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Ecological Complexity is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering the field of biocomplexity in the environment and theoretical ecology with special attention to papers that integrate natural and social processes at various spatio-temporal scales. The founding editor was Bai-Lian (Larry) Li (University of ...	{ "page_id": 47581036, "source": null, "title": "Ecological Complexity" }
In evolutionary biology, adaptive radiation is a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, alters biotic interactions or opens new environmental niches. Starting with a single ancesto...	{ "page_id": 1909, "source": null, "title": "Adaptive radiation" }
of resources. This ecological release provides the potential for ecological speciation and thus adaptive radiation. Occupying a new environment might take place under the following conditions: A new habitat has opened up: a volcano, for example, can create new ground in the middle of the ocean. This is the case in plac...	{ "page_id": 1909, "source": null, "title": "Adaptive radiation" }
found in the Galapagos but on the island of Cocos south of Costa Rica). Darwin's finches are not actually finches in the true sense, but are members of the tanager family Thraupidae, and are derived from a single ancestor that arrived in the Galapagos from mainland South America perhaps just 3 million years ago. Exclud...	{ "page_id": 1909, "source": null, "title": "Adaptive radiation" }
and thus avoid starvation. The other finches in the Galapagos are similarly uniquely adapted for their particular niche. The cactus finches (Geospiza sp.) have somewhat longer beaks than the ground finches that serve the dual purpose of allowing them to feed on Opuntia cactus nectar and pollen while these plants are fl...	{ "page_id": 1909, "source": null, "title": "Adaptive radiation" }
old, making the high level of speciation particularly remarkable. Several factors could be responsible for this diversity: the availability of a multitude of niches probably favored specialization, as few other fish taxa are present in the lakes (meaning that sympatric speciation was the most probable mechanism for ini...	{ "page_id": 1909, "source": null, "title": "Adaptive radiation" }
skin. Plecodus straeleni has evolved large, strangely curved teeth that are designed to scrape scales off of the sides of other fish, scales being its main source of food. Gnathochromis permaxillaris possesses a large mouth with a protruding upper lip, and feeds by opening this mouth downward onto the sandy lake bottom...	{ "page_id": 1909, "source": null, "title": "Adaptive radiation" }
from Tanganyikan ancestors. The common ancestor of Malawi's species flock is believed to have reached the lake 3.4 million years ago at the earliest, making Malawi cichlids' diversification into their present numbers particularly rapid. Malawi's cichlids span a similarly range of feeding behaviors to those of Tanganyik...	{ "page_id": 1909, "source": null, "title": "Adaptive radiation" }
even that of Lake Malawi, with estimates of the age of the flock ranging from 200,000 years to as little as 14,000. === Adaptive radiation in Hawaii === Hawaii has served as the site of a number of adaptive radiation events, owing to its isolation, recent origin, and large land area. The three most famous examples of t...	{ "page_id": 1909, "source": null, "title": "Adaptive radiation" }
from a single common ancestor some 15 to 20 million years ago, though estimates range as low as 3.5 million years. ==== Hawaiian silverswords ==== Adaptive radiation is not a strictly vertebrate phenomenon, and examples are also known from among plants. The most famous example of adaptive radiation in plants is quite p...	{ "page_id": 1909, "source": null, "title": "Adaptive radiation" }
one of the largest radiation events among all lizards. Anole radiation on the mainland has largely been a process of speciation, and is not adaptive to any great degree, but anoles on each of the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica) have adaptively radiated in separate, convergent ways. On each...	{ "page_id": 1909, "source": null, "title": "Adaptive radiation" }
are the Madagascan equivalent of tree frogs and glass frogs. The pseudoxyrhophiine snakes of Madagascar have evolved into fossorial, arboreal, terrestrial, and semi-aquatic forms that converge with the colubroid faunas in the rest of the world. These Madagascan examples are significantly older than most of the other ex...	{ "page_id": 1909, "source": null, "title": "Adaptive radiation" }
hornbills: biology and radiation". The Living Bird. 17: 105–136. Gavrilets, S.; Vose, A. (2005). "Dynamic patterns of adaptive radiation". PNAS. 102 (50): 18040–18045. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10218040G. doi:10.1073/pnas.0506330102. PMC 1312382. PMID 16330783. Gavrilets, S. and A. Vose. 2009. Dynamic patterns of adaptive radi...	{ "page_id": 1909, "source": null, "title": "Adaptive radiation" }
and adaptive radiation". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 19 (4): 198–207. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2004.01.003. PMID 16701254. S2CID 9992822.	{ "page_id": 1909, "source": null, "title": "Adaptive radiation" }
