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France, Great Britain, Italy, Panama, Spain, Switzerland and Uruguay. The number of donations is impressive but, in the face of what is needed or what has been given in the past after other disasters, the mountain proves to be little more than a foothill. Wascar Lanzas, deputy director of ENABAS, the agency charged wit... |
is simply not enough aid to meet Nicaragua's basic food needs. One country, the United States, is noticeably absent from any list of donors, and many of the western countries' donations have been minimal in comparison with previous contributions. When Hurricane Gilbert recently hit Jamaica, President Reagan promptly pr... |
and sent teams of experts to help with reconstruction. The White House declared the US would not provide aid to Nicaragua, charging that the Sandinista government could not be trusted to use the assistance for disaster relief. US congressional aid for victims of the contra war was rejected by the Nicaraguan government ... |
the simple reason that the aid was voted in a package designed to keep the contras in the field and fighting. To the Nicaraguans it seemed highly cynical to pay for the fighting and then want to also care for the victims—a case of having your war and feeling good about it too. President Ortega welcomed all relief aid f... |
the hurricane but emphasized again that “the best and only humanitarian aid the United States could give us would be to stop its terrorist policies against Nicaragua.” US solidarity and aid organizations have been much more forthcoming, with Quest for Peace and Oxfam (US) leading the way. Quest for Peace launched a fun... |
been advertising for funds in major US daily newspapers. Nicaragua Network, Operation California and the US Catholic Conference have also contributed, among others. Some one hundred European NGOs are currently working to raise relief aid. The United Nations’ World Food Program donated 900 tons of food. But in general, ... |
because it has been a relatively busy year for natural disasters in the Third World. In Nicaragua, relief efforts began immediately with collections in the cities on the Pacific plain for money, clothes and other goods. As Managua taxi driver Walter Herrera described it: "I'm no Sandinista but since the revolution, wit... |
they are our people, they're like us, we're all part of the same country. The two coasts used to be two countries. It's now our responsibility to help them." This spirit was at large in Nicaraguan society. Christian base communities in Managua took responsibility for feeding and caring for many refugees. They collected... |
in the refugee centers. All of the Sandinista delegates to the National Assembly donated 30% of their pay for October and their monthly subsidy of rice, beans and sugar. Various groups of workers donated a day's pay. Managua's rival baseball teams, the Boors and the Dantos, played a game to raise funds for the coast, w... |
American University put on a benefit concert. Overall responsibility for distribution of money and supplies rests with the National Emergency Committee, formed in 1982 to deal with that year's severe flooding. The committee is made up of representatives from international agencies in Nicaragua, including the UN, UNICEF... |
such as Care and Oxfam; national NGOs, including Caritas, the Protestant development agency CEPAD, the Nicaraguan Red Cross, international aid coordinator FACS, the UNAN and UPOLI universities, the Lions Club, Catholic development agency Juan XXIII, and the CST and ATC unions; and state institutions, such as the Minist... |
and the Ministry of Health. CEPAD representative Milton Argüello noted that the purpose of the committee is "to coordinate the aid, to know what resources are available, which organizations can respond to which particular need. But each organization continues to do its own work. Things are coordinated, but not centrall... |
government has invited everyone to participate." This committee is worlds away from its namesake set up after an earthquake destroyed the center of Managua in 1972. "A National Emergency Committee, set up under President Somoza's control and run by the National Guard, institutionalized the misappropriation of emergency... |
National Guard, Oxfam's field director talked Mrs. Somoza into giving permission to bypass the official distribution system. This meant waiting in the aircraft control tower for the right plane to be spotted, then careering onto the tarmac to get the trucks loaded before the National Guard arrived on the scene."* *From... |
Oxfam Public affairs Unit, Oxfam, Oxford, UK 1985, pp. 6-7 This time Oxfam defends the government. In response to suggestions in the US that the Sandinistas cannot be trusted, James Dawson, Oxfam’s director for overseas development, said, "We have worked with the government and would have no problem delivering aid thro... |
any government opposition; it is hard to oppose government efforts to save lives, and organize relief and reconstruction. Often more is to be gained by pitching in and helping; the relief work of El Salvador's FMLN rebels after the 1986 earthquake is an example. But the Reagan Administration, the contras and some membe... |
