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GIS SupportFor German Copters, aerial surveying is not just about drones. Rather, the focus is on solutions that contain all the elements for professional geo-data management. Nevertheless, the drones must also be able to be used safely over urban areas. Basically, the capturing of GEO data is about two essential technologies that can be used to generate point clouds. A laser or a camera can be used. Laser scanners can generate point clouds directly; when taking photos, point clouds are created using photogrammetry. Over the past two years, drone LiDAR has become increasingly popular in many industries, such as surveying, engineering, inspection, mining, and construction, where the technology can help increase efficiency, accuracy, and profits.
Pros of LiDAR
- LiDAR is the way to go for absolute accuracy also because of the integrated GNSS data (direct measurement)
- LiDAR’s light pulses penetrate the gaps between leaves and branches, reaching the ground below and improving the accuracy of measurements.
- LiDAR is also preferable if the light conditions are inconsistent
- LiDAR allows you to capture details that are small in diameter.
Pros of Photogrammetry
- Photogrammetry is more easily accessible and can already be implemented using normal camera drones.
- If the camera can be calibrated, mapping missions can be implemented quite easily and quickly.
- The colours of the photos make it easier to recognize and assign structures that have been converted into point clouds.
- The costs of photogrammetry solutions are lower compared to LiDAR
Choose LiDAR for:
- Mapping hard to access, complex, and overgrown terrain
- Capturing details on thin structures, such as power lines or roof edges
- Projects where detail and precision are the priorities
Choose Photogrammetry for:
- Context-rich scans that are accessible and require minimal post-processing and expertise
- Maps and models that are easy for untrained eyes to understand
- Datasets that need visual assessment
Security, speed, reliability and data protection
Which technology is used depends on the task:
LiDAR and photogrammetry are data capturing methods that cannot be compared with one another. The task determines which method is best suited. For complex mapping projects that involve elevation accuracy, complex structures, or partially covered terrain, LiDAR is probably the way to go. Costs and the experience of the team are important in both methods. It is also important to know how the data is processed and prepared so that it can be made available to the various users in high quality as a basis for decision-making.
Perhaps our approaches are a little different because we already have 20 years of experience with ground-based medical logistics and have also been in the drone business since 2005. So, we know the price pressure as well as the technical challenges in drone logistics. However, we are not a manufacturer of drones and are therefore not dependent on specified designs, technologies, or other restrictions. What counts for us is the proven flight characteristics of the drones, the profitability of flight operations and the possibility of integrating drone logistics into the existing logistics chains. | <urn:uuid:cb90d69c-d61d-426c-b127-e3b20591c192> | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | http://www.germancopters.de/en/service-en/gis-bim-support | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057225.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20210921131252-20210921161252-00044.warc.gz | en | 0.937362 | 644 | 3.328125 | 3 |
The Value of Friendships
Participants will be invited to bring their questions and concerns to the session. In addition, we may cover the following:
- Importance of having solid healthy relationships
- Healthy vs. unhealthy relationships
- Finding commonalities with others; we all have similarities and differences
- Negotiating conflict/Expressing feelings within a relationship
- The importance of being your own best friend
Middle School 101
During the Middle School 101 workshop, girls are exposed to a variety of topics. Examples of topics include everything from basic internet safety, hygiene, to succeeding in the classroom. Middle School 101 is an open-ended discussion setting and allows girls to explore what is of most interest and concern to them. The environment of this workshop is safe and structured.
Samples of Topics:
1. Digital Reputation/Internet Safety
a. Think about what your post says about you
b. How will your post make your friends feel (if someone was left out)
c. DON’T just google questions—> ask a trusted adult
d. How to handle being excluded
e. Friendship drama
a. Acne and taking care of yourself (personal hygiene)
b. Healthy body image
c. Ignoring/standing up to gender stereotypes from boys and the media
s. Self-respect and self-value
3. School Success
a. How to manage your time
b. Study tips
The girls anonymously write an issue that concerns them on a piece of paper and one is arbitrarily chosen out of the lot. The following template to address relationship issue is told to the girls :
1: Tell the other person what the behavior is that is concerning without “name calling”.
2: Tell the person how it makes you feel/how it affects you.
3: Tell the person what behavior you would rather see and what you will do about it if they continue the behavior.
The girls break up into pairs and practice each part of the role play. One pair then presents to the group and discussion surrounds how effective the template can be and how each person feels about the outcome.
The girls report that the practice helps them feel more comfortable with the technique and makes them more willing to try outside the Positively More project. | <urn:uuid:7cbfb579-bddc-4da1-998d-ac1f9432147a> | CC-MAIN-2017-51 | https://www.jlgreenwich.org/positively-more/workshops/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948512208.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20171211052406-20171211072406-00286.warc.gz | en | 0.929992 | 466 | 3.734375 | 4 |
The PHE and British Geological Society have produced a set of national maps that give an indication of the areas that have a higher radon potential. The darker the area, the higher the potential. However, the only way to be really sure is to perform a postcode assessment. Radon Action experts are ready to assist you – it all starts with a free initial assessment.
IT ALL COMES DOWN TO PERCENTAGES
Certain areas of the country are more prone to radon than others. To tackle this, the Health Protection Agency (HPA) proposed a control strategy creating a radon ‘Action Level’ in affected areas. When radon reaches a certain concentration, action must be taken to reduce it. The percentages you see below shows the radon potential risk percentage. The higher the number, the greater the risk from radon over-exposure.
Every address has a radon potential associated with it. Each blocky area you see on a radon maps is a 1km grid square that will have a designated risk for the whole area. However there are variations in each square as it’s the highest risk that’s shown – it’s only through a postcode search that you can discover the individual risk of your address. | <urn:uuid:328b57b8-231d-472f-bc99-eab3e4c3cf41> | CC-MAIN-2021-43 | http://www.radonaction.co.uk/radon-maps/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585405.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20211021102435-20211021132435-00588.warc.gz | en | 0.935158 | 258 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Today, on the 50th Anniversary of Earth Day we are reflecting on how the world has changed since learning of COVID-19. As a majority of people around the world shelter in place with a common goal of containing the virus and reducing the death toll, there have been some unexpected changes in nature – one being a decrease in emissions.
In places like New York, levels of pollution have reduced by nearly 50 percent because of measures put in place to control the spread of the virus. Since Europe has been under extreme lockdown, experts say carbon dioxide emissions have dropped by as much as 20 percent, and the hole in the ozone layer is repairing.
While emissions are decreasing, it’s because nobody is traveling, going to work, eating out or buying things to protect people from a global pandemic that is claiming people’s lives – but it’s also devastating the economy. This isn’t a long-term, or viable, environmental solution.
Throughout this pandemic, we have learned about vulnerabilities in our economic and social systems. We’ve seen large and small businesses struggling and families stretched to their brink. While some of these changes might be temporary, the most important thing we can do is to learn valuable lessons that will help us in the future, and hopefully find a silver lining.
One of these things is how we approach the way we look at our environment. We’re now seeing how a zero sum game – pitting the economy against the environment – plays out in real time, and it’s not pretty.
So how do we take a step back and look for that crucial silver lining? How do we learn from this crisis on Earth Day and move forward with the lessons we’ve learned? More importantly, how does CEEF help play a role?
First, the silver-lining: as we have witnessed, ecological systems are able to bounce back when given a chance, so looking at things with a more pragmatic approach is key. Second, pitting outcomes against each other always ends in disaster – like we’re seeing now. So how do we create more harmony between both?
That starts with the generations of kids that are working their way through our elementary schools, middle schools, and high schools as we speak. They have the ability, through science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) to create the next wave of technology we’ll use to not only help our environment, but keep our economy running.
This is why it is so crucial to champion our youth – to get them excited about subjects and companies that are helping to pave the way towards a brighter future with amazing innovations! And they’re all around us.
But perhaps more importantly, maybe we can use this time to reflect on the fact that when we bond together in times of crisis to solve problems creatively, we have a better shot at changing the world – and ourselves. If we can reflect on these changes together, while applying all of our creativity, we will truly transform our planet without so much human suffering. | <urn:uuid:83ac2137-2d13-481d-98aa-bd83f93606b6> | CC-MAIN-2021-25 | https://ceef.org/covid-19-and-the-environment-this-earth-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623488273983.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20210621120456-20210621150456-00450.warc.gz | en | 0.955004 | 626 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Do you know that sitting in front of a canvas or a paper, creating masterpieces from the swish of a paint brush and mixing different colors is beneficial for your wellbeing? Painting can improve the overall health of your body and mind. It is perfectly fine if you’ve been painting all your life or are just a beginner at your age. Arts and creativity do not require a certain age. Therefore, it is never too late to try it out. Here are some benefits of painting.
Painting Promotes Physical Well-Being
When you paint, you make use of your hands and eyes, therefore it improves the coordination between these two body parts. You exercise your fine motor skills which enhances the functioning of your hands and fingers. Do you know that people who paint are less likely to feel the pangs of arthritis in their upper limbs, wrists, hands and fingers? Painting also lessens the likelihood of hand tremors, as long as you do not tire out your hands. Paint in moderation and make sure not to strain your hands and fingers.
Painting Promotes Mental Well-Being
Creating artworks do not only improve your physical health but it also does wonders for your cognitive functioning. When you paint, the lobes of your brain are in sync. When you plan what to paint and decide on the which colors to use, you sharpen your mind. When you try to recall a scenery you have previously sighted in your life and try to recreate it, your brain becomes more active by gathering information from long-term memory. As you create a masterpiece, you use the higher order function of your brain. Did you know that some studies have found out that painting decreases the risk of Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease?
Painting Promotes Emotional Well-Being
As you create art, you get a sense of accomplishment. It also brings feelings of independence. Once you get to see the outcome of your work, you have that confidence boost and may become happier. Some researches show that painting decreases the likelihood of developing anxiety or depression.
Painting Promotes Social Well-Being
You don’t have to be confined and alone when you create your artwork. Painting is a good avenue to be with people who share the same interest as you. Enrolling in painting classes will enable you to meet new people with whom you can share your creative ideas. It lessens the feeling of isolation and loneliness. As you paint side by side with someone, you can communicate and talk about anything. Who knows, you might find a life-long friend?
Painting is Therapy
For you who have loved ones suffering from memory loss or are on the early stage of dementia, painting may be a way for you to be able to communicate with them. This is specially so when your loved one has already difficulty talking. Painting may be an easier way for them to express how they feel through the use of images and colors.
Painting is one of the many activities to enjoy in your choice of retirement community. If not, you may request team members to come up with this idea, so that you and other residents will be able to pursue this passion. | <urn:uuid:f712bd0a-82bf-4bdf-9dbb-5818280f6ea3> | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | https://www.moradaseniorliving.com/senior-living-blog/how-painting-keeps-your-brain-active/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030338280.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20221007210452-20221008000452-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.959221 | 645 | 2.765625 | 3 |
A fire drill is a sudden practice event, where people leave a building. They are practicing what they would do if there was a fire in the building. The event is started when a fire alarm sounder or bell keeps on sounding. The entire building is evacuated and everybody leaves the building using the nearest fire exit. At a school, college or university, the teacher or the lecturer counts the people outside to find out if anyone is missing. Sometimes people are evacuated for no reason. This is called a false alarm.
In the United Kingdom, the law says that all schools must do a fire drill at the start of the academic year in September, and suggests that one should occur every term. Also, regular health and safety checks such as testing fire alarm systems and fire extinguishers must be done weekly. In the United States, different states have laws that say how often schools must have fire drills. For example, in many states, schools must have one fire drill per month.
Fire drills commonly take place in schools, colleges and public companies. In public transport such as cruise ships, it is called a muster drill. Fire drills aren't done on airplanes, but a safety demonstration that shows the emergency procedures of the aircraft is done instead. If an aircraft is about to perform an emergency landing, the passangers on the aircraft are told to take the safety brace position on hearing the "brace" command.
Different ways of having fire drills[change | change source]
During fire drills, some schools block exits with a piece of cardboard or something else that is supposed to stand for a fire. This makes people practice finding another way out of the building.
References[change | change source]
- Fire Drills in Wisconsin Schools: an Opportunity for Excellence, John Andersen, Wisconsin Department of Commerce Newsletter, November 2003 | <urn:uuid:2dec2c72-e8b5-4414-8383-3fc9d5f4e0a9> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_drill | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676590295.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20180718154631-20180718174631-00547.warc.gz | en | 0.96632 | 366 | 3.984375 | 4 |
Pop, pop, pop, we pop on to the letter P! We are on to the Letter P Coloring Pages! We will be working our way through the entire alphabet, of course! At the bottom of the post I will have a link to all the alphabet coloring pages, but I will only add them after they are all ready to go! I hope you enjoy these Letter P Coloring Pages!
When teaching the letter P, I love to read any book with pigs, pancake, pumpkin, and pizza… and then make a cute craft for them! As a result, children will enjoy the lessons better and I will get less stress,
The Three Little Pigs (Reading Railroad)The True Story of the Three Little PigsIf You Give a Pig a PancakePete the Cat: Five Little PumpkinsToo Many PumpkinsThe Pigeon Wants a PuppyFrom Seed to Pumpkin (Let’s-Read-and-Find-Out Science 1)How Many Seeds in a Pumpkin? (Mr. Tiffin’s Classroom Series)Pancakes, Pancakes!Splat the Cat and the Pumpkin-Picking Plan
To get your free beginning letter P coloring pages, enter your email into the form below. You will be added to our mailing list where you will find out about more fun things. If you have any trouble with your download, please email me at [email protected] so that I can help you!
2. Get tips to help you grow a confident new or struggling reader
you will learn how to break free from patching together reading lessons
and learn how to grow a confident reader.
If you like this post, you might like: | <urn:uuid:4f370a66-82bb-4318-bf33-65c7db9beb03> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://www.sightandsoundreading.com/letter-p-coloring-pages/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662558015.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20220523101705-20220523131705-00595.warc.gz | en | 0.866914 | 347 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Create your own colour and pattern
Tie Dye means tying fabric and then dying it with a colour.
Material that was decorated with this effect has been used for many years. The 60's decade saw a return of the this with the young generation wanting to decorate their clothes in their unique way, with their choice of colours. The 80's decade again saw a revival in a art form with complicated designs.
This type of fabric decoration was used a lot in China and Japan in the very early centuries. They were able to use the hemp and silk that they grew and this fibre worked really well with the tie-dying effect.
In Western China, South East Asia and Central America some of the very early settlers had their version known as IKAT. This was when they dyed the threads before weaving them into cloth.
In earlier days the dyes were made from flowers, berries, roots and leaves of plants, with a popular one being indigo which is still used today. One of the main disadvantages with these kind of dyes was that they faded with sunlight.
Nowadays these dyes are synthetic and have the properties of being permanent, easy to use (as they can be used in a washing machine) and fix quickly.
Natural fabrics are the best to choose when tye dying and these are then tied with either string, elastic bands, paper clips or anything else that will stop the dye from reaching that part of the fabric.
One of the main points to remember when using two or more dyes is to think about the final fabric colour as the dyes that you use will all react with one another.
For example if you wanted your fabric green you could use yellow and blue dyes. This would give the green end result but will also give 3 different colours in your pattern if your original fabric was white.
The fabric, which should be washed first, can be tied in either a set or random pattern. There are books that can give you details of what pattern will emerge from tying the material in a certain way. But really it is best just to have a go and see if you like the result. Follow the instructions on the dye packets after you have tied your material.
If you are pleased with the result why not show us by putting a picture on the cushion gallery. Some of the end results could be quite spectacular.
Have fun with your tie dye and enjoy................ | <urn:uuid:64c30ab5-1e3d-40db-ac7c-380aa6bf8c94> | CC-MAIN-2020-24 | https://www.cushionsandmore.com/tie-dye.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590348513321.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200606124655-20200606154655-00247.warc.gz | en | 0.976914 | 491 | 2.625 | 3 |
A carnival feast was traditionally the last opportunity for peasants and common people to have a nice meal. There was generally a food shortage toward the end of winter as stores would run out of meats, dairy, and fat, or they would begin to spoil. People were then restricted to eat only when necessary until produce was available again in the spring. The timing coincides perfectly with the somber season of Lent. The six weeks before Easter are known as the Lenten period of the liturgical calendar and is historically marked by fasting. During Lent people refrain from parties and celebrations along with consuming richer foods made of meat, dairy, fat and sugars. Even today many families will avoid meat and other treats during the weeks leading up to Easter. All the more reason to indulge in the sweets that are typical for this time of the year are available everywhere. Frittelle di riso – little balls of dough with rice that’s fried and rolled in sugar, Chiacchiere or ‘Cenci’ as they are called in Tuscany – Flat pieces of dough that are fried until crisp and dusted with sugar. [More on these next week when we learn to make them!]
The first Carnival in Venice was recorded in 1268. Masks have always been a central part of the Venetian carnival and were allowed to be worn during this specific time of the year even with Italian laws trying to restrict their use. Some elite parties still take place and adults will don Venetian masks and Renaissance style clothes. These days children will often dress up as a princess or their favorite superhero and attend parties with their friends.
If you are in the Florence area for Carnival you can join the festivities in Viareggio. They celebrate for a whole month and have a parade of large floats that depict popular figures and fairy tales.
Even if you aren’t celebrating with anyone it’s hard not to notice the festive atmosphere! It’s all too easy to smile when you see the confetti left on the streets, by partiers, or perhaps a small child who tossed the colorful bits of paper along the sidewalk on his way home. | <urn:uuid:9a91df62-60f4-4c7c-af5d-abe6c135b3c4> | CC-MAIN-2017-26 | https://misurifirenze.wordpress.com/2017/02/06/whats-going-on-carnivale/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-26/segments/1498128319265.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20170622114718-20170622134718-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.978751 | 439 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Water, in the form of bore holes, rainwater catchments and sanitation and hygiene projects is one of the best ways to help bring life to people in need globally. For just £25 you can buy a family of 4 water for life as a bore hole will provide a modest population water for 10 years at a cost of around £500-£5000 depending upon the location.
Water affects so many different areas of life. It stops disease. A huge amount of disease such as diarrhoea, dysentry and even malaria and HIV are at least partially affected by poor water supply. Diarrhoea is common amongst children with bad water supply and can often kill. Clean water and sanitation has one of the biggest affects on health in the developing world.
The knock on affects from good health, created by clean water and sanitation include helping people going to work because they are not ill, allowing key people to remain on key projects because they dont die during the job, technological information is retained in the family because parents don’t die and can keep their children, children go to school because they don’t have to look after their families if parents have died and they arn’t ill, women’s power is increased because they take charge of the local water systems and don’t spend hours of the day fetching water. Better womens empowerment further leads to the education of the children and balance and quality of life in the communities.
The effects of health and education bear in all areas of the society inclduding the general well being of the people involved. Water is one of the most crucial elements affecting poor societies and it is not expensive to help someone for it. A lot can be achieved for a little cost.
See our Mali Progam which offers water to a developing country. | <urn:uuid:0fe6fe8d-9648-4b2b-ab8c-970d43e33ece> | CC-MAIN-2018-26 | https://f4ci.wordpress.com/2011/01/25/water-for-life/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-26/segments/1529267864019.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20180621020632-20180621040632-00215.warc.gz | en | 0.974479 | 368 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Table of Contents
The organization has explicit and implicit rules and policies that are designed to give a structure, where the responsibilities and work roles are delegated, coordinated, and controlled. It will also control the flow of information within the organization from one level to another. In this case, the business exhibits functional structure of an organization, whereby there are the activities, such as supervision, coordination, and allocation of duties. There is a variety of components that the structure of the organization has. Some of these are departments or divisions that deal with the various responsibilities in the organization, management hierarchy that is responsible for control and coordination of all activities within the different departments in the organization, there are rules, procedures, and goals, there are also temporary building blocks, such as committees and task forces. Some of the roles and responsibilities that take place in the organization include management, where the manager plans and organizes their department to exceed the customers’ expectations both internally and externally. The managers work together with other managers that are in charge of the various departments in order to increase the range of benefits, such as accuracy, efficiency, and improvement of the process. There is also supervision to ensure that there is application of procedures and practices by the operators consistently. There is marketing, whereby the department that is given this mandate is responsible for ensuring that the products and services that the organization offers to the customers are promoted, so as to raise the volume of sales and widen the market coverage of the organization by seeking for more customers (Kortmann, 2012). There are also accounting operations that take place in the organization. This is to establish the flow of cash in the organization and keep the financial records for the organization with an aim of ensuring that there is proper monitoring of performance of the business. It also ensures that there is legal compliance, and aids in the decision making process that is strategic for forecasting the organization’s future financial performance. There are procurement activities that the unit carries out, where the business acquires goods and services at the best possible price.
The competitive approach method that the business should use differentiation in order to set itself from the competitors is. One of the factors in this strategy will be low cost that will set the business aside from other businesses. The company will be in a position to look at one or more attributes that are marketable, so that it can set them apart from the competitors. The organization should then seek the segment of the market that would find the attributes that are important, so that it can market them. The business can also conduct a research in the market, so that it can establish the things that the consumers require the most, and then come up with a niche market for the products and characteristics. The company will be able to go ahead of the competitors, since they will be in a position to develop the products that the customers require; therefore, fully satisfy their clients (David, 2013). The ability of the organization to develop the changes in the products as a way of ensuring that their customers’ need are met prior to the competitors will be dependent on its sensibility to the events that are in the environment, such as the effects that competitors pose in the market. The organization should ensure that there is good flexibility that will allow the changes to take place in order to look at the possible segments that will be suitable to their operations.The marketing department should try the best in establishing the segments that the business will target and the requirements of the customers to be satisfied. The way to conduct their research will be through interviewing and use of questionnaires with the questions on the areas that they are seeking information about.
Description of the Program
Design, integrate, develop, test, install, and set a communication system.
The program will be implememted into the three phases. The first phase will be a 12 month design, integration, and development of the system. The second phase will take place in 6 months and will involve testing and installation of the system (Wick, 2003). The third phase will take three months and will involve setting of a communication system that will help the business to easily control all the activities that take place in the different sectors as a way of enhancing efficiency.
There will also be provision of an initial support packaging that will consist of the cost-plus award fee contract. The contract system development will be as follows;
Award of the contract 15th June 2014
Preliminary design 18th July 2014
Critical design 20th September 2014
Integration 20th February 2015
System development 10th March 2015
System testing July 2015
Installation process 15th January 2016
Communication system March –August 2016
Special Requirements of the Project
Management system that is approved by the government;
Concepts based on performance logistic;
Trade journals of the industry;
Purchasing files of the business;
A list of past suppliers in the industry. | <urn:uuid:1e32292e-4dfd-414d-b7de-d3247f2174b2> | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://custom-paper-writing.org/free-essays/business/rfp-response | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224643388.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20230527223515-20230528013515-00287.warc.gz | en | 0.96514 | 995 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Work From Home: Cybersecurity Tips, Best Practices, and More
In this new age of society, working from home is the new norm. With many jobs being reliant on being online and using devices like computers and phones, there’s no need to be in a physical office anymore. However, similar to those who work in an office, keeping your work devices and sensitive information secure is of the utmost importance. This guide, Work From Home: Cybersecurity Tips, Best Practices, and More, will help you keep your home office safe.
What Is Cybersecurity?
Cybersecurity involves the methods in which a person or business can protect their networks, servers, devices, data, and more from a data breach, attack, or unauthorized access. Protecting one’s work and personal devices, and the information they store is important, especially for remote workers. You don’t want anyone accessing your devices and gaining control over them, and/or obtaining the data on them. Those who obtain your device information could use it against you or your customers to commit blackmail, identity theft, fraud, hacking, and more.
What Are Some Common Cybersecurity Risks?
Malware refers to malicious software that seeks to exploit and cause damage to devices, or gain unauthorized access to them. Usually, malware seeks to receive a device or network’s stored data, or crash them. There are many types of malware to look out for including spyware, viruses, ransomware, worms, and more. Any type of malware could infect your devices in a number of ways, such as through email attachments, downloading fake apps, visiting fake websites, and phishing emails.
Hackers target anyone they believe has valuable data they can use to their advantage. They will use methods such as phishing, fake apps and websites, and false contests in order to hack your network, server, accounts, and/or devices. With this information, hackers can commit a number of criminal actions including identity theft, fraud, blackmail, and illegally sell your information to third-parties.
A data breach occurs when confidential information is unintentionally or intentionally obtained and released by an unauthorized party. A business having their data compromised can greatly hurt their customers and business in a number of ways, besides loss of trust. Having a person’s data could lead to account hacking, fraud, identity theft, impersonation, and more. The criminals committing these data breaches are able to gain access to a business’s information by exploiting system vulnerabilities, knowing an employee’s password, downloading malware on a company device, and more.
Many businesses and employees working from home make the mistake of having only single-factor authentication. This means only having a password to protect your account. Having just a password protect your devices and accounts makes it easier for hackers and other online criminals to gain access to them.
Fake Wi-Fi Networks, Websites, and Apps
When working remotely or on the go, you may be using multiple Wi-Fi networks, visiting many websites, and downloading new apps to help you. However, hackers often disguise Wi-Fi networks, websites, and apps as coming from legitimate sources to lure in victims. These sources, once visited or downloaded, will give hackers access to the connected devices.
One of the easiest ways anyone can get access to someone’s work data and devices is by exploiting system or software vulnerabilities. Technology isn’t perfect, and often contains flaws that compromise networks and devices and make them vulnerable to attack. Because of this, any unauthorized party could access your data and personal information.
Cybersecurity Tips & Best Practices For Those Who Work Remotely
Use The Security Controls Your Devices and Accounts Offer
To protect your data, devices, and accounts, use all of the security features offered to you. You will usually see what’s available by going to your general, privacy, or security settings. This may include setting up 2FA (two-factor authentication), creating security questions, adding a recovery email/contact, authorized devices, and more.
Don’t Click On Links or Download Documents Sent By Strangers
One of the many ways malware can infect your device is by having clicked on a link or downloaded a document sent by a stranger. Often, the perpetrators will impersonate real coworkers or business opportunities to persuade you to complete some action. So, unless the file or link sent to you is definitely sent by someone and doesn’t look suspicious, don’t act.
Only Use Private Wi-Fi Networks
Using private, password protect Wi-Fi networks will help keep your devices and data secure from unauthorized parties. Never use public Wi-Fi as it could put you at risk of being hacked or your device becoming infected.
Be Careful What Programs and App You Download
There are many apps and programs online and possibly in the app stores that are fake, created by scammers, hackers, and other criminals. They are made to look legitimate in order to trick the user into downloading them. However, they are a tool used to install spyware and viruses on your device, as well as obtain your personal information.
Regularly Update Your Work Devices
To ensure device and network vulnerabilities are not exploited by hackers, ensure they are regularly updated. Oftentimes, the latest updates are created in order to fix security flaws found by the creators. Wi-Fi modems, computers, cell phones, tablets, laptops, and servers are among the many devices you should always update.
Create Strong Passwords
Strong passwords consist of 16+ random characters of upper and lowercase letters, numbers, and symbols. Having a strong password that is unguessable will lessen the likelihood of hackers guessing your password and accessing your account or device.
Avoid Other People Using Your Work Devices
Honestly, there’s no one you can trust other than yourself to be safe on your devices. Avoid having friends, family, and acquaintances using your devices. You don’t want them accidentally visiting a site or downloading an app that can put your device in danger.
Tools To Protect Your Devices From Threats Online
- Antivirus Software: This software will detect and quarantine any malware that is found on your devices.
- Password Manager: Passwords will securely keep your account passwords and login information.
- VPN (Virtual Private Network): Will encrypt your online data and activities while connected to public and private networks. This is especially useful for those who work on the go.
- Firewall: Most devices, especially computers and laptops, come with a built-in firewall which controls your networks incoming and outgoing data.
- Data Backup & Recovery Software: This software will continually backup an extra copy of all the data on your devices. This comes in handy if you’re worried about or you’ve been the victim of a data breach.
- Top 10 Employer Cybersecurity Concerns For Employees Regarding Remote Work
- Beware: Remote Work Involves These 3 Cyber Security Risks
- Cybersecurity: Half of employees admit they are cutting corners when working from home
- Cybersecurity and Privacy: 10 Best Practices When Working From Home
- Data Privacy 101: What Is It, Privacy Laws, and Data Protection Tips
- Cybersecurity Training For Employees: Why It’s Necessary | <urn:uuid:8015f44b-22e2-4d8f-910d-49ad65b178ef> | CC-MAIN-2021-04 | https://bestcellphonespyapps.com/work-from-home-cybersecurity/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610703519784.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20210119201033-20210119231033-00183.warc.gz | en | 0.926198 | 1,496 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Research has shown that the keris originated from the Majapahit empire which ruled in the 13th century. After the decline of the Majapahit, many of its blacksmiths migrated to other areas such as Jawa, the Sumatran islands, the Sulawesi islands and finally to the Melayu Peninsula. The keris developed as a weapon in the Melayu Peninsula up until the point it was occupied by the British. British law banned the wearing of the keris on the body or used as a weapon but only allowed its ceremonial role.
There are many different types of keris, however, the Keris melayu as used by the Melayu normally displays the features of the original Majapahit keris, which has the Jawa Demam hilt and a boat-shaped piece on the sheath.
Parts of the Keris Melayu
Names of different keris parts:
1. Hulu (hilt)
2. Sarung (sheath)
3. Pendokok/ bedokoh
5. Buntut (end)
6. Perut (stomach)
7. Pamor (pattern)
8. Lok (wave)
9. Bilah/ awak/ mata keris (blade)
10. Aring/ ganja (crosspiece)
11. Puting/ unting/ oting (tang)
12. Pucuk/ hujung mata (blade tip)
14. Belalai gajah (elephant trunk)/ kembang kacang
15. Lambai gajah/ bibir gajah (elephant lips)
16. Bunga kacang
18. Dagu keris (chin)
19. Kepala cicak (gecko head)
20. Leher cicak (gecko neck)
21. Gading gajah (elephant tusk)
22. Ekor cicak (gecko tail)
23. Janggut (beard)
24. Kepit/ sepit rotan (rattan pincers)
25. Lurah/ kambing kacang
26. Tulang/ tulangan (spine)
The 'gecko head' and 'gecko tail' get their names from the gecko resemblance when viewed from the tang end. The ganja comprises the gecko head, neck and tail. The ganja and the blade are two different pieces which are assembled later. However, there is a keris type where both of these are of a single piece, called the Keris Ganja Seiras or the Single View Keris.
The Spiritual Value of the Keris
The keris is not only a weapon, but it also carries certain symbolic meanings. The tang of the keris represents masculinity, while the crosspiece with its hole in the middle represents femininity. The combination of both elements gives birth to a balance in life and power.
The blade of the keris represents the shape of a dragon, which is closely connected to water and rivers. Water is the source of life, thus the dragon is a mystical lifeform that represents power. A keris with no waves represents a resting or meditating dragon, while a wavy keris represents a moving dragon. The belalai gajah and lambai gajah represents and elephant, which is an allegory for power.
The keris was originally made from a composition of iron mined from the earth and the meteoric iron ore. This produces a pamor which is believed contained magical powers as a result of the blending of earthly and heavenly elements.
The keris is also believed to have an affinity or rapport with its owner. The owner will measure the length of the keris from its crosspiece down to its tuntung using his thumbs while reciting holy verses or a mantra. He will cease his recitation when one of his thumb arrives at the tuntung and depending on which verse marked the arrival will determine the affinity between keris and owner. An owner who truly believes in this affinity will not buy or use a keris which does not have this quality, irrespective of the value, beauty or scarcity of the keris.
The Melayu societies of the past would practise keeping kerises on the crossbeam of their homes as protection against enemies, evil spirits and diseases. It is believed that a keris would rattle and make sounds in its sheath when danger approached. Some are even believed to unsheath and fly to the enemy on their own, or when the owner pointed towards the enemy's location, the keris would fly out to the enemy and kill him.
Is it any wonder then, why the keris is so highly revered by some owners who faithfully bathe their kerises every Thursday night (deemed a special night) or once a year in the month of Muharram, to ensure that the power of the keris is not left untended and cause it to run amok or leave the keris totally. However, with the advent of Islam to the Melayu Peninsula, many of these beliefs have been discarded and what remains is a cleaning or weapon care ritual.
Famous mystical Kerises
Among the most popular kerises is the Keris Tamingsari owned by Hang Tuah which was believed to gran invincibility to its wielder. On the other hand, Hang Jebat's keris has a void in its blade which allows its owner to the future, and it was by this way that Hang Jebat discovered his impending death at the hand of his own blood brother, Hang Tuah.
The Keris Kai Condong, which is inhabited by an evil spirit, flies and kills anyone its finds when night falls. This keris was eventually defeated by three other mystical kerises which combined and baited it into a magically prepared pounder, which instantly destroyed it. However, the destroyed keris finally flew away to rejoin a comet of the same meteoric ore from which it was made.
This article was translated by Mohd Nadzrin Wahab from the original article "Asal Usul Keris Melayu" at http://www.mishafbisnes.com.my/krafmelayu/keris.htm for publication in the World Silat Championship 2007 souvenir book. For a reference to the article , please email webmaster [at] silatmelayu.com | <urn:uuid:e1feb694-0316-4312-8da5-27f77ba38018> | CC-MAIN-2016-22 | http://senamanmelayu.blogspot.com/2009/06/senjata-tradisi-melayu-keris-melayu.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-22/segments/1464049277475.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160524002117-00115-ip-10-185-217-139.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937435 | 1,352 | 2.859375 | 3 |
viral; Viral Hepatitis
Disease of the liver causing inflammation. Symptoms include an enlarged liver, fever, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and dark urine.
Originally known as serum hepatitis, Hepatitis B has only been recognized as such since World War II, and has caused current epidemics in parts of Asia and Africa. Hepatitis B is recognized as endemic in China and various other parts of Asia. Over one-third of the world's population has been or is actively infected by hepatitis B virus (acronym HBV).
Hepatitis as related to Hepatitis B
- Hepatitis B - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Hepatitis B is an infectious disease caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) which affects the liver. It can cause both acute and chronic infections.
- CDC DVH - Hepatitis B FAQs for the Public
Hepatitis B Surface Antibody (anti-HBs) is an antibody that is produced by the body in response to the Hepatitis B surface antigen.
- Hepatitis A, B, and C Center: Symptoms, Causes, Tests ...
Hepatitis A, B, and C are viral infections that together affect an estimated 5% to 6% of Americans. Get in-depth hepatitis information here about hepatitis symptoms ...
- CDC DVH - Division of Viral Hepatitis Home Page
"Hepatitis" means inflammation of the liver and also refers to a group of viral infections that affect the liver. The most common types are Hepatitis A ...
- Hepatitis A, B, C, D, E: Click for Symptoms - MedicineNet
Viral hepatitis refers to hepatitis caused by a few specific viruses that primarily attack the liver. Hepatitis symptoms include loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting ...
- What I need to know about Hepatitis B
Hepatitis C is an infectious disease affecting primarily the liver, caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). The infection is often asymptomatic, but chronic infection ...
- Lo que usted debe saber sobre la Hepatitis B
[Volver Arriba] ¿Cuáles son los síntomas de la hepatitis B? La mayoría de las personas no presentan síntomas de hepatitis B. Es posible que los ...
- Hepatitis (Viral Hepatitis, A, B, C, D, E, G) Symptoms ...
Diagnosis of acute viral hepatitis often is easy, but diagnosis of chronic hepatitis can be difficult. When a patient reports symptoms of fatigue, nausea, abdominal ...
- Viral Hepatitis Home
The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) leads the country in hepatitis screening, testing, treatment, research and prevention. An extensive list of documents can be ... | <urn:uuid:419ec61c-66d8-4ac6-9fb0-d6ab94919150> | CC-MAIN-2015-14 | http://www.goldbamboo.com/relate-tl1408-tr2847.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-14/segments/1427131292683.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20150323172132-00096-ip-10-168-14-71.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.814468 | 599 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Nowadays, keeping corporate data secure is the most important worry for any company. Data security against unauthorised infiltration is on everyone’s mind as a result of the increasing number of security breaches at various firms. IT security is one of the most significant concerns that enterprises confront, regardless of size. The impact of a security attack on a small or medium-sized business is significantly greater. Small businesses are a favourite target of cyber criminals, owing to their inability to afford to build adequate security systems. Nothing can be 100% secure, but SMEs may improve the security environment by gaining a thorough understanding of their external online presence, ensuring it is secure through penetration testing, and minimising exposure through actions such as frequently upgrading security patches. Learn more about Houston Managed IT Services – Cloud Computing – Houston Cybersecurity Services.
What is a data breach and how does it occur?
A data breach occurs when sensitive, protected, or confidential information is potentially seen, stolen, or utilised by someone who is not allowed to do so. An adversary hacking into a network to steal sensitive data is the most popular definition of a data breach. To avoid data breaches, a number of business principles and government compliance rules require rigorous governance of sensitive or personal data. It is a situation in which the data of your corporation or organisation is stolen. When we check the corporate folder, we discover that all information has vanished, including client files, logs, and payment information. Then it’s evident that your company is a victim of a cyber-attack involving a data breach. The most typical causes of data breaches are as follows:
Protecting sensitive data is important to a company’s survival. What are the most typical factors that lead to data breaches? One of the most common sources of data breaches is the physical loss or theft of devices: This is, without a doubt, the most basic of the common reasons of data leaks. However, there are a variety of ways in which this can happen. Any of your laptops, external hard drives, or flash drives could have been damaged, stolen, or misplaced.
Internal risks such as an unintentional breach (employee error) or a deliberate breach (employee misuse): This might happen when personnel handling sensitive data don’t fully comprehend security standards and procedures. A mental error can also result in a data breach, such as when an employee delivers papers to the incorrect recipient.
Weak security measures are frequently cited as a major source of concern when it comes to protecting an organization’s data: Employees may be able to view and carry information they don’t need to complete their jobs if access to programmes and other sorts of data is improperly managed. Another major problem has been a weak or stolen password. Hackers can quickly enter into systems secured by weak passwords, such as laptops, tablets, cell phones, PCs, and email systems. Subscription information, personal and financial information, and critical business data are all at risk. | <urn:uuid:748299ec-f1df-455d-a2b4-fb62d15c4033> | CC-MAIN-2021-31 | http://www.ohhewett.com/houston-cybersecurity-services-secrets-revealed/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046153515.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20210727233849-20210728023849-00397.warc.gz | en | 0.93815 | 602 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Kevin J. Costa teaches English and Drama at McDonogh School, Owings Mills, MD
Hamlet’s Major Soliloquies (1.2, 2.2, 3.1, 3.3, 4.4)
Common Core State Standards covered: RL.6-12.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
What's On for Today and Why
In this lesson, students will work actively and collaboratively on Hamlet’s major soliloquies to experience how they represent Hamlet discovering who he is and what he wants, what he questions, and what he concludes in real time.
Students will study the structure of the speeches, and then they will perform them in the class. At the conclusion of the lesson, they will have performed close readings of the major soliloquies, will have spoken the language of the play, and will have a strong sense of how Shakespeare structures his soliloquies.
This lesson will take two 50-minute classes and can function as a review of Hamlet’s major soliloquies at the conclusion of your study of the play. It can also be adapted to reading assignments during your study. It may also be a valuable pre-reading lesson if you wish to familiarize your students wthl some of the most famous passages in the play.
What You Need
- Folger edition of Hamlet
Available in Folger print edition and Folger Digital Texts
- Folger’s YouTube Video, Hamlet's Soliloquies
- Different colored highlighters for the class
An open space
What To Do
- Hamlet's Soliloquies Video Look especially at the section between :34 - :53 and 3:00 - 4:00 where the production’s dramaturg, Michele Osherow, the play’s director, Joe Haj, and the actor playing Hamlet, Graham Hamilton, talk about what the soliloquies are for; Osherow calls them “secrets,” for instance, which are shared by the audience.
- Facilitate a discussion about ways that we encounter (and produce) soliloquies in our own lives. Do we talk to ourselves when we’re alone, walking or driving? Do we talk to ourselves when we’re working out a problem, or shopping at the grocery store? So we rehearse arguments or things we’re going to ask of others before we actually do them? Why do we do this? What work does this kind of soliloquizing do for us? As we talk to ourselves, out loud or in our heads, do we always know what we’re going to conclude?
- Break the class into five groups of five or six students (you may need to adapt this to your class size, but don’t let the groups dip below three or get bigger than six, if possible)
- Assign each group one of Hamlet’s major soliloquies (they occur in 1.2, 2.2, 3.1, 3.3, 4.4)
- Have each group do a read-around of the speech. The first time, students should read until they hit a full stop (period, question mark, colon, or exclamation mark); the second time, each student should read until he or she thinks there is a change in direction of a thought (obviously, this is up for debate, but their negotiating where these breaks might be is valuable analytical work); the third time, each student should have a turn reading the soliloquy aloud to his or her group. This will allow each student to get very comfortable with the speech.
- As students work collaboratively on the above bullet, they should have a good dictionary or access to www.shakespeareswords.com in order to look up any terms they don’t know -- or don’t know well.
- Next, read the following, which is by Cicely Berry, the RSC’s former voice teacher, who says in her book, The Actor and the Text,
“There is a dialogue going on within nearly every speech. Within that dialogue thoughts are moving at different rates, lines are moving with varying emphases, vowels and consonants are adding textures . . . It is as if the character proposes his theme, the argument. He then sets about replying to the initial statement, and continues to argue it through in different blocks of thought until the end” (Berry, 128).
- Next, hand out different colored highlighters to each student and have them do the following (this highlighting step draws on a technique adapted from Bruce Williams, former Director of Summer Training Congress at the American Conservatory Theatre in San Francisco, CA):
- Underline what they think is the “theme” or “thesis” phrase or line of the speech (you may want to look at the most famous example, “To be or not to be; that is the question”). This “thesis” should be what they think is the central question or problem of the speech that gives rise to what follows.
- Next, they should work through the speech highlighting thought units -- what Berry calls “blocks of thought” -- in alternating colors. For instance, when a student identifies a phrase, line, or series of lines that deal with one thought, that gets one color; when that thought produces a change in thought, the new “block” gets a different color. Make students aware that thoughts can change rapidly or slowly. Sometimes a single idea can be carried over several lines; at other times, it could change in one line. There is no right or wrong, but they should be able to discuss intelligently why they made the choices they did.
- After they complete this step, they should share out their work with the others in their group looking for consistencies and differences. Students should work to create a single text; there may be differences of opinion, but this is a good problem for them to work out.
- Once this is achieved, students should break into groups based on the color highlighting they produced. So, for example, three “blue” groups members would break off, and three “red” group members would break off and form a small ensemble who will work on those “blocks of thought.”
- The color groups then will assign themselves an equal distribution of highlighted lines, which they will be responsible for speaking.
- Once they know what they’re responsible for, students should spread out around the room and plant themselves in different places. They can even hide.
- Now, one student from a different soliloquy group should then come to the center of the room (desks should be moved, or the class should move to the school’s theatre or other open space).
- The groups should start reading the soliloquy from their perches around the room. When a line begins, the silent student at the center should turn toward the voice, and walk in that direction. When the next voice picks up, the student should change direction and walk towards that voice. This should continue throughout the soliloquy.
- When the exercise concludes, ask students to go around the room and finish the sentence, “I noticed . . .” Encourage students to talk not only about what they noticed in the exercise, but also what they learned about Hamlet.
- Does Hamlet know what he is going to say, or does he discover it “in the moment”?
- Did the soliloquy respond to the “theme” or “thesis” of the speech?
- How does Hamlet’s soliloquy “move” -- that is, are the thoughts and lines smooth or choppy? What might the form of Hamlet’s speech suggest about his state of mind?
What else did students notice?
How Did It Go?
- Did you see evidence of collaborative close reading?
- Did students engage in interpretive practices with a complex text?
- Did students engage in a discussion of the soliloquy’s form?
- Did students discover for themselves that soliloquies are "real-time" events that characters are working out with the audience?
Transfer and Application
This exercise will work with just about any character who has a soliloquy. Some characters include:
- Richard II, Richard II
- Juliet, Romeo and Juliet
- Macbeth & Lady Macbeth, Macbeth
- Othello, Othello
- Hal, Henry IV, Part 1
- Richard III, Richard III
If you used this lesson, we would like to hear how it went and about any adaptations you made to suit the needs of YOUR students.
Common Core State Standards
There are no standards associated with this Lesson Plan. | <urn:uuid:05ece48e-6fa5-41d1-a365-07bed30c6282> | CC-MAIN-2014-35 | http://www.folger.edu/eduLesPlanDtl.cfm?lpid=921 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-35/segments/1409535925433.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20140901014525-00380-ip-10-180-136-8.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943351 | 1,884 | 3.5625 | 4 |
The ATLAS collaboration is continuing to scour the wealth of data provided by the LHC for any signs of physics beyond the particles and interactions described by the Standard Model. One approach is to search for new forces in addition to the Standard Model’s electroweak and strong interactions. Such forces could be propagated by new massive bosons playing the role the W and Z bosons have in mediating the electroweak force.
A recent ATLAS measurement extends searches for new bosons up to masses about 70 times the mass of the Z boson. The search examines events where the postulated boson (X) would decay into an energetic photon plus a W or Z boson. ATLAS is well suited for detecting such events, initially selecting an energetic photon and subsequently identifying highly-boosted W/Z bosons from their decays to quark-antiquark pairs. The mass of the X boson can be obtained directly from the decay products and evidence for the X boson would appear as an excess of events above background. Alas, no such excess is observed, allowing improved limits to be set on the production of an X boson in the mass range from 1.0 to 6.7 TeV.
Since all-things-Higgs are of particular interest these days at the LHC, the ATLAS measurement also carries out the first search for a massive new boson decaying to a Higgs boson plus a photon. This signal is identified using decays of Higgs bosons with the largest branching ratio, namely a pair of b quarks. As shown in the figure, the observed invariant mass distribution of the events selected as a Higgs boson plus photon is a smoothly falling spectrum, showing no evidence for a new boson. The plot shows a computer simulation of what would be expected for X signals with masses of 1.0 and 2.0 TeV. This is the first search carried out at the LHC for a massive boson X decaying to a Higgs boson plus a photon, and is sensitive to these bosons with masses up to about 25 times the mass of the Higgs boson.
Although this current ATLAS study finds no evidence for new forces, the range and sensitivity of the search will be significantly improved when including data collected by the end of 2018. Look forward to results using the full LHC Run 2 dataset.
- Search for heavy resonances decaying to a photon and a hadronically decaying Z/W/H boson in proton-proton collisions at 3 TeV with the ATLAS detector (arXiv: 1805.01908, see figures)
- See also the full lists of ATLAS Conference Notes and ATLAS Physics Papers. | <urn:uuid:01c6a019-1eab-48f8-86b5-3a718c0a5f81> | CC-MAIN-2018-39 | http://atlas.cern/updates/physics-briefing/searching-forces-beyond-standard-model | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-39/segments/1537267162809.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20180926002255-20180926022655-00180.warc.gz | en | 0.910494 | 557 | 2.671875 | 3 |
The "Museo Cartaceo" ("Paper Museum"), a collection of more than 7,000 watercolors, drawings and prints assembled by the Roman patron and collector Cassiano dal Pozzo and his youngest brother Carlo Antonio from 1625 to 1665, represents one of the most significant attempts made before the age of photography to embrace the widest range of human knowledge in visual form. Documenting ancient art and architecture, botany, geology, ornithology and zoology, the collection is a significant tool for understanding the cultural and intellectual concerns of a period during which the foundations of our own scientific methods were laid down.
"The Paper Museum reflects the taste and intellectual breadth of Cassiano dal Pozzo, one of the most learned and enthusiastic of all seventeenth-century Roman collectors. As secretary to Cardinal Francesco Barberini, patron of artists such as Poussin, and a friend of Galileo, Cassiano crossed the boundaries of artistic, scientific and political disciplines to create his unique visual encyclopaedia. His patronage extended to both the well-known and the lesser-known artists of his day, and his close connections with leading European scientists, scholars and philosophers kept him informed of the latest archaeological and scientific discoveries. His younger brother Carlo Antonio came to share his interests and played a significant role in augmenting and arranging the collection.
"Through his association with Federico Cesi, Prince of Acquasparta (1585–1630), and his membership of the Accademia dei Lincei (the first modern scientific society, founded by Cesi), Cassiano assembled visual evidence of scientifically – and for the first time microscopically – observed natural phenomena, thus establishing a firm basis for scientific classification. Fruit, flora, fungi, fauna, minerals and fossils – all were meticulously recorded, whether commonplace or exotic. He applied the same rigour and systematic methodology to his antiquarian studies: classical and early medieval monuments and artefacts were painstakingly drawn and classified to form a unique survey of ancient architecture, religion, custom, dress and spectacle" (http://warburg.sas.ac.uk/pozzo/prospectus.pdf, accessed 0-03-2010).
The "Paper Museum" was sold by Cassiano’s heirs to the Albani Pope Clement XI , who resold it to his connoisseur nephew Cardinal Alessandro Albani in the early eighteenth century. It remained in the Albani collection until a substantial portion was acquired by George III, also a scientific amateur, in 1762 for his library at Buckingham House. In 1834, the collection was transferred to the Royal Library created by William IV at Windsor Castle, where it forms part of the Royal Collection. Other portions are at the British Library, the British Museum, the botanical gardens at Kew (mycological specimens) , the library of Sir John Soane's Museum. Portions not purchased for George III are preserved at the Institut de France and various other public and private collections.
Since the 1990s a project has been underway to publish the drawings and prints in the ‘Museo Cartaceo’ in a series of thirty-six volumes, arranged by subject matter following the method of classification employed by Cassiano himself. The series is entitled The Paper Museum of Cassiano dal Pozzo ~ A Catalogue Raisonné. | <urn:uuid:4315ebe5-ef21-4532-bcf5-bbb866c95920> | CC-MAIN-2021-17 | https://historyofinformation.com/detail.php?entryid=2838 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618038074941.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20210413183055-20210413213055-00628.warc.gz | en | 0.941207 | 691 | 3.171875 | 3 |
The Glossary of Geology is available in many formats. Please select the format below for more information:
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This indispensable reference tool contains nearly 40,000 entries of terms used in the earth and environmental science literature. Long considered the definitive reference by geoscientists and other students and professionals needing fully supported and detailed definitions of earth science terms. Long published as a 800+ page hardbound book, the app version provides all of the rich content with the portability and power of searching the entire glossary. In addition to definitions, many entries include background information. The Glossary draws its authority from the expertise of the more than 100 geoscientists in many specialties who reviewed definitions and added new terms. This is a must-have for all geoscientists, engineers working with earth-related issues, and students and other professionals.
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The online Glossary is an annual subscription. The rate is based on users. For a quote, or to inquire about site-wide licensing, please email email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:b12c748f-ddcf-482b-b8ca-563b92c4e6ee> | CC-MAIN-2018-05 | https://www.americangeosciences.org/pubs/glossary/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-05/segments/1516084891750.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20180123052242-20180123072242-00248.warc.gz | en | 0.907412 | 947 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Aboriginal Land Fund Commission
In 1972, the McMahon Government recognised that not all the land over which Aboriginal people declared customary ownership was reserve land. The Gurindji case illustrated a dilemma shared by many Aborigines seeking land security: their land was now privately owned. By the time the McMahon Government lost office, eleven months after his Australia Day promise of land purchases, only a small number of transactions had been concluded.
Justice Woodward's reports in 1973 and 1974 also recognised the problem faced by Aborigines outside the reserve system. He too called for a land fund, and the Whitlam Government legislated it in 1974 - setting up the Aboriginal Land Fund Commission (ALFC).
The ALFC, unlike the Land Rights Act, was not limited to the Northern Territory. All Indigenous Australians whose lands were now under non-Indigenous title could ask the ALFC to purchase their land back on their behalf and then hand them the title.
The Aboriginal Land Fund Commission lasted from 1974 until 1980, when it was replaced by the Aboriginal Development Commission.
The five members of the Commission were: C.D.Rowley (Director of the Academy of Social Sciences in Australia), Ernest Bridge (Shire President, Halls Creek, Western Australia), Stumpy Martin Jampijinpa (Community Adviser, Willowra Station, Northern Territory), Thomas Williams OBE (Director of Field Operations, NSW Aboriginal Lands Trust and Member of Aboriginal Relics Advisory Committee), and Neville Amy (Senior Rural Officer, Commonwealth Development Bank of Australia). Bridge, Martin and Williams were Indigenous Australians.
Paying out $6 million, the ALFC purchased 59 properties. It relied on the Department of Aboriginal Affairs for advice about what land was being requested by Aboriginal people, but it struggled to maintain its own criteria for establishing priorities. The ALFC was committed to letting Aboriginal need, rather than non-Indigenous conceptions of what was good for Aboriginal people, determine purchasing priorities. Land purchased was conceived by the ALFC as compensation for land previously taken. The ALFC had to fight for such a philosophy to be accepted. There were many politicians and officials who expressed dismay that a purchase could be based on anything but purely commercial considerations.
In 1980, Rowley reflected on his Commission's departures from Australian habits of thought about Aboriginal people's 'welfare', and on the effects of the Commission's work on Aboriginal people themselves:
'The Commission's work challenged a long standing assumption of white Australian folk history - that of the necessity of 'progress' to ever greater wealth...During the life of the Commission, the Commissioners' conviction that the purchase of property is vital for any substantial social and economic gain by the Aboriginal people was greatly strengthened. The importance of holding control of a safe home base may not be appreciated by those of us who have always had it - a place from which the person or the group cannot be removed at the whim of an individual or a government. Without this anchor in security neither economic success, nor gains in social cohesion are possible...Aboriginal affairs are seen as welfare matters rather than matters of justice and politics, and governments approach welfare as a matter of the government cheque. So it proves easy to give out of pocket money, but difficult to transfer property in which to invest money and work. Yet a beginning was made through the Commission...[T]he transfer of land or other property to a group long dispossessed brings a new upheaval, as new problems of its use, of leadership, and distribution of any profit, are thrashed out. In some cases this internal conflict lasted for years, but the Commission would intervene only when requested. In most cases this was not necessary.'
Keywords: activism, Australian Labor Party, land rights, McMahon, William, Northern Territory, resistance, Whitlam, Gough, 1975-80
Rowley, CD 'The Aboriginal Land Fund Comission, 1974-1980', in Peterson N (ed), 'Aboriginal land rights: a handbook', Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies Press, pp 258-9.
Author: Rowse, Tim and Graham, Trevor | <urn:uuid:00770ac3-f62f-40d8-a996-90754e9452e7> | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://mabonativetitle.com/info/abLandFundCommittee.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710972.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20221204104311-20221204134311-00042.warc.gz | en | 0.959256 | 832 | 3.15625 | 3 |
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Consider the following dilemma: You turn up for an exam, having no prior knowledge of the subject. You are handed one of two opportunities: You can get your answers either from an expert, but in a completely different language from yours or, alternatively, from someone who has only passable knowledge, but shares your language. Which would you choose?
Bacteria were put to a similar test in the lab of Prof. Yitzhak Pilpel of the Weizmann Institute of Science’s Molecular Genetics Department. He, Dr. Orna Dahan and other members of his lab team asked: When bacteria take on foreign genes, how does this affect their chances of survival, and do the bacteria prefer to take these genes from species that “speak" their language?
Bacteria reproduce asexually; mixing their genes with others – as happens in sexual reproduction – is a relatively new notion. In fact, as scientists discovered several decades ago, bacteria have evolved a method of “mixing and matching” genes in a process called horizontal gene transfer. Unlike the sexual, or vertical, gene transfer, in which genes are reshuffled and passed down from parents to offspring, in horizontal gene transfer, DNA gets mixed between unrelated individuals, including those of different species. “This is somewhat analogous to how languages evolve by occasionally acquiring foreign words, in the way that related Arabic and unrelated English terms have crept into the Hebrew vernacular,” says Pilpel.
