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20,400 | One of the most common methods for estimating the parameters of a distribution from data, the method of maximum likelihood (MLE), can break down in various cases, such as involving certain mixtures of continuous distributions. In these cases the method of maximum spacing estimation may be successful. Apart from its use... | Maximum spacing estimation | 0.810901 |
20,401 | In statistics, maximum spacing estimation (MSE or MSP), or maximum product of spacing estimation (MPS), is a method for estimating the parameters of a univariate statistical model. The method requires maximization of the geometric mean of spacings in the data, which are the differences between the values of the cumulat... | Maximum spacing estimation | 0.810901 |
20,402 | The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) Classification System is a drug classification system that classifies the active ingredients of drugs according to the organ or system on which they act and their therapeutic, pharmacological and chemical properties. Its purpose is an aid to monitor drug use and for research to... | Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System | 0.810899 |
20,403 | Church's paper (published 15 April 1936) showed that the Entscheidungsproblem was indeed "undecidable" and beat Turing to the punch by almost a year (Turing's paper submitted 28 May 1936, published January 1937). In the meantime, Emil Post submitted a brief paper in the fall of 1936, so Turing at least had priority ove... | Turing Machine simulator | 0.810895 |
20,404 | The first two questions were answered in 1930 by Kurt Gödel at the very same meeting where Hilbert delivered his retirement speech (much to the chagrin of Hilbert); the third—the Entscheidungsproblem—had to wait until the mid-1930s. The problem was that an answer first required a precise definition of "definite general... | Turing Machine simulator | 0.810895 |
20,405 | ISBN 978-0-385-49243-0. Hao Wang, "A variant to Turing's theory of computing machines", Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery (JACM) 4, 63–92 (1957). Charles Petzold, The Annotated Turing, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., ISBN 0-470-22905-5 Arora, Sanjeev; Barak, Boaz, "Complexity Theory: A Modern Approach", Cambr... | Turing Machine simulator | 0.810895 |
20,406 | W. H. Freeman and Company, New York. ISBN 978-0-7167-2064-5. Roger Penrose, The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of Physics, Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York, 1989 (1990 corrections), ISBN 0-19-851973-7. | Turing Machine simulator | 0.810895 |
20,407 | The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) has described SI as "the modern form of metric system". : 95 Changing technology has led to an evolution of the definitions and standards that has followed two principal strands – changes to SI itself, and clarification of how to use units of measure that are not ... | SI multiple | 0.810892 |
20,408 | (B, ∇, η, Δ, ε) is a bialgebra over K if it has the following properties: B is a vector space over K; there are K-linear maps (multiplication) ∇: B ⊗ B → B (equivalent to K-multilinear map ∇: B × B → B) and (unit) η: K → B, such that (B, ∇, η) is a unital associative algebra; there are K-linear maps (comultiplication) ... | Bialgebra | 0.810884 |
20,409 | The K-linear map Δ: B → B ⊗ B is coassociative if ( i d B ⊗ Δ ) ∘ Δ = ( Δ ⊗ i d B ) ∘ Δ {\displaystyle (\mathrm {id} _{B}\otimes \Delta )\circ \Delta =(\Delta \otimes \mathrm {id} _{B})\circ \Delta } . The K-linear map ε: B → K is a counit if ( i d B ⊗ ϵ ) ∘ Δ = i d B = ( ϵ ⊗ i d B ) ∘ Δ {\displaystyle (\mathrm {id} _{... | Bialgebra | 0.810884 |
20,410 | Other examples of bialgebras include the tensor algebra, which can be made into a bialgebra by adding the appropriate comultiplication and counit; these are worked out in detail in that article. Bialgebras can often be extended to Hopf algebras, if an appropriate antipode can be found. Thus, all Hopf algebras are examp... | Bialgebra | 0.810884 |
20,411 | Similar bialgebras are related by bialgebra homomorphisms. A bialgebra homomorphism is a linear map that is both an algebra and a coalgebra homomorphism. As reflected in the symmetry of the commutative diagrams, the definition of bialgebra is self-dual, so if one can define a dual of B (which is always possible if B is... | Bialgebra | 0.810884 |
20,412 | In mathematics, a bialgebra over a field K is a vector space over K which is both a unital associative algebra and a counital coassociative coalgebra. The algebraic and coalgebraic structures are made compatible with a few more axioms. Specifically, the comultiplication and the counit are both unital algebra homomorphi... | Bialgebra | 0.810884 |
20,413 | In measure theory, it is often useful to allow sets that have infinite measure and integrals whose value may be infinite. Such measures arise naturally out of calculus. For example, in assigning a measure to R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } that agrees with the usual length of intervals, this measure must be larger than ... | Extended real number | 0.810883 |
20,414 | Rare diseases with higher prevalences can be estimated through a screening panel or patient registries, while diseases which are exceedingly rare may only be able to be estimated through a multi-step nationwide reporting process or case reports. Therefore, the data is often incomplete and complex to amalgamate, compare... | Rare diseases | 0.810881 |
20,415 | The Winograd schema challenge (WSC) is a test of machine intelligence proposed in 2012 by Hector Levesque, a computer scientist at the University of Toronto. Designed to be an improvement on the Turing test, it is a multiple-choice test that employs questions of a very specific structure: they are instances of what are... | Winograd Schemas Challenge | 0.810877 |
