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24,900 | Computer Engineering Computer Science and Engineering Civil Engineering — a wide-ranging field, including building engineering, civil engineering, construction engineering, industrial, manufacturing, mechanical, materials and control engineering Electrical and Computer Engineering/Electronic Engineering — very diverse ... | Bachelor of Engineering | 0.807913 |
24,901 | A Bachelor of Engineering degree will usually be undertaken in one field of engineering, which is sometimes noted in the degree postnominals, as in B.E., B.AE. (Aero), or B.Eng (Elec). Common fields for the Bachelor of Engineering degree include the following fields: Aerospace Engineering Agricultural Engineering Archi... | Bachelor of Engineering | 0.807913 |
24,902 | Sensory neuroscience studies the neural mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be studied computationally, in terms of the information they process. Perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities such as sound, smell or color exist in objective reality rather than i... | Distal stimulus | 0.807912 |
24,903 | Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness. Since the rise of experimental psychology in the 19th century, psychology's understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques... | Distal stimulus | 0.807912 |
24,904 | A formal system is an abstract structure used for inferring theorems from axioms according to a set of rules. These rules, which are used for carrying out the inference of theorems from axioms, are the logical calculus of the formal system. A formal system is essentially an "axiomatic system".In 1921, David Hilbert pro... | Logical calculus | 0.807909 |
24,905 | Algebras for which the logic MTL is sound are called MTL-algebras. They can be characterized as prelinear commutative bounded integral residuated lattices. In more detail, an algebraic structure ( L , ∧ , ∨ , ∗ , ⇒ , 0 , 1 ) {\displaystyle (L,\wedge ,\vee ,\ast ,\Rightarrow ,0,1)} is an MTL-algebra if ( L , ∧ , ∨ , 0 ,... | Monoidal t-norm logic | 0.807906 |
24,906 | Like algebras for other fuzzy logics, MTL-algebras enjoy the following linear subdirect decomposition property: Every MTL-algebra is a subdirect product of linearly ordered MTL-algebras. (A subdirect product is a subalgebra of the direct product such that all projection maps are surjective. An MTL-algebra is linearly o... | Monoidal t-norm logic | 0.807906 |
24,907 | The logic MTL is sound and complete with respect to the class of all MTL-algebras (Esteva & Godo, 2001): A formula is provable in MTL if and only if it is valid in all MTL-algebras.The notion of MTL-algebra is in fact so defined that MTL-algebras form the class of all algebras for which the logic MTL is sound. Furtherm... | Monoidal t-norm logic | 0.807906 |
24,908 | The language of the propositional logic MTL consists of countably many propositional variables and the following primitive logical connectives: Implication → {\displaystyle \rightarrow } (binary) Strong conjunction ⊗ {\displaystyle \otimes } (binary). The sign & is a more traditional notation for strong conjunction in ... | Monoidal t-norm logic | 0.807906 |
24,909 | Standard are called those MTL-algebras whose lattice reduct is the real unit interval . They are uniquely determined by the real-valued function that interprets strong conjunction, which can be any left-continuous t-norm ∗ {\displaystyle \ast } . The standard MTL-algebra determined by a left-continuous t-norm ∗ {\displ... | Monoidal t-norm logic | 0.807906 |
24,910 | Like in other propositional t-norm fuzzy logics, algebraic semantics is predominantly used for MTL, with three main classes of algebras with respect to which the logic is complete: General semantics, formed of all MTL-algebras — that is, all algebras for which the logic is sound Linear semantics, formed of all linear M... | Monoidal t-norm logic | 0.807906 |
24,911 | (For example, the complexifications of the three Albert algebras over the real numbers are isomorphic Albert algebras over the complex numbers.) Because of this, for a general field F, the Albert algebras are classified by the Galois cohomology group H1(F,G).The Kantor–Koecher–Tits construction applied to an Albert alg... | Albert algebra | 0.807904 |
24,912 | Another is defined the same way, but using split octonions instead of octonions. The final is constructed from the non-split octonions using a different standard involution. Over any algebraically closed field, there is just one Albert algebra, and its automorphism group G is the simple split group of type F4. | Albert algebra | 0.807904 |