Studying horizontal gene transfer in action is challenging, though. Scientists might first try to identify genes that do not look native to an organism’s genetic makeup – a bit like trying to spot a foreign-derived word among tens of thousands of entries in a dictionary. Some stand out, but others do not, and their “etymology” – the source of the foreign gene – is not always evident. Classical research methods could only provide scientists with a “snapshot” of the situation. To understand such transfers in an evolutionary context, scientists needed something more dynamic.
In Pilpel’s group, lab evolution is a research method, involving growing organisms in a test tube in a controlled environment and providing a sort of “movie” of the changes they undergo. “We took this research method one step further and introduced a unique element – foreign DNA from other species – allowing us, for the first time, to study horizontal gene transfer and its effects in real time,” says Dr. Orna Dahan, who led the study together with MSc students Shai Slomka De Oliveira and Itamar Françoise.
The scientists took a common bacterial species, Bacillus subtilis, and challenged them with a test: to survive in an uncomfortably salty solution. To help the bacteria pass the test, the researchers introduced foreign DNA from various microbial sources. Two such samples of DNA were taken from archaea in the Dead Sea, others from bacteria that live in the Mediterranean Sea. These species are completely unrelated to B. subtilis, but they are experts at thriving in high salinity. Yet another source of DNA was a close relative of B. subtilis; these were “novices” at living in a high-salt environment, having only recently “learned” how to do so through lab evolution.
By sequencing the genomes of the evolving populations over more than 500 generations, the scientists were able to identify when and how gene transfer took place. In one particularly surprising case, a large chunk – up to 2 percent – of the bacteria’s genome was replaced. This DNA was incorporated from the closely related organisms rather than from the unrelated, high-salinity experts, whose genome was apparently too “foreign and illegible” for the bacteria. Even so, the evolved generations “passed” the challenge: They were better able to better cope with high salt concentrations than their control counterparts.
If scientists can better understand how bacteria decide to adopt foreign genes, they might be able to slow or stop the process in the detrimental ones
Is gene transfer preferable to the tried-and-true process of mutation and adaptation in confronting new evolutionary challenges? Says Pilpel: “Horizontal gene transfer is a very costly process for an organism, especially as it involves the risk of incorporating genes that could be deleterious. So the fact that some of the foreign insertions ‘survived’ independently in several repetitions of the same experiment implies that they do indeed confer an adaptive advantage. Since mutations happen sequentially while, as we noted, more than one gene can be added through horizontal transfer, it might, in some cases, provide a shortcut to evolution.”
The findings of this study shed new light on gene sharing in organisms like bacteria that reproduce asexually. It may also illuminate the process of antibiotic resistance, which mainly evolves and spreads by gene transfer. If scientists can better understand how bacteria decide to adopt foreign genes, they might be able to slow or stop the process in the detrimental ones. The biotechnology industry could also use the gene transfer principle demonstrated in the experiments to evolve new strains of bacteria for various applications, including the degradation of plastics or other such environmental technologies.
Prof. Yitzhak Pilpel's research is supported by the Helen and Martin Kimmel Award for Innovative Investigation. He is Head of the Braginsky Center for the Interface between Science and the Humanities; Head of the Azrieli Institute for Systems Biology; Head of the Leo and Julia Forchheimer Center for Molecular Genetics; and Head of the Kahn Family Research Center for Systems Biology of the Human Cell. His research is also supported by the Sharon Zuckerman Laboratory for Research in Systems Biology; the estate of Emile Mimran; and the European Research Council. Prof. Pilpel is the incumbent of the Ben May Professorial Chair. | <urn:uuid:e4576242-28af-4eb8-a6c7-d3c1692c28f9> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il/life-sciences/copying-foreign-genes-helps-bacteria-withstand-test-time | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662538646.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20220521045616-20220521075616-00731.warc.gz | en | 0.952955 | 1,229 | 3.09375 | 3 |
What does Dispossessed mean?
Definitions for Dispossessed
This dictionary definitions page includes all the possible meanings, example usage and translations of the word Dispossessed.
dispossessed, homeless, rooflessadjective
physically or spiritually homeless or deprived of security
"made a living out of shepherding dispossed people from one country to another"- James Stern
The Dispossessed (in later printings titled The Dispossessed: An Ambiguous Utopia) is a 1974 anarchist utopian science fiction novel by American writer Ursula K. Le Guin, one of her seven Hainish Cycle novels. It is one of a small number of books to win all three Hugo, Locus and Nebula Awards for Best Novel. It achieved a degree of literary recognition unusual for science fiction due to its exploration of themes such as anarchism and revolutionary societies, capitalism, utopia, and individualism and collectivism. It features the development of the mathematical theory underlying a fictional ansible, a device capable of faster-than-light communication (it can send messages without delay, even between star systems) that plays a critical role in the Hainish Cycle. The invention of the ansible places the novel first in the internal chronology of the Hainish Cycle, although it was the fifth published.
The numerical value of Dispossessed in Chaldean Numerology is: 4
The numerical value of Dispossessed in Pythagorean Numerology is: 9
Examples of Dispossessed in a Sentence
We have everything to dread from the dispossessed.
Celebrating Australia Day on January 26th is offensive, to celebrate an invasion which has seen our people dispossessed, displaced and oppressed for some 230 years, is plain offensive.
We announce we are entering those municipalities hardest hit by violence, it's a huge challenge in terms of restitution and we will do justice in the heart of areas where people were forced to abandon their lands and were dispossessed of their lands by the FARC.
In the height of thy prosperity expect adversity, but fear it not. If it come not, thou art the more sweetly possessed of the happiness thou hast, and the more strongly confirmed. If it come, thou art the more gently dispossessed of the happiness thou hadst, and the more firmly prepared.
It was a march of an entire civilization that had been uprooted, freed slaves and a lot of dispossessed whites. And that's what interested me, because during the course of that -- people changed.
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You need to be logged in to favorite. | <urn:uuid:7d68e909-1d13-4edc-93e1-fc7715c9bead> | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://www.definitions.net/definition/Dispossessed | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224648635.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20230602104352-20230602134352-00300.warc.gz | en | 0.893566 | 1,372 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Astronomers analyze atmosphere of exoplanet unlike any in our solar system
So far we've spotted more than 4,000 planets orbiting stars other than our Sun, but we know very little about their atmospheres. Now, NASA astronomers have managed to probe the atmosphere of GJ 3470 b, a planet unlike any in our solar system. It marks the first time for this kind of world, and could be a step towards identifying potentially habitable planets.
GJ 3470 b is a type of planet commonly referred to as a "Super-Earth", or perhaps a "mini-Neptune." The reason why is pretty clear – with a mass about 12.6 times that of Earth, it tips the scales between Earth and Neptune, which has a mass of over 17 Earths. Although our solar system has missed out on this class of object, they may actually make up the majority of planets in the galaxy.
But until now, astronomers had never been able to take stock of what was in the atmosphere of this kind of world. To investigate, the Hubble and Spitzer space telescopes conducted a spectroscopic study of the planet, by analyzing the signatures of light that filtered through the air as it passed in front of its host star, as well as what was lost when the planet went behind the star.
The results were unexpected. The atmosphere was clear with thin hazes, and mostly made up of hydrogen and helium, surrounding a large rocky core. Strangely enough, no heavier elements were picked up.
"We expected an atmosphere strongly enriched in heavier elements like oxygen and carbon which are forming abundant water vapor and methane gas, similar to what we see on Neptune," says Björn Benneke, corresponding author of the study. "Instead, we found an atmosphere that is so poor in heavy elements that its composition resembles the hydrogen/helium-rich composition of the Sun."
That makes GJ 3470 b a bit of a puzzle. The planet orbits relatively close to its host star, and is only the second so-called "hot Neptune" to be discovered. Exactly how it came to be at that size and that proximity to the star is unknown.
Previous studies of GJ 3470 b showed that the star's radiation was rapidly blasting the exoplanet's atmosphere away into space, suggesting that it was originally much bigger – a "hot Jupiter" you might say – but had since shrunk down a mere "hot Neptune."
But with the new atmospheric data taken into account, the team now believes that the planet was born from the rocky lump in the middle, which then scooped up hydrogen from a protoplanetary disk of material that once surrounded the star. But the disk dissipated before it could get much bigger.
"This is a big discovery from the planet-formation perspective," says Benneke. "The planet orbits very close to the star and is far less massive than Jupiter – 318 times Earth's mass –but has managed to accrete the primordial hydrogen/helium atmosphere that is largely 'unpolluted' by heavier elements. We don't have anything like this in the solar system, and that's what makes it striking."
The research was published in the journal Nature Astronomy. | <urn:uuid:cc565006-6b4d-4c56-9f2b-bed3dfd72e1b> | CC-MAIN-2019-47 | https://newatlas.com/exoplanet-atmosphere-hot-neptune/60410/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-47/segments/1573496672313.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20191123005913-20191123034913-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.965973 | 659 | 3.609375 | 4 |
The birth of a market for African art within Africa is a welcome sign of renaissance for one of the world's richest visual traditions. It has been reported recently that Nigerians are becoming more and more interested in collecting pre-modern African art. Oil wealth is going partly into art, and dealers in traditional carvings claim they are seeing new interest from local collectors.
Not only does Nigeria have an affluent elite, it also has what is arguably Africa's greatest art history. The country's heritage includes the brass casts of Benin and the compelling portrait heads of Ife. Wood carving, too, was at its most powerful in the forests of west Africa before European colonists in the late 19th century tore African culture apart. Even as art dealers started selling African masks in Europe, rapidly making the continent's art an inspiration for artists like Andre Derain, missionaries attacked the traditional belief systems embodied by such works.
Today, the threat to traditional African art comes from a complex pattern of modernity, neglect and ideology. Global art dealers still sell it. The highest praise of the international art world, however, is reserved for modern African art, and recycled materials are more highly rated critically than handmade carvings. There tends to be an assumption that modern African art has to be urban and industrial, just like art created by other continents this century.
It is just as oppressive to impose such an aesthetic ideology on Africa as it is to impose it on British art. There are still figurative painters in Britain, and there are pockets of traditional art (and life) all over Africa, for instance among Fante fishermen in Ghana, whose wooden boats are traditional art objects. Ghana also invented the modern folk art of painting coffins in the shapes of cameras, fish or bottles in recent decades, although it has yet to become a well-established tradition.
It is good news that Africans are collecting Africa's stupendous heritage of art. The respect for African art that was once a byword of modernism has decayed, and Africa needs to remind the world of its beauty and power. | <urn:uuid:12ed6feb-a053-4dee-b86c-1ec0c9cf6137> | CC-MAIN-2017-47 | https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2013/sep/09/african-art-welcome-renaissance | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-47/segments/1510934805881.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20171119234824-20171120014824-00275.warc.gz | en | 0.968687 | 422 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Of all the vaccines designated as “core” by the American Association of Equine Practitioners, vaccination against tetanus is considered the most basic for all horses, whether they are athletic competitors, companions, retired, young or old. Why is this?
What is Tetanus?
Tetanus is caused by the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium tetani. The bacterium lives in the gut of horses and many other animals, and is passed in the manure so the organism is abundant and ubiquitous in soil. Spores of C. tetani can live in the environment for many years. The disease is not transmitted from animal to animal, rather the bacterium can enter the body through cuts (especially of the foot or muscle), punctures, surgical incisions, or the umbilical cord of a newborn foal. Once inside the body, C. tetani very rapidly produces a potent toxin that attacks the nervous system, causing muscle spasms and ultimately paralysis. These muscle spasms are what gives the disease the common name of “lockjaw.” The progression of the disease is usually very quick, and it is very painful, and as many as 50% of all affected horses die. Once the toxin is bound to the nervous system, it cannot be dislodged. Therefore prevention and very early detection is key.
In this video, the horse with tetanus demonstrates the muscle rigidity and tremors, as well as the distress typical of the disease. If you look closely, you can see the abnormal movement of the third eyelid. The horse is choking because the muscles that allow him to swallow are also affected.
Horses are very sensitive to tetanus, among the most sensitive of all animals. Although tetanus is often believed to be more common in deep wounds and punctures, even superficial wounds have resulted in clinical cases of tetanus in horses. Therefore, the severity of the wound does NOT predict the risk for development of tetanus.
WARNING: The following video is of a severely affected horse. Some people may find it difficult to watch. Again, muscle tremors and rigidity characterize the disease.
Although the vaccine is not perfect (there have been rare cases of tetanus reported in vaccinated horses), it is a very good vaccine and survival of horses with tetanus is strongly associated with proper vaccination.
Why is tetanus vaccination yearly in horses, whereas in humans it is every 5-10 years?
Horses seem to be very susceptible to tetanus, much more so than humans. There have been reported cases of tetanus in horses vaccinated even 6 months previously, so diligent vaccination against the disease seems prudent. We recommend yearly vaccination against tetanus, however if a horse sustains a wound that puts him or her at additional risk and they not been vaccinated in the past six months, we will often booster the vaccination at that time. | <urn:uuid:3f2a6333-cb12-445c-ade5-cebd6bf66431> | CC-MAIN-2018-34 | https://www.burwashequine.ca/blog/2015/4/2/tetanus-in-horses | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-34/segments/1534221217901.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20180820234831-20180821014831-00230.warc.gz | en | 0.957095 | 589 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Master of Science
Dr. Liana Zanette
Recent manipulations show that when perceived predation risk is high, animals will chronically alter their escape behaviour, even if it affects physiological condition to such an extent that survival may be reduced. I tested the relationships amongst predation risk, mass change, and flying capacity in brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) housed in large outdoor aviaries. I measured changes in the birds’ body condition, take-off behaviour and flying capacity after manipulating the ambient level of perceived predation risk in their environment using various predator or non-predator cues. Cowbirds exposed to predator stimuli gained, rather than lost, body mass and changed their take-off behaviour, by flying at higher angles and reduced speeds. Critically, flying capacity was not affected by any of these changes. I suggest these responses may be anti-predator tactics that birds utilize to reduce starvation risk and improve their chances of predator evasion when predation risk is high.
Walters, Benjamin T., "Tactics to Stay Alive: Predation Risk Alters Body Condition and Escape Behaviour" (2015). Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository. 3112. | <urn:uuid:4fdd14bb-6ed3-4d2d-8121-12433b387a20> | CC-MAIN-2018-26 | https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/3112/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-26/segments/1529267865250.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20180623210406-20180623230406-00516.warc.gz | en | 0.90859 | 243 | 2.78125 | 3 |
(1930–1982) American physicist
Everett was a doctoral pupil of John Wheeler in the 1950s at Princeton. In 1957 he published a famous paper on the foundations of quantum mechanics describing what has become known as the ‘many worlds’ interpretation. The paper was entitled Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics.
The traditional Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics applied only to the submicroscopic world. Everett broke away from this tradition and attempted to apply quantum mechanics to the universe. He established a universal wave function that could be applied to both microscopic entities and macroscopic observers. As a consequence, there is no collapse of the wave function and quantum paradoxes, such as Schrödinger's cat, are avoided.
This approach, however, is not without paradoxical conclusions of its own. In Everett's formulation, the result of a measurement is to split the universe into as many ways as to allow all possible outcomes of the measurement. Thus if an observer were to check the outcome of a die throw, the universe would split into six copies with each one containing one of the six possible outcomes of the throw. Everett proposed that each outcome is realized in a number of parallel universes between which there is no communication.
While Everett's work has inevitably been taken up by many science fiction writers, it has also been taken seriously by other scientists. Gell-Mann, for example, has tried to develop a version of quantum theory that eliminates the role of the observer, in the manner of Everett, but reduces the idea of ‘many worlds’ to one of possible histories of the universe to which a probability value can be assigned.
Subjects: Science and Mathematics. | <urn:uuid:68ef8631-0dcc-42d5-a5a9-bfe48f0402a1> | CC-MAIN-2018-22 | http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110810104849568 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794865411.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20180523024534-20180523044534-00184.warc.gz | en | 0.958494 | 342 | 3.25 | 3 |
Two years ago at Horicon Marsh in Wisconsin I saw two life birds (among others) – Marsh and Sedge Wrens. These birds were significant because they meant I had seen every U.S. wren. My quest to see wrens began a year before that in Arizona. I had successfully found four wrens: Cactus, Canyon, Rock, and Bewick’s and realized I wanted to see all the wrens. Not just in the U.S., but ALL the wrens.
I purchased a book by David Brewer’s called Wrens, Dippers, and Thrashers. According to this book there are between 75 and 90 species of wrens, all found in the Americas except the Winter Wren. There are 9 total wrens in the U.S. and 5 found in northern Illinois: House, Carolina, Winter, Marsh, and Sedge (Bewick’s used to be and may return). The greatest concentrations of wrens are, like many families of birds, in the tropics of Central and South America. There are also may single species found on islands.
Just like most families of birds, there are several wrens that are facing serious declines because of, you guessed it, habitat destruction/degradation. No known full species of wren has been classified as extinct, but several sub-species have, including the race Salpinctes obsoletus exsul of the Rock Wren. This wren’s island home of San Benedicto erupted and is one of the few recent extinctions that was not caused by humans.
What is it about wrens that I love so much? They lack the gaudy colors of tropical tanagers, the wide varieties of the warblers, or the whimsical actions of wading birds. Instead wrens have mixes of brown hues, black and white that mesh perfectly well. In many respects it’s not their look but their attitude. Wrens are spunky and fun, bold and in your face, and while many have songs that are “harsh”, a great many are musical and unique.
Top 5 wrens by looks alone:
1. Giant Wren – the biggest and baddest of the lot
2. White-headed Wren – hardly looks like a wren at all
3. Band-backed Wren – a gray and white wren with rich cinnamon flanks and belly
4. Carolina Wren – richly colored in rufous and buff
5. Black-throated Wren – dark reddish brown with a black throat
Top 5 wrens by sound:
1. Cactus Wren – “harsh and unmusical”? I think not!
2. Canyon Wren – a descending voice that is acoustically vibrant in their canyon habitats
3. Sinaloa Wren – musical and fun
4. Northern Nightingale Wren – “amazing” “marvelous” “unmistakable and haunting”
5. Musician Wren – perhaps the most unique and fascinating song produced by a bird
Even as I quest to see all the wrens of the world, it is always a thrill when the House Wrens come back to nest at the Callaway Nature Preserve. Their energy, attitude and song continue through even the hottest days of summer.
Cool Wren (and other animal) sounds can be found at Cornell’s Macaulay Library. | <urn:uuid:5c2d4f14-3dfc-4f37-a2c9-030cdfe4c27a> | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://birdfreak.com/wanderlust-wrens/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710918.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20221203011523-20221203041523-00836.warc.gz | en | 0.955813 | 747 | 3.15625 | 3 |
E-Cigarettes: How they work
Chris Johanson explains how electronic cigarettes work
By the numbers
percent of adults who used traditional cigarettes also used electronic cigarettes in 2011, according to the Centers For Disease Control and Prevention.
percent of adults tried e-cigarettes in 2011, an estimate that roughly doubled from 2010.
Awareness of e-cigarettes rose from four in 10 adults in 2010 to six in 10 adults in 2011, according to the CDC.
ingredients are in the liquid vaporized by electronic cigarettes.
ingredients are found in cigarettes.
of sales of electronic cigarettes in 2012 in the United States, according to analysts.
$400 million to $500 million
of industry growth is estimated for 2013, according to analysts.
for sales of electronic cigarettes to surpass sales of cigarettes, according to industry analysts.
SILVERDALE — Grabbing what looks like an oversized pen hanging from a lanyard around his neck, Chris Johanson inhales quickly, then lets an expanding white puff leave his lips.
It’s a move he repeats every few minutes, pausing mid-conversation to exhale. Seconds later the billowing cloud disappears.
Although it looks like smoke, the substance is water vapor.
Johanson, who owns Smoker’s Choice in the Kitsap Mall, is a member of a growing community of people who have turned away from tobacco cigarettes in favor of electronic cigarettes. These battery-operated devices heat liquid, which often includes nicotine and flavoring, into a vapor that is inhaled by the user.
While many people tout the electronic device as the only successful way they’ve been able to kick their smoking habit — they’ve swapped smoking for “vaping” — federal regulators and local health officials say more information is needed before they take a position on use of the devices.
“Some information out there shows that these materials do contain toxic substances,” Kitsap Public Health District spokesman Scott Daniels said. “The little data that’s out there shows that the nicotine level is highly variable, the chemicals used are variable. I think the FDA would be the first to tell you they don’t know the levels are safe.”
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is in the process of determining how to regulate e-cigarettes and needs further research to assess public health benefits and risks of the devices, according to a spokeswoman.
Meanwhile, local health agencies are taking action.
King, Pierce and Spokane counties passed regulations limiting the use of e-cigarettes and restricting who can buy them.
Kitsap could be next.
The health district’s board, made up of the county’s elected commissioners and mayors, is slated to learn more about e-cigarettes at its May 7 meeting.
A policy subcommittee recently recommended the board adopt an ordinance that would prohibit the sale of e-cigarettes to minors and place restrictions on sampling coupons and the sale of the devices through vending machines.
Because e-cigarettes don’t contain tobacco, there is no age restriction on who can buy or use them. That is a big concern for health officials, who say the devices appeal to the technology-driven younger generation.
“They’re marketing that cool, high-tech look,” Daniels said. “That can lead to a pathway to where kids then become addicted to nicotine, and that’s a concern.”
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services compares the addictive properties of nicotine to those of cocaine or heroin.
The health district is concerned that if youths use e-cigarettes and become addicted to nicotine, they could one day move on to tobacco products like cigarettes, which are proven to have negative health affects.
The health district board will discuss imposing the age restrictions at its May meeting, but it isn’t ready to make any decision on limiting where e-cigarettes can be used.
“Nothing we’re talking about talks about restricting the sale to adults, or restricting use in the home,” Daniels said. “We’re not getting anywhere close to that.”
People can use e-cigarettes anywhere in Kitsap unless a business has specifically banned them indoors.
The Tracyton Public House is one establishment that has such a ban. Owner Debra Maxwell-DuMont put that “house rule” into effect after seeing an increase in popularity of the devices in her establishment. She listed two reasons for the ban: unknown health risks and the time it takes a bartender on a busy night to check the device to make sure it is truly an e-cigarette and not something else.
The Navy allows the use of e-cigarettes onboard its submarines, where it has banned cigarettes. The devices can be used in the areas formerly designated for smoking cigarettes, according to Submarine Group 9 spokesman Lt. Ed Early.
Members of the e-cigarette community, including users, retailers and even the founder of a manufacturers’ trade association created to promote safety and responsibility within the industry, agree regulations are needed to prohibit minors from using the devices.
It’s talk about restricting where e-cigarettes can be used and the possibility of imposing regulations and taxes on the product that has them worried.
“We don’t believe it’s a tobacco product and it shouldn’t be regulated like it is tobacco,” said Linc Williams, founder of the American E-liquid Manufacturing Standards Association.
“It deserves its own unique regulation. We feel it should fall between commercial food manufacturing and an alcohol distillery.”
Williams, who is located in the Washington, D.C., area, founded AEMSA to create uniformity among those making the liquid used in the devices.
When e-cigarettes landed in America, the FDA tested the imported products, many of them from China, and found inconsistencies in ingredients — nicotine levels varied and didn’t match what was on the label.
A lot has changed since then.
Is it safe? Absolutely not, but drinking a can of Coca-Cola is not safe either.
Linc Williams, founder, American E-liquid Manufacturing Standards Association
The number of American manufacturers has increased and producers have come together in self-regulation to ensure consumer protection.
Manufacturers that are part of AEMSA go through a certification process that includes scheduled inspections of the facility where the product is made, Williams said.
“It allows the consumers to know the minimum quality manufacturing process is happening, as well as gives people the ability to trace back all of the ingredients,” he said.
“We all pretty much throughout the industry believe there needs to be some sort of regulation to put those quality controls in place.”
Weighing long-term health risks
Williams, who is an e-cigarette user, knows there is still a lot to learn about the long-term effects of e-cigarettes. But when comparing the ingredient list of the liquid — typically made up of propylene glycol, vegetable glycerin, flavoring and nicotine — to that of the more than 200 chemicals in cigarettes, it is better than the tobacco alternative, he said.
E-cigarette users are quick to point out the ingredients meet FDA approval for food, they just haven’t been evaluated in liquid form or used together.
“Is it safe? Absolutely not, but drinking a can of Coca-Cola is not safe either,” Williams said. “I recognize and understand the risks and compared to the alternative of smoking, I chose this.”
Some companies may claim e-cigarettes help people quit smoking but they can’t be advertised as smoking cessation devices under federal regulations. But that hasn’t stopped people from using them to curb smoking habits.
Many e-cigarette users are former smokers who say they’ve seen improvements in their health after making the switch.
“I don’t get sick as much as I used to when I was a smoker. I definitely have better lung function,” said Genipher Owens of Manchester. “I definitely think these are substantially safer than cigarettes. Hands down.”
After smoking for 15 years, Owens — who used smoke up to two packs a day — made the switch to e-cigarettes nine months ago. When buying liquid, consumers can choose the level of nicotine, which usually ranges from 24 milligrams to 0.
Owens, 27, is now using the device without any nicotine.
“I tried everything that tried to help me quit and this is the only thing that worked,” she said. “Some day I might stop using it, but at this point I don’t have a need to.”
Andrew McDaniel, 25, also made the switch from being a pack-a-day smoker to now smoking a pack of cigarettes a week. The electronic device has curbed his cravings and McDaniel sees it as a way to eventually wean off his nicotine addiction, he said.
Even if he kicks smoking altogether, he said he might keep the e-cigarette because it replaces the physical act of smoking, filling that habitual void.
McDaniel said he knows it’s not healthy, but he considers the use of an e-cigarette minor compared to other risks in his life.
He said he hopes health officials make an educated decision about regulating e-cigarettes rather than creating blanket rules that mirror existing laws that prohibiting smoking in public places.
“The reason they stopped smoking in bars was because of the secondhand smoke,” McDaniel said. “If you’re smoking something that is water vapor, how is somebody else going to get hurt by that?”
Kitsap health district officials aren’t ready to make any decisions on whether to limit where e-cigarettes can be used, spokesman Daniels said.
The board will likely look at what has been enforced in Seattle and Tacoma to guide that discussion. In those places, people are able to use e-cigarettes in bars and casinos but not in certain places of employment.
“It may be healthier, but is it healthy? That is the question,” Daniels said.
“We don’t have the data to show that yet.” | <urn:uuid:8f2728fe-7600-493b-83f3-aa9ab24c8633> | CC-MAIN-2013-48 | http://www.kitsapsun.com/news/2013/apr/13/e-cigarettes-helpful-or-hurtful/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-48/segments/1386163047212/warc/CC-MAIN-20131204131727-00092-ip-10-33-133-15.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948081 | 2,148 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Does Social Isolation Aggravate Psychiatric Problem - Popular Perception In Covid -19 Lockdown
European Journal of Molecular & Clinical Medicine,
2020, Volume 7, Issue 1, Pages 2438-2450
AbstractCOVID -19 is an infectious disease caused by the newly discovered coronavirus. As there is no vaccine discovered, the only way to prevent the spread is through following the practice of social isolation.
Objectives:Prolonged isolation may also lead to psychological stress and problems. Hence the scenario is to measure the level of awareness among the people about psychiatric problems created due to prolonged social isolation.The aim of the survey is to measure the level of awareness among the participants on the psychological stress created due to social isolation through the imposed lockdown.
Materials And Methods: A questionnaire was prepared and administered to a hundred participants through google form an online platform. The study participants included people belonging to the general population of Tamilnadu. The answers obtained from the participants are recorded and analysed and the answers given by each participant to each question were represented in the form of flow charts.
Results: Around 70% of people said that social isolation affects mental health and 72% of people said that social isolation creates stress. 60% of people were aware that prolonged social isolation can create psychiatric problems.
Conclusion: The level of awareness among the participants is moderate and hence a complete awareness on social isolation and its consequences must be created among the study population.
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Skunks don't really want to make you stink. In fact, they always warn you first.
"The first thing he's going to do is try to run away. If he gets cornered, he's going to turn around and put his tail up and stomp at you. He may charge and stomp. He's hoping you'll back off," says Jerry Dragoo, who studies skunks at the University of New Mexico.
Seems like skunks send a clear message, but though some animals recognize that warning, our dogs often don't."There's a communication breakdown. They don't speak the same language," says professor Theodore Stankowich of California State University, Long Beach.
In addition to the warning routine, the skunk's black and white coat is a sign of danger to many animals, though dogs don't seem to recognize it. In the wild, "things that are toxic or poisonous have bold, contrasting color patterns, and it's a common theme for predators to be able to easily learn that these bold, contrasting color patterns are bad," Stankowich says.
Unfortunately for both dogs and their owners, domestic canines don't seem to put two and two together the way wild predators do. "It goes beyond skunks — there are accounts of dogs attacking other black and white animals, such as badgers or honey badgers, and not getting the warning colors," Stankowich says. "Something was clearly lost during the process of domestication."
Even worse, although some dogs do learn that what skunks have in store for them is nasty stuff, some of them not only don't mind it, they actually seem to relish it. "Some dogs, if they've been sprayed, they know not to mess with skunks anymore. If they see the threat display, they'll back off. Other dogs just can't get enough. They seem to enjoy getting sprayed," Dragoo says. "They'll [go] back again and again and roll around in it."
The skunk's odor comes from the same kind of anal glands found in your dog and other carnivores, but the skunk's glands are more developed and have something similar to a nipple that he can point in different directions. The spray itself contains thiols, the chemical compounds present in other stinky things, which may explain why some dogs may be fond of the smell.
Unlike most other wild animals, skunks are not as fearful of people and pets because they count on the threat of their stinky defense to keep them from being harassed.
And you can have a smelly skunk encounter without going out in the woods, because skunks are quite happy to live among us. Like any animal, they're looking for food, water and shelter, and our cities and suburbs provide plenty of all three. "Skunks eat pretty much anything. If you leave your garbage out, they'll eat your leftovers, dog food or cat food, fruits," Dragoo says. "They will dig up lawns and gardens for the grubs."
They also get more comfortable with people the more they live around us. "A skunk out in the wilderness may not see humans that often, so he may run away more quickly. But if you're in a campground, those wild skunks are used to people and people's behavior, and they will just walk through and rummage through your tent," Dragoo says. "In the city, skunks are used to people. They can kind of predict how people are going to react; you can push them a little further before you make them spray. If they live in your yard, they know your routine. If you come out every night at 9, they'll wait till 10 to come out."
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Elwha Dam Removal
A $324.7 million restoration project, which involves tearing down the massive concrete walls along Elwha River.
Carbon Dioxide Research
WWU graduate student Zach Thammavongsy's researched breaking down carbon dioxide.
17 prominent ecologists, including WWU's Dave Hooper, are calling for renewed international efforts to curb the loss of biological diversity.
- Tsunami Research - $6,723 Awarded
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Introduction Recent studies show that the use of technology in almost every activity we daily make has become more important day by day. This also can be applied in business aspects, Like hospitality, where the customer attention Is the priority, so managers need to find the way to automation the service the best as possible. 2. 0 Analysis of Issue 2. Summary of the Issue In the article “Warning, warnings Entering bots mania”, the author Is trying to let us now the negative part of robot evolution, saying, “artificial intelligence is going to cause huge disruption, as a host of everyday functions” (Collie, 2014). The issue here is that there’s the possibility that robots can become ‘our social as well as economic superiors’, so In every business that requires technology for working, there’s the need to be sure if is necessary to keep automating the product or service, or it just can still be a real people’s job.
Despite this, technological advances go faster than we think, for example we can appreciate the evolution of the embodied systems that Interact with humans, where “the ability to interact with people in the human environment has been a recent motivator of the humanoid robotics community and the service robotics community. For systems such as these, safety and minimizing Impact on human living spaces are Important Issues, as well as the Issues of performance and ease of use” (Beebread, 2003, p. 121).
This means that automated machines are starting to be created very similar as humans, which support the theory that some day they will become in otter humans than us. 2. 2 Implications for management of virtual business Talking about our specific business, hospitality, to increase service productivity, “many companies utilize automation extensively to reduce the use of labor. However, greater use of automation does not always result In higher service quality, and the effectiveness of automation in providing service hinges on how advanced the technology level is” (Rust & Hang, 2012, p. 7). On the other hand, some people affirm that there are many others topics to take into account about the advantages ND disadvantages of human robots, like Issues of trust In automation, which “challenge macro-cognitive work at numerous levels, ranging from decision making at the policy level, to capability at the mission and organizational levels, to confidence at 1 OFF operators” (Hoffman, Johnson & Bradshaw, 2013, p. 84). 3. Conclusion Thanks to the preview information, it’s correct to affirm that the use of advanced technology in our hotels to improve the service and to reduce the costs could be a ere good solution, but it has to be correctly controlled to avoid that robots can steal human Jobs; in other words, it’s important to use the technology in a way that it doesn’t affect humans quality of life in any way, such as economical and emotional aspects, so the business can get more benefits and advantages over competitors. Reference List Collie, R. (2014, February 27). Warning, warning! Entering bots mania. The Sydney Morning Herald. | <urn:uuid:5d612876-454b-4424-b305-c7f7ae00ede0> | CC-MAIN-2021-17 | https://customwritingsco.com/vdb-brief/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618038076454.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20210414004149-20210414034149-00166.warc.gz | en | 0.945457 | 643 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Iconoclasm[Note 1] is the social belief in the importance of the destruction of icons and other images or monuments, most frequently for religious or political reasons. People who engage in or support iconoclasm are called iconoclasts, a term that has come to be figuratively applied to any individual who challenges "cherished beliefs or venerated institutions on the grounds that they are erroneous or pernicious".
The term does not generally encompass the specific destruction of images of a ruler after his death or overthrow (damnatio memoriae).
Iconoclasm may be carried out by adherents of a different religion, but it is more often the result of sectarian disputes between factions of the same religion. Within Christianity, iconoclasm has generally been motivated by those who adopt a strict interpretation of the Ten Commandments, which forbid the making and worshipping of "graven images or any likeness of anything". The later Church Fathers identified Jews, fundamental iconoclasts, with heresy and saw deviations from orthodox Christianity and opposition to the veneration of images as heresies that were essentially "Jewish in spirit". Degrees of iconoclasm vary greatly among religions and their branches. Islam, in general, tends to be more iconoclastic than Christianity, with Sunni Islam being more iconoclastic than Shia Islam.
- 1 Religious iconoclasm
- 2 Political and revolutionary iconoclasm
- 3 See also
- 4 Notes
- 5 References
- 6 Further reading
- 7 External links
In the Bronze Age, the most significant episode of iconoclasm occurred in Egypt during the Amarna Period, when Akhenaten, based in his new capital of Akhetaten, instituted a significant shift in Egyptian artistic styles alongside a campaign of intolerance towards the traditional gods and a new emphasis on a state monolatristic tradition focused on the god Aten, the Sun disk— many temples and monuments were destroyed as a result:
In rebellion against the old religion and the powerful priests of Amun, Akhenaten ordered the eradication of all of Egypt's traditional gods. He sent royal officials to chisel out and destroy every reference to Amun and the names of other deities on tombs, temple walls, and cartouches to instill in the people that the Aten was the one true god.
Public references to Akhenaten were destroyed soon after his death.
For Egypt, the greatest horror was the destruction or abduction of the cult images. In the eyes of the Israelites, the erection of images meant the destruction of divine presence; in the eyes of the Egyptians, this same effect was attained by the destruction of images. In Egypt, iconoclasm was the most terrible religious crime; in Israel, the most terrible religious crime was idolatry. In this respect Osarseph alias Akhenaten, the iconoclast, and the Golden Calf, the paragon of idolatry, correspond to each other inversely, and it is strange that Aaron could so easily avoid the role of the religious criminal. It is more than probable that these traditions evolved under mutual influence. In this respect, Moses and Akhenaten became, after all, closely related.
Although widespread use of Christian iconography only began as Christianity increasingly spread among gentiles after the legalization of Christianity by Roman Emperor Constantine (c. 312 AD), scattered expressions of opposition to the use of images were reported (e.g. Spanish Synod of Elvira). The period after the reign of Byzantine Emperor Justinian (527–565) evidently saw a huge increase in the use of images, both in volume and quality, and a gathering aniconic reaction.
In the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, government-led iconoclasm began with Byzantine Emperor Leo III, following what seems to have been a long period of rising opposition to the use or misuse of images. The religious conflict created political and economic divisions in Byzantine society. It was generally supported by the Eastern, poorer, non-Greek peoples of the Empire who had to deal frequently with raids from the new Muslim Empire. On the other hand, the wealthier Greeks of Constantinople, and also the peoples of the Balkan and Italian provinces, strongly opposed iconoclasm.
Within the Byzantine Empire the government had probably been adopting Christian images more frequently. One notable change came in 695, when Justinian II's government added a full-face image of Christ on the obverse of imperial gold coins. The change caused the Caliph Abd al-Malik to stop his earlier adoption of Byzantine coin types. He started a purely Islamic coinage with lettering only. A letter by the Patriarch Germanus written before 726 to two Iconoclast bishops says that "now whole towns and multitudes of people are in considerable agitation over this matter" but there is little written evidence of the debate.
In contrast to the Lutherans who favoured sacred art in their churches and homes, the Reformed (Calvinist) leaders, in particular Andreas Karlstadt, Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin, encouraged the removal of religious images by invoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry and the manufacture of graven (sculpted) images of God. As a result, individuals attacked statues and images. However, in most cases, civil authorities removed images in an orderly manner in the newly Reformed Protestant cities and territories of Europe.
Significant iconoclastic riots took place in Basel (in 1529), Zurich (1523), Copenhagen (1530), Münster (1534), Geneva (1535), Augsburg (1537), Scotland (1559), Rouen (1560) and Saintes and La Rochelle (1562). Calvinist iconoclasm in Europe "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany and "antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox" in the Baltic region.
The Seventeen Provinces (now the Netherlands, Belgium and parts of Northern France) were disrupted by widespread Calvinist iconoclasm in the summer of 1566. This is called the Beeldenstorm and began with the destruction of the statuary of the Monastery of Saint Lawrence in Steenvoorde after a "Hagenpreek", or field sermon, by Sebastiaan Matte. Hundreds of other attacks included the sacking of the Monastery of Saint Anthony after a sermon by Jacob de Buysere. The Beeldenstorm marked the start of the revolution against the Spanish forces and the Catholic Church.
The iconoclastic belief caused havoc throughout Europe. In 1523, specifically due to the Swiss reformer Huldrych Zwingli, a vast number of his followers viewed themselves as being involved in a spiritual community that in matters of faith should obey neither the visible Church nor lay authorities. According to Peter George Wallace:
"Zwingli's attack on images, at the first debate, triggered iconoclastic incidents in Zurich and the villages under civic jurisdiction that the reformer was unwilling to condone." And due to this action of protest against authority, "Zwingli responded with a carefully reasoned treatise that men could not live in society without laws and constraint."
During the Reformation in England started during the reign of Anglican monarch Henry VIII, and urged on by reformers such as Hugh Latimer and Thomas Cranmer, limited official action was taken against religious images in churches in the late 1530s. Henry's young son, Edward VI, came to the throne in 1547 and, under Cranmer's guidance, issued Injunctions for Religious Reforms in the same year and in 1550, an Act of Parliament "for the abolition and putting away of divers books and images". During the English Civil War, Bishop Joseph Hall of Norwich described the events of 1643 when troops and citizens, encouraged by a Parliamentary ordinance against superstition and idolatry, behaved thus:
Lord what work was here! What clattering of glasses! What beating down of walls! What tearing up of monuments! What pulling down of seats! What wresting out of irons and brass from the windows! What defacing of arms! What demolishing of curious stonework! What tooting and piping upon organ pipes! And what a hideous triumph in the market-place before all the country, when all the mangled organ pipes, vestments, both copes and surplices, together with the leaden cross which had newly been sawn down from the Green-yard pulpit and the service-books and singing books that could be carried to the fire in the public market-place were heaped together.
Protestant Christianity was not uniformly hostile to the use of religious images. Martin Luther taught the "importance of images as tools for instruction and aids to devotion", stating: "If it is not a sin but good to have the image of Christ in my heart, why should it be a sin to have it in my eyes?" Lutheran churches retained ornate church interiors with a prominent crucifix, reflecting their high view of the real presence of Christ in Eucharist. As such, "Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior." For Lutherans, "the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image."
Lutheran scholar Jeremiah Ohl writes:
Zwingli and others for the sake of saving the Word rejected all plastic art; Luther, with an equal concern for the Word, but far more conservative, would have all the arts to be the servants of the Gospel. "I am not of the opinion" said [Luther], "that through the Gospel all the arts should be banished and driven away, as some zealots want to make us believe; but I wish to see them all, especially music, in the service of Him Who gave and created them." Again he says: "I have myself heard those who oppose pictures, read from my German Bible. ... But this contains many pictures of God, of the angels, of men, and of animals, especially in the Revelation of St. John, in the books of Moses, and in the book of Joshua. We therefore kindly beg these fanatics to permit us also to paint these pictures on the wall that they may be remembered and better understood, inasmuch as they can harm as little on the walls as in books. Would to God that I could persuade those who can afford it to paint the whole Bible on their houses, inside and outside, so that all might see; this would indeed be a Christian work. For I am convinced that it is God's will that we should hear and learn what He has done, especially what Christ suffered. But when I hear these things and meditate upon them, I find it impossible not to picture them in my heart. Whether I want to or not, when I hear, of Christ, a human form hanging upon a cross rises up in my heart: just as I see my natural face reflected when I look into water. Now if it is not sinful for me to have Christ's picture in my heart, why should it be sinful to have it before my eyes?— Ohl, pp. 88–89
The Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, who had pragmatic reasons to support the Dutch Revolt (the rebels, like himself, were fighting against Spain) also completely approved of their act of "destroying idols", which accorded well with Muslim teachings.
A bit later in Dutch history, in 1627 the artist Johannes van der Beeck was arrested and tortured, charged with being a religious non-conformist and a blasphemer, heretic, atheist, and Satanist. The 25 January 1628 judgment from five noted advocates of The Hague pronounced him guilty of "blasphemy against God and avowed atheism, at the same time as leading a frightful and pernicious lifestyle. At the court's order his paintings were burned, and only a few of them survive "
In general, Muslim societies have avoided the depiction of living beings (animals and humans) within such sacred spaces as mosques and madrasahs. This opposition to figural representation is based not on the Qur'an, but on traditions contained within the Hadith. The prohibition of figuration has not always been extended to the secular sphere, and a robust tradition of figural representation exists within Muslim art. However, Western authors have tended to perceive "a long, culturally determined, and unchanging tradition of violent iconoclastic acts" within Islamic society.
- Early Islam in Arabia
The first act of Muslim iconoclasm dates to the beginning of Islam, in 630, when the various statues of Arabian deities housed in the Kaaba in Mecca were destroyed. There is a tradition that Muhammad spared a fresco of Mary and Jesus. This act was intended to bring an end to the idolatry which, in the Muslim view, characterized Jahiliyya.
The destruction of the idols of Mecca did not, however, determine the treatment of other religious communities living under Muslim rule after the expansion of the caliphate. Most Christians under Muslim rule, for example, continued to produce icons and to decorate their churches as they wished. A major exception to this pattern of tolerance in early Islamic history was the "Edict of Yazīd", issued by the Umayyad caliph Yazid II in 722–723. This edict ordered the destruction of crosses and Christian images within the territory of the caliphate. Researchers have discovered evidence that the order was followed, particularly in present-day Jordan, where archaeological evidence shows the removal of images from the mosaic floors of some, although not all, of the churches that stood at this time. But, Yazīd's iconoclastic policies were not continued by his successors, and Christian communities of the Levant continued to make icons without significant interruption from the sixth century to the ninth.
Al-Maqrīzī, writing in the 15th century, attributes the missing nose on the Great Sphinx of Giza to iconoclasm by Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr, a Sufi Muslim in the mid-1300s. He was reportedly outraged by local Muslims making offerings to the Great Sphinx in the hope of controlling the flood cycle, and he was later executed for vandalism. However, whether this was actually the cause of the missing nose has been debated by historians. Mark Lehner who performed an archaeological study concluded that it was broken with instruments at an earlier unknown time between the 3rd and 10th centuries.
- Ottoman conquests
Certain conquering Muslim armies have used local temples or houses of worship as mosques. An example is Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), which was converted into a mosque in 1453. Most icons were desecrated and the rest were covered with plaster. In the 1920s, Hagia Sophia was converted to a museum, and the restoration of the mosaics was undertaken by the American Byzantine Institute beginning in 1932.
- Recent events
Certain Muslim denominations continue to pursue iconoclastic agendas. There has been much controversy within Islam over the recent and apparently on-going destruction of historic sites by Saudi Arabian authorities, prompted by the fear they could become the subject of "idolatry".
A recent act of iconoclasm was the 2001 destruction of the giant Buddhas of Bamyan by the then-Taliban government of Afghanistan. The act generated worldwide protests and was not supported by other Muslim governments and organizations. It was widely perceived in the Western media as a result of the Muslim prohibition against figural decoration. Such an account overlooks "the coexistence between the Buddhas and the Muslim population that marveled at them for over a millennium" before their destruction. The Buddhas had twice in the past been attacked by Nadir Shah and Aurengzeb. According to the art historian F.B. Flood, analysis of the Taliban's statements regarding the Buddhas suggest that their destruction was motivated more by political than by theological concerns. Taliban spokespeople have given many different explanations of the motives for the destruction.
During the Tuareg rebellion of 2012, the radical Islamist militia Ansar Dine destroyed various Sufi shrines from the 15th and 16th centuries in the city of Timbuktu, Mali. In 2016, the International Criminal Court (ICC) sentenced Ahmad al-Faqi al-Mahdi, a former member of Ansar Dine, to nine years in prison for this destruction of cultural world heritage. This was the first time that the ICC convicted a person for such a crime.
The short-lived Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant carried out iconoclastic attacks such as the destruction of Shia mosques and shrines. Notable incidents include blowing up the Mosque of the Prophet Yunus (Jonah) and destroying the Shrine to Seth in Mosul.
In early medieval India, there were numerous recorded instances of temple desecration by Indian kings against rival Indian kingdoms, involving conflict between devotees of different Hindu deities, as well as between Hindus, Buddhists and Jains. In 642, the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I looted a Ganesha temple in the Chalukyan capital of Vatapi. Circa 692, Chalukya armies invaded northern India where they looted temples of Ganga and Yamuna. In the 8th century, Bengali troops from the Buddhist Pala Empire desecrated temples of Vishnu Vaikuntha, the state deity of Lalitaditya's kingdom in Kashmir. In the early 9th century, Indian Hindu kings from Kanchipuram and the Pandyan king Srimara Srivallabha looted Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka. In the early 10th century, the Pratihara king Herambapala looted an image from a temple in the Sahi kingdom of Kangra, which in the 10th century was looted by the Pratihara king Yasovarman.
In the early 11th century, the Chola king Rajendra I looted from temples in a number of neighbouring kingdoms, including Durga and Ganesha temples in the Chalukya Kingdom; Bhairava, Bhairavi and Kali temples in the Kalinga kingdom; a Nandi temple in the Eastern Chalukya kingdom; and a Siva temple in Pala Bengal. In the mid-11th century, the Chola king Rajadhiraja plundered a temple in Kalyani. In the late 11th century, the Hindu king Harsha of Kashmir plundered temples as an institutionalised activity. In the late 12th to early 13th centuries, the Paramara dynasty attacked and plundered Jain temples in Gujarat. In the 1460s, Suryavamshi Gajapati dynasty founder Kapilendra sacked the Saiva and Vaishnava temples in the Cauvery delta in the course of wars of conquest in the Tamil country. Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya looted a Balakrishna temple in Udayagiri in 1514, and he looted a Vittala temple in Pandharpur in 1520.
Some of the most dramatic cases of iconoclasm by Muslims are found in parts of India where Hindu and Buddhist temples were razed and mosques erected in their place. Aurangzeb, the 6th Mughal Emperor, destroyed the famous Hindu temples at Varanasi and Mathura.
In modern India, the most high-profile case of iconoclasm was from 1992. Hindu extremists, led by the Vishva Hindu Parishad and Bajrang Dal, destroyed the 430-year-old Islamic Babri Mosque in Ayodhya.
Other examples of religious iconoclasmEdit
- According to the Hebrew Bible, the Israelites entering the Promised Land were instructed by God to 'destroy all [the] engraved stones, destroy all [the] molded images, and demolish all [the] high places' of the Canaanite indigenous population.
- In Judaism, King Hezekiah purged Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem and the Land of Israel of figures, including the Nehushtan, as recorded in the Second Book of Kings. His reforms were reversed in the reign of his son Manasseh.
- In 305–306, the Synod of Elvira appeared to endorse iconoclasm. Canon 36 states, "Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration."[Note 2] Proscription ceased after the destruction of pagan temples.
- During the process of Christianisation under Constantine, Christian groups destroyed the images and sculptures expressive of the Roman Empire's polytheist state religion.
- Many of the moai of Easter Island were toppled during the 18th century in the iconoclasm of civil wars before any European encounter. Other instances of iconoclasm may have occurred throughout Eastern Polynesia during its conversion to Christianity in the 19th century.
- After the Second Vatican Council in the late twentieth century, some Roman Catholic parish churches discarded much of their traditional imagery, art, and architecture.
- According to an article in Buddhist-Christian Studies: "Over the course of the last decade [1990s] a fairly large number of Buddhist temples in South Korea have been destroyed or damaged by fire by Christian fundamentalists. More recently, Buddhist statues have been identified as idols, and attacked and decapitated in the name of Jesus. Arrests are hard to effect, as the arsonists and vandals work by stealth of night."
Political and revolutionary iconoclasmEdit
Revolutions and changes of regime, whether through uprising of the local population, foreign invasion, or a combination of both, are often accompanied by the public destruction of statues and monuments identified with the previous regime. This may also be known as damnatio memoriae, the ancient Roman practice of official obliteration of the memory of a specific individual. Stricter definitions of "iconoclasm" exclude both types of action, reserving the term for religious or more widely cultural destruction. In many cases, such as Revolutionary Russia or Ancient Egypt, this distinction can be hard to make.
Among Roman emperors and other political figures subject to decrees of damnatio memoriae were Sejanus, Publius Septimius Geta, and Domitian. Several Emperors, such as Domitian and Commodus had during their reigns erected numerous statues of themselves, which were pulled down and destroyed when they were overthrown.
Iconoclasm in the French RevolutionEdit
Throughout the radical phase of the French Revolution, iconoclasm was supported by members of the government as well as the citizenry. Numerous monuments, religious works, and other historically significant pieces were destroyed in an attempt to eradicate any memory of the Old Regime. At the same time, the republican government felt responsible to preserve these works for their historical, aesthetic, and cultural value. One way the republican government succeeded in their paradoxical mission of preserving and destroying symbols of the Old Regime was through the development of museums.
During the Revolution, a statue of King Louis XV in the Paris square which until then bore his name, was pulled down and destroyed. This was a prelude to the guillotining of his successor Louis XVI in the same site, renamed "Place de la Révolution" (at present Place de la Concorde).
The statue of Napoleon on the column at Place Vendôme, Paris was also the target of iconoclasm several times: destroyed after the Bourbon Restoration, restored by Louis-Philippe, destroyed during the Paris Commune and restored by Adolphe Thiers.
Destruction of Hindu templesEdit
During the Muslim conquest of SindhEdit
Records from the campaign recorded in the Chach Nama record the destruction of temples during the early eighth century when the Umayyad governor of Damascus, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, mobilized an expedition of 6000 cavalry under Muhammad bin Qasim in 712.
Muhammad triumphantly marched into the country, conquering Debal, Sehwan, Nerun, Brahmanadabad, Alor and Multan one after the other in quick succession, and in less than a year and a half, the far-flung Hindu kingdom was crushed ... There was a fearful outbreak of religious bigotry in several places and temples were wantonly desecrated. At Debal, the Nairun and Aror temples were demolished and converted into mosques.
Later destruction of Hindu templesEdit
In 725 Junayad, the governor of Sind, sent his armies to destroy the second Somnath. In 1024, the temple was again destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni, who raided the temple from across the Thar Desert. The wooden structure was replaced by Kumarapala (r. 1143–72), who rebuilt the temple out of stone.
Sultan Sikandar Butshikan of Kashmir (1389–1413) ordered the breaking of all "golden and silver images". Firishta states, "After the emigration of the Bramins, Sikundur ordered all the temples in Kashmeer to be thrown down. Having broken all the images in Kashmeer, (Sikandar) acquired the title of 'Destroyer of Idols'".
There have been a number of anti-Buddhist campaigns in Chinese history that led to the destruction of Buddhist temples and images. One of the most notable of these campaigns was the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution of the Tang dynasty.
During the Northern Expedition in Guangxi in 1926, Kuomintang General Bai Chongxi led his troops in destroying Buddhist temples and smashing Buddhist images, turning the temples into schools and Kuomintang party headquarters. It was reported that almost all of the viharas in Guangxi were destroyed and the monks were removed. Bai also led a wave of anti-foreignism in Guangxi, attacking Americans, Europeans, and other foreigners, and generally making the province unsafe for foreigners and missionaries. Westerners fled from the province and some Chinese Christians were also attacked as imperialist agents. The three goals of the movement were anti-foreignism, anti-imperialism and anti-religion. Bai led the anti-religious movement against superstition. Huang Shaohong, also a Kuomintang member of the New Guangxi clique, supported Bai's campaign. The anti-religious campaign was agreed upon by all Guangxi Kuomintang members.
Many religious and secular images were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution of 1966-1976, ostensibly because they were a holdover from China's traditional past (which the Communist regime led by Mao Zedong reviled). The Cultural Revolution included widespread destruction of historic artworks in public places and private collections, whether religious or secular. Objects in state museums were mostly left intact.
Iconoclasm in Eastern EuropeEdit
During and after the October Revolution, widespread destruction of religious and secular imagery took place, as well as the destruction of imagery related to the Imperial family. The Revolution was accompanied by destruction of monuments of past tsars, as well as the destruction of imperial eagles at various locations throughout Russia. According to Christopher Wharton, "In front of a Moscow cathedral, crowds cheered as the enormous statue of Tsar Alexander III was bound with ropes and gradually beaten to the ground. After a considerable amount of time, the statue was decapitated and its remaining parts were broken into rubble".
During the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and during the Revolutions of 1989, protesters often attacked and took down sculptures and images of Joseph Stalin, such as the Stalin Monument in Budapest. The fall of Communism in 1989-1991 was also followed by the destruction or removal of statues of Vladimir Lenin and other Communist leaders in the former Soviet Union and in other Eastern Bloc countries. Particularly well-known was the destruction of "Iron Felix", the statue of Felix Dzerzhinsky outside the KGB's headquarters. Another statue of Dzerzhinsky was destroyed in a Warsaw square that was named after him during communist rule, but which is now called Bank Square.
Other examples of political destruction of images include:
- During the American Revolution, the Sons of Liberty pulled down and destroyed the gilded lead statue of George III of the United Kingdom on Bowling Green (New York City), melting it down to be recast as ammunition. Similar acts have accompanied the independence of most ex-colonial territories. Sometimes relatively intact monuments are moved to a collected display in a less prominent place, as in India and also post-Communist countries.