Agarose gel electrophoresis is a method of gel electrophoresis used in biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics, and clinical chemistry to separate a mixed population of macromolecules such as DNA or proteins in a matrix of agarose, one of the two main components of agar. The proteins may be separated by charge and/or...	{ "page_id": 1910, "source": null, "title": "Agarose gel electrophoresis" }
a 1% gel has been estimated from 100 nm to 200–500 nm, and its gel strength allows gels as dilute as 0.15% to form a slab for gel electrophoresis. Low-concentration gels (0.1–0.2%) however are fragile and therefore hard to handle. Agarose gel has lower resolving power than polyacrylamide gel for DNA but has a greater r...	{ "page_id": 1910, "source": null, "title": "Agarose gel electrophoresis" }
agarose is used in preference to agar as the agaropectin component in agar contains a significant amount of negatively charged sulfate and carboxyl groups. The removal of agaropectin in agarose substantially reduces the EEO, as well as reducing the non-specific adsorption of biomolecules to the gel matrix. However, for...	{ "page_id": 1910, "source": null, "title": "Agarose gel electrophoresis" }
the plasmids would normally show the negatively supercoiled form as the main band, while nicked DNA (open circular form) and the relaxed closed circular form appears as minor bands. The rate at which the various forms move however can change using different electrophoresis conditions, and the mobility of larger circula...	{ "page_id": 1910, "source": null, "title": "Agarose gel electrophoresis" }
of its phosphate backbone moves the DNA towards the positively charged anode during electrophoresis. However, the migration of DNA molecules in solution, in the absence of a gel matrix, is independent of molecular weight during electrophoresis. The gel matrix is therefore responsible for the separation of DNA by size d...	{ "page_id": 1910, "source": null, "title": "Agarose gel electrophoresis" }
gel === The gel is prepared by dissolving the agarose powder in an appropriate buffer, such as TAE or TBE, to be used in electrophoresis. The agarose is dispersed in the buffer before heating it to near-boiling point, but avoid boiling. The melted agarose is allowed to cool sufficiently before pouring the solution into...	{ "page_id": 1910, "source": null, "title": "Agarose gel electrophoresis" }
high percentage agarose gels. === Loading of samples === Once the gel has set, the comb is removed, leaving wells where DNA samples can be loaded. Loading buffer is mixed with the DNA sample before the mixture is loaded into the wells. The loading buffer contains a dense compound, which may be glycerol, sucrose, or Fic...	{ "page_id": 1910, "source": null, "title": "Agarose gel electrophoresis" }
also reduce resolution, as well as causing band streaking for large DNA molecules. Too low a voltage may lead to broadening of band for small DNA fragments due to dispersion and diffusion. Since DNA is not visible in natural light, the progress of the electrophoresis is monitored using colored dyes. Xylene cyanol (ligh...	{ "page_id": 1910, "source": null, "title": "Agarose gel electrophoresis" }
of a blue-light transilluminator. DNA stained with crystal violet can be viewed under natural light without the use of a UV transilluminator which is an advantage, however it may not produce a strong band. When stained with ethidium bromide, the gel is viewed with an ultraviolet (UV) transilluminator. The UV light exci...	{ "page_id": 1910, "source": null, "title": "Agarose gel electrophoresis" }
reactions. The gels may also be used for blotting techniques. == Buffers == In general, the ideal buffer should have good conductivity, produce less heat and have a long life. There are a number of buffers used for agarose electrophoresis; common ones for nucleic acids include tris/acetate/EDTA (TAE) and tris/borate/ED...	{ "page_id": 1910, "source": null, "title": "Agarose gel electrophoresis" }
DNA. Estimation of the DNA concentration by comparing the intensity of the nucleic acid band with the corresponding band of the size marker. Analysis of products of a polymerase chain reaction (PCR), e.g., in molecular genetic diagnosis or genetic fingerprinting Separation of DNA fragments for extraction and purificati...	{ "page_id": 1910, "source": null, "title": "Agarose gel electrophoresis" }
Pyrrhochalcia is a genus of butterflies in the family Hesperiidae. It contains only one species, Pyrrhochalcia iphis, the African giant skipper, which is found in Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo and Angola. It was first described by Dru Drury ...	{ "page_id": 23988089, "source": null, "title": "Pyrrhochalcia" }
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR or AR) occurs when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from antimicrobials, which are drugs used to treat infections. This resistance affects all classes of microbes, including bacteria (antibiotic resistance), viruses (antiviral resistance), parasites (antiparasitic resistance), ...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
challenge. == Definition == Antimicrobial resistance means a microorganism's resistance to an antimicrobial drug that was once able to treat an infection by that microorganism. A person cannot become resistant to antibiotics. Resistance is a property of the microbe, not a person or other organism infected by a microbe....	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
