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their city limits. She literally referred to them as "the infidel Germans" in her book and made indications to somewhat held belief at the time that the Conflict was God's judgment on the town. She also judge New Ulm for having dance halls, which some strict religious sects objected to around that time, and because she... |
perform the taboo act of drinking on holy days. She married a widower who served in the U.S. Civil War. The common practice during the time was for widowers to quickly remarry, which was sometimes a sheer matter of survival. It was also a more common occurrence during that time due to the high rate of deaths during chi... |
was often caused by doctors trying to help women without knowing about the deadly diseases hiding on their hands. However, she eventually undertook the uncommon act of divorcing her husband due to his abusive alcoholism. Her husband's circumstance was frighteningly common, largely due to numerous Civil War veterans ret... |
to her heavy advocacy for the temperance movement, which would eventually see Prohibition passed after her death. She personally was one of the founding members of the Christian Women's Temperance Union. Her cause in that infamous movement was aimed at combatting a very real issue of the day: the prospect of the husban... |
to earn the living wages, drinking away all the month's food money due to alcoholism. The people of that time drank more than three times more alcohol per week on a normal basis than most people drink today. The movement believed the end of alcohol would address the majority of the terrible acts of abuse laid on women ... |
at the time. Bishop's belief in the temperance movement even largely influenced how she saw alcohol negatively affecting the Dakota people. She never lived long enough to see Prohibition, but she did see a roughly one year implementation of the "Maine law" that banned alcohol in select locations in the Twin Cities. The... |
intense advocacy for suffrage and abolition. Suzanne de la Houssaye said Bishop was a fascinating woman of her time. She said the Minnesota Historical Society is interested in telling her story, as well as not grazing over her issues in the depiction of the Dakota Conflict to provide a better dialogue about the events.... |
Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic bacterial infection that usually infects the lungs, although other organs such as the kidneys, spine, or brain are sometimes involved. TB is primarily an airborne disease. There is a difference between being infected with the TB bacterium and having active tuberculosis disease. There are ... |
as follows: - Exposure. This occurs when a person has been in contact with, or exposed to, another person who is thought to have or does have TB. The exposed person will have a negative skin test, a normal chest X-ray, and no signs or symptoms of the disease. - Latent TB infection. This occurs when a person has the |
TB bacteria in his or her body, but does not have symptoms of the disease. The infected person's immune system walls off the TB organisms, and they remain dormant throughout life in 90 percent of people who are infected. This person would have a positive skin test but a normal chest X-ray. - TB disease. This describes ... |
has signs and symptoms of an active infection. The person would have a positive skin test and a positive chest X-ray. The predominant TB bacterium is Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis). Many people infected with M. tuberculosis never develop active TB and remain in the latent TB stage. However, in people with... |
virus), TB organisms can overcome the body's defenses, multiply, and cause an active disease. TB affects all ages, races, income levels, and both genders. Those at higher risk include the following: - People who live or work with others who have TB - Medically underserved populations - Homeless people - People from oth... |
in group settings, such as nursing homes - People who abuse alcohol - People who use intravenous drugs - People with impaired immune systems - The elderly - Health care workers who come in contact with high-risk populations The following are the most common symptoms of active TB. However, each individual may experience... |
go away - Chest pain - Loss of appetite - Unintended weight loss - Poor growth in children - Coughing blood or sputum - Chills or night sweats The symptoms of TB may resemble other lung conditions or medical problems. Consult a physician for a diagnosis. The TB bacterium is spread through the air when an infected perso... |
speaks, sings, or laughs; however, repeated exposure to the germs is usually necessary before a person will become infected. It is not likely to be transmitted through personal items, such as clothing, bedding, a drinking glass, eating utensils, a handshake, a toilet, or other items that a person with TB has touched. A... |
prevent the transmission of TB. TB is diagnosed with a TB skin test. In this test, a small amount of testing material is injected into the top layer of the skin. If a certain size bump develops within two or three days, the test may be positive for tuberculosis infection. Additional tests to determine if a person has T... |