- From the 16th through the 19th centuries, many of the polytheistic religious deities and texts of pre-colonial Americas, Oceania and Africa were destroyed by Christian missionaries and their converts, such as during the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire.
- There have been several cases of removing symbols of past rulers in Malta's history. Many Hospitaller coats of arms on buildings were defaced during the French occupation of Malta in 1798–1800; a few of these were subsequently replaced by British coats of arms in the early 19th century. Some British symbols were also removed by the government after Malta became a republic in 1974. These include royal cyphers being ground off from post boxes, and British coats of arms such as that on the Main Guard building being temporarily obscured (but not destroyed).
- In 1942 the pro-Nazi Vichy Government of France took down and melted Clothilde Roch's statue of the 16th-century dissident intellectual Michael Servetus, who had been burned at the stake in Geneva at the instigation of Calvin. The Vichy authorities disliked the statue, as it was a celebration of freedom of conscience. In 1960, having found the original molds, the municipality of Annemasse had it recast and returned the statue to its previous place.
- The Taliban destroyed two ancient Buddhas of Bamiyan in Bamyan, Afghanistan in March 2001.
- The Battle of Baghdad symbolically ended with the Firdos Square statue destruction, a US military-staged event in April 2003 where a prominent statue of Saddam Hussein was pulled down.
- In 2016, paintings from the University of Cape Town were burned in student protests as symbols of colonialism.
- In August 2017 a statue of a Confederate soldier dedicated to "the boys who wore the gray" was pulled down from its pedestal in front of Durham County Courthouse in North Carolina by protesters. This followed the events at the 2017 Unite the Right rally in response to growing calls to remove Confederate monuments and memorials across the U.S.
- Literally, "image-breaking", from Ancient Greek: εἰκών and κλάω. Iconoclasm may be also considered as a back-formation from iconoclast (from Greek εἰκοκλάστης). The corresponding Greek word for iconoclasm is εἰκονοκλασία – eikonoklasia.
- A possible translation is also: "There shall be no pictures in the church, lest what is worshipped and adored should be depicted on the walls."
- Aston 1993; Loach 1999, p. 187; Hearn 1995, pp. 75–76
- OED, "Iconoclast, 2", see also "Iconoclasm" and "Iconoclastic".
- "icono-, comb. form". OED Online. Oxford University Press. Retrieved March 28, 2019.
- "You shall not make for yourself a carved image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. 5 You shall not bow down to them or serve them ..." (Exodus 20:4–5a, ESV.)
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Lutherans continued to worship in pre-Reformation churches, generally with few alterations to the interior. It has even been suggested that in Germany to this day one finds more ancient Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Catholic churches. Thus in Germany and in Scandinavia many pieces of medieval art and architecture survived. Joseph Leo Koerner has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the ancient, apostolic church, sought to defend as well as reform the use of images. "An empty, white-washed church proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther's doctrine of Christ's real presence in the sacraments" (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to destruction of images came not from Catholics but from Lutherans against Calvinists: "You black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return" (Koerner 2004, 58). Works of art continued to be displayed in Lutheran churches, often including an imposing large crucifix in the sanctuary, a clear reference to Luther's theologia crucis. ... In contrast, Reformed (Calvinist) churches are strikingly different. Usually unadorned and somewhat lacking in aesthetic appeal, pictures, sculptures, and ornate altar-pieces are largely absent; there are few or no candles; and crucifixes or crosses are also mostly absent.
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Luther's view was that biblical images could be used as teaching aids, and thus had didactic value. Hence Luther stood against the destruction of images whereas several other reformers (Karlstadt, Zwingli, Calvin) promoted these actions. In the following passage, Luther harshly rebukes Karlstadt on his stance on iconoclasm and his disorderly conduct in reform.
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The Beeldenstorm, or Iconoclastic Fury, involved roving bands of radical Calvinists who were utterly opposed to all religious images and decorations in churches and who acted on their beliefs by storming into Catholic churches and destroying all artwork and finery.
- Byfield, Ted (2002). A Century of Giants, A.D. 1500 to 1600: In an Age of Spiritual Genius, Western Christendom Shatters. Christian History Project. p. 297. ISBN 9780968987391.
Devoutly Catholic but opposed to Inquisition tactics, they backed William of Orange in subduing the Calvinist uprising of the Dutch beeldenstorm on behalf of regent Margaret of Parma, and had come willingly to the council at her invitation.
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Iconoclastic incidents during the Calvinist 'Second Reformation' in Germany provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs, while Protestant image-breaking in the Baltic region deeply antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox, a group with whom reformers might have hoped to make common cause.
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In an episode known as the Great Iconoclasm, bands of Calvinists visited Catholic churches in the Netherlands in 1566, shattering stained-glass windows, smashing statues, and destroying paintings and other artworks they perceived as idolatrous.
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Although some reformers, such as John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli, rejected all images, Martin Luther defended the importance of images as tools for instruction and aids to devotion.
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As it developed in north-eastern Germany, Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior. This much is evident from the background of an epitaph pained in 1615 by Martin Schulz, destined for the Nikolaikirche in Berlin (see Figure 5.5.).
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According to Koerner, who dwells on Lutheran art, the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image.
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- Goldstone, Nancy Bazelon; Goldstone, Lawrence (2003). Out of the Flames: The Remarkable Story of a Fearless Scholar, a Fatal Heresy, and One of the Rarest Books in the World. New York: Broadway. ISBN 978-0-7679-0837-5.pp. 313-316
- "Afghan Taliban leader orders destruction of ancient statues". Rawa.org. Retrieved 2013-04-30.
- Meintjies, Ilze-Marie (16 February 2016). "Protesting UCT Students Burn Historic Paintings, Refuse To Leave". Eyewitness News. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
- "SEE IT: Crowd pulls down Confederate statue in North Carolina". NY Daily News. Retrieved 2017-08-15.
- Holland, Jesse J. "Deadly rally accelerates ongoing removal of Confederate statues across U.S." chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 2017-08-15.
- "War over Confederate statues reveals simple thinking on all sides". NY Daily News. Retrieved 2017-08-28.
- CNN, Amanda Jackson. "Protesters pull down Confederate statue in North Carolina". CNN. Retrieved 2017-08-15.
- Alloa, Emmanuel (2013). Visual Studies in Byzantium, in: Journal of Visual Culture 12.1 (2013) 3–29 (on the conceptual background of Byzantine iconoclasm)
- Aston, Margaret. England's Iconoclasts: Volume I: Laws Against Images (1988)
- Aston, Margaret. Broken Idols of the English Reformation (Cambridge UP, 2016).
- Balafrej, Lamia. "Islamic Iconoclasm, Visual Communication and the Persistence of the Image," Interiors 6, 3 (2015): 351-366. https://doi.org/10.1080/20419112.2015.1125659
- Barasch, Moshe (1992). Icon: Studies in the History of an Idea. University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-1172-9.
- Besançon, Alain (2009). The Forbidden Image: An Intellectual History of Iconoclasm. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-04414-9.
- Bevan, Robert (2006). The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-319-2.
- Boldrick, Stacy, Leslie Brubaker, and Richard Clay, eds. Striking Images, Iconoclasms Past and Present (Ashgate, 2014) 236 pages; scholarly studies of the destruction of images from prehistory to the Taliban
- Freedberg, David (1977). A. Bryer and J. Herrin (eds.). The Structure of Byzantine and European Iconoclasm (PDF). University of Birmingham, Centre for Byzantine Studies. pp. 165–177. ISBN 978-0-7044-0226-3.CS1 maint: uses editors parameter (link)
- Freedberg, David (1985). Iconoclasts and their Motives (Second Horst Gerson Memorial Lecture, University of Groningen) (PDF). Maarssen: Gary Schwartz. ISBN 978-90-6179-056-3. Reprinted in Public. Toronto (8). Fall 1993. Missing or empty
- Gamboni, Dario (1997). The Destruction of Art: Iconoclasm and Vandalism since the French Revolution. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-316-1.
- Gwynn, David M (2007). "From Iconoclasm to Arianism: The Construction of Christian Tradition in the Iconoclast Controversy" (PDF). Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 47: 225–251.
- Ivanovic, Filip (2010). Symbol and Icon: Dionysius the Areopagite and the Iconoclastic Crisis. Pickwick. ISBN 978-1-60899-335-2.
- Karahan, Anne (2014). "Byzantine Iconoclasm: Ideology and Quest for Power". In: Eds. K. Kolrud and M. Prusac, Iconoclasm from Antiquity to Modernity, Ashgate Publishing Ltd: Farnham, Surrey, pp. 75–94. ISBN 978-1-4094-7033-5.
- Lambourne, Nicola (2001). War Damage in Western Europe: The Destruction of Historic Monuments During the Second World War. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1285-7.
- Narain, Harsh (1993). The Ayodhya Temple Mosque Dispute: Focus on Muslim Sources. Delhi: Penman Publishers.
- Arun Shourie, Sita Ram Goel, Harsh Narain, Jay Dubashi and Ram Swarup. Hindu Temples - What Happened to Them Vol. I, (A Preliminary Survey) (1990) ISBN 81-85990-49-2
- Spicer, Andrew. "Iconoclasm," Renaissance Quarterly 70#3 (Fall 2017): 1007-1022. https://doi.org/10.1086/693887
- Velikov, Yuliyan (2011). Image of the Invisible. Image Veneration and Iconoclasm in the Eighth Century. Veliko Turnovo University Press. ISBN 978-954-524-779-8 (in Bulgarian)
- Antonio Calisi, I Difensori Dell'icona: La Partecipazione Dei Vescovi Dell'Italia Meridionale Al Concilio Di Nicea II 787, Createspace Independent Pub 2017,ISBN 1978401094 ISBN 978-1978401099
|Look up iconoclasm or iconoclast in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.|
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Iconoclasm.|
|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Iconoclasm| | <urn:uuid:4f5e2f71-d51f-40ba-9192-899b5e63ef61> | CC-MAIN-2019-39 | https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclastic | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514573827.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20190920030357-20190920052357-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.901956 | 11,643 | 3.5625 | 4 |
Today begins Holy Week, the holiest of all the weeks of the year. Palm Sunday commemorates the triumphal entry of Jesus into Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover. The gospels record the arrival of Jesus riding into the city on a donkey, while the crowds spread their
cloaks and palm branches on the street and shouted: “Hosanna to the Son of David” and “Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord” to honor him as their long-awaited Messiah and King. The significance of Jesus riding a donkey and having his way paved with palm branches is a fulfillment of a prophecy spoken by the prophet Zechariah (Zechariah 9:9). In biblical times, the regional custom called for kings and nobles arriving in procession to ride on the back of a donkey. The donkey was a symbol of peace; those who rode upon them proclaimed peaceful intentions. The laying of palm branches indicated that the king or dignitary was arriving in victory or triumph. Afterward, the palms are to be taken to our different homes to be used for next year’s Ash Wednesday celebration. In the simplest of terms, Palm Sunday is an occasion for reflecting on the final week of Jesus’ life. It is a time for Christians to prepare their hearts for the agony of His Passion and the joy of His Resurrection.
HOLY SPIRIT OF GOD: INSPIRE US | <urn:uuid:5d3e527a-1d89-4333-8843-5f9307a50578> | CC-MAIN-2021-17 | http://www.holyspiritcitybeach.com/palm-sunday/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618038065492.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20210411204008-20210411234008-00213.warc.gz | en | 0.939444 | 293 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Did you know that tooth decay is one of the top reasons why children miss school days? Our Kids dentist in Brighton is committed to helping families enjoy healthier teeth through proven preventative strategies. But even if they do need care, we can intercept it while it’s small (reducing the need for pediatric sedation Brighton.)
As your family prepares for back to school, here are some important tips on enjoying a healthy smile through the upcoming months:
Re-Vamp Everyone’s Brushing Routine
Now that your family is transitioning from the “lazy” days of summer, toothbrushing may be the last thing on kids’ minds before they head out the door for school. But ideally, you want to be brushing twice a day for a minimum of two minutes at a time.
Make sure you establish a great brushing routine after breakfast before your child grabs their backpack. Those two minutes are priceless. And after the day is over and the homework is complete, have them brush again before they head to bed. It’s only four minutes total of their day, but the payoff is crucial when it comes to avoiding preventable dental disease. While you’re at it, make sure their toothpaste contains fluoride.
Have Healthy Snacks on Hand
Just like the rest of your body, your smile is what you eat. Diets high in processed foods and artificial sweeteners are more likely to involve cavities. But fresh fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and certain dairy products help you have healthy teeth.
Here are just a few smart snacks to get you started:
- Sharp cheddar cheese
- Carrot sticks
- Celery and hummus
- Whole-grain crackers
- Apple slices
- Air-popped popcorn
- Roasted nuts
While we’re talking about snacking, try to have your child eat at specific times in the day. Each time they snack, bacteria produce acids on their teeth for about 30 minutes. More frequent snacking means more acid exposure, which increases their cavity risk.
Stock Up on Floss Picks
Brushing only cleans about 60% of tooth surfaces. You also need to clean in-between! Our kids dentist in Brighton recommends keeping plenty of disposable floss picks in the bathroom, car, or even in your child’s backpack for them to use after they eat. A great flossing routine will lower your child’s cavity risk and the need for complex procedures that require pediatric sedation (Brighton.)
Opt for a Refillable Water Bottle
Your municipal water supply has regulated fluoride levels. And fluoride—like calcium—is essential for strong bones and teeth as your child grows. Our kids dentist in Brighton recommends drinking tap water over commercial bottled waters because of the monitored mineral content. So, if your child likes to have water bottles in their backpack or for extracurricular activities, invest in a nice reusable bottle instead.
Send a Toothbrush to School
Having an extra toothbrush tucked away in your child’s backpack is a great idea. Especially if they’re in braces. Keep a travel-sized bag with a toothbrush and toothpaste for them to clean their teeth after lunch or whenever they get a break. This step isn’t a must, but it’s extremely beneficial.
Schedule a Checkup ASAP
“Routine” checkups with a kids dentist in Brighton make it easier for your family to get ahead of cavities and dental infections. Plan to schedule an exam and cleaning for your child every six months. We’ll evaluate their teeth, seal permanent molars, apply fluoride, and perform professional cleanings to help keep their enamel strong between checkups.
If your child needs treatment, we offer pediatric sedation (Brighton) to ensure a comfortable and efficient experience. They’ll be back to smiling again in no time!
Is your child due for a checkup? Are you ready to plan your family’s toddler or baby dental exams in Brighton? Contact Kids City Dental today to get started! | <urn:uuid:6d0b926c-da4a-4bca-8fe6-9b97f2ace599> | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | https://kidscitydental.com/back-to-school-6-tips-for-a-healthy-start/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780053759.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20210916204111-20210916234111-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.925338 | 844 | 2.5625 | 3 |
By Shahbaz Sharif, CDKN (February 3,2012)
The massive flooding that hit Pakistan in the summer of 2010 was triggered by unprecedented monsoon rainfall. The United Nations described it as the world’s worst humanitarian disaster in recent years and it drew international attention to the damaging effects of climate change in the region. After the disastrous flooding, we began doing a lot of reconstruction work. The Government of Punjab is currently building 22 model villages in the flood-affected areas.
First, let me give you a round up of what has been done so far in the Punjab. Around 3000 houses have been made with funding from Qatar, Turkey and Iran. These are located in the flood-affected areas of Mianwalli, Bhakar, Layyah, Muzaffargarh, Dera Ghazi Khan, Rahim Yar Khan and Rajanpur. UN Habitat has also built 11,000 shelters, which are basic one-room constructions. Another 4000 houses were made with private donations. We are also rebuilding 5000 schools that have been damaged by the floods.
What we want to do is build more climate resilient structures that can cope with future flooding. We are currently working with the Climate and Development Knowledge Network on a consultancy to develop standards on how to make better homes, schools and dispensaries so that next time a disaster strikes we are not so badly affected. The idea is to build back better, so that future construction is not destroyed by disasters. We can build better by increasing the plinth lengths of the houses, using better materials and moving to safer locations.
Now let’s come to our model villages, which any urban dweller would envy. In each of our model villages we are building 2 bedroom houses, which are fully plastered with separate kitchens and toilets. We will provide them with filtered drinking water. All the villages will have covered sewerage drains, paved brick pavements and parks. They will also have schools and dispensaries.
We are also providing each village with a shared livestock shed. This is already a big hit. Initially we had been advised that the villagers would not allow their livestock to be tied up so far from their homes but now they are queuing up to have their livestock housed in these sheds, which can take up to 60 cattle. These are well-equipped sheds with mist fans to keep the animals cool!
There has been a cultural shift as we are teaching the villagers that it is not hygienic to live with your cattle so close to you. The cattle sheds are also useful because they provide enough animal waste to power biogas plants. The energy from these biogas plants can be used for cooking. We are also providing the villages with solar energy in addition to regular electricity. Each house is to get 100 watts of solar power.
To ensure that the household waste is properly managed, we are setting up a garbage collection system complete with recycling. The trash will be separated by a NGO we have signed a deal with called Wastebusters. The recycled items will be sold while the organic waste will be turned into manure at a garbage transfer station set up in each village.
In the near future, we hope to set up micro credit financing and livelihood creation schemes. The Small and Medium Enterprise Development Authority, which is a federal level organization, will have a representative in each village to advise the villagers. One of the projects the villagers can implement is off-season cultivation so that they can increase their income.
We are doing all this so we are better prepared in the future. Climate change is a reality and we have to learn to cope with it. | <urn:uuid:386e545e-84b3-46ec-9973-5a0861b5aacc> | CC-MAIN-2017-43 | http://southgreeneconomy.blogspot.com/2012/02/climate-resilient-model-villages.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187826642.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20171023202120-20171023222120-00828.warc.gz | en | 0.973838 | 736 | 2.53125 | 3 |
The five food groups are:
Dairy and/or their alternatives: the foods in this group are excellent sources of calcium, which is essential for strong and healthy bones. Not many other foods in our diet contain as much calcium as these foods.
Fruit: fruit provides vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and many phytonutrients (nutrients naturally present in plants), that help your body stay healthy.
Grain (cereal) foods: always choose wholegrain and/or high fibre varieties of bread, cereals, rice, pasta, noodles, etc. Refined grain products (such as cakes or biscuits) can be high in added sugar, fat and sodium.
Lean meats and poultry fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and seeds and legumes/beans: our bodies use the protein we eat to make specialised chemicals such as haemoglobin and adrenalin. Protein also builds, maintains, and repairs the tissues in our body. Muscles and organs (such as your heart) are primarily made of protein.
Vegetables and legumes/beans: vegetables should make up a large part of your daily food intake and should be encouraged at every meal (including snack times). They provide vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and phytonutrients (nutrients naturally present in plants) to help your body stay healthy. | <urn:uuid:e45323b2-880f-44fd-9fe4-735f0286894a> | CC-MAIN-2019-51 | https://www.teenlifetoday.com/nutrition.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-51/segments/1575540528457.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20191210152154-20191210180154-00137.warc.gz | en | 0.936344 | 272 | 3.59375 | 4 |
- Protests over environmental concerns have led to the closing down of a Vedanta group’s Sterlite’s copper plant in Thoothukudi in Tamil Nadu.
Copper smelting and impact on environmentProcess of Copper Smelting:
- Copper smelting is the process by which the metal (copper) is extracted from the concentrated ore, which has copper combined with sulphur and oxygen (as in copper sulphate).
Pollutant Sulphur Dioxide as bi-product:
- Smelting essentially means separating copper from the sulphate, which released sulphur dioxide gas.
- Sulphur dioxide is a pollutant—and a toxic one at that—causing asthma and acid rain.
- Most smelting plants capture the sulphur dioxide gas and make it into sulphuric acid, which can then be sold separately, or further used in the manufacturing of phosphoric acid.
- However, this capturing process is not foolproof, and there have been gas leaks in the past, resulting in the temporary closure of the Sterlite plant.
Contamination of water:
- The smelting process also uses water—in cooling, processing and washing, and also to convert the sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid.
- Most of the water is recycled, but some of it could end up released into the environment or into the groundwater.
- Depending on the ore that provided the copper, the contaminants in the water vary—including heavy metals like arsenic and cadmium.
Environment vs EconomicsEnvironmental damage can be minimized but at a cost:
- The wastewater from smelting can be recycled and cleaned, but at a cost.
- It takes both capital investment and running costs to minimize the adverse environmental impact of copper smelting.
- World over, cost pressures and environmental concerns have seen copper smelting move out of developed countries.
- Today, the largest smelters are in China, Chile and India.
But copper costs are also worrying for the industry:
- On the demand side of the equation, electrification and a flourishing automotive industry mean that copper demand is booming, growing at 7-8% a year.
- China, due to environmental concerns, is beginning to shut down smelters, squeezing global supply.
- This is making copper prices shoot up.
So India would prefer to smelt copper here:
- In an era of rising crude prices, India, understandably, will not want to expend more money importing copper, or higher metal prices.
Concerns with the company’s practices:
- Vedanta’s investor reports place its copper operations in the lowest quartile of cost (thus claiming “cost leadership” in the sector).
- This raises concerns if the company is cutting costs in managing environmental impact.
- Some questions have been raised over environmental clearances for a plant, with some alleging that it was not up to the (environmental) mark.
Company claims it is clean:
- The company leadership, on the other hand, points to the multiple awards from prestigious organizations, including one for good water management.
Shouldn’t sustainability have primacy over costs?
- We must figure out the price of copper that we are willing to pay while allowing for environmental concerns to be addressed.
- This is not a question limited to Thoothukudi and Vedanta.
- There should be a price put on carbon pollution (or on water).
Protecting environmental resources is paramount today:
- We must realise that environmental resources are becoming more precious due to dwindling supply, rising demand and rising awareness.
- Climate change means that water resources in parts of India (including and especially Tamil Nadu) are going to become very scarce, and fights like these are going to become more common.
Environmental issue is now politically and economically (for companies) important:
- Customers (and voters) are becoming better informed about environmental hazards and are beginning to buy, vote and protest on environmental grounds.
- A 2017 survey by Global Shapers (born out of the World Economic Forum) of young people found that they overwhelmingly judged climate change and the destruction of nature to be the most critical issue.
- Companies and institutions should note that reputations have become more fragile and transparency more widespread thanks to laws like the Right to Information Act and social media.
- Climate change and shrinking water and other environmental resources mean that mainstreaming sustainability is must.
Importance:GS Paper III: Environment Related question:Companies and leaders must take on board shifting trends in public opinion about environmental sustainability and the reputational consequences of not doing so. Comment in light of the recent closure of a copper plant due to protests over environmental concerns.Section : Editorial Analysis | <urn:uuid:15e1e78d-4e83-4c3e-ad37-24919f1b5bf0> | CC-MAIN-2021-17 | https://upscexpress.com/2019/09/20/environment-vs-economics-case-study/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618038078021.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20210414185709-20210414215709-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.930205 | 984 | 3.875 | 4 |
Manufacturing has been in decline for the past three decades due to the offshoring of domestic jobs to low-wage countries like China --- and a recent study shows that almost 1/3 of all current domestic jobs are still prone to being outsourced --- leaving the US workforce with an economy primarily made up of low-paid service and retail jobs.
Manufacturing has traditionally provided some of the best-paying jobs in the U.S. economy. And where 14 million Americans are directly employed by manufacturing, another 8 million have found jobs via manufacturing because of it’s interconnected linkage to the rest of the economy. It's called the multiplier effect.
WorkingForAmerica.Org: "The National Association of Manufacturing (NAM) indicate that each dollar’s worth of manufactured goods creates another $1.43 of activity in other sectors, twice the $.71 multiplier for services. Also, two thirds of U.S. research and development capacity is concentrated in manufacturing. Manufacturing has long been a dynamic economic sector, registering remarkably sustained productivity growth."
When a large manufacturing facility comes to town, the new jobs it brings
with it also demand the creation of a greater workforce in other
industries: more hospital workers, teachers, food service personnel,
construction workers, real estate agents, etc. When manufacturing jobs
move to the town, it means there are more people to feed, house, and
educate. But additionally, manufacturing jobs (especially if they are
union) pay good wages, meaning people have more money to spend. This
phenomenon is clearly visible in many U.S. cities, where a large factory
often drives the local economy.
So what happens when large plants are offshored to low-wage countries like China or Vietnam? Not only do the factory’s workers lose their jobs, but those people whose livelihoods depend upon the overall manufacturing economy also lose their jobs. This ripple effect means less taxes are paid into the local and state economy because of less disposable income to buy goods at the local store, which means fewer people with health insurance --- and that translates into an increase in demand for social services (like food stamps) at precisely the time when the tax base is shrinking.
It's noteworthy that jobs created at big box stores do not have this type of multiplier effect on the economy. Usually they only force small businesses to shut down. And because of basis points, a big box store like Walmart buys so much product that they dictate pricing to suppliers, driving down the suppliers' profits, and putting other suppliers out of business too. All along their supply chain, workers end up out on the street... over a few basis points difference in unit costs.
The outsourcing of jobs to China over the last 26 years could have only benefited the Chinese economy. See the before and after photos below of Shanghai after the past 26 years of China's growth (which had been averaging 10% a year).
Shanghai - 1987 and 2013
China's GDP growth slowed from 7.6 percent in the second quarter of 2012
to 7.5 percent in the second quarter of 2013 -- a marginal 0.1 percent
decline. In the same period, US year-on-year growth fell from 2.8 percent
to 1.4 percent.
After recently surpassing Japan as the world's 2nd largest economy, China is now predicted to overtake the US as the world's largest economy in just a few years. China's industrial output in the last year rose six times faster than the US. In July China's industrial growth was slightly increasing, whereas US industrial growth had fallen by two-thirds.
Claims about a US "industrial revival", led by natural gas fracking for example, are factually false. Over the last six years US industrial production has not even regained pre-financial crisis levels, whereas China's industrial production increased by over 90 percent.
China's phenomenal growth --- and America's lack thereof (and because of a skewed tax code favoring the wealthy and large corporations) --- has also allowed U.S. infrastructure spending to fall far behind China's. According to a U.S. government report, just 2 percent of the U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) goes to infrastructure construction, whereas, Europe spends 5 percent and China 9 percent. Developing countries, led by China, have devoted billions of dollars to the biggest dams, highways, railways, bridges, canals and energy projects. Increasingly, this group of rising economies have been building showcase projects that once were mainly the pride of the U.S., Western Europe and Japan.
China already has the world’s largest building (the New Century Global Center) and soon will have the world's tallest building --- Sky City (at 2,749 feet in the southern Chinese city of Changsha) set to be completed in 2014. The country’s tallest skyscraper ( Shanghai Tower) has just been topped out and will be completed in 2015.
China also has the world's tallest dams and the world’s fastest bullet train, the Shanghai Maglev. Now the country has the world’s longest cable-stayed bridge as well --- the Jiashao Bridge, which just opened recently.
China's Jiashao Bridge (L) and the I-35W Mississippi River bridge (R) in Minneapolis, Minnesota after it collapsed in 2007, killing 13 people and injuring 145.
Instead advocating for major tax reform (e.g. capital gains taxed as regular wages) and promoting domestic manufacturing, President Obama has been trying to obtain Fast Track's extraordinary authority to overcome public and congressional opposition to the controversial Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) and Trans-Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (TAFTA) trade deals --- trade agreements that will only hurt manufacturing more and encourage more offshoring --- in conjunction to a host of other bad laws that will greatly hurt working Americans, while at the same time, favor large American-based multi-national corporations.
Letter: "As leading U.S. business and agriculture associations and founding members of the Trade Benefits America coalition, we strongly support your bipartisan efforts to develop and pass updated Trade Promotion Authority [TPA/Fast Track] legislation."
And Obama has also joined the Republicans by advocating for more guestworker and H-1B visas in the proposed immigration bills, further displacing American workers in an already over-saturated job market and further depressing wages that have already been stagnant for years.
Obama also wants to use American tax dollars to improve the infrastructure in Africa, creating another "emerging market" where American corporations could potentially offshore more domestic jobs --- while at the same time, also create a new consumer base for which to sell their goods. When might Africa have the tallest building in the world?
Meanwhile, American businesses (e.g. Apple, Nike, etc.) that already offshore domestic manufacturing jobs overseas to "contract manufactures" (like Foxconn) in low-wage countries will soon be reclassified as "manufacturers" by our government to make it look as though our GDP is a lot better than it really is. Rather than create new "jobs", our government will just create new "numbers". | <urn:uuid:3feeaadb-fd2e-4bfe-8bfe-e8f5161869bd> | CC-MAIN-2016-40 | http://bud-meyers.blogspot.com/2013/09/america-needs-to-make-stuff-again.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-40/segments/1474738660338.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20160924173740-00169-ip-10-143-35-109.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953812 | 1,473 | 2.796875 | 3 |
|Traditional region of Greece|
Ionian Islands (blue) within Greece
The Ionian Islands (Modern Greek: Ιόνια νησιά, Ionia nisia; Ancient Greek, Katharevousa: Ἰόνιοι Νῆσοι, Ionioi Nēsoi; Italian: Isole Ionie) are a group of islands in Greece. They are traditionally called the Heptanese, i.e. "the Seven Islands" (Greek: Ἑπτάνησα, Heptanēsa or Ἑπτάνησος, Heptanēsos; Italian: Eptaneso), but the group includes many smaller islands as well as the seven principal ones. As a distinct historic region they date to the centuries-long Venetian rule, which preserved them from becoming part of the Ottoman Empire, and created a distinct cultural identity with many Italian influences. The Ionian Islands became part of the modern Greek state in 1864. Administratively today they belong to the Ionian Islands Region except for Kythera, which belongs to the Attica Region.
The seven islands are; from north to south:
- Kerkyra (Κέρκυρα) usually known as Corfu in English and Corfù in Italian
- Paxi (Παξοί) also known as Paxos in English
- Lefkada (Λευκάδα) also known as Lefkas in English
- Ithaki (Ιθάκη) usually known as Ithaca in English
- Kefalonia (Κεφαλλονιά) often known as Kefalonia, Cephalonia and Kefallinia in English
- Zakynthos (Ζάκυνθος) sometimes known as Zante in English and Italian
- Kythira (Κύθηρα) usually known as Cythera in English and sometimes known as Cerigo in English and Italian
The six northern islands are off the west coast of Greece, in the Ionian Sea. The seventh island, Kythira, is off the southern tip of the Peloponnese, the southern part of the Greek mainland. Kythira is not part of the region of the Ionian Islands, as it is included in the region of Attica.
In Ancient Greek the adjective Ionios (Ἰόνιος) was used as an epithet for the sea between Epirus and Italy in which the Ionian Islands are found because Io swam across it. Latin transliteration, as well as Modern Greek pronunciation, may suggest that the Ionian Sea and Islands are somehow related to Ionia, an Anatolian region; in fact the Ionian Sea and Ionian Islands are spelled in Greek with an omicron (Ιόνια), whereas Ionia has an omega (Ιωνία), reflecting a classical difference in pronunciation. In Modern Greek omicron and omega represent the same sound, but the two words are still distinguished by stress: the western "Ionia" is accented on the antepenult (IPA: [iˈonia]), and the eastern on the penult (IPA: [ioˈnia]). In English, the adjective relating to Ionia is Ionic, not Ionian.
The islands themselves are known by a rather confusing variety of names. During the centuries of rule by Venice, they acquired Venetian names, by which some of them are still known in English (and in Italian). Kerkyra was known as Corfù, Ithaki as Val di Compare, Kythera as Cerigo, Lefkada as Santa Maura and Zakynthos as Zante.
A variety of spellings are used for the Greek names of the islands, particularly in historical writing. Kefallonia is often spelled as Cephallenia or Cephalonia, Ithaki as Ithaca, Kerkyra as Corcyra, Kythera as Cythera, Lefkada as Leucas or Leucada and Zakynthos as Zacynthus or Zante. Older or variant Greek forms are sometimes also used: Kefallinia for Kefallonia and Paxos or Paxoi for Paxi.
The islands were settled by Greeks at an early date, possibly as early as 1200 BC, and certainly by the 9th century BC. The early Eretrian settlement at Kerkyra was displaced by colonists from Corinth in 734 BC. The islands were mostly a backwater during Ancient Greek times and played little part in Greek politics. The one exception was the conflict between Kerkyra and its mother-City Corinth in 434 BC, which brought intervention from Athens and triggered the Peloponnesian War.
Ithaca was the name of the island home of Odysseus in the epic Ancient Greek poem the Odyssey by Homer. Attempts have been made to identify Ithaki with ancient Ithaca, but the geography of the real island cannot be made to fit Homer's description. Archeological investigations have revealed interesting findings in both Kefalonia and Ithaca.
Roman and Byzantine rule
By the 4th century BC, most of the islands, were absorbed into the empire of Macedon. Some remained under the control of the Macedonian Kingdom until 146 BC, when the Greek peninsula was gradually annexed by Rome. After 400 years of peaceful Roman rule, the islands passed to the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. Under Byzantine rule, from the mid-8th century, they formed the theme of Cephallenia. The islands were a frequent target of Saracen raids and from the late 11th century, saw a number of Norman and Italian attacks. Most of the islands fell to William II of Sicily in 1185. Although Corfu and Lefkas remained under Byzantine control, Kefallonia and Zakynthos became the County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos until 1357, when this entity was merged with Lefkada and Ithaki to become the Duchy of Leucadia under French and Italian dukes. Corfu, Paxi and Kythera were taken by the Venetians in 1204, after the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade. These became important overseas colonies of the Republic and were used as way-stations for their maritime trade with the Levant.
From 1204, the Republic of Venice controlled Corfu and slowly all the Ionian islands fell under Venetian rule. In the 15th century, the Ottomans conquered most of Greece, but their attempts to conquer the islands were largely unsuccessful. Zakynthos passed permanently to Venice in 1482, Kefallonia and Ithaki in 1483, Lefkada in 1502. Kythera had been in Venetian hands since 1238.
The islands thus became the only part of the Greek-speaking world to escape Ottoman rule, which gave them both a unity and an importance in Greek history they would otherwise not have had. Corfu was the only Greek island never conquered by the Turks.
Under Venetian rule, many of the upper classes spoke Italian (or Venetian in some cases) and converted to Roman Catholicism, but the majority remained Greek ethnically, linguistically, and religiously.
In the 18th century, a Greek national independence movement began to emerge, and the free status of the Ionian islands made them the natural base for exiled Greek intellectuals, freedom fighters and foreign sympathisers. The islands became more self-consciously Greek as the 19th century, the century of romantic nationalism, neared.
In 1797, however, Napoléon Bonaparte conquered Venice, and by the Treaty of Campo Formio the islanders found themselves under French rule, the islands being organised as the départments Mer-Égée, Ithaque and Corcyre. In 1798, the Russian Admiral Ushakov evicted the French, and established the Septinsular Republic under joint Russo-Ottoman protection—the first time Greeks had had even limited self‐government since the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The plenipotentiary of the Czar was Count George Mocenigo, a noble from Zante who had earlier served as Russian diplomat in Italy. However, in 1807, they were ceded again to the French in the Treaty of Tilsit and occupied by the French Empire.
In 1809, the British defeated the French fleet in Zakynthos (October 2, 1809) captured Kefallonia, Kythera and Zakynthos, and took Lefkada in 1810. The French held out in Corfu until 1814. The Treaty of Paris in 1815 turned the islands into the "United States of the Ionian Islands" under British protection (November 5, 1815). In January 1817, the British granted the islands a new constitution. The islanders elected an Assembly of 40 members, who advised the British High Commissioner. The British greatly improved the islands' communications, and introduced modern education and justice systems. The islanders welcomed most of these reforms, and took up afternoon tea, cricket and other English pastimes.
Once Greek independence was established after 1830, however, the islanders began to resent foreign colonial rule by the British, and to press for Enosis, i. e. union with Greece. The British statesman William Ewart Gladstone toured the islands and recommended that having already Malta, giving the islands to Greece wouldn't hurt the interest of the British Empire. The British government resisted, since like the Venetians they found the islands made useful naval bases. They also regarded the Bavarian-born king of Greece, King Otto, as unfriendly to Britain. However, in 1862, Otto was deposed and a pro-British king, George I, was installed.
Union with Greece
In 1862, Britain decided to transfer the islands to Greece, as a gesture of support intended to bolster the new king's popularity. On May 2, 1864, the British departed and the islands became three provinces of the Kingdom of Greece though Britain retained the use of the port of Corfu. On 21 May 1864 the Ionian Islands officially reunited with Greece. Prince Philippos of Greece and Denmark was born in Corfu in 1921 and grew up to become Britain's Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.
World War II
In 1941, when Axis forces occupied Greece, the Ionian Islands (except Kythera) were handed over to the Italians, who in their three years of rule attempted to Italianize the population of Corfu (as has happened with the Corfiot Italians). In 1943, the Germans replaced the Italians, and deported the centuries-old Jewish community of Corfu to their deaths. By 1944, most of the islands were under the control of the EAM/ELAS resistance movement, and they have remained a stronghold of left-wing sentiment ever since.
The islands were struck by an especially powerful earthquake, of 7.1 magnitude, on August 12, 1953. Building damage was extensive and the southern islands of Kefalonia and Zakynthos were practically levelled. The islands were reconstructed from the ground up over the following years, under a strict building code. The code has proven extremely effective, as many earthquakes since that time have caused no damage to new buildings.
Today, all the islands are part of the Greek region of the Ionian Islands (Ionioi Nisoi), except Kythera, which is part of the region of Attica. Kerkyra has a population of 103,300 (including Paxoi), Zakynthos 40,650, Kefallonia 39,579 (including Ithaca), Lefkada 22,536, Ithaki 3,052, Kythera 3,000 and Paxi 2,438.
In recent decades, the islands have lost much of their population through emigration and the decline of their traditional industries, fishing and marginal agriculture. Today, their major industry is tourism. Specifically Kerkyra, with its harbour, scenery and wealth of ruins and castles, is a favourite stopping place for cruise liners. British tourists in particular are attracted through having read Gerald Durrell's evocative book My Family and Other Animals (1956), which describes his childhood on Kerkyra in the 1930s. The novel and movie Captain Corelli's Mandolin are set in Kefallonia, in which Captain Corelli is part of the Italian occupation force during the Second World War.
The Ionian Islands' official population, excluding Cythera, in 2011 was 207,855, decreased by 1,50% compared to the population in 2001. Nevertheless, the region remains the third by population density with 90.1/km² nationwide, well above the national of 81.96/km². The most populous of the major islands is Corfu with a population of 104,371, followed by Zante (40,759), Cephalonia (35,801), Leucas (23.693) and Ithaca (3.231). The foreign-born population was in 2001 19,360 or 9.3%, the majority of which was concentrated in Corfu and Zante. Most of them originate from Albania (13,536). The fertility rate for 2011 according to Eurostat was 1.35 live births per woman during her lifetime.
The regional Gross Domestic Product for 2010 was 4,029 million euros. The GDP per capita for the same year was 18,440 euros per capita which was lower than the national median of 20,481. However, the GDP per capita of Cephalonia and Zante, 23,275 and 24,616 respectively, was much higher than the national figure. Additionally, unemployment for 2012 was 14.7, the lowest among all Greek regions, and much lower compared to the national unemployment of 24.2.
The region is a popular tourist destination. The airports of Corfu, Zante and Cephalonia were in the top ten in Greece by number of international arrivals, with 1,386,289 international arrivals for 2012, with Corfu being the sixth airport by number of arrivals nationwide, with Zante and Cephalonia also being in the top ten. While Cephalonia Airport had the biggest increase nationwide by 13.11% compared to 2011, while Corfu had an increase of 6.31%.'
- Argostóli (Αργοστόλι), in Kefalonia
- Kérkyra (Κέρκυρα), in Corfu
- Lefkáda (Λευκάδα), in Lefkada
- Lixouri (Ληξούρι), in Kefalonia
- Zákynthos (Ζάκυνθος), in Zakynthos
- LSJ, A Greek-English Lexicon s.v. Ἰόνιος.
- Μεγάλοι Έλληνες, τόμος Ά, του Παναγιώτη Πασπαλιάρη, Ιωάννης Καποδίστριας, σελ. 45, ISBN 978-960-6845-32-1
- "ΚΕΡΚΥΡΑ, ΜΝΗΜΕΙΟ ΕΝΩΣΕΩΣ". Ionian U. Ionian U.
- ΔΕΛΤΙΟ ΤΥΠΟΥ (PDF) (in Greek). Retrieved 18 July 2014.
- Πίνακας 3: Αλλοδαποί κατά υπηκοότητα, φύλο και λόγο εγκατάστασης στην Ελλάδα Σύνολο Ελλάδος και νομοί (PDF) (in Greek). Retrieved 18 July 2014.
- "Eurostat - Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table". epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2014-04-11.
- "PAGE-themes". statistics.gr. Retrieved 2014-04-11.
- "EUROPA - PRESS RELEASES - Press release - Unemployment in the EU27 regions in 2012 Regional unemployment rates ranged from 2.5% in Salzburg and Tirol to 38.5% in Ceuta and 34.6% in Andalucía". europa.eu. Retrieved 2014-04-11.
- "Greek Tourism: Facts and Figures 2012" (PDF) (in English and Greek). Retrieved 18 July 2014.
- "INTERNATIONAL TOURIST ARRIVALS AT THE MAIN AIRPORTS, JAN-DEC 2012/2011- PROVISIONAL DATA" (PDF) (in English and Greek). Retrieved 18 July 2014.
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- Ionian Islands The Official website of the Greek National Tourism Organisation
- Ionian Islands at DMOZ | <urn:uuid:df34ceb4-717f-41eb-bda5-b024cd60f09d> | CC-MAIN-2016-40 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionian_Islands | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-40/segments/1474738660467.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20160924173740-00055-ip-10-143-35-109.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.949246 | 3,827 | 3.34375 | 3 |
There are two ways that celluar (cell) phones are located, depending on the
cell phone itself, and the technology that is built in to that cell phone.
Older cell phones are located via a process of signal triangulation, while
newer phones have a Global Postitioning System (GPS) built in to them. In
practice, one, the other or both can be used to locate a cell phone.
Triangulation can be done on most any cell phone, depending on the location
of the cell phone and any nearby towers. GPS locating depends on the cell
phone being so equipped. There is a federal mandate that pretty much all
cell phone companies, including Verizon, will be able to locate a cell phone
based on one, the other or both methods.
Here is more information on both processes.
IT Digest - Ingenious Tejas's Digest Blog
"Cell phones are two way radio transmitters that work by connecting to a
nearby tower and exchanging data. Despite the FCC's limitation on maximum
power output of a cell phone, they are still able to connect with towers
miles away at UHF frequencies ... Because cell phones put out a constant RF
output (sometimes pulsed) they can be tracked using the tower triangulation
method where the network administrators can find your precise location with
their administrative network access."
The Graduate School and University Center at the City University of New York
(CUNY) has "Intro to Mapping Sciences" taught by Doug Williamson.
"Phase II of the FCC regulations will begin to be implemented in the fall of
2001. During Phase II, wireless carriers and the PSAPs will be upgrading
their systems to provide more exact geographic coordinates. Two methods will
1) triangulation: new receivers will be added to the tower arrays that will
be able to perform triangulation; and 2) global positioning receivers (GPS)
may be added to new wireless phones."
"Cell-phone companies add tracking abilities" was a Knight Ridder distributed
article, dated Wednesday, July 20, 2005, written for the Dallas Morning News
by Terry Maxon, here presented on the Portsmouth Herald web site.
"However, a federal mandate requiring cell phones to automatically tell 911
centers where the caller is located has speeded adoption.
That can be accomplished through ground-based triangulation, in which the
phone's location is determined by figuring its relative distance from various
cell stations. But most large cellular companies appear to be embracing the
Nextel has had GPS technology in every phone since November 2002. Sprint and
Verizon phones also contain GPS technology, allowing them to provide locator
services if they desire."
This last article is a great one to read, as it speaks to how the technology
has commerical applications, such as allowing shuttle companies track their
vans and giving directions to people over their cell phones.
Here are some Verizon links on the subject and related services they offer.
Frequently Asked Questions - Answers to FAQs
"The GPS (Global Positioning System) locator chip, which is present in all
wireless phones we currently sell, except the BlackBerry 6750, is used solely
for tracking purposes by Emergency 911 Services and does not function like a
typical GPS device.
Phase II Enhanced 911 rules requires wireless carriers to automatically
provide the telephone number of the 911 caller and far more precise location
information, within 50 to 100 meters in most cases.
The first two steps have been implemented, however the third step (Phase II)
is still in progress."
Small/Medium Business - Fleet Administrator
"Locate, monitor and manage vehicles equipped with the necessary vehicle
tracking hardware from any office computer."
The technical terms for these services are ones such as "cellular phone GPS
locating" and "cellular phone signal traingulation" and E991 locating.
The requirements for this technology came from the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) wireless "Enhanced 911" (E911) rules.
"The wireless E911 program is divided into two parts - Phase I and Phase II.
Phase I requires carriers, upon appropriate request by a local Public Safety
Answering Point (PSAP), to report the telephone number of a wireless 911
caller and the location of the antenna that received the call. Phase II
requires wireless carriers to provide far more precise location information,
within 50 to 300 meters in most cases."
More information on Phase II from this Wireless Advisor forum.
"In the second phase, cell phone companies have two options for significantly
improving the locating capacity. They can install GPS chips in their
telephones. The chip determines the phone?s location (in hours, minutes, and
seconds of longitude and latitude) by receiving signals beamed down from an
array of satellites. The chip determines the location based on different
arrival times of these signals. Alternatively, a cell phone company can
comply with the mandate by using information provided by its network. This
approach uses towers and antennae in the carrier's network to measure the
timing of signals emitted from the phone, and thus its location ..."
If you need any clarification, please feel free to ask.
Google search on: "cellular phone" tracking OR tracing triangulation
Searched the Verizon Wireless site for: GPS
Looking Forward, denco-ga - Google Answers Researcher | <urn:uuid:39ceb67d-9182-4188-a978-472dc338431f> | CC-MAIN-2014-49 | http://answers.google.com/answers/threadview?id=555018 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-49/segments/1416931007150.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20141125155647-00023-ip-10-235-23-156.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.908434 | 1,140 | 3.390625 | 3 |
1. “The myth of the skilled basketball player”. If an athlete is able to perform many skills in practice, coaches can be quick to label that player as skilled. However, it is important to make the distinction between motor skills and perceptual-cognitive skills. An athlete may be able to perform all the drills in practice perfectly (e.g. in straight lines and/or with no opponents), but may struggle during game situations. Check out basketball coach Brian McCormick’s (@brianmccormick) thoughts on this topic here.
2. This next article from Alexandra Sifferlin at Time Magazine discusses the power of perception and how visual illusions can help get you out of a slump. Imagine the target is bigger than it really is! Thanks to Stuart Armstrong (@stu_arm) for directing us to this great article. Click here to read article.
3. Every coach, athlete, parent, scientist, and armchair expert seems to have an opinion on what matters more, talent or practice. Check out the plethora of experts chiming in on this great debate at the Creativity Post (@creativitypost). Click here to read the introduction to the debate.
4. In this Wall Street Journal article Jonah Lehrer (@jonahlehrer) discusses some of the flaws with the NFL combine. Some of the measurements may actually mislead coaches, while leaving out some important qualities in athletes. Click here to read article.
5. With the 10,000 hour rule entering the mainstream, it is important to note that this is not a simple formula for success. Author of the Talent Code Daniel Coyle (@danielcoyle) provides a brief overview on the importance of quality, not just quantity, when you practice. “If you count hours, you’ll get hours. But if you find a good way of measuring your intensity, or measuring your improvement, that’s what you’ll get.” Click here to read article. | <urn:uuid:fad7e3f6-2d07-45bf-80a9-68dba418184f> | CC-MAIN-2015-11 | https://expertadvantage.wordpress.com/2012/03/26/recommendedreads20120326/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-11/segments/1424936463660.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20150226074103-00006-ip-10-28-5-156.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.923614 | 409 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Barite is a mineral composed of barium sulfate (BaSO4). The mineral commodity is also referred to as baryte or barytes. Barite is typically white or colorless, besides it can occur in numerous colors such as yellow, brown, blue, gray. The color depends on the impurities such as iron, strontium, and lead trapped in the crystals during their formation. The largest application of Barite is used as a weighing agent in the formulation of drilling mud. Beyond this, barite is used as an additive to paints, plastics, rubber, cement, paper, optical glass, ceramic glazes, medical industry,…
Some of our Barite’s outstanding benefits brought to valued customers such as:
- Increasing the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling mud to allow it to compensate for high-pressure zones experienced during drilling because of the high specific gravity of about 4 to 5.
- Giving smoothness and chemical resistance for the surface due to its very low solubility and chemical and physical inertness.
- Saving money and assuring the output quality because Barite is a wonderful replacement for expensive materials. | <urn:uuid:c2962368-50e8-4c78-b1c3-2d9842922591> | CC-MAIN-2021-17 | https://tldvietnam.com/barite-api-baso4/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618039596883.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20210423161713-20210423191713-00047.warc.gz | en | 0.948532 | 235 | 2.671875 | 3 |
This Is Food Which Is Perishable In The Hot Days And Can Be The Cause Of Poisoning
In the summer months the food can be spoiled due to improper maintenance, insufficient thermal processing, bad warehouse.
In perishable foods are considered: milk, dairy products (cheese, curd, sour cream), eggs, sauces, dressing and creams made with eggs and milk.
Ice cream is often the cause of food poisoning, and minced meat and dishes in which they are used (cakes, meat pie, LASAGNA). However, none kind of food should not be avoided. It is enough to take care the groceries to be procured from tested places, to have a controlled descent, to pay attention to hand hygiene, the dishes and the room where food is prepared. Also, ensure that, thermal processing to be long, the food in the fridge properly stored, and finally to avoid repeatedly warming. | <urn:uuid:941e5e6c-07be-4610-a5d4-96ef8ebf669d> | CC-MAIN-2019-35 | http://www.healthzone5.com/this-is-food-which-is-perishable-in-the-hot-days-and-can-be-the-cause-of-poisoning/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-35/segments/1566027317113.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20190822110215-20190822132215-00281.warc.gz | en | 0.944568 | 185 | 2.96875 | 3 |
– Daniel O’Brien
“The question is, how much distillers grain is being used? The answer is, Every bit of it.”
U. S. livestock and poultry producers will boost use of distillers grains during the next five years and decrease the amount of corn they feed their animals, an agriculture economist said May 12 at a distillers grains conference.
Feed use of dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGs) will increase by 23 per cent by the 2015-16 crop year and feed corn use will drop six per cent, Kansas State University economist Daniel O’Brien said at the Distillers Grains Symposium.
Feeders will continue to use roughly five times the amount of corn than distillers grains, but virtually all of the DDGs made during ethanol fuel distillation will be consumed by animals in the U. S. and elsewhere.
“The question is, how much distillers grain is being used? The answer is, Every bit of it,” O’Brien said.
Between 25 to 30 per cent of U. S. distillers grains are forecast to be exported and the rest consumed domestically, mostly by beef and dairy cattle, with hogs and poultry consuming lesser amounts, said Linwood Hoffman, agriculture economist at the U. S. Agriculture Department.
About 17 lbs. (7.1 kg) of distillers grains are produced for each 56 lb.-bushel of corn (25.4 kg) that is made into ethanol.
The fuel distillation process strips the starch from the grain, leaving a protein-rich animal feed that can replace corn and soybean meal in feed rations. | <urn:uuid:fabeded4-a958-459e-ace1-bfd492b088e1> | CC-MAIN-2021-04 | https://www.manitobacooperator.ca/markets/futures/grain-markets/distillers-grains-making-inroads-in-feed-market/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610703515075.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20210118154332-20210118184332-00250.warc.gz | en | 0.917932 | 353 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Monogamous pairing in animals refers to the natural history of mating systems in which species pair bond to raise offspring. This is associated, usually implicitly, with sexual monogamy.
The evolution of mating systems in animals has received an enormous amount of attention from biologists. This section briefly reviews three main findings about the evolution of monogamy in animals.
The amount of social monogamy in animals varies across taxa, with over 90% of birds engaging in social monogamy while only 3% of mammals were known to do the same.
This list is not complete. Other factors may also contribute to the evolution of social monogamy. Moreover, different sets of factors may explain the evolution of social monogamy in different species. There is no one-size-fits-all explanation of why different species evolved monogamous mating systems.
Sexual dimorphism refers to differences in body characteristics between females and males. A frequently studied type of sexual dimorphism is body size. Males typically have larger bodies than females. In some species, however, females have larger bodies than males. Sexual dimorphism in body size has been linked to mating behavior. In polygynous species, males compete for control over sexual access to females. Large males have an advantage in the competition for access to females, and they consequently pass their genes along to a greater number of offspring. This eventually leads to large differences in body size between females and males. Polygynous males are often 1.5 to 2.0 times larger in size than females. In monogamous species, on the other hand, femaes and males have more equal access to mates, so there is little or no sexual dimorphism in body size. From a new biological point of view, monogamy could result from mate guarding and is engaged as a result of sexual conflict following the hypothesis of mutual destruction.
Some researchers have attempted to infer the evolution of human mating systems from the evolution of sexual dimorphism. Several studies have reported a large amount of sexual dimorphism in Australopithecus, an evolutionary ancestor of human beings that lived between 2 and 5 million years ago. These studies raise the possibility that Australopithecus had a polygamous mating system. Sexual dimorphism then began to decrease. Studies suggest sexual dimorphism reached modern human levels around the time of Homo Erectus 0.5 to 2 million years ago. This line of reasoning suggests human ancestors started out polygamous and began the transition to monogamy somewhere between 0.5 million and 2 million years ago.
Attempts to infer the evolution of monogamy based on sexual dimorphism remain controversial for three reasons:
Studies of sexual dimorphism raise the possibility that early human ancestors were polygamous rather than monogamous. But this line of research remains highly controversial. It may be that early human ancestors showed little sexual dimorphism, and it may be that sexual dimorphism in early human ancestors had no relationship to their mating systems.
- The skeletal remains of Australopithecus are quite fragmentary. This makes it difficult to identify the sex of the fossils. Researchers sometimes identify the sex of the fossils by their size, which, of course, can exaggerate findings of sexual dimorphism.
- Recent studies using new methods of measurement suggest Australopithecus had the same amount of sexual dimorphism as modern humans. This raises questions about the amount of sexual dimorphism in Australopithecus.
- Humans may have been partially unique in that selection pressures for sexual dimorphism might have been related to the new niches that humans were entering at the time, and how that might have interacted with potential early cultures and tool use. If these early humans had a differentiation of gender roles, with men hunting and women gathering, selection pressures in favor of increased size may have been distributed unequally between the sexes.
- Even if future studies clearly establish sexual dimorphism in Australopithecus, other studies have shown the relationship between sexual dimorphism and mating system is unreliable. Some polygamous species show little or no sexual dimorphism. Some monogamous species show a large amount of sexual dimorphism.
The relative sizes of male testes often reflect mating systems. In species with promiscuous mating systems, where many males mate with many females, the testes tend to be relatively large. This appears to be the result of sperm competition. Males with large testes produce more sperm and thereby gain an advantage impregnating females. In polygynous species, where one male controls sexual access to females, the testes tend to be small. One male defends exclusive sexual access to a group of females and thereby eliminates sperm competition.
Studies of primates, including humans, support the relationship between testis size and mating system. Chimpanzees, which have a promiscuous mating system, have large testes compared to other primates. Gorillas, which have a polygynous mating system, have smaller testes than other primates. Humans, which have a socially monogamous mating system, accompanied by moderate amounts of sexual non-monogamy (see incidence of monogamy), have moderately sized testes. The moderate amounts of sexual non-monogamy in humans may result in a low to moderate amount of sperm competition. Also, notably, in the case of an avowedly sexually monogamous society, the occurrence of sexual nonmonogamy is typically culturally stigmatized, and therefore detecting its prevalence is inherently difficult, if indeed it is at all possible. At best, such statistics can be viewed as general approximations with a wide margin of error.
