text stringlengths 2 132k | source dict |
|---|---|
Evolutionary programming is an evolutionary algorithm, where a share of new population is created by mutation of previous population without crossover. Evolutionary programming differs from evolution strategy ES( μ + λ {\displaystyle \mu +\lambda } ) in one detail. All individuals are selected for the new population, w... | {
"page_id": 460689,
"source": null,
"title": "Evolutionary programming"
} |
Susan Finsen is an American philosopher, currently professor emeritus of philosophy and former chair of the department at California State University, San Bernardino. She specializes in moral philosophy, with a particular interest in animal rights, as well as philosophy of science and philosophy of biology. She is the ... | {
"page_id": 36177809,
"source": null,
"title": "Susan Finsen"
} |
Virophysics is a branch of biophysics in which the theoretical concepts and experimental techniques of physics are applied to study the mechanics and dynamics driving the interactions between virions and cells. == Overview == Research in virophysics typically focuses on resolving the physical structure and structural p... | {
"page_id": 47581074,
"source": null,
"title": "Virophysics"
} |
work being done at the cellular scale (cell-to-cell). Virophysics focuses almost exclusively on the single-cell or multi-cellular scale, utilizing physical models to resolve the temporal and spatial dynamics of viral infection spread within a cell culture (in vitro), an organ (ex vivo or in vivo) or an entire host (in ... | {
"page_id": 47581074,
"source": null,
"title": "Virophysics"
} |
Under the Sea Wind: A Naturalist's Picture of Ocean Life (1941) is the first book written by the American marine biologist Rachel Carson. It was published by Simon & Schuster in 1941 and received very good reviews, but sold poorly. After the great success of a sequel The Sea Around Us (Oxford, 1951), it was reissued by... | {
"page_id": 13240212,
"source": null,
"title": "Under the Sea Wind"
} |
Sea Around Us, and it was this second text that established her as a natural history author. == Description == Under the Sea Wind describes the behavior of organisms that live both on and in the sea on the Atlantic coast. Under the Sea Wind consists of three parts, each following a different organism that interacts wit... | {
"page_id": 13240212,
"source": null,
"title": "Under the Sea Wind"
} |
of the sea to a respectable reading matter for the clientele of the New Yorker and Reader's Digest sets, and inspiring a fashion in literature about the sea, its ways, and creatures." The style of Carson's writing makes the book suitable for children as well as adults, and the appeal is enhanced with illustrations, ori... | {
"page_id": 13240212,
"source": null,
"title": "Under the Sea Wind"
} |
Virtual screening (VS) is a computational technique used in drug discovery to search libraries of small molecules in order to identify those structures which are most likely to bind to a drug target, typically a protein receptor or enzyme. Virtual screening has been defined as "automatically evaluating very large libra... | {
"page_id": 5703575,
"source": null,
"title": "Virtual screening"
} |
analysis methods have been used to scan a databases to find active ligands. Another popular approach used in ligand-based virtual screening consist on searching molecules with shape similar to that of known actives, as such molecules will fit the target's binding site and hence will be likely to bind the target. There ... | {
"page_id": 5703575,
"source": null,
"title": "Virtual screening"
} |
on global structural similarity and is not capable of a priori selecting a particular ligand‐binding site in the protein of interest. Further, since the methods rely on 2D similarity assessment for ligands, they are not capable of recognizing stereochemical similarity of small-molecules that are substantially different... | {
"page_id": 5703575,
"source": null,
"title": "Virtual screening"
} |
amount of useful work. To work around this, it is necessary to process batches of compounds in each cluster job, aggregating the results into some kind of log file. A secondary process, to mine the log files and extract high scoring candidates, can then be run after the whole experiment has been run. == Accuracy == The... | {
"page_id": 5703575,
"source": null,
"title": "Virtual screening"
} |
as a beginning for medicinal chemistry. As the virtual screening approach begins to become a more vital and substantial technique within the medicinal chemistry industry the approach has had an expeditious increase. == Ligand-based methods == While not knowing the structure trying to predict how the ligands will bind t... | {
"page_id": 5703575,
"source": null,
