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An Incredibly Insecure Voting Machine
The weak passwords -- which are hard-coded and can't be changed -- were only one item on a long list of critical defects uncovered by the review. The Wi-Fi network the machines use is encrypted with wired equivalent privacy, an algorithm so weak that it takes as little as 10 minutes for attackers to break a network's encryption key. The shortcomings of WEP have been so well-known that it was banished in 2004 by the IEEE, the world's largest association of technical professionals. What's more, the WINVote runs a version of Windows XP Embedded that hasn't received a security patch since 2004, making it vulnerable to scores of known exploits that completely hijack the underlying machine. Making matters worse, the machine uses no firewall and exposes several important Internet ports.
It's the AVS WinVote touchscreen Direct Recording Electronic (DRE). The Virginia Information Technology Agency (VITA) investigated the machine, and found that you could hack this machine from across the street with a smart phone:
So how would someone use these vulnerabilities to change an election?
- Take your laptop to a polling place, and sit outside in the parking lot.
- Use a free sniffer to capture the traffic, and use that to figure out the WEP password (which VITA did for us).
- Connect to the voting machine over WiFi.
- If asked for a password, the administrator password is "admin" (VITA provided that).
- Download the Microsoft Access database using Windows Explorer.
- Use a free tool to extract the hardwired key ("shoup"), which VITA also did for us.
- Use Microsoft Access to add, delete, or change any of the votes in the database.
- Upload the modified copy of the Microsoft Access database back to the voting machine.
- Wait for the election results to be published.
Note that none of the above steps, with the possible exception of figuring out the WEP password, require any technical expertise. In fact, they're pretty much things that the average office worker does on a daily basis.
Posted on April 23, 2015 at 7:19 AM • 70 Comments | <urn:uuid:81815890-b8f9-48c4-af34-49e96d451650> | CC-MAIN-2017-47 | https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2015/04/an_incredibly_i.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-47/segments/1510934806760.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20171123070158-20171123090158-00609.warc.gz | en | 0.93044 | 448 | 2.59375 | 3 |
LIGHTING FOR LITERACY
Empowering youth to change the world with simple technology
THE PROBLEM -- 1.5 BILLION PEOPLE IN THE DARK
One-third of their pay goes to kerosene and candles
When the sun sets, opportunities for literacy are diminished
Solar-powered microgrids can bring light to the world's poorest
Our youth can build simple technology to help light the world
Empowering our youth to create a world of global change
Who We Are
Through the exploration of science, technology, engineering and math (STEM), students learn how to build sustainable, renewable lighting systems capable of providing 3-4 hours of evening light to homes without electricity.
Lighting for Literacy's goal is to engage local youth in building and improving the units that will be installed throughout the world.
1.5 billion people (20% of the world's population!) have no light after the sun sets.
One-third of their pay goes toward kerosene or candles. Kerosene in particular releases toxic particulates into their homes and creates a fire hazard.
Opportunities for learning and literacy are lost when the sun sets.
Collaborative partnerships demonstrate how practical science (STEM) can benefit communities.
Middle and high school STEM curriculum developed teaching students what simple, renewable technology can do to improve the living conditions for others.
By creating solutions in underserved communities, our youth experience "Service Above Self."
Enabling our youth to create a technology that provides opportunities for literacy and education is really the KEY to the future.
--Co-founders Doug McNeil & Jesse Salem | <urn:uuid:333c801c-8e61-45c9-9991-73ad65759a42> | CC-MAIN-2018-22 | http://www.lightingforliteracy.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794870082.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20180527190420-20180527210420-00273.warc.gz | en | 0.883436 | 340 | 3.4375 | 3 |
The ability of animals to feel distress and to treat
Animals and their unique abilities are astounding, that’s at least the ability of animals to feel distress and to treat . Has long been observed that animals, being close to home, or directly in the house, feeling impending disaster, and the healing abilities of animals are already undeniable.
Once, soundly sleeping Chinese. living in the city of Fuling, woke the cat screaming. Cat. who lived with him. like having got enraged, he ran around the room, scratching the door and walls…
Thanks to the strange behavior of a cat and drew the attention of the man on the cracks in the wall, which expanded rapidly. Seizing the kitten in his arms, the owner left the house that the hour has collapsed.
That’s where the animals have a similar instinct, which affects many people. According to scientists, cats and dogs feel the effort of dwelling structures, and an example is the cloth who is under severe tension to which the man is looking and which soon breaks is a person too feels — the ability of animals to feel distress and to treat .
That’s why the first let into the home kitty. what would she have determined the safety of the construction! By the way, not only the fit tend to feel the approaching earthquake, hurricane and other natural disasters, it’s characteristic of dogs. and goats and horses… the tension in the feel and nature of the termites with ants.
By the way, thanks to this sposobnostyami tend to eat wooden structures, furniture, without affecting the load-bearing fibers. And it is this structure, or table, completely eaten by termites, and is not falling!
During the war radar was used to monitor the sky, in order to prevent a sudden RAID by Nazi planes. It was everywhere and on the territory of the Union and allied countries. However, the people of England suddenly realised that the best sense of the enemy aircraft have no radar, and the females — the ability of animals to feel distress and be treated !
They began to worry twenty minutes before RAID sirens and inclusion – thanks to the unusual ability of premonition of trouble, it saved many lives.
In honor of this established in England a special award to the cat with the words “They served the country” and got the award seals. saved people. It turns out cats have procopia – a premonition of the future… However, this is the concern of scientists to find out how and what…
I want to tell you an interesting story about the rescue one little girl from cancer. And did this dog. she had bought her parents.
This story was printed in many editions, including in a Medical journal that I read — the ability of animals to feel distress and to treat . But more on that in a new article… More… | <urn:uuid:e8c2b883-c603-4078-bbd2-e87a7d5d5451> | CC-MAIN-2018-51 | http://ceur.info/post152 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376824180.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20181212225044-20181213010544-00459.warc.gz | en | 0.965034 | 592 | 2.71875 | 3 |
posted September 24, 1998
|Europa's Salty Surface|
Written by G. Jeffrey Taylor
Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology
Europa has a complicated surface. It has brighter and darker regions, is crisscrossed by ridges and troughs, and large pieces of the crust appear to have rotated. The mottled nature of the surface is seen clearly in images of an entire hemisphere. In spite of these variations, however, the surface is made up mostly of water ice. The brownish areas appear to be mixtures of ice and something else. Tom McCord and his colleagues wanted to find out what that something else is.
|This photo was obtained by the Galileo spacecraft in 1996. Note the variation in color across the surface. Some areas are dark and brownish, while others are white to bluish. Europa is 3160 km in diameter, slightly smaller than Earth's moon.|
Close-up views of the surface show even more complexity. Some regions are appropriately called "chaotic terrain," such as the Conamara region shown in the image below. Large chunks of the crust have been disrupted, tilted, and rotated. The appearance resembles icebergs somewhat, leading mission scientists to conclude that the thin crust floated on a layer of water or slush, an underground ocean. Movement of the water in the ocean placed stresses on the solid crust, causing huge pieces to break, move, and possibly sink. It is not known if the ocean exists at present or if the surface features reflect conditions billions of years ago.
The image, above, taken by the Galileo spacecraft in 1996 shows a region called Conamara Chaos. The image covers an area about 35 km across. Big blocks of the crust have moved up and down, tilted, and rotated, suggesting that they floated on a layer of liquid water or perhaps slush.
Measurements of the magnetic field and gravity of Europa by the Galileo spacecraft also give clues about the nature of the interior. It has a density of about 3.0 grams per cubic centimeter, indicating that it cannot be made entirely of ice and water, which have densities of 0.9 and 1.0 grams per cubic centimeter, respectively. Rock (density between 3 and 3.5) and metallic iron (density of 8) must also be present. Putting all the data together, Europa specialists reckon that the satellite has a small metallic iron core, a thick mantle made of rock, a layer of water or water and ice mixed (slush), and a thin (perhaps only ten kilometers thick) crust made mostly of water ice. It is not known how long the layer of water or slush remained liquid: it could still be very fluid, or might have solidified billions of years ago.
|Interpretation of spacecraft data suggests that the interior of Europa is composed of a metallic iron core at its center, a large, rocky mantle, a watery layer, and a thin, solid, icy crust. A key outstanding question is whether the watery layer still exists today or whether it has solidified.|
Planetary geologists are confident that this general picture of Europa is correct, but it lacks detail. For example, if the ocean is still liquid, what is the chemical composition of the rocky mantle and overlying ocean? Do the ocean and rock react chemically? Does the ocean ever breach the crust and squirt out? Could life have originated in the mysterious subsurface ocean? Those are some of the questions that the NIMS team hopes to answer.
Fingerprints in Reflected Light
Light reflected off an object contains an enormous amount of information about the object's surface. Our eyes see different colors because an object soaks up more of the light at some wavelengths than at others. Apples are red because its skin absorbs more blue, yellow, and green than it does red, so the light bouncing off is dominated by the wavelengths we identify as red.
The relative amount of light at each wavelength can be measured accurately with a high-tech gizmo called a spectroscope. Such devices split the light into all the colors of the spectrum, including wavelengths outside the range visible to humans. This allows us to plot the intensity of reflected light against the wavelength of light, producing a spectral plot. Most materials have unique spectral signatures, allowing us to identify what compounds are present, without even touching the sample.
