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minutely contaminated eggs are consumed due to their non-recognition resulting in stomach disorders, food-poisoning etc. To guard against epidemics and poultry– parasites, developing / un-developed poultry farmers make extensive use of D.D.T. and other such chemicals which in small measures |
enter the body of the birds and eggs. Generally an egg contains 15000 tiny breathing pores in its shell. The egg absorbs D.D.T. through its breathing pores. The people who eat such kind of eggs and chicken may also take |
D.D.T. inside them. Relation between D.D.T. poison and cancer is well established now-a-days. In this way, eggs may cause cancer — a most fatal disease. Secondly, to get more and more eggs from hens, poultry owners inject them with special |
kind of hormones (estrogen, progesterone etc). These hormones enter the eggs through their tiny breathing pores. The people, who eat such kind of eggs and chicken may also take these artificial hormones in them. According to the latest clinical research-studies, |
Helping you get the most out of our U.S. Census Collection has been a top priority. To date, we’ve painstakingly gone through hundreds of millions of records spanning hundreds of years to make these 14 censuses easier to search and sharper to see. And 1930 is in the works. Take a look — you might just discover someone ... |
here the whole time. Deciphering a name on some U.S. Census records can be difficult. So we’ve enhanced the 1850, 1860, 1870, 1900, 1910 and 1920 censuses by adding an alternate where the information was unclear — over 20% new names in total. This improved indexing lets you find a record by searching either name. Only ... |
mentioned by name in early censuses. And many of them shared that name (John Smith, for example) with others in their community. We’ve expanded the indexes for the 1790-1840 censuses with at least four new fields — like the total number of people in the household — so you can use your family knowledge to narrow down yo... |
Now's the perfect time to dig in or renew the search for the missing pieces in your family story. Click the plus signs below to see the difference. 1910 U.S. Census |
The pleura are two thin, moist membranes around the lungs. The inner layer is attached to the lungs. The outer layer is attached to the ribs. Pleural effusion is the buildup of excess fluid in the space between the pleura. |
The fluid can prevent the lungs from fully opening. This can make it difficult to catch your breath. Pleural effusion may be transudative or exudative based on the cause. Treatment of pleural effusion depends on the condition causing the effusion. |
Effusion is usually caused by disease or injury. Transudative effusion may be caused by: Exudative effusion may be caused by: Factors that increase your chance of getting pleural effusion include: - Having conditions or diseases listed above - Certain medications |
such as: - Nitrofurantoin (Macrodantin, Furadantin, Macrobid) - Methysergide (Sansert) - Bromocriptine (Parlodel) - Procarbazine (Matulane) - Amiodarone (Cordarone) - Chest injury or trauma - Radiation therapy Surgery, especially involving: - Organ transplantation Some types of pleural effusion do not |
cause symptoms. Others cause a variety of symptoms, including: - Shortness of breath - Chest pain - Stomach discomfort - Coughing up blood - Shallow breathing - Rapid pulse or breathing rate - Weight loss - Fever, chills, or sweating |
These symptoms may be caused by many other conditions. Let your doctor know if you have any of these symptoms. The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done. This may include listening |
to or tapping on your chest. Lung function tests will test your ability to move air in and out of your lungs. Images of your lungs may be taken with: Your doctor may take samples of the fluid or pleura |
tissue for testing. This may be done with: Treatment is usually aimed at treating the underlying cause. This may include medications or surgery. Your doctor may take a "watchful waiting" approach if your symptoms are minor. You will be monitored |
until the effusion is gone. To Support Breathing If you are having trouble breathing, your doctor may recommend: - Breathing treatments—inhaling medication directly to lungs - Oxygen therapy Drain the Pleural Effusion The pleural effusion may be drained by: - |
Therapeutic thoracentesis —a needle is inserted into the area to withdraw excess fluid. - Tube thoracostomy—a tube is placed in the side of your chest to allow fluid to drain. It will be left in place for several days. Seal |
the Pleural Layers The doctor may recommend chemical pleurodesis. During this procedure, talc powder or an irritating chemical is injected into the pleural space. This will permanently seal the two layers of the pleura together. The seal may help prevent |
further fluid buildup. Radiation therapy may also be used to seal the pleura. In severe cases, surgery may be needed. Some of the pleura will be removed during surgery. Suregery options may include: - Thoracotomy—traditional, open chest procedure - Video-assisted |