24,913 | In mathematics, an Albert algebra is a 27-dimensional exceptional Jordan algebra. They are named after Abraham Adrian Albert, who pioneered the study of non-associative algebras, usually working over the real numbers. Over the real numbers, there are three such Jordan algebras up to isomorphism. One of them, which was ... | Albert algebra | 0.807904 |
24,914 | However if the sample size is not large enough for these estimates to be reasonably accurate, the Z-test may not perform well. The test statistic should follow a normal distribution. Generally, one appeals to the central limit theorem to justify assuming that a test statistic varies normally. | Z test | 0.807903 |
24,915 | For the Z-test to be applicable, certain conditions must be met. Nuisance parameters should be known, or estimated with high accuracy (an example of a nuisance parameter would be the standard deviation in a one-sample location test). Z-tests focus on a single parameter, and treat all other unknown parameters as being f... | Z test | 0.807903 |
24,916 | Because of the central limit theorem, many test statistics are approximately normally distributed for large samples. Therefore, many statistical tests can be conveniently performed as approximate Z-tests if the sample size is large or the population variance is known. If the population variance is unknown (and therefor... | Z test | 0.807903 |
24,917 | More generally, if θ ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\theta }}} is the maximum likelihood estimate of a parameter θ, and θ0 is the value of θ under the null hypothesis, θ ^ − θ 0 S E ( θ ^ ) {\displaystyle {\frac {{\hat {\theta }}-\theta _{0}}{{\rm {SE}}({\hat {\theta }})}}} can be used as a Z-test statistic. When using a Z-te... | Z test | 0.807903 |
24,918 | In computability theory, the T predicate, first studied by mathematician Stephen Cole Kleene, is a particular set of triples of natural numbers that is used to represent computable functions within formal theories of arithmetic. Informally, the T predicate tells whether a particular computer program will halt when run ... | Kleene's T predicate | 0.807903 |
24,919 | The T k {\displaystyle T_{k}} predicates can be used to obtain Kleene's normal form theorem for computable functions (Soare 1987, p. 15; Kleene 1943, p. 52—53). This states there exists a fixed primitive recursive function U {\displaystyle U} such that a function f: N k → N {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {N} ^{k}\rightarrow ... | Kleene's T predicate | 0.807903 |
24,920 | Multiple cloning sites are a feature that allows for the insertion of foreign DNA without disrupting the rest of the plasmid which makes it extremely useful in biotechnology, bioengineering, and molecular genetics. MCS can aid in making transgenic organisms, more commonly known as a genetically modified organism (GMO) ... | Multiple cloning site | 0.807901 |
24,921 | Every λ-system is a directed set with respect to ⊆ . {\displaystyle \,\subseteq \,.} Every filter, topology, and σ-algebra is a directed set with respect to both ⊇ {\displaystyle \,\supseteq \,} and ⊆ . | Directed set | 0.807901 |
24,922 | Likewise, lattices are directed sets both upward and downward. In topology, directed sets are used to define nets, which generalize sequences and unite the various notions of limit used in analysis. Directed sets also give rise to direct limits in abstract algebra and (more generally) category theory. | Directed set | 0.807901 |
24,923 | The full potential of parameterized approximation algorithms is utilized when a given optimization problem is shown to admit an α {\displaystyle \alpha } -approximation algorithm running in f ( k ) n O ( 1 ) {\displaystyle f(k)n^{O(1)}} time, while in contrast the problem neither has a polynomial-time α {\displaystyle ... | Parameterized approximation algorithm | 0.8079 |
24,924 | A parameterized approximation algorithm is a type of algorithm that aims to find approximate solutions to NP-hard optimization problems in polynomial time in the input size and a function of a specific parameter. These algorithms are designed to combine the best aspects of both traditional approximation algorithms and ... | Parameterized approximation algorithm | 0.8079 |
24,925 | An optimization variant of the k-Clique problem is the Densest k-Subgraph problem (which is a 2-ary Constraint Satisfaction problem), where the task is to find a subgraph on k {\displaystyle k} vertices with maximum number of edges. It is not hard to obtain a ( k − 1 ) {\displaystyle (k-1)} -approximation by just picki... | Parameterized approximation algorithm | 0.8079 |