The Galileo spacecraft has an especially fancy spectroscope that not only measures the reflected light at numerous wavelengths, but also takes a picture at the same time. Each picture element contains a spectrum, allowing planetary scientists to make maps that show differences in the mineral make-up of the surface of one of Jupiter's satellites. Galileo's high-tech spectral gadget is called the Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer or NIMS for short.
A good example of the important information that NIMS can obtain is the basic identification of water ice on Europa. The diagram, on the right, shows several spectra of areas on Europa, along with a laboratory spectrum of ice. Note that spectra C and E are very similar to F, which is a laboratory spectrum of water ice. This is the type of data that led scientists to conclude from telescopic observations that Europa has an icy surface. Spectrum E is from Jupiter's satellite Ganymede, showing that it, too, has ice on its surface. On the other hand, spectra A and B look different from the ice spectrum, as if they have been distorted. McCord and his colleagues focused their research on those areas. They wanted to determine the abundances of ice and non-ice, and to figure out what the non-ice was. An important hint came from the basic shape of the spectra of those areas. Though not as smooth as ice spectra, they had some of the same dips, especially at 1.5 and 2.0 micrometers. This suggests that the material also contains water, but bound in another chemical compound. Logical possibilities are hydrated (i.e., containing water) silicate minerals, such as clays, and hydrated salts.
Caption: This diagram shows the amount of light reflected at different wavelengths between 1 and 3 microns for some areas on Europa (A-D) and Ganymede (E), compared to a laboratory spectrum of water ice (F). Spectra C, D, and E are strikingly similar to the spectrum of ice (F), showing that those regions are dominated by ice. Spectra A and B, however, are different.
The Salty Surface
|Using spectra of pure ice and of the non-ice areas (spectra A and B in the diagram above), McCord and coworkers devised a scale of the abundance of ice on the surface of Europa. It turned out that the less ice there is, the darker the surface is. The map below shows the distribution of almost pure ice (dark blue), pure non-ice (red), and mixtures of the two (colors in between) on the surface of Europa.|
|Spectra of reflected light of possibilities for minerals making up the dark regions of Europa, compared to spectra of icy and non-icy portions of Europa. Clay minerals such as sepiolite and montmorillonite do not match the non-icy regions, but carbonates like natron and sulfates like hexahydrite and epsomite are similar to the non-icy regions.|
Assuming the identification of hydrated salts is correct, how did they get onto the surface? On Earth, salts are formed by evaporation of salt water, which leaves behind a deposit of salt crystals. Perhaps some salty water from the ocean beneath Europa's crust erupted onto the surface, evaporated in the vacuum of space, and formed salt deposits. Over geologic time, this process could have affected vast areas of the surface.
Why would the ocean have sodium, magnesium, sulfur, and so on dissolved in it? The most likely answer is that the ocean reacts chemically with the rocky mantle, and quite possibly, warm water circulates throughout the mantle, dissolving some of it, and transporting the elements into the ocean. Once they know more about the nature of the deposits on Europa, planetary geologists will be able to learn more about the chemical composition of its rocky mantle. Gases such as carbon dioxide could also be released from the mantle, rising to the base of the crust. There they would accumulate until the pressure built up enough for the gas to fracture the crust, causing an eruption of gas and salty water, leading to the formation of an salt deposit by evaporation. Ocean water may also be driven to the surface by other forces, such as flexing of the crust by the interaction of gravitational tugs from Jupiter and Europa's neighboring moons.
Life in the Ocean?
If Europa has an ocean, it has lots of elements dissolved in it. Its rocky mantle continually adds material to it, and Jupiter's gravitational tugs keeps the satellite warm enough for liquid water to exist. These conditions may have existed for billions of years. Water, chemical compounds, time-these are the ingredients that may be essential for life to originate. Exposure to direct sunlight is not necessary. On Earth, whole ecosystems flourish deep in the ocean at hydrothermal vents, where the water is warm, there is an abundance of chemical compounds, and chemical reactions provide the energy needed by each organism. That is why Europa is so attractive to scientists searching for life elsewhere in the Solar System. The Galileo results are the first step in that quest.
[ About PSRD |
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MIDDLETOWN — Teachers have to be as down with technology as the kids in their classrooms.And that in part was the motivation for Middletown’s high and middle schools to conduct a month long program encouraging teachers to incorporate digital technology in classroom instruction.Jill Takacs, the district’s assistance superintendent for curriculum and instruction, explained that Feb. 1 was the National Digital Learning Day, and the administration thought it would be a good idea to expand it for the entire month, to encourage the faculty to use various types of technology as “a vehicle for learning” and “not just using technology for technology’s sake.”“The most powerful way of learning is to learn from each other,” Takacs said, explaining the instructors would use the available tools to have students work on a various projects that relied on the technology. Teachers had students use websites and computers to post videos on local history lessons, with science classes using available online resources to better understand what makes hurricanes and used that information to communicate it to other students; and art classes created online art galleries to display students’ work.
To sweeten the pot for teachers to adopt some of these practices, the district established a raffle, where every time a teacher took one of the daily tech challenges and blogged about it, the teacher’s name was entered into the drawing. Some teachers, Takacs explained, had as many as 23 entries.
The gifts ranged from T-shirts, mouse pads and gift cards, up to the grand prizes of two iPads (one for a middle school and one for a high school teacher), with the understanding the prizes are intended for the teachers’ and their classrooms, according to Takacs.
Last Thursday teachers and their students gathered at Middletown High School South, 900 Nut Swamp Road, in the cafeteria, where students from the two high schools and three middle schools presented their projects and teachers were awarded their prizes.
Lynn McGimpsey, a High School North biology teacher, was the lucky winner of one of the iPads. She noted “I use technology in the classroom daily,” but then some teachers are more inclined to use it than others. McGimpsey also acknowledged that her students “taught me things.”
“The technology is just another whole phase,” to be used to get the message across, she explained. “And they love it,” she added, referring to the students.
“A lot of kids our age, obviously, use technology, use it socially,” observed Matthew Gray, a 15-year-old High School South student, who also noted, “I think it’s a much more interesting way to learn.”Matthew and others in the class created a video using the Animoto website, allowing students to incorporate text, digital video and images. “It’s much better than just using the chalkboard or writing an essay,” he said. The district is encouraging teachers in the primary schools to take the digital challenge as well, to adopt additional techniques into their lessons, Takacs said. “We’re hoping to have every teacher try something new that will improve education throughout the district,” she said. | <urn:uuid:7c8afacd-84c7-4b61-9ddd-3b6e5b994b37> | CC-MAIN-2015-22 | http://trtnj.com/middletown-teachers-receive-digital-technology-awards/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-22/segments/1432207928923.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20150521113208-00238-ip-10-180-206-219.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.968319 | 679 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Multilingualism is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or by a group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. More than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one language other than their mother tongue; but many read and write in one language. Always useful to traders, multilingualism is advantageous for people wanting to participate in globalization and cultural openness. Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages is becoming increasingly possible. People who speak several languages are also called polyglots.
Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms about which scholars disagree. Children acquiring two languages natively from these early years are called simultaneous bilinguals. It is common for young simultaneous bilinguals to be more proficient in one language than the other.
Multilingualism in computing can be considered part of a continuum between internationalization and localization. Due to the status of English in computing, software development nearly always uses it (but see also Non-English-based programming languages). Some commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original.
The definition of multilingualism is a subject of debate in the same way as that of language fluency. On one end of a sort of linguistic continuum, one may define multilingualism as complete competence and mastery in another language. The speaker would presumably have complete knowledge and control over the language to sound native. On the opposite end of the spectrum would be people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions. Cook calls these people multi-competent.
In addition, there is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language. For instance, scholars often disagree whether Scots language is a language in its own right or a dialect of English. Furthermore, what is considered a language can change, often for purely political purposes, such as when Serbo-Croatian was created as a standard language on the basis of the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect to function as umbrella for numerous South Slavic dialects, and after the breakup of Yugoslavia was split into Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin, or when Ukrainian was dismissed as a Russian dialect by the Russian tsars to discourage national feelings. Many small independent nations' schoolchildren are today compelled to learn multiple languages because of international interactions. For example, in Finland, all children are required to learn at least two foreign languages: the other national language (Swedish or Finnish) and one alien language (usually English). Many Finnish schoolchildren also select further languages, such as German or Russian.
In some large nations with multiple languages, such as India, schoolchildren may routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country. In major metropolitan areas of Central, Southern, and Eastern India, many children may be fluent in four languages (the mother tongue, the state language, and the official languages of India, Hindi, and English). Thus, a child of Telugu parents living in Bangalore will end up speaking his or her mother tongue (Telugu) at home and the state language (Kannada), Hindi and English in school and life.
In many countries, bilingualism occurs through international relations, which, with English being the global lingua franca, sometimes results in majority bilingualism even when the countries have just one domestic official language. This is occurring especially in Germanic regions such as Scandinavia, the Benelux and among Germanophones, but it is also expanding into some non-Germanic countries.