thorascopic surgery (VATS)—minimally-invasive surgery that only requires small keyhole size incisions Prompt treatment for any condition that may lead to effusion is the best way to prevent pleural effusion. - Reviewer: Brian Randall, MD - Review Date: 02/2013 - - |
Sugar comes in many forms. One type of sugar, lactose, occurs primarily in milk. Nature gives young children the ability to digest lactose, because they need to do so when they nurse. However, as people grow up, they often lose the lactose-digesting enzyme, known as lactase . The result is a condition called lactose in... |
and diarrhea following consumption of lactose-containing foods. Principal Proposed Natural Treatments Lactose intolerance is most prevalent in people of Hispanic, African, Asian, Middle Eastern, or Native American descent, although Caucasians can develop it as well. Treatment consists primarily of avoiding foods contai... |
handle more lactose than otherwise. Also, special milk products are available from which the lactose has been removed (often through the use of lactase). Other Proposed Natural Treatments Many people confuse milk allergy with lactose intolerance. The two conditions are not related. Milk allergy involves an allergic rea... |
For more information on natural approaches to food allergies, see the food allergy article. - Reviewer: EBSCO CAM Review Board - Review Date: 07/2012 - - Update Date: 07/25/2012 - |
AUTHORS: Melchers, Gunnel; Shaw, Philip TITLE: World Englishes SERIES: The English Language Series PUBLISHER: Arnold YEAR: 2003 Cornelia Tschichold, Institute of English, University of Neuchâtel, Switzerland INTRODUCTION This book is a recent addition to the growing number of textbooks on varieties of English around th... |
two authors, both from Stockholm University, describe the intended audience of the book as readers familiar with the basics of linguistics and phonetics, thus typically undergraduate students after their first year at a department of English, with English either as their native or a second or foreign language. The book |
has an accompanying CD, which is sold separately and therefore does not figure in this review. SYNOPSIS Chapter 1 is a very short chapter on the history of English from 450 to the beginnings of Modern English. The development of the language is illustrated mainly through the most accessible aspect, |
its loanwords. Chapter 2 covers the more recent history of English, when the language spread around the globe, first to the so- called 'inner circle' countries, later to the 'outer circle' and finally to the 'expanding circle'. This three- circle model by Kachru is adopted as the organizing principle for |
the book. The chapter also introduces the distinction often made between English as a second and English as a foreign language, while drawing attention to the problems of terminology and those of differing political viewpoints involved. Chapter 3 discusses basic terms in language variation and provides the framework fo... |
classification and description of the many varieties discussed in chapters 4 to 6. The authors divide variation into the areas of spelling, phonology, grammar and lexicon, and give a brief overview of the main types of variation in each area. For the description of phonology, Wells' standard lexical sets are |
introduced. The section on rhythm and intonation explains the concept of stress-times vs. syllable-timed rhythm and mentions high-rising terminals as the most striking phenomena in the area of intonation. The sections on lexis and on the historical origin of varieties introduce a large number of technical terms such as... |
or 'substratum'. Other dimensions of classification mentioned include the political stance of some of the more prominent authors in the field, the degree of standardization for varieties and for texts, and the position of a country in the three-circle model. Chapter 4 portrays the inner circle varieties of England, Wal... |
Scotland, Ireland, the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Liberia and the Caribbean. With some exceptions, each of these sections follows the pattern of first giving a brief overview of geography and population, then an account of the general linguistic situation, before the variety itself is described ... |
of spelling, phonology, grammar and lexicon. Where appropriate, important internal varieties are briefly touched on as well, such as the main differences between Southern and Northern dialects in England, the two ethnic varieties African American Vernacular English (AAVE) and Chicano English in the USA, and Aboriginal ... |
5 opens with a discussion of the political questions of language prestige and then tries to identify some common linguistic features of the varieties spoken in these countries. Among the features mentioned are consonant cluster and vowel system simplifications, a trend away from clearly stress-timed rhythm, and more sy... |