include X-rays and sputum tests. TB skin tests are suggested for those: - In high-risk categories. - Who live or work in close contact with people who are at high risk. - Who have never had a TB skin test. For skin testing in children, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends: - If the child is thought to have bee... |
exposed in the last five years. - If the child has an X-ray that looks like TB. - If the child has any symptoms of TB. - If a child is coming from countries where TB is prevalent. Yearly skin testing: - For children with HIV. - For children who are in jail. Testing every two to three years: - |
For children who are exposed to high-risk people. Consider testing in children from ages 4 to 6 and 11 to 16: - If a child's parent has come from a high-risk country. - If a child has traveled to high-risk areas. - Children who live in densely populated areas. Specific treatment will be determined by your physician bas... |
Your age, overall health, and medical history - Extent of the disease - Your tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies - Expectations for the course of the disease - Your opinion or preference Treatment may include: - Short-term hospitalization - For latent TB which is newly diagnosed: Usually a six-... |
be given to kill off the TB organisms in the body. - For active TB: Your doctor may prescribe three to four antibiotics in combination for a time period of six to nine months. Examples include: isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol. Patients usually begin to improve within a few weeks of the start of treatm... |
with the correct medications, the patient is not usually contagious, provided that treatment is carried through to the end, as prescribed by a physician. Click here to view the Online Resources of Infectious Diseases |
Does Thinness Raise Alzheimer's Risk? < Nov. 23, 2011 > -- In the search for early markers of Alzheimer's disease - in hopes of eventually preventing it - researchers have found that low body weight may somehow play a role. In a study published this week in the journal Neurology, |
people with early signs of Alzheimer's disease were more likely to be underweight or have a low body mass index (BMI). Earlier studies found that people who are overweight in middle age or earlier are at higher risk for Alzheimer's later in life. Other studies have shown that being overweight |
later in life seems to protect against the disease. More research needed What the latest study findings mean for diagnosing or preventing Alzheimer's disease is unclear. "A long history of declining weight or BMI could aid the diagnostic process," says study author Eric Vidoni, Ph.D., at the University of Kansas. |
But, he adds, it's too early "to make body composition part of the diagnostic toolbox." Dr. Vidoni and colleagues studied brain imaging and analyzed cerebrospinal fluid in 506 people. Study participants ranged from those with no memory problems to others with Alzheimer's. Impact of body weight People who had evidence |
of Alzheimer's - either in brain scans or protein levels in the cerebrospinal fluid - were more likely to have a lower BMI than those who did not show early evidence of the disease. The researchers aren't sure why body weight might have a bearing on Alzheimer's risk. They speculate |
that the disease may affect the hippocampus, the area of the brain that controls metabolism and appetite. Or, they say, perhaps inflammation is driving both the drop in BMI and the cognitive changes that are the hallmark of Alzheimer's. For more information on health and wellness, please visit health information |
modules on this website. Although you can't control certain risk factors for Alzheimer's disease like advancing age, you can reduce your odds of developing the condition. The latest findings show you can reduce risk by: Always talk with your health care provider to find out more information. (Our Organization is |
Guide to Tanzanian Legal System and Legal Research By Bahame Tom Nyanduga and Christabel Manning Bahame Tom Nyanduga* is Advocate of the High Court of Tanzania, and had been the President of the East Africa Law Society between October 2004 - October 2006. The main research for this compilation has been conducted by Ms.... |
the University of Dar Es Salaam currently working in the Legal Department at KPMG (T) Limited and a member of the Tanzania Women Lawyers Association-TAWLA. Read the Update! Table of Contents The United Republic of Tanzania is situated on the eastern seaboard of the African continent, about one degree south of the Equat... |
it shares its northern border with the Republic of Kenya and Uganda, and to the West it borders the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of Rwanda and the Republic of Burundi. The Republic of Zambia and the Republic of Malawi share its borders on the southwest, while in the South it shares a border with Mozam... |
the union of two historical countries, Tanganyika and Zanzibar. The United Republic of Tanzania was formed in 1964 through the union of two independent states, namely the Republic of Tanganyika and the Peoples’ Republic of Zanzibar. Zanzibar is an autonomous part of the United Republic, and is made up of two islands, n... |