Many myths and much prejudice have grown around the notions of bi- and multilingualism in some Western countries where monolingualism is the norm. Researchers from the UK and Poland have listed the most common misconceptions:
- that bi/multi linguals are exceptions to the ‘default’ monolingual ‘norm’ (in fact, most of the world's population is multilingual);
- that to deserve the label ‘bi-/multilingual’, one needs to have an equal, ‘perfect’, ‘nativelike’ command of both/all of one's languages;
- that childhood bilingualism may be detrimental to both linguistic and cognitive development and consequently lead to poorer results at school;
- that exposing a child to more than one language may cause language impairment or deficits, or that for children already diagnosed with impairments two languages mean too much unnecessary pressure and effort;
- that children do not have enough time to learn both languages, therefore it is better if they only acquire the majority language;
- that the children would be confused with having the ability to speak two languages and experience “tip-of-the-tongue” moments, in which one knows the meaning and the specific details of a word, but cannot retrieve it;
- that bilingual individuals tend to have slightly smaller vocabularies and are weaker in “verbal fluency tasks” than monolingual individuals.
One view is that of the linguist Noam Chomsky in what he calls the human language acquisition device—a mechanism which enables an individual to recreate correctly the rules and certain other characteristics of language used by speakers around the learner. This device, according to Chomsky, wears out over time, and is not normally available by puberty, which he uses to explain the poor results some adolescents and adults have when learning aspects of a second language (L2).
If language learning is a cognitive process, rather than a language acquisition device, as the school led by Stephen Krashen suggests, there would only be relative, not categorical, differences between the two types of language learning.
Rod Ellis quotes research finding that the earlier children learn a second language, the better off they are, in terms of pronunciation. European schools generally offer secondary language classes for their students early on, due to the interconnectedness with neighbor countries with different languages. Most European students now study at least two foreign languages, a process strongly encouraged by the European Union.
Based on the research in Ann Fathman's The Relationship between age and second language productive ability, there is a difference in the rate of learning of English morphology, syntax and phonology based upon differences in age, but that the order of acquisition in second language learning does not change with age.
In second language class, students will commonly face difficulties in thinking in the target language because they are influenced by their native language and culture patterns. Robert B. Kaplan thinks that in second language classes, the foreign-student paper is out of focus because the foreign student is employing rhetoric and a sequence of thought which violate the expectations of the native reader. Foreign students who have mastered syntactic structures have still demonstrated an inability to compose adequate themes, term papers, theses, and dissertations. Robert B. Kaplan describes two key words that affect people when they learn a second language. Logic in the popular, rather than the logician's sense of the word, which is the basis of rhetoric, is evolved out of a culture; it is not universal. Rhetoric, then, is not universal either, but varies, from culture to culture and even from time to time within a given culture. Language teachers know how to predict the differences between pronunciations or constructions in different languages, but they might be less clear about the differences between rhetoric, that is, in the way they use language to accomplish various purposes, particularly in writing.
People who learn multiple languages may also experience positive transfer – the process by which it becomes easier to learn additional languages if the grammar or vocabulary of the new language is similar to those of languages already spoken. On the other hand, students may also experience negative transfer – interference from languages learned at an earlier stage of development while learning a new language later in life.
Receptive bilinguals are those who can understand a second language but who cannot speak it or whose abilities to speak it are inhibited by psychological barriers. Receptive bilingualism is frequently encountered among adult immigrants to the U.S. who do not speak English as a native language but who have children who do speak English natively, usually in part because those children's education has been conducted in English; while the immigrant parents can understand both their native language and English, they speak only their native language to their children. If their children are likewise receptively bilingual but productively English-monolingual, throughout the conversation the parents will speak their native language and the children will speak English. If their children are productively bilingual, however, those children may answer in the parents' native language, in English, or in a combination of both languages, varying their choice of language depending on factors such as the communication's content, context, and/or emotional intensity and the presence or absence of third-party speakers of one language or the other. The third alternative represents the phenomenon of "code-switching" in which the productively bilingual party to a communication switches languages in the course of that communication. Receptively bilingual persons, especially children, may rapidly achieve oral fluency by spending extended time in situations where they are required to speak the language that they theretofore understood only passively. Until both generations achieve oral fluency, not all definitions of bilingualism accurately characterize the family as a whole, but the linguistic differences between the family's generations often constitute little or no impairment to the family's functionality. Receptive bilingualism in one language as exhibited by a speaker of another language, or even as exhibited by most speakers of that language, is not the same as mutual intelligibility of languages; the latter is a property of a pair of languages, namely a consequence of objectively high lexical and grammatical similarities between the languages themselves (e.g., Norwegian and Swedish), whereas the former is a property of one or more persons and is determined by subjective or intersubjective factors such as the respective languages' prevalence in the life history (including family upbringing, educational setting, and ambient culture) of the person or persons.
Order of acquisition
In sequential bilingualism, learners receive literacy instruction in their native language until they acquire a "threshold" literacy proficiency. Some researchers use age 3 as the age when a child has basic communicative competence in their first language (Kessler, 1984). Children may go through a process of sequential acquisition if they migrate at a young age to a country where a different language is spoken, or if the child exclusively speaks his or her heritage language at home until he/she is immersed in a school setting where instruction is offered in a different language.
In simultaneous bilingualism, the native language and the community language are simultaneously taught. The advantage is literacy in two languages as the outcome. However, the teacher must be well-versed in both languages and also in techniques for teaching a second language.
The phases children go through during sequential acquisition are less linear than for simultaneous acquisition and can vary greatly among children. Sequential acquisition is a more complex and lengthier process, although there is no indication that non-language-delayed children end up less proficient than simultaneous bilinguals, so long as they receive adequate input in both languages.
A coordinate model posits that equal time should be spent in separate instruction of the native language and the community language. The native language class, however, focuses on basic literacy while the community language class focuses on listening and speaking skills. Being bilingual does not necessarily mean that one can speak, for example, English and French.
Research has found that the development of competence in the native language serves as a foundation of proficiency that can be transposed to the second language — the common underlying proficiency hypothesis. Cummins' work sought to overcome the perception propagated in the 1960s that learning two languages made for two competing aims. The belief was that the two languages were mutually exclusive and that learning a second required unlearning elements and dynamics of the first to accommodate the second (Hakuta, 1990). The evidence for this perspective relied on the fact that some errors in acquiring the second language were related to the rules of the first language (Hakuta, 1990). How this hypothesis holds under different types of languages such as Romance versus non-Western languages has yet to undergo research.
Another new development that has influenced the linguistic argument for bilingual literacy is the length of time necessary to acquire the second language. While previously children were believed to have the ability to learn a language within a year, today researchers believe that within and across academic settings, the period is nearer to five years (Collier, 1992; Ramirez, 1992).
An interesting outcome of studies during the early 1990s, however, confirmed that students who do complete bilingual instruction perform better academically (Collier, 1992; Ramirez, 1992). These students exhibit more cognitive elasticity including a better ability to analyze abstract visual patterns. Students who receive bidirectional bilingual instruction where equal proficiency in both languages is required perform at an even higher level. Examples of such programs include international and multi-national education schools.
A multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more than one language, either actively (through speaking, writing, or signing) or passively (through listening, reading, or perceiving). More specifically, bilingual and trilingual people are those in comparable situations involving two or three languages, respectively. A multilingual person is generally referred to as a polyglot, a term that may also refer to people who learn multiple languages as a hobby. Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates over the other. In linguistics, first language acquisition is closely related to the concept of a "native speaker". According to a view widely held by linguists, a native speaker of a given language has in some respects a level of skill which a second (or subsequent) language learner cannot easily accomplish. Consequently, descriptive empirical studies of languages are usually carried out using only native speakers. This view is, however, slightly problematic, particularly as many non-native speakers demonstrably not only successfully engage with and in their non-native language societies, but in fact may become culturally and even linguistically important contributors (as, for example, writers, politicians, media personalities and performing artists) in their non-native language. In recent years, linguistic research has focused attention on the use of widely known world languages, such as English, as a lingua franca or a shared common language of professional and commercial communities. In lingua franca situations, most speakers of the common language are functionally multilingual.
People who know more than one language have been reported to be more adept at language learning compared to monolinguals. Bilinguals who are highly proficient in two or more languages have been reported to have enhanced executive function or even have reduced-risk for dementia. More recently, however, this claim has come under strong criticism with repeated failures to replicate. There is also a phenomenon known as distractive bilingualism or semilingualism. When acquisition of the first language is interrupted and insufficient or unstructured language input follows from the second language, as sometimes happens with immigrant children, the speaker can end up with two languages both mastered below the monolingual standard. A notable example can be found in the ethnic Bengali Muslim community of Assam province in India, hailing from East Bengal. Their mother tongue is Bengali, but it is not offered as a subject in school: their language of study is Assamese, the provincial language. As a result, their predominant form of communication mixes the mother tongue and the medium language. Because they have no chance to study the languages separately, they are not able to differentiate between the two or maintain such a difference in expression. Literacy plays an important role in the development of language in these immigrant children. Those who were literate in their first language before arriving, and who have support to maintain that literacy, are at the very least able to maintain and master their first language.
There are differences between those who learn a language in a class environment and those who learn through total immersion, usually living in a country where the target language is widely spoken. Without the possibility to actively translate, due to a complete lack of any first language communication opportunity, the comparison between languages is reduced. The new language is almost independently learned, like the mother tongue for a child, with a direct concept-to-language translation that can become more natural than word structures learned as a subject. Added to this, the uninterrupted, immediate and exclusive practice of the new language reinforces and deepens the attained knowledge.