obstruct relief efforts. Shortly after Joan's passage, the Voice of America broadcast reports suggesting the "international community" doubted that aid money would be spent wisely. Similar views, all without supporting evidence, have been widely aired by La Prensa and contra radio stations beaming into Nicaragua. As th... |
bridled at a US State Department warning to his government not to commit human rights abuses during the state of emergency. "To speak this way with authority they must stop committing abuses like those they have committed over the last eight years against the Nicaraguan people." This brought another salvo from Washingt... |
organizing material aid to Nicaraguan victims of the hurricane, told the Los Angeles Times that the US government was deliberately hindering private aid efforts. "The air force frequently transports, for free, assistance collected by charitable organizations in catastrophes,” Weldon said, but “this time they told us th... |
Ortega’s government would use aid funds against the contras. The contras, for their part, ambushed a Red Cross ambulance taking a sick child from Nueva Guinea to Juigalpa at about 1 am on Saturday, October 22, just before the hurricane hit; the driver and two passengers were wounded. It was the second ambulance attack ... |
the hurricane hit Bluefields, La Prensa, in an editorial titled “The Militarization of the Hurricane,” countered the widespread calls for volunteer efforts in work-places and barrios, arguing that the civil defense efforts had been taken over by the “frigid, bureaucratic, inefficient state military HQ, which always arr... |
“This is not the hour to be political, but to help the victims.” It called for the establishment of a national commission made up of representatives from the government, the Catholic Church, opposition parties and COSEP, the opposition business council. COSEP, which stopped participating in the National Emergency Commi... |
asked officially. President Ortega then reiterated that anyone who wished to participate could join the committee, including those business people who “are truly ready to contribute to this emergency situation.” Indeed many sectors of Nicaraguan society, including those opposed to the revolution, have joined forces wit... |
but also school children and Explorers, the Lions' Club, Catholic and Protestant churches. Bishops Barni and Schlaefer, as well as Cardinal Obando, issued a call for their parishioners to aid^ in relief work and reconstruction. Meanwhile, contra attacks continue. The hurricane itself has wiped out many old contra targe... |
relief convoys and the important coffee harvest to disrupt. On the morning of October 29, in their worst attack since the signing of the Sapoá peace accords on March 23, the contras killed nine civilians traveling in a passenger bus near San Juan del Rio Coco. The same day, they ambushed a military truck delivering foo... |
La Esperanza, killing a soldier and wounding two young civilians. The Honduran army stepped up attacks on the Nicaraguan border, even attacking border posts the night the hurricane hit. On October 28, President Ortega had issued a warning, based on intercepted radio reports, of the imminent incursion of 3,000 newly out... |
by the hurricane. ReconstructionBeyond the immediate problems of having to feed, clothe and shelter almost 200,000 homeless lies the need to rebuild. Some of this work has already begun, even though a full assessment of the damage to the country's economic resources has still to be completed. Enough is known to realize... |
term, is very grave. Recovery depends on getting people back into production as quickly as possible. The two immediate priorities are getting the coffee out and getting the next planting of basic grains in. Coffee exports bring in half the country's export earnings. But much of the coffee crop is grown in the central h... |
been destroyed. The first job is to repair these so the crop can be brought out. The second task is to organize coffee-picking brigades from the cities and other parts of the country. To restore basic grain production in Region V, the Agricultural Ministry plans to put together a simple package of seeds, tools and kitc... |
they can start sowing for the next harvest. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization will assist with 40 tons of beans for seed. The government can also be expected to provide abundant credit for farmers in Regions V and VI. This will add to the inflationary impact of the hurricane but is needed to get fan... |
quickly. Both these priorities might delay housing replacement. Dionisio Marenco, head of the FSLN's information department, has said that people on the Atlantic Coast may have to wait for a new house simply because without road repairs there will not be much of a coffee harvest, and without a coffee harvest there will... |
particular concern about the impact of the hurricane on Nicaragua's ecological balance, given the devastation wrought on tropical forests, which may be lost forever. He issued a call for ecological experts and representatives of European parties concerned with the environment, such as the West German Greens, to come ev... |