Although testis size in humans is consistent with the modern pattern of social monogamy accompanied by moderate sexual non-monogamy, this fact reveals little about when the modern pattern evolved. Did Homo Erectus have testes similar in size to modern humans? What about Australopithecus? It is not possible to measure the size of testes in the fossil remains of human ancestors. This limits the usefulness of testis size in understanding the evolution of monogamy in humans.
Monogamy as a best responseEdit
In species where the young are particularly vulnerable and may benefit from protection by both parents, monogamy may be an optimal strategy. The selection factors in favor of different mating strategies for a species of animal, however, may potentially operate on a large number of factors throughout that animal's life cycle. For instance, with many species of bear, the female will often drive a male off soon after mating, and will later guard her cubs from him. It is thought that this may be due to fact that too many bears close to one another may deplete the food available to the relatively small but growing cubs. Monogamy may be social but rarely genetic. Thierry Lodé argued that monogamy should result from conflict of interest between the sexes called sexual conflict. Organized for territorial defense and mate guarding, monogamy appears as a male attempt to control female sexuality, but exclusive monogamy would be rare and biological evolution would privilege the diversity of sexual behaviour.
- Incidence of monogamy
- Value of monogamy
- List of animals with stable pair bonds
- Psychology of monogamy
- Varieties of monogamy
- Evolution of sex
- Animal sexuality
- Human evolution
- History of human sexuality
- r/K selection theory
- Sexual conflict
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Owens, I.P.F. & Hartley, I.R. (1998). "Sexual dimorphism in birds: why are there so many different forms of dimorphism?" Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 265, 397-407.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Frayer, D.W. & Wolpoff, M.H. (1985). "Sexual dimorphism". Annual Review of Anthropology, 14, 429-473.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Geary, D.C., & Flinn, M.V. (2001). "Evolution of human parental behavior and the human family". Parenting: Science and Practice, 1, 5-61.
- ↑ Dunn, P.O., Whittingham, L.A., & Pitcher, T.E. (2001). "Mating systems, sperm competition, and the evolution of sexual dimorphism in birds". Evolution, 55, 161–175.
- ↑ T Lodé “la guerre des sexes chez les animaux” Eds O Jacob, Paris, 2006, ISBN 2-7381-1901-8
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Flinn, M.V. & Ward, C.V. (2004). "Ontogeny and Evolution of the Social Child". In: Origins of the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child development, B. Ellis & D. Bjorklund (Eds.), chapter 2, pp. 19-44. London: Guilford Press.
- ↑ Lockwood, C.A., Richmond, B.G., Jungers, W.L., & Kimbel, W.H. (1996). "Randomization procedures and sexual dimorphism in Australopithecus afarensis". Journal of Human Evolution, 31, 537-548.
- ↑ Arsuaga, J.L., Carretero, J.M., Lorenzo, C., Gracia, A., Martínez, I., Bermúdez de Castro, J.M., & Carbonell, E. (1997). "Size variation in Middle Pleistocene humans". Science, 277, 1086-1088.
- ↑ Reno, P.L., Meindl, R.S., McCollum, M.A., & Lovejoy, C.O. (2003). "Sexual dimorphism in Australopithecus afarensis was similar to that of modern humans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, 9404-9409.
- ↑ Larsen, C.S. (2003). "Equality for the sexes in human evolution? Early hominid sexual dimorphism and implications for mating systems and social behavior". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, 9103-9104.
- ↑ Pitcher, T.E., Dunn, P.O., & Whittingham, L.A. (2005). "Sperm competition and the evolution of testes size in birds". Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 18, 557–567.
- ↑ Simmons, L.W., Firman, R.E.C., Rhodes, G., & Peters, M. (2004). "Human sperm competition: testis size, sperm production and rates of extrapair copulations". Animal Behaviour, 68, 297-302.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Dixson, A., & Anderson, M. (2001). "Sexual selection and the comparative anatomy of reproduction in monkeys, apes, and human beings". Annual Review of Sex Research, 12, 121-144.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Harcourt, A.H., Harvey, P.H., Larson, S.G., & Short, R.V. (1981). "Testis weight, body weight and breeding system in primates". Nature, 293, 55-57.
- ↑ T. R. Birkhead (2000), Promiscuity: an evolutionary history of sperm competition. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
- ↑ Thierry Lodé "La Guerre des sexes chez les animaux" Eds O Jacob, Paris, 2006
- Korotayev, Andrey (2004). World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-cultural Perspective, First Edition, Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press.
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The Arctic Ocean has played a minor role in world history. Ice cover severely hinders navigation; the area is remote; there is almost no infrastructure; winters are dark and very cold; summer days are short and foggy. These challenges make the Arctic Ocean a hostile and difficult area.
Today, we are at a time when interest in the Arctic Ocean is growing steadily. A warming climate is thinning and shrinking the polar ice pack to allow increased navigation. New oil and gas assessments have revealed an enormous energy resource. And, the Law of the Sea Treaty has motivated nations to clearly define their exclusive economic zone in the Arctic Ocean.
The new interest in the Arctic Ocean is not confined to its surface; it extends to the bottom where information about its structure is needed by geologists, oceanographers, biologists and other people who work there. The primary physical features of the Arctic Ocean seafloor are labeled on the bathymetry map above and described in the paragraphs below. Maps below illustrate navigational, physical and mineral resource features.
The dominant topographic feature of the Arctic Ocean seafloor is the Lomonosov Ridge. This feature is thought to be part of the Eurasian continental crust that rifted from the Barents-Kara Sea margin and subsided in early Tertiary time (about 64 to 56 million years ago). The side of the Ridge facing Eurasia is bounded by half-graben faults and the side facing North America is gently sloping.
The Lomonosov Ridge traverses the Arctic Ocean from the Lincoln Shelf (off Ellesmere Island and Greenland) to the New Siberian Islands off the coast of northern Russia. It divides the Arctic Ocean into two major basins: the Eurasian Basin on the Eurasian side of the ridge and the Amerasian Basin on the North American Side. It rises over 3000 meters above the floors of these basins and at its highest point is about 954 meters below sea level. It was discovered by Russian scientists in 1948.
In 1982 a United Nations treaty known as "The Law of the Sea" was presented. It addressed navigational rights, territorial waters limits, exclusive economic zones, fishing, pollution, drilling, mining, conservation and many other aspects of maritime activity. It was the first attempt by the international community to establish a formal agreement on a logical allocation of ocean resources. Under the Law of the Sea, each country receives exclusive economic rights to any natural resource that is present on or beneath the sea floor out to a distance of 200 nautical miles beyond their natural shorelines. In addition to the 200 nautical mile economic zone, each country can extend its claim up to 350 nautical miles for those areas that can be proven to be an extension of that country's continental shelf.
Nations could use the "Law of the Sea" treaty to determine who owns the Arctic Ocean seafloor. Russia has presented a claim to the United Nations that the Lomonosov Ridge is an extension of Eurasia and that entitles Russia to an extended exclusive economic zone. Canada and Denmark make similar claims to extend their control from the opposite side of the Arctic Ocean.
Amerasian and Eurasian Basins
The Lomonosov Ridge divides the floor of the Arctic Ocean into two major basins. The Eurasian Basin is on the Eurasian side of the Lomonosov Ridge and the Amerasian Basin is on the North American side of the Lomonosov Ridge.
The Amerasian and Eurasian Basins have been subdivided by ridges. The Gakkel Ridge, a spreading center responsible for the rifting of the Lomonosov block from the Eurasian continent, divides the Eurasian Basin into the Fram Basin on the Lomonosov side of the ridge and the Nansen Basin on the Eurasian continent side. The Alpha Ridge divides the Amerasian Basin into the Canada Basin on the North American side of the ridge and the Makarov Basin on the Lomonosov side of the ridge.
The Amerasian Basin and the Eurasian Basin are surrounded by extensive continental shelves. These include the Chukchi Shelf and the Beaufort Shelf along North America; the Lincoln Shelf along northern Greenland; the Barents Shelf, Kara Shelf, Laptev Shelf and East Siberian Shelf along Eurasia.
Enormous amounts of natural gas are believed to be beneath the Barents Shelf and the Kara Shelf as parts of the East Barents Petroleum Province and the West Siberian Petroleum Province. Oil and natural gas are believed to be beneath significant parts of the Chukchi Shelf, Beaufort Shelf and Canada Basin as part of the Arctic Alaska Petroleum Province and the Amerasia Petroleum Province.
Arctic Oil and Natural Gas Provinces Map: Over 87% of the Arctic's oil and natural gas resource (about 360 billion barrels oil equivalent) is located in seven Arctic basin provinces: Amerasia Basin, Arctic Alaska Basin, East Barents Basin, East Greenland Basin, West Greenland East Canada Basin, East Greenland Rift Basin, West Siberian Basin and the Yenisey-Khatang Basin. Map by Geology.com and MapResources.
Greenland is flanked by two rift basins: the East Greenland Rift Basin and the West Greenland Rift Basin. These basins connect the Arctic Ocean with the Atlantic Ocean. Each of these basins is thought to be underlain by a significant oil and natural gas resource.
Navigation Through the Arctic Ocean
Two potentially important navigation channels pass through the Arctic Ocean.
In September 2011, sea ice covering the Arctic Ocean declined to the second-lowest extent on record. In this image, Ice-covered areas range in color from white (highest concentration) to light blue (lowest concentration). Open water is dark blue, and land masses are gray. The yellow outline shows the median minimum ice extent for 1979–2000 (areas that were at least 15 percent ice-covered in at least half the years between 1979 and 2000).Image and caption information by NASA's Earth Observatory
The Northwest Passage is a sea route that connects the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean across the northern coast of North America and through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The Northern Sea Route is a similar route that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean across the northern coast of the Eurasian Continent.
Map showing the geographic extent of the Arctic Ocean (as a darker blue tint). The Northwest Passage and Northern Sea Route are two important seasonal waterways that connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In recent years the polar ice pack has thinned allowing for increased navigation through these routes and raising the possibility of future sovereignty and shipping disputes among countries bordering the Arctic Ocean. Image by the Central Intelligence Agency.
Both of these routes have been virtually impassable in the past because they are covered by thick, year-round sea ice. However, they have been relatively ice-free for a few weeks in recent years (see map in right column) and have attracted a small amount of commercial shipping. Each of these routes cuts thousands of miles off of a trip from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Both routes face jurisdictional problems and questions over who has a right to use them and under what conditions.
Tara yacht finishes two-and-a-half-year expedition to track and research marine micro-organisms
Last month a strange yacht with an aluminium hull returned to a warm welcome in the port of Lorient, after a two-and-a-half-year absence. During that time the Tara, a floating laboratory, had sailed round the world, covering some 115,000km as it crisscrossed the oceans tracking invisible marine micro-organisms.
The ambition of the Tara Oceans project is to build up a database of these complex, yet little-known ecosystems. For the scientists behind the undertaking, to see the Tara, with its twin orange masts, back in its home port in Brittany, north-west France, is a victory in itself, given how crazy the project seemed at its outset.
"When it started, we did have some doubts, particularly regarding funding," says Eric Karsenti, the expedition's senior scientist and a researcher at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory, headquartered in Heidelberg, Germany. "When the Tara left Lorient in 2009 we weren't entirely sure we had enough money to complete the expedition."
Some €9m ($11.9m) later – drawing on public and private funds – and despite the voyage being cut short by several months due to a lack of resources, the wager seems to have paid off, straying far from the conventional sea lanes of scientific research. "The other big challenge we faced was to succeed in getting scientists from very different backgrounds to work together," Karsenti says.
Major scientific missions investigating marine ecosystems usually focus on a single line of research. A typical instance was the expedition initiated by the US genetician Craig Venter. From 2003 to 2006 his own yacht, the Sorcerer II, sailed round the world in an attempt to collect as much DNA from marine micro-organisms as possible, scooping up in the process more than 6,000 new genes and identifying about 1,700 protein families.
The Tara Oceans project opted for a far-reaching multidisciplinary approach, with microbiologists, oceanographers, geneticians and engineers from all over the world – 35 nationalities in all – working on the Tara at various times during its odyssey. At each port of call some of the 15 crew members – comprising scientists, sailors and journalists – were replaced. "Each crew writes its own story," says the skipper, Loïc Vallette. "The Tara is a hybrid vessel, organised like a typical oceanographic ship, but crammed into a much smaller space." It operates on slightly different lines too, requiring researchers to do more than just fulfil their scientific duties. Everyone does their bit to keep place ship-shape, doing maintenance work and the washing-up, and even taking night watches. "It has been a fabulous human adventure," Vallette adds.
But the main objective was to gain a greater understanding of plankton. "To begin with we wanted to mount a proper scientific expedition, and at the same time use it to reach out to the general public," Karsenti explains. "We soon hit on the idea of plankton, which includes little known, little studied organisms, particularly on a global scale."
Marine micro-organisms account for 98% of the oceans' biomass, but scientists have only studied a tiny part of this population. Indeed the term plankton covers a huge variety of very diverse organisms, ranging from jellyfish to micro-algae. Traditionally, species are organised on the basis of their anatomical or genetic similarities. But plankton is defined by its ecological niche, its way of life in a particular environment, or more precisely the particularity of living suspended in a water column, with no ability to swim against the current. This definition encompasses a myriad of species: zooplankton (animal) comprising fish larvae, small molluscs or crustaceans; phytoplankton (plant), comprising micro-algae but also countless types of virus and bacteria. Such huge diversity demands the largest possible scientific reach in order to understand complex plankton ecosystems. But for many years the scientific community shunned them, slow to realise the essential role plankton plays in our oceans and for the planet as a whole.
Plankton forms the basis of marine food chains. But it also makes a crucial contribution to regulating the climate and affects the Earth's geochemical cycles. Awareness of these marine organisms came a bit late. In recent decades the global plankton concentration has declined.
To sample and analyse plankton efficiently the Tara was fitted out to accommodate a battery of scientific equipment. Alongside the ship, long pipes trailed downwards, pumping up seawater, which then passed through a succession of filters. On the stern deck a dozen nets, each with a specific mesh, were deployed at various depths. Each catch was then transferred to a wet laboratory on deck. Samples were labelled and, for the most part, dipped into liquid nitrogen to be stored for study on land. But some samples were examined straightaway in the onboard laboratory, equipped with a whole range of imaging instruments. To round off the proceedings the Tara's key exhibit, referred to as the "rosette" was lowered into the sea.
This contraption was fitted with sample bottles for trapping water at predetermined depths and an array of sensors measuring the temperature, oxygen and salt content. Loaded with 350kg of equipment, the rosette was the centre of attention each time the Tara stopped to take samples, an operation which sometimes lasted several days. "Each field station brings new challenges and the stress is permanent," says Sarah Searson, an oceanographer and one of the few scientists to spend several months onboard." There are so many things to be taken into account I sometimes felt like I was juggling, staying perfectly concentrated at all times."
Thanks to this operation, tens of thousands of test tubes filled with precious samples were collected from the 153 field stations investigated by the Tara: sufficient to occupy the land-based scientists for years. "It often felt like a real marathon," Searson said. " One of the achievements was keeping all the equipment in perfect condition." The yacht is now being prepared for another expedition in 2013, in the Arctic Ocean, the only part of the sea that Tara Oceans did not sample.
ON AN UNSEASONABLY WARM day in the middle of March, I traveled from New Hampshire to the moist, dim sanctuary of the New England Aquarium, hoping to touch an alternate reality. I came to meet Athena, the aquarium’s forty-pound, five-foot-long, two-and-a-half-year-old giant Pacific octopus.
Athena the octopus at New England Aquarium, Boston
For me, it was a momentous occasion. I have always loved octopuses. No sci-fi alien is so startlingly strange. Here is someone who, even if she grows to one hundred pounds and stretches more than eight feet long, could still squeeze her boneless body through an opening the size of an orange; an animal whose eight arms are covered with thousands of suckers that taste as well as feel; a mollusk with a beak like a parrot and venom like a snake and a tongue covered with teeth; a creature who can shape-shift, change color, and squirt ink. But most intriguing of all, recent research indicates that octopuses are remarkably intelligent.
Many times I have stood mesmerized by an aquarium tank, wondering, as I stared into the horizontal pupils of an octopus’s large, prominent eyes, if she was staring back at me—and if so, what was she thinking?
Not long ago, a question like this would have seemed foolish, if not crazy. How can an octopus know anything, much less form an opinion? Octopuses are, after all, “only” invertebrates—they don’t even belong with the insects, some of whom, like dragonflies and dung beetles, at least seem to show some smarts. Octopuses are classified within the invertebrates in the mollusk family, and many mollusks, like clams, have no brain.
Only recently have scientists accorded chimpanzees, so closely related to humans we can share blood transfusions, the dignity of having a mind. But now, increasingly, researchers who study octopuses are convinced that these boneless, alien animals—creatures whose ancestors diverged from the lineage that would lead to ours roughly 500 to 700 million years ago—have developed intelligence, emotions, and individual personalities. Their findings are challenging our understanding of consciousness itself.
I had always longed to meet an octopus. Now was my chance: senior aquarist Scott Dowd arranged an introduction. In a back room, he would open the top of Athena’s tank. If she consented, I could touch her. The heavy lid covering her tank separated our two worlds. One world was mine and yours, the reality of air and land, where we lumber through life governed by a backbone and constrained by jointed limbs and gravity. The other world was hers, the reality of a nearly gelatinous being breathing water and moving weightlessly through it. We think of our world as the “real” one, but Athena’s is realer still: after all, most of the world is ocean, and most animals live there. Regardless of whether they live on land or water, more than 95 percent of all animals are invertebrates, like Athena.
The moment the lid was off, we reached for each other.
She had already oozed from the far corner of her lair, where she had been hiding, to the top of the tank to investigate her visitor. Her eight arms boiled up, twisting, slippery, to meet mine. I plunged both my arms elbow deep into the fifty-seven-degree water. Athena’s melon-sized head bobbed to the surface. Her left eye (octopuses have one dominant eye like humans have a dominant hand) swiveled in its socket to meet mine. “She’s looking at you,” Dowd said.
As we gazed into each other’s eyes, Athena encircled my arms with hers, latching on with first dozens, then hundreds of her sensitive, dexterous suckers. Each arm has more than two hundred of them. The famous naturalist and explorer William Beebe found the touch of the octopus repulsive. “I have always a struggle before I can make my hands do their duty and seize a tentacle,” he confessed.
But to me, Athena’s suckers felt like an alien’s kiss—at once a probe and a caress. Although an octopus can taste with all of its skin, in the suckers both taste and touch are exquisitely developed.
Athena was tasting me and feeling me at once, knowing my skin, and possibly the blood and bone beneath, in a way I could never fathom.
When I stroked her soft head with my fingertips, she changed color beneath my touch, her ruby-flecked skin going white and smooth.
This, I learned, is a sign of a relaxed octopus.
An agitated giant Pacific octopus turns red, its skin gets pimply, and it erects two papillae over the eyes, which some divers say look like horns.
One name for the species is “devil fish.”
With sharp, parrotlike beaks, octopuses can bite, and most have neurotoxic, flesh-dissolving venom.
The pressure from an octopus’s suckers can tear flesh (one scientist calculated that to break the hold of the suckers of the much smaller common octopus would require a quarter ton of force).
One volunteer who interacted with an octopus left the aquarium with arms covered in red hickeys.
Occasionally an octopus takes a dislike to someone.
One of Athena’s predecessors at the aquarium, Truman, felt this way about a female volunteer.
Using his funnel, the siphon near the side of the head used to jet through the sea, Truman would shoot a soaking stream of salt water at this young woman whenever he got a chance.
Later, she quit her volunteer position for college.
But when she returned to visit several months later, Truman, who hadn’t squirted anyone in the meanwhile, took one look at her and instantly soaked her again.
Athena was remarkably gentle with me—even as she began to transfer her grip from her smaller, outer suckers to the larger ones.
She seemed to be slowly but steadily pulling me into her tank.
Had it been big enough to accommodate my body, I would have gone in willingly.
But at this point, I asked Dowd if perhaps I should try to detach from some of the suckers.
With his help, Athena and I pulled gently apart.
I was honored that she appeared comfortable with me.
But what did she know about me that informed her opinion?
When Athena looked into my eyes, what was she thinking?
Octopus Walks on Land at Fitzgerald Marine Reserve
WHILE ALEXA WARBURTON was researching her senior thesis at Middlebury College’s newly created octopus lab, “every day,” she said, “was a disaster.”
She was working with two species: the California two-spot, with a head the size of a clementine, and the smaller, Florida species, Octopus jobbing.
Her objective was to study the octopuses’ behavior in a T-shaped maze.
But her study subjects were constantly thwarting her.
The first problem was keeping the octopuses alive.
The four-hundred-gallon tank was divided into separate compartments for each animal.
But even though students hammered in dividers, the octopuses found ways to dig beneath them—and eat each other.
Or they’d mate, which is equally lethal. Octopuses die after mating and laying eggs, but first they go senile, acting like a person with dementia.
“They swim loop-the-loop in the tank, they look all googly-eyed, they won’t look you in the eye or attack prey,” Warburton said.
One senile octopus crawled out of the tank, squeezed into a crack in the wall, dried up, and died.
It seemed to Warburton that some of the octopuses were purposely uncooperative.
To run the T-maze, the pre-veterinary student had to scoop an animal from its tank with a net and transfer it to a bucket.
With bucket firmly covered, octopus and researcher would take the elevator down to the room with the maze.
Some octopuses did not like being removed from their tanks.
They would hide.
They would squeeze into a corner where they couldn’t be pried out.
They would hold on to some object with their arms and not let go.
Some would let themselves be captured, only to use the net as a trampoline.
They’d leap off the mesh and onto the floor—and then run for it. Yes, run.
“You’d chase them under the tank, back and forth, like you were chasing a cat,” Warburton said. “It’s so weird!”
Octopuses in captivity actually escape their watery enclosures with alarming frequency.
While on the move, they have been discovered on carpets, along bookshelves, in a teapot, and inside the aquarium tanks of other fish—upon whom they have usually been dining.
Even though the Middlebury octopuses were disaster prone, Warburton liked certain individuals very much.
Some, she said, “would lift their arms out of the water like dogs jump up to greet you.” Though in their research papers the students refer to each octopus by a number, the students named them all.
One of the joubini was such a problem they named her The Bitch.
“Catching her for the maze always took twenty minutes,” Warburton said.
“She’d grip onto something and not let go. Once she got stuck in a filter and we couldn’t get her out. It was awful!”
Then there was Wendy.
Warburton used Wendy as part of her thesis presentation, a formal event that was videotaped.
First Wendy squirted salt water at her, drenching her nice suit.
Then, as Warburton tried to show how octopuses use the T-maze, Wendy scurried to the bottom of the tank and hid in the sand.
Warburton says the whole debacle occurred because the octopus realized in advance what was going to happen.
“Wendy,” she said, “just didn’t feel like being caught in the net.”
Data from Warburton’s experiments showed that the California two-spots quickly learned which side of a T-maze offered a terra-cotta pot to hide in.
But Warburton learned far more than her experiments revealed.
“Science,” she says, “can only say so much. I know they watched me. I know they sometimes followed me. But they are so different from anything we normally study. How do you prove the intelligence of someone so different?”
MEASURING THE MINDS OF OTHER creatures is a perplexing problem.
One yardstick scientists use is brain size, since humans have big brains.
But size doesn’t always match smarts.
As is well known in electronics, anything can be miniaturized.
Small brain size was the evidence once used to argue that birds were stupid—before some birds were proven intelligent enough to compose music, invent dance steps, ask questions, and do math.
Octopuses have the largest brains of any invertebrate.
Athena’s is the size of a walnut—as big as the brain of the famous African gray parrot, Alex, who learned to use more than one hundred spoken words meaningfully.
That’s proportionally bigger than the brains of most of the largest dinosaurs.
Another measure of intelligence: you can count neurons.
The common octopus has about 130 million of them in its brain.
A human has 100 billion.
But this is where things get weird.
Three-fifths of an octopus’s neurons are not in the brain; they’re in its arms.
“It is as if each arm has a mind of its own,” says Peter Godfrey-Smith, a diver, professor of philosophy at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York, and an admirer of octopuses.
For example, researchers who cut off an octopus’s arm (which the octopus can regrow) discovered that not only does the arm crawl away on its own, but if the arm meets a food item, it seizes it—and tries to pass it to where the mouth would be if the arm were still connected to its body.
Mimic octopus pretending to be a flatfish
“Meeting an octopus,” writes Godfrey-Smith, “is like meeting an intelligent alien.”
Their intelligence sometimes even involves changing colors and shapes.
One video online shows a mimic octopus alternately morphing into a flatfish, several sea snakes, and a lionfish by changing color, altering the texture of its skin, and shifting the position of its body.
Another video shows an octopus materializing from a clump of algae.
Its skin exactly matches the algae from which it seems to bloom—until it swims away.
For its color palette, the octopus uses three layers of three different types of cells near the skin’s surface.
The deepest layer passively reflects background light.
The topmost may contain the colors yellow, red, brown, and black.
The middle layer shows an array of glittering blues, greens, and golds.
But how does an octopus decide what animal to mimic, what colors to turn?
Scientists have no idea, especially given that octopuses are likely colorblind.
But new evidence suggests a breathtaking possibility.
Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory and University of Washington researchers found that the skin of the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis, a color-changing cousin of octopuses, contains gene sequences usually expressed only in the light-sensing retina of the eye.
In other words, cephalopods—octopuses, cuttlefish, and squid—may be able to see with their skin.
Like dolphins, they can locate their prey using echoes.
Nagel concluded it was impossible to know what it’s like to be a bat.
And a bat is a fellow mammal like us—not someone who tastes with its suckers, sees with its skin, and whose severed arms can wander about, each with a mind of its own.
Nevertheless, there are researchers still working diligently to understand what it’s like to be an octopus.
JENNIFER MATHER SPENT MOST of her time in Bermuda floating facedown on the surface of the water at the edge of the sea.
Breathing through a snorkel, she was watching Octopus vulgaris—the common octopus.
Although indeed common (they are found in tropical and temperate waters worldwide), at the time of her study in the mid-1980s, “nobody knew what they were doing.”
In a relay with other students from six-thirty in the morning till six-thirty at night, Mather worked to find out. Sometimes she’d see an octopus hunting.
A hunting expedition could take five minutes or three hours.
The octopus would capture something, inject it with venom, and carry it home to eat.
“Home,” Mather found, is where octopuses spend most of their time.
A home, or den, which an octopus may occupy only a few days before switching to a new one, is a place where the shell-less octopus can safely hide: a hole in a rock, a discarded shell, or a cubbyhole in a sunken ship.
One species, the Pacific red octopus, particularly likes to den in stubby, brown, glass beer bottles.
One octopus Mather was watching had just returned home and was cleaning the front of the den with its arms.
Then, suddenly, it left the den, crawled a meter away, picked up one particular rock and placed the rock in front of the den.
Two minutes later, the octopus ventured forth to select a second rock.
Then it chose a third.
Attaching suckers to all the rocks, the octopus carried the load home, slid through the den opening, and carefully arranged the three objects in front.
Then it went to sleep.
What the octopus was thinking seemed obvious: “Three rocks are enough. Good night!”
The scene has stayed with Mather.
The octopus “must have had some concept,” she said, “of what it wanted to make itself feel safe enough to go to sleep.”
And the octopus knew how to get what it wanted: by employing foresight, planning—and perhaps even tool use.
Coauthor Roland Anderson reports that octopuses even learned to open the childproof caps on Extra Strength Tylenol pill bottles—a feat that eludes many humans with university degrees.
In another experiment, Anderson gave octopuses plastic pill bottles painted different shades and with different textures to see which evoked more interest.
Usually each octopus would grasp a bottle to see if it were edible and then cast it off.
But to his astonishment, Anderson saw one of the octopuses doing something striking: she was blowing carefully modulated jets of water from her funnel to send the bottle to the other end of her aquarium, where the water flow sent it back to her.
She repeated the action twenty times.
By the eighteenth time, Anderson was already on the phone with Mather with the news: “She’s bouncing the ball!”
This octopus wasn’t the only one to use the bottle as a toy.
Another octopus in the study also shot water at the bottle, sending it back and forth across the water’s surface, rather than circling the tank. Anderson’s observations were reported in the Journal of Comparative Psychology.
“This fit all the criteria for play behavior,” said Anderson.
“Only intelligent animals play—animals like crows and chimps, dogs and humans.”
Aquarists who care for octopuses feel that not only can these animals play with toys, but they may need to play with toys.
One suggestion is to hide food inside Mr. Potato Head and let your octopus dismantle it. At the Seattle Aquarium, giant Pacific octopuses play with a baseball-sized plastic ball that can be screwed together by twisting the two halves.
Sometimes the mollusks screw the halves back together after eating the prey inside.
How to obtain fish from the inside of a closed parmesan cheese container at Florida Oceanographic Coastal Center
At the New England Aquarium, it took an engineer who worked on the design of cubic zirconium to devise a puzzle worthy of a brain like Athena’s.
Wilson Menashi, who began volunteering at the aquarium weekly after retiring from the Arthur D. Little Corporation sixteen years ago, devised a series of three Plexiglas cubes, each with a different latch.
The smallest cube has a sliding latch that twists to lock down, like the bolt on a horse stall. Aquarist Bill Murphy puts a crab inside the clear cube and leaves the lid open.
Later he lets the octopus lift open the lid.
Finally he locks the lid, and invariably the octopus figures out how to open it.
Next he locks the first cube within a second one.
The new latch slides counterclockwise to catch on a bracket.
The third box is the largest, with two different locks: a bolt that slides into position to lock down, and a second one like a lever arm, sealing the lid much like the top of an old-fashioned glass canning jar.
All the octopuses Murphy has known learned fast.
They typically master a box within two or three once-a-week tries.
“Once they ‘get it,’” he says, “they can open it very fast”—within three or four minutes.
But each may use a different strategy.
As part of the New England Aquarium's "Killer Instincts" program, aquarist Bill Murphy interacts with a "friendly" giant Pacific Octopus.
George, a calm octopus, opened the boxes methodically.
The impetuous Gwenevere squeezed the second-largest box so hard she broke it, leaving a hole two inches wide.
Truman, Murphy said, was “an opportunist.”
One day, inside the smaller of the two boxes, Murphy put two crabs, who started to fight.
Truman was too excited to bother with locks.
He poured his seven-foot-long body through the two-inch crack Gwenevere had made, and visitors looked into his exhibit to find the giant octopus squeezed, suckers flattened, into the tiny space between the walls of the fourteen-cubic-inch box outside and the six-cubic-inch one inside it.
Truman stayed inside half an hour. He never opened the inner box—probably he was too cramped.
Three weeks after I had first met Athena, I returned to the aquarium to meet the man who had designed the cubes.
Menashi, a quiet grandfather with a dark moustache, volunteers every Tuesday.
“He has a real way with octopuses,” Dowd and Murphy told me.
I was eager to see how Athena behaved with him.
Murphy opened the lid of her tank, and Athena rose to the surface eagerly.
A bucket with a handful of fish sat nearby.
Did she rise so eagerly sensing the food?
Or was it the sight of her friend that attracted her?
“She knows me,” Menashi answered softly.
Anderson’s experiments with giant Pacific octopuses in Seattle prove Menashi is right.
The study exposed eight octopuses to two unfamiliar humans, dressed identically in blue aquarium shirts.
One person consistently fed a particular octopus, and another always touched it with a bristly stick.
Within a week, at first sight of the people, most octopuses moved toward the feeders and away from the irritators, at whom they occasionally aimed their water-shooting funnels.
Upon seeing Menashi, Athena reached up gently and grasped his hands and arms.
She flipped upside down, and he placed a capelin in some of the suckers near her mouth, at the center of her arms.
The fish vanished. After she had eaten, Athena floated in the tank upside down, like a puppy asking for a belly rub.
Her arms twisted lazily.
I took one in my hand to feel the suckers—did that arm know it had hold of a different person than the other arms did?
Her grip felt calm, relaxed.
With me, earlier, she seemed playful, exploratory, excited.
The way she held Menashi with her suckers seemed to me like the way a long-married couple holds hands at the movies.
I leaned over the tank to look again into her eyes, and she bobbed up to return my gaze.
“She has eyelids like a person does,” Menashi said.
He gently slid his hand near one of her eyes, causing her to slowly wink.
BIOLOGISTS HAVE LONG NOTED the similarities between the eyes of an octopus and the eyes of a human.
Canadian zoologist N. J. Berrill called it “the single most startling feature of the whole animal kingdom” that these organs are nearly identical: both animals’ eyes have transparent corneas, regulate light with iris diaphragms, and focus lenses with a ring of muscle.
Scientists are currently debating whether we and octopuses evolved eyes separately, or whether a common ancestor had the makings of the eye.
But intelligence is another matter.
“The same thing that got them their smarts isn’t the same thing that got us our smarts,” says Mather, “because our two ancestors didn’t have any smarts.”
Half a billion years ago, the brainiest thing on the planet had only a few neurons.
Octopus and human intelligence evolved independently.
“Octopuses,” writes philosopher Godfrey-Smith, “are a separate experiment in the evolution of the mind.”
And that, he feels, is what makes the study of the octopus mind so philosophically interesting.
The octopus mind and the human mind probably evolved for different reasons. Humans—like other vertebrates whose intelligence we recognize (parrots, elephants, and whales)—are long-lived, social beings.
Most scientists agree that an important event that drove the flowering of our intelligence was when our ancestors began to live in social groups.
Decoding and developing the many subtle relationships among our fellows, and keeping track of these changing relationships over the course of the many decades of a typical human lifespan, was surely a major force shaping our minds.
But octopuses are neither long-lived nor social.
Athena, to my sorrow, may live only a few more months—the natural lifespan of a giant Pacific octopus is only three years.
If the aquarium added another octopus to her tank, one might eat the other.
Except to mate, most octopuses have little to do with others of their kind.
So why is the octopus so intelligent?
What is its mind for?
Mather thinks she has the answer.
She believes the event driving the octopus toward intelligence was the loss of the ancestral shell.
Losing the shell freed the octopus for mobility.
Now they didn’t need to wait for food to find them; they could hunt like tigers.
And while most octopuses love crab best, they hunt and eat dozens of other species—each of which demands a different hunting strategy.
Each animal you hunt may demand a different skill set:
Will you camouflage yourself for a stalk-and-ambush attack?
Shoot through the sea for a fast chase?
Or crawl out of the water to capture escaping prey?
Losing the protective shell was a trade-off.
Just about anything big enough to eat an octopus will do so.
Each species of predator also demands a different evasion strategy—from flashing warning coloration if your attacker is vulnerable to venom, to changing color and shape to camouflage, to fortifying the door to your home with rocks.
Such intelligence is not always evident in the laboratory.
“In the lab, you give the animals this situation, and they react,” points out Mather.
But in the wild, “the octopus is actively discovering his environment, not waiting for it to hit him.
The animal makes the decision to go out and get information, figures out how to get the information, gathers it, uses it, stores it.
This has a great deal to do with consciousness.”
So what does it feel like to be an octopus?
Philosopher Godfrey-Smith has given this a great deal of thought, especially when he meets octopuses and their relatives, giant cuttlefish, on dives in his native Australia.
“They come forward and look at you. They reach out to touch you with their arms,” he said.
“It’s remarkable how little is known about them . . . but I could see it turning out that we have to change the way we think of the nature of the mind itself to take into account minds with less of a centralized self.”
“I think consciousness comes in different flavors,” agrees Mather.
“Some may have consciousness in a way we may not be able to imagine.”
IN MAY, I VISITED Athena a third time.
I wanted to see if she recognized me.
But how could I tell?
Scott Dowd opened the top of her tank for me.
Athena had been in a back corner but floated immediately to the top, arms outstretched, upside down.
This time I offered her only one arm.
I had injured a knee and, feeling wobbly, used my right hand to steady me while I stood on the stool to lean over the tank.
Athena in turn gripped me with only one of her arms, and very few of her suckers.
Her hold on me was remarkably gentle.
I was struck by this, since Murphy and others had first described Athena’s personality to me as “feisty.
“They earn their names,” Murphy had told me.
Athena is named for the Greek goddess of wisdom, war, and strategy.
She is not usually a laid-back octopus, like George had been. “Athena could pull you into the tank,” Murphy had warned.
“She’s curious about what you are.”
Was she less curious now?
Did she remember me?
I was disappointed that she did not bob her head up to look at me.
But perhaps she didn’t need to.
She may have known from the taste of my skin who I was.
But why was this feisty octopus hanging in front of me in the water, upside down?
Then I thought I might know what she wanted from me.
She was begging. Dowd asked around and learned that Athena hadn’t eaten in a couple of days, then allowed me the thrilling privilege of handing her a capelin.
Perhaps I had understood something basic about what it felt like to be Athena at that moment: she was hungry.
I handed a fish to one of her larger suckers, and she began to move it toward her mouth.
But soon she brought more arms to the task, and covered the fish with many suckers—as if she were licking her fingers, savoring the meal.
A WEEK AFTER I LAST VISITED ATHENA, I was shocked to receive this e-mail from Scott Dowd: “Sorry to write with some sad news.
Athena appears to be in her final days, or even hours.
She will live on, though, through your conveyance.”
Later that same day, Dowd wrote to tell me that she had died.
To my surprise, I found myself in tears.
Why such sorrow?
I had understood from the start that octopuses don’t live very long.
I also knew that while Athena did seem to recognize me, I was not by any means her special friend.
But she was very significant to me, both as an individual and as a representative from her octopodan world.
She had given me a great gift: a deeper understanding of what it means to think, to feel, and to know.
I was eager to meet more of her kind.
And so, it was with some excitement that I read this e-mail from Dowd a few weeks later: “There is a young pup octopus headed to Boston from the Pacific Northwest. Come shake hands (x8) when you can.”
Computer models reveal how small geographic features like the Bering Strait can have a profound impact on the Earth’s climate. It is no surprise that some scientists seeking to develop better computer models that could help us understand and even forecast economic crises are turning to climate modellers for advice and inspiration. Modelling the global climate is as difficult and vexing a problem. You have got to take account of a lot of different factors all at once, not all the relevant processes are well understood, and little things can make a big difference.
Climate scientists have long realised that their computer models cannot be like those commonly used to simulate processes in, say, chemistry: one size doesn’t fit all as it often does (bar minor details) for chemical reactions, and your best bet is to come at the problem from many different angles and pool the findings.
It is for this reason that reporting the results of any climate modelling study is a delicate business. Any one study is typically best viewed not as a prediction of what the Earth’s climate system will definitely do under particular circumstances – without ice caps or the Amazon rainforest, say – but as an example of the range of possibilities. This type of fuzziness does not fit the common perception of science as providing precise answers, and it allows any sceptics who may not properly understand the scientific process to imply that climate models are just ill-informed guesswork.
US NOAA nautical chart of Bering Strait >>> geolocalization with the Marine GeoGarage <<<
The work suggests that the 50-mile (80-km) -wide Bering Strait between Russia and Alaska acts as a sort of valve that can permit or shut down rapid changes in climate. With the Bering Strait open, as it is at present, say Aixue Hu of the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, and his colleagues, it is less likely that we will experience the kind of rapid fluctuations between cold and warmer global climate seen during the last ice age.
In other words, the idea that the climate could suddenly swing back and forth in just a few decades seems to be one thing we do not need to worry so much about in a world overheated by greenhouse gases.
The discovery of such abrupt jumps in climate, called Dansgaard-Oeschger cycles, shocked climate scientists when they saw their chemical signature in columns of ice drilled from the Greenland ice sheets. These ice columns, which provide records of climate going back a few hundred thousand years, revealed that at least 25 of these episodes of sudden warming and cooling occurred during the last ice age, sometimes with regional average temperatures changing by as much as 8C (14F) in 40 years. That sort of leap in today’s world would be catastrophic.
It is still not clear what caused these sudden changes, but palaeoclimatologists (who study ancient climate) generally agree that it has something to do with the way water circulates in the North Atlantic Ocean. This circulation is like a gigantic conveyor belt that carries warm water polewards in an upper-ocean current, where it cools and becomes denser, sinking to the deep ocean and flowing back towards the equator. These currents shift huge amounts of heat across the planet, and so strongly affect climate.
The water density also depends on how salty it is. One popular idea is that the Dansgaard-Oeschger cycles happen when an ice age starts to wane, causing massive amounts of ice to break off from the polar ice sheets and melt. This injects fresh water into the North Atlantic, and the less salty water is less apt to sink at the turning point of the conveyor belt. So the circulation gets much weaker, or perhaps even switches off. As warm water then no longer flows towards the pole, temperatures there drop abruptly and the glacial climate recovers its grip.
Water entering from the North Pacific through the Bering Strait also affects the North Atlantic circulation, since this water contains relatively less salt. The Bering Strait seems to have opened up between seven and four million years ago. But it is quite shallow, and when sea levels dropped profoundly during the last ice age because so much water was locked up in the great ice sheets, the strait became a land bridge again between America and Asia.
Noting that the existence of this land bridge coincides with the period of Dansgaard-Oeschger cycles, Hu and colleagues ran a climate model to see whether the two are connected. They found that the weaker circulation in the North Atlantic while the strait is open does not have the on/off modes that are probably responsible for sudden climate change. The potential for switches only occurs when the Bering Strait is closed by a fall in sea level. The details are complicated, but in essence an injection of fresh water into the North Atlantic by ice-sheet break-up cannot then flow (in part) into the Pacific, and so the circulation is more liable just to get switched off.
This is not the first suggestion that the Bering Strait represents a climate switch. Two years ago Hu’s team simulations showed that the same factor – turning on and off the influx of fresh North Pacific water through the strait – can affect the growth and decline of the great ice sheet covering much of North America during an ice age, with consequent changes in sea level. But only now do they make the link to abrupt climate change. Quite aside from offering a shred of comfort in the face of global warming – there is enough to worry about already – the work offers a reminder of how much climate can depend in subtle ways on the very lie of the land.
So 790 charts (1677 including sub-charts) are available in the Canada CHS layer. (see coverage)
Note : don't forget to visit 'Notices to Mariners' published monthly and available from the Canadian Coast Guard both online or through a free hardcopy subscription service. This essential publication provides the latest information on changes to the aids to navigation system, as well as updates from CHS regarding CHS charts and publications. See also written Notices to Shipping and Navarea warnings : NOTSHIP
The Strait of Gibraltar, which lies between the southern coast of Spain and the northern coast of Morocco, is the only place where water from the Atlantic Ocean mixes with water from the Mediterranean Sea. Credit : ESA
The ground beneath Portugal, Spain and northern Morocco shook violently on Nov. 1, 1755, during what came to be known as the Great Lisbon Earthquake. With an estimated magnitude of 8.5 to 9.0, the temblor nearly destroyed the city of Lisbon and its lavish palaces, libraries and cathedrals. What wasn't leveled by the quake was mostly demolished in the ensuing tsunami and fires that raged for days. Altogether, at least 40,000 people were killed.
More than 250 years later, geologists are still piecing together the tectonic story behind that powerful earthquake. A unique subduction zone beneath Gibraltar, the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula, now seems to be culprit. Subduction zones are the spots where one of Earth's tectonic plates dives beneath another, often producing some of the world's strongest earthquakes.
"At a global scale, subduction is the only process that produces magnitude-8 or -9 earthquakes," said Marc-Andre Gutscher, a geologist at the University of Brest in France. "If subduction occurred, and is still occurring here, then it's highly relevant to understanding the region's seismic hazards."
Small but powerful
Gutscher's work, discussed in the March 27 issue of the journal Eos, has shown that sunken ocean lithosphere — a layer that comprises Earth's crust and upper mantle — lies beneath Gibraltar, and that it's still attached to the northern part of the African Plate. Other teams have found crumpled ocean crust and active mud volcanoes in the Gulf of Cadiz, where water within the buried lithosphere mixes with sediments and boils up to the surface.
Altogether, these lines of evidence make a pretty convincing case for subduction, Gutscher said.
But unlike the textbook examples of huge subduction zones found at the Mariana Trench or under Alaska's Aleutian Islands, this subduction zone is comparatively tiny. "Its very small size and ultra-slow motion make the Gibraltar subduction zone unique," Gutscher told OurAmazingPlanet. "It's probably the narrowest subduction zone in the world — about 200 kilometers [120 miles] wide at most — and it's moving at far less than a centimeter per year."
What's happening under Gibraltar is an example of something called rollback subduction: As the sliver of lithosphere sinks into the mantle, the line where it's still "hinged" to the African Plate rolls back further and further, stretching the crust above it.
Seismic danger zone?
If subduction under Gibraltar is a thing of the past, there's little danger of future earthquakes. But that's not true if it is still happening — as Gutscher and many others believe to be the case.
That's because subduction has already created a tiny tectonic block, or microplate, between the African and Eurasian Plates. Researchers using GPS have shown that this microplate is still moving a few millimeters westward every year, thanks to ongoing rollback subduction.
The boundaries of this microplate lie in southern Spain and northern Morocco. Like California's San Andreas Fault, they're strike-slip boundaries (but smaller and slower-moving), so they're capable of generating earthquakes every now and then, Gutscher said. For example, a magnitude-6.3 quake struck the city of Al Hoceima, Morocco, in February 2004, killing nearly 600 people.
But as far as another Great Lisbon Earthquake, residents of this region can breathe easy — at least for another millennium or so. "Given the very slow motion of the faults in the area, you need many centuries to build up enough slip to generate such a great earthquake," Gutscher explained. "A magnitude-8.5 or -9 earthquake is probably pretty much out of the question, since the last such tremendous event was only 250 years ago." | <urn:uuid:d4e6619c-abd5-42b3-8bae-8e43d7e81779> | CC-MAIN-2018-51 | http://blog.geogarage.com/2012_04_15_archive.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376823550.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20181211015030-20181211040530-00600.warc.gz | en | 0.957127 | 11,598 | 4.0625 | 4 |
In 1962, Samoa became the first South Pacific island to gain independence.
In 1962, Samoa became the first South Pacific island to gain independence. Be sure to catch hype and festivities of the Celebrations. Don't miss out on what promises to be an exciting celebration.
Samoans, along with Tongans and Fijians were the superpowers of the Pacific before the arrival of the Europeans and those connections among the three nations remain strong till this day through each nation’s royal lines.
In 1899 after years of civil war, the islands of the Samoan archipelago were divided – the Germans taking the islands to the west and the Americans taking the islands to the east, now known as American Samoa.
After the outbreak of World War I, New Zealand captured Western Samoa from the small German company stationed on islands and following the end of the war took administrative control on behalf of the United Nations from 1918 until independence on 1st January 1962. Western Samoa became the first Pacific nation to gain independence. | <urn:uuid:93a3861c-e19e-43b4-b806-cb634fc71bb9> | CC-MAIN-2020-40 | https://www.samoa.travel/whats-on/events-calendar/independence-day-2020-06-01/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600401601278.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200928135709-20200928165709-00180.warc.gz | en | 0.957559 | 205 | 3.171875 | 3 |
A.T. Smith, Assistant Director, Office of Investigations, U.S. Secret Service, Washington, D.C.
n April 14, 1865, five days after the formal end of the American Civil War President Abraham Lincoln met with Secretary of the Treasury Hugh McCulloch to combat the United States’ overwhelming counterfeit currency problem. The idea of creating the U.S. Secret Service was born the very day that Abraham Lincoln traveled to Ford’s Theater and was assassinated.
As one of the oldest federal investigative law enforcement agencies in the United States, the Secret Service was—and still is—mandated with the mission of suppressing counterfeiting and protecting America’s financial payment systems (among other duties including protection of the president, the vice president, and former elected leaders). Today, as the financial payment methods evolve, so does the Secret Service. In addition to its original mandate of combating the counterfeiting of U.S. currency, the passage of new legislation in 1984 gave the Secret Service authority for investigating credit card and debit card fraud and parallel authority with other federal law enforcement agencies in identity theft cases.
Also in 1984, Congress assigned concurrent jurisdiction to the Secret Service to investigate financial crimes as they relate to computers. In 2001, Congress, through the USA Patriot Act, directed the Secret Service to establish nationwide electronic crimes task forces that partners law enforcement, the private sector, and academia in detecting and suppressing computer-based crime. Furthermore, the USA Patriot Act increased the statutory penalties for the manufacture, the possession, the dealing, and the passage of counterfeit U.S. or foreign obligations. The USA Patriot Act allows Secret Service enforcement action to be taken in protecting the U.S. financial payment systems while combating transnational financial crimes directed by criminal organizations. In fiscal year 2010, the Secret Service arrested 1,217 suspects for cybercrime-related violations, with a fraud loss of $507 million. As the original protectors of the U.S. financial payment systems, the Secret Service exercises broad investigative bjurisdiction over a variety of cybercrimes and financial crimes.
Secret Service Task Force Strategies
To protect the U.S. critical financial infrastructure from cybercriminals and financial criminals, the Secret Service has adopted a multipronged approach. The Secret Service, joining with law enforcement partners, has successfully dismantled some of the largest known cybercriminal organizations by working through the agency’s established network of 31 Electronic Crimes Task Forces (ECTFs) and 38 Financial Crimes Task Forces (FCTFs). The Secret Service ECTFs focus on identifying and locating international cybercriminals involved in network intrusions, bank frauds, data breaches, and other computer-related crimes. With the recent additions of the two international ECTFs in Rome, Italy, and London, England, local law enforcement members are able to leverage their task force participation into Europe, where cybercriminals have operated with impunity. In addition, the ECTF state and local law enforcement partners are provided with computer-based training, tools, and equipment to enhance their investigative skills.
Over the last several years, the Secret Service has partnered with Dutch law enforcement in fighting eastern European–based cybercrime. The Secret Service sends cybercrimes agents to work with the Dutch on a three-week temporary assignment rotation. These embedded agents provide the Secret Service a year-round presence with the Dutch, which allows for the sharing of information on criminal tactics, techniques, and cyber intelligence.
Reciprocity exists; the Dutch officers of the National High Tech Crime Unit are sent to the United States to work with Secret Service personnel within ECTFs located throughout the country. This international “law enforcement exchange program” enables a robust sharing of information between the two organizations. This Secret Service law enforcement exchange model has recently been expanded to the Ukraine. Although this partnership is in its developmental stage, it already has paid huge dividends in the large amounts of data seized and has given investigators a foothold into a previously lawless refuge. In an effort to strengthen foreign membership to the ECTFs, the Secret Service also has met with law enforcement representatives from Belgium, Germany, France, Spain, Norway, Colombia, China (Hong Kong), Australia, New Zealand, and Russia to identify areas where they can work together to combat cybercrime.
Complementing the ECTFs are the Secret Service’s 38 domestic FCTFs, which focus on preventing the exploitation of financial instruments by organized criminal groups. The FCTFs are not dedicated to electronic crimes, but they work closely with financial institutions and local law enforcement to solve traditional financial crimes schemes. Simply stated, the FCTFs arrest criminals and prevent monetary loss to financial institutions. Furthermore, this law enforcement alliance combats financial crimes by multiplying investigative resources, physical effort, and intelligence toward specific criminal targets engaged in illegal financial activity.
The 38 FCTFs also provide an external gateway to the Secret Service’s eInformation Network. The eInformation Network enables the Secret Service to communicate with its partners through several unique online resources. The eInformation’s eLibrary website is a secure website for law enforcement and qualified financial crime investigators to review specific financial documents. The eInformation’s U.S. Dollars Note Search site is a secure website designed to provide qualified financial institutions and law enforcement officers the ability to conduct a search of the Secret Service counterfeit note database. These websites provide a unique collection of resources on a variety of financial institution topics and may be accessed only by registered members. These critical FCTF law enforcement coalitions reinforce strategic investigative alliances, aid in identifying patterns and trends, and allow for the sharing of methodologies in fighting financial crimes.
Education, Computer Forensics, and Law Enforcement
The Secret Service provides several avenues for state and local police officers to obtain the necessary education to fight today’s cybercriminals. The agency provides law enforcement officers, prosecutors, and judges with cyber-training at the agency’s National Computer Forensic Institute (NCFI) in Hoover, Alabama. At the NCFI, law enforcement officers can become certified computer forensic examiners and master the intricacies of extracting data from digital media storage devices. Additionally, by collaborating with Carnegie Mellon University’s Computer Emergency Response Team, the Secret Service is maximizing partnerships with academia to study computer viruses and malware, infecting computers worldwide. In 2007, the Secret Service established a partnership with the University of Tulsa, Oklahoma, Forensic Laboratory Center of Information Security, to create the Cell Phone Forensic Facility. This facility expands the capabilities of law enforcement to pursue a broader range of digital forensics, specifically involving cellular telephones, PDAs, and skimmers. The university supplies a qualified set of interns who specialize in information technology and digital forensics to assist law enforcement officers during investigations.
The Mission Continues
Today, cybercriminals are operating in nearly every civilized nation in the world. Current trends related to cybercrimes indicate a significant increase in network intrusions worldwide. Cybercriminals’ ability to obtain personal data, mount cyber attacks against the United States government and financial institutions, or anonymously spread malicious software is alarming. However, these problems are not insurmountable; agents in the Secret Service and their law enforcement partners are committed to disrupting and dismantling these criminal networks. In particular, the successful investigations of Heartland and TJX Intrusions, as well as the arrests of cybercriminals Maksym Yastremskey, Albert Gonzalez, Vladislav Horohorin, and Lin Mun Poo, have highlighted the agency’s international law enforcement partnerships. Additionally, the most recent openings of the Secret Service’s office in Tallinn, Estonia, and Beijing, China, further the agency’s mandate to combat transnational cybercrime through the 24 foreign offices and 31 ECTFs. The Secret Service will aggressively continue its mission to safeguard U.S. financial infrastructure and payment systems and preserve the integrity of the U.S. economy. The Secret Service is proud to partner with city, state, and international law enforcement to accomplish this mission.
Please visit the Secret Service website at http://www.secretservice.gov for more details and a complete list of resources. ■
Please cite as:
A.T. Smith, "The U.S. Secret Service Partners with State, Local, and International Law Enforcement to Pursue the World’s Most Wanted Cybercriminals," From the Assistant Director, The Police Chief 78 (December 2011): 16–17. | <urn:uuid:02c21673-3a34-459b-8b05-fd1cdca5c598> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?fuseaction=display_arch&article_id=2566&issue_id=122011 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860121090.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161521-00066-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.921194 | 1,730 | 2.875 | 3 |
Assignment 1: Discussion—Culture and Strategy
An organization’s culture can be defined as “the unwritten set of rules and informal policies that direct employer behavior.” This definition is an amalgamation of organizational behaviorists’ thinking with industrial psychologists’ position, and human resource development researchers. Denise Rousseau’s research on the psychological contract probably comes closest to this amalgamation. Think about your own organization’s culture
Using the module readings, University online library resources, and the Internet, respond to the following for your organization:
- What are the cultural norms that govern the organization, and what types of behaviors does the culture promote?
- What behaviors does the culture punish? Do the specific behaviors you describe help enable the business strategy?
- Do the behaviors you describe block the strategy?
Write your initial response in approximately 300 words. Apply APA standards to citation of sources.
By Saturday, June 1, 2013, post your response to the appropriate Discussion Area. Through Saturday, June 8, 2013, review and comment on at least two peers’ responses.
Assignment 2: Internal Environmental Scan/Organizational Assessment( Sony)
This section provides the opportunity to develop your course project. Conducting an internal environmental scan or organizational assessment, provides the ability to put the strategic audit together.
