efficiency can be used to understand organisms lifestyles, whether they primarily create biomass or require carbon for maintenance energy. Energy is necessary for the copiotrophic lifestyle which includes motility and chemotaxis. This energy could otherwise be used for biomass production. This results in a lower efficiency than the oligotrophic lifestyle which primarily uses energy for the creation of biomass. Copiotrophs have a lower protein yield than oligotrophs. Protein yield is the amount of protein synthesized per O2 consumed. This is also associated with the higher ribosomal RNA operons. Overall, copiotrophs create more protein than their oligotrophic peers, however due to the copiotrophs' lower carbon use efficiency, less protein is produced per gram O2 consumed by the organisms. == References == Fierer, N., Bradford, M. A., & Jackson, R. B. (2007). Toward an ecological classification of soil bacteria. Ecology, 88(6), 1354-1364. Ivars-Martinez, E., Martin-Cuadrado, A. B., D'auria, G., Mira, A., Ferriera, S., Johnson, J., ... & Rodriguez-Valera, F. (2008). Comparative genomics of two ecotypes of the marine planktonic copiotroph Alteromonas macleodii suggests alternative lifestyles associated with different kinds of particulate organic matter. The ISME journal, 2(12), 1194-1212. Lladó, S., & Baldrian, P. (2017). Community-level physiological profiling analyses show potential to identify the copiotrophic bacteria present in soil environments. PLoS One, 12(2), e0171638.
|
{
"page_id": 9504741,
"source": null,
"title": "Copiotroph"
}
|
The Wannier equation describes a quantum mechanical eigenvalue problem in solids where an electron in a conduction band and an electronic vacancy (i.e. hole) within a valence band attract each other via the Coulomb interaction. For one electron and one hole, this problem is analogous to the Schrödinger equation of the hydrogen atom; and the bound-state solutions are called excitons. When an exciton's radius extends over several unit cells, it is referred to as a Wannier exciton in contrast to Frenkel excitons whose size is comparable with the unit cell. An excited solid typically contains many electrons and holes; this modifies the Wannier equation considerably. The resulting generalized Wannier equation can be determined from the homogeneous part of the semiconductor Bloch equations or the semiconductor luminescence equations. The equation is named after Gregory Wannier. == Background == Since an electron and a hole have opposite charges their mutual Coulomb interaction is attractive. The corresponding Schrödinger equation, in relative coordinate r {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} } , has the same form as the hydrogen atom: − [ ℏ 2 ∇ 2 2 μ + V ( r ) ] ϕ λ ( r ) = E λ ϕ λ ( r ) , {\displaystyle -\left[{\frac {\hbar ^{2}\nabla ^{2}}{2\mu }}+V(\mathbf {r} )\right]\phi _{\lambda }(\mathbf {r} )=E_{\lambda }\phi _{\lambda }(\mathbf {r} )\,,} with the potential given by V ( r ) = e 2 4 π ε r ε 0 | r | . {\displaystyle V(\mathbf {r} )={\frac {e^{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{r}\varepsilon _{0}|\mathbf {r} |}}\,.} Here, ℏ {\displaystyle \hbar } is the reduced Planck constant, ∇ {\displaystyle \nabla } is the nabla operator, μ {\displaystyle \mu } is the reduced mass, − | e | {\displaystyle -|e|} ( + | e | {\displaystyle +|e|} ) is the elementary charge related to an electron (hole), ε
|
{
"page_id": 39454695,
"source": null,
"title": "Wannier equation"
}
|
