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meets that the definition. Ideally, all places that fit the definition and that are in the area of study will be on the list once and only once. In addition, facilities that do not fit the definition will not be on the list. The further the list departs from this |
ideal, the more likely it is that the results will be misleading. Identifying all facilities of a particular type in any given area can be troublesome: not only can it sometimes be difficult to develop an appropriate working definition of the type of facility at issue, but problems can also |
arise in regard to the data management practices of relevant public and private agencies. Here is an example of creating a list of facilities that illustrates these points. A research team at the University of Cincinnati, Ohio wanted to determine why a few bars had numerous violent incidents, whereas most |
of the others had none or only a very few. To do this, they needed a definition of “bar” and a list of facilities that met this definition. Researchers defined “bar” as a place that met four conditions: (1) it had to be open to the general public, rather than |
restricted to members or rented out to private parties; (2) it had to serve alcohol for onsite consumption; (3) some patrons had to come to the place for the primary purpose of consuming alcohol; and (4) there had to be a designated physical area within the place that served as |
a drinking area. Locations that did not meet all four conditions were excluded from the study. To obtain a list of locations meeting this definition, researchers began by consulting records from the Ohio Division of Liquor Control. These records showed that 633 places within the city limits were licensed to |
serve hard liquor. Based upon their personal knowledge, researchers were able to exclude a number of locations from consideration, reducing the list to 391 possible bars. To isolate the real bars, researchers then compared the remaining locations to the most recent bar guide in a local weekly tabloid that catered |
to young adults, which contained both a brief written description of the locations and numerous commercial advertisements. The tabloid information revealed that at least 198 of the 391 places fit the definition used. The tabloid list was incomplete, however, as there were an unknown number of city bars that were |
not reviewed by the tabloid staff. A check of the online Yellow pages verified several more bars. Private fraternal organizations were eliminated from consideration because they were not open to the general public. For most of the remaining places, researchers phoned or visited the sites, examining the physical locatio... |
interviewing owners and employees. Onsite visits revealed several restaurants had areas that looked like bars, but these were eventually eliminated from consideration when it became clear from interviews that they were more decorative than functional or that they were used for other purposes (e.g., to hold carryout ord... |
to correct for the size of the facilities under study. For example, a study of downtown parking lot thefts in Charlotte, North Carolina was impeded when the city was unable to provide data about the number of spaces in each lot.16 As a result, police officers had to visit each |
lot and count the spaces by hand. † See Clarke, Ronald (1999) [PDF] . Hot Products. Police Research Series. Paper 112. London: Home Office. † See Mike Scott, The Problem of Robbery at Automated Teller Machines, Problem Specific Guide No. 8 (Washington, D.C.: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. |
Department of Justice, 2001). A Sign Outside a Bar – How managers regulate patron conduct can have a big influence on crime risk. Credit: John Eck In every large city, a few low-cost rental apartment buildings make extraordinary demands on police time. These “risky facilities” are often owned by slumlords |
— unscrupulous landlords who purchase properties in poor neighborhoods and who make a minimum investment in management and maintenance. Building services deteriorate, respectable tenants move out, and their place is taken by less respectable ones — drug dealers, pimps, and prostitutes — who can afford to pay the rent b... |
who cannot pass the background checks made by more responsible managements. In the course of a problem-oriented policing project in Santa Barbara, California, Officers Kim Frylsie and Mike Apsland analyzed arrests made at 14 rental apartment buildings owned by a slumlord, before and after he had purchased them. The tab... |
clearly shows a large increase in the number of people arrested at the properties in the years after he acquired them. There was also some evidence that the increased crime and disorder in these properties spilled over to infect other nearby apartment buildings — a finding that supports the widespread |