24,926 | In modern particle accelerators at high energies, the predictions of special relativity are routinely confirmed, and are necessary for the design and theoretical evaluation of collision experiments, especially in the ultrarelativistic limit. For instance, time dilation must be taken into account to understand the dynam... | Tests of relativistic energy and momentum | 0.807899 |
24,927 | The Bryologist a scientific journal began publication in 1898, and includes articles on all aspects of the biology of mosses, hornworts, liverworts and lichens and also book reviews. It is published by The American Bryological and Lichenological Society. | Bryology | 0.807898 |
24,928 | This section shows exemplarily how commutator calculus can be used for determining the kernels and targets of Artin transfers explicitly. As a concrete example we take the metabelian 3 {\displaystyle 3} -groups with bicyclic centre, which are represented by big full disks as vertices, of the coclass tree diagram in Fig... | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807898 |
24,929 | Theorem. Let G {\displaystyle G} be a group with nested subgroups K ≤ H ≤ G {\displaystyle K\leq H\leq G} such that ( G: H ) = n , ( H: K ) = m {\displaystyle (G:H)=n,(H:K)=m} and ( G: K ) = ( G: H ) ⋅ ( H: K ) = n m < ∞ . {\displaystyle (G:K)=(G:H)\cdot (H:K)=nm<\infty .} Then the Artin transfer T G , K {\displaystyle... | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807898 |
24,930 | Theorem. Let ( g 1 , … , g n ) {\displaystyle (g_{1},\ldots ,g_{n})} be a left transversal of H {\displaystyle H} in G {\displaystyle G} . The Artin transfer { T G , H: G → H / H ′ x ↦ ∏ i = 1 n g π x ( i ) − 1 x g i ⋅ H ′ {\displaystyle {\begin{cases}T_{G,H}:G\to H/H'\\x\mapsto \prod _{i=1}^{n}g_{\pi _{x}(i)}^{-1}xg_{... | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807898 |
24,931 | Formula (10) proves the following statement. Theorem. The stabilizer representation { G → S m ≀ S n x ↦ γ x = ( σ u x ( 1 ) , … , σ u x ( n ) ; π x ) {\displaystyle {\begin{cases}G\to S_{m}\wr S_{n}\\x\mapsto \gamma _{x}=(\sigma _{u_{x}(1)},\ldots ,\sigma _{u_{x}(n)};\pi _{x})\end{cases}}} of the group G {\displaystyle... | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807898 |
24,932 | Remark. The monomial representation of the theorem stands in contrast to the permutation representation, which cannot be injective if | G | > n ! . | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807898 |
24,933 | {\displaystyle (8)\quad (u_{x}(1),\ldots ,u_{x}(n);\pi _{x})\cdot (u_{y}(1),\ldots ,u_{y}(n);\pi _{y}):=(u_{x}(\pi _{y}(1))\cdot u_{y}(1),\ldots ,u_{x}(\pi _{y}(n))\cdot u_{y}(n);\pi _{x}\circ \pi _{y})=(u_{xy}(1),\ldots ,u_{xy}(n);\pi _{xy}).} Theorem. With this law of composition on H n × S n {\displaystyle H^{n}\tim... | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807898 |
24,934 | Moreover, if ker ( ϕ ) ≤ H ′ {\displaystyle \ker(\phi )\leq H'} , then the map ϕ ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {\phi }}} is an isomorphism (See Figure 2).Proof. This claim is a consequence of the Main Theorem in the article on the induced homomorphism. | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807898 |
24,935 | Let H {\displaystyle H} be a normal subgroup of finite index n {\displaystyle n} in a group G {\displaystyle G} . Then we have x H = H x {\displaystyle xH=Hx} , for all x ∈ G {\displaystyle x\in G} , and there exists the quotient group G / H {\displaystyle G/H} of order n {\displaystyle n} . For an element x ∈ G {\disp... | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807898 |
24,936 | Burnside's basis theorem asserts that the group G {\displaystyle G} can be generated by two elements x , y {\displaystyle x,y} such that x p 2 , y p ∈ G ′ . {\displaystyle x^{p^{2}},y^{p}\in G'.} | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807898 |
24,937 | For each 1 ≤ i ≤ p + 1 {\displaystyle 1\leq i\leq p+1} , let T i: G → H i / H i ′ {\displaystyle T_{i}:G\to H_{i}/H_{i}'} be the Artin transfer homomorphism. According to Burnside's basis theorem the group G {\displaystyle G} can therefore be generated by two elements x , y {\displaystyle x,y} such that x p , y p ∈ G ′... | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807898 |