"title": "Virtual screening"
} |
— it is more the selection of query compound(s) that is decisive for screening performance. Other shape-based molecular similarity methods such as Autodock-SS have also been developed. === Field-based virtual screening === As an improvement to shape-based similarity methods, field-based methods try to take into account... | {
"page_id": 5703575,
"source": null,
"title": "Virtual screening"
} |
onset and towards the climax. When the method of special static condensation and substitutions routines are developed this method is proved to be more productive than the previous substructure analysis models. === Recursive partitioning === Recursively partitioning is method that creates a decision tree using qualitati... | {
"page_id": 5703575,
"source": null,
"title": "Virtual screening"
} |
The second law of thermodynamics is a physical law based on universal empirical observation concerning heat and energy interconversions. A simple statement of the law is that heat always flows spontaneously from hotter to colder regions of matter (or 'downhill' in terms of the temperature gradient). Another statement i... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
French scientist Sadi Carnot, who in 1824 showed that the efficiency of conversion of heat to work in a heat engine has an upper limit. The first rigorous definition of the second law based on the concept of entropy came from German scientist Rudolf Clausius in the 1850s and included his statement that heat can never p... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
both cause entropy production, thereby increasing the entropy of the system's surroundings. If an isolated system containing distinct subsystems is held initially in internal thermodynamic equilibrium by internal partitioning by impermeable walls between the subsystems, and then some operation makes the walls more perm... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
work being done on the system by its surroundings, which can have frictional or viscous effects inside the system, because a chemical reaction may be in progress, or because heat transfer actually occurs only irreversibly, driven by a finite difference between the system temperature (T) and the temperature of the surro... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
second law of thermodynamics was in Sadi Carnot's theoretical analysis of the flow of heat in steam engines (1824). The centerpiece of that analysis, now known as a Carnot engine, is an ideal heat engine fictively operated in the limiting mode of extreme slowness known as quasi-static, so that the heat and work transfe... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
Clausius laid the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics in 1850 by examining the relation between heat transfer and work. His formulation of the second law, which was published in German in 1854, is known as the Clausius statement: Heat can never pass from a colder to a warmer body without some other change, ... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
effect of the combined pair of engines is to transfer heat Δ Q = Q ( 1 η − 1 ) {\textstyle \Delta Q=Q\left({\frac {1}{\eta }}-1\right)} from the cooler reservoir to the hotter one, which violates the Clausius statement. This is a consequence of the first law of thermodynamics, as for the total system's energy to remain... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
statement, of the second law states that It is impossible to devise a cyclically operating device, the sole effect of which is to absorb energy in the form of heat from a single thermal reservoir and to deliver an equivalent amount of work. === Planck's statement === Max Planck stated the second law as follows. Every p... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
law, Carathéodory's principle needs to be supplemented by Planck's principle, that isochoric work always increases the internal energy of a closed system that was initially in its own internal thermodynamic equilibrium. === Planck's principle === In 1926, Max Planck wrote an important paper on the basics of thermodynam... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
entropy. === Relating the second law to the definition of temperature === The second law has been shown to be equivalent to the internal energy U defined as a convex function of the other extensive properties of the system. That is, when a system is described by stating its internal energy U, an extensive variable, as ... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