the territorial waters of the United Republic, in the Indian Ocean. Another island to the south east of the Tanzania, Mafia, is an integral part of mainland Tanzania. Tanganyika gained its independence from the British, who administered her after the end of the WWII under the United Nations Trusteeship; on 9th December... |
1962. Zanzibar became independent on 12th December 1963. Prior to her independence, Zanzibar, which was ruled by an Arab Sultanate, and enjoyed a protectorate status under the British. One month after she gained independence, the Arab Sultanate regime of Zanzibar was overthrown by a popular revolution on 12th January 1... |
Zanzibar. The Republic of Tanganyika and the Peoples’ Republic of Zanzibar entered into a union on 26th April 1964 to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, which was later renamed on 29th October the United Republic of Tanzania. At the time of the Union, Tanganyika was governed by a political party know ... |
(TANU), the nationalist party which won the country its independence, while Zanzibar was rule by the Afro Shiraz Party (ASP) which had lead the popular revolution. The two states were by then governed under the one party system of government, i.e. the one party state democracy, which was then very prevalent in Africa. ... |
to form the Chama Cha Mapinduzi-CCM party, (otherwise known as the Revolutionary Party), which continued to exercise political control through out the country under the one party regime. The United Republic of Tanzania was under the leadership of one party system until 1992 when she adopted a new constitution, which en... |
1995 the first multi party democratic elections were held in the country. Since 1995 the country has held such multi party elections in 2000, and 2005. Tanzania’s legal system is based on the English Common Law system. It derived this system from its British colonial legacy, as it does the system of government, which i... |
on the Westminster parliamentary model. Unlike the unwritten British constitutional system, the first source of law for the United Republic of Tanzania is the 1977 Constitution. The constitutional history of Tanganyika traces its background from the 1961 Independence Constitution, which was adopted at the time of indep... |
1965. These two were based on the traditional Lancaster style constitutions negotiated at independence by the British upon handover of state power to newly independent states. In 1965 Tanganyika adopted an Interim Constitution while the country awaited a new constitution to be drafted, after it abolished the multi part... |
lingered longer than it was meant to and thus the constitution lasted from 1965 up to 1977 when a new constitution was adopted and it has remained applicable to date, with fourteen subsequent amendments. The Constitution provides for a bill of rights, notwithstanding the fact that it also makes provision for a number o... |
enjoyment of certain rights and freedoms under the constitution is not absolute, but it is subject to legal regulation. The Bill of Rights is found in part three of the first Chapter of the Constitution and the fundamental rights and freedom are stipulated in article 12 to 24, article 25 to 28 imposes duties on every i... |
obligations to respect the rights of others and society. Article 29 establishes the obligation of society to every individual. Article 30 of the Constitution limits the application of these rights subject to law and the under the due process of law, as the case may be. The Constitution allows any person to challenge an... |
or her right, or the Constitution. The second source of law is the Statutes or Acts of Parliament. The Laws Revisions Act of 1994 Chapter Four of the laws of Tanzania [R.E. 2002,] established that all legislations previously known as Ordinances, i.e. those which were enacted by the pre independence colonial administrat... |
recognized as Acts. These principal legislations, and subsidiary legislations thereto, are published in the Government Gazette and printed by the Tanzania Government Printers. The third source is case law. These are cases from the High Court and Court of Appeal which are either reported or unreported and are be used as... |
are found in the Tanzania Law Reports, High Court Digests and East Africa Law Reports. The fourth source is Received Laws established under Section 2.3 of The Judicature and Application Laws Act, Chapter 358 of the Laws of Tanzania [R.E. 2002] (JALA) these include: Common Law, and Doctrine of Equity, Statutes of Genera... |
of July 1920, which is deemed to be the Reception date for English Law in Tanzania. The fifth source is the Customary and Islamic law, which are established under section 9 of JALA. Whereby customary law is in effect only when it does not conflict with statutory law whilst Islamic law is applicable to Muslims under the... |
of Laws Act, empowering courts to apply Islamic law to matters of succession in communities that generally follow Islamic law in matters of personal status and inheritance. International Laws, that is, Treaties and Conventions, are not self-executing. The Act of Parliament can apply treaties and conventions to which Ta... |
