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5732c58e1d5d2e14009ff8ac | What can only Inspector-ranked UK officers do? | authorize a search of a suspect's house | [
"Police\n\nAll police officers in the United Kingdom, whatever their actual rank, are 'constables' in terms of their legal position. This means that a newly appointed constable has the same arrest powers as a Chief Constable or Commissioner. However, certain higher ranks have additional powers to authorize certain ... |
5732c58e1d5d2e14009ff8ad | What can only Superintendent-ranked UK officers do? | authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours | [
"Police\n\nAll police officers in the United Kingdom, whatever their actual rank, are 'constables' in terms of their legal position. This means that a newly appointed constable has the same arrest powers as a Chief Constable or Commissioner. However, certain higher ranks have additional powers to authorize certain ... |
5732c58e1d5d2e14009ff8ae | What powers of a new UK police officer are the same as a Commissioner's? | arrest | [
"Police\n\nAll police officers in the United Kingdom, whatever their actual rank, are 'constables' in terms of their legal position. This means that a newly appointed constable has the same arrest powers as a Chief Constable or Commissioner. However, certain higher ranks have additional powers to authorize certain ... |
5732c66fcc179a14009dac50 | Why do some police acts limit when police can interfere without court orders? | To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law | [
"Police\n\nIn contrast, the police are entitled to protect private rights in some jurisdictions. To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law, some police acts require that the police may only interfere in such cases where protection from courts cannot be obtained i... |
5732c66fcc179a14009dac51 | What could be impeded without police interference? | the realization of the private right | [
"Police\n\nIn contrast, the police are entitled to protect private rights in some jurisdictions. To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law, some police acts require that the police may only interfere in such cases where protection from courts cannot be obtained i... |
5732c66fcc179a14009dac52 | How could police help the owner when a restaurant guest doesn't pay because their wallet got stolen? | establish a restaurant guest's identity and forward it to the innkeeper | [
"Police\n\nIn contrast, the police are entitled to protect private rights in some jurisdictions. To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law, some police acts require that the police may only interfere in such cases where protection from courts cannot be obtained i... |
5732c3e8cc179a14009dac46 | The word "genocide" was unknown until what year? | 1944 | [
"Genocide\n\nGenocide has become an official term used in international relations. The word genocide was not in use before 1944. Before this, in 1941, Winston Churchill described the mass killing of Russian prisoners of war and civilians as \"a crime without a name\". In that year, a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raph... |
5732c3e8cc179a14009dac47 | In 1941, how did Winston Churchill refer to the mass killings of Russian prisoners of war? | as "a crime without a name" | [
"Genocide\n\nGenocide has become an official term used in international relations. The word genocide was not in use before 1944. Before this, in 1941, Winston Churchill described the mass killing of Russian prisoners of war and civilians as \"a crime without a name\". In that year, a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raph... |
5732c3e8cc179a14009dac48 | What was the name of the Polish-Jewish lawyer who first described Nazi atrocities as "genocide?" | Raphael Lemkin | [
"Genocide\n\nGenocide has become an official term used in international relations. The word genocide was not in use before 1944. Before this, in 1941, Winston Churchill described the mass killing of Russian prisoners of war and civilians as \"a crime without a name\". In that year, a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raph... |
5732c3e8cc179a14009dac49 | What is the etymological basis of the word "genocide?" | Greek prefix geno- (meaning tribe or race) and caedere (the Latin word for to kill) | [
"Genocide\n\nGenocide has become an official term used in international relations. The word genocide was not in use before 1944. Before this, in 1941, Winston Churchill described the mass killing of Russian prisoners of war and civilians as \"a crime without a name\". In that year, a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raph... |
5732c3e8cc179a14009dac4a | As it pertains to violent crimes against targeted groups, what is the ultimate motivation within the actions of genocide? | to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them | [
"Genocide\n\nGenocide has become an official term used in international relations. The word genocide was not in use before 1944. Before this, in 1941, Winston Churchill described the mass killing of Russian prisoners of war and civilians as \"a crime without a name\". In that year, a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raph... |
573344334776f419006607d2 | Prior to being a formal legal term, how was the word "genocide" used in an indictment scenario? | as a descriptive term | [
"Genocide\n\nThe word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment, but not yet as a formal legal term According to Lemming, genocide was defined as \"a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people, a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as str... |
573344334776f419006607d3 | Who ultimately defined genocide as a series of strategies leading up to the annihilation of an entire group? | Lemming | [