that influence repeat victimization.| † For additional information on CPTED principles see Response Guide #6. There is no single reason that explains why some facilities have far more crime than other facilities of the same type. Rather, the full explanation usually involves a combination of the seven factors discussed... |
remember though, that the relative contribution of each will vary from case to case. In many problem-oriented projects it might not be possible to explain completely the variations in risk between facilities, because such analysis is usually only possible after detailed research that can take weeks or months to complet... |
However, it is usually possible to get some idea of how each of the seven factors contributes to the problem by comparing high and low crime facilities. We previously explained how to do this when we discussed the various ways of testing the influence of location, hot products, repeat victimization |
and crime attractors. In some cases, quantitative data such as facility size will be readily available. In others, it might be necessary to survey the facilities to discover the relevant information. For example, in the project mentioned above that focused on thefts from cars in Charlotte’s downtown parking facilities,... |
surveyed the lots to gather information about hours of operation, attendants, fencing, lighting, and other security measures. This provided many ideas for reducing crime in the riskiest facilities. In another Charlotte study, a police survey found that the theft of household appliances from construction sites was much ... |
delayed installation until the homes were ready for occupancy. 19 Direct observation and discussions with managers and police familiar with the facilities (see Box 4) can yield valuable insights into the reasons for variations in risk between facilities. In addition, interviews with apprehended offenders can reveal how... |
difficulties, rewards, and risks of preying upon the facilities in the sample.† Similarly, interviews with victims—particularly repeat victims—can be revealing. † See Scott Decker, Using Offender Interviews to Inform Police Problem Solving, Problem Solving Tools Series No. 3 (Washington, D.C.: Office of Community Orien... |
Jersey, a project funded by the U.S. Department of Justice Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (the COPS Office) focused on drug dealing in low cost private rental apartment complexes. 20 During the scanning stage, 22 possible sites for intervention (out of a total of 506 private apartment complexes) were |
identified through an analysis of police data and interviews with officers in the Newark Police Department’s Safer Cities Task Force and Special Investigations Unit. Subsequent interviews with district commanders revealed a special problem with four apartment complexes located close to entry and exit ramps for Intersta... |
buyers with easy access to drug markets. The buyers could briefly enter the city, purchase drugs at the complexes, drive around in a loop and quickly exit again. Authorities implemented a traffic management plan that disrupted the loop by creating one-way streets and dead-ends. The traffic plan was reinforced with |
additional enforcement at the four sites and will eventually dovetail with a long-term project by the state to rebuild the ramps to route traffic away from residential areas. Your ability to understand the reasons for the variations in risk will be greatly assisted where there is an existing Problem-Oriented Policing |
Guide that deals with the facilities that are the focus of your own project. Although it will not tell you which factors are important in your sample, it will provide more specific suggestions than are provided by the general discussion above. As of June, 2006, ten guides focused on problems |
usually impossible to do anything about the size and location of specific facilities. Similarly, changing a facility’s physical design can be difficult or costly and would only be justified in an extreme case. On the other hand, it may be easier to change business practices that facilitate or encourage crime |
and disorder; this, however, cannot be done without the full cooperation of those who own or manage the facilities, as they are usually the ones who must implement and pay for the measures. Before moving on to a discussion of the various ways of convincing facility managers to make the |
changes necessary to reduce crime or disorder, it is important to understand some of the reasons why they might not have done these things on their own. The reasons can include the following. Although it always best to assume that managers and owners want to reduce crime and disorder in |