died due to AMR were children under five years old. In 2018, WHO considered antibiotic resistance to be one of the biggest threats to global health, food security and development. Deaths attributable to AMR vary by area: The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control calculated that in 2015 there were 671,689 i...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
to feel better. When this occurs, it is possible that the microbes that are less susceptible to treatment still remain in the body. If these microbes are able to continue to reproduce, this can lead to an infection by bacteria that are less susceptible or even resistant to an antibiotic. === Natural occurrence === AMR ...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
infections present will be the type resistant to the antimicrobial agent being used to treat them, making this agent now ineffective to defeat most microbes. With the increased use of antimicrobial agents, there is a speeding up of this natural process. === Self-medication === In the vast majority of countries, antibio...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
and aortic dissection) and, secondly, broad microbial resistance and when to seek medical care if the infection is not clearing. In order to determine the public's knowledge and preconceived notions on antibiotic resistance, a screening of 3,537 articles published in Europe, Asia, and North America was done. Of the 55,...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
not always confirmed. This can lead to unnecessary antimicrobial use, a pattern which may have worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic. Studies have shown that common misconceptions about the effectiveness and necessity of antibiotics to treat common mild illnesses contribute to their overuse. Important to the conversati...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
=== Considering the complex interactions between humans, animals and the environment, it is also important to consider the environmental aspects and contributors to antimicrobial resistance. Although there are still some knowledge gaps in understanding the mechanisms and transmission pathways, environmental pollution i...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
antibiotics gives the bacteria time to adapt leaving higher doses or even stronger antibiotics needed to combat the infection. Though antibiotics for growth promotion were banned throughout the EU in 2006, 40 countries worldwide still use antibiotics to promote growth. This can result in the transfer of resistant bacte...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, and protozoa. The overuse of many pesticides in an effort to have a higher yield of crops has resulted in many of these microbes evolving a tolerance against these antimicrobial agents. Currently there are over 4000 antimicrobial pesticides registered with the US ...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
Additionally, wild birds can participate in horizontal gene transfer with bacteria, leading to the transmission of antibiotic-resistant genes (ARG). For simplicity, wild bird populations can be divided into two major categories, wild sedentary birds and wild migrating birds. Wild sedentary bird exposure to AMR is throu...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
argued that the inability of known causative agents of contagious diseases to survive being frozen and thawed makes this threat unlikely. Instead, there have been suggestions that when modern pathogenic bacteria interact with the ancient ones, they may, through horizontal gene transfer, pick up genetic sequences which ...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
for ailments such as a sore throat and otitis media may have no difference in the rate of complications compared with immediate antibiotics, for example. When treating respiratory tract infections, clinical judgement is required as to the appropriate treatment (delayed or immediate antibiotic use). The study, "Shorter ...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
is a lack of national and international monitoring programs for antifungal resistance. === Limiting antimicrobial use in humans === Antimicrobial stewardship programmes appear useful in reducing rates of antimicrobial resistance. The antimicrobial stewardship program will also provide pharmacists with the knowledge to ...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
likely to confer resistance, so are kept as reserve antibiotics in the AWaRe book. Various diagnostic strategies have been employed to prevent the overuse of antifungal therapy in the clinic, proving a safe alternative to empirical antifungal therapy, and thus underpinning antifungal stewardship schemes. ==== At the ho...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
unnecessary antibiotic use. Parents play a critical role in reducing unnecessary antibiotic use, particularly during cold and flu season when children frequently experience respiratory illnesses. Many of these illnesses are caused by viruses, such as colds or the flu, which antibiotics cannot treat. Misusing antibiotic...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
pharmacists and non‐pharmacists may not reduce the sales of non‐prescription antimicrobial drugs in community pharmacies, drugstores, and other medicine outlets. ==== At the individual level ==== People can help tackle resistance by using antibiotics only when infected with a bacterial infection and prescribed by a doc...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