"Genocide\n\nThe word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment, but not yet as a formal legal term According to Lemming, genocide was defined as \"a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people, a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as str... |
573344334776f419006607d4 | Lemming's concept of genocide triggered legal action in which realm? | international relations and community | [
"Genocide\n\nThe word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment, but not yet as a formal legal term According to Lemming, genocide was defined as \"a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people, a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as str... |
573344334776f419006607d5 | What was the nationality of anthropologist Peg LeVine? | Australian | [
"Genocide\n\nThe word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment, but not yet as a formal legal term According to Lemming, genocide was defined as \"a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people, a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as str... |
573344334776f419006607d6 | What relative term did LeVine coin to refer to cultural destruction, without the death of its members? | "ritualcide" | [
"Genocide\n\nThe word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment, but not yet as a formal legal term According to Lemming, genocide was defined as \"a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people, a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as str... |
573350a0d058e614000b5840 | What has been the primary focus in the study of genocide? | legal aspect of the term | [
"Genocide\n\nThe study of genocide has mainly been focused towards the legal aspect of the term. By formally recognizing the act of genocide as a crime, involves the undergoing prosecution that begins with not only seeing genocide as outrageous past any moral standpoint but also may be a legal liability within inte... |
573350a0d058e614000b5841 | In prosecuting genocide, what must the act be formally acknowledged as? | a crime | [
"Genocide\n\nThe study of genocide has mainly been focused towards the legal aspect of the term. By formally recognizing the act of genocide as a crime, involves the undergoing prosecution that begins with not only seeing genocide as outrageous past any moral standpoint but also may be a legal liability within inte... |
573350a0d058e614000b5842 | In a general aspect, what is genocide viewed as? | the deliberate killing of a certain group | [
"Genocide\n\nThe study of genocide has mainly been focused towards the legal aspect of the term. By formally recognizing the act of genocide as a crime, involves the undergoing prosecution that begins with not only seeing genocide as outrageous past any moral standpoint but also may be a legal liability within inte... |
573350a0d058e614000b5843 | In trials of genocidal crimes, what responsibly party is difficult to prosecute? | officials in power of a state or area | [
"Genocide\n\nThe study of genocide has mainly been focused towards the legal aspect of the term. By formally recognizing the act of genocide as a crime, involves the undergoing prosecution that begins with not only seeing genocide as outrageous past any moral standpoint but also may be a legal liability within inte... |
573350a0d058e614000b5844 | Long before genocide was established as a legal term, what treaty was in place to protect various groups from persecution and mass killings? | the Peace of Westphalia | [
"Genocide\n\nThe study of genocide has mainly been focused towards the legal aspect of the term. By formally recognizing the act of genocide as a crime, involves the undergoing prosecution that begins with not only seeing genocide as outrageous past any moral standpoint but also may be a legal liability within inte... |
57335849d058e614000b5896 | In which war-era country was the Holocaust immortalized? | Nazi Germany | [
"Genocide\n\nAfter the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by the Nazi Germany and its allies prior to and during World War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides. In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly ado... |
57335849d058e614000b5897 | Following World War II, whose bid was successful in establishing the worldwide acceptance and the nascent legal definition of genocide? | Lemkin | [
"Genocide\n\nAfter the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by the Nazi Germany and its allies prior to and during World War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides. In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly ado... |
57335849d058e614000b5898 | Which group convened officially for the first time in 1946? | United Nations General Assembly | [
"Genocide\n\nAfter the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by the Nazi Germany and its allies prior to and during World War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides. In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly ado... |
57335849d058e614000b5899 | While recognizing genocide, what did the UN General Assembly fail to do in its resolution? | provide a legal definition of the crime | [
"Genocide\n\nAfter the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by the Nazi Germany and its allies prior to and during World War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides. In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly ado... |
57335849d058e614000b589a | In 1948, what general assembly resolution established genocide as a prosecutable act? | the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide | [
"Genocide\n\nAfter the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by the Nazi Germany and its allies prior to and during World War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides. In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly ado... |
573392e24776f41900660d9c | Which provision was initially included in the first write-up of the Convention and then removed? | political killings | [