continue using army trucks and air force helicopters and planes for relief work, although an upsurge in contra attacks may severely limit the availability of equipment and men. There are other restrictions on any rebuilding program for the Atlantic Coast. Access is especially difficult. The road to Rama has been damage... |
been many of the river boats, and if one could get to Bluefields—where the wharf has also been damaged—there .are no warehouses to store goods. The major link is Bluefields’ small airstrip, but Nicaragua has few planes with which to deliver supplies. Consideration is being given to establishing a sea or air bridge betw... |
Rica. But where does the job begin in Bluefields? There is neither electricity nor enough water. Electrical generators and well-drilling gear are needed as are tents, food and storage facilities. The lack of basic facilities rules out the possibility of bringing outside teams in to mount a large-scale construction effo... |
the impact the hurricane has on this year’s economic reform packages. It could cause a reversal in the direction of the reforms, perhaps at considerable political cost to the government. The changes were intended to increase exports and agricultural production and to reduce the government’s deficit. The hurricane has d... |
spending. It is possible, if production of basic grains falls drastically and the shortfall is not made up with donations, that Nicaragua will have to retreat from its trend towards free market policies and return to rationing basic food supplies. Other goals of the economic reforms may also have to be reversed. This w... |
harsh austerity measures of 1988 had been threatening for many years but had been delayed as long as possible to give the government the chance to consolidate its position, especially to take control of the contra war. To make the economic changes carried out this year, the government has had to mortgage some of its po... |
have been hit especially hard. If it now had to reverse direction, having inflicted the economic pain without much of the gain, the political cost would be greater. Why this is an international disasterThe success of Nicaragua’s civil defense effort in limiting the death toll presents it own problems. Crudely speaking,... |
gripping international disaster story. For many aid and development agencies, Hurricane Joan is just another natural disaster in a busy year for disasters—and, at that, not a particularly newsworthy one. And without a surge of international public sympathy, big relief funds are hard to gather. For Nicaragua, Joan is ob... |
this is not just another disaster for the rest of the world. The hurricane represents an enormous challenge for the Nicaraguan revolution. At best, it will be overcome with the mix of commitment, principle and pragmatism that has become a Sandinista trademark. At worst, the damage done by Hurricane Joan, coming on top ... |
threatens to do long-term damage to the revolution. This is a turning point. The Nicaraguan people will take up the challenge but international aid agencies and solidarity groups also have essential contributions to make. The hurricane's effects go far beyond Nicaragua. The survival* of the Nicaraguan revolution is at ... |
world stage. Although battered and bruised it is still struggling to develop a mixed economy, maintain political pluralism and to have, if not full independence, at least a diversified dependence on the larger and richer nations. Nicaragua is not the "good example" it promised to be or may still become. It has been too... |
the war for that. But it remains an important symbol of the much wider struggle of small countries to take control of their own destiny. Nicaragua is particularly significant to aid agencies because its government is committed to the interests of the majority. Aid agencies and solidarity groups find themselves in the a... |
than against or apart from, a government. A survey of the experience of western development agencies in Nicaragua makes the point: "For many development agencies, the important difference in Nicaragua today is that there is a considerable degree of coherence between their own development policy and that of the Nicaragu... |
basic needs of the poor majority of the population—in health, education, housing, and food production."* Aid agencies have been able to work with Nicaragua's committed, not corrupted civil service in a relationship with the government quite different from the paternalistic relationships of the past. *Aid That Counts—Th... |
Buren, Alicia Gariazzo, Anjali Sundaram and Peter Utting; Transnational Institute (Holland) and Coordinadora Regional de Investigaciones Económicas y Sociales, pp. 98-101. Hurricane Joan puts at risk the ability of the Nicaraguan revolution to carry out the dream of a better life for its people. A government with human... |
trade and credit embargoes, and the flight of its professionals brought on by economic decline. Without an outpouring of aid not only for relief but for development, the hurricane may be the burden that tips the balance. It destroys people’s lives and productive capacity, reverses the few economic advances made this ye... |