The United Republic of Tanzania is a unitary state based on a multiparty parliamentary democracy. In 1992 the Tanzanian government introduced constitutional reforms permitting the establishment of opposition political parties. All matters of state in the United Republic are exercised and controlled by the Government of... |
The United Republic of Tanzania has authority over all Union matters in the United Republic, as stipulated under the Constitution, and it also runs all non union matters on Mainland Tanzania, i.e. the territory formerly known as Tanganyika. Non-union matters are all those which do not appear in the Schedule to the Cons... |
The Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar, similarly, has authority on Tanzania Zanzibar, i.e. the territory composed of the islands of Unguja and Pemba, over all matters, which are not Union Matters. In this respect the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar has a separate Executive, legislature, known as the House of Re... |
to the High Court of Zanzibar, which are provided for under the 1984 Constitution of Zanzibar. There are three organs for central government of the United Republic of Tanzania: the Executive, Judiciary and the Legislature. Local Government Authority is exercised through Regional and District Commissioners The functions... |
1977 Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania. Parliament is established under Chapter Three, the Executive is established under Chapter Two and the Judiciary under Chapter Five. The Executive of the United Republic comprises of the President, The Vice-President, President of Zanzibar, the Prime Minister and Cab... |
Head of Government and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The President is the Leader of the Executive of the United Republic of Tanzania The Vice President who is the principal assistant to the President in all matters of the United Republic is responsible for: The Prime Minister of the United Republic is the... |
National Assembly, controls, supervises and executes daily functions and affairs of the Government of the United Republic, and any other matters the President directs to be done. The President of Zanzibar is the Head of the Executive for Zanzibar, i.e.; the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar and is the Chairman of th... |
the Prime Minister, is appointed by the President from among members of the National Assembly. The Government executes its functions through Ministers led by Cabinet Ministers. President Jakaya M Kikwete became the current President of the United Republic on the 21st December of 2005 after a historic victory, winning 8... |
the Vice President of the United Republic of Tanzania. Dr Shein had previously served as Vice-President since 5th July 2001, prior to the 2005 General Elections. Since independence, Tanzania has held peaceful elections. Tanzania was a one-party system of democracy between 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985, and 1990; in the ... |
seats hence the de-facto one party state emerged, to be later regularized by law in 1965. In 1992, following the constitutional reforms, described herein above, the formation and organization of political parties is now conducted under the Political Parties Act 1992. About 18 political parties have been registered sinc... |
system in 1995, 2000, and 2005. The Legislature, or the Parliament of the United Republic of Tanzania, consists of two parts, i.e. the President and the National Assembly. The President exercises authority vested in him by the Constitution to assent to bills by Parliament in order to complete the enactment process befo... |
the principal legislative organ of the United Republic, has authority on behalf of the people to oversee and the accountability of the Government of the United Republic and all its organs of their particular duties. The Parliament is headed by the Speaker, who is assisted by the Deputy Speaker, and the Clerk as the hea... |
National Assembly. The National Assembly also has various standing Committees to support in its various functions. The National Assembly of Tanzania is constituted by one chamber, with members elected form various constituencies across mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar. Under the Constitution, women’s representation is pr... |
Elections are supervised by the National Electoral Commission which is established under the Constitution. The legal system of Tanzania is largely based on common law, as stated previously, but is also accommodates Islamic or customary laws, the latter sources of law being called upon called upon in personal or family ... |
judicature and is independent of the government. Tanzania adheres to and respects the constitutional principles of separation of powers. The Constitutional makes provision for the establishment of an independent judiciary, and the respect for the principles of the rule of law, human rights and good governance. The Judi... |
four tiers: The Court of Appeal of the United Republic of Tanzania, the High Courts for Mainland Tanzania and Tanzania Zanzibar, Magistrates Courts, which are at two levels, i.e. the Resident Magistrate Courts and the District Court, both of which have concurrent jurisdiction. Primary Courts are the lowest in the judic... |