"Genocide\n\nThe first draft of the Convention included political killings, but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections from some countries, including the USSR, a permanent security council member. The USSR argued that the Convention's definition should follow the... |
573392e24776f41900660d9d | What is one of the countries that objected to the inclusion of political killings in the early version of the Convention? | USSR | [
"Genocide\n\nThe first draft of the Convention included political killings, but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections from some countries, including the USSR, a permanent security council member. The USSR argued that the Convention's definition should follow the... |
573392e24776f41900660d9e | What atrocity motivated a self-serving USSR to object to the provision of political killings drafted into the Convention? | its own Great Purge | [
"Genocide\n\nThe first draft of the Convention included political killings, but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections from some countries, including the USSR, a permanent security council member. The USSR argued that the Convention's definition should follow the... |
573392e24776f41900660d9f | What was the primary concern of other nations who objected to including political groups in the definition of genocide? | international intervention in domestic politics | [
"Genocide\n\nThe first draft of the Convention included political killings, but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections from some countries, including the USSR, a permanent security council member. The USSR argued that the Convention's definition should follow the... |
573392e24776f41900660da0 | Which distinguished academic of genocide highlighted several other countries opposed to including political genocide in the Convention? | William Schabas | [
"Genocide\n\nThe first draft of the Convention included political killings, but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections from some countries, including the USSR, a permanent security council member. The USSR argued that the Convention's definition should follow the... |
5733963c4776f41900660df6 | In 2007 what former case did the European Court of Human Rights draw on to further refine qualifiers of genocide? | Jorgic v. Germany | [
"Genocide\n\nIn 2007 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that \"intent to destroy\" in the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still ... |
5733963c4776f41900660df7 | Which group was accused by the ECHR of having an overly constricted idea of the meaning of destruction in defining genocide? | majority of legal scholars | [
"Genocide\n\nIn 2007 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that \"intent to destroy\" in the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still ... |
5733963c4776f41900660df8 | What form of destruction was considered too limited by a smaller group of experts? | biological-physical | [
"Genocide\n\nIn 2007 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that \"intent to destroy\" in the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still ... |
5733963c4776f41900660df9 | What groups did the ECHR feel should be included as potential victims of genocide? | national, racial, religious or ethnic | [
"Genocide\n\nIn 2007 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that \"intent to destroy\" in the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still ... |
5733ba844776f41900661145 | In its preparations, what was the source of other considerations by the ECHR? | the judgements of several international and municipal courts | [
"Genocide\n\nIn the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements. It noted that International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation, that biological-physical destruction... |
5733ba844776f41900661146 | Two bodies of the United Nations agreed with what restricted provision in defining genocide? | that biological-physical destruction was necessary | [
"Genocide\n\nIn the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements. It noted that International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation, that biological-physical destruction... |
5733ba844776f41900661147 | Which country's courts were noted by the ECHR for taking a wider stance on provisions of genocide laws? | Germany | [
"Genocide\n\nIn the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements. It noted that International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation, that biological-physical destruction... |
5733ba844776f41900661148 | The ECHR found most states to have largely undefined definitions of group destruction, despite what factor? | Convention States municipal laws | [
"Genocide\n\nIn the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements. It noted that International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation, that biological-physical destruction... |
5733ba844776f41900661149 | A definition of what, by the States, was necessary to preserve and expand genocidal law? | the type of group destruction | [
"Genocide\n\nIn the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements. It noted that International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation, that biological-physical destruction... |
5733bdc4d058e614000b61a1 | Which phrase is especially contentious within international humanitarian law? | "in whole or in part" | [
"Genocide\n\nThe phrase \"in whole or in part\" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that Genocide h... |
5733bdc4d058e614000b61a2 | What 2001 case was declared genocide by the International Criminal Tribune for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)? | Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic | [
"Genocide\n\nThe phrase \"in whole or in part\" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that Genocide h... |
5733bdc4d058e614000b61a3 | In the judgement, it is stated that the aim of the Genocide Convention, at its most simplest, is preventing the destruction of which victims? | entire human groups | [
"Genocide\n\nThe phrase \"in whole or in part\" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that Genocide h... |
5733bdc4d058e614000b61a4 | In addressing the issue of "in part," the Appeals Chamber found that the part must be a substantial part of what? | that group | [
"Genocide\n\nThe phrase \"in whole or in part\" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that Genocide h... |
5733bdc4d058e614000b61a5 | Who contributed to guiding the Appeals chamber in its conclusion? | opinions of respected commentators | [
"Genocide\n\nThe phrase \"in whole or in part\" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that Genocide h... |
5733c3c7d058e614000b61ef | Several considerations were involved in meeting the requirement to determine what? | when the targeted part is substantial enough | [
"Genocide\n\nThe judges continue in paragraph 12, \"The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point, though not in all cases the ending ... |
5733c3c7d058e614000b61f0 | What is the key aspect of the targeted part of the group at the starting point of the inquiry? | The numeric size | [
"Genocide\n\nThe judges continue in paragraph 12, \"The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point, though not in all cases the ending ... |
5733c3c7d058e614000b61f1 | The number of people targeted in a genocide should not be solely evaluated by what? | absolute terms | [
"Genocide\n\nThe judges continue in paragraph 12, \"The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point, though not in all cases the ending ... |
5733c3c7d058e614000b61f2 | In addition to the numeric size of a targeted group, what other consideration was useful to the ICTY? | prominence within the group | [
"Genocide\n\nThe judges continue in paragraph 12, \"The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point, though not in all cases the ending ... |
5733c6224776f419006611f4 | The issue of what is raised by judges in Paragraph 13? | perpetrators' access to the victims | [
"Genocide\n\nIn paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: \"The historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators’ activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their reach, should be considered. ... The intent to destroy formed by a p... |
5733c6224776f419006611f5 | What is the basis for suggesting that several factors regarding the activity of the perpetrators be considered? | historical examples of genocide | [
"Genocide\n\nIn paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: \"The historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators’ activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their reach, should be considered. ... The intent to destroy formed by a p... |
5733c6224776f419006611f6 | The extent of what by the perpetrators was considered in an examination of their activity and level of control? | possible extent of their reach | [
"Genocide\n\nIn paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: \"The historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators’ activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their reach, should be considered. ... The intent to destroy formed by a p... |
5733c6224776f419006611f7 | What will always be restricted in terms of a perpetrator's intent to destroy? | the opportunity presented to him | [
"Genocide\n\nIn paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: \"The historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators’ activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their reach, should be considered. ... The intent to destroy formed by a p... |
5733c6224776f419006611f8 | While the factor cannot independently indicate if the targeted group is substantial, it can do what? | inform the analysis | [
"Genocide\n\nIn paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: \"The historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators’ activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their reach, should be considered. ... The intent to destroy formed by a p... |
5733ce494776f41900661298 | On which date did the Genocide Convention become effective? | 12 January 1951 | [
"Genocide\n\nThe Convention came into force as international law on 12 January 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China. The Soviet Union ratified in 1954, ... |
5733ce494776f41900661299 | What was the minimum number of countries necessary to form parties? | 20 | [
"Genocide\n\nThe Convention came into force as international law on 12 January 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China. The Soviet Union ratified in 1954, ... |
5733ce494776f4190066129a | Of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, how many were parties to the treaty? | only two | [
"Genocide\n\nThe Convention came into force as international law on 12 January 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China. The Soviet Union ratified in 1954, ... |
5733ce494776f4190066129b | What member ratified in 1970? | the United Kingdom | [
"Genocide\n\nThe Convention came into force as international law on 12 January 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China. The Soviet Union ratified in 1954, ... |
5733ce494776f4190066129c | The delay in support by certain powerful members meant the Convention was largely powerless for over how many decades? | four | [
"Genocide\n\nThe Convention came into force as international law on 12 January 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China. The Soviet Union ratified in 1954, ... |
5733cf6a4776f419006612a2 | In 1998 it was written that the CPPCG was a legal entity resulting in which type of compromise? | a diplomatic compromise | [