b + δ S NetRad ) ≤ 0 {\displaystyle \int _{\text{cycle}}({\frac {\delta Q_{CC}}{T_{b}}}+\delta S_{\text{NetRad}})\leq 0} In a nutshell, the Clausius inequality is saying that when a cycle is completed, the change in the state property S will be zero, so the entropy that was produced during the cycle must have transferr... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
approach has also been used to obtain the same result as Planck, indicating it has wider significance and represents a non-equilibrium entropy. A plot of Kv versus frequency (v) for various values of temperature (T) gives a family of blackbody radiation energy spectra, and likewise for the entropy spectra. For non-blac... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
low uniformity, counteracting the second law tendency towards uniformity and disorder. The second law can be conceptually stated as follows: Matter and energy have the tendency to reach a state of uniformity or internal and external equilibrium, a state of maximum disorder (entropy). Real non-equilibrium processes alwa... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
or in part, the role that the robotic machinery plays in manufacturing. In this case, instructions may be involved, but intelligence is either directly responsible, or indirectly responsible, for the direction or application of work in such a way as to counteract the tendency towards disorder and uniformity. There are ... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
refrigeration effect. == Corollaries == === Perpetual motion of the second kind === Before the establishment of the second law, many people who were interested in inventing a perpetual motion machine had tried to circumvent the restrictions of first law of thermodynamics by extracting the massive internal energy of the... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
introduce the state function entropy. This is because in cyclic processes the variation of a state function is zero from state functionality. === Thermodynamic temperature === For an arbitrary heat engine, the efficiency is: where Wn is the net work done by the engine per cycle, qH > 0 is the heat added to the engine f... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
− f ( T 1 , T 2 ) {\displaystyle \eta _{2}=1-{\frac {|q_{2}|}{|q_{1}|}}=1-f(T_{1},T_{2})} , η 3 = 1 − | q 3 | | q 2 | = 1 − f ( T 2 , T 3 ) {\displaystyle \eta _{3}=1-{\frac {|q_{3}|}{|q_{2}|}}=1-f(T_{2},T_{3})} . Here, the engine 1 is the one cycle engine, and the engines 2 and 3 make the two cycle engine where there ... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
the last equation, the heat q 2 {\displaystyle q_{2}} flown from the engine 2 to the intermediate reservoir must be equal to the heat q 2 ∗ {\displaystyle q_{2}^{*}} flown out from the reservoir to the engine 3. Then f ( T 1 , T 3 ) = | q 3 | | q 1 | = | q 2 | | q 3 | | q 1 | | q 2 | = f ( T 1 , T 2 ) f ( T 2 , T 3 ) .... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
Clausius equality, for a reversible process ∮ δ Q T = 0 {\displaystyle \oint {\frac {\delta Q}{T}}=0} That means the line integral ∫ L δ Q T {\displaystyle \int _{L}{\frac {\delta Q}{T}}} is path independent for reversible processes. So we can define a state function S called entropy, which for a reversible process or ... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
be so large that they can be considered as an unlimited heat reservoir at temperature TR and pressure PR – so that no matter how much heat is transferred to (or from) the sub-system, the temperature of the surroundings will remain TR; and no matter how much the volume of the sub-system expands (or contracts), the press... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
N i {\displaystyle \delta w\leq -dU+T_{\text{R}}dS+\sum \mu _{iR}dN_{i}} It is useful to separate the work δw done by the subsystem into the useful work δwu that can be done by the sub-system, over and beyond the work pR dV done merely by the sub-system expanding against the surrounding external pressure, giving the fo... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
engineer working at the macroscopic scale (above the thermodynamic limit) to utilize the second law without directly measuring or considering entropy change in a total isolated system (see also Process engineer). Those changes have already been considered by the assumption that the system under consideration can reach ... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
= ΔS + ΔSR ≥ 0. For the three examples given above: 1) Heat can be transferred from a region of lower temperature to a higher temperature by a refrigerator or heat pump, provided that the device delivers sufficient mechanical work to the system and converts it to thermal energy inside the system. 2) Thermal energy can ... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