In this course so far you have conducted the following steps toward completing the capstone strategic audit:
- Identified the organization for your report
- Interviewed key mid-level and senior level managers
- Created a market position analysis
- Conducted an external environmental scan in preparation of your final report and presentation
- Prepared a preliminary strategic audit
In this module you will conduct a comprehensive assessment of the internal environment at your business unit or organization you are working with for this project, also known as an organizational assessment, and present your findings in a report. Your report should analyze the operating characteristics and assets of your business unit and categorize them as strengths or weaknesses in terms of enabling the business strategy (these will be inputs into a final SWOT analysis).
The internal environmental scan or organizational assessment should include the following:
- Mission, Vision, and Values: Assess the organization’s understanding of the mission, vision, and values, and how they relate the business strategy. Is there consensus on the mission and vision of the organization? What are the shared values of the organization? What are the behaviors espoused by these values?
- Strategy Clarification: Assess the organization’s understanding of the business strategy through interviews with mid-level and senior managers. Assess their understanding and agreement of the business unit’s value proposition, market position, and competitive advantage (these are inputs fromM5: Assignment 1).
- Cultural Assessment: Explain the unwritten rules and shared values that govern behaviors in the organization. Do they act as enablers or blockers to the strategy? For example, is there a culture of information sharing and collaboration that enables the organization to respond quickly across structural boundaries to solve problems for customers? On the other hand, do groups not share important information through informal mechanisms, thus slowing response times?
- Value Chain Analysis: Identify the primary (direct) and support (indirect) activities that create and deliver your product or service to your customers. Assess each activity’s contribution to competitive advantage through cost or differentiation. Identify any areas where the business may be at a competitive disadvantage.
- Summary of Findings: Using these different analyses, identify the organizational strengths and weaknesses as they relate to the business strategy. Organizational strengths are assets, capabilities, and resources that contribute directly to the organization’s strategic fit, differentiation, and competitive advantage relative to competing organizations. Organizational weaknesses are characteristics and capabilities (often lacking) that place the organization at a disadvantage relative to competitors.
Write a 3 page report in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources
The paper should include a (in addition to the 3 pages body of the report) a cover page, plus executive summary/abstract, table of contents, body of paper—proper headers (Mission, Vision, and Values assessment; Strategy Clarification; Cultural Assessment; Value Chain Analysis; Summary of Key Findings; and References).
By Thursday, June 6, 2013, deliver your assignment to the M5: Assignment 2 | <urn:uuid:1785ffe5-931e-4c3a-83dc-23f05025aa38> | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://uniessaypapers.com/culture-and-strategy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710155.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20221127005113-20221127035113-00671.warc.gz | en | 0.913302 | 896 | 2.5625 | 3 |
|a “mégathérion” from Boitard’s 1836 article|| || “Paris avant les hommes” |
English title: “Paris before Man” (translated from French)
by Pierre Boitard
First publication: Musée des Familles—Lectures du Soir, Jun 1836 (Part 1) and Nov 1837 (Part 2)
Everyone from Jules Verne to John Connor seems to know of Pierre Boitard’s edition of Paris avant les hommes published in 1861, two years after Boitard’s death. The 500-page tome tells the tale of a limping devil named Asmodeus who takes Boitard himself on a journey through Earth’s natural history.
What’s less well known is that 25 years earlier, Boitard’s initial version—yes, including the time-traveling Asmodeus—appeared as a 44-page, two-part article in the family magazine Musée des Familles—Lecture pour Tous. I stumbled upon this in Jean Le Loeuff’s November 2012 blog, Le Dinoblog.
To this question, the devil burst into laughter, waking them. The female ran about on all fours, carrying under her belly the little ones, clinging with all their might; but the male uttered a fierce gutteral roar, fixed his eyes upon me, stood upright on his hind legs, and raising high his flint ax, rushed toward me with a furious leap, swinging the deadly weapon at my head.
At that moment, I uttered a cry of terror because I had no choice but to recognize exactly what kind of monster he was . . . He was a man.
—from the end of Part 1
Pierre Boitard, Master Traveller
This 1836 article is the earliest that I’ve spotted of a man traveling to the past. So cheers to Pierre and his well deserved Master Traveler Citation. | <urn:uuid:1a994e0f-3d2b-434a-825e-189dedb46b5d> | CC-MAIN-2017-17 | http://www.storypilot.com/tt.php?&keytype=any&keywords=related-to-Boitard | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917127681.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031207-00252-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.906989 | 428 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Table of contents
About this book
This book explores the geography of the everyday roadway and contemplates how regulation and design shape our streets. People may question the hegemony of cars, but reimagining public streets is a major conceptual and technical challenge. Drawing from “new mobilities” and transport studies, Prytherch addresses how streets are structured by policy standards; what it means to have a right to the street; and how a more just street would look—in both theory and practice. He summarizes key traffic statutes, case laws, and engineering manuals, and interprets these in relation to mobility rights and justice. At its core, the book moves beyond criticism to highlight emerging movements which aim to develop more complete and livable streets for everyone.
Urban Planning Urban Geography Urban Mobility Transportation Studies Transportation Planning Social Justice Transit Equity Ethics and Policy-making Public Policy Transport Geography Social-spatial Relations | <urn:uuid:8e4c7ec6-3614-49ee-bb8e-20ee0449d75c> | CC-MAIN-2018-39 | https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-75705-6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-39/segments/1537267160400.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20180924110050-20180924130450-00118.warc.gz | en | 0.91323 | 183 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Growing subtropical Drosera
Subtropicals are perhaps the largest and most variable group of Drosera. Some, like D. capensis, are very easy to grow and can become weeds in your CP collection if left alone. Others (usually cool-growing South African species) can be quite temperamental if you cannot satisfy their cultural requirements successfully. While highland South American Drosera are technically subtropical, we've placed them in their own separate section due to their more specific care requirements. When reading this care guide, it is important to realize that easier species will have a wider range of tolerable conditions whereas difficult species will not.
In general, subtropicals are not very picky in regards to temperature; daytime temperatures within 65 - 80 degrees should be fine for most species. Most of the slightly more difficult species (usually cool-growing South African species like D. slackii) appreciate temperatures that stay below 75 degrees along with a nighttime drop. Other species, like D. madagascariensis, prefer temperatures on the warmer end of the spectrum (but will tolerate a wide range regardless). The takeaway from this is that, while there are general guidelines for temperature, it's important to do research on the specific temperature range that each species will prefer. For example, I grow D. capensis outdoors all summer in NJ where temperatures may occasionally reach up to 100F, and while the plants are clearly happier when we have cooler nights they still grow well all season. In contrast, my D. slackii tends to lose its dew when the ambient temperature exceeds 85F. Prolonged high temperatures will be damaging to all subtropicals, even D. capensis - it may be relatively difficult to fry, but it certainly is not impossible.
For most subtropicals, high light is an absolute necessity and will allow you to attain the beautiful coloration that is characteristic of many species. That said, be sure to slowly acclimate plants to brighter light levels, especially if they are fresh arrivals from a grower who gave them far less light than you provide. Both myself and other growers have found through observation that light is the most important factor in dew production for the majority of species.
High humidity certainly won't hurt any of these species, as long as you are not forgoing adequate light in favor of humidity. For the more difficult subtropicals, high humidity is a requirement. The more forgiving species won't have much difficulty adjusting to low humidity, though they may not grow as well as they would with optimal conditions. Species like D. capensis, D. venusta, and D. nidiformis, are very tolerant of low humidity and are the best candidates for windowsill growing. | <urn:uuid:5e1370c7-5fcb-4068-a21c-55dbc19db876> | CC-MAIN-2017-47 | http://www.carnivorousjourney.com/subtropical.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-47/segments/1510934806465.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20171122050455-20171122070455-00012.warc.gz | en | 0.945659 | 558 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Mara Steinkamp, Graduate Student, Human Genetics and Diane Robins, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Human Genetics
The mouse mammary gland consists of milk-producing alveolar cells and a network of ducts that transport the milk to the nipple. Beginning at puberty, ducts grow out from the nipple, invading the surrounding fat pad. Many of the factors important in development of the mammary gland may also be involved in breast cancer initiation and in subsequent tumor growth. This picture shows the mature duct tree of a non-pregnant mouse. Ducts are visualized with a dye that can differentiate the ducts (light blue), from the surrounding fat pad (deep blue).
|Print Size||Approximate Total Size With Mat or Mat/Frame| | <urn:uuid:1f9abcac-6e58-4234-9293-09c8abf297e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-24 | https://bioartography.com/products/after-midnight | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590347417746.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200601113849-20200601143849-00383.warc.gz | en | 0.881307 | 160 | 2.71875 | 3 |
An increasing number of children are suffering from mental health problems, but how much do kids really know about these issues?
Four children, aged between nine and 11, were asked what they thought a mental illness was and sadly, not all of them knew what it meant.
Kids discuss what it means to have a mental health condition
What is a mental health condition?
"Mental health is when someone goes a bit crazy," an 11-year-old said in the video above.
Lucie Russell, director of campaigns at YoungMinds, an organisation supporting children and young people's wellbeing and mental health, said children's misperceptions such as this, have often been influenced by the media.
"The media representation of mental illness is often negative, associating mental health problems with danger and unpredictability," she told HuffPost UK Parents.
"Parents should take the time to talk to their children about mental health, explaining that it’s something we all have, just as we all have physical health.
"Sometimes we feel well, sometimes not so well, and sometimes we all struggle to cope."
How can you help someone with a mental illness?
"Make them feel like they belong to this world as well," one child said.
Russell said parents should talk openly about mental health and where people can go for support, so children know who they can turn to for advice.
"Conversations should include positive mental health, resilience and the importance of seeking help when things are bad," she said.
"It helps to break down stigma and enables young people to look after themselves and each other."
Dr Fiona Pienaar, Place2Be's director of clinical services previously told HuffPost UK Parents that parents should act as an emotional role model.
"It's a mother saying 'I'm feeling upset because my friend is ill, so I'm going to phone them and have a chat' or 'I'm not feeling well so I'm going to make an appointment to go to the doctors'," she said.
Also on HuffPost:
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Get top stories and blog posts emailed to me each day. Newsletters may offer personalized content or advertisements.Learn more | <urn:uuid:261eb9cc-4472-4b46-b636-28a69e7cb0b9> | CC-MAIN-2016-40 | http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2016/02/11/children-discuss-mental-health_n_9210168.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-40/segments/1474738661781.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160924173741-00282-ip-10-143-35-109.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974995 | 459 | 3.421875 | 3 |
This Boyle Heights Park Acted as a Local Cornerstone of the East LA Walkouts
Credit: Nuestro Stories
In the heart of East LA off of Norfolk St., is Hazard Park. It was picked as one of the locations during the East LA School Walkouts, which was around the time of the Chicano Movement of 1968.
Students from nearby Wilson and Lincoln High Schools rendezvoused at the park after simultaneously walking out of their classrooms. The park was chosen at the time for its prime location. During the protests and East LA Walkouts, the Los Angeles Unified School District had an office directly across the street from the park, making it impossible for the city to not notice hundreds of thousands of students leaving their collective classrooms.
Read more: This Park Was Discovered by Ponce de Leon
Due to its history, a study released by the Hispanic Access Foundation points to Hazard Park as an “important historical site contributing to one of the most significant youth-led Chicano social movements” on top of being one of the few green spaces in East Los Angeles, where generations of Latino families “have depended on for relaxation and recreation.”
The park also acted as a localized cornerstone of the building of barrio baseball, which before the Dodgers made their home in LA, was the closest many come to an actual baseball game.
Folks from the neighborhood, both kids and adults alike, would come together to play – in the streets, in the park, in any area they could. It was one of the ways that the immigrants of the area were able to hold on to each other, build community, and create a subculture all their own.
Things to Know Before You Go:
- Hazard Park is located at 2230 Norfolk St. in Los Angeles
- The park is open from sun up to sun down every day.
- The park comprises over 26.5 acres and has a variety of areas to facilitate celebration, gatherings, and family-friendly fun.
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By Liv Styler
Olivia Monahan Chicana journalist, editor, educator, and organizer in Sacramento whose sole focus is to shed light on stories on our most impacted and marginalized communities, but even more importantly, for those stories to humanize those normally left out. She is an Ida B Wells Investigative Journalism Fellow 2022 Finalist, a member of the Parenting Journalists Society, and has bylines in The Courier, The Sacramento Bee, The Americano, Submerge Magazine among others. | <urn:uuid:72f22e8d-e529-4fff-bc7e-7c8e513553b8> | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | https://nuestrostories.com/2022/08/boyle-heights-park-east-la-walkouts/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296949958.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20230401094611-20230401124611-00586.warc.gz | en | 0.968293 | 521 | 2.734375 | 3 |
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Scattered throughout the limestone deposits of the world can be found interesting geological phenomena called geodes (GEE-odes), which might be called miniature caves. These geodes are hollow, rounded rocklike or clay objects lined with crystals of various types. Their rough, dull-looking outside surfaces give no clue to the beauty that lies within. Some may look like the petrified eggs of a prehistoric beast, while others more closely resemble mud balls. They may be as small as a walnut or larger than a basketball. Geodes several feet in diameter have been found, but the average is about baseball size.
In order for a crystal-lined geode to form, there first must be a cavity or hollow space in the limestone. This cavity may have been formed when a mineral deposit such as iron dissolved, when a buried animal decayed, or when the earth shifted a bit. When ground water carrying dissolved minerals seeps into this resulting cavity, the minerals crystallize on the inner surface. As time passes and more minerals are deposited—new layers growing on old—the hollow interior is almost filled with inward-projecting crystals.
Calcite (KAL-site) is the most common mineral found in Texas geodes, and its usual crystal formation is called the dogtooth spar. Most calcite is white, but impurities may tint it other colors. Much of it is fluorescent, and it may appear pink or red under ultraviolet light. The limestone deposits of Central Texas and the Edwards Plateau are good locations to hunt for calcite-filled geodes. A highway cut through a limestone hill may expose buried geodes, but before you go collecting, be sure to get the landowner’s permission. Don’t trespass.
Another crystal that forms in Texas geodes is the brittle celestite (sa-LESS-tite). Celestite crystals are mostly white or colorless near the base where attached, but their tips are a clear blue of gem quality. Since they are brittle, they are very difficult to facet (cut into a gemstone) and are considered unsuitable for jewelry. Fine specimens have been found in geodes near Lampasas and Brownwood and at Mount Bonnell and other localities west of Austin. Celestite geodes, containing little gem-quality material, also have been found in parts of Coke, Fisher, and Nolan counties.
Some of the more colorful geode crystals are quartz, a substance from which many gemstones are formed. Beautiful amethyst is merely purple quartz. The presence of traces of other minerals during the formation period causes the clear quartz crystals to develop in various colors. Quartz can be purple, yellow, rose, blue, smoky gray, or clear.
Often a chalcedony (kal-SED-en-e) layer lies between the inner projecting crystals and the outer geode shell. This chalcedony layer consists of bands of tiny interlocking quartz crystals too small to be easily distinguished under a light microscope. In fact, the structure of this type of quartz is so minutely developed that the material is never able to mature as actual crystals with definite outward shapes. In this banded form, the chalcedony is known as agate. Geodes completely filled with colorful agate have been found.
In recent years the term geode has been expanded to include the crystal formations found in gas cavities in volcanic rocks. Known as amygdules (ah-MIG-dules), these “geodes” also hold quartz and calcite crystals and layers of chalcedony. Often they are filled almost entirely with banded agate chalcedony, and they range in size from microscopic to about eight inches in diameter. The southern part of the Quitman Mountains in Hudspeth County contains the type of volcanic rocks in which these amygdules form.
The next time you go out on a field trip in a limestone area, keep your eyes open for geodes. If you happen to find what you think might be one, there’s only one way to find out—split it open. Many geodes filled with calcite can be broken open with a chisel and hammer, but if you want nice smooth edges and do not want to damage the crystals inside any more than necessary, take the geode to someone who has a diamond saw designed to slice rocks and have the geode cut in half. Whether your geode contains beautiful amethyst or common calcite, you can take pride in having found another example of the hidden beauties of nature.
1983 Geodes. Young Naturalist. The Louise Lindsey Merrick Texas Environment Series, No. 6, pp. 115-117. Texas A&M University Press, College Station. | <urn:uuid:a6e82f85-034b-4ef0-9fc5-a247864b113d> | CC-MAIN-2014-10 | http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/publications/nonpwdpubs/young_naturalist/earth_sciences/geodes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-10/segments/1393999678772/warc/CC-MAIN-20140305060758-00028-ip-10-183-142-35.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.932247 | 996 | 3.359375 | 3 |
|In the Lab|
|In the Field|
|Top Ten Species|
Research in the Albert lab explores the spectacular diversity of fishes in tropical South and Central America. The Neotropical ichthyofauna is among the most diverse aquatic ecosystems on Earth, with more than 6,000 species representing about 10% all living vertebrate species.
Why so many fish species in the Amazon and other large tropical river basins?
Projects involve collecting expeditions to remote field localities, descriptions of species new to science, comparative osteology, and phylogenetic analyses of genetic and morphological data.
Results contribute to the documentation of aquatic biodiversity, the production of predictive taxonomies, and a better understanding the formation of megadiverse tropical aquatic asssemblages. | <urn:uuid:9a2b8f6f-0169-499c-a860-2ac98f4fd05c> | CC-MAIN-2014-52 | http://www.ucs.louisiana.edu/~jxa4003/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-52/segments/1418802777438.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20141217075257-00138-ip-10-231-17-201.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.772294 | 159 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Ellie experienced severe mood swings, weight gain, and spotting while taking birth control pills. Then she tried an IUD until it fell out one painful day. So for the last year, the 26-year-old Chicago resident has been trying to avoid getting pregnant by using a period-tracking app.
“I track my fertility cycles and make sure that my partner and I are extra careful” — meaning by using condoms — “around the time I’m the most fertile,” Ellie told BuzzFeed News. (She declined to use her last name because of the personal nature of the topic.) “I feel a lot better not being on something — I think that’s just my body — and the app has really helped me keep track of me.”
Ellie uses Period Tracker, one of hundreds of apps that can help people prevent unintended pregnancies by noting when they’re likely to conceive, reminding them to take a pill, or dishing out contraceptive advice. With the tap of a button, women and others who use fertility apps are collecting, analyzing, and accessing all kinds of data about their bodies. But reproductive health apps, being apps, can contain wrong information, as they have virtually no regulatory oversight. And people can use them to independently make decisions that may not sit well with their doctor — like scheduling unprotected sex for days when an app tells them their risk of pregnancy is low.
Those concerns were raised last month in a study by Emily Mangone, a graduate student who studies reproductive health policies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. More than half of pregnancies in the United States are unintended, and they disproportionately occur in young, lower-income, African-American women. Reproductive health apps could help flip that ratio, Mangone thinks, given how widespread smartphones are and how much time people spend using them.
So in late 2014, Mangone and her colleagues went looking for apps that claimed, or were designed, to do specific things: help people prevent unintended pregnancies or make decisions about safe sex and birth control. But out of nearly 220 iOS and Android apps the team looked at, most “miss opportunities” to give evidence-based, useful information, according to the study. Forty-one percent didn’t mention any kind of contraceptive device. Some of the more egregious ones “may increase the likelihood of unintended pregnancy due to the low effectiveness of the contraceptive methods promoted,” the researchers wrote in the journal JMIR mHealth uHealth.
“Anybody can make an app about contraception and about sexual health and it doesn’t necessarily have to have any founding in science or reality,” Mangone told BuzzFeed News.
A typical birth control reminder app, in Mangone’s experience, sends a push notification but doesn’t explain “what to do if you miss a pill, it doesn’t tell you about emergency contraception, it doesn’t tell you you may want to consider condoms for dual protection.” Many people use period-tracking apps to get pregnant or just track their flow, but some use them for Natural Family Planning — the Catholic Church–associated method of analyzing a cycle to predict when sex will lead to pregnancy. (This method has a roughly 25% chance of failure, while an IUD's is less than 1%, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.) “People who might be using apps for preventing pregnancy really miss opportunities to use a better method, which potentially creates a higher risk of unintended pregnancy,” Mangone said.
Mangone even found a few apps from groups that purportedly offered pregnancy or abortion counseling — but learned, upon calling them, that they were in fact pro-life organizations.
She believes that apps should explain and address a full range of reproductive health issues. But not everyone who makes or uses apps shares this belief: A woman who just wants pill reminders might not care if a program slips in extra contraceptive guidance. Developers may be more concerned with their App Store ranking than the quality of their app’s information.
But it’s for this reason doctors regard these apps with both enthusiasm and caution. On one hand, apps can help patients answer key questions when time is precious during an appointment (“What was the first day of your last period?”). At the same time, most physicians don’t have the time and energy to vet apps. They aren’t strangers to the idea of patients finding misinformation on the internet, but apps, which are constantly available and full of personal data, are especially ingrained in people’s lives.
“As these apps become more valuable, you definitely see more people using them, but I do have strong concerns about the validity of them because not everybody has a regular cycle,” said Dr. Brian Levine, practice director of the Colorado Center for Reproductive Medicine’s New York office. “Unfortunately, many of these apps don’t have screening questions to really make sure you’re the right patient for it.”
Fertility doctors must largely navigate the app landscape on their own. The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists doesn’t have a position on them (although a spokesperson said by email, “We certainly recognize that in terms of preventing pregnancy, the rhythm method is the least effective, app-guided or not”). The Food and Drug Administration regulates only apps that serve as medical devices and therefore pose a high safety risk; pregnancy information–related ones don’t fall in this category.
Ellie, the 26-year-old from Chicago, looked for positive reviews and settled on Period Tracker Deluxe, which costs $1.99 (and, like many of its companions, is heavy on pink and flowers). It accurately predicts her period “most of the time,” she said.
“Only using condoms or being without any other contraceptive at the moment, I am a little bit nervous, so I’ll check the app a lot — ‘I thought I should get my period yesterday and I didn’t, I hope that’s OK,’” Ellie said. “I think it’s probably more accurate than I would be if I were just thinking about it myself. So I just try not to worry.” Period Tracker’s developer, GP Apps, did not respond to a request for comment.
How can consumers sort the trustworthy apps from the noise? Check out who made it, Mangone says. Her research found that some of the most comprehensive and accurate programs were made by public health groups and agencies like Planned Parenthood and the Mayo Clinic. Free apps also tended to be better, the study found. (Mangone declined to name the worst offenders, saying she didn’t want to single out any when “there were so many bad ones.”)
A handful of popular reproductive health app companies contacted by BuzzFeed News said they weren’t universally surprised by Mangone’s findings. They noted that her study looked at apps downloaded in November 2014, so its conclusions don’t necessarily apply today.
In August 2013, Glow, founded by PayPal founder Max Levchin, launched an eponymous app designed to help people conceive. The company soon realized that a number of customers were actually not trying to conceive. In a Medium post last month, Glow said that 18% of its users list withdrawal — in which the man pulls out before ejaculating — as their primary birth control method. So last summer, Glow released Eve, which tracks sex and periods without a fertility emphasis. It draws much of its birth control information from an online network operated by the National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. The company also has a medical advisory board.
Jennifer Tye, vice president of marketing and partnerships, agreed that when it comes to apps, consumers and doctors are awash in a sea of misinformation. “I think it’d be great to have some sort of group of medical experts who are able to say, ‘These are the products that have done their homework,’” she said.
Tal Hashai, a developer behind the birth control reminder app myPill, said that he relied on health pamphlets and the United Kingdom’s National Health Service. He said his team has added features as questions or knowledge gaps emerge, like an algorithm that analyzes users’ pill-taking logs and recommends using a condom, for example, if they appear to not be protected.
Ida Tin, CEO of the period-tracking program Clue, said her team runs all its content past a medical board and cites references in the app itself. Clue also has research collaborations with Stanford University, the University of Oxford, Columbia University, and the University of Washington. “It’s important for us to be scientifically valid,” Tin said.
But she acknowledged that Clue, like all apps, has its limits. “We are very clear about that, this is not a contraceptive. Beyond that, people make choices for themselves.”
This story has been updated to compare the failure rate of Natural Family Planning to that of an IUD, according to the CDC. | <urn:uuid:453a60f9-d751-4292-b536-6450a4e77408> | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/stephaniemlee/fertility-apps | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224648465.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20230602072202-20230602102202-00586.warc.gz | en | 0.963115 | 1,914 | 2.578125 | 3 |
The strata of eastern Kentucky range from Cambrian to Pennsylvanian. Regional dip is southeastward. Reservoir rocks include sandstone, limestone, dolomite, and shale. The chief oil reservoirs are the Weir sandstone and the "Corniferous" dolomite. The main gas reservoirs are the Devonian shale beds followed by the "Big Lime" and the Berea. Minor gas production is obtained from the "Salt" sandstone beds, the Maxon Sandstone, and the "Corniferous." Cambrian- Ordovician gas and oil reservoirs are the Beekmantown and Trenton.
The Pine Mountain overthrust block is the most pronounced surface feature in the area. The Irvine-Paint Creek fault and the Paint Creek uplift have had an important role in gas and oil entrapment, but gas production is controlled primarily by stratigraphic factors.
Future production may be obtained by the deepening of shallow wells to known productive sections. The Berea has good potential for production in Pike County. New completion methods should be applied to the Devonian shales. The Clinton sandstone should be productive on trend with producing areas of southern Ohio. A major target in the Cambrian-Ordovician is the Beekmantown-Knox, and there are secondary possibilties in the Trenton-Black River.
Figures & Tables
Future Petroleum Provinces of the United States—Their Geology and Potential, Volumes 1 & 2
The geology of the entire United States, including the continental shelf and slope, was studied by petroleum geologists to determine its petroleum potential. Prospective areas of the 11 regions were assessed qualitatively and, usually, quantitatively.
The prospective basinal area covers approximately 3.2 million sq mi (statute; 8.3 million sq km) and contains approximately 6 million cu mi (25 million cu km) of sedimentary rock above basement or 30,000 ft (9,144 m). Other less prospective areas are, in the aggregate, large.
The prospective area has not been explored adequately. Many high-potential areas are indicated by the geology and extent of exploration, particularly in parts of Alaska, California, Colorado, Louisiana, Mississippi, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Texas, Utah, and Wyoming, and in parts of the offshore of Alaska, California, Louisiana, and Texas. The prospective Atlantic, Florida, and Alaska continental shelves, and the entire continental slope, barely have been touched by drilling, and other prospective areas and depths on land and the continental shelf remain largely unexplored.
Estimates of potential crude oil reserves of the basinal area only, exclusive of known reserves, range from 227 to 436 billion bbl of original oil in place. The potential probably exceeds the mean of 332 billion bbl. Approximately 32 percent of the oil in place would be recoverable at known rates of recovery. Ultimately, the rate of recovery may reach 60 percent.
Estimates of potential natural gas reserves exclusive of known reserves range from 595 to 1,227 trillion cu ft of recoverable natural gas. The gas potential also probably exceeds the mean of 911 trillion cu ft.
The ultimate petroleum potential of the United States, including known reserves, may exceed 432 billion bbl of crude oil, 1,543 trillion cu ft of natural gas, and 49 billion bbl of natural gas liquids.
Finding and developing the large petroleum potential will require a great amount of drilling because a significant percentage of the visualized undiscovered crude oil and natural gas is in stratigraphic traps, combination stratigraphic and structural traps, reefs, and complex structural situations. Estimates of future domestic demand call for accelerated exploration. To the extent that policies of industry and government militate against accelerated exploration, particularly drilling, a high percentage of the petroleum resources of the United States will not be reduced to possession. | <urn:uuid:c731aff6-4015-4f46-a8af-e9f9abbbce48> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/1479/chapter/107176736/Petroleum-Potential-of-Eastern-Kentucky | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247518497.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20190222155556-20190222181556-00626.warc.gz | en | 0.924648 | 797 | 2.96875 | 3 |
In 2007, "solar market gardens" were installed in 2 villages for women’s agricultural groups as a strategy for enhancing food and nutrition security. Data were collected through interviews at installation and 1 year later from all women’s group households (30–35 women/group) and from a random representative sample of 30 households in each village, for both treatment and matched-pair comparison villages. Comparison of baseline and endline data indicated increases in the variety of fruits and vegetables produced and consumed by SMG women’s groups compared to other groups. The proportion of SMG women’s group households engaged in vegetable and fruit production significantly increased by 26% and 55%, respectively (P < .05). After controlling for baseline values, SMG women’s groups were 3 times more likely to increase their fruit and vegetable consumption compared with comparison non-women’s groups (P < .05). In addition, the percentage change in corn, sorghum, beans, oil, rice and fish purchased was significantly greater in the SMG women’s groups compared to other groups. At endline, 57% of the women used their additional income on food, 54% on health care, and 25% on education. Solar Market Gardens have the potential to improve household nutritional status through direct consumption and increased income to make economic decisions. | <urn:uuid:8ba0a600-8fe8-4fff-8b25-57f02d7c8626> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | https://fsi.stanford.edu/publication/solar-powered-drip-irrigation-impacts-crops-production-diversity-and-dietary-diversity | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986697439.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019164943-20191019192443-00519.warc.gz | en | 0.970756 | 274 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Lift up your heads, O ye gates - The address of those who preceded the ark, the gates being addressed instead of the keepers of the gates. Allusion is here made to the triumphal entry of a victorious general into the imperial city.
In the hymn of Callimachus to Apollo, there are two lines very much like those in the text; they convey the very same sentiments. The poet represents the god coming into his temple, and calls upon the priests to open the doors, etc.
Αυτοι νυν κατοχηες ανακλινεσθε πυλαως,
Αυται δε κληιδες· ὁ γαρ Θεος ουκ ετι μακρανπ ;
"Fall back, ye bolts; ye pond'rous doors, give way
For not far distant is the god of day."
Callim. Hymn in Apol., ver. 6, 7.
The whole of this hymn contains excellent sentiments even on the subject of the Psalms.
Everlasting doors - There seems to be a reference here to something like our portcullis, which hangs by pullies above the gate, and can be let down at any time so as to prevent the gate from being forced. In the case to which the psalmist refers, the portcullis is let down, and the persons preceding the ark order it to be raised. When it is lifted up, and appears above the head or top of the gate, then the folding doors are addressed: "Be ye lift up, ye everlasting doors;" let there be no obstruction; and the mighty Conqueror, the King of glory, whose presence is with the ark, and in which the symbol of his glory appears, shall enter. Make due preparations to admit so august and glorious a Personage.
Lift up your heads, O ye gates - Either the gates of the city, or of the house erected for the worship of God; most probably, as has been remarked, the former. This may be supposed to have been uttered as the procession approached the city where the ark was to abide, as a summons to admit the King of glory to a permanent residence there. It would seem not improbable that the gates of the city were originally made in the form of a portcullis, as the gates of the old castles in the feudal ages were, not to “open,” but to be “lifted up” by weights and pullies. In some of the old ruins of castles in Palestine there are still to be seen deep grooves in the “posts” of the gateway, showing that the door did not open and shut, but that it was drawn up or let down. (The Land and the Book, vol. i. p. 376. One such I saw at Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight; and they were common in the castles erected in the Middle Ages.) There were some advantages in this, as they could be suddenly “let down” on an enemy about to enter, when it would be difficult to close them if they were made to open as doors and gates are commonly made. Thus understood, the “heads” of the gates would be the top, perhaps ornamented in some such way as to suggest the idea of a “head,” and the command was that these should be elevated to admit the ark of God to pass.
And be ye lift up, ye everlasting doors - The doors of a city or sanctuary that was now to be the permanent place of the worship of God. The ark was to be fixed and settled there. It was no longer to be moved from place to place. It had found a final home. The idea in the word “everlasting” is that of permanence. The place where the ark was to abide was to be the enduring place of worship; or was to endure as long as the worship of God in that form should continue. There is no evidence that the author of the psalm supposed that those doors would be literally eternal, but the language is such as we use when we say of anything that it is permanent and abiding.
And the King of glory shall come in - The glorious King. The allusion is to God as a King. On the cover of the ark, or the mercy-seat, the symbol of the divine presence - the Shekinah - rested; and hence, it was natural to say that God would enter through those gates. In other words, the cover of the ark was regarded as his abode - His seat - His throne; and, as thus occupying the mercy-seat, He was about to enter the place of His permanent abode. Compare Exodus 25:17, Exodus 25:20, Exodus 25:22.
This is a time when every man in a responsible position, and every member of the church, should bring every feature of his work into close accord with the teachings of the word of God. By untiring vigilance, by fervent prayer, by Christlike words and deeds, we are to show the world what God desires His church to be. 9T 185.1
From His high position, Christ, the King of glory, the Majesty of heaven, saw the condition of men. He pitied human beings in their weakness and sinfulness, and came to this earth to reveal what God is to men. Leaving the royal courts, and clothing His divinity with humanity, He came to the world Himself, in our behalf to work out a perfect character. He did not choose His dwelling among the rich of the earth. He was born in poverty, of lowly parentage, and lived in the despised village of Nazareth. As soon as He was old enough to handle tools, He shared the burden of caring for the family. 9T 185.2
Christ humbled Himself to stand at the head of humanity, to meet the temptations and endure the trials that humanity must meet and endure. He must know what humanity has to meet from the fallen foe, that He might know how to succor those who are tempted. 9T 185.3Read in context »
The disciples no longer had any distrust of the future. They knew that Jesus was in heaven, and that His sympathies were with them still. They knew that they had a friend at the throne of God, and they were eager to present their requests to the Father in the name of Jesus. In solemn awe they bowed in prayer, repeating the assurance, “Whatsoever ye shall ask the Father in My name, He will give it you. Hitherto have ye asked nothing in My name: ask, and ye shall receive, that your joy may be full.” John 16:23, 24. They extended the hand of faith higher and higher, with the mighty argument, “It is Christ that died, yea rather, that is risen again, who is even at the right hand of God, who also maketh intercession for us.” Romans 8:34. And Pentecost brought them fullness of joy in the presence of the Comforter, even as Christ had promised. DA 833.1
All heaven was waiting to welcome the Saviour to the celestial courts. As He ascended, He led the way, and the multitude of captives set free at His resurrection followed. The heavenly host, with shouts and acclamations of praise and celestial song, attended the joyous train. DA 833.2
As they drew near to the city of God, the challenge is given by the escorting angels,— DA 833.3Read in context »
His anxious followers gladly listened to His teachings, eagerly feasting upon every word which fell from His holy lips. Now they certainly knew that He was the Saviour of the world. His words sank deep into their hearts, and they sorrowed that they must soon be parted from their heavenly Teacher and no longer hear comforting, gracious words from His lips. But again their hearts were warmed with love and exceeding joy, as Jesus told them that He would go and prepare mansions for them and come again and receive them, that they might be ever with Him. He promised also to send the Comforter, the Holy Spirit, to guide them into all truth. “And He lifted up His hands, and blessed them.” EW 190.1
All heaven was waiting the hour of triumph when Jesus should ascend to His Father. Angels came to receive the King of glory and to escort Him triumphantly to heaven. After Jesus had blessed His disciples, He was parted from them and taken up. And as He led the way upward, the multitude of captives who were raised at His resurrection followed. A multitude of the heavenly host were in attendance, while in heaven an innumerable company of angels awaited His coming. As they ascended to the Holy City, the angels who escorted Jesus cried out, “Lift up your heads, O ye gates; and be ye lift up, ye everlasting doors; and the King of glory shall come in.” The angels in the city cried out with rapture, “Who is this King of glory?” The escorting angels answered in triumph, “The Lord strong and mighty, the Lord mighty in battle! Lift up your heads, O ye gates; even lift them up, ye everlasting doors; and the King of glory shall come in!” Again the waiting angels asked, “Who is this King of glory?” and the escorting angels answered in melodious strains, “The Lord of hosts, He is the King of glory.” And the heavenly train passed into the city of God. Then all the heavenly host surrounded their majestic Commander, and with the deepest adoration bowed before Him and cast their glittering crowns at His feet. And then they touched their golden harps, and in sweet, melodious strains filled all heaven with rich music and songs to the Lamb who was slain, yet lives again in majesty and glory. EW 190.2Read in context »
Moses beheld the disciples of Jesus as they went forth to carry His gospel to the world. He saw that though the people of Israel “according to the flesh” had failed of the high destiny to which God had called them, in their unbelief had failed to become the light of the world, though they had despised God's mercy and forfeited their blessings as His chosen people—yet God had not cast off the seed of Abraham; the glorious purposes which He had undertaken to accomplish through Israel were to be fulfilled. All who through Christ should become the children of faith were to be counted as Abraham's seed; they were inheritors of the covenant promises; like Abraham, they were called to guard and to make known to the world the law of God and the gospel of His Son. Moses saw the light of the gospel shining out through the disciples of Jesus to them “which sat in darkness” (Matthew 4:16), and thousands from the lands of the Gentiles flocking to the brightness of its rising. And beholding, he rejoiced in the increase and prosperity of Israel. PP 476.1
And now another scene passed before him. He had been shown the work of Satan in leading the Jews to reject Christ, while they professed to honor His Father's law. He now saw the Christian world under a similar deception in professing to accept Christ while they rejected God's law. He had heard from the priests and elders the frenzied cry, “Away with Him!” “Crucify Him, crucify Him!” and now he heard from professedly Christian teachers the cry, “Away with the law!” He saw the Sabbath trodden under foot, and a spurious institution established in its place. Again Moses was filled with astonishment and horror. How could those who believed in Christ reject the law spoken by His own voice upon the sacred mount? How could any that feared God set aside the law which is the foundation of His government in heaven and earth? With joy Moses saw the law of God still honored and exalted by a faithful few. He saw the last great struggle of earthly powers to destroy those who keep God's law. He looked forward to the time when God shall arise to punish the inhabitants of the earth for their iniquity, and those who have feared His name shall be covered and hid in the day of His anger. He heard God's covenant of peace with those who have kept His law, as He utters His voice from His holy habitation and the heavens and the earth do shake. He saw the second coming of Christ in glory, the righteous dead raised to immortal life, and the living saints translated without seeing death, and together ascending with songs of gladness to the City of God. PP 476.2Read in context »
Again the long train was in motion, and the music of harp and cornet, trumpet and cymbal, floated heavenward, blended with the melody of many voices. “And David danced before the Lord,” in his gladness keeping time to the measure of the song. PP 707.1
David's dancing in reverent joy before God has been cited by pleasure lovers in justification of the fashionable modern dance, but there is no ground for such an argument. In our day dancing is associated with folly and midnight reveling. Health and morals are sacrificed to pleasure. By the frequenters of the ballroom God is not an object of thought and reverence; prayer or the song of praise would be felt to be out of place in their assemblies. This test should be decisive. Amusements that have a tendency to weaken the love for sacred things and lessen our joy in the service of God are not to be sought by Christians. The music and dancing in joyful praise to God at the removal of the ark had not the faintest resemblance to the dissipation of modern dancing. The one tended to the remembrance of God and exalted His holy name. The other is a device of Satan to cause men to forget God and to dishonor Him. PP 707.2
The triumphal procession approached the capital, following the sacred symbol of their invisible King. Then a burst of song demanded of the watchers upon the walls that the gates of the Holy City should be thrown open: PP 707.3Read in context » | <urn:uuid:921220e0-c7f0-490b-a39e-d489a77e130a> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://bibletools.info/Ps_24.7 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662534693.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20220520223029-20220521013029-00221.warc.gz | en | 0.977386 | 3,029 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Textile structural composites are widely used in various industrial sections, such as civil and defense (Dow and Dexter, 1997; Kamiya et al., 2000) as they have some better specific properties compared to the basic materials such as metal and ceramics (Ko & Chou 1989;Chou, 1992). Research conducted on textile structural composites indicated that they can be considered as alternative materials since they are delamination-free and damage tolerant (Cox et al, 1993; Ko & Chou 1989). From a textile processing viewpoint they are readily available, cheap, and not labour intensive (Dow and Dexter, 1997). The textile preform fabrication is done by weaving, braiding, knitting, stitching, and by using nonwoven techniques, and they can be chosen generally based on the end-use requirements. Originally three dimensional (3D) preforms can be classified according to fiber interlacement types. Simple 3D preform consists of two dimensional (2D) fabrics and is stitched depending on stack sequence. More sophisticated 3D preforms are fabricated by specially designed automated loom and manufactured to near-net shape to reduce scrap (Brandt et. al., 2001; Mohamed, 1990). However, it is mentioned that their low in-plane properties are partly due to through-the-thickness fiber reinforcement (Bilisik and Mohamed, 1994; Dow and Dexter, 1997; Kamiya et al., 2000). Multiaxis knitted preform, which has four fiber sets as ±bias, warp(0°) and weft(90°) and stitching fibers enhances in-plane properties (Dexter and Hasko, 1996). It was explained that multiaxis knitted preform suffers from limitation in fiber architecture, through-thickness reinforcement due to the thermoplastic stitching thread and three dimensional shaping during molding (Ko & Chou 1989).
Multiaxis 3D woven preform is developed in the specially developed multiaxis 3D weaving and it’s in-plane properties are improved by orienting the fiber in the preform (Mohamed and Bilisik, 1995; Uchida et al, 2000). The aim of this chapter is to review the 3D fabrics, production methods and techniques. Properties of 3D woven composites are also provided with possible specific end-uses.
3D preforms were classified based on various parameters. These parameters depend on the fiber type and formation, fiber orientation and interlacements and micro and macro unit cells structures. One of the general classification schemes has been proposed by Ko and Chou (1989). Another classification scheme has been proposed depending upon yarn interlacement and type of processing (Khokar, 2002a). In this scheme, 3D woven preform is divided into orthogonal and multiaxis fabrics and their process have been categorized as traditional or new weaving, and specially designed looms. Chen (2007) categorized 3D woven preform based on macro geometry where 3D woven fabrics are considered solid, hollow, shell and nodal forms. Bilisik (1991) proposes more specific classification scheme of 3D woven preform based on type of interlacements, yarn orientation and number of yarn sets as shown in Table 1. In this scheme, 3D woven fabrics are divided in two parts as fully interlaced 3D woven and non-interlaced orthogonal woven. They are further sub divided based on reinforcement directions which are from 2 to 15 at rectangular or hexagonal arrays and macro geometry as cartesian and polar forms. These classification schemes can be useful for development of fabric and weaving process for further researches.
2D woven fabric is the most widely used material in the composite industry at about 70%. 2D woven fabric has two yarn sets as warp(0°) and filling(90°) and interlaced to each other to form the surface. It has basically plain, twill and satin weaves which are produced by traditional weaving as shown in Figure 1. But, 2D woven fabric in rigid form suffers from its poor impact resistance because of crimp, low delamination strength because of the lack of binder fibers (Z-fibers) to the thickness direction and low in-plane shear properties because no off-axis fiber orientation other than material principal direction (Chou, 1992). Although
through-the-thickness reinforcement eliminates the delamination weakness, this reduces the in-plane properties (Dow and Dexter, 1997, Kamiya et al., 2000). On the other hand, uniweave structure was developed. The structure has one yarn set as warp (0°) and multiple warp yarns were locked by the stitching yarns (Cox and Flanagan, 1997).
Fig. 1. 2D various woven fabrics (a) and schematic view of processing (b) (Chou, 1992).
Bi-axial non-crimped fabric was developed to replace the unidirectional cross-ply lamina structure (Bhatnagar and Parrish, 2006). Fabric has basically two sets of fibers as filling and warp and locking fibers. Warp positioned to 0° direction and filling by down on the warp layer to the cross-direction (90°) and two sets of fibers are locked by two sets of stitching yarns’ one is directed to 0° and the other is directed to 90°. Traditional weaving loom was modified to produce such fabrics. Additional warp beam and filling insertions are mounted on the loom. Also, it is demonstrated that 3D shell shapes with high modulus fibers can be knitted by weft knitting machine with a fabric control sinker device as shown in Figure 2.
Fig. 2. Non-interlace woven fabric (a) and warp inserted knitted fabric (b) (Bhatnagar & Parrish, 2006).
Triaxial weave has basically three sets of yarns as ±bias (±warp) and filling (Dow, 1969). They interlaced to each other at about 60° angle to form fabric as shown in Figure 3. The interlacement is the similar with the traditional fabric which means one set of yarns is above and below to another and repeats through the fabric width and length. Generally, the fabric has large open areas between the interlacements. Dense fabrics can also be produced. However, it may not be woven in a very dense structure compared to the traditional fabrics. This process has mainly open reed. Triaxial fabrics have been developed basically in two variants. One is loose-weave and the other is tight weave. The structure was evaluated and concluded that the open-weave triaxial fabric has certain stability and shear stiffness to ±45° direction compared to the biaxial fabrics and has more isotropy (Dow and Tranfield, 1970).
Fig. 3. Triaxial woven fabrics; loose fabric (a), tight fabric (b) and one variant of triaxial woven fabric (c) (Dow, 1969).
The machine consists of multiple ±warp beams, filling insertion, open beat-up, rotating heddle and take up. The ±warp yarn systems are taken from rotating warp beams located above the weaving machine. After leaving the warp beams, the warp ends are separated into two layers and brought vertically into the interlacing zone. The two yarn layers move in opposite directions i.e., the front layer to the right and the rear layer to the left. When the outmost warp end has reached the edge of the fabric, the motion of the warp layers is reversed so that the front layer moves to the left and the rear layer to the right as shown in Figure 4. As a result, the warp makes the bias intersecting in the fabric. Shedding is controlled by special hook heddles which are shifted after each pick so that in principle they are describing a circular motion. The pick is beaten up by two comb-like reeds which are arranged in opposite each other in front of and behind the warp layers, penetrate into the yarn layer after each weft insertion and thus beat the pick against the fell of the cloth.
Fig. 4. The schematic views of weaving method of triaxial woven fabrics; bias orientation (a), shedding (b), beat-up (c) and take-up (d) (Dow, 1969).
A century ago, the multiaxis fabric, which has ±bias, warp(axial) and filling, was developed for garment and upholstery applications (Goldstein, 1939). The yarn used in weaving is slit cane. The machine principal operation is the same with triaxial weaving loom. A loom consists of bias creel which is rotated; ±bias indexing and rotating unit; axial warp feeding; rigid rapier type filling insertion and take up units.
Tetra-axial woven fabric was introduced for structural tension member applications. Fabric has four yarn sets as ±bias, filling and warp (Kazumara, 1988). They are interlaced all together similar with the traditional woven fabric. So, the fabric properties enhance the longitudinal direction. The process has rotatable bias bobbins unit, a pair of pitched bias cylinders, bias shift mechanism, shedding unit, filling insertion and warp (0°) insertion units. After the bias bobbins rotate to incline the yarns, helical slotted bias cylinders rotate to shift the bias one step as similar with the indexing mechanism. Then, bias transfer mechanism changes the position of the end of bias yarns. Shedding bars push the bias yarns to make opening for the filling insertion. Filling is inserted by rapier and take-up advances the fabric to continue the next weaving cycle.
Another tetra-axial fabric has four fiber sets as ±bias, warp and filling. In fabric, warp and filling have no interlacement points with each other. Filling lays down under the warp and ±bias yarns and locks all yarns together to provide fabric integrity (Mamiliano, 1994). In this way, fabric has isotropic properties to principal and bias directions. The process has rotatable bias feeding system, ±bias orientation unit, shedding bars unit, warp feeding, filling insertion and take-up. After bias feeding unit rotates one bobbin distance, ±bias system rotates just one yarn distance. Shedding bars push the ±bias fiber sets to each other to make open space for filling insertion. Filling is inserted by rapier and take-up delivers the fabric. The fabric called quart-axial has four sets of fibers as ±bias, warp and filling yarns as shown in Figure 5. All fiber sets are interlaced to each other to form the fabric structure (Lida et al, 1995). However, warp yarns are introduced to the fabric at selected places depending upon the end-use.
Fig. 5. Quart-axial woven fabric (a) and weaving loom (b) (Lida et al., 1995).
The process includes rotatable ±bias yarn beams or bobbins, close eye hook needle assembly, warp yarn feeding unit, filling insertion unit, open reed for beat-up and take-up. After the ±bias yarns rotation just one bobbin distance, heddles are shifted to one heddle distance. Then warp is fed to the weaving zone and heddles move to each other selectively to form the shed. Filling insertion takes place and open reed beats the filling to the fabric formation line. Take-up removes the fabric from the weaving zone.
3D orthogonal woven preforms have three yarn sets: warp, filling, and z-yarns (Bilisik, 2009a). These sets of yarns are all interlaced to form the structure wherein warp yarns were longitudinal and the others were orthogonal. Filling yarns are inserted between the warp layers and double picks were formed. The z-yarns are used for binding the other yarn sets to provide the structural integrity. The unit cell of the structure is given in Figure 6.
Fig. 6. 3D orthogonal woven unit cell; schematic (a) and 3D woven carbon fabric perform (b) (Bilisik, 2009a).
A state-of-the-art weaving loom was modified to produce 3D orthogonal woven fabric (Deemey, 2002). For instance, one of the looms which has three rigid rapier insertions with dobby type shed control systems was converted to produce 3D woven preform as seen in Figure 7. The new weaving loom was also designed to produce various sectional 3D woven preform fabrics (Mohamed and Zhang, 1992).
Fig. 7. Traditional weaving loom (a) and new weaving loom (b) producing 3D orthogonal woven fabrics (Deemey, 2002; Mohamed and Zhang, 1992).
On the other hand, specially designed weaving looms for 3D woven orthogonal woven preform were developed to make part manufacturing for structural applications as billet and conical frustum. They are shown in Figure 8. First loom was developed based on needle insertion principle (King, 1977), whereas second loom was developed on the rapier-tube insertion principle (Fukuta et al, 1974).
Fig. 8. 3D weaving looms for thick part manufacturing based on needle (a) and rapier (b) principles (King, 1977; Fukuta et al, 1974).
3D angle interlock fabrics were fabricated by 3D weaving loom (Crawford, 1985). They are considered as layer-to-layer and through-the-thickness fabrics as shown in Figure 9. Layerto-layer fabric has four sets of yarns as filling, ±bias and stuffer yarns (warp). ±Bias yarns oriented at thickness direction and interlaced with several filling yarns. Bias yarns made zigzag movement at the thickness direction of the structure and changed course in the structure to the machine direction. Through-the-thickness fabric has again four sets of fibers as ±bias, stuffer yarn (warp) and fillings. ±Bias yarns are oriented at the thickness direction of the
structure. Each bias is oriented until coming to the top or bottom face of the structure. Then, the bias yarn is moved towards top or bottom faces until it comes to the edge. Bias yarns are locked by several filling yarns according to the number of layers.
Fig. 9. 3D angle interlock fabrics (a) and schematic view of 3D weaving loom (b) (Khokar, 2001).
Another type of 3D orthogonal woven fabric, which pultruded rod is layered, was introduced. ±Bias yarns were inserted between the diagonal rows and columns for opening warp layers at a cross-section of the woven preform structure (Evans, 1999).
The process includes ±bias insertion needle assembly, warp layer assembly and hook holder assembly as shown in Figure 10. Warp yarns are arranged in matrix array according to preform cross-section. A pair of multiple latch needle insertion systems inserts ±bias yarns at cross-section of the structure at an angle about 60°. Loop holder fingers secure the bias loop for the next bias insertion and passes to the previous loop.
Fig. 10. 3D orthogonal fabric at an angle in cross-section (a) and production loom (b) (Evans, 1999).
3D circular weaving (or 3D polar weaving) was also developed (Yasui et al., 1992). A preform has mainly three sets of yarn: axial, radial and circumferential for cylindrical shapes and additional of the central yarns for rod formation as shown in Figure 11. The device has a rotating table for holding the axial yarns, a pair of carriers which extend vertically up and down to insert the radial yarn and each carrier includes several radial yarn bobbins and finally a guide frame for regulating the weaving position. A circumferential yarn bobbin is placed on the radial position of the axial yarns. After the circumferential yarn will be wound over the radial yarn which is vertically positioned, the radial yarn is placed radially to the outer ring of the preform. The exchanging of the bobbins results in a large shedding motion which may cause fiber damage.
Fig. 12. 2D shaped woven connectors as H-shape (a), TT-shape (b) and Y-shape (c) (Abildskow, 1996).
A 2D woven plain fabric base laminated connector was developed. It was joined adhesively to the spar and sandwiched panel at the aircraft wing (Jonas, 1987). Integrated 2D shaped woven connector fabric was developed to join the sandwiched structures together for aircraft applications (Abildskow, 1996). The 2D integrated woven connector has warp and filling yarns. Basically, two yarn sets are interlaced at each other. Z-fibers can be used based on connector thickness. The connector can be woven as Π, Y, H shapes according to joining types as shown in Figure 12. Rib or spars as the form of sandwiched structures are joined by
connector with gluing.
Multiaxis 3D woven fabric, method and machine based on lappet weaving principles were introduced by Ruzand and Guenot (1994). Fabric has four yarn sets: ±bias, warp and filling as shown in Figure 13. The bias yarns run across the full width of the fabric in two opposing layers on the top and bottom surfaces of the fabric, or if required on only one surface. They are held in position using selected weft yarns interlaced with warp binding yarns on the two surfaces of the structure. The intermediate layers between the two surfaces are composed of other warp and weft yarns which may be interlaced.
Fig. 13. Multiaxis 3D woven fabric (a), structural parts (b) and loom based on lappet weaving (c) (Ruzand and Guenot, 1994).
The basis of the technique is an extension of lappet weaving in which pairs of lappet bars are used on one or both sides of the fabric. The lappet bars are re-segmented and longer greater than the fabric width by one segment length. Each pair of lappet bars move in opposite directions with no reversal in the motion of a segment until they fully exceeds the opposite fabric selvedge. When the lappet passes across the fabric width, the segment in the lappet bar is detached, its yarns are gripped between the selvedge and the guides and it is cut near the selvedge. The detached segment is then transferred to the opposite side of the fabric where it is reattached to the lappet bar and its yarn subsequently connected to the fabric selvedge. Since a rapier is used for weft insertion, the bias yarns can be consolidated into the selvedge by an appropriate selvedge-forming device employed for weaving. The bias warp supply for each lappet bar segment is independent and does not interfere with the yarns from other segments.
A four layers multiaxis 3D woven fabric was developed (Mood, 1996). That fabric has four yarn sets: ±bias, warp and filling. The ±bias sets are placed between the warp (0°) and filling (90°) yarn sets so that they are locked by the warp and filling, where warp and filling yarns are orthogonally positioned as shown in Figure 14. The bias yarns are positioned by the use of special split-reeds together and a jacquard shedding mechanism with special heddles. A creel supplies bias warp yarns in a sheet to the special heddles connected to the jacquard head. The bias yarns then pass through the split-reed system which includes an open upper reed and an open lower reed together with guides positioned in the reed dents. The lower reed is fixed while the upper reed can be moved in the weft direction.
Fig. 14. Four layers multiaxis woven fabric (a) and Jacquard weaving loom (b) (Mood, 1996).
The jacquard head is used for the positioning of selected bias yarns in the dents of the upper reed so that they can be shifted transverse to the normal warp direction. The correct positioning of the bias yarns requires a series of such lifts and transverse displacements and no entanglement of the warp. A shed is formed by the warp binding yarn via a needle bar system and the weft is inserted at the weft insertion station with beat-up performed by another open reed.
Another multiaxis four layer fabric was developed based on multilayer narrow weaving principle (Bryn et al., 2004). The fabric, which has ±bias, warp and filling yarn sets, is shown in Figure 15. The fabric was produced in various cross-sections like ┴, ╥, □. Two sets of bias yarns were used during weaving and when +bias yarns were reached the selvedge of the fabric then transverse to the opposite side of the fabric and become –bias. All yarns were interlaced based on traditional plain weave.