"Genocide\n\nWriting in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has an international l... |
5733cf6a4776f419006612a3 | Rather than a definition, the text of the treaty is considered as what type of tool? | a research tool | [
"Genocide\n\nWriting in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has an international l... |
5733cf6a4776f419006612a4 | What does the treaty possess that others lack? | international legal credibility | [
"Genocide\n\nWriting in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has an international l... |
5733cf6a4776f419006612a5 | The writers Jonassohn and Bjornson cite various reasons for the lack of widespread support of what? | alternative definitions | [
"Genocide\n\nWriting in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has an international l... |
5733f7b64776f419006615e3 | What two writers examined the lack of an accepted and singular definition for genocide? | Jonassohn and Björnson | [
"Genocide\n\nJonassohn and Björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events. For exam... |
5733f7b64776f419006615e4 | The two writers suggested that academics adjusted what in their different definitions to assist them in interpreting events? | their focus | [
"Genocide\n\nJonassohn and Björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events. For exam... |
5733f7b64776f419006615e5 | What writer joined Jonassohn in the study of the whole of human history? | Frank Chalk | [
"Genocide\n\nJonassohn and Björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events. For exam... |
5733f7b64776f419006615e6 | With whom was Leo Kuper paired in research that focused on 20th century works? | R. J. Rummel | [
"Genocide\n\nJonassohn and Björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events. For exam... |
5733f7b64776f419006615e7 | Two women and what man concentrated on post World War II events? | Ted Gurr | [
"Genocide\n\nJonassohn and Björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events. For exam... |
5733f9c64776f41900661615 | Some historians were critical of what exclusion in the definition of victims of genocide? | social and political groups | [
"Genocide\n\nThe exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists, for example M. Hassan Kakar in his book The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982 argues that the international definition of genocide ... |
5733f9c64776f41900661616 | In what book did Kakar contend that the international definition of genocide was too narrow? | The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response | [
"Genocide\n\nThe exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists, for example M. Hassan Kakar in his book The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982 argues that the international definition of genocide ... |
5733f9c64776f41900661617 | Kakar argued that the definition should include any group defined by the perpetrator and which other group? | political groups | [
"Genocide\n\nThe exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists, for example M. Hassan Kakar in his book The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982 argues that the international definition of genocide ... |
5733f9c64776f41900661618 | In the writing of Chalk and Jonassohn, what is stated to be a form of one-sided mass killing? | Genocide | [
"Genocide\n\nThe exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists, for example M. Hassan Kakar in his book The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982 argues that the international definition of genocide ... |
5733f9c64776f41900661619 | In further elaborating on the definition, how did Chalk and Jonassohn phrase the intention of the perpetrator? | intends to destroy a group | [
"Genocide\n\nThe exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists, for example M. Hassan Kakar in his book The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982 argues that the international definition of genocide ... |
5733fb934776f41900661637 | Harff and Gurr's definition of genocide included the promotion and execution of what, by a state or its agents? | policies | [
"Genocide\n\nBarbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as \"the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ...[when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or... |
5733fb934776f41900661638 | Harff and Gurr further defined what in terms of ethnicity, religion or nationality? | victimized groups | [
"Genocide\n\nBarbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as \"the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ...[when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or... |
5733fb934776f41900661639 | What was important to Harff and Gurr to distinguish from genocides? | politicides | [
"Genocide\n\nBarbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as \"the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ...[when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or... |
5733fb934776f4190066163a | Along with ethnicity and and religion, what other characteristic defined a member of a victimized group? | nationality | [
"Genocide\n\nBarbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as \"the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ...[when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or... |
5733fb934776f4190066163b | What did Harff define as "short-lived outbursts by mobs...?" | pogroms | [
"Genocide\n\nBarbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as \"the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ...[when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or... |
5733fcd5d058e614000b6717 | In the writings of Rummel, what is the first and ordinary meaning of genocide? | murder by government | [
"Genocide\n\nAccording to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of... |