finances and threatens to rob people of hope. And if the Nicaraguan people are robbed of hope, then we are all robbed of hope. That is why this big disaster in such small country will have an impact reaching far beyond its borders. JUANA, LA HURACANA We have to pick up the pieces of everything that was destroyed. Becau... |
Studies suggest that only 31% of Europe is thought to have a water supply that is either plentiful or sufficient to meet demands until 2015, and water stress indexes show a number of countries with traditionally wet climates such as Belgium and Bulgaria, under significant water stress. Therefore, there is both a desire... |
of water over much of Europe. For industry, often economics determine the viability of water recycling, which does not necessarily fall under the standards currently being set for the major water reuse schemes. While the additional annual recycling capacity in Western Europe is set to increase by 10%, much of the Globa... |
on the municipal sector. Within the industrial sector there are opportunities to achieve major changes in the water cycle which can have a significant impact on total water consumption. The impact on regional water consumption by industries efforts can be massive, as industry accounts for 50% of the water consumption i... |
analysed, we find that industries ranging from paper mills, dairy, beverage, ceramic and electronics have opportunities to reduce their water consumption by around 50%. But what are the mechanisms that drive actions in the industry water cycle, and how great can the impact be? This paper explores industrial water costs... |
As operators of water and wastewater facilities for many industrial customers across Europe, Ondeo Industrial Solutions examine the raw water costs and the viability of recycle schemes. Economics is not the only driver towards the reduction in water consumption on industrial sites. There are political and legislative d... |
Prevention and Control) directive that can often lead to a programme of water consumption reductions. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply is published as an adjunct to Water Science and Technology, in 6 issues per year, covering new developments in water supply. Papers are selected by a rigorous peer review proc... |
A diverse fauna is also found in this relatively high rainfall region. However, the region around Perth is heavily developed and much of this region has already been cleared. While there are several large protected areas in the region, continued development, habitat fragmentation, dieback disease, and inappropriate fir... |
Swan Coastal Plain forms a low-lying belt 25 kilometers (km) to 30 km wide, bordered to the east by the Darling Scarp and the Precambrian Yilgarn Block. The Swan Coastal Plain is covered by shoreline and associated dune deposits from the Pleistocene and Holocene that overlie Paleozoic and Neogene deposits of the Perth ... |
the Swan-Canning Estuary and a number of lakes cut off from the sea by barrier dunes. The Swan Coastal Plain is transected by rivers flowing west from the Darling Plateau, and interspersed by wetlands. Progressing inland from the coast, coastal dunes with scrub-heath communities give way to woodlands. Kwongan (an Abori... |
of the coastal dunes. Generally, kwongan scrub heath grows on sandy plains and swales and on lateritic upland soils while mallee eucalyptus woodland grows on duplex soils of upper valley slopes. Open heath favors drier areas, while a better water table allows the development of eucalypt shrubs. Scrub-heath species incl... |
floribunda) become locally dominant in drier areas. Shrubs are present, largely in wetter areas, with Acacia, Adenanthos, Banksia, Casuarina, Dryandra, Grevillea, and Hakea species found here. Eucalypt woodlands can be found on the sandy loams, loams, and heavy loams on lower slopes and valley floors. Tall tuart (Eucal... |
monospecific stands, but can also be found with E. decipiens and/or E. cornuta. In the south, pure stands grow with peppermint (Agonis flexuosa), while in the north, peppermint is replaced by small Banksia trees and Casuarina fraserana. Now largely cleared, marri (Eucalyptus calophylla)–kingia (Kingia australis) woodla... |
grow on the Swan Coastal Plain. Western Australia contains approximately 12,000 angiosperms (half of Australia's total flora), 75 percent of which are endemic to the southwestern region. The southwestern Mediterranean climate regions are estimated to contain 8,000 species, with three quarters endemic. Finally, the Swan... |
have the centers of their distribution in the Mediterranean climate, southwestern region. Other genera are wholly restricted to the southwestern region, including Dryandra and Synaphea. Endemism is highest at the species level, and there are few endemic plant families. Mediterranean-climate vegetation shows a variety o... |
of the Mistletoe family to grow as a tree. Three quarters of the world's carnivorous Drosera species are found in Western Australia, many of them in the kwongan and sandplain heaths, obtaining nitrogen and phosphorus from the insects they capture. Also noteworthy, approximately 15 percent of southwestern wildflowers ar... |