mechanical work is due to Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824. He was the first to realize correctly that the efficiency of this conversion depends on the difference of temperature between an engine and its surroundings. Recognizing the significance of James Prescott Joule's work on the conservation of energy, Rudolf C... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
{\displaystyle \int {\frac {\delta Q}{T}}=-N} where Q is heat, T is temperature and N is the "equivalence-value" of all uncompensated transformations involved in a cyclical process. Later, in 1865, Clausius would come to define "equivalence-value" as entropy. On the heels of this definition, that same year, the most fa... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
a {\displaystyle T_{\text{a}}} it gives the so-called dissipated energy P diss = T a S ˙ i {\displaystyle P_{\text{diss}}=T_{\text{a}}{\dot {S}}_{\text{i}}} . The expression of the second law for closed systems (so, allowing heat exchange and moving boundaries, but not exchange of matter) is: d S d t = Q ˙ T + S ˙ i {\... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
the system is constantly changing its microstate. Statistical mechanics postulates that, in equilibrium, each microstate that the system might be in is equally likely to occur, and when this assumption is made, it leads directly to the conclusion that the second law must hold in a statistical sense. That is, the second... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
is clear that simple probability arguments are applied only to the future, while for the past there are auxiliary sources of information which tell us that it was low entropy. The first part of the second law, which states that the entropy of a thermally isolated system can only increase, is a trivial consequence of th... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
at the given energy of the isolated system as that is the most probable situation in equilibrium. If the variable was initially fixed to some value then upon release and when the new equilibrium has been reached, the fact the variable will adjust itself so that Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } is maximized, implies that the e... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
eigenstates of the system will depend on x. According to the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics, in the limit of an infinitely slow change of the system's Hamiltonian, the system will stay in the same energy eigenstate and thus change its energy according to the change in energy of the energy eigenstate it is in. T... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
derivative of the entropy with respect to x at constant energy E as follows. Suppose we change x to x + dx. Then Ω ( E ) {\displaystyle \Omega \left(E\right)} will change because the energy eigenstates depend on x, causing energy eigenstates to move into or out of the range between E {\displaystyle E} and E + δ E {\dis... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
δ E {\displaystyle E+\delta E} . They are counted in both N Y ( E ) {\displaystyle N_{Y}\left(E\right)} and N Y ( E + δ E ) {\displaystyle N_{Y}\left(E+\delta E\right)} , therefore the above expression is also valid in that case. Expressing the above expression as a derivative with respect to E and summing over Y yield... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
in equilibrium, the probability distribution over the energy eigenvalues are given by the canonical ensemble: P j = exp ( − E j k B T ) Z {\displaystyle P_{j}={\frac {\exp \left(-{\frac {E_{j}}{k_{\mathrm {B} }T}}\right)}{Z}}} Here Z is a factor that normalizes the sum of all the probabilities to 1, this function is ... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
high entropy. The paradox is solved once realizing that gravitational systems have negative heat capacity, so that when gravity is important, uniform conditions (e.g. gas of uniform density) in fact have lower entropy compared to non-uniform ones (e.g. black holes in empty space). Yet another approach is that the unive... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
their remains rot away, turning mostly back into carbon dioxide and water. This can be regarded as a cyclic process. Overall, the sunlight is from a high temperature source, the sun, and its energy is passed to a lower temperature sink, i.e. radiated into space. This is an increase of entropy of the surroundings of the... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
always the case for systems in which the gravitational force is important: systems that are bound by their own gravity, such as stars, can have negative heat capacities. As they contract, both their total energy and their entropy decrease but their internal temperature may increase. This can be significant for protosta... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