inadequate WASH standards is a major driver of antibiotic demand. Growing usage of antibiotics together with persistent infectious disease levels have led to a dangerous cycle in which reliance on antimicrobials increases while the efficacy of drugs diminishes. The proper use of infrastructure for water, sanitation and...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
medicated feeds). For this reason only antimicrobials that are deemed "not-clinically relevant" are used in these practices. Unlike resistance to antibacterials, antifungal resistance can be driven by arable farming, currently there is no regulation on the use of similar antifungal classes in agriculture and the clinic...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
sales of antibiotics (including penicillin and other drugs) to lay animal owners for administration to their own animals nonetheless continued in all states. In 2000, the FDA announced their intention to revoke approval of fluoroquinolone use in poultry production because of substantial evidence linking it to the emerg...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
future health consequences. These objectives are as follows: improve awareness and understanding of antimicrobial resistance through effective communication, education and training. strengthen the knowledge and evidence base through surveillance and research. reduce the incidence of infection through effective sanitati...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
underscores their global impact in terms of burden, as well as issues related to transmissibility, treatability, and prevention options. It also reflects the R&D pipeline of new treatments and emerging resistance trends. ==== Antibiotic Awareness Week ==== The World Health Organization has promoted the first World Anti...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
For example, 73% of the world's antibiotics are used in livestock, often for non-therapeutic purposes like growth promotion. ==== Policy Interventions ==== Banning non-therapeutic antibiotics in agriculture (e.g., European Union's 2006 growth promoter ban). Incentivizing development of new antibiotics and alternatives ...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
drug permeability or increasing active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface. These multidrug efflux pumps within the cellular membrane of certain bacterial species are used to pump antibiotics out of the cell before they are able to do any damage. They are often activated by a specific substrate as...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
the fact that bacteria reproduce at a high rate allows for the effect to be significant. Given that lifespans and production of new generations can be on a timescale of mere hours, a new (de novo) mutation in a parent cell can quickly become an inherited mutation of widespread prevalence, resulting in the microevolutio...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
is based on four SNP mutations in the genome of E. coli produced by the gradient of antibiotic. In one study, which has implications for space microbiology, a non-pathogenic strain E. coli MG1655 was exposed to trace levels of the broad spectrum antibiotic chloramphenicol, under simulated microgravity (LSMMG, or Low Sh...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
acquired through mutations in the genes that encode the protein targets of the drugs. Resistance to HIV antivirals is problematic, and even multi-drug resistant strains have evolved. One source of resistance is that many current HIV drugs, including NRTIs and NNRTIs, target reverse transcriptase; however, HIV-1 reverse...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
resistant to first-line and second-line antifungal agents such as echinocandins and azoles. The emergence of Candida auris as a potential human pathogen that sometimes exhibits multi-class antifungal drug resistance is concerning and has been associated with several outbreaks globally. The WHO has released a priority f...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
and Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis). There are no vaccines to prevent these infections so drugs such as pentamidine and suramin, benznidazole and nifurtimox are used to treat infections. These drugs are effective but infections caused by resistant parasites have been reported. Leishmaniasis is caused by proto...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
The 1950s to 1970s represented the golden age of antibiotic discovery, where countless new classes of antibiotics were discovered to treat previously incurable diseases such as tuberculosis and syphilis. However, since that time the discovery of new classes of antibiotics has been almost nonexistent, and represents a s...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
and diagnostic companies" from around the world called for "transformational commercial models" at a global level to spur research and development on antibiotics and on the "enhanced use of diagnostic tests that can rapidly identify the infecting organism". A number of countries are considering or implementing delinked...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