The countries in this chapter are then discussed in geographical groups, following a similar pattern to that in chapter 4, but giving rather more historical background and extra sections on style and pragmatics. The first variety is South Asian English, with India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka as its main |
countries. The second major variety is African English, with South Africa making a second appearance due to its higher number of speakers who have English as a second language. Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Philippines and Singapore are dealt with in the group of countries where South East Asian English is |
spoken. The last section in this chapter very briefly deals with a number of countries with a colonial past: Gibraltar, Malta, and Cyprus in the Mediterranean, Puerto Rico in the Caribbean, the Seychelles and Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Fiji, and Guam in the Pacific, without |
however giving linguistic descriptions of the English spoken there. Chapter 6 abandons the geographical perspective in favour of the functions English can be seen to have taken over in the expanding circle from the 18th century onwards. Among the domains where English is making inroads the authors mention global politi... |
and economy, tourism, the education system, the mass media and popular culture, advertising and subcultures. On the more strictly linguistic level, the authors see no trend toward standardization, and argue instead that speakers of lingua franca English need a high communicative competence for dealing with the mixture ... |
and the large amount of pragmatic variation found in much intercultural communication. The authors then briefly consider the influence of English on the local languages and the choices involved in choosing a variety of English for education. In Chapter 7, Melchers and Shaw take a look at the likely developments |
in the near future and identify US power, globalization and information technology as the most important factors favouring the further spread of English across the globe. They posit that the high visibility of unedited English found in computer-mediated communication could have a destandardizing effect on international... |
still considerable influence of the school systems might counterbalance this trend. Finally, Appendix 1 gives a list of the speakers on the accompanying CD, and Appendix 2 contains a number of pre- and post-reading questions for each chapter. CRITICAL EVALUATION Everyone teaching a course on the varieties of English ar... |
the world probably has their own idea of what the ideal textbook for such a course should cover. One of the authors has taught just such a course for many years, and the book under review is proof of this. Many sections read more like lightly edited lecture notes than |
a textbook meant to be studied by undergraduate students. The authors include a number of anecdotes in the text, a feature that often works well in class, but much less well in a textbook, and they have the rather irritating habit of writing one-sentence paragraphs, something which many university teachers |
try to eradicate from their students' essays. It is clear that balancing the content of such a short book is a difficult task, and the authors should be praised for trying to combine most of the relevant sociolinguistic aspects with a large number of linguistic descriptions of individual varieties in |
a relatively small book. Apart from the style, most of my criticism therefore relates to details of content. A number of sections in the book seem to be the result of compromises of various kinds: One might argue, for example, about the usefulness of a very short chapter on the |
roots of English, or whether such a a book is the best place for contemplating the influence of English on other languages via borrowing. Possibly these pages might have been put to better use. One of my quibbles concerns the notoriously difficult problem of the translations or glosses, which have |
not received the necessary attention to detail. Dialectal variation is illustrated with a Geordie poem ("A hev gorra bairn / an a hev gorra wife / an a cannit see me bairn or wife / workin in the night"), where the word 'gorra' is claimed to stand for the local |
pronunciation of 'got to' (p.13). Generally, the maps in the book are often not very useful as they do not show all areas mentioned in the text and do not distinguish between cities and provinces. To give just one example, among the dialects of England discussed in the text are |
those of Leeds, Derby, West Wirral and Norwich, but only Leeds can be found on one of the maps. One might also wonder about the necessity of listing statistics on area, population and capital for the countries discussed, given that such data can easily be found elsewhere and is of |
questionable relevance in this context. Within the descriptions of the individual varieties, spelling, a very accessible aspect, is not systematically commented on, e.g. South Asian English is said to be "spelt in the British style", but British English does not have a section on spelling. In the more extensive section |