laboratory studies of critical states, exceptionally long observation times are needed. In all cases, the assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium, once made, implies as a consequence that no putative candidate "fluctuation" alters the entropy of the system. It can easily happen that a physical system exhibits internal ... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
of any internally irreversible microscopic properties of the bodies. Thermodynamic operations are macroscopic external interventions imposed on the participating bodies, not derived from their internal properties. There are reputed "paradoxes" that arise from failure to recognize this. === Loschmidt's paradox === Losch... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
proximity of a super-dense region of mass/energy - e.g. black holes, neutron stars, magnetars and quasars. === Poincaré recurrence theorem === The Poincaré recurrence theorem considers a theoretical microscopic description of an isolated physical system. This may be considered as a model of a thermodynamic system after... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
the thermodynamic behavior of the system would become invariant under time reversal. === Maxwell's demon === James Clerk Maxwell imagined one container divided into two parts, A and B. Both parts are filled with the same gas at equal temperatures and placed next to each other, separated by a wall. Observing the molecul... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
experimentalists do bungle things sometimes. But if your theory is found to be against the second law of thermodynamics I can give you no hope; there is nothing for it but to collapse in deepest humiliation. There have been nearly as many formulations of the second law as there have been discussions of it. Clausius is ... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
|journal= ignored (help) also at [1]. == External links == Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Philosophy of Statistical Mechanics" – by Lawrence Sklar. Second law of thermodynamics in the MIT Course Unified Thermodynamics and Propulsion from Prof. Z. S. Spakovszky E.T. Jaynes, 1988, "The evolution of Carnot's princi... | {
"page_id": 133017,
"source": null,
"title": "Second law of thermodynamics"
} |
Molecule mining is the process of data mining, or extracting and discovering patterns, as applied to molecules. Since molecules may be represented by molecular graphs, this is strongly related to graph mining and structured data mining. The main problem is how to represent molecules while discriminating the data instan... | {
"page_id": 4851611,
"source": null,
"title": "Molecule mining"
} |
Computational Biology, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2004. R.O. Duda, P.E. Hart, D.G. Stork, Pattern Classification, John Wiley & Sons, 2001. ISBN 0-471-05669-3 Gusfield, D., Algorithms on Strings, Trees, and Sequences: Computer Science and Computational Biology, Cambridge University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-521-58519-8 R. Tode... | {
"page_id": 4851611,
"source": null,
"title": "Molecule mining"
} |
Information causality is a physical principle suggested in 2009. Information causality states that the information gain a receiver (Bob) can reach about data, previously unknown to him, from a sender (Alice), by using all his local resources and n {\displaystyle n} classical bits communicated by the sender, is at most ... | {
"page_id": 43714458,
"source": null,
"title": "Information causality"
} |
Pregnancy vegetarianism is the practice of adhering to a vegetarian diet during pregnancy. Vegetarianism is "the principle or practice of excluding all meat and fish, and sometimes, in the case of vegans, all animal products (such as eggs, milk, cheese, etc) from one's diet." Although some people frown upon pregnant wo... | {
"page_id": 42665887,
"source": null,
"title": "Pregnancy vegetarianism"
} |
the iron-deficiency to infants. == Effect on weight gain == One benefit of adopting pregnancy vegetarianism, is the possibility of minimizing pregnancy weight gain. Because being a vegetarian is a choice less often chosen, many have described this control of weight as due to them being more conscious of their diet. A 2... | {
"page_id": 42665887,
"source": null,
"title": "Pregnancy vegetarianism"
} |
increase the risk of the baby developing birth defects such as hypospadias. == References == | {
"page_id": 42665887,
"source": null,
"title": "Pregnancy vegetarianism"
} |