lives. This plan outlines steps taken by the Federal government over the next five years needed in order to prevent and contain outbreaks of antibiotic-resistant infections; maintain the efficacy of antibiotics already on the market; and to help to develop future diagnostics, antibiotics, and vaccines. The Action Plan ...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
pandemic led to a significant disruption in healthcare, with an increase in the use of antibiotics during the treatment of viral infections. This rise in antibiotic prescribing, coupled with overwhelmed healthcare systems, contributed to a resurgence in AMR during the pandemic years. A 2021 CDC report identified a shar...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
stewardship programs to reduce the misuse of existing antibiotics. This legislation is considered a critical step toward addressing the economic barriers to developing new antimicrobials. === Policy evaluation === Measuring the costs and benefits of strategies to combat AMR is difficult and policies may only have effec...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
8-h working shift". There are several commercial Food and Drug Administration-approved assays available which can detect AMR genes from a variety of specimen types. Progress has been slow due to a range of reasons including cost and regulation. Genotypic AMR characterisation methods are, however, being increasingly use...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
of drug-resistant pathogens. Microorganisms usually do not develop resistance to vaccines because vaccines reduce the spread of the infection and target the pathogen in multiple ways in the same host and possibly in different ways between different hosts. Furthermore, if the use of vaccines increases, there is evidence...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
was terminated after a higher rate of multiorgan system failure–related deaths was found in the V710 recipients. Vaccine recipients who developed S. aureus infection were five times more likely to die than control recipients who developed S. aureus infection. Numerous investigators have suggested that a multiple-antige...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
concern that development has slowed enough that seriously ill people may run out of treatment options. Another concern is that practitioners may become reluctant to perform routine surgeries because of the increased risk of harmful infection. Backup treatments can have serious side-effects; for example, antibiotics lik...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
of developing 2–4 new antimicrobial agents by 2030. The delivery of these trials is facilitated by national and international networks supported by the Clinical Research Network of the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR), European Clinical Research Alliance in Infectious Diseases (ECRAID) and the rec...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
of antifungals are being developed and are undergoing various stages of clinical trials to assess performance. Scientists have started using advanced computational approaches with supercomputers for the development of new antibiotic derivatives to deal with antimicrobial resistance. === Biomaterials === Using antibioti...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
sample. Along with the availability of databases of known antimicrobial resistance genes, such as the Comprehensive Antimicrobial Resistance Database (CARD) and ResFinder, this allows the identification of all the antimicrobial resistance genes within the sample – the so-called "resistome". In doing so, a profile of th...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
four patients with severe musculoskeletal infections received bacteriophage therapy with concomitant antibiotics. After a single course of phage therapy, no recurrence of infection occurred and no severe side-effects related to the therapy were detected. == See also == == References == === Books === === Journals === ==...	{ "page_id": 1914, "source": null, "title": "Antimicrobial resistance" }
Dipeptide hydrolase may refer to: Membrane dipeptidase, an enzyme Angiotensin-converting enzyme, an enzyme	{ "page_id": 39126906, "source": null, "title": "Dipeptide hydrolase" }
This list of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists includes the famous astronomers, astrophysicists and cosmologists from the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation. == Alphabetical list == === A === Tateos Agekian, one of the pioneers of Russian and world Stellar dynamics, discoverer of two evol...	{ "page_id": 29230973, "source": null, "title": "List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists" }
(in the Sukharev Tower) === C === Lyudmila Chernykh, astronomer, discovered 268 asteroids Nikolai Chernykh, astronomer, discovered 537 asteroids and two comets Aleksandr Chudakov, co-discoverer of the Earth's radiation belt === D === Denis Denisenko, astronomer, author of more than 25 scientific articles and a presente...	{ "page_id": 29230973, "source": null, "title": "List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists" }
Matvey Gusev, the first to prove the non-sphericity of the Moon, pioneer of photography in astronomy === I === Naum Idelson, astronomer === J === Benjamin Jekhowsky, discovered a number of asteroids; made more than 190 scientific publications; the asteroid 1606 Jekhovsky is named after him === K === Lyudmila Karachkina...	{ "page_id": 29230973, "source": null, "title": "List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists" }