rostratus), the only mammal apart from some bats to subsist entirely on nectar and pollen. Other mammals found in this ecoregion include tammar wallabies (Macropus eugenii), which were widely distributed in this ecoregion prior to European settlement, but remain offshore on Garden Island. In Western Australia the tamma... |
grasses, which are rare in the southwestern forested regions. Tammar wallabies feed on these grasses. Rottnest Island lies 18 kilometers (km) offshore of Perth and harbors a stable population of quokkas (Setonix brachyurus VU), probably because there are no foxes. Heathland and wildflower habitats contain a rich avifau... |
and the short-billed black-cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus latirostris EN) which inhabits sandplain woodlands and mallee, and the long-billed black-cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus baudinii) which is found in open eucalypt woodland and farmland. Seasonal wetlands (dry in the summer and wet in winter) are the most diverse habitat on... |
next richest, containing 7 major communities. The junction between the Swan Coastal Plain and the Darling Scarp is biologically diverse with relatively fertile soils, granite outcrops, and unusual clay-based ephemeral swamps. These swamps provide habitat for the critically endangered western swamp tortoise (Pseudemydur... |
ephemeral swamps over the clay soils of the Swan River Valley. The region around Perth is known for a diverse herpetofauna, including 16 frogs, two freshwater turtles, 51 lizards, and 24 snakes. Nearly 80 percent of the Swan Coastal Plain has been cleared. Sandplain heathlands near Perth have almost entirely been conve... |
the Darling Scarp and has spread in a north-south direction as well. A number of Swan Coastal Plain woodland communities are listed as Endangered under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act: marri (Eucalyptus calophylla)–kingia (Kingia australis) woodlands on heavy soils, marri (Euca... |
Muchea Limestone of the Swan Coastal Plain, and shrublands and woodlands on Perth to Gingin ironstone. Protected areas in this ecoregion include the Hills Forest conservation area which comprises five national parks (John Forrest, Gooseberry Hill, Greenmount, Kalamunda, and Lesmurdie Falls) and the Mount Dale Conservat... |
and Southwest Australia woodlands ecoregions. Types and Severity of Threats Continuing urban expansion and human use are severe threats. Proteaceae are susceptible to dieback disease caused by Phytophthora spp, and its spread through the wildflower heathlands is a serious concern. Too frequent fires may significantly a... |
the coastal plain they are commonly the agent for woodland invasion by weeds. Justification of Ecoregion Delineation This ecoregion occupies the Swan Coastal Plain, bounded by the ocean to the west and by the Yilgarn Block to the east. It has the same boundary as the 'Swan Coastal Plain' Interim Biogeographic Region of... |
summary of this entry, see the WWF WildWorld profile of this ecoregion. - To see the species that live in this ecoregion, including images and threat levels, see the WWF Wildfinder description of this ecoregion. - World Wildlife Fund Homepage - Beadle, N. C. W. 1981. The Vegetation of Australia. Cambridge University Pr... |
Botanical Province. Pages 484–489 in S. D. Davis, V. H. Heywood and A. C. Hamilton. editors. Centres of Plant Diversity. Volume 2. Asia, Australasia, and the Pacific. WWF/IUCN, IUCN Publications Unit, Cambridge, UK. ISBN: 2831701988 - Cogger, H., E. Cameron, R. Sadlier, and P. Eggler. 1993. The action plan for Australi... |
firewood, woodlands. Department of the Environment and Water Resources. Viewed on October 10, 2001. - Hilton-Taylor, C. 2000. The IUCN 2000 Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, United Kingdom. ISBN: 2831705657 - Hopper, S. D., M. S. Harvey, J. A. Chappill, A. R. Main, and B. Y. Main. ... |
1-46 in S. D. Hopper, J. A. Chappill, M. S. Harvey, and A. S. George, editors. Gondwanan Heritage: past, present, and future of the western Australian biota. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia. ISBN: 0949324663 - Johnson, B. and C. Thomson. 1996. Mammals of the South-West. Department of Conservation and L... |
editors. 1995. An Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia: A Framework for Setting Priorities in the National Reserves System Cooperative Program. Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra. - Wardell-Johnson, G. and P. Horwitz. 1996. Conserving biodiversity and the recognition of heterogeneity in anci... |
A. Shmida. 2000. What makes nutrient-poor mediterranean heathlands so rich in plant diversity? Evolutionary Ecology Research 2: 935–955. - White, M. E. 1994. After the Greening: the browning of Australia. Kangaroo Press, Kenthurst, New South Wales, Australia. ISBN: 086417585X - Yates, C. J., R. J. Hobbs, and D. T. True... |
R. J. Hobbs and C. J. Yates. editors. Temperate Eucalypt Woodlands in Australia: biology, conservation, management, and restoration. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia. ISBN: 0949324868 Disclaimer: This article is taken wholly from, or contains information that was originally published by, the World Wildl... |