A narrow weaving loom was modified to produce the four layers multiaxis fabric. The basic modified part is bias insertion assembly. Bias yarn set was inserted by individual hook. The basic limitation is the continuous manufacturing of the fabric. It is restricted by the bias yarn length. Such structure may be utilized as connector to the structural elements of aircraft components.
Fig. 15. Four layers multiaxis woven fabric (a) and narrow weaving loom (b) (Bryn et al., 2004).
A multiaxis weaving loom was developed to produce four layers fabric which has ±bias, warp and filling yarns as shown in Figure 16. The process has warp creel, shuttle for filling insertion, braider carrier for +bias or –bias yarns, open reed and take-up. Bias carriers were moved on predetermined path based on cross-sectional shape of the fabric. Filling is inserted by shuttle to interlace with warp as it is same in the traditional weaving. Open reed beats the inserted filling to the fabric fell line to provide structural integrity (Nayfeh et al., 2006).
Fig. 16. Schematic view of multiaxis weaving loom (Nayfeh et al., 2006).
A multiaxis structure and process have been developed to produce the fabrics. The pultruded rods are arranged in hexagonal array as warp yarns as shown in Figure 17. Three sets of rods are inserted to the cross-section of such array at an angle about 60°. The properties of the structure may distribute isotropically depending upon end-use (Kimbara et al., 1991).
Fig. 17. Multiaxis pultruded rod fabric (a) and devise to produce the fabric (b) (Kimbara et al., 1991).
A fabric has been developed where ±bias yarns are inserted to the traditional 3D lattice fabric’s cross-section at an angle of ±45° (Khokar, 2002b). The fabric has warp, filling, Z-yarn which are orthogonal arrangements and plain type interlaced fiber sets were used as (Zyarn)- interlace and filling-interlace as shown in Figure 18. The ±bias yarns are inserted to such structure cross-section at ±45°. The fabric has complex internal geometry and production of such structure may not be feasible.
Fig. 18. The fabric (a) and specially designed loom to fabricate the multiaxis 3D fabric (b) (Khokar, 2002b).
Anahara and Yasui (1992) developed a multiaxis 3D woven fabric. In this fabric, the normal warp, bias and weft yarns are held in place by vertical binder yarns. The weft is inserted as double picks using a rapier needle which also performs beat-up. The weft insertion requires the normal warp and bias layers to form a shed via shafts which do not use heddles but rather have horizontal guide rods to maintain the vertical separation of these layers. The binders are introduced simultaneously across the fabric width by a vertical guide bar assembly comprising a number of pipes with each pipe controlling one binder as shown in
The bias yarns are continuous throughout the fabric length and traverse the fabric width from one selvedge to the other in a cross-laid structure. Lateral positioning and cross-laying of the bias yarns are achieved through use of an indexing screw-shaft system. As the bias yarns are folded downwards at the end of their traverse, there is no need to rotate the bias yarn supply. So, the bias yarns can supply on warp beams or from a warp creel, but they must be appropriately tensioned due to path length differences at any instant of weaving. The bias yarn placement mechanism has been modified instead of using an indexing screw shaft system, actuated guide blocks are used to place the bias yarns as shown in Figure 20.
Fig. 19. The multiaxis 3D woven fabric (a), indexing mechanism for ±bias (b) and loom (c) (Anahara and Yasui, 1992).
Fig. 20. Guide block mechanism for ±bias yarns (Anahara and Yasui, 1992).
A folded structure of the bias yarns results in each layer having triangular sections which alternate in the direction of the bias angle about the warp direction due to the bias yarn interchanges between adjacent layers. The bias yarns are threaded through individual guide blocks which are controlled by a special shaft to circulate in one direction around a rectangular path. Obviously, this requires rotation of the bias yarn supply.
Uchida et al. (1999) developed the fabric called five-axis 3D woven which has five yarn sets: ±bias, filling and warp and Z-fiber. The fabric has four layers and sequences: +bias, –bias, warp and filling from top to bottom. All layers are locked by the Z-fibers as shown in Figure21
Fig. 21. Five-axis fabric (a) and newly developed weaving loom (b) (Uchida et al., 1999).
The process has bias rotating unit, filling insertion, Z-yarn insertion, warp, ±bias and Z-fiber feeding units, and take-up. A horizontally positioned bias chain rotates one bias yarn distance to orient the yarns, and filling is inserted to the fixed shed. Then Z-yarn rapier inserts the Z-yarn to bind all yarns together and all Z-yarn units are moved to the fabric fell line to carry out the beat-up function. The take-up removes the fabric from the weaving zone.
Mohamed and Bilisik (1995) developed multiaxis 3D woven fabric, method and machine in which the fabric has five yarn sets: ±bias, warp, filling and Z-fiber. Many warp layers re positioned at the middle of the structure. The ±bias yarns are positioned on the back and front faces of the preform and locked the other set of yarns by the Z-yarns as shown in Figure 22. This structure can enhance the in-plane properties of the resulting composites.
Fig. 22. The unit cell of multiaxis fabric (a), top surface of multiaxis small tow size carbon fabric (b) and cross-section of the multiaxis carbon fabric (c) (Mohamed and Bilisik, 1995; Bilisik, 2010a).
The warp yarns are arranged in a matrix of rows and columns within the required crosssectional shape. After the front and back pairs of the bias layers are oriented relative to each other by the pair of tube rapiers, the filling yarns are inserted by needles between the rows of warp (axial) yarns and the loops of the filling yarns are secured by the selvage yarn at the opposite side of the preform by selvage needles and cooperating latch needles. Then, they return to their initial position as shown in Figure 23. The Z-yarn needles are inserted to both front and back surface of the preform and pass across each other between the columns of the warp yarns to lay the Z-yarns in place across the previously inserted filling yarns. The filling is again inserted by filling insertion needles and secured by the selvage needle at the opposite side of the preform. Then, the filling insertion needles return to their starting position. After this, the Z-yarns are returned to their starting position by the Z-yarn insertion needles by passing between the columns of the warp yarns once again and locking the bias yarn and filling yarns into place in the woven preform. The inserted filling, ±bias and Z-yarns are beaten into place against the woven line as shown in Figure 24, and a takeup system moves the woven preform.
Fig. 23. Schematic view of multiaxis weaving machine (a) and top side view of multiaxis weaving machine (b) (Mohamed and Bilisik, 1995; Bilisik, 2010b).
Fig. 24. Top surface of multiaxis large tow size carbon fabric (a) and weaving zone of the multiaxis weaving machine (b) (Bilisik, 2009a).
Bilisik (2000) developed multiaxis 3D circular woven fabric, method and machine. The preform is basically composed of the multiple axial and radial yarns, multiple circumferential and the ±bias layers as shown in Figure 25. The axial yarns (warp) are arranged in a radial rows and circumferential layers within the required cross-sectional shape. The ±bias yarns are placed at the outside and inside ring of the cylinder surface.
The filling (circumferential) yarns lay the between each warp yarn helical corridors. The radial yarns (Z-fiber) locks the all yarn sets to form the cylindrical 3D preform. A cylindrical preform can be made thin and thick wall section depending upon end-use requirements.
A process has been designed based on the 3D braiding principle. It has machine bed, ±bias and filling ring carrier, radial braider, warp creel and take-up. After the bias yarns are oriented at ±45° to each other by the circular shedding means on the surface of the preform, the carriers rotate around the adjacent axial layers to wind the circumferential yarns. The radial yarns are inserted to each other by the special carrier units and locked the circumferential yarn layers with the ±bias and axial layers all together. A take-up system removes the structure from the weaving zone. This describes one cycle of the operation to weave the multiaxial 3D circular woven preform. It is expected that the torsional properties of the preform could be improved because of the bias yarn layers.
Fig. 25. The unit cell of multiaxis 3D circular woven fabric (a), Multiaxis 3D aramid circular woven fabric (b) and the weaving loom (c) (Bilisik, 2000; Bilisik, 2010c).
- Multiaxis 3D knitted fabric
Wilkens (1985) introduced a multiaxis warp knit fabric for Karl Mayer Textilmaschinenfabric GmbH. The multiaxis warp knit machine which produces multiaxis warp knit fabric has been developed by Naumann and Wilkens (1987). The fabric has warp (0° yarn), filling (90° yarn), ±bias yarns and stitching yarns as shown in Figure 26. The machine includes ±bias beam, ±bias shifting unit, warp beam feeding unit, filling laying-in
unit and stitching unit. After the bias yarn rotates one bias yarn distance to orient the fibers, the filling lays-in the predetermined movable magazine to feed the filling in the knitting zone. Then the warp ends are fed to the knitting zone and the stitching needle locks the all yarn sets to form the fabric. To eliminate the bias yarn inclination in the feeding system, machine bed rotates around the fabric. The stitching pattern, means tricot or chain, can be arranged for the end-use requirements.
Hutson (1985) developed a fabric which is similar to the multiaxis knitted fabric. The fabric has three sets of yarns: ±bias and filling (90° yarn) and the stitching yarns lock all the yarn sets to provide structural integrity. The process basically includes machine track, lay down fiber carrier, stitching unit, fiber feeding and take-up. The +bias, filling and –bias are laid according to yarn layer sequence in the fabric. The pinned track delivers the layers to the stitching zone. A compound needle locks the all yarn layers to form the fabric.
Fig. 26. Top and side views of multiaxis warp knit fabric (a) (Wilkens, 1985), bias indexing mechanism (b), warp knitting machine (c) (Naumann and Wilkens, 1987).
Wunner (1989) developed the machine produces the fabric called multiaxis warp knit for Liba GmbH. It has four yarn sets: ±bias, warp and filling (90° yarn) and stitching yarn. All layers are locked by the stitching yarn in which tricot pattern is used as shown in Figure 27. The process includes pinned conveyor bed, fiber carrier for each yarn sets, stitching unit, yarn creels and take-up.
Fig. 27. Warp knit structure (a), stitching unit (b) and warp knit machine (c) (Wunner, 1989).
A multiaxis warp knit/braided/stitching type structure for aircraft wing-box has been developed by NASA/BOEING. The multiaxis warp knit fabric is sequence and cuts from 2 to 20 layers to produce a complex aircraft wing skin structure. Then, a triaxial braided tube is collapsed to produce a stiffener spar. All of them are stitched by the multi-head stitching machine which was developed by Advanced Composite Technology Programs. The stitching density is 3 columns/cm. The complex contour shape can be stitched according to requirements as shown in Figure 28. When the carbon dry preform is ready, resin film
infusion technique is used to produce the rigid composites. In this way, 25 % weight reduction and 20 % cost savings can be achieved for aircraft structural parts. In addition, the structures have high damage tolerance properties (Dow and Dexter, 1997).
Fig. 28. Warp knit structure (a), multilayer stitched warp knit structure (b), layeringstitching- shaping (c) and application in airplane wing structure (d) (Dow and Dexter, 1997). | <urn:uuid:0240891c-ff84-4525-8213-dc302a0cfe9a> | CC-MAIN-2017-51 | https://textlnfo.wordpress.com/tag/fabric/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948563083.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20171215021156-20171215041156-00364.warc.gz | en | 0.92425 | 7,411 | 2.875 | 3 |
Control Algae in a Fish Pond - FAQNow, this is a challenge! How can you control the algae that grows naturally in your pond? First of all, you need to know what it is, how it gets there and why it grows.
What is algae?
“Algae are photosynthetic organisms that occur in most habitats. They vary from small, single-celled forms to complex multicellular forms, such as the giant kelps that grow to 65 meters in length.. The US Algal Collection is represented by almost 300,000 accessioned and inventoried herbarium specimens.” Quote taken from the National Museum of Natural History website: nmnh.si.edu
What are the common types of algae that occur in your pond?
Most ponds have several species of algae. They include green algae, (which is such a large group I will not bore you with the details, just point you to berkeley.edu where you can spend the next 10 hours reading!), brown algae, and blue/green algae.
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How does it get there?
Most algae starts life as single-cell organisms, so they come in the water itself or are carried by the fish, birds, insects or mammals that frequent the water.
Why does it grow?
Algae, like all plants, uses the nutrients in the water and sunlight to produce photosynthesis and grow. It thrives in water that has high concentrations of nitrates and silicates and waste matter along with strong sunlight or long periods of daylight.
We now know what it is, how it got there and why it grows, so what can we do to reduce it? The key here is water quality. I haven't spoken to the almighty about regulating daylight hours, but you're welcome to try! However, some things are beyond our control, daylight and sunlight being two of them, but we can reduce the effect by careful location of the pond initially. Placing it in a shaded area will cut down the amount of sunlight it receives, but shade may come from trees and shrubs that can deposit leaves in the pond, increasing the amount of waste matter, so regular cleaning is important.
Water quality is the one thing we can control to a great extent. The addition of a good quality filter for your pond will go a long way to improving the quality of the water, in the same way as it does for the aquarium indoors. Pond filters are not expensive any more, and can be purchased for a few dollars. The installation may be more expensive than the filter itself, as it requires power from the mains supply and depending on the location of the filter from the pond, it may require a good length of piping. When you buy the filter, you will also need to purchase a pump capable of handling the volume of water recommended for the filter. This needs to be capable of handling solids too, since the bottom of ponds tend to silt up over time and dead leaves can easily choke the intake. It is better to have them drawn into the pump, where they will be shredded before being pushed into the filter. Modern pond filters are designed to be unobtrusive and most are buried to ground level, so all you see is the lid, which makes them much more acceptable than they used to be. Once it's fitted, you will need to maintain it regularly, as per the manufacturers instructions.
You also need to change the water like you would with an aquarium. The same rules apply to most ponds as they do to fish tanks in your home. A pond is a closed environment, just like a tank, only bigger and outdoors. This just makes it more difficult to regulate and more likely to be forgotten! Unless you have the luxury of a stream running through your garden, the pond is reliant on you to maintain it. Water changes need to be large, around 30 - 50% and regular to keep nitrates down, cleaning needs to be done at least twice a year on larger ponds and more often on smaller ones. Don't think that during the winter the pond will hibernate. It won't, even if the surface ices over, there is still life below the surface, albeit slower than during the summer. If you have a pond filter, care needs to be taken during cold periods to ensure that it doesn't freeze. the best way to stop water from freezing is to keep it moving, so don't be tempted to turn the pump off when the winter comes.
By taking the actions detailed here, you should be able to at least reduce the growth of algae. You will still need to remove it periodically by hand, but there shouldn't be as much to remove. There is one other addition you can make that will help. By the addition of a UVC inline with the filter, the algae spores will be killed off. It won't do anything for the existing algae, but will inhibit the new growth substantially. Be sure that you buy one large enough for at least the capacity of the pond, preferably buy one twice the size of the recommended strength. This will, within a couple of weeks, eliminate the green water problem that most ponds suffer from, and with continuous use, will stop it from re-appearing. It also helps to combat diseases that are water-bound, as it sterilizes the water that passes through the chamber, including disease spores.
There are no guarantees with nature, and this may not help in your pond, but unless you try, you'll never know. The one thing that is for sure, is that the inhabitants of the pond will benefit from better water quality, so be prepared for a population explosion! | <urn:uuid:00a57d15-4fde-4fba-b60d-156575fcf7b9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.aqua-fish.net/articles/how-control-algae-fish-ponds-faq-forum | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00374.warc.gz | en | 0.966697 | 1,199 | 3.40625 | 3 |
Expansive soils act like a sponge. As they absorb water, they swell and as they lose water they shrink. Soils tend to dry out (and shrink) during the summer and to absorb water (and swell) during the winter and spring.
As the soil under a house shrinks and swells with the seasons, the house and foundation will move up and down. As long as the foundation movement is not great enough to damage the house and/or foundation, it is not a problem. If the up and down movement of a foundation always returns the foundation to its original level position, then damage to the house and foundation may appear and disappear on a regular basis as the seasons change.
If a homeowner wishes to stop seasonal house and foundation damage, the first course of action should be to follow a controlled watering program. By keeping the moisture content of the soil under the foundation constant, foundation movement can often be stopped. Advanced Foundation Repair has written this to assist the homeowner in performing a simple foundation preventive maintenance program. The goal of a foundation watering program is to maintain a constant level of moisture in the soil under the house and foundation.
The best way to water a foundation is to install a buried foundation watering system. If you do not want to go to the expense of installing a buried watering system, soaker hoses will provide you with many of the same benefits. The best way to use a soaker hose is to bury a soaker hose three inches deep, 6 inches from the edge of your foundation. Placing the hose a short distance from the foundation allows the water to soak into the soil evenly.
The hose should not be placed against the foundation. When soil has dried and cracked, water can travel along the cracks for several feet in all directions. If the soil around your foundation is dried and cracked, then water placed next to the foundation will run through the cracks and accumulate at the bottom of the grade beam (the thick portion of the foundation that is under the exterior walls). In some cases, an accumulation of water in the soil at the base of a foundation can cause the soil to loose some of its load bearing capacity. If the soil loses enough load bearing capacity, the house will sink into the ground.
Obviously, it is necessary to water more during hot, dry weather and less during cold, damp weather. The amount of water required to keep a foundation stable during the summer can be surprisingly large. A single large tree can remove as much as 150 gallons of water, or almost 20 cubic feet of water, from the soil each day. Shrubs and other plants can also remove large quantities of water. During persistent hot dry weather, it may be necessary to water a foundation daily.
Watering should supply enough water to keep the moisture content in the soil under the foundation constant. If the amount of water applied is only enough to keep the surface damp, the watering program will not work. Obviously, the homeowner is the only one who can weight the benefits of controlling foundation movement versus the increased size of the water bill. | <urn:uuid:ad7c5150-f191-457a-ad68-5335c61d9fe6> | CC-MAIN-2015-40 | http://foundationrepairs.com/maintenance/foundation-watering/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-40/segments/1443737962531.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20151001221922-00160-ip-10-137-6-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.9498 | 618 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Social Determinant of Health
Social Determinant of Health
The quality of health is determined by an individual’s environment and access to various opportunities. Typically, people upholds their health by eating healthy and being physically active. Furthermore, access to quality healthcare plays an instrumental role in upholding the quality of life of an individual. In essence, various factors bar people from accessing quality healthcare. The factors are denoted as social determinants. Most social determinant of health factors are linked to an individual’s academic back ground, home environment, neighborhood, workplace safety, and the cleanliness of the food, water and air (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018). The social determinants differentiate the disparity in health among people in the community. It is prudent for health personnel to identify the social determinants of their patients to establish any barriers to effective care for the patients. Furthermore, doing so will aid the health personnel to know the ideal intervention and treatment to accord a patient.
Nurses can use various strategies to determine their patients’ social determinants. One of the best data collection methods is an open-ended questionnaire. According to O’Cathain and Thomas (2004), use of open ended questions in questionnaires plays a significant role in seeking clarifications and disclose hidden information the researcher did not know about a patient. Notably, it aids the health personnel make informed decision the best treatment to accord the patient. I formulated five questions to assess the patient’s social determinants of health. The questions are
1. What is your highest level of education and job specialization?
I have a Bachelor Degree and working as University Staff.
2. Do you have insurance or access to quality healthcare?
I have medical insurance provided by my employer. I risk losing it now that am nearing retirement.
3. What kind of society or neighborhood do you live in?
My neighborhood comprises of many single-family houses and has sidewalks. Most social amenities are close to the place I live especially the grocery store and gas stations. Moreover, I drive myself most of the time thus accessing the social amenities is not a challenge.
4. What is your home environment like (is it supportive or stressful, do you have children, a wife or a person you live with)?
I am married and got one child. My home environment is supportive.
5. What are your interest and hobbies?
I like cooking and artistic works. Most of the times am indoors either drawing or surfing the internet for the latest development in technology. I like doing research. I also like going out with friends to have drinks at our favorite joint.
Another ideal assessment strategy to apply on the patient is the patient teach back method. The technique entails confirming the patient has understood health education passed to them by a health professional by asking the patient strategic questions (Agency for Health Care Research and Quality, 2015). In essence, the techniques helps a health professional to identify the points the patient did not understand for further clarification. After filling the questionnaire, I asked the patient oral questions associated with the questions he had filled to confirm whether the information he had provided was correct. He responded effectively thus assuring me that the information he had filled was correct. The patient confirmed that his lifestyle had contributed to his health condition since his neighbor did not promote physical activities considering social amenities were near. Moreover, his interests were indoor activities. I also had a one on one interview with the patient where he opened up about his health condition and its association with his lifestyle.
Impact of Patient’s Social Economic Ability on Health
Assessment of the patient’s social economic ability shows that the individual has the potential to afford quality healthcare but lacks awareness of upholding quality healthcare. The patient has medical insurance thus can access quality healthcare. Moreover, the patient works in a renowned institution; consequently, he can afford quality healthcare in an instance where the health insurance cover is limited. The patient has been in employment for a long time and is due to retire in a few years. The socioeconomic ability of the patient will dwindle upon retiring and is likely to lead to a crisis in the family. He is likely to lose his medical insurance cover upon retiring, and with his reduced income, he might find it challenging to afford quality healthcare. In light of the above, the patient’s future economic stability has a significant impact on his health considering he is suffering from a cardiovascular complication.
Education is an important social determinant of health. According to Shankar, Khalema, Couture, Tan, Zulla and Lam (2013), higher education plays a significant role in shaping an individual employment opportunity. Higher education achievement opens an individual to lucrative employment opportunities and improves an individual decision making ability on health issues. The patients is a bachelor’s degree holder, which has earned him a well-paying job at the university. Zulla and Lam assert that education enables an individual to secure a job that allows him to provide for his family (2013). The patient is well paid as he can afford a luxurious lifestyle. He lives in an upscale neighborhood. The man is enlightened considering he knows the latest development in the technology. Access to the internet allows the individual to conduct vast research on topics of interest. The patient shows he has vast ability to make informed decisions about his health. Unfortunately, the patient lacks awareness of the impact of his lifestyle on his health.
Literacy is the capability of an individual to read and write. The patient is highly literate considering his academic qualifications. Health literacy, on the other hand, is the ability of an individual to access and process health information and health services thus enabling him or her to make an informed decision (Office of Disease Prevention and Health). Factors such as an individual’s culture lay and professional knowledge of health topics determine the health literacy of a patient. The patient has a Bachelor’s degree thus can make informed health decisions. Moreover, the patient has an excellent opportunity to obtain health information since he has access to the internet. For this, the patient is likely to make an informed decision and take charge of his health. However, in this instance, the patient is ignorant of the effects of his lifestyle on his health; he chooses to live an unhealthy lifestyle at the expense of his health. For this, it is ideal to conclude that he has contributed partially to his health predicament.
The patient’s education level creates numerous health opportunities and limited barriers for the patients. The patient can surf the internet for the latest health information about his condition and the strategies he can apply to improve the quality of his health (Office of Disease Prevention and Health). His education has secured him medical insurance through his job. His education has given considerable purchasing power that he can afford a luxurious life. Poor social interaction is a major hindrance to upholding quality health for the patient since he is alcoholic thus is likely to interact with alcoholics. Associating with people who practice a certain habit encourages an individual to uphold the behavior (Shankar et al., 2013).
Health and HealthCare Status
The patient is living an unhealthy lifestyle that is likely to aggravate his health condition. According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, heavy drinking is likely to lead to blood clots, which makes an individual prone to heart attacks or strokes. In essence, alcoholism makes the patient vulnerable to getting anemia since heavy drinking destroys red blood cells, which carry oxygen throughout the body (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism). The patient’s inactivity might make him gain weight uncontrollably making him obese. In return, the patient is likely to get high blood pressure and diabetes because of increased sugar levels in his body. In light of the above, the patient’s lifestyle reduces his quality of life gradually. Unless the patient takes the necessary precautionary measures, he is likely to suffer significantly in his old age.
The patient is living in a high-income area. The patient has an effective means of transport to access healthcare facility for he own a car. Moreover, people living in high-income areas have a high purchasing power attracting all sort of businesspersons. For this, licensed healthcare personnel are likely to establish healthcare clinics in the regions ensuring access to quality care for the individuals. He has access to healthy foods considering there is a grocery in the neighborhood where he can source fresh fruits and vegetables. Notably, patients living in up-scale areas are likely to suffer from various lifestyle conditions such as obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular complications because of their unhealthy lifestyles and poor eating habits.
Persons living in upscale areas have the ability to afford quality healthcare considering most of them have effective means of transport to access healthcare facilities. Moreover, most of them have financial power to afford quality healthcare since most of them can afford to pay for medical insurance. The situation is different in low-income areas where healthcare clinics are limited and crowded. It makes access to quality healthcare challenging because the individuals have limited purchasing power. Furthermore, the quality of healthcare in the regions is limited considering most patients cannot afford specialized care. Patients living in low scale areas have limited chances of suffering from lifestyle conditions such as obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular complications since they have limited purchasing power to afford foods and drinks that can contribute to lifestyle diseases (Bissonnete et al., 2012). Moreover, they engage in various physical activities in their jobs.
Notably, patients living in rural areas face challenges accessing healthcare facilities considering the region’s infrastructure is poor especially transport system (Sherwood & Barnsteiner, 2017). The healthcare facilities in rural areas are underequipped because of limited infrastructure such as electricity and most lack qualified personnel (Bissonnette et al., 2012). Furthermore some hospitals lack essential vaccines to be offered to patients since they lack the necessary equipment to preserve them. The quality of healthcare in the urban centers on the other hand is advanced considering most healthcare facilities are well equipped and have qualified personnel to accord patients quality healthcare (Office of Disease Prevention and Health). Moreover, the hospitals have sufficient medicine stock since they have the facilities to preserve most medicine especially vaccines. The hospitals are linked to crucial infrastructure such as electricity and water. Patients in urban centers can access healthcare facilities easily compared to those living in rural areas. the only similarity between rural and urban healthcare facilities is that they both have the capability to offer basic healthcare services. the quality of health in urban centers is advanced compared to rural areas.
Addressing social determinants
Social determinants determine the quality of health of a patient. The major social determinants that need addressing are health literacy, access to health, and access to technology. The three social determinants are reducing the quality of life of the patient and aggravating the health condition of the patient.
Health Care Plan
The medical records of the patient show that the patient might be suffering from a cardiovascular complication thus I will refer him to a cardiologist for a thorough diagnosis. I will then advise him on the health complications of alcoholism on the patients since his alcoholism puts him at a significant risk of suffering major cardiovascular complications that can lead to death if not attended to efficiently (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism). I will advise to seek help in a rehabilitation center in case he finds quitting the habit challenging. I will request a physiotherapist to help me develop simple works for the elderly patient to exercise regularly to reduce his inactivity. According to Booth, Roberts and Laye (2014), I will encourage him to be taking long walks and limit driving often to increase his physical activity. The barrier am likely to experience is lack of co-operation from the patient considering is old age. I will monitor the patient’s progress by making him visit the healthcare facility one bi-weekly.
Conclusively, the patient lifestyle and limited health literacy have contributed to his healthcare condition. However, with the right intervention, the patient is guaranteed of maximum recovery. The patient is fortunate he has limited social determinants that are easily addressable.
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. (2015). Health Literacy Universal Precautions Toolkit, 2nd Edition. Retrieved from https://www.ahrq.gov/professionals/quality-patient-safety/quality-resources/tools/literacy-toolkit/healthlittoolkit2-tool5.html
Bissonnette, L., Wilson, K., Bell, S. & Shah, T. (2012). Neighbourhoods and potential access to health care: The role of spatial and aspatial factors. Health & Place. 18(4). 841-853
Booth, F. W., Roberts, C. & Laye, M. (2014). Lack of exercise is a major cause of chronic diseases. Comr Physiol. 2(2). Pp.1143-1211
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Featured Resources Addressing Social Determinants of Health. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/socialdeterminants/
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (n.d). Alcohol's Effects on the Body. Retrieved from https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/alcohols-effects-body
O’Cathain. A & Thomas, K. (2004). "Any other comments?" Open questions on questionnaires – a bane or a bonus to research?. BMC Med Res Methodol. 4(25)
Office of Disease Prevention and Health. (n.d). Social Determinants of Health. Retrieved from https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topics-objectives/topic/social-determinants-of-health
Shankar, J., Ip, E, Khalema, E, Couture, J., Tan, S, Zulla, R., & Lam, G. (2013). Education as a Social Determinant of Health: Issues Facing Indigenous and Visible Minority Students in Postsecondary Education in Western Canada. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 10(9). 3908-3929.
Sherwood, G. & Barnsteiner, J. (2017). Quality and safety in nursing : a competency approach to improving outcomes. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley Blackwell. | <urn:uuid:8779b056-d01f-40e9-a6eb-9063642a5998> | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | https://www.assignmenthelp.net/social-determinant-of-health | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764499468.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20230127231443-20230128021443-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.953685 | 2,919 | 3.234375 | 3 |
A Communications network, in other words a telecommunications network, is a network of telecommunications links arranged so that messages may be passed from one part of the network to another over multiple links.
Telecommunications network links may in turn be built out of hierarchical transmission systems.
Examples of telecommunications networks are:
- Computer network
- the Internet
- the Public switched telephone network
- the global Telex network
- the aeronautical ACARS network
|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).| | <urn:uuid:0de6fdc2-262f-44ed-9a5e-23c84c9b5e07> | CC-MAIN-2017-22 | http://engineering.wikia.com/wiki/Communication_network | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-22/segments/1495463608870.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20170527055922-20170527075922-00157.warc.gz | en | 0.785071 | 106 | 3.25 | 3 |
S27 Ep1: Women in the Environmental Movement
Video duration: 2:13
In this web exclusive video, learn why the Indian women of the Chipko Movement became known as tree huggers and what their defensive tactics were. The Kenyan environmental and political activist Wangari Maathai (1940 - 2011) founded the Green Belt Movement in 1977 and was the first African women to receive a Nobel Peace Prize. Watch "A Fierce Green Fire" on April 22, 2014, at 9 pm on PBS. | <urn:uuid:d87b515c-0598-4099-8a9a-832e056203f6> | CC-MAIN-2017-17 | http://www.pbs.org/video/2365223252/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917120461.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031200-00443-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958806 | 104 | 2.859375 | 3 |
On February 8, 2016 the Ministry of Environment and Drainage, under the direction of the Minister, Dr. Hon. Dennis Lowe coordinate a tour of coastal sites which were especially vulnerable to the effects of climate change. The tours were conducted as part of efforts to fully assess the condition of these coastal sites, document the challenges faced by agencies in charge of their conservation and restoration and to detail plans going forward for their continued conservation, management and restoration.
The touring party consisted of the following agencies and persons: The Coastal Zone Management Unit, the PM Project Coordination Unit, the Drainage Division, the National Conservation Commission, the National Botanical Gardens, Mr. Rickardo Ward, Ms. Kim Downes Agard, Ms. Nicole Scholar Tasker, Mr. Rohan Payne, Members of the Government Information Service and the Press (Nation, Advocate, Barbados Today) and the Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation.
Hurricanes and tropical storms usually cause beach erosion and cliff instability. The low-lying areas of the country, including the densely populated coastal zones, are also prone to frequent flooding. Tourism and its associated infrastructure, which are concentrated in the coastal zone, are therefore associated with a high level of coastal risk.
The coastal areas of Barbados comprise the country’s main economic asset. Sandy beaches, thriving coral reefs and a warm tropical climate, combine to create a tourism industry that accounts for a significant percentage of GDP and total export earnings. Without adaptation, climate change impacts are likely to severely threaten the physical and economic viability of Barbados’ coastal shoreline.
Crane beach is located on the Southeast coast of Barbados. It is one of the most popular beaches along that coast and is used extensively by both locals and tourists. Public access to the beach is via a narrow, steeply sloped, roadway down to a rockfill headland, which is between the North and South beaches.
The Director of the Coastal Zone Management Unit indicated that the way forward for this beach will comprise of the following works:
- Removal of existing rockfill headland (salvage materials for reuse as appropriate)
- Construction of a new revetment and public promenade in front of the cliff and existing revetment
- Construction of a submerged reef just offshore of the revetment and fill the area between that and the reef with sand
- Development of a new public parking area along the access road
- Development of improved public access from the new parking area down to the promenade
Foul Bay is also located on the Southeast coast of Barbados. It is bordered by two headlands. The tour highlighted that this area experienced a cliff failure in 2004. The cliff failure at Foul Bay illustrated the impacts of climate change on coastal cliffs. The Director of the CZMU noted that in order to mitigate against this type of failure the type and size of development which occurred on these cliffs, would need to be controlled.
It was noted that as part of the ongoing Coastal Risk assessment and Management Programme (CRMP) a study was being undertaken to assess the stability of the cliffed shoreline in Barbados. This information would be used to classify the stability of cliffs based on their geology, geomorphology and modes of failure.
This classification would in turn inform the minimum building setback on the specific cliff identified for development thereby ensuring the cliff is not compromised by bearing stresses imposed by unsuitable development.
Silver Sands Beach
This Beach is located on the south coast of the island. The touring party observed an area of frequent flooding which occurred during periods of heavy rainfall.
This beach was classified as an eroding beach, however over the years the beach was protected by the dunes in the back beach. The dunes had however been ravaged by the high energy wave action at the site such that the larger trees had uprooted and fallen. It was noted that more detailed studies would have to be undertaken to identify suitable solutions to the erosion at the site. | <urn:uuid:3c35cb8e-afeb-4d89-8e31-feea0ad867e0> | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://biodiversity.gov.bb/climate-change-tours/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233511220.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20231003192425-20231003222425-00551.warc.gz | en | 0.9607 | 817 | 2.828125 | 3 |
HOME SCHOOL BOOK REVIEW
Book: The Story of Creation: A Picture Surprise Book
Author: Stephanie Jeffs
Illustrator: Doug Hewitt
Publisher: Tyndale House Pub., 1992
Related website: www.tyndale.com (publisher)
Language level: 1
(1=nothing objectionable; 2=common euphemisms and/or childish slang terms; 3=some cursing or profanity; 4=a lot of cursing or profanity; 5=obscenity and/or vulgarity)
Reading level: Ages 3-7
Rating: 5 stars (EXCELLENT)
Reviewed by Wayne S. Walker
Disclosure: Any books donated for review purposes are in turn donated to a library. No other compensation has been received for the reviews posted on Home School Book Review.
For more information e-mail firstname.lastname@example.org .
Jeffs, Stephanie. The Story of Creation: A Picture Surprise Book (published in 1992 by Tyndale House Publishers). “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth” (Genesis 1:1). This beautifully written and delightfully illustrated book from Tyndale Kids is a simple introduction to the Biblical story of Creation for children ages 3 to 7 using movable pictures. Doug Hewitt’s intricate artwork that celebrates the origins of our planet and universe will enable young readers to marvel at God’s powers of creation and the wonders of nature as they turn each page. It would also make a classic storybook ideal for reading aloud since Stephanie Jeff’s text is based directly on the Biblical account, and is a perfect gift for parent and child to share together.
When our older son Mark was learning to read, we used this book, originally published in England by Tamarind, for extra practice and for a supplement to his Bible curriculum. The author, who is a former teacher of English and drama, has had more than a dozen books for children published worldwide and writes curriculum material for Sunday schools. She lives in Tiverton, in the southwest of England, with her husband and three children. Tyndale and Dorling Kindersley also published a similar book, The Creation Story, with illustrations by Norman Messenger, for children ages 6 and up. Unfortunately, both books are out of print. | <urn:uuid:f6a04205-3ba8-4c2d-809e-b207651a4abd> | CC-MAIN-2021-25 | https://homeschoolbookreviewblog.wordpress.com/2012/10/21/the-story-of-creation-a-picture-surprise-book/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623487622234.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20210616063154-20210616093154-00430.warc.gz | en | 0.930325 | 480 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Environmentally friendly compounds which come from nature’s own laboratory
are coming under the scrutiny of chemists. At the annual meeting of the
American Chemical Society, held last week in Atlanta, Georgia, researchers
presented novel uses for proteins from oyster shells and winter flounder
(plaice), and for the fine flour from the shells of pecan nuts.
Oyster shells contain polyaspartic acid, which is a polypeptide, a segment
of a protein. The molecule is useful because it binds crystals of calcium
carbonate. This material forms the mineral scale in pipes, valves, pumps,
tanks and other equipment used to handle water. It not only impedes the
flow of water but accelerates corrosion when it forms in patches. In the
US alone, the cost of scaling and corrosion runs in to billions of dollars
Erich Mueller of the University of South Alabama and Brenda Little at
the Stennis Space Center in Mississippi have synthesised a version of polyaspartic
acid. They find that it retards the build-up of calcium carbonate scaling
on metal equipment. It is also not toxic and is easily degraded, unlike
other water-treatment chemicals.
Another sea creature – the winter flounder, or plaice – inspired the
work of Thomas Caceci and his colleagues at Virginia Tech University in
Blacksburg. The winter flounder can tolerate water at – 2 °C without
freezing. It achieves this feat with the aid of a natural antifreeze – a
relatively simple polypeptide. The polypeptide stops the fish’s tissue freezing
at a level of between only 1 and 3 per cent.
Caceci believes that molecules of the polypeptide bind to the face of
an ice crystal, stopping water molecules from inserting themselves and building
up an ice lattice. He says that this natural chemical is probably less harmful
than today’s antifreezes, or even salt, which corrodes metal.
Another chemist, Ramaswamy Raj of the University of Quebec, Canada,
has come up with a use for pecan nutshells. Ground into powder, they can
be added to polyethylene. When the nut flour is substituted for 40 per cent
of the plastic, it improves the material’s tensile strength by almost 50
per cent, though it reduces its resistance to impact. Raj says that the
flour will make the bags more easily degradable as well. | <urn:uuid:735dafad-9fb3-4edc-8834-3d8f23b2c067> | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13017664-300-science-industry-turns-to-oyster-shells-plaice-and-nuts/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030334855.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20220926082131-20220926112131-00141.warc.gz | en | 0.902101 | 538 | 2.984375 | 3 |
American and English Literature; College Composition. Literature/ Language Arts - Grade 9 - 12. Copyright and Licensing of Open Educational Resources Courses and course materials produced by Mountain Heights Academy are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Open educational resources produced by other individuals or organizations that are embedded in these course materials may be licensed under a different open license. Please confirm the license status of these third-party resources before reusing them. Mountain Heights Academy strives to insure that open educational resources from other providers reused in our courses conform with the copyright owners' open licensing requirements. If you are the copyright owner of an open educational resource reused in a Mountain Heights Academy course (or the authorized agent of such a copyright owner), and believe Mountain Heights Academy is not correctly adhering to the terms of your open license, please contact email@example.com.
ENGL411: African-American Literature. Please note: this legacy course does not offer a certificate and may contain broken links and outdated information.
Although archived, it is open for learning without registration or enrollment. Please consider contributing updates to this course on GitHub (you can also adopt, adapt, and distribute this course under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license). To find fully-supported, current courses, visit our Learn site. African American literature grew out of the oral tradition of storytelling and spirituals. In this course, you will consider these verbal modes and their impact on the literary production of African American authors from the Colonial period to the current day. Learning Outcomes Upon successful completion of this course, the student will be able to: Identify the cultural influences and the development of African American literature. ENGL002: English Composition II. Purpose of Course showclose The ability to research topics and incorporate information from your sources into your work is an important skill both in college and on the job.
This course will reinforce the concepts you practiced in English Composition I by introducing you to basic research concepts and techniques. It will also give you a chance to put these new concepts and techniques to work as you develop a final research paper. We will begin by looking at how to build research into an effective writing process. First, you will learn to think of researching not as a requirement for getting a good grade on a paper but as a valuable tool that can make your writing more powerful and convincing. The intent of this course is to teach you how to prepare research for any discipline or subject. In Unit 2, you will learn strategies for conducting your research and taking careful notes. In Unit 3, you will learn how to evaluate and understand the sources you located in the previous units.
Dr. ENGL001: English Composition I. Purpose of Course showclose No matter what career you pursue, you must be able to communicate effectively and clearly if you want to be successful.
This course will enhance your ability to do so by sharpening your critical thinking and writing skills. We will begin with a unit designed to change the way in which you think about writing. First, you will learn to think of writing not as a solitary act but as a conversation between yourself and an audience. In this light, writing becomes a dynamic, interactive, and creative rather than a rote practice. Because this course is designed specifically for students in a university setting, the second unit will focus on academic writing.
Because the goal of this course is to improve your ability to write clear, grammatically-sound expository and persuasive prose, every unit will include a “Grammar Capsule,” focusing on a specific grammatical issue. Invitation to World Literature. Greek, by Euripides, first performed in 405 BCE The passionate loves and longings, hopes and fears of every culture live on forever in their stories.
Here is your invitation to literature from around the world and across time. Sumerian, 2600 BCE and older Turkish, by Orhan Pamuk, 2000 Greek, by Homer, ca. eighth century BCE Greek, by Euripides, first performed in 405 BCE Sanskrit, first century CE Japanese, by Murasaki Shikibu, ca. 1014 Chinese, by Wu Ch'êng-ên, ca. 1580 Quiché-Mayan, written in the Roman alphabet ca. 1550s French, by Voltaire, 1759 English, by Chinua Achebe, 1959 Spanish, by Gabriel García Márquez, 1967 English, by Arundhati Roy, 1998 Arabic, first collected ca. fourteenth century. American Passages - A Literary Survey. American Lit/Comp.
British Lit/Comp. 9th Lit Comp. 10th Lit/Comp. Georgia Virtual Learning > Resources > AP Literature & Composition. World Literature. | <urn:uuid:60dab12d-76f5-485e-b75a-1b1c04336aec> | CC-MAIN-2017-26 | http://www.pearltrees.com/traykay/lang-arts-free-school-courses/id13494284?embed=2&d=201702251233 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-26/segments/1498128320736.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20170626115614-20170626135614-00058.warc.gz | en | 0.935308 | 977 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Know Your Anger
So how do you learn to manage your anger in a non-aggressive way? The process starts by recognizing your angry feelings, getting to know the situations that provoke them and noticing how you usually react when angry. But how do you even know that you’re angry? It’s not always simple, but it’s easier if you pay attention to certain cues.
Warning: Anger Ahead
- Physical Cues - The way your body reacts when you’re angry: pounding heart, feeling hot or flushed
- Behavioral Cues - What you do and how you act when you’re angry: being sarcastic, clamming up, refusing to make eye contact, clenching your fists, pacing back and forth or slamming doors
- Emotional Cues& - The other feelings that surface alongside anger: feeling disrespected, guilty, humiliated, insecure, rejected or even tired
- Cognitive Cues - Thoughts that pop into your mind when you’re angry: putdowns of people, the desire to run away or get revenge, interpreting comments or questions as criticism
So the next time you’re aware of feeling angry, pay attention to how your body reacts, how you behave, your thoughts and any other feelings you may be having. Take note of these cues or write them down so you become able to identify your anger when it first develops.
What Sets You Off?
Some situations annoy almost everyone. Other situations are annoying to relatively few people. Sometimes, just thinking about something that happened in the past can make you furious. Learning to recognize what usually makes you angry helps you prepare for a constructive response plan. When those situations come up, put into practice the strategies you’ve chosen for dealing with difficult and powerful emotions.
Managing Your Anger
While there is no way to avoid feeling angry at times, there are ways to decrease the intensity of your feelings and change your reactions to anger. You don’t have to let your anger get the best of you. You can control your anger so it doesn’t control you. Besides, anger can be very productive. It can motivate you to take the necessary steps toward achieving your goals; and used wisely, anger can greatly improve your relationships. On the other hand, uncontrolled or reckless expressions of anger invariably hurt relationships and hold you back in life.
10 Tips to Help You Deal
Once you know you’re angry, you can choose how to react. Here are some strategies for dealing with very powerful feelings and responding effectively. Try them and see what works best for you.
- Take a time-out. Leave the situation that is making you angry. If the situation involves other people, call a time-out. You may need to agree to return to finish the discussion and resolve the issue once you have cooled off. Time-outs can be used along with other strategies as well, such as going for a walk, to the gym, to a favorite peaceful spot on campus, calling a friend or writing in your journal.
- Breathe. Help yourself relax by taking deep breaths. Deep breathing brings more oxygen into the body, and concentrating on taking deep breaths helps to focus your mind on something other than your angry feelings.
- Calm down. Calm yourself by visualizing a relaxing place or activity, listen to music, paint, write in your journal or do yoga.
- Stop thinking. Teach yourself to get rid of anger-provoking thoughts. Tell yourself that this kind of thinking will only lead to trouble. Try to stop the thoughts before you become so angry that you lose control.
- Exercise. Physical exercise releases feel-good enzymes that will help your frame of mind. Go for a walk or run, get on a treadmill, lift weights, shoot some hoops or throw a Frisbee anything to get your muscles moving.
- Talk it out. Talk about the situation and your feelings with a supportive friend (naturally, choose someone who wasn’t involved with the situation). He or she may be able to offer a different perspective on what’s going on. Even if your friend just listens, expressing your feelings is bound to make you feel better.
- Consider the other side. Try to look at the situation from the other person’s point of view. Could the person be stressed or worried, and not at his or her best? Could what you said or did have been misunderstood? If you take the time to think about the other person, you'll have a chance to step back from your anger—which can lead to finding ways to clear up the troubling situation.
- Express your anger as soon as possible. Once you’ve calmed yourself a bit, express your angry feelings in an appropriate way so you aren’t left obsessing or worrying about the situation. If you feel you won’t be able to control yourself when you talk to the person who made you angry, try talking to a family member, friend, Resident Assistant in your residence hall, counselor or someone else you trust.
- Act assertively. Stand up for your rights in a way that shows respect for others. Express your feelings about the situation without blaming, attacking or threatening. When you remain calm and respectful, people are much more likely to take you seriously and listen to what you say.
- Keep an anger log. Keeping a journal, or log, can help you to notice and understand which situations are more likely to set you off. Keeping an anger log helps by increasing your self-awareness, as well as allowing you to express your feelings in a comfortable, safe way. | <urn:uuid:353ed06d-78de-4733-8f5a-b40acfdc1514> | CC-MAIN-2020-16 | https://well.wvu.edu/resources/stress/know-your-anger | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-16/segments/1585370496669.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200330054217-20200330084217-00303.warc.gz | en | 0.937105 | 1,150 | 2.921875 | 3 |
This winged young man who has just landed on a rock where a girl lies unconscious, is the god Eros – Cupid in Latin – and can be recognized by his wings and his quiver filled with arrows. The girl’s name is Psyche. Cupid’s mother Venus, goddess of Beauty, demanded that Psyche bring back a flask from the Underworld, strictly forbidding her to open it.
But Psyche’s curiosity got the better of her; and no sooner had she had breathed in the terrible fumes than she fell into a deep, deathlike sleep. Seeing her lying motionless, Cupid rushed to her and touched her gently with the tip of his arrow, to make sure she was not dead. This is the moment caught by the sculptor: Cupid lifts his beloved Psyche in a tender embrace, his face close to hers. Psyche lets herself sink slowly backwards, languorously taking her lover’s head between her hands.
Canova took his inspiration from a legend recounted by Latin author Apuleius in the Metamorphoses At the close of the tale the gods decide in council to grant Cupid Psyche’s hand in marriage, according her immortality and making her the goddess of the Soul. | <urn:uuid:e37cdd1c-cdbb-4ff8-9638-14765efd37d1> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | https://www.angelsforeveryone.com/cupid-embracing-psyche-bronze-finish-figurine-statuette.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257645248.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20180317155348-20180317175348-00630.warc.gz | en | 0.98077 | 258 | 2.625 | 3 |
When Mary was in her teens, these lecturers included her fathers friend, the chemist and inventor Sir Humphry Davy; the Italian physicist and philosopher Dr Luigi Galvani and his nephew Giovanni Aldini, each of whom gave demonstrations of how to pass an electric current through. We find her today in debates about the Womens prize for fiction, in magazine articles comparing the fortunes of male and female writers, in the horrors of the casting couch. Both were part of the early 19th-century cultural canon and, growing up in a literary household, Mary will have been aware of them.
As Ann Campbell writes: The characters and plot of Frankenstein reflect.
Shelleys conflicted feelings about the masculine circle which surrounded her.
This is the first introduction of a theme that continues throughout the book, that of the necessity for female figures in parenting and in society.
Mary Shelleys Frankenstein can be viewed as a notice in direction of this perception, or for scientific discipline and medical know-how.
Her parents were two of the most notorious radicals of her day: her mother, who died of complications 11 days after her birth, was Mary Wollstonecraft, author. Mary never had the chance to be a prig. Frankenstein identifies the mismatch between human experience and what we are expected to become as technology and science advance. Of course this reduces cultural history to the folk wisdom that everyones got a book in them, and ignores the labour and technique entailed in producing a work that is publishable not to mention a great one. But Frankenstein is no memoir. A second sceptical response to Marys astonishing achievement disparages her more slyly, suggesting that the archetypes of Frankenstein and his creature arent in fact original. | <urn:uuid:74ceb57a-3815-494c-8974-3b06c82da259> | CC-MAIN-2019-30 | http://para-ti.info/88301-shelleys-suggestion-on-parenting-in-frankenstein/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-30/segments/1563195526401.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20190720004131-20190720030131-00276.warc.gz | en | 0.967706 | 351 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Thorough studying.To systemize your thoughts in regards to the textual content, itâs important to research it in detail. Read the textual content two or more occasions to know the fundamental concepts of the article and perceive its objectives and motives. These have been one of the best online summarizing instruments to deal with the duty successfully. We hope a few of them grew to become your favorite summarizers, and youâll use them usually in the future. Weâre here to offer the entire record of text summarizers in this article.
A summary is a concise rationalization of the principle concepts and supporting details of a piece of writing. To resolve which particulars to incorporate within the abstract of a book chapter, contemplate the “who, what, when, where, why and the way” while studying the chapter. Take notes that reply these questions and compile the data into complete sentences. Summarizing helps improve both your studying and writing abilities. To summarize, you should read a passage carefully, discovering the main concepts and supporting ideas. Then you have to briefly write down those ideas in a number of sentences or a paragraph.
An efficient govt summary gives stakeholders a big-picture view of the complete project and its necessary pointsâwithout requiring them to dive into all the primary points. Then, if they need more information, they will access the project plan or navigate by way of duties in your work administration device. Your govt abstract ought to comprise and broaden upon yourproject objectivesin the second part (Outline the beneficial answer, or the projectâs objectives). One of one of the best things aboutproject managementis that it supplies a method to plan, handle, and execute your whole teamâs work. Oftentimes, itâs helpful to have this info available at-a-glance.
The introduction and conclusion shouldnât be the same. Remember that itâs essential to wrap up your writing by summarizing the main idea for your readers. This brings your writing to a clean shut and creates a well-written piece of labor. Make a duplicate of the original textual content and take notes on it.
Additionally, key parts of how to embody primary ideas and a concluding sentence are additionally stated in this define. A paraphrase is simply https://writemyessaytoday.us/write-my-case-study a rewriting of a passage in your own phrases. Hi Rezvan, to prepare for your examination, you must apply following the steps I show you here and you must read all of my example articles. You also can look at my article about summary and response.
Another way is to say why this text was so important. Use particular software program to check your abstract for plagiarism. There are many free plagiarism checkers to be discovered on-line. Try to avoid paraphrasing the text sentence by sentence.
The software has solely http://asu.edu two buttonsâone to summarize the document and the opposite to clear the sector. With this software program, youâll get a quick abstract based mostly in your textual content. You donât have to register there to get your document shortened.
Below are the notes and particulars from the original abstract paragraph project to use as an extra information. An effective govt abstract may be damaged down into 5 key paragraphs. Support the claims you make in your govt abstract and the marketing strategy with research, and cite this analysis via footnotes in your business plan. If you have been working in the same field for less than 10 years, it would serve your resume best to forego the summary statement and use the additional space to broaden your work experience. | <urn:uuid:147c6569-e056-4e52-97e0-ed4400e30199> | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://www.mhvvietnam.com/blog/how-can-i-write-a-correct-summary-2.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510334.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20230927235044-20230928025044-00762.warc.gz | en | 0.926756 | 742 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Are your dipoles 1/2 wavelength long, or some other length?
Are you using a specific length of twinlead to match them, or a random length?
What is the SWR on your coax if you don't use a tuner?
All of these affect the answer.
Some of the basic principles you need to understand the various facets of what
1) Baluns are designed to operate at a specific impedance level over a given
frequency range. When used outside that range they will still do something, but
might not work as you would expect. Most antennas do NOT match the impedance
of the balun, especially when feed through a length of ladder line.
2) Feedlines act as an impedance transformer when they are not perfectly matched.
This is usually demonstrated using resistive loads and quarter wave feedlines: for
example, with a 100 ohm load connected through 1/4 of 50 ohm coax it will actually
look like (50 * 50 / 100 = ) 25 ohms at the rig end. Using a half wavelength of coax
brings it back up to 100 ohms, and so it goes down the feedline. In between these
points the resistance will take on an intermediate value, along with some reactance
so that, in this case, the SWR will be (100 / 50 = ) 2 : 1 at every point along the
coax, even though the impedance is changing.
3) All feedlines have loss. One possible definition of an antenna "working well" is
that most of the power generated by the transmitter is radiated by the antenna,
and to do that we need to keep the losses low in the feedline. Generally losses
increase with SWR (though there are some exceptions for very short lengths.) Many
hams can have high feedline losses and not notice it.
So now lets put these together and see if we can give you some examples.
a) a full wave dipole (2 half waves in phase) has a high feedpoint impedance, let's
say 4000 ohms. (In practice it depends on the diameter of the wire, etc.) If we
connect 1/2 wavelength of ladder line between this and the balun, the balun will
also see 4000 ohms. A 4 : 1 balun would, in theory, step this down to 1000 ohms,
but in practice it will depend on balun construction. Connecting RG-58 to the
1000 ohm load gives us an SWR of 20 : 1, and if you use 50' of it on 20m then
about 2/3 of your transmitter power goes to heating the coax, and 1/3 gets
I make liberal use of VK1OD's transmission line loss calculator for such problems:http://vk1od.net/calc/tl/tllc.php
b) Same situation, but we'll use 1/4 wavelength of ladder line. Now there will
be a transformation of impedance and the balun will see (450 * 450 / 4000 = )
50.6 ohms! We'd now choose a 1 : 1 balun and have a very low SWR on the coax.
now only 17% of your power is dissipated in the RG-58.
See how a small change in feedline length makes a big difference in efficiency?
c) What if we used a half wave dipole instead. Let's say that the impedance is
50 ohms (it will depend on height above ground, among other things.) With a
half wave of ladder line we'll again see 50 ohms at the balun, so would use a
1 : 1 balun and have a low SWR on the coax. But with a quarter wavelength
line we're back with ( 450 * 450 / 50 = ) 4050 ohms at the balun, and even
a 4 : 1 balun will still give us a 20 : 1 SWR on the coax, with high losses.
d) Now you can get creative. If you choose an antenna with a feedpoint
impedance that gives a 9 : 1 SWR on 450 line, at some point the impedance
along that line will be ( 450 / 9 = ) 50 ohms. Similarly if you find a point
where the SWR is 2.25 : 1, then there will be points where the impedance is
( 450 / 2.25 = ) 200 ohms, and a 4 : 1 balun should give you a good match.
But in either case, changing the length of either the antenna or the feedline
will result in higher SWR.
e) Another common approach is to use, say, an 80m dipole fed with ladder
line as an all-band antenna with a tuner in the shack. In this case the
antenna impedance varies widely from band to band, as does the length of
the ladder line in wavelengths. (The physical length stays the same, but the
electrical length varies because the wavelength changes with frequency.)