notably 951 Gaspra and 762 Pulcova Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov, formulated the Novikov self-consistency principle, an important contribution to the theory of time travel Boris Numerov, created various astronomic and mineralogical instruments, as well as various algorithms and methods that bear his name === P === Pavel Pe...	{ "page_id": 29230973, "source": null, "title": "List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists" }
measurement of stellar rotation, directed several observatories in the U.S. Nadezhda Sytinskaya, planetary scientist known for co-developing the meteor slag theory of lunar surface regolith Otto Wilhelm von Struve, astronomer, director of the Pulkovo Observatory, discovered over 500 double stars Rashid Sunyaev, astroph...	{ "page_id": 29230973, "source": null, "title": "List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists" }
of Russian ufology == See also == List of astronomers List of astrophysicists List of Russian scientists List of Russian inventors Science and technology in Russia Pulkovo Observatory == References ==	{ "page_id": 29230973, "source": null, "title": "List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists" }
Kombucha (also tea mushroom, tea fungus, or Manchurian mushroom when referring to the culture; Latin name Medusomyces gisevii) is a fermented, effervescent, sweetened black tea drink. Sometimes the beverage is called kombucha tea to distinguish it from the culture of bacteria and yeast. Juice, spices, fruit, or other f...	{ "page_id": 264062, "source": null, "title": "Kombucha" }
21st century. In the intervening years, its popularity in the West eclipsed its popularity in most parts of China, where it remains less known, though consumption is increasing in many East Asian countries. With an alcohol content under 0.5%, it is not federally regulated in the U.S. Prior to 2015, some commercially av...	{ "page_id": 264062, "source": null, "title": "Kombucha" }
yeast (SCOBY), similar to mother of vinegar, containing one or more species each of bacteria and yeasts, which form a zoogleal mat known as a "mother". There is a broad spectrum of yeast species spanning several genera reported to be present in kombucha cultures, including species of Zygosaccharomyces, Candida, Kloecke...	{ "page_id": 264062, "source": null, "title": "Kombucha" }
sugared tea. The sugar serves as a nutrient for the SCOBY that allows for bacterial growth in the tea. Sucrose is converted, biochemically, into fructose and glucose, and these into gluconic acid and acetic acid. In addition, kombucha contains enzymes and amino acids, polyphenols, and various other organic acids which ...	{ "page_id": 264062, "source": null, "title": "Kombucha" }
diameter of the container. After fermentation is completed, the SCOBY is removed and stored along with a small amount of the newly fermented tea. The remaining kombucha is strained and bottled for a secondary ferment for a few days or stored at a temperature of 4 °C. Commercially bottled kombucha became available in th...	{ "page_id": 264062, "source": null, "title": "Kombucha" }
an "extreme example" of an unconventional remedy because of the disparity between implausible, wide-ranging health claims and the potential risks of the product. It concluded that the proposed, unsubstantiated therapeutic claims did not outweigh known risks, and that kombucha should not be recommended for therapeutic u...	{ "page_id": 264062, "source": null, "title": "Kombucha" }
that one should not take with kombucha because of the small percentage of alcohol content. A 2019 review enumerated numerous potential health risks (including hyponatremia, lactic acidosis, toxic hepatitis, etc.: 68 ), but said "kombucha is not considered harmful if about 4 oz [120 mL] per day is consumed by healthy in...	{ "page_id": 264062, "source": null, "title": "Kombucha" }
Nonspecific dipeptidase may refer to: Membrane dipeptidase, an enzyme Cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase, an enzyme	{ "page_id": 39126912, "source": null, "title": "Nonspecific dipeptidase" }
Coalbed methane extraction (CBM extraction) is a method for extracting methane from a coal deposit. Coal bed methane (CBM) is one of the factors restricting the safe production of coal in underground coal mines. It is also a form of high-quality energy that can be used in many fields such as power generation, heating, ...	{ "page_id": 67458, "source": null, "title": "Coalbed methane extraction" }
produced in the United States comes from CBM extraction. Methane from coalbed reservoirs can be recovered economically, but disposal of water is an environmental concern. There are also sites in Central Scotland at Letham Moss. Most gas in coal is stored on the internal surfaces of organic matter. Because of its large ...	{ "page_id": 67458, "source": null, "title": "Coalbed methane extraction" }
about the storage capacity of a coal sample if these are measured under geological realistic pressure and temperature conditions. Thus, the maximum gas content that can be expected for methane recovery can be assessed from such laboratory isotherm measurements. The total gas content by the indirect methods is based on ...	{ "page_id": 67458, "source": null, "title": "Coalbed methane extraction" }