The use of information from the World Wildlife Fund should not be construed as support for or endorsement by that organization for any new information added by EoE personnel, or for any editing of the original content. |
An earthquake is a sudden vibration or trembling in the Earth. More than 150,000 tremors strong enough to be felt by humans occur each year worldwide (see Chance of an Earthquake). Earthquake motion is caused by the quick release of |
stored potential energy into the kinetic energy of motion. Most earthquakes are produced along faults, tectonic plate boundary zones, or along the mid-oceanic ridges (Figures 1 and 2). Figure 1: Distribution of earthquake epicenters from 1975 to 1995. Depth of |
the earthquake focus is indicated by color. Deep earthquakes occur in areas where oceanic crust is being actively subducted. About 90% of all earthquakes occur at a depth between 0 and 100 kilometers. (Source: U.S. Geologic Survey, National Earthquake Information |
Center) Figure 2: Distribution of earthquakes with a magnitude less than 5.0 relative to the various tectonic plates found on the Earth's surface. Each tectonic plate has been given a unique color. This illustration indicates that the majority of small |
earthquakes occur along plate boundaries. (Source: PhysicalGeography.net) At these areas, large masses of rock that are moving past each other can become locked due to friction. Friction is overcome when the accumulating stress has enough force to cause a sudden |
slippage of the rock masses. The magnitude of the shock wave released into the surrounding rocks is controlled by the quantity of stress built up because of friction, the distance the rock moved when the slippage occurred, and ability of |
the rock to transmit the energy contained in the seismic waves. The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 involved a six meter horizontal displacement of bedrock. Sometime after the main shock wave, aftershocks can occur because of the continued release of |
frictional stress. Most aftershocks are smaller than the main earthquake, but they can still cause considerable damage to already weakened natural and human-constructed features. Earthquakes that occur under or near bodies of water can give rise to tsunamis, which in |
cases like the December 26, 2004 Sumatra-Andaman Island earthquake reult in far greater distruction and loss of life that the initial earthquake. Earthquakes are a form of wave energy that is transferred through bedrock. Motion is transmitted from the point |
of sudden energy release, the earthquake focus (hypocenter), as spherical seismic waves that travel in all directions outward (Figure 3). The point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus is termed the epicenter. Two different types of seismic waves |
have been described by geologists: body waves and surface waves. Body waves are seismic waves that travel through the lithosphere. Two kinds of body waves exist: P-waves and S-waves. Both of these waves produce a sharp jolt or shaking. P-waves |
or primary waves are formed by the alternate expansion and contraction of bedrock and cause the volume of the material they travel through to change. They travel at a speed of about 5 to 7 kilometers per second through the |
lithosphere and about 8 kilometers per second in the asthenosphere. The speed of sound is about 0.30 kilometers per second. P-waves also have the ability to travel through solid, liquid, and gaseous materials. When some P-waves move from the ground |
to the lower atmosphere, the sound wave that is produced can sometimes be heard by humans and animals. Figure 3: Movement of body waves away from the focus of the earthquake. The epicenter is the location on the surface directly |
above the earthquake's focus. (Source: PhysicalGeography.net) S-waves or secondary waves are a second type of body wave. These waves are slower than P-waves and can only move through solid materials. S-waves are produced by shear stresses and move the materials |
they pass through in a perpendicular (up and down or side to side) direction. Surface waves travel at or near the Earth's surface. These waves produce a rolling or swaying motion causing the Earth's surface to behave like waves on |
the ocean. The velocity of these waves is slower than body waves. Despite their slow speed, these waves are particularly destructive to human construction because they cause considerable ground movement. Earthquake Magnitude and Energy |Table 1: Relationship between Richter Scale |
a device called a seismograph. When an earthquake occurs this device converts the wave energy into a standard unit of measurement like the Richter scale. In the Richter scale, units of measurement are referred to as magnitudes. The Richter scale |
is logarithmic. Thus, each unit increase in magnitude represents 10 times more energy released. Table 1 describes the relationship between Richter scale magnitude and energy released. The following equation can be used to approximate the amount of energy released from |
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