5733fcd5d058e614000b6718 | Rummel postulates that murder of people of government is due to national, ethnic, racial and which other membership? | religious group | [
"Genocide\n\nAccording to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of... |
5733fcd5d058e614000b6719 | The legal meaning of genocide is contained in which international treaty? | Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide | [
"Genocide\n\nAccording to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of... |
5733fcd5d058e614000b671a | Included in the CPPCG is non-killings that ultimately achieve what end? | eliminate the group | [
"Genocide\n\nAccording to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of... |
5733fcd5d058e614000b671b | In the interpretation of non-killings, the CPPCG cites the forceful relocation of children along with what other factor? | preventing births | [
"Genocide\n\nAccording to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of... |
57340136d058e614000b6783 | In terms of failed states and non-state actors, the possession of weapons of mass destruction was an issue examined by which writer? | Adrian Gallagher | [
"Genocide\n\nHighlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power (usually a state) intentionally uses its po... |
57340136d058e614000b6784 | In Gallagher's definition of genocide, a source of what is malicious in it implementation of the destruction of a group? | collective power | [
"Genocide\n\nHighlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power (usually a state) intentionally uses its po... |
57340136d058e614000b6785 | Gallagher's definition upholds the centrality of what? | intent | [
"Genocide\n\nHighlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power (usually a state) intentionally uses its po... |
57340136d058e614000b6786 | The centrality of intent broadens what definition, beyond the 1948 one? | group identity | [
"Genocide\n\nHighlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power (usually a state) intentionally uses its po... |
57340136d058e614000b6787 | In order for a genocide classification to happen, a major part of a group has to be what? | destroyed | [
"Genocide\n\nHighlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power (usually a state) intentionally uses its po... |
573402a3d058e614000b6797 | Signatories to the CPPC are required to prevent and punish what? | acts of genocide | [
"Genocide\n\nAll signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories—namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam,... |
573402a3d058e614000b6798 | During which times can a perpetrator of genocide be charged? | both in peace and wartime | [
"Genocide\n\nAll signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories—namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam,... |
573402a3d058e614000b6799 | In enforcing a charge of genocide, what loophole do many of the signatories possess? | no claim of genocide could be brought against them | [
"Genocide\n\nAll signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories—namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam,... |
573402a3d058e614000b679a | What major western power is exempt from charges or claims of genocide against itself? | the United States | [
"Genocide\n\nAll signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories—namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam,... |
573402a3d058e614000b679b | Along with Cyprus, what other major signatory official protested the the immunity of others from prosecution of genocide? | Norway | [
"Genocide\n\nAll signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories—namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam,... |
573404abd058e614000b67c9 | In 1948 the worldwide acceptance of international laws that defined and forbade genocide was promulgated by which treaty? | Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide | [
"Genocide\n\nBecause the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the H... |
573404abd058e614000b67ca | Perpetrators who were tried after World War II were in general found guilty of crimes against what? | humanity | [
"Genocide\n\nBecause the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the H... |
573404abd058e614000b67cb | An example of a more specific genocidal crime of which one could be accused was what? | crimes like murder | [
"Genocide\n\nBecause the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the H... |
573404abd058e614000b67cc | After WWII criminals were largely prosecuted under CPPCG for their involvement in what massive genocidal effort? | the Holocaust | [
"Genocide\n\nBecause the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the H... |
573404abd058e614000b67cd | Who is notable for coining the term "Holocaust?" | Raphael Lemkin | [
"Genocide\n\nBecause the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the H... |
573406d84776f41900661731 | Which court dismissed Nikola Jorgic's appeal against his conviction for genocide by a German court? | European Court of Human Rights | [
"Genocide\n\nOn 12 July 2007, European Court of Human Rights when dismissing the appeal by Nikola Jorgić against his conviction for genocide by a German court (Jorgic v. Germany) noted that the German courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been rejected by international courts considering similar cases. ... |
573406d84776f41900661732 | In Jorgic v. Germany, what about the German courts was later rejected by international courts hearing similar cases? | wider interpretation of genocide | [
"Genocide\n\nOn 12 July 2007, European Court of Human Rights when dismissing the appeal by Nikola Jorgić against his conviction for genocide by a German court (Jorgic v. Germany) noted that the German courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been rejected by international courts considering similar cases. ... |
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