their facilities and that they will be open to working with the police and others to implement the necessary changes, the list above suggests that they will sometimes resist implementing remedial measures. Consequently, it will sometimes be necessary to exert a certain amount of coercion, either directly or indirectly.... |
crime if management is induced to cooperate without engaging in a political battle. In this regard, it is important to recall the guiding principle of this guide, the 80-20 rule: most of the problem is likely to be the result of a few facilities. So it might be that enlisting |
the support of the majority of facility owners and managers—whose contributions to the problem are minor—to change the behavior of the few—whose contributions to the problem are major—can aid police in winning the political struggle. This can also reduce costs by focusing resources where they are needed most, which can |
aid in tailoring responses to particular settings, thereby increasing the chances that interventions will be effective. Kock (1999). National Association of Convenience Stores (1991). Sherman, Schmidt, and Velke (1992). Lindstrom (1997). Bowers et al. (1998). Hirschfield and Bowers (1998). Newton (2004); Loukaitou-Side... |
(2004). Madensen et al. (2005). Eck (2002). Chula Vista Police Department (2004). Bowers, K., A. Hirschfield and S. Johnson (1998). “Victimization Revisited: A Case Study of Non-Residential Repeat Burglary in Merseyside.” British Journal of Criminology 38(3): 429-452. Chula Vista Police Department. Chief’s Community Ad... |
Project. Chula Vista, Calif.: Chula Vista Police Department. Clarke, R.V. (1999). Hot Products: Understanding, Anticipating and Reducing Demand for Stolen Goods. Police Research Series, Paper 112. London: Home Office, Research Development and Statistics Directorate. [Full Text] ---- (2002). Shoplifting. Problem-Oriente... |
U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. [Full Text] Clarke, R.V., and G. Bichler-Robertson (1998). “Place Managers, Slumlords and Crime in Low Rent Apartment Buildings.” Security Journal 11(1): 11-19. Clarke, R.V., and J.E. Eck (2003). Become a Problem-Solving Crime Analyst: In 55 Sm... |
Facilities: A Case Study in Implementing Problem-Oriented Policing.” In J. Knutsson (ed.), Problem-Oriented Policing: From Innovation to Mainstream, Crime Prevention Studies, Vol. 15. Monsey, N.Y.: Criminal Justice Press. [Full Text] Clarke, R.V., and D. Martin (1975). “A Study of Absconding and Its Implications for th... |
J. Tizard, I. Sinclair and R.V. Clarke (eds.), Varieties of Residential Experience. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Decker, S. (2005) Using Offender Interviews to Inform Police Problem Solving, Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series, Problem Solving Tools Series No. 3 Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, ... |
Pub Hopping and Related Crime.” In R. Homel (ed.), Policing for Prevention: Reducing Crime, Public Intoxication and Injury, Crime Prevention Studies, vol. 7. Monsey, N.Y.: Criminal Justice Press. [Full Text] Hirschfield, A., and K. Bowers (1998). “Monitoring, Measuring and Mapping Community Safety.” In A. Marlow and J.... |
Safer Communities. Lyne Regis: Russell House Publishing. Homel, R., M. Hauritz, G. McIlwain, R. Wortley and R. Carvolth (1997). “Preventing Drunkenness and Violence Around Nightclubs in a Tourist Resort.” In R.V. Clarke (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (2nd ed.). Guilderland, N.Y.: Harrow an... |
Principle: The Secret to Success by Achieving More with Less. New York: Doubleday. La Vigne, N. (1994). “Gasoline Drive-Offs: Designing a Less Convenient Environment.” In R.V. Clarke (ed.), Crime Prevention Studies, Vol. 2. Monsey, N.Y.: Criminal Justice Press. [Full Text] Lindstrom, P. (1997). “Patterns of School Crim... |
Empirical Extension.” British Journal of Criminology 37(1): 121-130. Loukaitou-Sideris, A., and J.E. Eck (in press). “Crime Prevention and Active Living.” American Journal of Health Promotion. Madensen, T., M. Skubak, D. Morgan and J.E. Eck (2005). Open-Air Drug Dealing in Cincinnati, Ohio: Executive Summary and Final ... |
Convenience Store Security Report and Recommendations. Alexandria, Va.: National Association of Convenience Stores. Newton, A. (2004). Crime and Disorder on Busses: Toward an Evidence Base for Effective Crime Prevention. PhD dissertation, University of Liverpool. Oakland Police Department (2003). “The Oakland Airport M... |
Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing. [Full Text] Perrone, S. (2000). Crimes Against Small Business in Australia: A Preliminary Analysis. Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, No. 184. Canberra: Australian Institute for Criminology. [Full text] Scott, M. (2001). The Problem of Robbery at Automated Teller Ma... |