24,938 | In the mathematical field of group theory, an Artin transfer is a certain homomorphism from an arbitrary finite or infinite group to the commutator quotient group of a subgroup of finite index. Originally, such mappings arose as group theoretic counterparts of class extension homomorphisms of abelian extensions of alge... | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807898 |
24,939 | To keep the descendant numbers manageable, the trees are pruned by eliminating vertices of depth bigger than one. Further, we omit trees where stabilization criteria enforce a common TKT of all vertices, since we do not consider such trees as structured any more. The invariants listed include pre-period and period leng... | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807897 |
24,940 | Let ( g 1 , … , g n ) {\displaystyle (g_{1},\ldots ,g_{n})} be a left transversal of a subgroup H {\displaystyle H} of finite index n {\displaystyle n} in a group G {\displaystyle G} and x ↦ π x {\displaystyle x\mapsto \pi _{x}} be its associated permutation representation. Theorem. Suppose the permutation π x {\displa... | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807897 |
24,941 | Either γ c ( G ) = ζ 1 ( G ) {\displaystyle \gamma _{c}(G)=\zeta _{1}(G)} is also bicyclic, whence γ c ( G ) {\displaystyle \gamma _{c}(G)} is never contained in H 2 ′ {\displaystyle H_{2}'} , or γ c ( G ) < ζ 1 ( G ) {\displaystyle \gamma _{c}(G)<\zeta _{1}(G)} is cyclic but is never contained in H 1 ′ {\displaystyle ... | Artin transfer (group theory) | 0.807897 |
24,942 | Teleoperation (or remote operation) indicates operation of a system or machine at a distance. It is similar in meaning to the phrase "remote control" but is usually encountered in research, academia and technology. It is most commonly associated with robotics and mobile robots but can be applied to a whole range of cir... | Remotely controlled | 0.807895 |
24,943 | Solutions to this problem involve ensuring that the intelligent agent does not have any information that could be used to reconstruct the protected and sensitive information about the subject, as first demonstrated in where a deep learning network was simultaneously trained to learn a task while at the same time being ... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,944 | While many schools at the time employed similar biases in their selection process, St. George was most notable for automating said bias through the use of an algorithm, thus gaining the attention of people on a much wider scale. In recent years, when more algorithms started to use machine learning methods on real world... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,945 | Although the solution to this issue would appear to be including trans individuals in training sets for machine learning models, an instance of trans YouTube videos that were collected to be used in training data did not receive consent from the trans individuals that were included in the videos, which created an issue... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,946 | This has in turn boosted the design and adoption of technologies such as machine learning and artificial intelligence. : 14–15 By analyzing and processing data, algorithms are the backbone of search engines, social media websites, recommendation engines, online retail, online advertising, and more.Contemporary social s... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,947 | : 118 Not all code is original, and may be borrowed from other libraries, creating a complicated set of relationships between data processing and data input systems. : 22 Additional complexity occurs through machine learning and the personalization of algorithms based on user interactions such as clicks, time spent on ... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,948 | The United States has no general legislation controlling algorithmic bias, approaching the problem through various state and federal laws that might vary by industry, sector, and by how an algorithm is used. Many policies are self-enforced or controlled by the Federal Trade Commission. In 2016, the Obama administration... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,949 | Literature on algorithmic bias has focused on the remedy of fairness, but definitions of fairness are often incompatible with each other and the realities of machine learning optimization. For example, defining fairness as an "equality of outcomes" may simply refer to a system producing the same result for all people, ... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,950 | PACT attempts to reify the importance of decolonizing and power-shifting efforts in the design of human-centered AI solutions. An academic initiative in this regard is the Stanford University's Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence which aims to foster multidisciplinary collaboration. The mission of the ... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,951 | Integrating interdisciplinarity and collaboration in developing of AI systems can play a critical role in tackling algorithmic bias. Integrating insights, expertise, and perspectives from disciplines outside of computer science can foster a better understanding of the impact data driven solutions have on society. An ex... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,952 | The high level of variability across people’s experiences greatly personalizes how a disability can manifest. Overlapping identities and intersectional experiences are excluded from statistics and datasets, hence underrepresented and nonexistent in training data. Therefore, machine learning models are trained inequitab... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,953 | : 16 Sociologist Scott Lash has critiqued algorithms as a new form of "generative power", in that they are a virtual means of generating actual ends. Where previously human behavior generated data to be collected and studied, powerful algorithms increasingly could shape and define human behaviors. : 71 Concerns over th... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,954 | Using machine learning to detect bias is called, "conducting an AI audit", where the "auditor" is an algorithm that goes through the AI model and the training data to identify biases. Ensuring that an AI tool such as a classifier is free from bias is more difficult than just removing the sensitive information from its ... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,955 | The earliest computer programs were designed to mimic human reasoning and deductions, and were deemed to be functioning when they successfully and consistently reproduced that human logic. In his 1976 book Computer Power and Human Reason, artificial intelligence pioneer Joseph Weizenbaum suggested that bias could arise... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,956 | Ethics guidelines on AI point to the need for accountability, recommending that steps be taken to improve the interpretability of results. Such solutions include the consideration of the "right to understanding" in machine learning algorithms, and to resist deployment of machine learning in situations where the decisio... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,957 | Amid concerns that the design of AI systems is primarily the domain of white, male engineers, a number of scholars have suggested that algorithmic bias may be minimized by expanding inclusion in the ranks of those designing AI systems. For example, just 12% of machine learning engineers are women, with black AI leaders... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,958 | The study of algorithmic bias is most concerned with algorithms that reflect "systematic and unfair" discrimination. This bias has only recently been addressed in legal frameworks, such as the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (2018) and the proposed Artificial Intelligence Act (2021). As algorithms e... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,959 | Some practitioners have tried to estimate and impute these missing sensitive categorisations in order to allow bias mitigation, for example building systems to infer ethnicity from names, however this can introduce other forms of bias if not undertaken with care. Machine learning researchers have drawn upon cryptograph... | Algorithmic bias | 0.807891 |
24,960 | In a similar way, the assembly of a molecular propeller and a molecular motor can form a nanoscale machine that can pump fluids or perform locomotion. Future applications of these nanosystems range from novel analytical tools in physics and chemistry, drug delivery and gene therapy in biology and medicine, advanced nan... | Molecular propeller | 0.80789 |
24,961 | Molecular propeller is a molecule that can propel fluids when rotated, due to its special shape that is designed in analogy to macroscopic propellers: it has several molecular-scale blades attached at a certain pitch angle around the circumference of a shaft, aligned along the rotational axis. The molecular propellers ... | Molecular propeller | 0.80789 |