20,416 | The Winograd Schema Challenge was proposed in the spirit of the Turing test. Proposed by Alan Turing in 1950, the Turing test plays a central role in the philosophy of artificial intelligence. Turing proposed that, instead of debating whether a machine can think, the science of AI should be concerned with demonstrating... | Winograd Schemas Challenge | 0.810877 |
20,417 | In molecular biology, bacteriophage scaffolding proteins are proteins involved in bacteriophage assembly. The assembly of a macromolecular structure proceeds via a specific pathway of ordered events and involves conformational changes in the proteins as they join the assembly. The assembly process is aided by scaffoldi... | Bacteriophage scaffolding proteins | 0.810877 |
20,418 | Electrical engineering was the early focus of this discipline, due to work with medical devices and machinery during this time.When engineers and life scientists started working together, they recognized that the engineers didn't know enough about the actual biology behind their work. To resolve this problem, engineers... | Bioengineer | 0.810875 |
20,419 | Because other engineering disciplines also address living organisms, the term biological engineering can be applied more broadly to include agricultural engineering.The first biological engineering program in the United States was started at University of California, San Diego in 1966. More recent programs have been la... | Bioengineer | 0.810875 |
20,420 | Biological engineering is a science-based discipline founded upon the biological sciences in the same way that chemical engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering can be based upon chemistry, electricity and magnetism, and classical mechanics, respectively.Before WWII, biological engineering had be... | Bioengineer | 0.810875 |
20,421 | The average length of study is three to five years, and the completed degree is signified as a bachelor of engineering (B.S. in engineering). Fundamental courses include thermodynamics, biomechanics, biology, genetic engineering, fluid and mechanical dynamics, chemical and enzyme kinetics, electronics, and materials pr... | Bioengineer | 0.810875 |
20,422 | An example of this would be the SiO tetrahedra in pure glassy silica. This style of analysis has applications in biology and chemistry, such as understanding adaptability in protein-protein interaction networks. Rigidity theory applied to the molecular networks arising from phenotypical expression of certain diseases m... | Rigidity theory (physics) | 0.810872 |
20,423 | Rigidity theory allows the prediction of optimal isostatic compositions, as well as the composition dependence of glass properties, by a simple enumeration of constraints. These glass properties include, but are not limited to, elastic modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus, density, Poisson's ratio, coefficient of therm... | Rigidity theory (physics) | 0.810872 |
20,424 | Textual case-based reasoning (TCBR) is a subtopic of case-based reasoning, in short CBR, a popular area in artificial intelligence. CBR suggests the ways to use past experiences to solve future similar problems, requiring that past experiences be structured in a form similar to attribute-value pairs. This leads to the ... | Textual case based reasoning | 0.810872 |
20,425 | In software engineering and development, a software metric is a standard of measure of a degree to which a software system or process possesses some property. Even if a metric is not a measurement (metrics are functions, while measurements are the numbers obtained by the application of metrics), often the two terms are... | Software Metrics | 0.810867 |
20,426 | Examples include mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. synthetic biology An interdisciplinary branch of biology and engineering combining various disciplines from within these domains, including biotechnology, evolutionary biology, molecular biology, systems biology, biophysics, computer engineering, and genetic eng... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,427 | strain A genetic variant, subtype, or culture identified as a distinct taxonomic subdivision within a species. The term is most commonly used to identify particular types of bacteria and viruses. structural biology The branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of b... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,428 | sociality The degree to which individuals in an animal population tend to associate in social groups and form cooperative societies. sociobiology A branch of biology that is based on the hypothesis that social behavior has resulted from evolution and which attempts to explain and examine social behavior within that con... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,429 | Reproduction is a defining characteristic of all life, and every individual organism exists as the result of a reproductive event. There are two general methods by which reproduction takes place: sexual or asexual. reproductive biology The branch of biology that studies the various types and mechanisms of reproduction ... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,430 | As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question, but by their way of life. pathobiology The study or practice of pathology with greater emphasis on the biological than on the medical aspects. pathogen In the broadest sense, anything that can produce dis... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,431 | natural selection A process in nature in which organisms possessing certain genotypic characteristics that make them better adjusted to an environment tend to survive, reproduce, increase in number or frequency, and therefore, are able to transmit and perpetuate their essential genotypic qualities to succeeding generat... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,432 | lichen life The characteristic or collection of characteristics that distinguishes physical entities that undergo biological processes (e.g. living organisms) from that those do not (e.g. non-living, inanimate matter), either because such processes have ceased or because they were not present in the first place. What c... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,433 | evolution The change in the heritable characteristics of populations of biological organisms over successive generations, which may occur by mutation, gene flow, natural selection, or random chance. evolutionary biology The subfield of biology that studies evolution and the evolutionary processes that produced the dive... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,434 | epigenetics A sub-field of genetics that studies cellular and physiological phenotypic trait variations caused by external or environmental factors which affect how cells express genes, as opposed to those caused by changes in the DNA sequence. epiphyte An organism that grows on the surface of a plant and derives moist... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,435 | entomology The scientific study of insects. environmental biology The branch of biology concerned with the relations between organisms and their environments. enzyme A protein that acts as a biological catalyst by accelerating chemical reactions. | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,436 | embryo A developing stage of a multicellular organism. embryology The branch of biology that studies the development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. Additionally, embryology involves the study of congenital disorders that occur before birth. | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,437 | In evolutionary ecology, a genetically distinct geographic variety, population, or race within a species which is adapted to specific environmental conditions. ectoderm The outermost layer of cells or tissue of an embryo in early development, or the parts derived from this, which include the epidermis, nerve tissue, an... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,438 | ecological succession The more or less predictable and orderly set of changes that occurs in the composition or structure of an ecological community over time. ecology The scientific analysis and study of interactions between organisms and their environment. It is an interdisciplinary field that combines concepts from ... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,439 | While the deliberate exploitation of knowledge about genetics and reproductive biology in the hope of producing desirable characteristics is widely practiced in agriculture and experimental biology, artificial selection may also be unintentional and may produce unintended (desirable or undesirable) results. asexual rep... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,440 | aerobic Capable of surviving and growing in the presence of oxygen. amino acid (biochemistry) A class of organic compounds containing an amine group and a carboxylic acid group which function as the fundamental building blocks of proteins and play important roles in many other biochemical processes. anaerobic Any organ... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,441 | This glossary of biology terms is a list of definitions of fundamental terms and concepts used in biology, the study of life and of living organisms. It is intended as introductory material for novices; for more specific and technical definitions from sub-disciplines and related fields, see Glossary of cell biology, Gl... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,442 | genetic variation Variations of genomes between members of species, or between groups of species thriving in different parts of the world as a result of genetic mutation. Genetic diversity in a population or species is a result of new gene combinations (e.g. crossing over of chromosomes), genetic mutations, genetic dri... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,443 | A cell structure specialized for cell-to-cell adhesion. developmental biology The branch of biology that studies the processes by which living organisms grow and develop over time. The field may also encompass the study of reproduction, regeneration, metamorphosis, and the growth and differentiation of stem cells in ma... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,444 | cytology See cell biology. cytoplasm All of the material within a cell and enclosed by the cell membrane, except for the nucleus. The cytoplasm consists mainly of water, the gel-like cytosol, various organelles, and free-floating granules of nutrients and other biomolecules. | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,445 | The phenomenon occurs naturally but is also frequently mimicked in industry and engineering. crista A fold in the inner membrane of a mitochondrion. cryobiology The branch of biology that studies the effects of low temperatures on living things within Earth's cryosphere or in laboratory experiments. | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,446 | conservation biology The scientific study of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. convergent evolution An evolutionary process by which species of different lineages independently ... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,447 | colony comparative biology The use of comparative methods to study the similarities and differences between two or more biological organisms (e.g. two organisms from the same time period but different taxa, or two organisms from the same taxon but different times in evolutionary history). The side-by-side comparison of... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,448 | cloning The process of producing individual organisms or molecules with identical or virtually identical DNA, either naturally or artificially. Many organisms, such as bacteria, insects, and plants, are capable of naturally producing clones through asexual reproduction. In biotechnology, cloning refers to the artificia... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,449 | chemistry A branch of the physical sciences that studies the composition, structure, properties, and change of matter. Chemical interactions underlie all biological processes. chemosynthesis chlorophyll Any of several photosynthetic pigments found in cyanobacteria, algae, or plants. | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,450 | biochemistry The branch of biology that studies the chemical properties, compositions, reactions, and processes related to living organisms. biodiversity A contraction of "biological diversity" generally referring to the variety and variability of life on Earth. bioengineering The application of concepts and methods of... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,451 | basal body An organelle formed from a centriole, and a short cylindrical array of microtubules. Also called a basal granule, a kinetosome, and in older cytological literature, a blepharoplast. behavioral ecology The study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological pressures. | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,452 | multicellular Having or consisting of more than one cell, as opposed to being unicellular. mycology The branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, medicine, food, and entheogens, as well as their... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,453 | molecular biology The branch of biology concerning biological activity at the molecular level. The field of molecular biology overlaps with biology and chemistry and in particular with genetics and biochemistry. molecular switch A molecule that can be reversibly changed between two or more stable states. | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,454 | This discipline includes fundamental research on the biochemistry, physiology, cell biology, ecology, evolution and clinical aspects of microorganisms, including the host response to these agents. microevolution The alteration in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population. mitochondria (sing.) | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,455 | metabolism metamorphosis metaphase The third phase of mitosis, in which duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell is separated into two identical daughter cells. During metaphase, the cell's chromosomes align themselves in the middle of the cell through a type of cellular "tug of war". microbi... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,456 | Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy. mast cell A cell filled with basophil granules, found in numbers in connective tissue and releasing histamine and... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,457 | Macrophages engulf and digest debris (such as dead cells) and foreign particles through the process of phagocytosis, so macrophages act like scavengers. mammalogy The branch of biology that studies mammals, a class of vertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four-chambered hearts, and comp... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,458 | zoology The branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and geographical distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. zooplankton A type of heterotrophic (sometimes detritivorous) plankto... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,459 | vertebrate vesicle A small structure within or sometimes external to a cell, consisting of fluid enclosed by a lipid bilayer. vestigiality The retention during the process of evolution of genetically determined structures or attributes that have lost some or all of their ancestral function in a given species. virology ... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,460 | It is concerned with the discovering and naming of new species of organisms (nomenclature) and arranging these taxa into classification schemes (taxonomy). A large part of modern systematics is concerned with understanding the evolutionary relationships between various taxa (phylogenetics) using methods of comparative ... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,461 | It is a body-building nutrient. protist psychobiology Also called behavioral neuroscience, biological psychology, and biopsychology. The application of the principles of biology to the study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and other animals. | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,462 | population biology The study of populations of organisms, especially the regulation of population size, life history traits such as clutch size, and extinction. population ecology Also called autoecology. A subfield of ecology that deals with the dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with t... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,463 | polymerase chain reaction (PCR) A technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a segment of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence. polyploidy Having or containing more than two complete sets of chromosomes. popu... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,464 | phylogeny phylum A taxonomic rank or level of classification below kingdom and above class; in botany, the term division is commonly used in place of phylum. physiology The branch of biology dealing with the functions and activities of living organisms and their parts, including all physical and chemical processes. phy... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,465 | pathology A medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine, as well as tissues, using the tools of chemistry, clinical microbiology, hematology, and molecular pathology. pH A numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicit... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,466 | Abnormal insulin activity is the cause of diabetes mellitus. integrative biology The various forms of cross-disciplinary and multitaxon research. | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,467 | ichthyology The branch of biology devoted to the study of fish, including bony fishes (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fish (Agnatha). immune response The immune response is how your body recognizes and defends itself against bacteria, viruses, and substances that appear foreign and harm... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,468 | adaptation (evolutionary biology, population biology) Term can apply to an individual organism's adaptation to its environment, the adaptation of organisms to an environment through evolutionary processes, or the population dynamics intrisic to the evolutionary process. adenine (biochemistry) A purine-derived organic c... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,469 | cell wall A tough, often rigid structural barrier surrounding certain types of cells (such as in fungi, plants, and most prokaryotes) that is immediately external to the cell membrane. cellular Of or relating to a cell. central dogma of molecular biology A framework for understanding the movement of genetic information... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,470 | The branch of biology that studies the structure and function of living cells, including their physiological properties, metabolic processes, chemical composition, life cycle, the organelles they contain, and their interactions with their environment. This is done at both microscopic and molecular levels. cell cycle Th... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,471 | Most cells are visible only under a microscope. cell biology Also called cytology. | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,472 | blood A body fluid that circulates in humans and other vertebrate animals and is generally responsible for delivering necessary substances such as oxygen and nutrients between the cells and tissues of the body and transporting metabolic waste products away from those same cells and tissues. blood–brain barrier A semipe... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,473 | biosynthesis biotechnology Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use" (UN Convention on Biological Diversity). bip... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,474 | Biomedical research generally takes two forms: basic science and applied research. biomolecule Molecules and ions that are present in organisms, essential to some typically biological process such as cell division, morphogenesis, or development. biophysics The application of approaches traditionally employed in physics... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,475 | biomedical engineering The application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare purposes (e.g. diagnostic or therapeutic). biomedical research The pursuit of answers to medical questions. These investigations lead to discoveries, which in turn lead to the development of new p... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,476 | biome Any very large ecological area on the Earth's surface containing fauna and flora (animals and plants) adapting to their environment. Biomes are often defined by abiotic factors such as climate, topographical relief, geology, soils, and water resources. biomechanics The study of the structure and function of biolo... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,477 | bioinformatics The application of computer technology to the management of biological information. biological organization The hierarchy of complex biological structures and systems, designed to define life through a reductionist approach. biology The scientific study of life. | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,478 | Index of biology articles Outline of biology Glossaries of sub-disciplines and related fields: Glossary of botany Glossary of ecology Glossary of entomology Glossary of environmental science Glossary of genetics Glossary of ichthyology Glossary of ornithology Glossary of scientific naming Glossary of speciation Glossar... | Glossary of biology | 0.810863 |
20,479 | The Growth of Biological Thought (992 pages, Belknap Press, ISBN 0674364465) is a book written by Ernst Mayr, first published in 1982. It is subtitled Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance, and is as much a book of philosophy and history as it is of biology.It is a sweeping, academic study of the first 2,400 years of t... | The Growth of Biological Thought | 0.810863 |
20,480 | The study of catalysis and catalytic reactions is very important to the field of physical organic chemistry. A catalyst participates in the chemical reaction but is not consumed in the process. A catalyst lowers the activation energy barrier (ΔG‡), increasing the rate of a reaction by either stabilizing the transition ... | Physical organic | 0.810862 |
20,481 | The properties of acids and bases are relevant to physical organic chemistry. Organic chemists are primarily concerned with Brønsted–Lowry acids/bases as proton donors/acceptors and Lewis acids/bases as electron acceptors/donors in organic reactions. Chemists use a series of factors developed from physical chemistry --... | Physical organic | 0.810862 |
20,482 | Physical organic chemists use theoretical and experimental approaches work to understand these foundational problems in organic chemistry, including classical and statistical thermodynamic calculations, quantum mechanical theory and computational chemistry, as well as experimental spectroscopy (e.g., NMR), spectrometry... | Physical organic | 0.810862 |