Court of Tanzania -- The High Court of Zanzibar Resident Magistrates Courts Court of Appeal The Court of Appeal of Tanzania, established under Article 108 of the Constitution, is the highest Court in the hierarchy of judiciary in Tanzania. It consists of the Chief Justice and other Justices of Appeal. The Court of Appe... |
final appeal at the apex of the judiciary in Tanzania. The High Court of Tanzania (for mainland Tanzania) and the High Court of Zanzibar are courts of unlimited original jurisdiction, and appeals there from go to the Court of Appeal. The High Court of Tanzania was established under Article 107 of the Constitution and i... |
entertain all types of cases. The High Courts exercise original jurisdiction on matters of a constitutional nature and have powers to entertain election petitions. The High Court’s Main Registry, (which includes the sub-Registries) caters for all civil and criminal matters. The High Court (mainland Tanzania) has establ... |
specialised divisions, the Commercial Division and the Land Division. All appeals from subordinate courts go to the High Court of Tanzania. These include the Resident Magistrate Courts and the District Courts, which both enjoy concurrent jurisdiction. These courts are established under the Magistrate Courts Act of 1984... |
districts in Tanzania (the local government unit.) They receive appeals from the Primary Courts, several of which will be found in one district. The resident magistrates Courts are located in major towns, municipalities and cities, which serve as the regional (provincial) headquarters. The primary courts are the lowest... |
of 1984. They deal with criminal cases and civil cases. Civil cases on property and family law matters which apply customary law and Islamic law must be initiated at the level of the Primary Court, where the Magistrates sits with lay assessors. (The jury system does not apply in Tanzania) There are specialized tribunal... |
structure. These for example include District Land and Housing Tribunal, Tax Tribunal and the Tax Appeals Tribunal, Labour Reconciliation Board, the Tanzania Industrial Court, and Military Tribunals for the Armed forces. Military Courts do not try civilians. A party who feels dissatisfied with any decision of the Tribu... |
High Court of Zanzibar has exclusive original jurisdiction for all matters in Zanzibar, as is the case for the High Court on mainland Tanzania. The Zanzibar court system is quite similar to the Tanzania mainland system, except that Zanzibar retains Islamic courts. These adjudicate Muslim family cases such as divorces, ... |
Court of Zanzibar go to the Court of Appeal of Tanzania. The structure of the Zanzibar legal system is as follows; Court of Appeal Magistrate Court ↔ Kadhi’s Appeal Courts Primary Courts Kadhi’s Court Court of Appeal of Tanzania The Court of Appeal Tanzania handles all matters from the High Court of Zanzibar. The High ... |
with the same structure as the High Court of Tanzania Mainland and it handles all appeals from the lower subordinate courts. These Courts have jurisdiction to entertain cases of different nature, except for cases under Islamic law, which they have no jurisdiction to try which are tried in the Kadhi’s courts. Kadhi’s Ap... |
Appeal Court of Zanzibar is to hear all appeals from the Kadhi’s court, which adjudicates on Islamic law. These are the lowest courts in Zanzibar which have adjudicate all Islamic family matters such as divorce, distribution of matrimonial assets, custody of children and inheritance but only with Muslim families. These... |
deal with criminal and civil cases of customary nature. There are a number of places one can obtain legal materials in Tanzania: Libraries, The Library of the Court of Appeal of Tanzania, the High Court Library, the High Court Land Division Library, Commercial Division of the High Court Library, the Attorney General’s ... |
Affairs, University of Dar Es Salaam, National Archives, Government Bookshop, Dar Es Salaam Bookshop, the United Nations Information Centre, The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in Arusha, Mzumbe University and many more others. Reported cases in Tanzania can be found in a number of Law Reports. Between 1957a... |
the same references above. The Tanzania Government Printer publishes the government's Official gazette. The Official gazette publishes bills, legislative enactments, before and after assent, subsidiary legislations, announcement of all official government appointments and dates of entry into force of all legislations. ... |
These include the website of Parliament where one can access parliamentary information, including Acts and Bills of Law. Others sites include the government’s public administration page the Tanzanian Law Reform Commission website. These include textbooks such as: Constitutional and Administrative law Contract, Commerci... |
pursue a legal career in Tanzania one may start with a Certificate in Law, particularly for persons who have discontinued secondary education, followed by a Diploma in Law, a Degree in law (LL.B) and continue with a Postgraduate Diploma in Law (PGDL), Masters of law (LL.M), Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) and Doc... |