24,962 | The deferred measurement principle is a result in quantum computing which states that delaying measurements until the end of a quantum computation doesn't affect the probability distribution of outcomes.A consequence of the deferred measurement principle is that measuring commutes with conditioning. The choice of wheth... | Deferred Measurement Principle | 0.807887 |
24,963 | In differential geometry, a G-structure on an n-manifold M, for a given structure group G, is a principal G-subbundle of the tangent frame bundle FM (or GL(M)) of M. The notion of G-structures includes various classical structures that can be defined on manifolds, which in some cases are tensor fields. For example, for... | Reduction of structure group | 0.807883 |
24,964 | Let Q be a G-structure on M. A principal connection on the principal bundle Q induces a connection on any associated vector bundle: in particular on the tangent bundle. A linear connection ∇ on TM arising in this way is said to be compatible with Q. Connections compatible with Q are also called adapted connections. Con... | Reduction of structure group | 0.807883 |
24,965 | Practical reconstruction algorithms have been developed to implement the process of reconstruction of a three-dimensional object from its projections. These algorithms are designed largely based on the mathematics of the Radon transform, statistical knowledge of the data acquisition process and geometry of the data ima... | Reconstruction algorithm | 0.807881 |
24,966 | Discrete Bayesian networks, in conjunction with canonical models such as noisy models. Noisy models exploit information on the conditional independence between variables to significantly reduce dimensionality.The use of an emulator introduces a machine learning problem, which can be difficult if the response of the mod... | What-if analysis | 0.807881 |
24,967 | Emulators (also known as metamodels, surrogate models or response surfaces) are data-modeling/machine learning approaches that involve building a relatively simple mathematical function, known as an emulator, that approximates the input/output behavior of the model itself. In other words, it is the concept of "modeling... | What-if analysis | 0.807881 |
24,968 | Enhancing communication from modelers to decision makers (e.g. by making recommendations more credible, understandable, compelling or persuasive). Finding regions in the space of input factors for which the model output is either maximum or minimum or meets some optimum criterion (see optimization and Monte Carlo filte... | What-if analysis | 0.807881 |
24,969 | Global Optimization Algorithms – Theory and Application Genetic Algorithms in Python Tutorial with the intuition behind GAs and Python implementation. Genetic Algorithms evolves to solve the prisoner's dilemma. Written by Robert Axelrod. | Genetic Algorithm | 0.80788 |
24,970 | Genetic Algorithms - Computer programs that "evolve" in ways that resemble natural selection can solve complex problems even their creators do not fully understand An excellent introduction to GA by John Holland and with an application to the Prisoner's Dilemma An online interactive Genetic Algorithm tutorial for a rea... | Genetic Algorithm | 0.80788 |
24,971 | Examples of problems solved by genetic algorithms include: mirrors designed to funnel sunlight to a solar collector, antennae designed to pick up radio signals in space, walking methods for computer figures, optimal design of aerodynamic bodies in complex flowfieldsIn his Algorithm Design Manual, Skiena advises against... | Genetic Algorithm | 0.80788 |
24,972 | Problems which appear to be particularly appropriate for solution by genetic algorithms include timetabling and scheduling problems, and many scheduling software packages are based on GAs. GAs have also been applied to engineering. Genetic algorithms are often applied as an approach to solve global optimization problem... | Genetic Algorithm | 0.80788 |
24,973 | In the current mathematical notation, the differential δ W {\displaystyle \delta W} is an inexact differential.In another notation, δW is written đW (with a horizontal line through the d). This notation indicates that đW is not an exact one-form. The line-through is merely a flag to warn us there is actually no functio... | Work (thermodynamics) | 0.80788 |
24,974 | In a genetic algorithm, a population of candidate solutions (called individuals, creatures, organisms, or phenotypes) to an optimization problem is evolved toward better solutions. Each candidate solution has a set of properties (its chromosomes or genotype) which can be mutated and altered; traditionally, solutions ar... | Genetic Algorithm | 0.80788 |