Bilinguals might have important labor market advantages over monolingual individuals as bilingual people can carry out duties that monolinguals cannot, such as interacting with customers who only speak a minority language. A study in Switzerland has found that multilingualism is positively correlated with an individual's salary, the productivity of firms, and the gross domestic production (GDP); the authors state that Switzerland's GDP is augmented by 10% by multilingualism. A study in the United States by Agirdag found that bilingualism has substantial economic benefits as bilingual persons were found to have around $3,000 per year more salary than monolinguals.
A study in 2012 has shown that using a foreign language reduces decision-making biases. It was surmised that the framing effect disappeared when choices are presented in a second language. As human reasoning is shaped by two distinct modes of thought: one that is systematic, analytical and cognition-intensive, and another that is fast, unconscious and emotionally charged, it was believed that a second language provides a useful cognitive distance from automatic processes, promoting analytical thought and reducing unthinking, emotional reaction. Therefore, those who speak two languages have better critical thinking and decision making skills. A study published a year later found that switching into a second language seems to exempt bilinguals from the social norms and constraints such as political correctness. In 2014, another study has shown that people using a foreign language are more likely to make utilitarian decisions when faced with a moral dilemma, as in the trolley problem. The utilitarian option was chosen more often in the fat man case when presented in a foreign language. However, there was no difference in the switch track case. It was surmised that a foreign language lacks the emotional impact of one's native language.
Because it is difficult or impossible to master many of the high-level semantic aspects of a language (including but not limited to its idioms and eponyms) without first understanding the culture and history of the region in which that language evolved, as a practical matter an in-depth familiarity with multiple cultures is a prerequisite for high-level multilingualism. This knowledge of cultures individually and comparatively, or indeed the mere fact of one's having that knowledge, often forms an important part of both what one considers one's identity to be and what others consider that identity to be. Some studies have found that groups of multilingual individuals get higher average scores on tests for certain personality traits such as cultural empathy, open-mindedness and social initiative. The idea of linguistic relativity, which claims that the language people speak influences the way they see the world, can be interpreted to mean that individuals who speak multiple languages have a broader, more diverse view of the world, even when speaking only one language at a time. Some bilinguals feel that their personality changes depending on which language they are speaking; thus multilingualism is said to create multiple personalities. Xiao-lei Wang states in her book Growing up with Three Languages: Birth to Eleven: "Languages used by speakers with one or more than one language are used not just to represent a unitary self, but to enact different kinds of selves, and different linguistic contexts create different kinds of self-expression and experiences for the same person." However, there has been little rigorous research done on this topic and it is difficult to define "personality" in this context. François Grosjean wrote: "What is seen as a change in personality is most probably simply a shift in attitudes and behaviors that correspond to a shift in situation or context, independent of language." However, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which states that a language shapes our vision of the world, may suggest that a language learned by a grown-up may have much fewer emotional connotations and therefore allow a more serene discussion than a language learned by a child and to that respect more or less bound to a child's perception of the world. A 2013 study published in PLoS ONE found that rather than an emotion-based explanation, switching into the second language seems to exempt bilinguals from the social norms and constraints such as political correctness.
While many polyglots know up to six languages, the number drops off sharply past this point. People who speak many more than this—Michael Erard suggests eleven or more—are sometimes classed as hyperpolyglots. Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti, for example, was an Italian priest reputed to have spoken anywhere from 30 to 72 languages. The causes of advanced language aptitude are still under research; one theory suggests that a spike in a baby's testosterone levels while in the uterus can increase brain asymmetry, which may relate to music and language ability, among other effects.
While the term "savant" generally refers to an individual with a natural and/or innate talent for a particular field, people diagnosed with savant syndrome are typically individuals with significant mental disabilities who demonstrate profound and prodigious capacities and/or abilities far in excess of what would be considered normal, occasionally including the capacity for languages. The condition is associated with an increased memory capacity, which would aid in the storage and retrieval of knowledge of a language. In 1991, for example, Neil Smith and Ianthi-Maria Tsimpli described Christopher, a man with non-verbal IQ scores between 40 and 70, who learned sixteen languages. Christopher was born in 1962 and approximately six months after his birth was diagnosed with brain damage. Despite being institutionalized because he was unable to take care of himself, Christopher had a verbal IQ of 89, was able to speak English with no impairment, and could learn subsequent languages with apparent ease. This facility with language and communication is considered unusual among savants.
- monolingual, monoglot - 1 language spoken
- bilingual, diglot - 2 languages spoken
- trilingual, triglot - 3 languages spoken
- quadrilingual, tetraglot - 4 languages spoken
- quinquelingual, pentaglot - 5 languages spoken
- sexalingual, hexaglot - 6 languages spoken
- septilingual, heptaglot - 7 languages spoken
- octolingual, octoglot - 8 languages spoken
- novelingual, enneaglot - 9 languages spoken
- decalingual, decaglot - 10 languages spoken
- undecalingual, hendecaglot - 11 languages spoken
- duodecalingual, dodecaglot - 12 languages spoken
Widespread multilingualism is one form of language contact. Multilingualism was common in the past: in early times, when most people were members of small language communities, it was necessary to know two or more languages for trade or any other dealings outside one's town or village, and this holds good today in places of high linguistic diversity such as Sub-Saharan Africa and India. Linguist Ekkehard Wolff estimates that 50% of the population of Africa is multilingual.
In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states can have multilingual policies and recognize several official languages, such as Canada (English and French). In some states, particular languages may be associated with particular regions in the state (e.g., Canada) or with particular ethnicities (e.g., Malaysia and Singapore). When all speakers are multilingual, linguists classify the community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved:
- Diglossia: if there is a structural-functional distribution of the languages involved, the society is termed 'diglossic'. Typical diglossic areas are those areas in Europe where a regional language is used in informal, usually oral, contexts, while the state language is used in more formal situations. Frisia (with Frisian and German or Dutch) and Lusatia (with Sorbian and German) are well-known examples. Some writers limit diglossia to situations where the languages are closely related and could be considered dialects of each other. This can also be observed in Scotland where, in formal situations, English is used. However, in informal situations in many areas, Scots is the preferred language of choice. A similar phenomenon is also observed in Arabic-speaking regions. The effects of diglossia could be seen in the difference between written Arabic (Modern Standard Arabic) and colloquial Arabic. However, as time goes, the Arabic language somewhere between the two has been created what some have deemed "Middle Arabic" or "Common Arabic". Because of this diversification of the language, the concept of spectroglossia has been suggested.
- Ambilingualism: a region is called am bilingual if this functional distribution is not observed. In a typical ambilingual area it is nearly impossible to predict which language will be used in a given setting. True ambilingualism is rare. Ambilingual tendencies can be found in small states with multiple heritages like Luxembourg, which has a combined Franco-Germanic heritage, or Malaysia and Singapore, which fuses the cultures of Malays, China, and India or communities with high rates of deafness like Martha's Vineyard where historically most inhabitants spoke both MVSL and English or in southern Israel where locals speak both Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language and either Arabic or Hebrew. Ambilingualism also can manifest in specific regions of larger states that have both a dominant state language (be it de jure or de facto) and a protected minority language that is limited in terms of the distribution of speakers within the country. This tendency is especially pronounced when, even though the local language is widely spoken, there is a reasonable assumption that all citizens speak the predominant state tongue (e.g., English in Quebec vs. Canada; Spanish in Catalonia vs. Spain). This phenomenon can also occur in border regions with many cross-border contacts.
- Bipart-lingualism: if more than one language can be heard in a small area, but the large majority of speakers are monolinguals, who have little contact with speakers from neighboring ethnic groups, an area is called 'bipart-lingual'. An example of this is the Balkans.
N.B. the terms given above all refer to situations describing only two languages. In cases of an unspecified number of languages, the terms polyglossia, omnilingualism, and multipart-lingualism are more appropriate.
Interaction between speakers of different languages
Whenever two people meet, negotiations take place. If they want to express solidarity and sympathy, they tend to seek common features in their behavior. If speakers wish to express distance towards or even dislike of the person they are speaking to, the reverse is true, and differences are sought. This mechanism also extends to language, as described in the Communication Accommodation Theory.
Some multilinguals use code-switching, which involves swapping between languages. In many cases, code-switching is motivated by the wish to express loyalty to more than one cultural group, as holds for many immigrant communities in the New World. Code-switching may also function as a strategy where proficiency is lacking. Such strategies are common if the vocabulary of one of the languages is not very elaborated for certain fields, or if the speakers have not developed proficiency in certain lexical domains, as in the case of immigrant languages.
This code-switching appears in many forms. If a speaker has a positive attitude towards both languages and towards code-switching, many switches can be found, even within the same sentence. If however, the speaker is reluctant to use code-switching, as in the case of a lack of proficiency, he might knowingly or unknowingly try to camouflage his attempt by converting elements of one language into elements of the other language through calquing. This results in speakers using words like courrier noir (literally mail that is black) in French, instead of the proper word for blackmail, chantage.