In the absence of measured methane content of coal beds, and production data from coal bed methane wells, gas content can be estimated using the Eddy curve. Eddy and others constructed a series of curves estimating the maximum producible methane content of coal beds as a function of depth and rank. The estimation of th...	{ "page_id": 67458, "source": null, "title": "Coalbed methane extraction" }
The International Chemistry Olympiad (IChO) is an annual academic competition for high school students. It is one of the International Science Olympiads. The first IChO was held in Prague, Czechoslovakia, in 1968. The event has been held every year since then, with the exception of 1971. The delegations that attended t...	{ "page_id": 526214, "source": null, "title": "International Chemistry Olympiad" }
the best score in the theoretical and practical examinations. Preparation for the International Chemistry Olympiad demands a high level of understanding and interest in chemistry and an outstanding ability to relate chemical subjects with one another as well as with the practical world. == Structure and rules == Each d...	{ "page_id": 526214, "source": null, "title": "International Chemistry Olympiad" }
into their languages of preference. It is the duty of the mentors to translate the examinations from English before they are given to the participants. After the examinations are held and evaluated by a committee appointed by the host country and before awards are presented, mentors discuss the evaluation of the exams ...	{ "page_id": 526214, "source": null, "title": "International Chemistry Olympiad" }
cooperation and international understanding. == Preparation == each country is free to choose its team by whatever means it seems appropriate, the selection involves holding regional and national olympiad competitions. Many countries hold "training camps" for its top students, where mentors from the country give the st...	{ "page_id": 526214, "source": null, "title": "International Chemistry Olympiad" }
observers. Each team consisted of five pupils, and an experimental competition was added. The decision was made to invite more socialist countries to future competitions and to limit the number of pupils to four. The third Olympiad in 1970 was organized in Hungary with the GDR, Romania and the Soviet Union as new count...	{ "page_id": 526214, "source": null, "title": "International Chemistry Olympiad" }
of the Soviet Union into independent states in the early 1990s, the number of participants increased again. In addition, the increasing interest of Asian and Latin American countries became apparent with the numbers of participants. Altogether 47 delegations participated in 1998. Presently, 88 countries are invited to ...	{ "page_id": 526214, "source": null, "title": "International Chemistry Olympiad" }
In cell biology, the Celada–Seiden model is a logical description at the inter-cellular level of the mechanisms making up the adaptive immune humoral and cellular response to a genetic antigen. The computational counterpart of the Celada–Seiden model is the IMMSIM code. == References ==	{ "page_id": 21104520, "source": null, "title": "Celada–Seiden model" }
Bioproducts or bio-based products are materials, chemicals and energy derived from renewable biological material. == Bioresources == Biological resources include agriculture, forestry, and biologically derived waste, and there are many other renewable bioresource examples. === Example === One of the examples of renewab...	{ "page_id": 24446858, "source": null, "title": "Bioproduct" }
engineering == Bioproducts engineering (also referred to as bioprocess engineering) refers to engineering of bio-products from renewable bioresources. This pertains to the design, development and implementation of processes, technologies for the sustainable manufacture of materials, chemicals and energy from renewable ...	{ "page_id": 24446858, "source": null, "title": "Bioproduct" }
given to the interface between the biological world and traditional engineering in the past. It is the job of bioresource engineers to fill that gap. Agricultural and bioresource engineers develop efficient and environmentally-sensitive methods of producing food, fiber, timber, bio-based products and renewable energy s...	{ "page_id": 24446858, "source": null, "title": "Bioproduct" }
Heather Margaret Ferguson FRSE, Professor of Medical Entomology and Disease Ecology, at Glasgow University; a specialist in researching mosquito vectors that spread malaria, in global regions where this is endemic, aiming to manage and control a disease which the World Health Organization estimates killed over 400,000 ...	{ "page_id": 68880268, "source": null, "title": "Heather M. Ferguson" }
Melinda Gates Foundation and the U.K. Medical Research Council. Ferguson has served on the editorial board of the academic journal Parasites and Vectors.. She is a former member and Co-chair of the World Health Organization's Vector Control Advisory Group (2016-2022), and is a current member of the WHO Strategic Techni...	{ "page_id": 68880268, "source": null, "title": "Heather M. Ferguson" }
This is an index of lists of virus taxa. == By taxonomic rank == List of higher virus taxa, i.e. all taxa above the rank of family List of virus families and subfamilies List of virus genera (also includes subgenera) List of virus species	{ "page_id": 45221774, "source": null, "title": "Lists of virus taxa" }

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