24,975 | : 69 Most works were mainly intended to amuse readers, but a small number, often by authors with a scholarly background, sought to educate readers about related aspects of science, including astronomy; this was the motive of the influential American editor Hugo Gernsback, who dubbed it "sugar-coated science" and "scien... | Spatial folding | 0.807877 |
24,976 | : 75 While the fictitious drives "solved" problems related to physics (the difficulty of faster-than-light travel), some writers introduce new wrinkles — for example, a common trope involves the difficulty of using such drives in close proximity to other objects, in some cases allowing their use only beginning from the... | Spatial folding | 0.807877 |
24,977 | Some works discuss Einstein's general theory of relativity and challenges that it faces from quantum mechanics, and include concepts of space travel through wormholes or black holes. : 511–512 Many writers, however, gloss over such problems, introducing entirely fictional concepts such as hyperspace (also, subspace, nu... | Spatial folding | 0.807877 |
24,978 | Two fundamental electromagnetic principles are required to derive the physics behind TEM surveys: Faraday's law of induction and Lenz's Law. A loop of wire is generally energized by a direct current. At some time (t0) the current is cut off as quickly as possible. Faraday's law dictates that a nearly identical current ... | Transient electromagnetics | 0.807873 |
24,979 | TEM/TDEM systems consist of a transmitter instrument, transmitting coil or transmitting wire, receiver coil or antenna, and receiver instrument. Depending on subsurface resistivity, current induced, receiver sensitivity and transmitter-receiver geometry, TEM/TDEM measurements allow geophysical exploration from a few me... | Transient electromagnetics | 0.807873 |
24,980 | Microbiology too is becoming an evolutionary discipline now that microbial physiology and genomics are better understood. The quick generation time of bacteria and viruses such as bacteriophages makes it possible to explore evolutionary questions. Many biologists have contributed to shaping the modern discipline of evo... | Evolutionary biologist | 0.807872 |
24,981 | The idea of evolution by natural selection was proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859, but evolutionary biology, as an academic discipline in its own right, emerged during the period of the modern synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s. It was not until the 1980s that many universities had departments of evolutionary biology. In... | Evolutionary biologist | 0.807872 |
24,982 | For example, Molecular Ecology, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, The American Naturalist and Theoretical Population Biology have overlap with ecology and other aspects of organismal biology. Overlap with ecology is also prominent in the review journals Trends in Ecology and Evolution and Annual Revi... | Evolutionary biologist | 0.807872 |
24,983 | Some scientific journals specialise exclusively in evolutionary biology as a whole, including the journals Evolution, Journal of Evolutionary Biology, and BMC Evolutionary Biology. Some journals cover sub-specialties within evolutionary biology, such as the journals Systematic Biology, Molecular Biology and Evolution a... | Evolutionary biologist | 0.807872 |
24,984 | Nanothreads may thus be thought of as "hybrids" that are both hydrocarbon molecules and carbon nanomaterials. Bonds to carbon nanotubes require their carbon to change from near planar sp2-bonding to tetrahedral sp3-bonding, thus disrupting their tubular geometry and possibly weakening them. Nanothreads may be less susc... | Carbon nanothread | 0.80787 |
24,985 | The distances between benzene molecules with van der Waals separations between them must shrink by 40% or more as the short, strong covalent carbon-carbon bonds between them form during the nanothread synthesis reaction. Such large changes in geometry usual break up crystal order, but the nanothread reaction instead cr... | Carbon nanothread | 0.80787 |
24,986 | Nanothreads are synthesized by compressing liquid benzene to an extreme pressure of 20 GPa (around 200,000 times the air pressure at the surface of the Earth), and then slowly relieving that pressure. The mechanochemical synthesis reaction can be considered a form of organic solid state chemistry. The benzene chains fo... | Carbon nanothread | 0.80787 |