highest doctorate to be awarded. Students who have successfully completed advanced secondary education and who qualify with good academic grades can also join a law degree courses offered at any of the Universities in the country. There are a number of Universities, which offer courses in law such as the University of ... |
University Ruaha University under St. Augustine and other institutes, which offer diploma in law such as Mzumbe University and Lushoto Institute of Judicial Administration. Certificate in Law courses are taught at the other institutes of learning such as the Police College and have enabled successful candidates to purs... |
Pupilage in two years can apply to sit the Bar exam which is held three times a year. The Bar exam is an oral interview conducted under a panel of the Council for Legal Education, which is composed of representatives of the Chief Justice of the United Republic of Tanzania, the Attorney General of the United Republic, t... |
Faculty of Law, of the University of Dar Es Salaam, and two representatives of the Law Society. A successful candidate is sworn in and enrolled as an Advocate of the High Court of Tanzania and sub-ordinate Courts thereto. Advocates do not have the right of audience before the Primary Courts in Tanzania. More informatio... |
of Dar es Salaam’s website. Any person enrolled as an advocate under the Advocates Act, Chapter 341 of the Laws of Tanzania [R.E.2002] and listed as a member of the Tanganyika Law Society, established pursuant to the Tanganyika Law Society Act Chapter 307 of the Laws of Tanzania [R.E 2002] can practice law as an Advoca... |
acknowledge with the thanks the industry and time taken by Christabel Manning for conducting the research and putting together the basic draft for this compilation, without whose assistance, this article would not have been possible. |
Although this is simple and straightforward, it creates a number of problems for a business: for example, the processors have little control over the price charged by traders each day and because of the large seasonal price fluctuations that characterise |
these raw materials, this makes financial planning and control over cashflow more difficult (Section 2.3.4). The processor is also unable to schedule the raw materials in the quantities required and it is common for production to fail to meet a |
target because there are simply not enough fruits and vegetables for sale on a particular day. Additionally, the processor has no control over the way fruits and vegetables are handled during harvest and transport to the markets and therefore no |
influence over the quality of the raw materials that are available (see also Section 2.7.2). To address these problems, a processor can arrange contracts with either traders or farmers, in an attempt to have greater control over the amount of |
raw materials available for processing each day and their quality and price. This is not a common arrangement at present in most developing countries, possibly because commercial food processing is a relatively recent activity and there is no history of |
collaboration and formal contracts. However, where this has been done, there are benefits to both processor and suppliers, provided that the arrangements are made honourably and there is mutual trust. The benefits to farmers are a guaranteed price for their |
crop, based on a sliding scale of quality and a guaranteed market when it is harvested. However, the traders who tour an area to buy crops provide a number of benefits to farmers that processors should not ignore when arranging |
contracts: for example the traders frequently buy the whole crop, regardless of quality and either sort it themselves for different markets or sell it on to wholesalers who do the sorting. From the farmers perspective, they receive payment at the |
farm, without having to worry about marketing their crop or disposal of substandard items. Although farmers have a guaranteed market by selling to traders, they have virtually no control over the prices offered and can be exploited, particularly at the |
peak of a growing season when there is an over-supply of a particular crop. Traders also provide a number of other services that farmers may find difficult to obtain elsewhere: traders may be the only realistic source of farming tools |
and other inputs such as seeds; they are also a source of immediate informal credit, which farmers may require to buy inputs or for other needs such as funerals and weddings. Although the interest payments on such loans may be |
much higher than those charged on commercial loans, farmers often have no access to banks or other lenders and in practice have no choice. In many countries, large numbers of farmers are permanently indebted to traders for their lifetimes and |
are only released from the debt by sale of land. When processors begin to negotiate contracts with farmers, they should therefore be aware that farmers may be unwilling to break the existing arrangements with traders, either because of genuine fears |
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