Series, Problem Specific Guide No. 8. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. [Full text] Scott, M., and H. Goldstein (2005). Shifting and Sharing Responsibility for Public Safety Problems. Problem-Oriented Guides for Police, Response Guide Series No. 3 Washington, ... |
of Community Oriented Policing Services. [Full text] Sherman, L., J. Schmidt and R. Velke (1992). High Crime Taverns: A RECAP Project in Problem-Oriented Policing. Washington, D.C.: Crime Control Institute. Smith, D., M. Gregson and J. Morgan (2003). Between the Lines: An Evaluation of the Secured Park Award Scheme. Ho... |
Research Study, No. 266. London: Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate. [Full text] Stedman, J. (2005). “Alcohol Issues in City Parks.” Unpublished presentation to the Chula Vista City Council. Chula Vista, CA: Chula Vista Police Department (November). Weisel, D. (2005) Analyzing Repeat Victimiza... |
Tools Series No. 4. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. [Full text] Zanin, N., J. Shane and R.V. Clarke (2004). “Reducing Drug Dealing in Private Apartment Complexes In Newark, New Jersey.” A final report to the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community |
Oriented Policing Services, on the field applications of the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police project. Washington, D.C.: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. [Full Text] You may order free bound copies in any of three ways: Phone: 800-421-6770 or 202-307-1480 Allow several days ... |
Q. What's wrong with hot dogs? A. Nitrite additives in hotdogs form carcinogens. Petition to ban Three different studies have come out in the past year, finding that the consumption of hot dogs can be a risk factor for childhood |
cancer. Peters et al. studied the relationship between the intake of certain foods and the risk of leukemia in children from birth to age 10 in Los Angeles County 1980 and 1987. The study found that children eating more than |
12 hot dogs per month have nine times the normal risk of developing childhood leukemia. A strong risk for childhood leukemia also existed for those children whose fathers' intake of hot dogs was 12 or more per month. Researchers Sarusua |
and Savitz studied childhood cancer cases in Denver and found that children born to mothers who consumed hot dogs one or more times during pregnancy has approximately double the risk of developing brain tumors. Children who ate hot dogs one |
or more times per week were also at higher risk of brain cancer. Bunin et al, also found that maternal consumption of hot dogs during pregnancy was associated with an excess risk of childhood Q. How could hot dogs cause |
cancer? A. Hot dogs contain nitrites which are used as preservatives, primarily to combat botulism. During the cooking process, nitrites combine with amines naturally present in meat to form carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds. that nitrites can combine with amines in the |
human stomach to form N-nitroso compounds. These compounds are known carcinogens and have been associated with cancer of the oral cavity, urinary bladder, esophagus, stomach and Q. Some vegetables contain nitrites, do they cause cancer too? A. It is true |
that nitrites are commonly found in many green vegetables, especially spinach, celery and green lettuce. However, the consumption of vegetables appears to be effective in reducing the risk of cancer. How is this possible? The explanation lies in the formation |
of N-nitroso compounds from nitrites and amines. Nitrite containing vegetables also have Vitamin C and D, which serve to inhibit the formation of N-nitroso compounds. Consequently, vegetables are quite and serve to reduce your cancer risk. Q. Do other food |
products contain nitrites? A. Yes, all cured meats contain nitrites. These include bacon and fish. Q. Are all hot dogs a risk for childhood cancer? A. No. Not all hot dogs on the market contain nitrites. Because of modern refrigeration |
methods, nitrites are now used more for the red color they produce (which is associated with freshness) than for preservation. Nitrite-free hot dogs, while they taste the same as nitrite hot dogs, have a brownish color that has limited their |
popularity among consumers. When cooked, nitrite-free hot dogs are perfectly safe and healthy. HERE ARE FOUR THINGS THAT YOU CAN DO: - Do not buy hot dogs containing nitrite. It is especially important that children and potential parents do not |
consume 12 or more of these - Request that your supermarket have nitrite-free hot - Contact your local school board and find out whether children are being served nitrite hot dogs in the cafeteria, - Write the FDA and express |