on phonology most of the comparisons of the lexical sets are clearly useful and could have been extended, e.g. it would have been interesting to see the Australian vowels compared not just to RP, but also to American English vowels. In addition to the concept of lexical sets, much of |
the data used by the authors comes from Wells as well, which often seems a needless repetition, especially where even the examples are taken straight from Wells (1982), a study in three volumes based on data which is now more than a generation old. On the other hand, a number |
of sections (Liberian English and AAVE, Caribbean English) are so short, they seem more like appetizers than any kind of solid information. In the sections on the lexicon, the authors' use of the word 'tautonym' to refer to words having different meanings in different varieties seems somewhat idiosyncratic. The referen... |
given in the book are not consistently placed in the further-reading sections, but appear either there (sometimes with comment, sometimes without; sometimes with full bibliographic details, sometimes as author plus year only) or embedded in the text. Sharp (2001) is referred to, but missing in the references. Appendix ... |
a number of pre- and post-reading questions, which - according to the preface - are meant to remind readers of what they know and to check their new knowledge. This generally is a good idea, but one would expect the pre- reading questions to be clearly easier than the post- |
reading questions. Some questions sound more like activation questions for a seminar group than questions meant to check on the reader's knowledge. Comparing the book under review to other books on the market that might be considered as textbooks for courses on world Englishes, one could mention Trudgill and Hannah |
(1994), a book that gives considerably more linguistic detail on the varieties discussed, but devotes only very little room to varieties in the expanding circle (an aspect which is of much interest to students in potentially expanding-circle countries in Europe) and does not cover the sociolinguistic and political pers... |
latter aspect can be found in Crystal (1997) to a certain extent, or more thoroughly in Brutt-Griffler (2002). Crystal (1995) provides an widely available source for maps, statistics and historical background. Bauer (2002) is mostly limited to varieties of the inner circle. Jenkins (2003) is very useful as an overview |
for the debate on the sociolinguistic and political aspects, but does not give linguistic descriptions. Cheshire (1991) and Allerton et al (2002) finally are edited collections of papers that provide accessible further reading on a range of subtopics on world Englishes. Writing a relatively short textbook of such a sco... |
is a very big bite to chew, and while I would like to congratulate the authors on their choice of content, I wish they had chosen a different style for the book and spent more time on revision and ensuring internal consistency. REFERENCES Allerton, D.J., Skandera, P. and Tschichold, C., |
eds. (2002). Perspectives on English as a World Language. Basel: Schwabe. Bauer, L. (2002). An Introduction to International Varieties of English. Edinburgh University Press. Brutt-Griffler, J. (2002). World English: A Study of its Development. Multilingual Matters. Cheshire, J., ed. (1991). English around the world: S... |
(1995). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge UP. Crystal, D. (1997). English as a Global Language. Cambridge University Press. Jenkins, J. (2003). World Englishes: A resource book for students. Routledge. Trudgill, P. & J. Hannah (1994, 3rd ed.). International English: A guide to the varieties ... |
Arnold. Wells, J.C. (1982). Accents of English, vols I - III. Cambridge University Press. ABOUT THE REVIEWER: ABOUT THE REVIEWER Cornelia Tschichold teaches English linguistics at Neuchâtel University. While her research interests focus on English phraseology, computational lexicography and computer-assisted language l... |
Mambila Tribe: Ethnological Report of C K (p85) Ethnology - the Mambila tribe As Mr Meek, on account of illness, spent only 10 days investigating this tribe, I make bold to offer a few minor additions to his - I was able to verify the account of the Moon Rites (vide MTS I 547-8) which is correct in every detail |
except that they are still practised at Mbanga. The Mbanga people in addition, unlike the rest of the Mambila, worship the sun but to a lesser degree. The moon is their paramount god and they do not recognize the supreme being "Nama" or "Chang". The sun rites are observed every day at sunset when the Elders pray each m... |
the sacred grass in his hand. Their word for Sun is "Lo" and for moon "Wil". - Generally I have found the supreme being "Nama" is identified with the earth. For the people say they are buried in the earth and their spirits abide therein. - One or two villages have idols. At Ntem it is a piece of wood |