Sometimes a pidgin language may develop. A pidgin language is a fusion of two languages that is mutually understandable for both speakers. Some pidgin languages develop into real languages (such as Papiamento in Curaçao or Singlish in Singapore) while others remain as slangs or jargons (such as Helsinki slang, which is more or less mutually intelligible both in Finnish and Swedish). In other cases, prolonged influence of languages on each other may have the effect of changing one or both to the point where it may be considered that a new language is born. For example, many linguists believe that the Occitan language and the Catalan language were formed because of a population speaking a single Occitano-Romance language was divided into political spheres of influence of France and Spain, respectively. Yiddish is a complex blend of Middle High German with Hebrew and borrowings from Slavic languages.
Bilingual interaction can even take place without the speaker switching. In certain areas, it is not uncommon for speakers to use a different language within the same conversation. This phenomenon is found, amongst other places, in Scandinavia. Most speakers of Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can communicate with each other speaking their respective languages, while few can speak both (people used to these situations often adjust their language, avoiding words that are not found in the other language or that can be misunderstood). Using different languages is usually called non-convergent discourse, a term introduced by the Dutch linguist Reitze Jonkman. To a certain extent, this situation also exists between Dutch and Afrikaans, although everyday contact is fairly rare because of the distance between the two respective communities. Another example is the former state of Czechoslovakia, where two closely related and mutually intelligible languages (Czech and Slovak) were in common use. Most Czechs and Slovaks understand both languages, although they would use only one of them (their respective mother tongue) when speaking. For example, in Czechoslovakia, it was common to hear two people talking on television each speaking a different language without any difficulty understanding each other. This bilinguality still exists nowadays, although it has started to deteriorate after Czechoslovakia split up.
With emerging markets and expanding international cooperation, business users expect to be able to use software and applications in their own language. Multilingualisation (or "m17n", where "17" stands for 17 omitted letters) of computer systems can be considered part of a continuum between internationalization and localization:
- A localized system has been adapted or converted for a particular locale (other than the one it was originally developed for), including the language of the user interface, input, and display, and features such as time/date display and currency; but each instance of the system only supports a single locale.
- Multilingualised software supports multiple languages for display and input simultaneously, but generally has a single user interface language. Support for other locale features like time, date, number and currency formats may vary as the system tends towards full internationalization. Generally, a multilingual system is intended for use in a specific locale, whilst allowing for multilingual content.
- An internationalized system is equipped for use in a range of locales, allowing for the co-existence of several languages and character sets in user interfaces and displays. In particular, a system may not be considered internationalized in the fullest sense unless the interface language is selectable by the user at runtime.
Translating the user interface is usually part of the software localization process, which also includes adaptations such as units and date conversion. Many software applications are available in several languages, ranging from a handful (the most spoken languages) to dozens for the most popular applications (such as office suites, web browsers, etc.). Due to the status of English in computing, software development nearly always uses it (but see also Non-English-based programming languages), so almost all commercial software is initially available in an English version, and multilingual versions, if any, may be produced as alternative options based on the English original.
The Multilingual App Toolkit (MAT) was first released in concert with the release of Windows 8 as a way to provide developers a set of free tooling that enabled adding languages to their apps with just a few clicks, in large part due to the integration of a free, unlimited license to both the Microsoft Translator machine translation service and the Microsoft Language Platform service, along with platform extensibility to enable anyone to add translation services into MAT. Microsoft engineers and inventors of MAT, Jan A. Nelson, and Camerum Lerum have continued to drive development of the tools, working with third parties and standards bodies to assure broad availability of multilingual app development is provided. With the release of Windows 10, MAT is now delivering support for cross-platform development for Windows Universal Apps as well as IOS and Android.
Globalization has led the world to be more deeply interconnected. Consequences of this are that more and more companies are trading with foreign countries, and with countries that don't necessarily speak the same language. English has become an important working knowledge mainly in multinational companies, but also smaller companies. NGO workers are also faced with multilingualism when intervening on the field and use both linguistic and non-verbal strategies to communicate.
According to Hewitt (2008) entrepreneurs in London from Poland, China or Turkey use English mainly for communication with customers, suppliers, and banks, but their native languages for work tasks and social purposes. Even in English speaking countries immigrants are still able to use their mother tongue in the workplace thanks to other immigrants from the same place. Kovacs (2004) describes this phenomenon in Australia with Finnish immigrants in the construction industry who spoke Finnish during working hours. But even though foreign languages may be used in the workplace, English is still a must-know working skill. Mainstream society justifies the divided job market, arguing that getting a low-paying job is the best newcomers can achieve considering their limited language skills.
With companies going international they are now focusing more and more on the English level of their employees. Especially in South Korea since the 1990s, companies are using different English language testing to evaluate job applicants, and the criteria in those tests are constantly upgrading the level for good English. In India, it is even possible to receive training to acquire an English accent, as the number of outsourced call centers in India has soared in the past decades. Meanwhile, Japan ranks 53rd out of 100 countries in 2019 EF English Proficiency Index, amid calls for this to improve in time for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.
Within multiracial countries such as Malaysia and Singapore, it is not unusual for one to speak two or more languages, albeit with varying degrees of fluency. Some are proficient in several Chinese dialects, given the linguistic diversity of the ethnic Chinese community in both countries.
Not only in multinational companies is English an important skill, but also in the engineering industry, in the chemical, electrical and aeronautical fields. A study directed by Hill and van Zyl (2002) shows that in South Africa young black engineers used English most often for communication and documentation. However, Afrikaans and other local languages were also used to explain particular concepts to workers in order to ensure understanding and cooperation.
In Europe, as the domestic market is generally quite restricted, international trade is a norm. But there is no predominant language in Europe (with German spoken in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, and Belgium; French in France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Switzerland; and English in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Malta). Most of the time, English is used as a communication language, but in multilingual countries such as Belgium (Dutch, French, and German), Switzerland (German, French, Italian and Romansh), Luxembourg (Luxembourgish, French and German) or Spain (Spanish, Catalan, Basque and Galician), it is common to see employees mastering two or even three of those languages. Some languages such as Danish, Swedish and Norwegian; Serbian, Croatian and Slovenian or Czech and Slovakian are so close to each other that it is generally more common when meeting to use their mother tongue rather than English. During Czechoslovakian times, Czech and Slovakian used to be the same language, but two different dialects as well as during Yugoslavian times Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian and Montenegrin used to be one language with more dialects. After the Yugoslavian breakup, each state created its official language from their dialect. Name of the original language used to be called Serbo-Croatian. In spoken form, there is almost no difference between Serbian and Croatian. In written form, Serbs use Cyrillic and Croatian Latin
Many minor Russian ethnic groups, such as Tatars, Bashkirs and others, are also multilingual. Moreover, with the beginning of compulsory study of the Tatar language in Tatarstan, there has been an increase in its level of knowledge of the Russian-speaking population of the republic.
Continued global diversity has led to an increasingly multilingual workforce. Europe has become an excellent model to observe this newly diversified labor culture. The expansion of the European Union with its open labor market has provided opportunities both for well-trained professionals and unskilled workers to move to new countries to seek employment. Political changes and turmoil have also led to migration and the creation of new and more complex multilingual workplaces. In most wealthy and secure countries, immigrants are found mostly in low paid jobs but also, increasingly, in high-status positions.
It is extremely common for music to be written in whatever the contemporary lingua franca is. If a song is not written in a common tongue, then it is usually written in whatever is the predominant language in the musician's country of origin, or in another widely recognized language, such as English, German, Spanish, or French.
The bilingual song cycles "there..." and "Sing, Poetry" on the 2011 contemporary classical album Troika consist of musical settings of Russian poems with their English self-translation by Joseph Brodsky and Vladimir Nabokov, respectively.
Songs with lyrics in multiple languages are known as macaronic verse.
- Cultural diversity
- List of multilingual countries and regions
- List of multilingual bands and artists
- List of multilingual presidents of the United States
Policies and proposals
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|Library resources about |
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Did you know…
- An estimated 40 million Americans experience speech, language, and/or hearing disorders.
- The second most common reason for special education services in public schools is speech/language impairment.
- 36 million American adults report some degree of hearing loss.
- 1 in 5 kids age 12-19 suffers from hearing loss.
- Communication disorders cost the U.S. approximately $180 billion annually.
- 8-9% of young children suffer from speech/sounds disorders.
Early intervention is crucial to the successful development of communication skills. Cleveland Hearing & Speech Center offers help for those with problems hearing, speaking, reading, or writing. If you have concerns about your child’s speech, language, literacy or learning skills, schedule an appointment for an evaluation today. | <urn:uuid:708c1e04-a07d-4018-af0f-8fd58a31ab66> | CC-MAIN-2020-24 | https://blog.chsc.org/blog/may-is-better-hearing-speech-month | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590347423915.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200602064854-20200602094854-00597.warc.gz | en | 0.918363 | 163 | 3.25 | 3 |
A death squad assassinated Berta Cáceres in La Esperanza, Honduras on March 3, 2016. It’s clear now that state agents killed her and that the United States helped out indirectly.
Cáceres belonged to the Lenca people who, living in southwestern Honduras, are Honduras’ largest indigenous group. As a student in 1993, she co-founded the Civic Council of Popular and Indigenous Movements of Honduras (COPINH in its Spanish initials) to protect her people and advance their rights.
COPINH people in 1994 marched to Tegucigalpa, the Honduran capital. They were demanding self-government for indigenous communities, a ban on logging, and cessation of violence against indigenous people. The government made promises.