In electrochemistry, a valve metal is a metal which passes current in only one direction. Usually, in an electrolytic cell, it can function generally as a cathode, but not generally as an anode because a (highly resistive) oxide of the metal forms under anodic conditions. Valve metals include commonly aluminium, titani... | {
"page_id": 67635106,
"source": null,
"title": "Valve metals"
} |
scikit-learn (formerly scikits.learn and also known as sklearn) is a free and open-source machine learning library for the Python programming language. It features various classification, regression and clustering algorithms including support-vector machines, random forests, gradient boosting, k-means and DBSCAN, and i... | {
"page_id": 33490859,
"source": null,
"title": "Scikit-learn"
} |
to improve performance. Support vector machines are implemented by a Cython wrapper around LIBSVM; logistic regression and linear support vector machines by a similar wrapper around LIBLINEAR. In such cases, extending these methods with Python may not be possible. scikit-learn integrates well with many other Python lib... | {
"page_id": 33490859,
"source": null,
"title": "Scikit-learn"
} |
Cell physiology is the biological study of the activities that take place in a cell to keep it alive. The term physiology refers to normal functions in a living organism. Animal cells, plant cells and microorganism cells show similarities in their functions even though they vary in structure. == General characteristics... | {
"page_id": 6227883,
"source": null,
"title": "Cell physiology"
} |
cell and help the cell move. == Physiological processes == There are different ways through which cells can transport substances across the cell membrane. The two main pathways are passive transport and active transport. Passive transport is more direct and does not require the use of the cell's energy. It relies on an... | {
"page_id": 6227883,
"source": null,
"title": "Cell physiology"
} |
digestive enzymes, then digest the particles within the food vacuole.: 139–140 === Pinocytosis === In pinocytosis, a cell takes in ("gulps") extracellular fluid into vesicles, which are formed when plasma membrane surrounds the fluid. The cell can take in any molecule or solute through this process.: 139–140 === Recept... | {
"page_id": 6227883,
"source": null,
"title": "Cell physiology"
} |
Restriction sites, or restriction recognition sites, are located on a DNA molecule containing specific (4-8 base pairs in length) sequences of nucleotides, which are recognized by restriction enzymes. These are generally palindromic sequences (because restriction enzymes usually bind as homodimers), and a particular re... | {
"page_id": 2492332,
"source": null,
"title": "Restriction site"
} |
to be aware of when designing plasmids. == Databases == Several databases exist for restriction sites and enzymes, of which the largest noncommercial database is REBASE. Recently, it has been shown that statistically significant nullomers (i.e. short absent motifs which are highly expected to exist) in virus genomes ar... | {
"page_id": 2492332,
"source": null,
"title": "Restriction site"
} |
Ants are simple animals and their behavioural repertory is limited to somewhere between ten and forty elementary behaviours. This is an attempt to explain the different patterns of self-organization in ants. == Ants as complex systems == Ant colonies are self-organized systems: complex collective behaviors arise as the... | {
"page_id": 17303474,
"source": null,
"title": "Patterns of self-organization in ants"
} |
allow for the regulation of work on a large scale in diverse settings. This system can also evolve in response to different environments and life history strategies, leading to the immense variation observed in ants. == Bifurcation == This is an instant transition of the whole system to a new stable pattern when a thre... | {
"page_id": 17303474,
"source": null,
"title": "Patterns of self-organization in ants"
} |
The Non-Proliferation Trust (NPT) is a U.S. nonprofit organization that, at the beginning of the 21st century, advocated storing 10,000 tons of U.S. nuclear waste in Russia for a fee of $15 billion paid to the Russian government and $250 million paid to a fund for Russian orphans. The group was headed by Admiral Daniel... | {
"page_id": 198579,
"source": null,
"title": "Non-Proliferation Trust"
} |
Bjørg Cyvin (born 1932 - died 2015 at age 82) is a Norwegian chemist and researcher. == Early life == Bjorg Cvyvin (born Nygaard) was born February 8, 1932, in Alesund, Norway. Her father, Johannes Nygaard and her mother Ovidia Nygaard were married at Ålesund parish. She had an older brother named Harald Nygaard who wa... | {
"page_id": 74909622,
"source": null,
"title": "Bjørg Cyvin"
} |