carved to represent a man "Shuga" and is kept in the sacred - The sacred grass So or Jiro invariably contains the eye of a cow and the process of divination or swearing oaths is often accompanied by a kind of cymbal. - The harvest rites performed at Vokide in November are of interest. Here the village Heal is not |
the priest but an old woman is designated priestess. Behind the Chief's house is a pit kept covered by a large stone. The people celebrate the coming event by dancing for 7 days. On the eighth day the priestess goes to the pit alone the people sitting at a distance. She removes the stone and looks into the pit. If |
she sees vapour rising and young seedlings of corn sprouting she stands up and laughs for this portends a good harvest; whereat all the people join in laughing. They then dance and drink beer for another 7 days. Should the priestess see no vapour or seedlings she cries and all lament. No one is allowed to look into the... |
except the priestess. Divination of crime is however performed by the village head. In marriage by exchange if one couple has no children, it is customary for the other couple to share their children with them. That is to say if one couple has four children two of them would be given to the childless couple. At Mbanga ... |
apart from marriage by exchange they have a system of marriage which might be termed marriage by labour. Should a woman have no brother and a man, having no sister, wished to marry her he goes to her farm and works it for her one year and provided her with beer. At the end of the year she goes to |
his house. No bride money is given but if a son is born, when he grows up, he works on his grandmother's farm for a year. They have no marriage by purchase. After death the body is opened and the whole of the internal organs examined for signs of witchcraft. I was unable to substantiate Mr Meek's statement that only |
the heart is examined (v.para.1,p551,Tribal Studies I). In fact at Mbang they go so far as to make incisions on the inside of the elbows and behind the knees and examine the veins and tendons and also sever the head completely. - At Mbaso and Gubin the body is placed in a sitting posture in the grave. Elsewhere the cor... |
is laid on its right side with the head to the west and the feet to the east. In some instances a woman is lain on her left side. - As a rule, the period of mourning is one year. Note. On the whole the Village Heads have unusually good authority over their people and I think the reason may |
be found in the fact that they are also the priests and therefore held in respect. Sgd H.J.Gill, A.D.O. (dated 8 xi 1931). Notes on Dr Meek's Report (page numbers refer to Tribal Studies, Vol.I) Intermarriage between hamlets: Addendum I/ to this report, omitted here: hdg/gives the result of analysing the marriages of t... |
by the Northern as well as the Southern Mambila. Tagbo, Lagubi, Tongbo (Lagbo, on p560): Bo is apparently a termination denoting a group of people, as in Jabu, Gembu etc. Lak is the name used in Torbi dialect for Gembu, Tong is the name used in the Kabri dialect for Gembu, and is also used for certain hamlets now under |
Kabri. It means apparently also "rive confluence". Lagubi must be "Lak-Gubin" (Gubin being a neighbouring village to Gembu). I obtained no confirmation of the use of any of these words for a sub-tribal group of villages. Mambila groups in Bamenda Div.: The hamlets mentioned are in Tikar country. Blacksmiths: Dr Meek's ... |
to the blacksmiths of the northern /F88/ corner - Kuma, Gikau and Jabu, but not to those of the Southern Mambila-Kabri and Vokkude - who speak the ordinary dialects and have the same customs as their neighbours. Exagamous kindreds. The only instances of a kindred which has divided itself between two village-chiefs are,... |
Tem, and the kindred of Mbu, which is split between Wa and Gembu. In both, the exogamous principle is breaking down. On the other hand, all villages and many hamlets contain a plurality of kindreds and endogamous marriage is therefore found in nearly every hamlet (cf Note 1, above). The figures show that intermarriage ... |
and between hamlets of different villages[CS1] is almost exactly in proportion to the distance between the hamlets concerned. Insofar as there is anywhere a tendency to obtain wives from a particular village it is from a friendly village, not as Mr Meek suggested from a hostile one. Instances are Gembu-Mbanga, old enem... |
who practise it. Wartime confederations: the groups Mverrep, San and Mbar were not invariable members of the confederacy of Gembu-Wa-Tep, but had connections also with Warwar. Social system (general): Dr Meek states, "The whole Mambila system is based on a dual form of marriage, "that is, on the one hand they had a tru... |
refuses to accept Capt. Izard's view that "Formerly there was no other form of marriage than that by exchange". It is possible that the two views may to some degree be reconcilable. Dr Meek's statement is true of the northern villages, the only ones he was able to visit. /F89/ In the southern ones, on the other hand, i... |