So we end up with a relatively random impedance at the balun. You can use
either a 4 : 1 or 1 : 1 here - the 4 : 1 voltage balun was commonly used,
and while a modern 1 : 1 current balun is often a better choice, the difference
will depend on the actual impedance you have to match on each band.
That presents a relatively random impedance to the coax, so it may operate
with a high SWR on some bands, but reasonable on others. My advice in
such cases is to keep the coax as short as possible (inches are better than
feet) to keep efficiency high.
One or more of these might apply to your specific antennas, but at least
it will give you a start on the underlying principles. If you can give some
specific examples we can work them through. | <urn:uuid:6279097e-3ebf-443f-a85e-d1800ce135da> | CC-MAIN-2015-32 | http://www.eham.net/ehamforum/smf/index.php?topic=87953.msg651792 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-32/segments/1438042990112.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20150728002310-00270-ip-10-236-191-2.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.904459 | 1,227 | 2.59375 | 3 |
From Uncyclopedia, the content-free encyclopedia
Seahorses are, despite what many reading this article would expect, nothing to do with horses. In fact, to suggest this would be fallacious to the extreme, and should anyone ever imply so to you, they are no doubt pulling your leg. The correct course of action is, naturally, to direct them to this page to set them straight, as this is not a forum for the ridiculous.
edit What Is A Seahorse?
The seahorse (Equus aquaticus) is, in fact, a small animal that lives, ironically, in the sea. The common name "seahorse" is a bastardisation of the terms "sea", meaning "sea", and "hoarse", meaning very dry. Appropriately, seahorses are a vortex of dryness in an otherwise wet and hostile environment. Their inate ability to displace moisture has been compared to the sponge, but in fact the scientific principle on which it is based is substantially different.
“Male seahorses give birth. ”
edit Theory Of Dryness
The absorption of water by a sponge results in a measurable expansion of the sponge. To extrapolate this to the extreme, a single sponge could conceivably grow large enough to absorb the entire ocean; hence as the size of the sponge tends towards infinity,
edit Applications of the Theory Of Dryness
Firstly, we take it as given that the size of the seahorse depends only on how much it is fed. From this, we can show that, due to the Theory of Dryness showing that the size of a seahorse is always smaller than that of the ocean, the size of the ocean must as a result be determined by the amount of food available to seahorses. This theory was used to justify the Exxon Valdez oil spill after the company in question provided a sizeable donation to the feeding of seahorses, thereby increasing the size of the ocean.
Due to the protective anti-moisture surroundings of the seahorse, it can take several weeks for one to be eventually digested. As such, it is extremely popular for trampers and outdoorsmen to consume a meal of seahorses the night before any long journey. If they should run out of normal food, the eventual digestion of the seahorse should provide enough sustenance to continue. This principle has saved many a life in the history of the great outdoors.
edit Contributions to Popular Culture
Interestingly enough, the seahorse was originally employed by prostitutes as a crude form of contraceptive, due to the fact a skillfully inserted one would prevent any offensive liquids reaching the point of fruition. As a result, an easy way to spot a brothel in ancient times was the regular delivery of seahorses, giving rise to the child's cry - "See! Whores!", thus creating a most useful new word and an amusing children's game at the same time.
edit See also | <urn:uuid:3317131a-6b9f-47ca-bacc-d74da67a2f16> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://uncyclopedia.wikia.com/wiki/Seahorse | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281331.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00291-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952988 | 608 | 3.359375 | 3 |
. Tabur - Yearbook for European History, Society, Culture and Thought Memories of War
An annual journal that aims at providing the Hebrew reader an up to date perspective on research in Modern European History, Culture and Philosophy.
'Memories of War in Germany and in Center Europe'
- Franz Maciejewski: Land without Memory? The Absence of Mourning for The Dead in Post-War-Germany
- Habbo Knoch: Searching for Authenticity: Memory, Emotions and Eyewitness Reports in Contemporary Germany
- Bogdan Musial: Liberation or Occupation: 8th - 9th Mai 1945 in the Collective Memory in Germany, Poland and Belarus 60 Years Later
- Beate Kosmala: The Story of the National World War II Memorial in Washington, D.C.: A Major Controversy over America's Last Uncontroversial War
- Angelika Timm: World War Two and Shoa in the Culture of Memory of the German Democratic Republic
- Natan Sznaider: The Europeanization of Memory: Between Nationalization and Cosmopolitanization
- Dan Diner: On the Faculty to Differentiate: Auschwitz and Dresden
War in a Global Context
- Aron Shai: The Second Sino-Japanese War and the Second World War - The Same War?
- Ali F. İgmen: Finding History in Chingiz Aitmatov's Eary Prose and in the Memories of Veterans: Kyrgyz Women of "The Great Patriotic War"
- Omar Kamil: Arab Intellectuals and the Holocaust: An Epistemological Debate
- Andrei S. Markovits: The Story of the National World War II Memorial in Washington, D.C.: A Major Controversy over America's Last Uncontroversial War
- Mary Louise Roberts: The Myth of the viril G.I.: Gender and Photojournalism in the Second World War
. The Age of Youth - German-Jewish Young Generation and Modern Times
. ( ). Jerusalem: Magnes Press; 2008. Publisher's VersionAbstract
This groundbreaking collection of essays discusses from a variety of historical, philosophical, and cultural perspectives the appearance of the Jewish Youth Movements and youth organizations, within the context of the early twentieth century cultural atmosphere in central Europe. The essays, written by leading Israeli and German scholars in the field of modern German and German-Jewish history, cover a wide bend of phenomena such as the Jewish Youth in Salzburg and Prague, The Jewish Youth Movements 'Blau-Weiss' and 'Ha’shomer Hatz’air', the youth pioneers in Palestine, as well as the unique visual culture and radical philosophy of 'being Young' which characterized the Jewish youth – in an intense dialogue with the contemporaneous German model. ,The Age of Youth', referring both to the 'being young' and to the specific European context of the turn of the nineteenth and early twentieth century in which a new model of youth was introduced, encloses new and pivotal perspectives of youth movements and organizations which deeply influenced the emerging Jewish identity, culture and political understandings of that era. This collection of essays will be of value to scholars who are interested in German and Jewish history, Political Studies, Culture Studies, Continental Philosophy, Pedagogy, and Theology.
Yotam Hotam (Ed.)
Review in Haarez. | <urn:uuid:85152d96-a3e4-4fa4-bd34-fd4ed0ae0bad> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | https://koebner.huji.ac.il/publications | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550249500704.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20190223102155-20190223124155-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.8295 | 693 | 2.5625 | 3 |
(Note: this article was damaged during an interruption of service to our site. Because it is very popular, I have been working to reconstruct it. -- EGR)
The Educational Theory of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi
Analyst: Laura Hopkins
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in Zurich in the year 1746; he lived to the age of 81. Pestalozzi was very interested in philosopher/theorist Jacques Rousseau. It was following Rousseau's ideas that Pestalozzi would explore how he could develop and use them for himself. Pestalozzi was a very determined individual who even when he hit bumps in the road, he moved on and would eventually succeed. Johann would struggle at the start of his becoming a teacher, but in the end he would become an influence on the elementary schools in the United States today.
Pestalozzi attended the University of Zurich for his schooling and from then on would run all types of experiments in education by opening schools for all types of individuals, usually the poor. However, most of these schools did not last very long and usually fell apart because of a lack of money. Also in his lifetime, He wrote books based on the theories that he had about education. "Children should learn through activity and through things (hands-on tools). They should be free to pursue their own interests and draw their own conclusions." When Pestalozzi argued that there was a need for balance, that the three elements of head, heart and hands is what is most important to children receiving a great education.
Pursuing this balance of hands, heart and head Pestalozzi did away with the punishment upon kids known as flogging, because as a part of the heart there should be love, without love, head and hand cannot develop. Pestalozzi wanted to move schooling away from education as an old way of using old teaching methods. It is because of this that Pestalozzi became concerned with everything dealing with school, children, and the idea that children should be finding out things (answers) for themselves. Johann was about putting that which is right and good before that which is correct because he cared more about people and their well-being than anything else.
I. Theory of Value: What knowledge and skills are worthwhile learning? What are the goals of education?
Since the goal of education is to educate the whole child by balancing between hands, heart, and head, Pestalozzi argued that the knowledge and skills that are most important to learn are: arithmetic, geography, science, music, drawing, language, and physical education. He saw arithmetic as the most important because it is based on sensory experience. According to Pestalozzi, part of the arithmetic that children should be taught is how to understand numbers and how two and two make four. To do this he encouraged mothers to let their children count objects found in the home. When it came to the studies of geography and science, Pestalozzi made it so that the students would learn about both form an entirely hands-on approach by taking walking tours of their neighborhoods while looking at the environment around them, they would also see the types of land forms and weather patterns of their specific area.
Pestalozzi viewed music as an important part of the elementary curriculum; he believed that music would be the key to a moral education because in his words "music speaks to the heart". As you can see Pestalozzi viewed all of the major subjects as important to learn in the elementary education curriculum. Drawing, language, and physical education were also very important because drawing expressed the individual's talent. Language was also important in order for students to express their feelings and beliefs.Lastly, Pestalozzi saw physical education as important because in his time physical education was neglected and children were not allowed to move in the classroom. As a result of this Pestalozzi believed that for full development, not only did mental and moral qualities count, but physical capacity was also extremely important in making children flexible and strong.
II. Theory of Knowledge: What is knowledge? How is it different from a belief? What is a mistake? A lie?Knowledge is the information that someone receives as a result of learning and searching for answers. Pestalozzi believed that if the teacher is not to impose ideas on the child, then he must rely on the child and his immediate environment for the knowledge he wishes to communicate. If the teacher is not going to pour the knowledge into the children's brain, and then it will be up to the child to find the knowledge on their own. Pestalozzi also sees observation as the absolute basis of all knowledge; therefore without the child being observant to their surroundings, they will not be able to get all of the answers needed to succeed.
Knowledge is different from belief in this aspect because belief is a principle or something someone believes in, it doesn't have to be true or false. Knowledge however is strictly fact and is something that has been proven over time and taught for many of years. Pestalozzi was not happy with the way the content of education was being presented as fact rather than as experience. Looking at it this way it is clear that Pestalozzi would rather have had students learn from their own beliefs rather than the knowledge of teachers just forcing ideas on the children.
Mistakes are something that people make when they assume something that may not be true. Pestalozzi mentioned how the most important mistake of education today is that too much is expected of the child and too many of the topics only appear to be something but are nothing. A lie, in contrast to a mistake is when someone knows that what they are saying is not the truth but they chose to say it anyways. Pestalozzi does not believe it lies in his theory on education only the one big mistake that some make about education.
III. Theory of Human Nature: What is a human being? How does it differ from other species?
Human beings are able to use powers that set us apart from other species. As Pestalozzi explains, these include intellectual, practical, and moral powers. Human beings are able to experience things differently than other species in the world, intellectual and smart. However, Pestalozzi believes that in order for us as humans to be intellectual we must become aware of our five senses, seeing, tasting, feeling, smelling, and hearing. Without these important five senses there is no way we can be intellectual because we would not be aware of what is happening around us in the outside world.
Perhaps the most important part of being human is the moral powers of the heart which make us feel all types of emotions. Pestalozzi ranked this power as number one on his list because it is feelings of concern, compassion, gratitude, grief, joy, pride, and others that truly make us different then animals, it is our conscience that guides us and according to human nature from Pestalozzi's view, man follows his conscience.
In Pestalozzi's own words "Man's will is free and it is the freedom of his will that makes it possible for him to elevate himself above his primitive animal desires. Man, unlike the lower creatures, is able, by means of his will, to reject the influences that threaten his existence and his development..." In answer to the question of limits of human potential, Pestalozzi makes it clear that man has no limits, we are free to accept or reject was we wish, we do not have to believe what we do not wish.
IV. Theory of Learning: What is learning? How are knowledge and skills acquired?Learning is what Pestalozzi was most out to change. In his time Pestalozzi noticed that learning in the classroom consisted primarily of reading out of texts and using rote memorization for songs, scripture, and psalms. This is not the type of learning that Pestalozzi was in favor of; rather, he wanted children to be able to learn in a less restrictive setting. Pestalozzi wished to have the students learn by a hands-on approach, this means that given tools and a simple overview of what they will accomplish, students should be able to go out and gather information to come up with answers of their own. Children shouldn't be given answers but instead they should arrive at answers themselves. Rather than having knowledge that was primarily verbal (artificial), Pestalozzi saw that knowledge that led to efficiency in useful doing (practical) was of real use to humans.
Pestalozzi saw society as a
group of individuals who lived together and helped one another.
Furthermore, Pestalozzi said that humans cannot live without the help of
our fellowmen, also that with the help of society we can be guided and
helped in accomplishing what we need to.27
As humans we are social beings who live with other social beings, this is
what makes a society.
>The institution that Pestalozzi saw as being involved in the education process first and foremost is the family. He said that of all institutions in society, family was the one that was nearest to his true ideal of education.28 26] This is so because Pestalozzi believed that the immediate environment in a child's life is what had the most influence on the child and what they were to learn in life, therefore, the child's home life is the most important institution in furthering the child's education.
"From the near to the far". This is what
Pestalozzi said in regards to who should be educated and schooled. What
he meant by this was that all men from any economic background should be
In addition, Pestalozzi believed that children of both sexes,
whether they be poor or orphans should also be educated as long as they
were at least five years of age.30
VII. Theory of Consensus: Why do people disagree? How is consensus achieved? Whose opinion takes precedence?
Mark Smith, www.infed.org/thinkers/et-pest.htm. (8 May 1997), 12 February 2008.
12 February 2008.
N/A .
N/A .
N/A .
N/A .
Robert B. Downs, Heinrich Pestalozzi: Father of Modern Pedagogy (Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1975), 50
N/A .
N/A .
Smith, ibid.
Michael Heafford, <em>Pestalozzi: His Thought and Its Relevance Today</em> (London: Methuen & Co Ltd, 1967), 52.
Heafford, 53.
Downs, 57. Downs, 63.
N/A .
Walch, 91.
Walch, 106.
Sister Mary Romana Walch, M.A., Pestalozzi and the Pestalozzian Theory of Education (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 1952), 90. 1 Walch, 110.
Gerald Lee Gutek, Pestalozzi & Education (New York: Random House, 1968), 102.
N/A .
Smith 21 Gutek, 105.
Walch, 58.
Heafford, 77.
Downs, 85.
Downs, 39
26 Gutek, 110.
Gutek, Gerald Lee. Pestalozzi & Education. Loyola University, Chicago: Random House, 1968, 94
Heafford, Michael. Pestalozzi: His Thought and Its Relevance Today. London: Methuen & Co Ltd, 1967.
Smith, Mark. Educational Thinkers. 8 May 1997.12 February 2008 at www.infed.org/thinkers/et-pest.htm.
Walch, 51
Walch, 169.
Walch, 170. | <urn:uuid:8177ee67-b0ad-4641-ba69-a198a58e5176> | CC-MAIN-2018-43 | http://newfoundations.com/GALLERY/Pestalozzi.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583510893.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20181016221847-20181017003347-00214.warc.gz | en | 0.972214 | 2,460 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Around one in six cancer patients in Morecambe Bay are only diagnosed after an emergency visit to hospital, figures reveal.
Public Health England says people with the disease stand a much slimmer chance of surviving when their diagnosis comes via an emergency admission, compared to other routes.
Cancer Research UK says people with unusual or persistent symptoms should be able to seek early help more easily. In 2018, 1,989 patients were admitted to hospital with cancer in the NHS Morecambe Bay CCG area, the latest Public Health England data shows.
Of them, 326 (16%) were admitted as an emergency, rather than through routes such as screening programmes or routine GP referrals.
Patients diagnosed in this way are more likely to have more advanced and difficult to treat cancers.
Dr Jodie Moffat, head of early diagnosis at Cancer Research UK, said GPs have made huge efforts to improve early diagnosis by referring more people with suspected cancer symptoms to be seen at hospital within two weeks.
“But significant numbers of people still continue to be diagnosed with cancer after they’ve turned up at A&E,” she added.
Neil Wynne, Cancer Commissioning Manger for Morecambe Bay Clinical Commissioning Group said: “The CCG recognises the importance of early diagnosis in improving cancer survival rates and continues to address this through several initiatives.
“Ongoing analysis of patients who do present with cancer takes place to identify learning opportunities, which support earlier diagnosis for future patients, particularly around subtle or ‘vague’ symptoms.
“Our screening partners seek to maximise the benefits screening can bring to earlier detection through proactive engagement with individuals who currently choose not to attend screening invites, this engagement has delivered an increase in breast screening uptake.
“We also continue working with our health and social care partners through the Lancashire and South Cumbria Cancer Alliance to encourage patients to recognise suspicious symptoms.
“Awareness has been raised through campaigns, such as Blood in Pee for bladder and kidney cancers as part of The Be Clear on Cancer initiative. “Furthermore, by encouraging those who are referred for further investigation to follow up in a timely manner we are helping to achieve an early diagnosis of cancer. Together we aim to reduce the frequency of late presentation.” | <urn:uuid:56e846bb-fbc8-4e11-bd65-215c517ce988> | CC-MAIN-2019-51 | https://www.thevisitor.co.uk/health/1-in-6-morecambe-bay-patients-get-cancer-diagnosis-after-trip-to-a-e-1-9897939 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-51/segments/1575541318556.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20191216065654-20191216093654-00016.warc.gz | en | 0.960031 | 474 | 2.515625 | 3 |
VICTORIA — The Columbia River Treaty should be reworked to give environmental concerns equal status with flood control and power generation, the two priorities when Canada and the U.S implemented the deal almost 50 years ago.
So says a draft recommendation from the American side, prepared in anticipation of talks between the two countries on possible modifications to the terms once the threshold for reopening the treaty is reached next year.
The seven-page document, the product of public consultations, was released last week by Bonneville Power and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, overseers of the treaty for the U.S. side.
“When the Treaty was originally drafted in the 1960s, it was designed to provide hydro power and flood risk management as its two primary benefits,” it says. “Since that time, the region has come to increasingly recognize and value the importance of the basin’s ecosystem.”
Hence the recommendation for a modernized framework where “ecosystem-based functions will be integrated as a third primary purpose, or benefit, in the same way that hydro power and flood risk management benefits were developed in the original treaty.”
The goal being to “restore a healthy Columbia River ecosystem,” particularly fish species that were severely impacted by the management of water levels for the purpose of flood protection and power generation.
The peak flows in the river are in the spring and early summer, ideal for salmon in their annual migration from the ocean to spawning grounds. But the maximum power need is in the late fall and winter. So the water is held back, mainly in reservoirs on the Canadian side of the border, and released later in the year.
The draft envisions a significant shift in application to the management of water flows on the river, as per the following recommendations:
“Provide stream flows with appropriate timing, quantity, and water quality to promote productive populations of fish, and provide reservoir conditions to promote productive populations of fish and wildlife.
“Expand on present treaty agreements to further augment flows for spring and summer, with the recognition that these increased flows come from less fall and winter draft in Canadian reservoirs.
“Design and incorporate a dry-year strategy ... Design the treaty to be adaptable to meet ecosystem-based function requirements as new information becomes available or conditions change (e.g. climate change) based on the science and management priorities of both countries.”
The treaty disrupted the ecosystem in other ways as well, the most obvious being the construction of a series of storage dams in the path of the annual salmon migration.
The draft imagines that the two countries might cooperate in rectifying that as well: “Determine Canada’s interest in assessing the feasibility of fish passage on the main stem Columbia to Canadian spawning grounds. If that interest exists, develop a joint program, with shared costs, to analyze that feasibility.”
As to how this focus on the ecosystem would affect the original two priorities of the treaty-makers, the draft refers to the need to maintain an “acceptable level of flood risk” defined as “similar to the current level.”
There’s also a bit about the need to “maintain coordinated hydropower operations, and a reliable, economically sustainable hydropower system in a modernized treaty.” The draft then goes on to suggest that this could be accomplished in part by a major sacrifice on the part of the Canadians.
“The present Columbia River treaty power benefits are not equitably shared,” it argues. “Canada is deriving substantially greater value from coordinated power operations than the U.S. For the treaty to be sustainable, the coordinated power benefits must be reasonably balanced between the U.S. and Canada.”
The reference is to the Canadian entitlement, the amount determined by the treaty to cover our share of the additional power that is generated in the U.S. as a result of cooperative management of water flows on this side of the border. B.C. gets the benefit, lately worth about $200 million a year.
So it would not be much of a stretch to interpret the draft as a proposal to keep whole the U.S. interest in flood control while bringing about a shift to greater environmental protection that would be underwritten by a reduction in the cash benefits to Canada.
But there should be no cause for panic on this side of the border.
Once the 50th anniversary of the treaty is reached next September, then either side has the option of giving 10 years notice of intention to reopen or terminate provisions. Actual changes would not take effect until 2024.
Moreover, the aforementioned quotes are taken from a “working draft,” not a final set of recommendations. There is still plenty of disagreement on the U.S. side, noted in the draft, about the right approach to reopening the treaty.
As for the Canadian side, BC Hydro is leading a public process on the treaty, with a view to making recommendations to cabinet this fall. But that is a topic for another day.
The full U.S. draft is posted at www.crt2014-2024review.gov/.
The website for the B.C. consultations: blog.gov.bc.ca/columbiarivertreaty/ | <urn:uuid:d060b2f6-4436-4c4f-b146-07c4ec302ff5> | CC-MAIN-2017-47 | http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Vaughn+Palmer+Balance+power+environment+focuses+Columbia+River+Treaty+talks/8623288/story.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-47/segments/1510934806338.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20171121094039-20171121114039-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.953173 | 1,102 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Many of the communities that Survival works with are hunter-gatherers. Hunting is more than a way of life; it is part of their identity.
Why hunting is so important to tribal communities
Some tribes identify themselves as hunters of specific species. The Khanty of Siberia are reindeer hunters.
They use reindeer skins for clothing and shelter, meat for food and bones for knife handles. Their connection to the reindeer is vitally important to them as a people.
A Nenet reindeer herder in Siberia, Jakov Japtik, said “The snow is melting sooner, quicker and faster than before. The changes aren’t good for the reindeer and ultimately what is good for the reindeer is good for us.”
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Many tribal societies have totem animals with which they have a kinship and which they do not hunt.
Other species are hunted specifically for ceremonial, health or spiritual reasons.
This connection to specific animals has often resulted in tribes carefully protecting their environment to ensure that there is a plentiful supply of the animals that they depend upon.
Elder Whitehead Moose, of the Pikangikum tribe in Canada, said “Everything that you see in me, it is the land that has moulded me. The fish have moulded me. The animals and everything that I have eaten from the land has moulded me, it has shaped me. I believe every Aboriginal person has been moulded in this way.”
In the face of outside pressures, such as influxes of settlers, “development” projects such as dams and oil exploration and the increasing risk of climate change, this fundamental relationship comes under threat.
A Khanty hunter said, “This is the only place where the land is clean in this region, we must keep this territory clean because if an oil company comes then we won’t be able to hunt and keep reindeer, it will be the end.”
“Don’t they all use machine guns now?”
Myths about tribal people and hunting abound. British parliamentarian, Baroness Tonge, for example, claimed that Kalahari Bushmen were hunting using guns and 4×4 vehicles. But government officials have admitted that the Bushmen do not hunt with guns and there is no evidence that their hunting is unsustainable.
Hunting by tribal peoples on their own land has been severely restricted in many countries without evidence that they are reducing the populations of the animals they hunt.
The Hadza of Tanzania nearly lost their hunting rights to a safari hunting company.
Controlled hunting for profit is often more acceptable to governments than hunting by tribal peoples for their own needs.
When they are banned from their land by safari hunting companies or thrown off their land by settlers or ranchers, the impacts are severe. Tribal people are accused of “poaching” because they hunt their food. And they face arrest and beatings, torture and death, while fee-paying big game hunters are encouraged.
The impact of outlawing hunting
Conservation areas, such as national parks, and conservation regulations in many countries outlaw hunting of specific species and in particular areas, usually without consulting the tribal communities who will be most affected.
In January 2010, the Canadian government banned caribou hunting in an area where Dene tribal people harvest around 6,000 caribou a year to feed their families.
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Alternative sources of protein and iron are both more fatty and more expensive. Diabetes is a major problem among the Dene, who have already suffered due to forced evictions from their homelands.
Illa Bussidor, a Sayisi Dene, said “My dad was standing by the window. I saw that he was crying. ‘I was a proud man’, he said. ‘I hunted, and trapped for my family. I was so proud. But today my little girl brings home food from the garbage dump so I can eat.”
Hunting “charismatic” creatures
Where the issue of Indigenous hunting becomes particularly contentious is regarding species that are considered special, such as polar bears, seals and whales.
To many Arctic peoples, hunting these creatures is an integral part of their culture.
Charles Johnson, an Alaskan Inuit, said "When I was a child, it was forbidden to speak our language, to do things like dancing because missionaries said we were worshipping the devils.
“We need to keep our traditions alive. That includes regaining our language, regaining our culture and polar bear hunting is part of that.”
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Battle of Karbala
|Battle of Karbala|
Abbas Al-Musavi's Battle of Karbala, Brooklyn Museum
|Umayyad Caliphate||Husayn ibn Ali and his partisans|
|Commanders and leaders|
Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad|
Umar ibn Sa'd
Shemr ibn Dhil-Jawshan
Al-Hurr ibn Yazid al Tamimi (Defected)
Husayn ibn Ali †|
Al-Abbas ibn Ali †
Habib ibn Muzahir †
Zuhayr ibn Qayn †
|at least 4,000–5,000||70–145|
|Casualties and losses|
|Shia Islam portal|
The Battle of Karbala was fought on 10 October 680 (10 Muharram in the year 61 AH of the Islamic calendar) between the army of the second Umayyad caliph Yazid I and a small army led by Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, at Karbala, Iraq.
Prior to his death, the Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I had nominated his son Yazid as his successor. Yazid's nomination was contested by the sons of a few prominent companions of Muhammad, including Husayn, son of the fourth caliph Ali, and Abd Allah ibn Zubayr, son of Zubayr ibn al-Awam. Upon Muawiyah's death in 680 CE, Yazid demanded allegiance from Husayn and other dissidents. Husayn did not give allegiance and traveled to Mecca. The people of Kufa, an Iraqi garrison town and the center of Ali's caliphate, were averse to the Syria-based Umayyad caliphs and had a long-standing attachment to the house of Ali. They proposed Husayn overthrow the Umayyads. On Husayn's way to Kufa with a retinue of about 70 men, his caravan was intercepted by a 1,000-strong army of the caliph at some distance from Kufa. He was forced to head north and encamp in the plain of Karbala on 2 October, where a larger Umayyad army of 4,000 arrived soon afterwards. Negotiations failed after the Umayyad governor Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad refused Husayn safe passage without submitting to his authority, a condition declined by Husayn. The Battle of Karbala ensued on 10 October during which Husayn was killed along with most of his relatives and companions, while his surviving family members were taken prisoner. The battle was followed by the Second Islamic Civil War, during which the Iraqis organized two separate campaigns to avenge the death of Husayn; the first one by the Tawwabin and the other one by Mukhtar al-Thaqafi and his supporters.
The Battle of Karbala galvanized the development of the pro-Alid[a] party (Shi'at Ali) into a unique religious sect with its own rituals and collective memory. It has a central place in the Shi'a history, tradition, and theology, and has frequently been recounted in Shi'a literature. For the Shi'a, Husayn's suffering and death became a symbol of sacrifice in the struggle for right against wrong, and for justice and truth against injustice and falsehood. It also provides the members of the Shi'a faith with a catalog of heroic norms. The battle is commemorated during an annual ten-day period during the Islamic month of Muharram by Shi'a, culminating on tenth day of the month, known as the Day of Ashura. On this day, Shi'a Muslims mourn, hold public processions, organize religious gathering, beat their chests and in some cases self-flagellate. Sunni Muslims likewise regard the incident as a historical tragedy; Husayn and his companions are widely regarded as martyrs by both Sunni and Shi'a Muslims.
After the third caliph Uthman's assassination by rebels in 656, the rebels and the townspeople of Medina declared Ali, a cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, caliph. Some of Muhammad's companions including Talha ibn Ubayd Allah, Zubayr ibn al-Awam and Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan (then governor of Syria), and Muhammad's widow A'isha, refused to recognize Ali. They called for revenge against Uthman's killers and the election of a new caliph through shura (consultation). These events precipitated the First Fitna (First Muslim Civil War). When Ali was assassinated by Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam, a Kharijite, in 661, his eldest son Hasan succeeded him but soon signed a peace treaty with Mu'awiya to avoid further bloodshed. In the treaty, Hasan was to hand over power to Mu'awiya on the condition that Mu'awiya be a just ruler and that he would not establish a dynasty.[b] After the death of Hasan in 670, his younger brother Husayn became the head of the Banu Hashim clan to which the Islamic prophet Muhammad also belonged. Though his father's supporters in Kufa gave him their allegiance, he would abide to the peace treaty between Hasan and Mu'awiya as long as the latter was alive.
The Battle of Karbala occurred within the crisis resulting from the succession of Yazid I. In 676, Mu'awiya nominated his son Yazid as successor, a move labelled by the historian Wilferd Madelung as breach of the Hasan–Muawiya treaty. With no precedence in Islamic history, hereditary succession aroused opposition from several quarters. Mu'awiya summoned a shura, or consultative assembly, in Damascus and persuaded representatives from many provinces to agree to his plan by diplomacy and bribes. He then ordered Marwan ibn al-Hakam, then the governor of Medina, where Husayn and several other influential Muslims resided, to announce the decision. Marwan faced resistance to this announcement, especially from Husayn, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, Abd Allah ibn Umar and Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr, the sons of Muhammad's prominent companions, all of whom, by virtue of their descent, could also lay claim to the caliphal title. Mu'awiya went to Medina and pressed the four dissenters to accede. He followed and threatened some of them with death, but they still refused to support him. Nonetheless, Mu'awiya convinced the people of Mecca that the four had pledged their allegiance, and received allegiance from them for Yazid. On his return to Damascus, he secured allegiance from the people of Medina as well. There was no further overt protest against the plan for Yazid's succession. According to the historians Fitzpatrick and Walker, Yazid's succession, which was considered as an "anomaly in Islamic history", transformed the government from a "consultative" form to a monarchy. Before his death in April 680, Mu'awiya cautioned Yazid that Husayn and Ibn al-Zubayr might challenge his rule and instructed him to defeat them if they did. Yazid was further advised to treat Husayn with caution and not to spill his blood, since he was the grandson of Muhammad.
On his succession, Yazid charged the governor of Medina, Walid ibn Utba ibn Abu Sufyan, to secure allegiance from Husayn, Ibn al-Zubayr and Abd Allah ibn Umar, with force if necessary. Walid sought the advice of his Umayyad relative Marwan ibn al-Hakam, who suggested that Ibn al-Zubayr and Husayn should be forced to pledge allegiance as they were dangerous, while Ibn Umar should be left alone since he posed no threat. Walid summoned the two, but Ibn al-Zubayr escaped to Mecca. Husayn answered the summons but declined to pledge allegiance in the secretive environment of the meeting, suggesting it should be done in public. Marwan told Walid to imprison or behead him, but due to Husayn's kinship with Muhammad, Walid was unwilling to take any action against him. A few days later, Husayn left for Mecca without acknowledging Yazid. He arrived in Mecca at the beginning of May 680, and stayed there until the beginning of September.
Husayn had considerable support in Kufa, which had been the caliphal capital during the reigns of his father and brother. The Kufans had fought the Umayyads and their Syrian allies during the First Fitna, the five-year civil war which had established the Umayyad Caliphate. They were dissatisfied with Hasan's abdication and strongly resented Umayyad rule. While in Mecca, Husayn received letters from pro-Alids in Kufa informing him that they were tired of the Umayyad rule, which they considered to be oppressive, and that they had no rightful leader. They asked him to lead them in revolt against Yazid, promising to remove the Umayyad governor if Husayn would consent to aid them. Husayn wrote back affirmatively that a rightful leader is the one who acts according to the Qur'an and promised to lead them with the right guidance. Then he sent his cousin Muslim ibn Aqil to assess the situation in Kufa. Ibn Aqil attracted widespread support and informed Husayn of the situation, suggesting that he join them there. Yazid removed Nu'man ibn Bashir al-Ansari as governor of Kufa due to his inaction, and installed Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, then governor of Basra, in his place. As a result of Ibn Ziyad's suppression and political maneuvering, Ibn Aqil's following began to dissipate and he was forced to declare the revolt prematurely. It was defeated and Ibn Aqil was killed. Husayn had also sent a messenger to Basra, another garrison town in Iraq, but the messenger could not attract any following and was quickly apprehended and executed.
Husayn was unaware of the change of political circumstances in Kufa and decided to depart. Abd Allah ibn Abbas and Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr advised him not to move to Iraq, or, if he was determined, not to take women and children with him. The sincerity of Ibn al-Zubayr's advice has been doubted by many historians, however, as he had his own plans for leadership and was supposedly happy to be rid of Husayn. Nevertheless, he offered Husayn support if he would stay in Mecca and lead the opposition to Yazid from there. Husayn refused this, citing his abhorrence of bloodshed in the sanctuary, and decided to go ahead with his plan.
Journey towards Kufa
Husayn left Mecca with some fifty men and his family on 9 September 680 (8 Dhu al-Hijjah 60 AH), a day before Hajj. He took the northerly route through the Arabian Desert. On persuasion of Husayn's cousin Abd Allah ibn Ja'far, the governor of Mecca Amr ibn Sa'id sent his brother and Ibn Ja'far after Husayn in order to assure him safety in Mecca and bring him back. Husayn refused to return, relating that Muhammad had ordered him in a dream to move forward irrespective of the consequences. At a place known as Tan'im, he seized a caravan carrying dyeing plants and clothes sent by the governor of Yemen to Yazid. Further on the way, at a place called Tha'labiyya, the small caravan received the news of the execution of Ibn Aqil and the indifference of the people of Kufa. Husayn at this point is reported to have considered turning back, but was persuaded to push forward by Ibn Aqil's brothers, who wanted to avenge his death; according to Madelung and I. K. A. Howard, these reports are doubtful. Later, at Zubala, Husayn learned of the capture and execution of his messenger Qays ibn Musahir al-Saydawi, whom he had sent from the Hejaz (western Arabia) to Kufa to announce his arrival.[c] He informed his followers of the situation and asked them to leave. Most of the people who had joined him on the way left, while his companions from Mecca decided to stay with him.
Ibn Ziyad had stationed troops on the routes into Kufa. Husayn and his followers were intercepted by the vanguard of Yazid's army, about 1,000 men led by Hurr ibn Yazid al-Tamimi, south of Kufa near Qadisiyya. Husayn said to them:
I did not come to you until your letters were brought to me, and your messengers came to me saying, 'Come to us, for we have no imam.' ... Therefore, if you give me what you guaranteed in your covenants and sworn testimonies, I will come to your town. If you will not and are averse to my coming, I will leave you for the place from which I came to you.
He then showed them the letters he had received from the Kufans, including some in Hurr's force. Hurr denied any knowledge of the letters and stated that Husayn must go with him to Ibn Ziyad, which Huasyn refused to do. Hurr responded that he would not allow Husayn to either enter Kufa or go back to Medina, but that he was free to travel anywhere else he wished. Nevertheless, he did not prevent four Kufans from joining Husayn. Husayn's caravan started to move towards Qadisiyya, and Hurr followed them. At Naynawa, Hurr received orders from Ibn Ziyad to force Husayn's caravan to halt in a desolate place without fortifications or water. One of Husayn's companions suggested that they attack Hurr and move to the fortified village of al-Aqr. Husayn refused, stating that he did not want to start the hostilities. On 2 October 680 (2 Muharram 61 AH), Husayn arrived at Karbala, a desert plain 70 kilometers (43 mi) north of Kufa, and set up camp.
On the following day, a 4,000-strong Kufan army arrived under the command of Umar ibn Sa'd. He had been appointed governor of Rayy to suppress a local rebellion, but then recalled to confront Husayn. Initially, he was unwilling to fight Husayn, but complied following Ibn Ziyad's threat to revoke his governorship. After negotiations with Husayn, Ibn Sa'd wrote to Ibn Ziyad that Husayn was willing to return. Ibn Ziyad replied that Husayn must surrender or he should be subdued by force, and that to compel him, he and his companions should be denied access to the Euphrates river. Ibn Sa'd stationed 500 horsemen on the route leading to the river. Husayn and his companions remained without water for three days before a group of fifty men led by his half-brother Abbas was able to access the river. They could only fill twenty water-skins.
Husayn and Ibn Sa'd met during the night to negotiate a settlement; it was rumored that Husayn made three proposals: either he be allowed to return to Medina, submit to Yazid directly, or be sent to a border post where he would fight alongside the Muslim armies. According to Madelung, these reports are probably untrue as Husayn at this stage is unlikely to have considered submitting to Yazid. A mawla of Husayn's wife later claimed that Husayn had suggested that he be allowed to leave, so that all parties could allow the fluid political situation to clarify. Ibn Sa'd sent the proposal, whatever it was, to Ibn Ziyad, who is reported to have accepted but then persuaded otherwise by Shemr ibn Ziljawshan. Shemr argued that Husayn was in his domain and letting him go would be to demonstrate weakness. Ibn Ziyad then sent Shemr with orders to ask Husayn for his allegiance once more and to attack, kill and disfigure him if he was to refuse, as "a rebel, a seditious person, a brigand, an oppressor and he was to do no further harm after his death". If Ibn Sa'd was unwilling to carry out the attack, he was instructed to hand over command to Shemr. Ibn Sa'd cursed Shemr and accused him of foiling his attempts to reach a peaceful settlement but agreed to carry out the orders. He remarked that Husayn would not submit because there was "a proud soul in him".
The army advanced toward Husayn's camp on the evening of 9 October. Husayn sent Abbas to ask Ibn Sa'd to wait until the next morning, so that they could consider the matter. Ibn Sa'd agreed to this respite. Husayn told his men that they were all free to leave, with his family, under the cover of night, since their opponents only wanted him. Very few availed themselves of this opportunity. Defense arrangements were made: tents were brought together and tied to one another and a ditch was dug behind the tents and filled with wood ready to be set alight in case of attack. Husayn and his followers then spent the rest of the night praying.
After the morning prayer on 10 October, both parties took up battle positions. Husayn appointed Zuhayr ibn Qayn to command the right flank of his army, Habib ibn Muzahir to command the left flank, and his half-brother Abbas as the standard bearer. Husayn's companions, according to most accounts, numbered thirty-two horsemen and forty infantrymen; although forty-five horsemen and one hundred foot-soldiers, or a total of a few hundred men have been reported by some sources. The ditch containing wood were set alight. Husayn then delivered a speech to his opponents reminding them of his status as Muhammad's grandson and reproaching them for inviting and then abandoning him. He asked to be allowed to leave. He was told that first he had to submit to Yazid's authority, which he refused to do. Husayn's speech moved Hurr to defect to his side.
After Husayn's speech, Zuhayr ibn Qayn attempted to dissuade Ibn Sa'd's soldiers from killing Husayn, but in vain. Ibn Sa'd's army fired several volleys of arrows. This was followed by duels in which several of Husayn's companions were slain. The right wing of the Kufans, led by Amr ibn al-Hajjaj, attacked Husayn's force, but was repulsed. Hand-to-hand fighting paused and further volleys of arrows were exchanged. Shemr, who commanded the left wing of the Umayyad army, launched an attack, but after losses on both sides he was repulsed. This was followed by cavalry attacks. Husayn's cavalry resisted fiercely and Ibn Sa'd brought in armoured cavalry and five hundred archers. After their horses were wounded by arrows, Husayn's cavalrymen dismounted and fought on foot.
Since Umayyad forces could approach Husayn's army from the front only, Ibn Sa'd ordered the tents to be burned. All except the one which Husayn and his family were using were set on fire. Shemr wanted to burn that one too, but was prevented by his companions. The plan backfired and flames hindered the Umayyad advance for a while. After noon prayers, Husayn's companions were encircled, and almost all of them were killed. Husayn's relatives, who had not taken part in the fighting so far, joined the battle. Husayn's son Ali Akbar was killed; then Husayn's half-brothers, including Abbas, and the sons of Aqil ibn Abi Talib, Jafar ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali were slain. The account of Abbas' death is not given in the primary sources, al-Tabari and Baladhuri, but a prominent Shi'a theologian Shaykh Al-Mufid states in his account in Kitab al-Irshad that Abbas went to the river together with Husayn but became separated, was surrounded, and killed. At some point, a young child of Husayn's, who was sitting on his lap, was hit by an arrow and died.
Death of Husayn ibn Ali
The Umayyad soldiers hesitated to attack Husayn directly, but he was struck in the mouth by an arrow as he went to the river to drink. He collected his blood in a cupped hand and cast towards the sky, complaining to God of his suffering. Later, he was surrounded and struck on the head by Malik ibn Nusayr. The blow cut through his hooded cloak, which Husayn removed while cursing his attacker. He put a cap on his head and wrapped a turban around it to staunch the bleeding. Ibn Nusayr seized the bloodied cloak and retreated.
Shemr advanced with a group of foot soldiers towards Husayn, who was now prepared to fight as few people were left on his side. A young boy from Husayn's camp escaped from the tents, ran to him, tried to defend him from a sword stroke and had his arm cut off. Ibn Sa'd approached the tents and Husayn's sister Zaynab complained to him: "'Umar b. Sa'd, will Abu 'Abd Allah (the kunya of Husayn) be killed while you stand and watch?" Ibn Sa'd wept but did nothing. Husayn is said to have killed many of his attackers. They were, however, still unwilling to kill him and each of them wanted to leave this to somebody else. Eventually Shemr shouted: "Shame on you! Why are you waiting for the man? Kill him, may your mothers be deprived of you!" The Umayyad soldiers then rushed Husayn and wounded him on his hand and shoulder. He fell on the ground face-down and an attacker named Sinan ibn Anas stabbed and then decapitated him.
Seventy or seventy-two people died on Husayn's side, of whom about twenty were descendants of Abu Talib, the father of Ali. This included two of Husayn's sons, six of his paternal brothers, three sons of Hasan ibn Ali, three sons of Jafar ibn Abi Talib and three sons and three grandsons of Aqil ibn Abi Talib. Following the battle, Husayn's clothes were stripped, and his sword, shoes and baggage were taken. The women's jewelry and cloaks were also seized. Shemr wanted to kill Husayn's only surviving son Ali Zayn al-Abidin, who had not taken part in the fighting because of illness, but was prevented by Ibn Sa'd. There are reports of more than sixty wounds on Husayn's body, which was then trampled with horses as previously instructed by Ibn Ziyad. The bodies of Husayn's companions were decapitated. There were eighty-eight dead in Ibn Sa'd's army, who were buried before he left. After his departure, members of the Banu Asad tribe, from the nearby village of Ghadiriya, buried the headless bodies of Husayn's companions.
Husayn's family, along with the heads of the dead, were sent to Ibn Ziyad. He poked Husayn's mouth with a stick and intended to kill Ali Zayn al-Abidin, but spared him after the pleas of Husayn's sister Zaynab. The heads and the family were then sent to Yazid, who also poked Husayn's mouth with a stick. The historian Henri Lammens has suggested that this is a duplication of the report regarding Ibn Ziyad. Yazid was compassionate towards the women and Ali Zayn al-Abidin, and cursed Ibn Ziyad for murdering Husayn, stating that had he been there, he would have spared him. One of his courtiers asked for the hand of a captive woman from Husayn's family in marriage, which resulted in heated altercation between Yazid and Zaynab. The women of Yazid's household joined the captive women in their lamentation for the dead. After a few days, the women were compensated for their belongings looted in Karbala and were sent back to Medina.
The Battle of Karbala and Husayn's death signaled the start of the Second Islamic Civil War against the Umayyads.
Ibn al-Zubayr's revolt
Following Husayn's death, Yazid faced increased opposition to his rule from Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr. Ibn al-Zubayr started secretly recruiting supporters in Mecca, while overtly calling for a shura to elect a new caliph. Ibn al-Zuabyr's influence reached Medina, where citizens were already disillusioned with Umayyad rule and Mu'awiya's agricultural projects, which included confiscating lands from them to increase the government's revenue. Yazid invited the notables of Medina to Damascus and tried to win them over with gifts. They were unpersuaded and on their return to Medina narrated tales of Yazid's lavish lifestyle and impious practices. The Medinese, under the leadership of Abd Allah ibn Hanzala, the son of a leading companion of Muhammad, renounced their allegiance to Yazid and expelled the governor and the Umayyads residing in the city. Yazid sent a 12,000-strong army under the veteran commander Muslim ibn Uqba to reconquer the Hejaz. After failed negotiations, the Medinese were defeated at the Battle of al-Harrah, and the city was plundered for three days. Having forced the rebels to renew their allegiance, the Syrian army besieged Mecca. After Yazid's death in November 683, the army withdrew to Syria and Ibn al-Zubayr declared himself caliph, receiving widespread recognition throughout the caliphate. Nevertheless, Mukhtar al-Thaqafi, his erstwhile ally, took over Kufa and most of Iraq from Ibn al-Zubayr's governor, and Kharijites in Basra, Persia and Arabia weakened his authority. Although the Zubayrids defeated Mukhtar, the forces of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, who became the Umayyad caliph in Syria in 685, defeated and killed Ibn al-Zubayr in 692. The latter's defeat marked the reestablishment Umayyad rule over the caliphate.
A few prominent Alid supporters in Kufa felt guilty for abandoning Husayn after having invited him to revolt. To atone for what they perceived as their sin, they began a movement known as the Tawwabin, under Sulayman ibn Surad, a companion of Muhammad, to fight the Umayyads. As long as Iraq was in Umayyad hands, the movement remained underground. After the death of Yazid in November 683, the people of Iraq drove out the Umayyad governor Ibn Ziyad; The Tawwabin called on the people to avenge Husayn's death, attracting large-scale support. Lacking any political program, they intended to punish the Umayyads or sacrifice themselves in the struggle. Their slogan was "Revenge for Husayn". Mukhtar al-Thaqafi, another prominent pro-Alid of Kufa, attempted to dissuade the Tawwabin from this endeavor in favor of an organized movement to take control of the city, but Ibn Surad's stature as a companion of Muhammad and an old ally of Ali, prevented most of his followers from accepting Mukhtar's proposal. Although 16,000 men enlisted to fight, only 4,000 mustered. In November 684, the Tawwabin left to confront the Umayyads, after mourning for a day at Husayn's grave in Karbala. The armies met in January 685 at the three-day Battle of Ayn al-Warda in present-day northern Syria; most of the Tawwabin, including Ibn Surad, were killed. A few escaped to Kufa and joined Mukhtar.
Revolt of Mukhtar al-Thaqafi
Mukhtar was an early settler of Kufa, having arrived in Iraq following its initial conquest by the Muslims. He had participated in the failed rebellion of Muslim ibn Aqil, for which he was imprisoned by Ibn Ziyad, before being released after the intervention of Abd Allah ibn Umar. Mukhtar then went to Mecca and had a short-lived alliance with Ibn al-Zubayr. After Yazid's death, he returned to Kufa where he advocated revenge against Husayn's killers and the establishment of an Alid caliphate in the name of Husayn's half-brother Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, and declared himself his representative. The defeat of the Tawwabin left the leadership of the Kufan pro-Alids in his hands. In October 685, Mukhtar and his supporters, a significant of number of whom consisted of local converts (mawali), overthrew Ibn al-Zubayr's governor and seized Kufa. His control extended to most of Iraq and parts of northwestern Iran. His attitude towards mawali, whom he awarded many favors and equal status with Arabs, provoked a rebellion by the dissatisfied Arab aristocracy. After crushing the rebellion, Mukhtar executed Kufans involved in the killing of Husayn, including Ibn Sa'd and Shemr, while thousands of people fled to Basra. He then sent his general Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar to fight an approaching Umayyad army, led by Ibn Ziyad, which had been sent to reconquer the province. The Umayyad army was routed at the Battle of Khazir in August 686 and Ibn Ziyad was slain. Meanwhile, Mukhtar's relations with Ibn al-Zubayr worsened and Kufan refugees in Basra persuaded Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr, the governor of the city and younger brother of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, to attack Kufa. Facing defeat in open battle, Mukhtar and his remaining supporters took refuge in the palace of Kufa and were besieged by Mus'ab. Four months later, in April 687, Mukhtar was killed while some 6,000–8,000 of his supporters were executed. According to Mohsen Zakeri, Mukhtar's attitude towards mawali was one of the reasons behind his failure, as Kufa was not ready for such "revolutionary measures". Mukhtar's supporters survived the collapse of his revolution and evolved into a sect known as the Kaysanites. The Hashimiyya, a splinter group of the Kaysanites, was later taken over by the Abbasids and eventually overthrew the Umayyads in 750.
Primary and classic sources
The primary source of the Karbala narrative is the work of the Kufan historian Abu Mikhnaf titled Kitab Maqtal Al-Husayn. Other early monographs on the death of Husayn, which have not survived, were written by al-Asbagh al-Nubata, Jabir ibn Yazid al-Ju'fi, Ammar ibn Mu'awiya al-Duhni, Awana ibn al-Hakam, al-Waqidi, Hisham ibn al-Kalbi, Nasr ibn Muzahim, and al-Mada'ini; of these al-Nubta's monograph was perhaps the earliest. Although Abu Mikhnaf's date of birth is unknown, he was an adult by the time of the revolt of Ibn al-Ash'ath, which occurred in 701, some twenty years after the Battle of Karbala. As such he knew many eyewitnesses and collected firsthand accounts and some with very short chains of transmitters, usually one or two intermediaries. The eyewitnesses were of two kinds: those from Husayn's side; and those from Ibn Sa'd's army. Since few people from Husayn's camp survived, most eyewitnesses were from the second category. According to Julius Wellhausen, most of them regretted their actions in the battle and embellished the accounts of the battle in favor of Husayn in order to dilute their guilt. Although as an Iraqi, Abu Mikhnaf had pro-Alid tendencies, his reports generally do not contain much bias on his part. Abu Mikhnaf's original text seems to have been lost and the version extant today has been transmitted through secondary sources such as the History of Prophets and Kings, also known as The History of Tabari, by Muḥammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari; and Ansab al-Ashraf by Ahmad ibn Yaḥya al-Baladhuri. Nevertheless, four manuscripts of a Maqtal located at Gotha (No. 1836), Berlin (Sprenger, Nos. 159–160), Leiden (No. 792), and Saint Petersburg (Am No. 78) libraries have been attributed to Abu Mikhnaf. Tabari quotes either directly from Abu Mikhnaf or from his student Ibn al-Kalbi, who took most of his material from Abu Mikhnaf. Tabari occasionally takes material from Ammar ibn Mu'awiya, Awana and other primary sources, which, however, adds little to the narrative. Baladhuri uses same sources as Tabari. Information on the battle found in the works of Dinawari and Ya'qubi is also based on Abu Mikhnaf's Maqtal, although they occasionally provide some extra notes and verses. Other secondary sources include al-Mas'udi's Muruj al-Dhahab, Ibn Ath'am's Kitab al-Futuh, Shaykh al-Mufid's Kitab al-Irshad, and Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani's Maqatil al-Talibiyyin. Most of these sources took material from Abu Mikhnaf, in addition to some from the primary works of Awana, al-Mada'ini and Nasr ibn Muzahim.
Although Tabari and other early sources contain some miraculous stories, these sources are mainly historical and rational in nature, in contrast to the literature of later periods, which is mainly hagiographical in nature.
Based on an official report sent to caliph Yazid, which describes the battle very briefly, stating that it lasted for no longer than a siesta, Lammens concludes that there was no battle at all but a quick massacre that was over in an hour; he suggests that the detailed accounts found in the primary sources are Iraqi fabrications, since their writers were dissatisfied with their hero being killed without putting up a fight. This is countered by the historian Laura Veccia Vaglieri, who argues that despite there being some fabricated accounts, all of the contemporary accounts together form "a coherent and credible narrative". She criticizes Lammens' hypothesis as being based on a single isolated report and being devoid of critical analysis. Similarly, Madelung and Wellhausen assert that the battle lasted from sunrise to sunset and that the overall account of the battle is reliable. Vaglieri and Madelung explain the length of the battle despite the numerical disparity between the opposing camps as Ibn Sa'd's attempt to prolong the fight and pressure Husayn into submission instead of attempting to quickly overwhelm and kill him.
According to Wellhausen, the compassion that Yazid showed to the family of Husayn, and his cursing of Ibn Ziyad was only for show. He argues that if killing Husayn was a crime its responsibility lay with Yazid and not Ibn Ziyad, who was only performing his duty. Madelung holds a similar view; according to him, early accounts place the responsibility for Husayn's death on Ibn Ziyad, not Yazid. Yazid, Madelung argues, wanted to end Husayn's opposition, but as a caliph of Islam could not afford to be seen as publicly responsible and so diverted blame onto Ibn Ziyad by hypocritically cursing him.
Modern historical views on motivations of Husayn
Wellhausen has described Husayn's revolt as a premature and ill-prepared campaign by an ambitious person. He writes "He reaches out to the moon like a child. He makes the greatest demands and does not do the slightest; the others should do everything... As soon as he encounters resistance, it is over with him; he wants to go back when it is too late." Lammens has agreed to this view and he sees in Husayn a person who disturbs public peace. According to Heinz Halm, this was a struggle for political leadership between the second generation of Muslims. Fred Donner, G. R. Hawting, and Hugh N. Kennedy see Husayn's revolt as an attempt to regain what his brother Hasan had renounced.
Vaglieri, on the other hand, considers him to be motivated by ideology, saying that if the materials that have come down to us are authentic, they convey an image of person who is "convinced that he was in the right, stubbornly determined to achieve his ends..." Holding a similar view, Madelung has argued that Husayn was not a "reckless rebel" but a religious man motivated by pious convictions. According to him, Husayn was convinced that "the family of the Prophet was divinely chosen to lead the community founded by Moḥammad, as the latter had been chosen, and had both an inalienable right and an obligation to seek this leadership." He was, however, not seeking martyrdom and wanted to return when his expected support did not materialize. Maria Dakake holds that Husayn considered the Umayyad rule oppressive and misguided, and revolted to reorient the Islamic community in the right direction. S. M. Jafri proposes that Husayn, although motivated by ideology, did not intend to secure leadership for himself. Husayn, Jafri asserts, was from the start aiming for martyrdom in order to jolt the collective conscience of the Muslim community and reveal what he considers to be the oppressive and anti-Islamic nature of the Umayyad regime.
The killing of the grandson of Muhammad shocked the Muslim community. The image of Yazid suffered and gave rise to sentiment that he was impious. The event has had an emotional impact on Sunnis, who remember the event as a tragic incident and those killed in the company of Husayn as martyrs. The impact on Shi'a Islam has been much deeper.
Prior to the Battle of Karbala, the Muslim community was divided into two political factions. Nonetheless, a religious sect with distinct theological doctrines and specific set of rituals had not developed. Karbala gave this early political party of pro-Alids a distinct religious identity and helped transform it into a distinct religious sect. Heinz Halm writes: "There was no religious aspect to Shi'ism prior to 680. The death of the third imam and his followers marked the 'big bang' that created the rapidly expanding cosmos of Shi'ism and brought it into motion."