Concerned about survival for small farmers and danger from big mining and hydroelectric projects, Berta Cáceres and COPINH opposed free trade agreements between Honduras and either Canada or the United States.
On June 28, 2009, the Honduras military removed President Manuel Zelaya from power. The U. S. government knew in advance about the plans. Zelaya had proposed a minimum wage, advanced land reform, brought Honduras into the progressive ALBA alliance, and introduced the idea of a constituent assembly. Berta Cáceres, with “unheard of courage,” led demonstrations against the illegal government succeeding his.
Governments since then, reports Le Monde Diplomatique, “have given up 30 percent of the national territory to transnational mining and hydroelectric companies. Now there are dozens of big dams under construction and more than 300 extracting companies that are plundering the country.” Such was the setting for the culminating phase of Berta Cáceres’ life.
There were victories: “COPINH has succeeded in halting the construction of dams, paralyzing deforestation projects, freezing exploitation of mines, preventing the destruction of sacred places, and securing the restitution of lands being exploited to indigenous communities.”
COPINH confronted Desarrollos Energético Company, owner and developer of the Agua Zarca hydroelectric project. Its dam in Western Honduras would cross the Gualcarque River, sacred to the Lenca people. Billionaire banker Camilo Atala and family members – backers of the 2009 coup – hold a controlling interest in Desarrollos Energético.
Beginning in 2012, COPINH activists, led by Cáceres, set up blockades on roads leading to construction sites. Government security forces were protecting company property. Elsewhere ccampaigners pressed COPINH’s case before government officials and agencies abroad, including the Inter-American Human Rights Commission.
Deadly violence against the protesters led the World Bank’s International Finance Corporation in 2013 to withdraw financial backing for the construction project. China’s huge Sinohydro Corporation, the contractor building the dam, did likewise. After Caceres’ murder other banks ended their support. Construction stopped.
Berta Cáceres won the prestigious Goldman Environmental Award in 2015 for contributions to rural sustainability and leadership in opposing the Agua Zarca dam.
Cáceres knew she might die; Honduras is the most dangerous place in the world for environmental activists. Following President Zelaya’s removal in 2009 “at least 124 land and environmental campaigners have been killed.” Two COPINH activists were killed following Cacares’ death.
The New York Times notes that killers are rarely punished and that, “Corruption and criminality … reach into the highest levels of government.” Another reporter quoted a Jesuit priest who insisted, “The government of Juan Orlando Hernández is responsible for the death of Berta Cáceres.”
It’s a shared responsibility. According to the Times, “The United States, which maintains troops, equipment and trainers at several military sites …, has made matters only worse by shoring up the corrupt [Honduran] government with hundreds of millions of dollars in assistance and overt political support.”
With $18 million allocated in 2016, the United States is “the main provider of military and police support to Honduras,” reports the UK Guardian, which claims that Honduran special- forces units trained by U. S. military advisors often “target troublesome community leaders.” The Times cited a deserter from a military police unit who said his unit had a hit list and Berta Cáceres’ name was at the top.
The Honduran government has charged eight men with having murdered Berta Cáceres, although none “seems important enough to have ordered the crime.” The Guardian identified three of them as present or former members of the Honduran military; one headed army intelligence. One of the civilian suspects is a manager for Desarrollos Energéticos.
Fr. Roy Bourgeois founded School of the Americas Watch, a resistance organization named for a U.S. Army school at Ft. Benning, Georgia. That school has trained tens of thousands of Latin American military officers. It has a different official name now. But Fr. Bourgeois has one more name; two of the three murder suspects with a military background did take courses at what he calls the “School of Assassins.”
On March 2, Rep. Hank Johnson (D-GA) reintroduced a bill identified as the “Berta Cáceres Human Rights in Honduras Act.” The proposed legislation with 24 sponsors, all Democrats, would “suspend United States security assistance with Honduras until such time as human rights violations by Honduran security forces cease and their perpetrators are brought to justice.”
The wording hints at U. S. complicity, real or potential, in halting the mission Berta Cáceres shared with so many others. Official intentions show up in U. S. support for corporate take –over of resources belonging to impoverished peoples and in military intervention under the tired drug – war pretext. Governmental disregard for all people’s right to survive, not to speak of thriving, is total.
The Johnson bill submitted to a distracted U. S. Congress surely deserves support. To weigh in, readers may call the Capitol Switchboard at (202) 224-3121 and ask to be connected to their legislator. But more is required, we think: specifically, resistance by all possible means to foreign interventions serving only the upper reaches of U. S. society. | <urn:uuid:6fc13e73-1d06-4e7c-847a-8e0f1c9263ac> | CC-MAIN-2018-22 | https://www.counterpunch.org/2017/03/09/murdered-one-year-ago-berta-caceres-defended-the-environment-and-indigenous-rights/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-22/segments/1526794868248.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20180527111631-20180527131631-00205.warc.gz | en | 0.947844 | 1,356 | 3.046875 | 3 |
By Dr. Linda Seger
We all seem to want it. We all seem to seek it. “Success” seems to be the magic word for what we chase after, prepare for, choose, desire. It’s how we often define our lives. Money, fame, and power are often what we have been told make up success. If we don’t get it, we’re consumed with envy of those who do.
Some who feel they have lost this golden ring have mental breakdowns, mid-life crises, and get ill just thinking about it. Others give up, and decide that success isn’t all that important; what is important is simply having a job and keeping food on the table. Some, at the end of their lives, suddenly realize they blew it, and what they thought they had, they never had at all.
Worldview Definitions of Success
Americans tend to define success by money, and by what money can buy. We are known around the world as a rather materialistic country, always striving after things and defining success by the accoutrements that money can buy – such as our snazzy cars, the size of our homes and designer clothes. And that’s just what we get – more things. This doesn’t mean more fulfillment or contributing to make the world better in some way. It simply means more things.
Other countries define success more in terms of whether their work supports their family life. If they enjoy their work, and if it gives them an opportunity to spend time with their family and have a balanced life, they’d consider themselves successful.
For example an Israeli screenwriter was asked if she had plans to come to Los Angeles to try to break into the Hollywood film industry. She replied, “Probably not since I can’t imagine being that far away from my family.” For her, success would be defined by her ability to get her film made in Israel, without compromising her family life.
Success and Effectiveness
For some, success is defined by effectiveness. The question is: “Are they making things happen? Are they achieving project goals? Are they contributing in a way that adds value to the project?” Success for them means the project becomes better as a result of their participation. They can see the results, and feel fulfilled by their work, but also know their work fulfills others, either because the product they make is useful, or because the service they provide is helpful.
Success and Joy
Some define success by whether their job suits them and by how much joy they have as a result of their work. They define it by the joy they feel when they do the work; the joy they feel when they’ve finished the work; and by the joy that others feel as a result of their work.
If their work doesn’t add to their sense of happiness and joy of themselves and others, then no matter how much money they’ve earned or how many accolades they receive, they don’t feel successful.
This joy not only comes from their own work, but from the collaboration with other talented people who not only bring their skills to the project, but also bring harmony to the working relationship. Nobody wants to work among discord. For many, if those work relationships aren’t fulfilling and harmonious, they don’t feel good about their work, themselves, or about others.
Success and Balance
Some define success by the sense of balance they have between their work lives and the rest of their lives. For them, work is not what success is about. They believe that life needs to be balanced, and that work is not meant to be the only thing in our lives.
John Woolman, an early American abolitionist, cut back on his successful work as a tailor because he wanted to be “free of cumber.” When his work was getting so cumbersome it was controlling him and left him no time for other things of value in his life, he did not consider himself successful.
If a job is driving someone, demanding all their time, and giving them no balance between their work, physical exercise, time with their family and other relationships, and time for spiritual growth, then the balance is off and many would consider this is not living a successful life. This can lead to a frenetic lifestyle, as well as illness, family problems, and not paying attention to the values that make a good life.
Making a Difference
Ultimately, many define success by how their lives will be summed up at their funeral. Will attendees be talking about how much money the person made or perhaps even say “good riddance” to a failure as a human being?
Or will they be talking about this person’s contributions and how blessed they feel to have known this person as a friend or co-worker? For most, success is ultimately defined by the Good that has been contributed, and by what is remembered about someone who has finished the work. Has the person made a good difference?
Dr. Linda Seger is the author of The Better Way to Win: Connecting not Competing for Success, and Spiritual Steps on the Road to Success: gaining the goal without losing your soul. She began her business as a script consultant in 1981 and recently received a Lifetime Achievement Award for her contributions to the film industry. She can be contacted through her websites, http://www.lindaseger.com/ and http://www.spiritual-steps.com/
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This is the reason why, at Mass, it is only after the second consecration that the sacrifice is enacted. Were the priest to consecrate but one species, the sacrifice would not be re-enacted.
Part III: The Effects of Christ’s Sacrifice on Calvary: Man’s Justification
In the IIIrd part of his Summa Theologica, question 49, St Thomas Aquinas enumerates three main effects of Christ’s passion:
- Man was freed from sin.
- Man was freed from the debt of punishment due to sin.
- Man was reconciled with God.
St Thomas describes each of these effects as follows:
Man is freed from sin.