An electron-withdrawing group (EWG) is a group or atom that has the ability to draw electron density toward itself and away from other adjacent atoms. This electron density transfer is often achieved by resonance or inductive effects. Electron-withdrawing groups have significant impacts on fundamental chemical processe... | {
"page_id": 4458422,
"source": null,
"title": "Electron-withdrawing group"
} |
nucleophilic substitution reactions, electron-withdrawing groups are more prone to nucleophilic substitution. For example, chlorodinitrobenzene is far more susceptible to reactions displacing chloride compared to chlorobenzene. === Effects on redox potential === In the context of electron transfer, these groups enhance... | {
"page_id": 4458422,
"source": null,
"title": "Electron-withdrawing group"
} |
Malcolm Bruce Smith (29 February 1924 – 27 July 2000) was an Australian chemist who studied the egg protein ovalbumin. He described the formation of S-ovalbumin from the native form (R-ovalbumin) as the pH of eggs rises over time. Smith was raised and attended schools in Angaston and Nuriootpa in South Australia. He wo... | {
"page_id": 15140792,
"source": null,
"title": "Malcolm Bruce Smith"
} |
N-acetylglutamate synthetase may refer to: Amino-acid N-acetyltransferase Glutamate N-acetyltransferase Urea cycle == See also == N-Acetylglutamate synthase | {
"page_id": 985017,
"source": null,
"title": "N-acetylglutamate synthetase"
} |
Moscovium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Mc and atomic number 115. It was first synthesized in 2003 by a joint team of Russian and American scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Russia. In December 2015, it was recognized as one of four new elements by the Joint Working... | {
"page_id": 67514,
"source": null,
"title": "Moscovium"
} |
americium-243 with calcium-48 ions to produce four atoms of moscovium. These atoms decayed by emission of alpha-particles to nihonium in about 100 milliseconds. The Dubna–Livermore collaboration strengthened their claim to the discoveries of moscovium and nihonium by conducting chemical experiments on the final decay p... | {
"page_id": 67514,
"source": null,
"title": "Moscovium"
} |
concluded that they did not meet the criteria for discovery. Another evaluation of more recent experiments took place within the next few years, and a claim to the discovery of moscovium was again put forward by Dubna. In August 2013, a team of researchers at Lund University and at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforsc... | {
"page_id": 67514,
"source": null,
"title": "Moscovium"
} |
289Mc probably did not exist. (On the other hand, the chains from the non-approved isotope 294Ts were found to be congruent.) The multiplicity of states found when nuclides that are not even–even undergo alpha decay is not unexpected and contributes to the lack of clarity in the cross-reactions. This study criticized t... | {
"page_id": 67514,
"source": null,
"title": "Moscovium"
} |
the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field, who called it "element 115", with the symbol of E115, (115) or even simply 115. On 30 December 2015, discovery of the element was recognized by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). According to IUPAC recommendations, the di... | {
"page_id": 67514,
"source": null,
"title": "Moscovium"
} |
== Other than nuclear properties, no properties of moscovium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that it decays very quickly. Properties of moscovium remain unknown and only predictions are available. === Nuclear stability and isotopes === Mosc... | {
"page_id": 67514,
"source": null,
"title": "Moscovium"
} |
the 245Cm(48Ca,pxn) and 248Cm(48Ca,pxn) reactions. The light isotopes 284Mc, 285Mc, and 286Mc could be made from the 241Am+48Ca reaction. They would undergo a chain of alpha decays, ending at transactinide isotopes too light to be made by hot fusion and too heavy to be made by cold fusion. The isotope 286Mc was found i... | {
"page_id": 67514,
"source": null,
"title": "Moscovium"
} |
member of group 15, the pnictogens. It appears below nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. Every previous pnictogen has five electrons in its valence shell, forming a valence electron configuration of ns2np3. In moscovium's case, the trend should be continued and the valence electron configuration is pr... | {
"page_id": 67514,
"source": null,
"title": "Moscovium"
} |
Thus, the +1 oxidation state should be favored, like Tl+, and consistent with this the first ionization potential of moscovium should be around 5.58 eV, continuing the trend towards lower ionization potentials down the pnictogens. Moscovium and nihonium both have one electron outside a quasi-closed shell configuration ... | {
"page_id": 67514,