Husayn's death at Karbala is believed by Shi'as to be a sacrifice made to prevent the corruption of Islam by tyrannical rulers and to protect its ideology. He is, as such, believed to have been fully aware of his fate and the outcome of his revolt, which was divinely ordained. He is thus remembered as the prince of martyrs (Sayyed al-Shuhada). The historian G. R. Hawting describes the Battle of Karbala as a "supreme" example of "suffering and martyrdom" for Shi'as. According to Abdulaziz Sachedina, it is seen by Shi'as the climax of suffering and oppression, revenge for which came to be one of the primary goals of many Shi'a uprisings. This revenge is believed to be one of the fundamental objectives of the future revolution of the twelfth Shi'a Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi, whose return is awaited. With his return, Husayn and his seventy-two companions are expected to be resurrected along with their killers, who will then be punished.
Shi'a Muslims consider pilgrimages to Husayn's tomb to be a source of divine blessings and rewards. According to Shi'a tradition the first such visit was performed by Husayn's son Ali Zayn al-Abidin and the surviving family members during their return from Syria to Medina. The first historically recorded visit is Sulayman ibn Surad and the Penitents going to Husayn's grave before their departure to Syria. They are reported to have lamented and beaten their chests and to have spent a night by the tomb. Thereafter this tradition was limited to the Shi'a imams for several decades, before gaining momentum under the sixth Shi'a imam Jafar Sadiq and his followers. Buyids and Safavids also encouraged this practice. Special visits are paid on 10 Muharram (Ashura Pilgrimage) and 40 days after the anniversary of Husayn's (Arba'een Pilgrimage). The soil of Karbala is considered to have miraculous healing effects.
Mourning for Husayn is considered by Shi'as to be a source of salvation in the afterlife, and is undertaken as a remembrance of his suffering. After the death of Husayn, when his family was being taken to Ibn Ziyad, Husayn's sister Zaynab is reported to have cried out after seeing his headless body: "O Muhammad!... Here is Husayn in the open, stained with blood and with limbs torn off. O Muhammad! Your daughters are prisoners, your progeny are killed, and the east wind blows dust over them." Shi'a Muslims consider this to be the first instance of wailing and mourning over the death of Husayn. Husayn's son Zayn al-Abideen is reported to have spent the rest of his life weeping for his father. Similarly, Husayn's mother Fatima is believed to be weeping for him in paradise and the weeping of believers is considered to be a way of sharing her sorrows. Special gatherings (majalis; sing. majlis) are arranged in places reserved for this purpose, called husayniyya. In these gatherings the story of Karbala is narrated and various elegies (rawda) are recited by professional reciters (rawda khwan).
During the month of Muharram, elaborate public processions are performed in commemoration of the Battle of Karbala. In contrast to pilgrimage to Husayn's tomb and simple lamenting, these processions do not date back to the time of the battle, but arose during tenth century. Their earliest recorded instance was in Baghdad in 963 during the reign of the first Buyid ruler Mu'izz al-Dawla. The processions start from a husayniyya and the participants parade barefoot through the streets, wailing and beating their chests and heads before returning to the husyaniyya for a majlis. Sometimes, chains and knives are used to inflict wounds and physical pain. In South Asia, an ornately tacked horse called zuljenah, representing Husayn's battle horse, is also led riderless through the streets. In Iran, the battle scenes of Karbala are performed on stage in front of an audience in a ritual called taziya (passion play), also known as shabih. In India however, taziya refers to the coffins and replicas of Husayn's tomb carried in processions.
Most of these rituals take place during the first ten days of Muharram, reaching a climax on the tenth day, although majalis can also occur throughout the year. Occasionally, especially in the past, some Sunni participation in majalis and processions has been observed. According to Yitzhak Nakash, the rituals of Muharram have an "important" effect in the "invoking the memory of Karbala", as these help consolidate the collective identity and memory of the Shi'a community. Anthropologist Michael Fischer states that commemoration of the Battle of Karbala by the Shi'a is not only the retelling of the story, but also presents them with "life models and norms of behavior" which are applicable to all aspects of life, which he calls the Karbala Paradigm. According to Olmo Gölz, the Karbala Paradigm provide Shi'as with heroic norms and a martyr ethos, and represents an embodiment of the battle between good and evil, justice and injustice. Rituals involving self-flagellation have been criticized by many Shia scholars as they are considered to be innovative practices damaging reputation of Shi'ism. Iranian supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei has banned the practice in Iran since 1994.
The first political use of the death of Husayn seems to have been during the revolt of Mukhtar, when he seized Kufa under the slogan of "Revenge for Husayn". Although the Penitents had used the same slogan, they do not seem have had a political program. In order to enhance their legitimacy, Abbasid rulers claimed to have avenged the death of Husayn by dethroning the Umayyads. During the early years of their rule, they also encouraged Muharram rituals. Buyids, a Shi'a dynasty originally from Iran which later occupied the Abbasid capital Baghdad while accepting the Abbasid caliph's suzerainty, promoted the public rituals of Muharram to portray themselves as patrons of religion and to strengthen the Shi'a identity in Iraq. After taking over Iran in 1501, Safavids, who were previously a Sufi order, declared the state religion to be Twelver Shi'ism. In this regard, Karbala and Muharram rituals came to be a vehicle of Safavid propaganda and a means of consolidating the dynasty's Shi'a identity. Riza Yildirim has claimed that the impetus of the Safvid revolution was the revenge of the death of Husayn. The founder of the dynasty, Shah Ismail, considered himself to be the Mahdi (the twelfth Shi'a Imam) or his forerunner. Similarly, Qajars also patronized Muharram rituals such as processions, taziya and majalis, to improve the relationship between the state and the public.
Karbala and Shi'a symbolism played a significant role in the Iranian Revolution of 1979. In contrast to the traditional view of Shi'ism as a religion of suffering, mourning and political quietism, Shi'a Islam and Karbala were given a new interpretation in the period preceding the revolution by rationalist intellectuals and religious revisionists like Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, Ali Shariati and Nematollah Salehi Najafabadi. According to these, Shi'ism was an ideology of revolution and political struggle against tyranny and exploitation, and the Battle of Karbala and the death of Husayn was to be seen as a model for revolutionary struggle; weeping and mourning was to be replaced by political activism to realize the ideals of Husayn.
After the White Revolution reforms of the Iranian Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, which were opposed by the Iranian clergy and others, Ruhollah Khomeini labelled the Shah as the Yazid of his time. Condemning the Iranian monarchy, Khomeini wrote: "The struggle of al-Husayn at Karbalâ is interpreted in the same way as a struggle against the non-Islamic principle of monarchy." Opposition to the Shah was thus compared with the opposition of Husayn to Yazid, and Muharram ritual gatherings became increasingly political in nature. According to Aghaie, the Shah's hostility towards various Muharram rituals, which he considered to be uncivilized, contributed to his fall. The Islamic republic that was established after the revolution has since promoted Muharram rituals. The clerics encourage public participation in elections as a form of "political activism" comparable to that of Husayn. Martyrdom spirit influenced by the death of Husayn was frequently witnessed in Iranian troops during the Iran–Iraq war.
Mir Mosharraf Hossain's 19th century novel on Karbala, Bishad Sindhu (the Ocean of Sorrow), established the precedent of the Islamic epic in Bangali literature. South Asian philosopher and poet Muhammad Iqbal sees Husayn's sacrifice as being similar to that of Ishmael and compares Yazid's opposition to Husayn with the opposition of Pharaoh to Moses. Urdu poet Ghalib compares Husayn's suffering with that of Mansur al-Hallaj, a tenth century Sufi, who was executed on a charge of claiming divinity.
Maqtal literature and legendary accounts
Maqtal (pl. Maqatil) works narrate the story of someone's death. Although Maqatil on the deaths of Ali, Uthman and various others have been written, the Maqtal genre has focused mainly on the story of Husyan's death.
As well as Abu Mikhnaf's Maqtal, other Arabic Maqatil on Husayn were written. Most of these mix history with legend and have elaborate details on Husayn's miraculous birth, which is stated to be on 10 Muharram, coinciding with his date of death. The universe as well as humanity are described as having been created on the day of Ashura (10 Muharram). Ashura is also asserted to have been the day of both Abraham's and Muhammad's birth and of the ascension of Jesus to heaven, and of numerous other events concerning prophets. Husayn is claimed to have performed various miracles, including quenching his companions' thirst by putting his thumb in their mouths and satisfying their hunger by bringing down food from the heavens, and to have killed several thousand Umayyad attackers. Other accounts claim that when Husayn died, his horse shed tears and killed many Umayyad soldiers; the sky became red and it rained blood; angels, jinns and wild animals wept; that light emanated from Husayn's severed head and that it recited the Qur'an; and that all of his killers met calamitous end.
Maqtal later entered Persian, Turkish, and Urdu literature, and inspired the development of rawda.
Marthiya and rawda
When Shi'ism became the official religion of Iran in the 16th century, Safavid rulers such as Shah Tahmasp I, patronized poets who wrote about the Battle of Karbala. The genre of marthiya (poems in the memory of the dead, with popular forms of Karbala related marthiya being rawda and nawha), according to Persian scholar Wheeler Thackston, "was particularly cultivated by the Safavids." Various Persian authors wrote texts retelling romanticized and synthesized versions of the battle and events from it, including Sa'id al-Din's Rawdat al-Islam (The Garden of Islam) and Al-Khawarazmi's Maqtal nur 'al-'a'emmah (The Site of the Murder of the Light of the Imams). These influenced the composition of the more popular text Rawdat al-Shuhada (Garden of Martyrs), which was written in 1502 by Husain Wa'iz Kashefi. Kashefi's composition was an effective factor in the development of rawda khwani, a ritual recounting of the battle events in majalis.
Inspired by Rawdat al-Shuhada, the Azerbaijani poet Fuzûlî wrote an abridged and simplified version of it in Ottoman Turkish in his work Hadiqat al-Su'ada. It influenced similar works in Albanian on the subject. Dalip Frashëri's Kopshti i te Mirevet is the earliest, and longest epic so far, written in the Albanian language; the Battle of Karbala is described in detail and Frashëri eulogizes those who fell as martyrs, in particular Husayn.
Urdu marthiya is predominantly religious in nature and usually concentrates on lamenting the Battle of Karbala. South Indian rulers of Bijapur (Ali Adil Shah), and Golkonda Sultanate (Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah) were patrons of poetry and encouraged Urdu marthiya recitation in Muharram. Urdu marthiya afterwards became popular throughout India. Famous Urdu poets Mir Taqi Mir, Mirza Rafi Sauda, Mir Anees, and Mirza Salaamat Ali Dabeer have also composed marthiya. Comparing Karl Marx with Husayn, Josh Malihabadi argues that Karbala is not a story of the past to be recounted by the religious clerics in majalis, but should be seen as a model for revolutionary struggle towards the goal of a classless society and economic justice.
In Sufism, where annihilation of the self (nafs) and suffering in the path of God are paramount principles, Husayn is seen as a model Sufi. Persian Sufi poet Hakim Sanai describes Husayn as a martyr, higher in rank than all the other martyrs of the world; while Farid ud-Din Attar considers him a prototype of a Sufi who sacrificed himself in the love of God. Jalal ud-Din Rumi describes Husayn's suffering at Karbala as a means to achieve union with the divine, and hence considers it to be a matter of jubilation rather than grief. Sindhi Sufi poet Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai devoted a section in his Shah Jo Risalo to the death of Husayn, in which the incident is remembered in laments and elegies. He too sees Husayn's death as a sacrifice made in the path of God, and condemns Yazid as being bereft of divine love. Turkish Sufi Yunus Emre labels Husayn, along with his brother Hasan, as the "fountain head of the martyrs" and "Kings of the Paradise" in his songs.
- List of casualties in Husayn's army at the Battle of Karbala
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- Political supporters of Ali and his descendants (Alids).
- Several conflicting terms of the treaty have been reported. Most of the accounts mention various financial rewards to Hasan. Other conditions, different in different sources, include selection of new caliph through shura (consultation) after Mu'awiya's death, transfer of the caliphate to Hasan after Mu'awiya's death, general amnesty to Hasan's followers, rule according to Qur'an and the Sunna of Muhammad, discontinuation of cursing of Ali from the pulpit, financial rewards to Husayn, and preferential treatment of the Hashemite clan (clan of Muhammad). According to Vaglieri, conditions other than financial benefits are suspect and were probably invented later in order to mitigate criticism of Hasan for having abdicated. Jafri, on the other hand, considers the terms in addition to financial compensation reliable.
- According to other accounts, the person was Husayn's foster brother Abd Allah ibn Yaqtur whom he had sent after learning of Ibn Aqil's execution.
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|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Karbala.|
|Wikisource has original text related to this article:|
- Info on Husayn
- Events of Karbala
- Poetryofislam.com, poetry on Kerbala by Mahmood Abu Shahbaaz Londoni
- Sacred-texts.com, Battle of Karbala (in English)
- Battle of Karbala
- A Probe Into the History of Ashura by Dr. Ibrahim Ayati | <urn:uuid:4cbc8fd3-fbad-46c1-a015-8f0d755dcd87> | CC-MAIN-2020-10 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kerbela | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-10/segments/1581875148163.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200228231614-20200229021614-00119.warc.gz | en | 0.940353 | 16,758 | 2.6875 | 3 |
The late Thurgood Marshall was a fearless civil-rights champion and a dynamic trial lawyer; he wrote more than 150 decisions as a judge for the U.S. Second Circuit Court of Appeals, and as a lawyer he won 29 of the 32 cases he brought before the Supreme Court, the most noted being the landmark Brown v. Board of Education, which ended legal segregation in public schools. Marshall was also an engaging storyteller.
In the one-man show Thurgood, award-winning actor Laurence Fishburne delivers a remarkable performance, chronicling Marshall’s life from his childhood in Baltimore to his becoming the first African-American appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court to his last day on the court. “I felt it was a responsibility to play him,” says Fishburne. “His life and his journey were interesting, and his story is one that deserves to be told. The important work he accomplished in his lifetime is something that we all have benefited from.”
As the candid and eidetic Marshall, who has returned to his alma mater, Fishburne begins by declaring, “I’ve given fifty years to the law. The law is a weapon if you know how to use it.” He then recounts his days of growing up in Baltimore — where he began to learn The Constitution in grade school, as a result of being sent to the furnace room to read it as a form of punishment — attending Lincoln College, being denied admission to the University of Maryland Law School and going to Howard University, where he was schoolmates with Langston Hughes and met his mentor Charles Hamilton Houston. He then tells of his time as a lawyer for the NAACP. He also recounts the tender and sad moments of his personal life.
Fishburne has often portrayed authoritative and commanding characters, but he says that those are never characteristics he looks for when he decides to take on a role. With regards to preparing for his role as Thurgood Marshall, he says, “I prepared the usual way, rehearsing week after week, six days a week. Rehearsal is preparation. But I also read a lot of books about Thurgood, most notably Juan Williams’s biography.”
In addition to his conviction of the need for integration and his brilliance with regards to law, Marshall was also known for possessing quite a sense of humor. Fishburne captures that quality in his portrayal, imparting Marshall’s sharp wit in the stories he retells. But at the heart of those stories — and the play itself — he delivers a vital history lesson about the discrimination Blacks faced in their struggles for equal civil rights as well as fair treatment on their jobs and in their quest for equal education opportunities and voting rights.
Laurence Fishburne is probably best known for his riveting film roles. He was nominated for an Oscar for his portrayal of musician Ike Turner in What’s Love Got to Do With It. He has also given several powerful Broadway performances, such as his role of ex-con Sterling Johnson in August Wilson’s Two Trains Running, for which he won a Tony Award, a Drama Desk Award, an Outer Critics Circle Award and a Theatre World Award. “I don’t have a preference when it comes to doing films or performing on stage,” Fishburne says. “I liken it to a painter who works in different mediums. I’ve been fortunate enough to work across all mediums — movies, stage and television — and I get great satisfaction from them all.” Fishburne says he doesn’t have a favorite among the variety of impressive roles he’s had. “I just try to enjoy the one I’m doing at the moment.”
Thurgood opens on April 30 and runs until July 20 at the Booth Theatre, 222 West 45th Street, New York, NY 10036. Call Telecharge for tickets, 212-239-6200. | <urn:uuid:55257305-7ea7-45af-a808-58ed06e44f23> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://www.tnj.com/print/2442 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860111365.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161511-00188-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.985564 | 833 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Tatyana's Day is especially popular with Russia's student community: it was January 25, 1755, that Empress Elizabeth signed a decree establishing Moscow University. A church commemorating St. Tatiana was built on the university grounds, and the students came to regard her as their patron saint.
As legend has it, St. Tatiana lived at a time of fierce persecution of Christians in Rome. Her father, a patrician, covertly preached Christianity, instilling Christian values in his daughter. Tatiana never got married, but devoted herself to God.
The powerful Roman jurist Ulpian ordered his men to catch Tatiana and have her make a sacrifice to a pagan idol. When she was brought into Apollo's Temple, Tatiana offered a prayer to Christ instead. An earthquake then hit the temple, breaking the idol apart and burying the priests under the rubble.
Tatiana was subjected to severe torture to make her give up Christian faith, but she never succumbed, and ended up executed together with her father. | <urn:uuid:e937a63e-b5fa-402c-a821-e8d8da8afe66> | CC-MAIN-2017-17 | https://sputniknews.com/onlinenews/2004012539905979/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917118831.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031158-00510-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975673 | 210 | 3.171875 | 3 |
|Lesson 7|| Pattern scope|
|Objective||Distinguish between Class and Object Patterns|
Distinguish between Class and Object Patterns
Patterns may be further divided according to their scope. There are two pattern scopes:
Object patterns, the more common of the two, specify the relationships between objects.
In general, the purpose of an object pattern is to allow the instances of different classes to be used in the same place in a pattern. Object patterns avoid fixing the class that accomplishes a given task at compile time.
Instead the actual class of the object can be chosen at runtime. Object patterns mostly use object composition to establish relationships between objects.
Gang of Four Patterns
Class patterns specify the relationship between classes and their subclasses.
Thus, class patterns tend to use inheritance to establish relationships. Unlike object patterns and object relationships, class patterns generally fix the relationship at compile time.
They are less flexible and dynamic and less suited to polymorphic approaches.
Object patterns deal with object relationships, which can be changed at run-time and are more dynamic.
Almost all patterns use inheritance to some extent. So the only patterns labeled class patterns are those that focus on class relationships. Note that most patterns are in the Object scope.
Class patterns deal with relationships between classes and their subclasses.
These relationships are established through inheritance, so they are static fixed at compile-time. Object patterns deal with object relationships, which can be changed at run-time and are more dynamic.
Class scope is defined at design time and is built in the structure and relationship of classes where as object scope is defined at runtime and is based on the relationship of objects. | <urn:uuid:a65bd0a6-3da3-46fc-ba83-b500993aaa2f> | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | https://gofpatterns.com/design-patterns/module2/design-pattern-scope.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296945433.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20230326044821-20230326074821-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.921098 | 358 | 3.8125 | 4 |
By Howard J. Bennett
A few weeks ago, I went into my son’s room to wake him up for school. When he grumbled and put his head under the pillow, I noticed that his pillowcase was splattered with dried blood. Since I’m and doctor, I didn’t panic. However, lots of parents get upset when they discover that one of their kids had a nosebleed during the night. Most people don’t like seeing blood—especially from a family member. Even worse, a small amount of blood can look like a lot when it soaks into pillowcase.
Here are some basic facts about nosebleeds, which are rarely serious.
• Lots of kids (and adults) get them.
• Most people don’t know the correct way to stop a nosebleed.
• There are some common sense things you can do to prevent nosebleeds.
Before I tell you how to stop a nosebleed, let’s talk about your nose. If you stick a finger inside each nostril and push together, you will feel a piece of cartilage called the nasal septum. (I realize this will gross out some of you, but think of it as a science experiment.)
Like most parts of your body, your nasal septum needs blood. Four arteries carrying oxygen-rich blood come together at the front of the nasal septum to form a web-like area of tiny blood vessels known as a Kiessalbach’s Plexus. This is where most nosebleeds start.
The air we breathe can dry out the nose. This effect is exaggerated in dry weather or if someone has a cold or allergy. Trauma can also result in nosebleeds, whether it came from a basketball hitting you in the face or an index finger trying to free a booger.
Which brings me to some of the odd ways people try to stop nosebleeds. The following are incorrect ways to accomplish this task:
• Putting pressure on the bridge of your nose.
• Putting a cold compress on your forehead or the back of your neck.
• Putting your head between your knees.
• Tilting your head back.
The correct way to stop a nosebleed is to sit up with your nose pointing forward. Pinch your nostrils together with gentle pressure and hold this position for five minutes—without looking to see if the bleeding has stopped. Remember to breathe through your mouth! If the bleeding continues, pinch your nostrils for 10 minutes. If that doesn’t work, your parents should call the doctor.
Once the nosebleed stops, do not blow your nose or pick at the scab or it will start bleeding again.
Here are some things you and your family can do to help prevent nosebleeds.
• Increase the humidity in your home during the winter.
• Apply a thin coating of petroleum jelly or similar product to your nasal septum twice a day.
• Try really hard not to pick your nose, especially if you’ve recently had a nosebleed. Your boogers won’t mind, and your parents will be proud of you!
© 2012 Howard J. Bennett. All Rights Reserved.
(First published in the Washington Post 9/20/10.)
For more KidsPost articles and lots of other cool stuff,
please visit Dr. B’s website at www.howardjbennett.com. | <urn:uuid:179e7ac4-1dd6-4f00-a46f-9bf6fcb75ed1> | CC-MAIN-2021-43 | https://howardjbennett.com/kidspost-articles/what-to-do-about-bloody-noses/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585460.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20211022052742-20211022082742-00567.warc.gz | en | 0.933236 | 724 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Arguing over New Mexico's air quality
By Jim Mimiaga
Ship Rock, a legend of Navajo culture and a classic local landmark, has become shrouded in a veil of industrial smog.
The 1,700-foot sentinel rising from the northern New Mexico desert has for generations been a part of the breathtaking view from surrounding areas. Its craggy shape is a symbol of clear skies, clean air and good health. But in recent years, pollution from New Mexico power plants, increased traffic, and the booming oil and gas industry have obscured the view of Ship Rock, or wiped it out completely. As the smog accumulates, prevailing winds push the foul air northward into Southwest Colorado and beyond, prompting a health controversy that crosses political lines and geographic boundaries.
“Just as New Mexico would not accept toxic pollutants to be dumped by Colorado into the Rio Grande river, neither should Colorado allow avoidable pollutants to flow into our state from New Mexico,” wrote Scott Tipton, a Republican Colorado state legislator, in a March 17 letter to Interior Secretary Ken Salazar.
In the letter, Tipton, along with Colorado Attorney General John Suthers, urged Salazar to clean up the Four Corners Power Plant, located on the Navajo Nation, whose “excessive emissions have traveled across state and sovereign lines, clogging the air and damaging the health of Southwestern Colorado residents.”
Tipton pointed out that the plant’s emissions are the largest single source of nitrogen oxide, a major component of smog, in the United States. Furthermore, it “has been expelling pollutants in significant excess of comparable coal-fired power plants for the past several decades. For example, the FCPP produces over three times the nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions as the Coronado power plant in Arizona,” he wrote in the letter.
Ozone, a colorless gas, is a secondary pollutant created by a chemical reaction in the atmosphere where the sun heats up volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides, a byproduct of burned fossil fuels. Ozone is a known health hazard that can cause asthma, damage lung tissue, increase risk of the heart attacks and lead to premature death.
Air-quality monitors are sited throughout the Southwest to detect levels of ozone in violation of the federal Clean Air Act. Once a monitor detects ozone levels above 0.075 parts per million, the area is given nonattainment status, which triggers a flurry of often-expensive corrective pollution measures.
But when non-attainment levels occurred at a monitor at Navajo Lake last October, “something very strange happened,” said Mike Eisenfeld, New Mexico energy coordinator for the San Juan Citizens Alliance, an environmental watchdog organization based in Durango.
Shortly after ruling the area was in violation of the Clean Air Act, the New Mexico Environmental Department reversed its decision, claiming the monitor had malfunctioned. The Navajo Lake data, which averaged at .077 ppm for an 8-hour period, was thrown out and fresh readings with a newly installed monitor showed the area was barely in attainment at .075 ppm.
“They said that a solenoid was malfunctioning, but can’t that be an argument that anyone could use at any time?” Eisenfeld argued. “How does a community address that . . . where perhaps industry influence played a role.”
Lack of good-faith cooperation among the energy industry, regulatory agencies and public-health advocates regarding air quality is a concern and fuels suspicion, he said. When the monitor’s data was determined to be invalid, “a new one was installed with a couple of industry guys out there doing the analysis, and when we protested that we weren’t invited they said it was an inadvertent oversight. That’s unacceptable.”
On March 12, Mary Uhl of the New Mexico Department of Environment informed the Four Corners Air Quality Group of the change in ozone status. In an e-mail, she wrote:
“The NMED and the EPA are currently conducting a joint investigation into the validity of the data; however, at this time, there is substantial doubt that the data is valid, particularly data collected in October 2008 that would indicate that the area would not attain the federal ozone standard. Due to this recent development, the state of New Mexico will not recommend ozone non-attainment status for San Juan County and part of Rio Arriba County, as was previously posted on our website.”
Uhl explained that an extensive audit of the monitors at the Navajo Lake site, conducted on March 4, showed the site “recorded levels of ozone that did not appear to correlate with levels of ozone recorded at other monitors in the region.” She added the suspected faulty monitor and an additional monitor installed at the site passed an initial performance test, “however, shortly after the audit a problem was identified with the subsequent monitoring data collected.”
Eisenfeld says proper oversight of the monitors needs improvement; otherwise it threatens the validity of certified ozone data in court.
“In our neck of the woods, the energy industry has a lot of influence, and you’ve got to predict that somebody will want to challenge that the data is verifiable,” he said, adding that it is not uncommon for ozone monitors to spike like the one at Navajo Lake. In Pinedale, Wyo., for example, a monitors had spikes of 0.120 ppm.
“But whether the ozone level is 0.077 or 0.075, it is still a huge problem,” Eisenfeld said. “Our area ozone levels are comparable to major urban centers like Denver, Dallas, Houston and Phoenix. There is a very high probability that (non-attainment) will happen again in our area within the next two years.”
Studied to death
For Tipton, now is the time to act on cleaning up regional pollution.
“We have a problem, and I don’t need another study to tell me that I can no longer see Ship Rock because of all the haze,” he said in a phone interview. “Those power plants are producing energy for New Mexico, Arizona, California and Nevada. So they get the juice, and we get the junk.”
He suggests more investment in technology to improve air quality, such as installing scrubbers on power plants, and advancing alternative energy such as solar and wind.
“But with (alternative energy) we don’t have the technology available yet to maintain our energy needs,” Tipton said. “This country has a huge abundance of coal reserves, so I think the incentive is to use it, but do so more cleanly. With the stimulus package, maybe we can create a costshare program to improve power- p l a n t emissions. That would be a win-win situation to help clean up the environment and provide energy.”
Tipton contends that the EPA has been arbitrary in the way it evaluates and enforces air-quality standards in the country.
“I get weary of the attitude that rural America isn’t worth as much as urban American, that somehow we can afford to pollute more here,” he said. “Our people, our quality of life, our water and air are every bit as important as in New York or anywhere else. It is time to push this agenda aggressively.”
A study of ozone published in the March edition of the New England Journal of Medicine shows long-term exposure to the gas is more lethal than previously thought.
The study, which spanned 18 years and involved half a million people, showed that even low-level exposure to ozone can be fatal. The EPA has reported it is reviewing ozone standards, and may impose stricter regulations in light of the new medical evidence, reported the Los Angeles Times.
The newspaper noted that 345 counties nationwide are in violation of ozone standards, potentially affecting more than 100 million people. Michael Jerrett of the University of California at Berkeley, coauthor of the study, concluded that ozone exacerbates respiratory conditions already responsible for some 240,000 U.S. deaths per year. People with conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, emphysema and pneumonia are most affected, according to the study.
“Clean coal” is aggressively being promoted under a $45 million ad campaign, but there is no such thing, according to Larry J. Schweiger, president of the National Wildlife Federation.
In an excerpt from his upcoming book, published in the organization’s magazine, Schweiger warns of the health dangers of burning coal. Mercury is a particularly dangerous emission from coal-burning, especially for children.
Schweiger cited a study by the University of Texas Health Science Center that links mercury exposure to higher rates of autism in children. The study found that for every 1,000 pounds of mercury released by power plants in Texas, there was a corresponding 3.7 percent increase in autism rates at local school districts.
“With increases in coal-burning and mercury in the human environment, there should be little wonder why autism is the fastest-growing developmental disability, increasing annually by 10 to 17 percent,” wrote Schweiger.
Another danger of coal pollutants is increased radiation exposure. In a study published in Science, neighbors of coal-fired power plants were found to be at a higher risk of radiation exposure than neighbors of nuclear power plants.
In the end, public awareness, stricter pollution controls and political pressure to protect human health are the keys to improving local air quality, said Eisenfeld of the San Juan Citizens Alliance. There is a definite down side to violating the Clean Air Act standards, he said, not just for public pride and scenic views, but for industry as well, which would be forced to cough up millions of dollars for technological improvements under the law.
“The people of the Four Corners should be irate,” said Eisenfeld. “Why should one of the most remote and beautiful parts of our country be sacrificed for cheap power and revenue? Everyone wants to pretend that the air quality here is fine, but it is not.” | <urn:uuid:8218e272-4da1-49d1-b8b4-c80d9366873c> | CC-MAIN-2017-30 | http://fourcornersfreepress.com/news/2009/040901.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-30/segments/1500549428300.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20170727142514-20170727162514-00361.warc.gz | en | 0.954416 | 2,116 | 2.78125 | 3 |
In physics, specifically electromagnetism, the magnetic flux (often denoted Φ or ΦB) through a surface is the component of the magnetic B field passing through that surface. The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb) (in derived units: volt-seconds), and the CGS unit is the maxwell. Magnetic flux is usually measured with a fluxmeter, which contains measuring coils and electronics, that evaluates the change of voltage in the measuring coils to calculate the magnetic flux.
The magnetic interaction is described in terms of a vector field, where each point in space (and time) is associated with a vector that determines what force a moving charge would experience at that point (see Lorentz force). Since a vector field is quite difficult to visualize at first, in elementary physics one may instead visualize this field with field lines. The magnetic flux through some surface, in this simplified picture, is proportional to the number of field lines passing through that surface (in some contexts, the flux may be defined to be precisely the number of field lines passing through that surface; although technically misleading, this distinction is not important). Note that the magnetic flux is the net number of field lines passing through that surface; that is, the number passing through in one direction minus the number passing through in the other direction (see below for deciding in which direction the field lines carry a positive sign and in which they carry a negative sign). In more advanced physics, the field line analogy is dropped and the magnetic flux is properly defined as the component of the magnetic field passing through a surface. If the magnetic field is constant, the magnetic flux passing through a surface of vector area S is
where B is the magnitude of the magnetic field (the magnetic flux density) having the unit of Wb/m2 (tesla), S is the area of the surface, and θ is the angle between the magnetic field lines and the normal (perpendicular) to S. For a varying magnetic field, we first consider the magnetic flux through an infinitesimal area element dS, where we may consider the field to be constant:
A generic surface, S, can then be broken into infinitesimal elements and the total magnetic flux through the surface is then the surface integral
where the line integral is taken over the boundary of the surface S, which is denoted ∂S.
Magnetic flux through a closed surface
Gauss's law for magnetism, which is one of the four Maxwell's equations, states that the total magnetic flux through a closed surface is equal to zero. (A "closed surface" is a surface that completely encloses a volume(s) with no holes.) This law is a consequence of the empirical observation that magnetic monopoles have never been found.
In other words, Gauss's law for magnetism is the statement:
for any closed surface S.
Magnetic flux through an open surface
While the magnetic flux through a closed surface is always zero, the magnetic flux through an open surface need not be zero and is an important quantity in electromagnetism. For example, a change in the magnetic flux passing through a loop of conductive wire will cause an electromotive force, and therefore an electric current, in the loop. The relationship is given by Faraday's law:
- is the electromotive force (EMF),
- ΦB is the magnetic flux through the open surface Σ,
- ∂Σ is the boundary of the open surface Σ; note that the surface, in general, may be in motion and deforming, and so is generally a function of time. The electromotive force is induced along this boundary.
- dℓ is an infinitesimal vector element of the contour ∂Σ,
- v is the velocity of the boundary ∂Σ,
- E is the electric field,
- B is the magnetic field.
The two equations for the EMF are, firstly, the work per unit charge done against the Lorentz force in moving a test charge around the (possibly moving) surface boundary ∂Σ and, secondly, as the change of magnetic flux through the open surface Σ. This equation is the principle behind an electrical generator.
Comparison with electric flux
- E is the electric field,
- S is any closed surface,
- Q is the total electric charge inside the surface S,
- ε0 is the electric constant (a universal constant, also called the "permittivity of free space").
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Error creating thumbnail: File missingPhysics portal
- Magnetic field
- Maxwell's equations (sometimes called the Maxwell equations) are the set of four equations, attributed to James Clerk Maxwell, that describe the behavior of both the electric and magnetic fields, as well as their interactions with matter.
- Gauss's law gives the relation between the electric flux flowing out a closed surface and the electric charge enclosed in the surface.
- Magnetic circuit is a method using an analogy with electric circuits to calculate the flux of complex systems of magnetic components.
- Magnetic monopole is a hypothetical particle that may loosely be described as "a magnet with only one pole".
- Magnetic flux quantum is the quantum of magnetic flux passing through a superconductor.
- Carl Friedrich Gauss developed a fruitful collaboration with the physics professor Wilhelm Weber; it led to new knowledge in the field of magnetism.
- James Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces are two complementary aspects of electromagnetism.
- Vicci, U.S. Patent 6,720,855, Magnetic-flux conduits
- Magnetic Flux through a Loop of Wire by Ernest Lee, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
- Conversion Magnetic flux Φ in nWb per meter track width to flux level in dB - Tape Operating Levels and Tape Alignment Levels | <urn:uuid:c9980ed1-707c-469b-a126-e86c7c7743ba> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | http://beast.physicswiki.net/index.php/Magnetic_flux | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257645177.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20180317135816-20180317155816-00296.warc.gz | en | 0.919086 | 1,247 | 4.21875 | 4 |
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Carli Leavitt is a public relations specialist and avid blogger who is passionate about the safety of children in the digital age. Follow her on Twitter @CarliLeavitt
July 24, 2012Net Nanny for Android 2.0
Dec 14, 2016
A new cyberbullying trend called “roasting” is taking the internet by storm and wreaking havoc for targeted kids across the globe. What started as a popular Reddit thread called “Roast Me” and then became a popular television event on Comedy Central roasting has been gaining in popularity. Some of today’s biggest celebrities have been the subject of these roasts including Justin Bieber, Joan Rivers, and even President Elect Donald Trump.
These roasts are often hard to watch as these people’s peers rip them apart with hurtful insults and personal attacks all in the name of a laugh. While celebrities can sometimes handle this situation, and do so voluntarily, recently young kids have started getting in on the action by roasting their peers on social media and other public forums with catastrophic consequences.
What is Roasting?A roast is when a person subjects themselves to public ridicule and insults from their peers under the guise of joking. While this may seem like an easy way for some laughs on TV, it’s becoming a dangerous and harmful new form of cyberbullying among kids, especially young girls.
Are Girls or Boys More Likely to Roast Someone?Recent articles claim that young girls are more likely to roast classmates and groups of girls roasting boys has become a trend. This bullying can include hurtful and direct insults, creating memes using the person’s face, and even attacking the person’s character on a public forum. The targets of these attacks then feel as if they have to take the treatment for fear of being unable to take a joke. While girls aren’t the only ones roasting their peers, a 2014 study showed that nearly twice as many girls (19%) have experienced cyberbullying than boys (10%).
Effects of CyberbullyingThis new cyberbullying trend is another disturbing way kids are targeting each other online resulting in self-esteem issues, depression, and even suicide. Cyberbullying is a form of emotional abuse that can have serious and long term consequences, but there are things parents can do to protect their children from this type of behavior.
Tips to Stop Cyberbullying | <urn:uuid:ff5a34c6-49da-430c-b237-7ef8fa5556c9> | CC-MAIN-2018-43 | https://www.netnanny.com/blog/roasting-the-new-cyberbullying-trend/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583512501.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20181020013721-20181020035221-00306.warc.gz | en | 0.961863 | 498 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Ksenia Naka. Family " Japanese Schindler ", Sugihara Tiune of which, at the time Vice-Consul in Kaunas in 1940, saved several thousand lives by issuing transit visas to Japan to Jewish refugees, and maintains contacts with the descendants of the rescued men, said at the ceremony to the memory of Sugihara at the Russian Embassy in Tokyo, the granddaughter of politician Madoka Sugihara.
"We have a relationship with the descendants of the grandfather saved the people. This family in Australia, in Canada. In Australia took a trip my son and I lived in this family, and His very warmly received, " said Madoka Sugihara in response to the question of the Russian Ambassador in Tokyo Yevgeny Afanasyev.
"in 1960-70-her years in Israel there came tourists from Japan asked me if they Vice-Consul in Kaunas, because it is widely known there: the descendants of the people saved them some tens thousand" - said co-Chairman of the scientific-educational center " Holocaust ", the adviser of the President of the Russian Jewish Congress (RJC) Ilya Altman, who participated in the ceremony.
during the ceremony, located on a visit to the Islands of Japan Altman gave them Japanese policy is a copy of a memorial plaque which was given to the Museum of the hotel "Ukraine" in the Russian capital where Sugihara worked after the war, after retiring from service in the Ministry of foreign Affairs of Japan.
Project on collection of documents on transit through the territory of the USSR to Japan Jewish immigrants in the years 1940-41 began 3 years ago. Its aim is the perpetuation of the heroism of Sugihara Japanese policy. It involved scientists from Russia, Japan, Lithuania and Finland.
in 1939-40, Sugihara served as Vice-Consul of Japan in Kaunas, which was then the capital of Lithuania. In 1940 a new Soviet government demanded that foreign diplomatic missions to leave the country. In Lithuania at that moment there were thousands of Jewish immigrants from all over Europe. It is known that a month before his departure from Kaunas Sugihara issued transit visas 2132 in Japan, because of which the Jews fleeing from Nazi persecution, were able to travel through the territory of the USSR to Japan, where they opened the way to other countries. | <urn:uuid:88604f57-84d1-44e4-a314-5af9bc65015e> | CC-MAIN-2017-43 | http://news.rin.ru/eng/news/137524/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187824819.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20171021133807-20171021153807-00645.warc.gz | en | 0.969423 | 480 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Here's what you might see your baby doing between the ages of 9 and 12 months.
Each child is unique. It is difficult to describe exactly what should be expected at each stage of a child's development. While certain behaviors and physical milestones tend to occur at certain ages, a wide range of growth and behavior for each age is normal. These guidelines show general progress through the developmental stages rather than fixed requirements for normal development at specific ages. It is perfectly natural for a child to reach some milestones earlier and other milestones later than the general trend.
If you have any concerns about your child's own pattern of development, check with your healthcare provider. | <urn:uuid:fe886fb7-29d9-44f8-904b-d969c413f232> | CC-MAIN-2014-15 | http://www.archildrens.org/pa/pa/pa_devninem_pep.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-15/segments/1397609530136.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20140416005210-00165-ip-10-147-4-33.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943209 | 131 | 2.75 | 3 |
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The characterization and evaluation of agroforestry systems is exemplified for the Acosta-Puriscal region in Costa Rica.
In Amazonian Ecuador, studies are being realized to intensify fallow periods by grazing African tropical forest type sheep (Red Afro-Colombian X Barbados Black Belly) on Asian tropical forest legume cover forage (Desmodium ovalifolium) under American tropical forest legume fuelwood trees (Inga...
Two main roles are identified in the review: the productive one, where woody perennials yield a material output (fuel, fodder, etc.), and the ‘service’ type, with no tangible product (shelter, nutrient recycling, etc.). In their productive role trees and shrubs may supply fodder in browsing...
Swidden agriculture is today the focus of a great deal of debate in the context of agroforestry development in humid, tropical countries. This paper argues that much of this debate deals not with the empirical facts of swidden agriculture, however, but rather with widely-accepted myths, and that...
The features of the tropical forest are found in Sundanese village-gardens. They are rich in plant species, a layered structure of the vegetation, existing patchwork and succession of sylvigenetic phases (from pioneer to homeostatic phase). These traditional agroforests reflect the sourrounding...
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To get new article updates from a journal on your personalized homepage, please log in first, or sign up for a DeepDyve account if you don’t already have one. | <urn:uuid:7a03a225-a936-400e-bd54-0c4b8b4e1d16> | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://plosjournal.deepdyve.com/browse/journals/agroforestry-systems/2004/v1/i2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964361169.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20211202054457-20211202084457-00046.warc.gz | en | 0.898557 | 488 | 2.765625 | 3 |
As a science major, I often read textbooks that highlight men who have made significant contributions to the field. Sure, many women were not allowed in the science fields back in the time periods when these discoveries were made. But there definitely were some key female contributions who were just blatantly overlooked.
One of those was Rosalind Franklin. Without her work, Watson and Crick’s DNA double helix model would not have been possible. In fact, you could argue that it was actually Franklin who made the discovery.
Franklin studied chemistry in college and received her Ph.D. in 1945 in England. In 1946, she moved to Paris to learn X-ray crystallography from Jacque Mering. X-ray crystallography is a popular technique in molecular biology where x-ray beams reflect off of electrons, creating a unique scatter pattern. A powerful computer analyzes the diffraction pattern and turns it into a 3D model of the molecule. Franklin became an expert in X-ray crystallography and created some of the best images ever taken of proteins and lipids.
In 1951, Franklin started working with biophysicist John Randall in London. The two applied her x-ray crystallography techniques to DNA fibers. The pictures obtained revealed two distinct forms of DNA: The “A” form and “B” form. The DNA helix that we typically think of is the B form. Franklin helped invent the high tech machine she used to take a 100 hour X-ray exposure of B form DNA. The image, known as “Photograph 51” is still one of the most famous photos ever taken in molecular biology (see picture below).
But every story of a successful woman comes along with a bitter man. Franklin’s ongoing conflict with colleague Maurice Wilkins came to a peak in 1953, when Wilkins allegedly gave Photograph 51 to Watson and Crick without Franklin’s knowledge. As soon as Watson and Crick saw the image, they had their “aha! Moment”. When Watson and Crick published the the structure of DNA in Nature a few months later, they only included a footnote that recognized Franklin’s unpublished photo as the inspiration. In fact, Watson and Crick didn’t even have experimental models of their own in the paper.
Rosalind Franklin died on April 16, 1958 from ovarian cancer at the age of 37. In 1962, Watson, Crick and Wilkins won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their DNA discoveries. Watson chose to include Wilkins because Wilkins initiated the inspiration for their work. It is unknown if they would have included Franklin, had she not died.
Even though Franklin was the best X-ray crystallographer the world had ever seen, sexism was very present throughout her career. An accomplished male molecular biologist once wrote, “Wilkins is supposed to be doing this work; Miss Franklin is evidently a fool.” Crick eventually wrote, "I'm afraid we always used to adopt – let's say, a patronizing attitude towards her.”So next time you hear or read about Watson and Crick’s DNA double-helix, don’t forget about the brilliant woman who made it all possible. | <urn:uuid:1b387eda-c71c-4335-bd04-5b3b1dff8765> | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | https://www.theodysseyonline.com/womens-history-month-spotlight-rosalind-franklin | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030331677.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20220924151538-20220924181538-00178.warc.gz | en | 0.977287 | 665 | 3.953125 | 4 |
Did You Know?
The male scaly cricket "Ornebius Aperta" from Australia can copulate more than 50 times in three to four hours, all with the same female.
A type of Australian cricket has broken the world record for the most frequent sex, a new study shows.
Male scaly crickets (Ornebius aperta) can copulate more than 50 times in three to four hours with the same female, according to research in the Royal Society journal Biology Letters.
The research suggests that "extreme repeated mating" can develop in response to female-imposed limits on copulation.
In this case, the limit is due to female crickets removing sperm and eating it about three seconds after insertion.
The new world record puts the cricket ahead of the previous record holders, lions and tigers. Tigers can mate up to 50 times a day over five or six days.
Scientists monitored the sexual behaviour of crickets in the laboratory. Crickets were captured from colonies at the University of Toronto and at the gardens of the University of Western Australia. The scientists then reared the crickets in isolation to make sure they were virgins.
The researchers measured sperm counts per copulation, then compared final sperm counts in both the test subject crickets and in females caught in the wild that mated in natural conditions. | <urn:uuid:5fd1e41d-08a0-4623-9add-885efaebf011> | CC-MAIN-2020-24 | http://didyouknowstuff.com/the-male-scaly-cricket-ornebius-aperta-from-australia-can-copulate-more-than-50-times-in-three-to-four-hours-all-with-the-same-female | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590348523564.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200607044626-20200607074626-00435.warc.gz | en | 0.94818 | 275 | 2.578125 | 3 |
It goes without saying that health and safety is more of an issue for some organisations than for others. It’s fair to say that your average construction worker faces more potential hazards in the workplace than someone whose role is office-based.
All roles come with some element of health and safety risk, though, and that risk isn’t just to employee welfare, but to an organisation’s regulatory compliance and reputation as well. Fortunately, organisations can protect both their employees and themselves from risk by ensuring that employees know and fully understand health and safety requirements. There are a variety of health and safety employee training techniques that are used to help do this.
Spaced Repetition learning is based on the principle that we learn information better if we are exposed to it repeatedly in bite-sized pieces, with the need for exposure reducing over time until the information simply becomes retained knowledge. For health and safety training, this has the benefit of not overloading learners with too much information in one go, repeatedly reinforcing knowledge and refreshing knowledge over longer periods.
Certainty Based Marking
Certainty Based Marking is an approach to multiple-choice assessment that requires learners to not only indicate which possible answer they think is correct, but also indicate how certain they are that their chosen answer is correct. This is beneficial for health and safety training as it verifies the learning performance of employees, safeguarding them and their employers against gaps in learning.
Mobile learning allows individuals to learn on their own terms, anywhere and at any time. Not only does this make learning more effective, it also gives employees more opportunity to undertake learning. Both of these things contribute towards better health and safety training, as well as reduced employer and employee risk. | <urn:uuid:87a3a790-06a5-4c08-9b6c-0e199b75019b> | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | https://www.wranx.com/three-techniques-for-effective-health-and-safety-employee-training/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296949533.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20230331020535-20230331050535-00732.warc.gz | en | 0.974276 | 355 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Post contributed by Dr. Kelly D. Alley, Alma Holladay Professor of Anthropology.
There are many vulnerable communities around the world whose livelihood challenges are exacerbated by climate change. In this blog post, I would like to introduce readers to the problems of peri-urban communities. In India, peri-urban communities live at the fringes of highly concentrated urban centers, in high-rise apartment complexes and informal settlements. The problems that peri-urban residents face in India are similar to those faced by urban and rural communities in terms of general climatic trends– hotter summers, devastating flooding and dramatic weather shifts. We can look at peri-urban communities in India to see the specific ways that residents experience water stress and grapple with problems diverting and treating their sewage in safe ways. We can then see these problems in the context of climate changes that affect water availability and quality for human consumption.
According to the think tank the World Resources Institute-India (WRI), India is in the midst of an urban transformation. The population growth in cities is outpacing growth in rural areas by far. From 1981 to 2011, the urban population increased from 23.3 to 31.2 per cent. In 2015, India’s urban population reached 420 million, and accounted for 33 per cent of the total population in the country. In addition to the megacities of Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore and Kolkata, large towns are establishing the second tier of urbanization. Constituting this large town category are cities with populations around a million or more. Between 2001 and 2015, the number of cities with a population of a million or more increased from 35 to 53.
The liberalization of the economy in terms of business deals and trade is pushing the pace of urbanization. Favorable environments in terms of services and tax breaks have been created for the private sector and for speculative investments in real estate. Corporate parks for IT and other industries are expanding in the peri-urban fringes where land is cheaper than in the urban core. In the midst of all this growth, the build out of basic water and sewer infrastructure cannot keep up. This means that many peripheral zones of growing cities, or the peri-urban areas, lie outside the city’s grids for water and sewerage. In these off-grid conditions, residents and workers must find their own water sources and create their own sewerage facilities.
The first source for these communities is groundwater but groundwater levels are rapidly depleting in peri-urban areas and the water is of varying qualities and often not suitable for drinking or even bathing. In some locations where groundwater levels are critically low, the government has issued a ban on groundwater extraction. In those locations, such as southern regions of the Delhi metropolis, communities must look for other sources of water. People living in informal or low-income settlements and even residents in high value apartment complexes are forced to purchase water from private companies, and this is supplied to them via large tanker trucks. The prices charged for this “tanker water” are generally higher per kiloliter than the prices charged by the government for piped water. So people end up paying more for water. Additionally this tanker water is of questionable quality—there are no monitoring agencies to ensure that quality is adequate for household consumption. Some families do not use this tanker water for drinking and prefer to buy bottled water that has some quality assurance from the bottling companies. Bottled water is even more expensive.
What does all this have to do with climate change? Climate changes in India involve increased drought and water stress in some regions and at times severe flooding in other areas as monsoon paths are altered by temperature changes and other ecosystem functions. The most vulnerable peri-urban areas are in the drought prone regions such as the peri-urban areas of Bangalore, Chennai and Delhi. In times of drought and during the longer summer months, residents scramble to purchase private water supplies and the tension to pay for them causes increased stress.
Likewise, sewerage services are planned after building these apartments and are often add-ons to the local infrastructure. Some apartment complexes have their own sewage treatment plants but the communities that can actually finance and produce their own recycled or reclaimed water are the upper income communities. Lower income communities are not able to afford the installation and operation fees for these facilities. So they are more vulnerable to shifts in availability of tanker water and groundwater. When climate induced drought occurs, it puts additional pressure on water supplies and peri-urban communities become more desperate to procure water in a private market where prices rise in times of scarcity. Groundwater depletion is also accelerated by drought conditions because urban residents and farmers need to extract more groundwater as surface waters dry up.
Here are a few examples with pictures to help visualize and understand the problems.
This community is located outside the urban region surrounding the Taj Mahal. They receive a small amount of piped water from the government municipality, but then have to purchase drinking water from an ATM. Some residents with more income generation can have a borewell dug for them and purchase their own pump. Then they can extract groundwater and store the water in tanks on their roofs.
In another residential community outside Bangalore, community members have installed their own sewage treatment plant and use the treated water for gardening. This is one of several strategies for peri-urban resilience, as communities face water security challenges in a changing climate. You can see in the video below what wastewater looks like at the beginning of treatment in a small-scale system for a residential community. In the next video, you can see that the treated wastewater looks pretty good and can be used safely for gardening and watering dry and drought prone areas.
The next community is an upscale residential complex in peri-urban Bangalore. The apartment has no piped water connection from the government and must procure their water from borewells. Recently their borewell ran dry. They purchase water from tanker trucks and recycle their own sewage water for reuse in their gardens and for flushing their toilets. Imagine how much water is used to flush toilets and how much fresh water they can save by using recycled or reclaimed water!! For them resilience means organizing as a housing association and maintaining their own wastewater treatment and reuse plant, collecting rainwater, and thinking prudently about water use.
The next community is a low-income government housing project set up under the Rajiv Gandhi Rural Housing Corporation. A local nongovernmental organization created a baffled reactor to treat their wastewater. This is like a large septic tank with many chambers. Unfortunately, the reactor gets clogged and the sewage backflows into their homes. They do not have the financial capability to get the baffled reactor cleaned (to get the sewage sucked out) and they are unable to flush their toilets effectively. Their drinking water supply is connected to a large water tank connected to a borewell. The borewell pulls up groundwater but the government-appointed manager of that borewell does not turn the pump on often enough to give them a consistent supply of water. These residents are then forced to buy water from a private tanker truck. This is an example of a lack of coordination between governmental and nongovernmental agencies and residents of the housing association. All need to participate to ensure that water and sewer systems are maintained and used equitably. Resilience in this context would mean ensuring coordination between governmental and nongovernmental agencies and resident associations to help low-income communities meet their water and sewer needs.
Household water security is a concern for peri-urban communities in India and around the world. The examples show a few of the ongoing problems that residents have. As climate changes put fresh water resources at greater risk, by inducing drought, heat waves, coastal inundation and flash floods that wipe out critical infrastructure, residents are identifying where and how problems can be solved. This blog provides a few examples of community responses to water and sewage problems that build resilience in peri-urban zones. | <urn:uuid:887e1745-da38-48b3-b187-b769f4b91587> | CC-MAIN-2020-10 | http://wp.auburn.edu/sustainability/climate-water-security-vulnerable-communities-in-peri-urban-india/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-10/segments/1581875145654.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200222054424-20200222084424-00144.warc.gz | en | 0.960577 | 1,618 | 3.421875 | 3 |
Sulfates are commonly occurring ionic salts, mostly derived from sulfuric acid. They have a wide variety of industrial applications, and can be found in differing forms in applications as diverse as construction materials and home health products. The natural mineral form of hydrated calcium sulfate is gypsum, used to make the plaster in drywall. Iron sulfate is found in mineral supplements designed for both humans and animals, while copper sulfate can be used to kill algae. Epsom salts are a common form of magnesium sulfate, and lead sulfate is used in car batteries.
The form of sulfates used in home care products is most often a sodium laureth sulfate, or SLES. These chemicals are cheap foaming agents, found in many soaps, shampoos, and toothpastes. They are surfectants, used in cosmetic products for cleansing and emulsifying properties (They bond to oils on your skin and allow them to dissolve in water). Along with sodium lauryl sulfates, a slightly more powerful variation, SLES is a known irritant, an effect that increases with concentration.
While sulfates are naturally occurring, the real issue stems from a manufacturing process, ethoxylation, which results in sulfates being contaminated with 1,4 dioxane, a carcinogenic by-product. A leading groundwater contaminant, 1,4 dioxane is referred to by the CDC as "probably carcinogenic to humans," toxic to the brain and central nervous system, kidneys, and liver.
A major problem with sulfates is fact that they are absorbed through the skin and membranes. Since our bodies don't have the proper enzymes to break the chemicals up and metabolize them, contamination is a gradual but cumulative process. This is a major source of confusion when reading studies on SLES: High levels of exposure are unusual, yet repeated, slight exposure, combined with repeated subjection to other chemicals in health and beauty products, has been linked with a number of negative effects in humans.
According to Environmental Working Group's Skin Deep database (which is seriously worth browsing time), SLES/SLS have been linked to:
Lest you think that your hands are tied, however, there is much that you can do to protect yourself from harmful effects. With increased public awareness comes a new generation of products aimed a chemical-wary consumers, though some have other drawbacks. Sulfate-free shampoos and soaps, for instance, are commonly marketed, although some contain other harsh chemicals.
It's always a wise idea to investigate what products you're using, and in the age of the internet, we have resources like Skin Deep and Good Guide to help us make our way through the sea of information. Bookmark those sites and use them next time you're thinking of buying a product. I promise you'll be happy you did (added benefit: Good Guide is awesome for evaluating food products as well).
Also, when you are investigating products and reading labels, pay attention to the order in which they're listed. Manufacturers are required to list ingredients in descending order by volume, so the first few things you see are the most prominent in that product. As a good rule of thumb, if the first few ingredients are things you can't pronounce, you probably don't want them in your body. | <urn:uuid:c9671304-f142-4c3f-9946-13cb653fd092> | CC-MAIN-2017-13 | http://green-conscience.com/1/post/2014/07/a-few-words-about-sulfates.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-13/segments/1490218190295.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20170322212950-00215-ip-10-233-31-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961242 | 680 | 3.140625 | 3 |
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