your concern that nitrite-hot dogs are not labeled for their cancer risk to children. You can dogs, docket #: 95P 0112/CP1. Cancer Prevention Coalition of Public Health, M/C 922 University of Illinois at Chicago 2121 West Taylor Street Chicago, IL |
60612 Tel: (312) 996-2297, Fax: (312) 413-9898 1, Peters J, et al " Processed meats and risk of childhood leukemia (California, USA)" Cancer Causes & Control 5: 195-202, 1994. 2 Sarasua S, Savitz D. " Cured and broiled meat consumption |
in relation to childhood cancer: Denver, Colorado (United States)," Cancer Causes & Control 5:141-8, 1994. 3 Bunin GR, et al. "Maternal diet and risk of astrocytic glioma in children: a report from the children's cancer group (United States and Canada)," |
PPPL scientists propose a solution to a critical barrier to producing fusion Posted April 23, 2012; 05:00 p.m. Physicists from the U.S. Department of Energy's Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) have discovered a possible solution to a mystery that has long baffled researchers working to harness fusion. If confi... |
fusion as a clean and abundant source of energy for producing electric power. An in-depth analysis by PPPL scientists zeroed in on tiny, bubble-like islands that appear in the hot, charged gases — or plasmas — during experiments. These minute islands collect impurities that cool the plasma. And these islands, the scien... |
are at the root of a longstanding problem known as the "density limit" that can prevent fusion reactors from operating at maximum efficiency. Fusion occurs when plasmas become hot and dense enough for the atomic nuclei contained within the hot gas to combine and release energy. But when the plasmas in experimental reac... |
into a flash of light. "The big mystery is why adding more heating power to the plasma doesn't get you to higher density," said David Gates, a principal research physicist at PPPL and co-author of the proposed solution with Luis Delgado-Aparicio, a postdoctoral fellow at PPPL and a visiting scientist at the Massachuset... |
density is the key parameter in reaching fusion and people have been puzzling about this for more than 30 years." A discovery by Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory physicists Luis Delgado-Aparicio (left) and David Gates could help scientists eliminate a major impediment to the development of fusion as a clean and abun... |
scientists discussing their discovery. (Photo by Elle Starkman) The scientists hit upon their theory in what Gates called "a 10-minute 'Aha!' moment." Working out equations on a whiteboard in Gates' office, the physicists focused on the islands and the impurities that drive away energy. The impurities stem from particl... |
limit, the islands grow and coalesce and the plasma ends up in a disruption," said Delgado-Aparicio. These islands actually inflict double damage, the scientists said. Besides cooling the plasma, the islands act as shields that block out added power. The balance tips when more power escapes from the islands than resear... |
same process that heats a toaster when electricity passes through it. When the islands grow large enough, the electric current that helps to heat and confine the plasma collapses, allowing the plasma to fly apart. Gates and Delgado-Aparicio now hope to test their theory with experiments on a tokamak called Alcator C-Mo... |
Diego. Among other things, they intend to see if injecting power directly into the islands will lead to higher density. If so, that could help future tokamaks reach the extreme density and 100-million-degree temperatures that fusion requires. The scientists' theory represents a fresh approach to the density limit, whic... |
an equation that describes it. Greenwald has another potential explanation for the source of the limit. He thinks it may occur when turbulence creates fluctuations that cool the edge of the plasma and squeeze too much current into too little space in the core of the plasma, causing the current to become unstable and cr... |
Greenwald said. However, he added, "We don't have a nice story with a beginning and end and we should always be open to new ideas." Gates and Delgado-Aparicio pieced together their model from a variety of clues that have developed in recent decades. Gates first heard of the density limit while working as a postdoctoral... |
Abingdon, England, in 1993. The limit had previously been named for Culham scientist Jan Hugill, who described it to Gates in detail. Separately, papers on plasma islands were beginning to surface in scientific circles. French physicist Paul-Henri Rebut described radiation-driven islands in a mid-1980s conference paper... |
with the density limit. "The paper he wrote was actually the trigger for our idea, but he didn't relate the islands directly to the Greenwald limit," said Gates, who had worked with Suttrop on a tokamak experiment at the Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics in Garching, Germany, in 1996 before joining PPPL the follo... |