"source": null,
"title": "Moscovium"
} |
+5 state is well represented for the essentially non-relativistic typical pnictogens phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony. However, for bismuth it becomes rare due to the relativistic stabilization of the 6s orbitals known as the inert-pair effect, so that the 6s electrons are reluctant to bond chemically. It is expected ... | {
"page_id": 67514,
"source": null,
"title": "Moscovium"
} |
chloride (McCl), bromide (McBr), iodide (McI), and thiocyanate (McSCN) should be only slightly soluble, so that adding excess hydrochloric acid would not noticeably affect the solubility of moscovium(I) chloride. Mc3+ should be about as stable as Tl3+ and hence should also be an important part of moscovium chemistry, a... | {
"page_id": 67514,
"source": null,
"title": "Moscovium"
} |
but more reactive than closed-shell copernicium and flerovium. This arises because of the relativistic stabilisation of the 7p1/2 shell. == See also == Materials science in science fiction § Moscovium == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; et al. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evalu... | {
"page_id": 67514,
"source": null,
"title": "Moscovium"
} |
The molecular formula C3H6O2 may refer to: == Acids and esters == === Acid === Propanoic acid === Esters === Methyl acetate Ethyl formate == Aldehydes and ketones == Lactaldehyde (2-hydroxypropanal) (S)-Lactaldehyde (R)-Lactaldehyde Reuterin (3-hydroxypropanal) Methoxyacetaldehyde Hydroxyacetone == Alkenes == === Diols... | {
"page_id": 12126139,
"source": null,
"title": "C3H6O2"
} |
A systematic element name is the temporary name assigned to an unknown or recently synthesized chemical element. A systematic symbol is also derived from this name. In chemistry, a transuranic element receives a permanent name and symbol only after its synthesis has been confirmed. In some cases, such as the Transfermi... | {
"page_id": 67513,
"source": null,
"title": "Systematic element name"
} |
these trivial names, all elements receive the suffix -ium except those in group 17, which receive -ine (like the halogens), and those in group 18, which receive -on (like the noble gases). (That being said, tennessine and oganesson are expected to behave quite differently from their lighter congeners.) The systematic s... | {
"page_id": 67513,
"source": null,
"title": "Systematic element name"
} |
accepted. == See also == Mendeleev's predicted elements – a much earlier (1869) system of naming undiscovered elements == References == == External links == IUPAC Provisional Recommendations: IR-3: Elements and Groups of Elements (PDF) (Report). IUPAC. March 2004. | {
"page_id": 67513,
"source": null,
"title": "Systematic element name"
} |
Guan ware or Kuan ware (Chinese: 官窯; pinyin: guān yáo; Wade–Giles: kuan-yao) is one of the Five Famous Kilns of Song dynasty China, making high-status stonewares, whose surface decoration relied heavily on crackled glaze, randomly crazed by a network of crack lines in the glaze. Guan means "official" in Chinese and Gua... | {
"page_id": 41224120,
"source": null,
"title": "Guan ware"
} |
now thought that the site has been found, as the Laohudong or Tiger Cave Kiln [老虎洞窑] on the outskirts of the city. An old Yue ware dragon kiln had been revived, but the official wares were made in a northern-style mantou kiln, rare this far south. A second kiln was established later at Jiaotanxia ("Altar of Heaven" or ... | {
"page_id": 41224120,
"source": null,
"title": "Guan ware"
} |
body, with wide crackle, followed by a greener glaze with a denser crackle, then finally "almost a pale grey brown" with a "very dark close crackle on a dark grey body" that was rather thicker; all are illustrated here, with the types indicated by 1–3 (which is not a standard terminology). The crackle arises during coo... | {
"page_id": 41224120,
"source": null,
"title": "Guan ware"
} |
New York. ISBN 9780870995149 (fully online) | {
"page_id": 41224120,
"source": null,
"title": "Guan ware"
} |
A discharge ionization detector (DID) is a type of detector used in gas chromatography. == Principle == A DID is an ion detector which uses a high-voltage electric discharge to produce ions. The detector uses an electrical discharge in helium to generate high energy UV photons and metastable helium which ionizes all co... | {
"page_id": 4917179,
"source": null,
"title": "Discharge ionization detector"
} |
Pydlpoly is a molecular dynamics simulation package which is a modified version of DL-POLY with a Python language interface. Pydlpoly is written by Rochus Schmid in Ruhr University Bochum, Germany. | {
"page_id": 39913402,
"source": null,
"title": "Pydlpoly"
} |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.