20,483 | Physical organic chemistry, a term coined by Louis Hammett in 1940, refers to a discipline of organic chemistry that focuses on the relationship between chemical structures and reactivity, in particular, applying experimental tools of physical chemistry to the study of organic molecules. Specific focal points of study ... | Physical organic | 0.810862 |
20,484 | Physical organic chemistry often entails the identification of molecular structure, dynamics, and the concentration of reactants in the course of a reaction. The interaction of molecules with light can afford a wealth of data about such properties through nondestructive spectroscopic experiments, with light absorbed wh... | Physical organic | 0.810862 |
20,485 | Physical organic chemistry is the study of the relationship between structure and reactivity of organic molecules. More specifically, physical organic chemistry applies the experimental tools of physical chemistry to the study of the structure of organic molecules and provides a theoretical framework that interprets ho... | Physical organic | 0.810862 |
20,486 | Michael B. Smith & Jerry March, 2007, "March's Advanced Organic Chemistry: Reactions, Mechanisms, and Structure," 6th Ed., New York, NY, USA:Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0470084944, accessed 19 June 2015. Francis A. Carey & Richard J. Sundberg, 2006, "Advanced Organic Chemistry: Part A: Structure and Mechanisms," 4th Edn., New Y... | Physical organic | 0.810862 |
20,487 | Peter Atkins & Julio de Paula, 2006, "Physical chemistry," 8th Edn., New York, NY, USA:Macmillan, ISBN 0716787598, accessed 21 June 2015. Thomas H. Lowry & Kathleen Schueller Richardson, 1987, Mechanism and Theory in Organic Chemistry, 3rd Edn., New York, NY, USA:Harper & Row, ISBN 0060440848, accessed 20 June 2015. Er... | Physical organic | 0.810862 |
20,488 | The thermochemistry of reactive intermediates—carbocations, carbanions, and radicals—is also of interest to physical organic chemists. Group increment data are available for radical systems. Carbocation and carbanion stabilities can be assessed using hydride ion affinities and pKa values, respectively. | Physical organic | 0.810862 |
20,489 | One of the most powerful tools in physical organic chemistry is NMR spectroscopy. An external magnetic field applied to a paramagnetic nucleus generates two discrete states, with positive and negative spin values diverging in energy; the difference in energy can then be probed by determining the frequency of light need... | Physical organic | 0.810862 |
20,490 | (eds.). Computational Thermochemistry: Prediction and Estimation of Molecular Thermodynamics. ACS Symposium Series. | Physical organic | 0.810862 |
20,491 | (1998). "Computational Thermochemistry". In Irikura, Karl K.; Frurip, David J. | Physical organic | 0.810862 |
20,492 | For instance, two-dimensional convex hulls can be computed using predicates that test the sign of quadratic polynomials, and therefore may require twice as many bits of precision within these calculations as the input numbers. When integer arithmetic cannot be used (for instance, when the result of a calculation is an ... | Robust geometric computation | 0.810859 |
20,493 | In mathematics, specifically in computational geometry, geometric nonrobustness is a problem wherein branching decisions in computational geometry algorithms are based on approximate numerical computations, leading to various forms of unreliability including ill-formed output and software failure through crashing or in... | Robust geometric computation | 0.810859 |
20,494 | The cost of this outcome (8 in the above example) can be shared among the agents. A cost-allocation is good if no sub-group of agents can deviate and get a lower cost for itself (such cost-allocation is said to be in the core of the game). In the above example: The cost-vector (5,2,1) is not in the core, since Alice ca... | Facility location (cooperative game) | 0.810857 |
20,495 | The classical band structure of solid state physics predicts the Fermi level to lie in a band gap for insulators and in the conduction band for metals, which means metallic behavior is seen for compounds with partially filled bands. However, some compounds have been found which show insulating behavior even for partial... | Metal–insulator transition | 0.810853 |
20,496 | Thus, the Responder can detect the communicating Controller and stay listening. If there are many Responders and if the Controller uses only the one-to-one Request PDU, the Responder will stay listening for all commands sent and received on the network, and therefore may stay permanently awake. The use of responder gro... | IEEE 1902.1 | 0.810852 |
20,497 | According to the site, the guide has a total of 26 knowledge areas distributed among the different parts. However, the majority of these knowledge areas can be grouped to form nine general knowledge areas. The general and specific knowledge areas are: Science & Technology Knowledge Introduction to Life Cycle Processes ... | Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge | 0.810851 |
20,498 | The Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge (SEBoK), formally known as Guide to the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge, is a wiki-based collection of key knowledge sources and references for systems engineering. The SEBoK is a curated wiki meaning that the content is managed by an editorial board, and updated on a reg... | Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge | 0.810851 |
20,499 | This switch to a wiki-based SEBoK began with v.0.50.The first version of the SEBoK for public use was published online in September 2012. The initial release was named 2012 product of the year by the International Council on Systems Engineering. Since then, the guide had several revisions and minor updates leading to t... | Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge | 0.810851 |
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