had mostly receded from Gates' mind. But a talk by Delgado-Aparicio about the possibility of such islands erupting in the plasmas contained within the Alcator C-Mod tokamak reignited his interest. Delgado-Aparicio spoke of corkscrew-shaped phenomena called snakes that had first been observed by PPPL scientists in the 1... |
read the papers on islands by Rebut and Suttrop. An email from Delgado-Aparicio landed in Gates' inbox some eight months later. In it was a paper that described the behavior of snakes in a way that fit nicely with the C-Mod data. "I said, 'Wow! He's made a lot of progress,'" Gates remembered. "I said, 'You should come ... |
most excited Gates was an equation for the growth of islands that hinted at the density limit by modifying a formula that British physicist Paul Harding Rutherford had derived back in the 1980s. "I thought, 'If Wolfgang (Suttrop) was right about the islands, this equation should be telling us the Greenwald limit," Gate... |
Then a curious thing happened. "It turns out that we didn't even need the entire equation," Gates said. "It was much simpler than that." By focusing solely on the density of the electrons in a plasma and the heat radiating from the islands, the researchers devised a formula for when the heat loss would surpass the elec... |
mechanism behind the Greenwald limit. Delgado-Aparicio became so absorbed in the scientists' new ideas that he missed several turnoffs while driving back to Cambridge, Mass., that night. "It's intriguing to try to explain Mother Nature," he said. "When you understand a theory you can try to find a way to beat it. By th... |
than the limit." Conquering the limit could provide essential improvements for future tokamaks that will need to produce self-sustaining fusion reactions, or "burning plasmas," to generate electric power. Such machines include proposed successors to ITER, a $20 billion experimental reactor that is being built in Cadara... |
similar theory of the density-limit puzzle before? The answer, said Gates, lies in how ideas percolate through the scientific community. "The radiation-driven islands idea never got a lot of press," he said. "People thought of them as curiosities. The way we disseminate information is through publications, and this ide... |
knowledge about the physics of plasmas — ultra-hot, charged gases — and to developing practical solutions for the creation of fusion energy. Through the process of fusion, which is constantly occurring in the sun and other stars, energy is created when the nuclei of two lightweight atoms, such as those of hydrogen, com... |
PRLog (Press Release) - Apr. 10, 2012 - Many are not aware that on the day Titanic collided with an iceberg in the North Atlantic, the ship had received no |
less than six wireless transmissions describing the extent of the dangerous ice fields and bergs, but that not all of these messages made it to the bridge and that the |
captain therefore had an incorrect mental picture which did not match the reality on the ocean in front of him. Author David Warner Mathisen, a professional analyst and former US |
Army Infantry officer, observes that this type of failure to “connect the dots” is well known in the Army, and that military concepts such as “situational awareness” and Clausewitz’s phrase |
“the fog of war” are valuable tools for extracting lessons from the disaster that we can apply today. He points out that in many situations, the information that is needed |
to enable accurate analysis of the situation is actually available, but overlooked or not placed into the proper framework or context, so that the dots are not connected, something that |
happens so often that we can conclude that gaining true situational awareness is actually exceedingly difficult, even though it might at first appear to be simple. He then goes on |
to argue that the data we may be overlooking from a civilizational perspective may be creating a dangerous “false picture” that creates potentially serious danger, which should encourage greater efforts |
to “connect the dots” using tools that can facilitate better analysis. While many various theories of greater or lesser merit have been put forward to explain the 1912 Titanic disaster, |
including some recent analysis that the position of the earth in relation to both the moon and the sun may have played a role, ultimately the sinking and the tragic |
loss of life were the result of a lack of situational awareness – not just prior to the collision but in the fatal aftermath as well. # # # David |
Warner Mathisen is a professional analyst and former US Army officer, and the author of the book "The Mathisen Corollary" and of the recently-released essay "Titanic and the Fall of |
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