24,987 | The International Journal of Uncertainty, Fuzziness and Knowledge-Based Systems was founded in 1993 and is published bimonthly by World Scientific. It covers research on methodologies for the management of uncertainty. Topics include expositions on methods such as Bayesian and probabilistic methods, nonstandard logic, ... | International Journal of Uncertainty, Fuzziness and Knowledge-Based Systems | 0.807868 |
24,988 | The origin of artificial intelligence is investigated, based on which the concepts of hybrid intelligence and parallel intelligence are presented. The paradigm shift in Intelligence indicates the "new normal" of cyber-social-physical systems (CPSS), in which the system behaviors are guided by Merton's Laws. Thus, the A... | Parallel Intelligence | 0.807868 |
24,989 | Parallel Intelligence (PI) is constructed from the interactions and entanglement between actual systems and artificial systems. This chapter summarizes the research on PI and CPHS over the past 20 years. After a brief description of the history and framework, various applications are presented along eight aspects: para... | Parallel Intelligence | 0.807868 |
24,990 | In the mathematical field of graph theory, the F26A graph is a symmetric bipartite cubic graph with 26 vertices and 39 edges.It has chromatic number 2, chromatic index 3, diameter 5, radius 5 and girth 6. It is also a 3-vertex-connected and 3-edge-connected graph. The F26A graph is Hamiltonian and can be described by t... | F26A graph | 0.807866 |
24,991 | In physics and physical chemistry, time-resolved spectroscopy is the study of dynamic processes in materials or chemical compounds by means of spectroscopic techniques. Most often, processes are studied after the illumination of a material occurs, but in principle, the technique can be applied to any process that leads... | Time-resolved spectroscopy | 0.807863 |
24,992 | TA measurements are highly sensitive to laser repetition rate, pulse duration, emission wavelength, polarization, intensity, sample chemistry, solvents, concentration and temperature. The excitation density (no. of photons per unit area per second) must be kept low otherwise sample annihilation, saturation and orientat... | Time-resolved spectroscopy | 0.807863 |
24,993 | In mathematics, specifically in order theory and functional analysis, a sequence of positive elements ( x i ) i = 1 ∞ {\displaystyle \left(x_{i}\right)_{i=1}^{\infty }} in a preordered vector space X {\displaystyle X} (that is, x i ≥ 0 {\displaystyle x_{i}\geq 0} for all i {\displaystyle i} ) is called order summable i... | Order summable | 0.807862 |
24,994 | Not all number systems can represent the same set of numbers; for example, Roman numerals cannot represent the number zero. Ideally, a numeral system will: Represent a useful set of numbers (e.g. all integers, or rational numbers) Give every number represented a unique representation (or at least a standard representat... | Numeral systems | 0.807861 |
24,995 | Root causes for torque steer are: Incorrect sidewall ply design allowing deformation of the tire sidewall. Asymmetric driveshaft angles due to any combination of Unequal driveshaft length or diameter Transient movement of the engine Tolerances in engine mounts Body roll Single wheel bump Different driveshaft torques le... | Torque steering | 0.807856 |
24,996 | Let S {\displaystyle S} and T {\displaystyle T} be any sets and let f: X → Y {\displaystyle f:X\to Y} be any function. If S {\displaystyle S} or T {\displaystyle T} is f {\displaystyle f} -saturated then If T {\displaystyle T} is f {\displaystyle f} -saturated then where note, in particular, that no requirements or con... | Saturated set | 0.807856 |
24,997 | In mathematics, particularly in the subfields of set theory and topology, a set C {\displaystyle C} is said to be saturated with respect to a function f: X → Y {\displaystyle f:X\to Y} if C {\displaystyle C} is a subset of f {\displaystyle f} 's domain X {\displaystyle X} and if whenever f {\displaystyle f} sends two p... | Saturated set | 0.807856 |
24,998 | In topology, a subset of a topological space ( X , τ ) {\displaystyle (X,\tau )} is saturated if it is equal to an intersection of open subsets of X . {\displaystyle X.} In a T1 space every set is saturated. | Saturated set | 0.807856 |
24,999 | Some of Archimedes' inventions, as well as the Antikythera mechanism, required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial revolution and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and... | History of engineering | 0.807856 |
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