r {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{r}} is the relative permittivity, and ε 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}} is the vacuum permittivity. The solutions of the hydrogen atom are described by eigenfunction ϕ λ ( r ) {\displaystyle \phi _{\lambda }(\mathbf {r} )} and eigenenergy E λ {\displaystyle E_{\lambda }} where λ {\displaystyle \lambda } is a quantum number labeling the different states. In a solid, the scaling of E λ {\displaystyle E_{\lambda }} and the wavefunction size are orders of magnitude different from the hydrogen problem because the relative permittivity ε r {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{r}} is roughly ten and the reduced mass in a solid is much smaller than the electron rest mass m e {\displaystyle m_{e}} , i.e., μ ≪ m e {\displaystyle \mu \ll m_{e}} . As a result, the exciton radius can be large while the exciton binding energy is small, typically few to hundreds of meV, depending on material, compared to eV for the hydrogen problem. The Fourier transformed version of the presented Hamiltonian can be written as E k ϕ λ ( k ) − ∑ k ′ V k − k ′ ϕ λ ( k ′ ) = E λ ϕ λ ( k ) , {\displaystyle E_{\mathbf {k} }\phi _{\lambda }(\mathbf {k} )-\sum _{\mathbf {k'} }V_{\mathbf {k} -\mathbf {k'} }\phi _{\lambda }(\mathbf {k'} )=E_{\lambda }\phi _{\lambda }(\mathbf {k} )\,,} where k {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} } is the electronic wave vector, E k {\displaystyle E_{\mathbf {k} }} is the kinetic energy and V k {\displaystyle V_{\mathbf {k} }} , ϕ λ ( k ) {\displaystyle \phi _{\lambda }(\mathbf {k} )} are the Fourier transforms of V ( r ) {\displaystyle V(\mathbf {r} )} , ϕ λ ( r ) {\displaystyle \phi _{\lambda }(\mathbf {r} )} , respectively. The Coulomb sums follows from the convolution theorem and
|
{
"page_id": 39454695,
"source": null,
"title": "Wannier equation"
}
|
the k {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} } -representation is useful when introducing the generalized Wannier equation. == Generalized Wannier equation == The Wannier equation can be generalized by including the presence of many electrons and holes in the excited system. One can start from the general theory of either optical excitations or light emission in semiconductors that can be systematically described using the semiconductor Bloch equations (SBE) or the semiconductor luminescence equations (SLE), respectively. The homogeneous parts of these equations produce the Wannier equation at the low-density limit. Therefore, the homogeneous parts of the SBE and SLE provide a physically meaningful way to identify excitons at arbitrary excitation levels. The resulting generalized Wannier equation is ϵ ~ k ϕ λ R ( k ) − ∑ k ′ V k − k ′ e f f ϕ λ R ( k ′ ) = ϵ λ ϕ λ R ( k ) , {\displaystyle {\tilde {\epsilon }}_{\mathbf {k} }\phi _{\lambda }^{\mathrm {R} }(\mathbf {k} )-\sum _{\mathbf {k'} }V_{\mathbf {k} -\mathbf {k'} }^{\mathrm {eff} }\phi _{\lambda }^{\mathrm {R} }(\mathbf {k'} )=\epsilon _{\lambda }\phi _{\lambda }^{\mathrm {R} }(\mathbf {k} )\,,} where the kinetic energy becomes renormalized ϵ ~ k = E k − ∑ k ′ V k ′ − k ( f k ′ e + f k ′ h ) , {\displaystyle {\tilde {\epsilon }}_{\mathbf {k} }=E_{\mathbf {k} }-\sum _{\mathbf {k} '}V_{{\mathbf {k} }'-{\mathbf {k} }}\left(f_{\mathbf {k} '}^{e}+f_{\mathbf {k} '}^{h}\right)\,,} by the electron and hole occupations f k e {\displaystyle f_{\mathbf {k} }^{e}} and f k h {\displaystyle f_{\mathbf {k} }^{h}} , respectively. These also modify the Coulomb interaction into V k − k ′ e f f ≡ ( 1 − f k e − f k h ) V k − k ′ , {\displaystyle V_{\mathbf {k} -\mathbf {k'}
|
{
"page_id": 39454695,
"source": null,
"title": "Wannier equation"
}
|
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