Christ's Passion causes forgiveness of sins by way of redemption. For since He is our head, then, by the Passion which He endured from love and obedience, He delivered us as His members from our sins, as by the price of His Passion: in the same way as if a man by the good industry of his hands were to redeem himself from a sin committed with his feet. For, just as the natural body is one though made up of diverse members, so the whole Church, Christ's mystic body, is reckoned as one person with its head, which is Christ.
Christ's Passion causes forgiveness of sins also by way of efficiency, inasmuch as Christ's flesh, wherein He endured the Passion, is the instrument of the Godhead, so that His sufferings and actions operate with Divine power for expelling sin. (Summa Theologica, question 49, art. 1)
Man is freed from the debt of punishment due to sin.
Through Christ's Passion we have been delivered from the debt of punishment in two ways. First of all, directly--namely, inasmuch as Christ's Passion was sufficient and superabundant satisfaction for the sins of the whole human race: but when sufficient satisfaction has been paid, then the debt of punishment is abolished. In another way--indirectly, that is to say--in so far as Christ's Passion is the cause of the forgiveness of sin, upon which the debt of punishment rests. (Summa Theologica, question 49, art. 3)
Man is reconciled to God.
Christ's Passion is in two ways the cause of our reconciliation to God. In the first way, inasmuch as it takes away sin by which men became God's enemies, according to Wis. 14:9: "To God the wicked and his wickedness are hateful alike"; and Ps. 5:7: "Thou hatest all the workers of iniquity." In another way, inasmuch as it is a most acceptable sacrifice to God. Now it is the proper effect of sacrifice to appease God: just as man likewise overlooks an offence committed against him on account of some pleasing act of homage shown him. Hence it is written (1 Kgs. 26:19): "If the Lord stir thee up against me, let Him accept of sacrifice." And in like fashion Christ's voluntary suffering was such a good act that, because of its being found in human nature, God was appeased for every offence of the human race with regard to those who are made one with the crucified Christ. (Summa Theologica, question 49, art. 4)
This last point is of the utmost importance. Man has indeed been made acceptable to God, so acceptable that he can become a son of God, sharing in the very nature and life of God Himself: “But as many as received him, he gave them power to be made the sons of God, to them that believe in his name. Who are born, not of blood, nor of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of man, but of God.” (Jo. I, 12-13)
A more general description of the effects of Christ Passion is presented and explained in the VIth session of Council of Trent. This session proclaimed the decree on Justification. As we will see later on, this decree is of capital importance in the theology of the Mass. We will therefore make a short summery.
The decree begins by recalling the fall of man, the loss of grace and consequently man’s radical incapacity to be pleasing to God, i.e. just in God’s eyes:
“Whereas all men had lost their innocence in the prevarication of Adam-having become unclean, and, as the apostle says, by nature children of wrath, as (this Synod) has set forth in the decree on original sin, they were so far the servants of sin, and under the power of the devil and of death, that not the Gentiles only by the force of nature, but not even the Jews by the very letter itself of the law of Moses, were able to be liberated, or to arise, therefrom.” (Chapter 1)
God therefore sent His only begotten Son to redeem mankind:
“The heavenly Father, the father of mercies and the God of all comfort, when that blessed fullness of the time was come, sent unto men, Jesus Christ, His own Son, that He might both redeem the Jews who were under the Law, and that the Gentiles, who followed not after justice, might attain to justice, and that all men might receive the adoption of sons.” (Chapter 2)
Only those to whom the merits of Christ’s passion are applied become once more just in God’s eyes:
“Though He died for all, yet do not all receive the benefit of His death, but those only unto whom the merit of His passion is communicated.” (Chapter 3)
Then follows a description of what the justification of man entails:
“A translation, from that state wherein man is born a child of the first Adam, to the state of grace, and of the adoption of the sons of God, through the second Adam, Jesus Christ, our Saviour.” (Chapter 4)
This justification comes about through baptism.
Then follows the famous chapter 7, in which the process of man’s justification is fully explained. We can but quote the wonderfully clear and concise teaching of the Council in its entirety:
What the justification of the impious is, and what are the causes thereof.
This disposition, or preparation, is followed by Justification itself, which is not remission of sins merely, but also the sanctification and renewal of the inward man, through the voluntary reception of the grace, and of the gifts, whereby man of unjust becomes just, and of an enemy a friend, that so he may be an heir according to hope of life everlasting.
The causes of man’s justification are given:
Of this Justification the causes are these:
The final cause indeed is the glory of God and of Jesus Christ, and life everlasting;
… while the efficient cause is a merciful God who washes and sanctifies gratuitously, signing, and anointing with the Holy Spirit of promise, who is the pledge of our inheritance;
… but the meritorious cause is His most beloved only-begotten, our Lord Jesus Christ, who, when we were enemies, for the exceeding charity wherewith he loved us, merited justification for us by His most holy Passion on the wood of the cross, and made satisfaction for us unto God the Father;
…the instrumental cause is the sacrament of baptism, which is the sacrament of faith, without which (faith) no man was ever justified;
… lastly, the alone formal cause is the justice of God, not that whereby He Himself is just, but that whereby He maketh us just, that, to wit, with which we being endowed by Him, are renewed in the spirit of our mind, and we are not only reputed, but are truly called, and are, just, receiving justice within us, each one according to his own measure, which the Holy Ghost distributes to every one as He wills, and according to each one's proper disposition and co-operation. For, although no one can be just, but he to whom the merits of the Passion of our Lord Jesus Christ are communicated, yet is this done in the said justification of the impious, when by the merit of that same most holy Passion, the charity of God is poured forth, by the Holy Spirit, in the hearts of those that are justified, and is inherent therein: whence, man, through Jesus Christ, in whom he is engrafted, receives, in the said justification, together with the remission of sins, all these (gifts) infused at once, faith, hope, and charity. For faith, unless hope and charity be added thereto, neither unites man perfectly with Christ, nor makes him a living member of His body.
For which reason it is most truly said, that Faith without works is dead and profitless; and, In Christ Jesus neither circumcision, availeth anything, nor uncircumcision, but faith which worketh by charity. This faith, Catechumen's beg of the Church-agreeably to a tradition of the apostles-previously to the sacrament of Baptism; when they beg for the faith which bestows life everlasting, which, without hope and charity, faith cannot bestow: whence also do they immediately hear that word of Christ; “If thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments.”
Wherefore, when receiving true and Christian justice, they are bidden, immediately on being born again, to preserve it pure and spotless, as the first robe given them through Jesus Christ in lieu of that which Adam, by his disobedience, lost for himself and for us, that so they may bear it before the judgement-seat of our Lord Jesus Christ, and may have life everlasting.
The ultimate effect or consequence of Christ’s Passion is the justification of man, when the merits of the Passion are applied to the soul through the sacraments, in particular the first sacrament of baptism.
Man’s justification consists in the destruction of his sins, his subsequent purification and the infusion of sanctifying grace and virtues in the soul, whereby he becomes a true son of God.
Since man remains nevertheless a sinner, his souls needs to be constantly bathed in the merits of Christ’s Passion, purified in Christ’s blood, justified anew. This happens through the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass, re-enactment and continuation of the Sacrifice of Calvary.
Therefore, the necessity of the Sacrifice of the Mass being a propitiatory sacrifice is tantamount. If it were not, it would not be the continuation of Calvary. It would be reduced to a mere memorial or commemorative meal. This is the case of the Communion Service of the various Protestant Churches.
Part IV: Protestant Theology
We cannot present here an in-depth study of Protestant Theology, indeed it would be near impossible to do so with all the variants that against between Protestant authors and theologians. We wish only to explain the main point of divergence between Catholic and Protestant teaching: justification. We will follow Luther’s explanation of justification.
Luther’s theology, and the general tenants of Protestant teaching, may be summarised as follows:
- Human nature is corrupt in its very essence from original sin, and therefore can never be restored.
- Christ’s sacrifice on Calvary is therefore not propitiatory, i.e. does not atone for our sins. Since Adam’s sin has corrupted our very nature, we cannot be freed from it.
- Grace does nothing to the soul, does not purify it nor destroy sin. Grace does not give new life to the soul, but simply covers the soul with the cloak of Christ’s righteousness.
- Justification consists not in the sanctification of the soul, but merely in the non-imputation of sin. Therefore man remains spiritually dead.
- Man, being spiritually dead, cannot acquire merit by good works. Therefore he is saved by faith and confidence in God alone.
- There is no Communion of Saints nor devotion to Our Lady, since there is no communication of sanctity, i.e. the life of grace shared by all members of the Church militant, suffering and triumphant.
- God justifies the souls directly, by faith alone. There is no ministerial communication of grace, therefore no sacraments, no priesthood.
- The Mass, continuation of the sacrifice of Calvary, and considered therefore as a propitiatory sacrifice, is to be rejected at all costs.
Let us look at these assertions in detail:
Essential Corruption of Human Nature
The Catholic Church teaches that human nature was grievously injured through Original Sin. Not only did man fall from the state of grace and justice in which he had been created, but he also sustained terrible wounds to the mind and the will. Henceforth he would suffer from ignorance and the revolt of the lower passions. However, though grievously harmed, human nature was not destroyed by Original Sin. A cure was possible, which takes place when the soul is justified. It was/is therefore possible for human nature to be restored to its former dignity, i.e. purified of its sin and filled once more with sanctifying grace and the virtues.