to be beyond doubt that until recently there was no true marriage by bride-price: in its place were practices which appear to be stages in the development of a bride-price system and away from an exchange system. In the first place, a man who had no female relative to offer as an exchange could indulge in secret fornic... |
parents would not object, since any children born would belong to them and would moreover enhance their daughter's worth for exchange. Of this stage of development, if it is a "stage", I came across one example only. The next stage is licensed concubinage: the man is accepted at the girl's parents' house and at frequen... |
days, working on their farms as well as his own. The girl would, however, never come as wife to his house. A third stage is described by Mr Gill /v. supra, para2, F86/. This stage is clearly marriage, in however "futile" a form, not mere concubinage, and the next step to it is true bride-price marriage. I was informed ... |
sometimes at least, male children would belong to the father and only female to the mother. Such a distribution is contrary to the known Mambila principles and it may be merely that an act of grace has by repetition become a custom. /But certainly incredible nowhere that exchange prevails: it is the females who are at ... |
it has been reported that a daughter's "illegitimate" daughter may be exchanged for a girl who can be exchanged in turn for a wife for any member of the family): under the same system, one is obliged to provide a male with a female to exchange for a wife; and permitting an unmarried father custody of his male children ... |
probably depend rather on the existing ratio of unmarried males to unmarried females in the mother's compound, or on the desire of senior males to take additional wives, perhaps. Hdg/ As the conclusion to be drawn from all this it is suggested that the dual form of marriage, while so long-standing in the Northern villa... |
the social system, was not a primeval and unchangeable custom, but only a compromise evolved - as the result of a fight against the unsatisfactory features of exchange marriage - from an earlier system in which no other form of marriage existed. Pp539-40. Exchange marriage: Certain practices were noted among the Southe... |
(a) A woman who is a proved child-bearer is (or was) sometimes exchanged for another woman plus money, or rather plus hoes, which were formerly the only currency; (b) a woman may be exchanged for the refusal of a girl, or, on the principle of the bird in the hand, of two girls; (c) re-exchange is regular during the neg... |
for a marriage, and a long chain of exchanges of brides and prospective brides may be set up, but once marriage is consummated the wife is not again exchanged. Bride-price: The majority of men state that their wives were obtained by purchase, not exchange, and it looks as though a system of bride-price of the common (M... |
the father, not the mother, has custody of the children) is coming into existence. For instance, it was said at Gembu that exchange had been rare for over 30 years, yet al the families were undoubtedly patrilocal. Possibly the patrilocal bride-price system is an extension of the marriage with a purchased slave which Dr... |
in the past and is probably so now, for a girl married by bride-price, if she had borne no children within a year or two, to be reclaimed by the parents and given in exchange elsewhere. Custody of children: Enquiries went to show that the vast majority of children now reside in the father's house, despite the fact that... |
parents are alleged to be married under the bride-price system, which should imply maternal custody. /F91/ Whatever the truth of this and whatever the allowances to be made for falsehood, it seems clear that the dual social system described by Meek is rapidly breaking down, partly from natural causes and partly from th... |
some cases elsewhere from inadvertent action by the Courts. /Unable to trace this order; ref. to "inadvertent action" obscure. Change of married status: It was not unknown for a man to contract a marriage by bride-price or its equivalent, and later, if opportunity offered, to effect an exchange and obtain his same wife... |
prior to the exchange remained with the mother's family, while those born subsequently naturally belonged to the father. The instance quoted by Dr Meek, where a husband gave his sister into slavery to save the skin of the wife's uncle, illustrates the same principle, and I believe that between the words "all children b... |
the word "subsequently" is implied. Redemption from slavery: In the only instance which came up, a man had been sent to slavery as a child to redeem his father's mother (the father having married by exchange, the grandmother apparently by purchase). No case of self-redemption was noted. Inheritance of wives: both levir... |
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