Luther believed that as a result of Original Sin, human nature was irremediably injured. Though the fall of Adam man’s nature is become evil and must ever remain so, so evil that the death of Christ is not sufficient to restore it to its former state of justice. Man will therefore remain evil, a sinner, whose sins can never be destroyed or taken away.
Christ’s sacrifice on Calvary is not propitiatory.
Since man can never be freed from his sin, the Sacrifice of Calvary was not a propitiatory sacrifice, one that atoned for the sins of mankind. What was the Sacrifice of Calvary? Calvin professes that it was a vicarial, vindicatory punishment for sin, i.e. the Son of God alone bore upon Himself the guilt of mankind’s sins and absorbed in the place of the rest of humanity the full force of God’s merciless vengeance. Now the price of sin has been paid, the salvation of man is assured by an act of faith in Christ, as will be explained further on.
Grace is the non-imputation of sin.
Since man remains steeped in his sin, he is radically unable to receive divine grace, i.e. a share in the divine life. What did Christ’s passion therefore merit for him? It merited for man the non-imputation of his sin. Grace takes on a new meaning for the Protestant. Merited by Christ’s death on the Cross, it no longer means the giving of new life to the soul, but simply covering of the soul with the cloak of Christ’s righteousness. God no longer sees the sin, the leprosy of the soul, only his Divine Son’s righteousness with which the soul is covered.
Justification consists merely in the non-imputation of sin.
The merit of Christ’s passion is the cause of man’s justification. Luther has a new definition of the justification of the sinner. It is no longer the destruction of sin, purification of the soul and infusion of sanctifying grace and the gifts; it is merely, as mentioned above, the non-imputation of sin. Hence, after justification in the Lutheran sense the soul still remains hideous, evil in itself and thereby intrinsically repulsive to God. It becomes acceptable to God by being cloaked in the garment of Christ’s righteousness.
For Luther there is no interior sanctification of the soul, no infusion of grace, no share in the divine life, no gifts, no virtues, nothing when the soul is justified. It is simply that God withholds the accusation of sinner.
For Luther, justification means that the soul is declared just and therefore acceptable to God, since Christ has paid the price for its sin. For the Catholic justification means the soul is made just.
Man is saved by faith alone.
Since man remains spiritually dead, he can do nothing of himself to acquire a spiritual reward: heaven. Good works are useless in man’s plight for salvation. Therefore all that remains for him is to place his trust in God. This is the definition of the Lutheran act of faith. It is an act of blind confidence in God who looks upon us as clothed in Christ’s justice and therefore admits saves us.
No recognition of Our Lady’s eminent sanctity, no Communion of Saints.
This is the logical consequence of Luther’s refusal of Catholic justification. No man is made whole, holy, just, Our Lady included. Man’s sin remains though it is hidden from God’s sight. Therefore, there is no communication of grace, i.e. a participation in the life of God whereby man is elevated to the state of adoptive son of God. Hence nothing binds men together, no common bond of grace, no spiritual life shared by the members of the Church triumphant, suffering and militant, i.e. the Mystical Body of Christ. This is the very definition of the Communion of the Saints.
Denial of the sacramental system and the priesthood.
If anything man can do is useless in his plight for salvation and if man is saved by faith alone, the sacraments and the ministers of the sacraments become obsolete and unnecessary.
The Catholic Church defines a sacrament as an outward sign of inward grace. Through the sacraments, the graces and merits of Christ’s passion are communicated to the soul, justifying it ever more and rendering it ever more pleasing to God. This was intolerable to Luther.
Carrying his belief in the irremediable corruption of human nature to its logical end, Luther denied that anyone or anything in the created universe could be used unto salvation. Faith and faith alone was the sole criterion for salvation. Grace (in the Catholic sense) does not exist, therefore the sacraments, channels of divine grace, do not exist either. If the sacraments do not exist, the sacramental priesthood does not exist.
For Luther there was to be no ministerial communication of grace. Salvation was a personal affair between God and the soul, without the intermediary of men ordained to distribute the sacraments. Christ having paid the debt of punishment once and for all on the Cross, man’s salvation was assured and all he had to do was “latch on to” that salvation by an act of faith in Christ.
Redemption implies expiation from sin, i.e. the destruction of sin and man’s restoration to the right order.
Preparation described in chapter 6 of the decree: “Now they (adults) are disposed unto the said justice, when, excited and assisted by divine grace, conceiving faith by hearing, they are freely moved towards God, believing those things to be true which God has revealed and promised,-and this especially, that God justifies the impious by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus; and when, understanding themselves to be sinners, they, by turning themselves, from the fear of divine justice whereby they are profitably agitated, to consider the mercy of God, are raised unto hope, confiding that God will be propitious to them for Christ's sake; and they begin to love Him as the fountain of all justice; and are therefore moved against sins by a certain hatred and detestation, to wit, by that penitence which must be performed before baptism: lastly, when they purpose to receive baptism, to begin a new life, and to keep the commandments of God.” (Chapter 6)
The Communion of Saints is the collection of souls here below, in Purgatory and in heaven, who are all sanctified and united in a common, supernatural life with the Head of the church (Christ) and with one another. In other words, the Communion of Saints is nothing other then those souls vivified by sanctifying grace and thereby members of Our Lord’s Mystical Body, i.e. the Church militant, suffering and triumphant. By virtue of this union, souls on earth may pray to the saints in heaven, saints may intercede for souls on earth and both souls on earth and saints in heaven may procure relief and speedy release for souls suffering in purgatory.
Christ having paid the debt of punishment once and for all on the Cross, man’s salvation was assured and all he had to do was “latch on to” that salvation by an act of faith in Christ.
The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass is to be rejected at all cost.
If the sacramental system was to be rejected, the Mass in particular had to be destroyed, for two reasons in particular:
Firstly, we have seen that the Mass is the continuation of the Sacrifice of Calvary, and therefore a propitiatory sacrifice, rendered present by the ministry of the priest-celebrant, through which the saving merits of Christ’s passion are applied to the individual soul unto its justification.
But for Luther, Christ’s sacrifice on Calvary was not propitiatory because it did not atone for man’s sins, but merely merited for him their non-imputation.
Therefore the “sacrificiality” of the Mass had to be abolished, as this was a perpetual reminder and attestation of the justifying (in the Catholic sense) powers of Calvary.
Secondly, we have seen that Christ’s sacrifice is the source of salvation for all men, both for Catholics and Protestants. Now Catholics say that though the salvation of man has been wrought, it must still be applied to the individual soul, over and over again, since the soul sins anew each day. This takes place through the reception of the sacraments and in particular that of Holy Mass. Hence the necessity to celebrate Mass. However, Protestants deny that the application of the merits of Christ’s passion must be applied to the soul day after day. They are applied once and for all through the famous act of faith in Christ.
Thus, the sacrifice of the Mass, the re-enactment of Calvary, where the fruits of Christ’s passion are applied to the souls of the faithful, is useless, rather it is, they say, blasphemous and derogates the honour due to the one and unique sacrifice of Calvary.
We see therefore that Luther’s teaching is in contradiction with Catholic teaching. Luther denies man’s redemption in the Catholic sense.
According to Catholic teaching, man’s redemption was operated on Calvary by Christ’s bloody sacrifice. This redemption consists in the destruction of sin and the justification of the souls of all those who receive a share in the merits of Jesus Christ. The souls shares in the merits of Jesus Christ through its adherence to the Church and reception of the sacraments, imparted to them by ordained priests.
According to Protestant teaching, man’s redemption is also operated on Calvary by Christ’s bloody sacrifice. But the redemption does not destroy sin, merely removes the blame for it (non-imputation). Therefore, since sin remains, Christ’s sacrifice is not propitiatory (atones for our sins) and furthermore, there is no justification of the soul, i.e. infusion of sanctifying grace, since the presence of God in the soul is incompatible with sin still residing therein.
We will now see what consequence Luther’s system of belief bore on the liturgy he designed for his new religion.
Part V: Lex Orandi, Lex Credendi
“Lex orandi, lex credendi”: the law of prayer follows on the law of belief. This is a well-known theological axiom. We pray as we believe. It applies to all religions.
By virtue of this principle, Catholic prayer (the Liturgy) must necessarily be in accordance with Catholic Doctrine.
Therefore, if one were to change Catholic doctrine, one would also have to change the liturgy. This was the case of Luther and all the Protestant reformers.
We shall briefly enumerate the main points of Luther’s doctrine concerning the Mass and thereby show how and why Luther had to tamper with the Mass.
The Protestant Definition of the Mass: the Rejection of the notion of Expiatory Sacrifice.
For Luther, the Mass was only a sacrifice of praise, that is an act of praise, of thanksgiving, but most certainly not an expiatory sacrifice, which recreates the Sacrifice of Calvary and applies its merits, since such a belief would have been incompatible with his heretical teachings. Luther and his followers could not but repudiate this teaching, since it was in contradiction with his two mains points of his new system of belief: justification and atonement.
In contradiction with his basic theology of grace and justification:
Luther also could not tolerate the idea of the sacrifice of the Mass being a continuation of the sacrifice of Calvary, for this would necessarily imply the propitiatory effects of Calvary being applied to man here and now, unto the forgiveness of his sins and his sanctification. Therefore he abolished all notion of sacrifice. The Mass was to become a mere memorial of Christ’s past and completed sacrifice.
In contradiction with his interpretation of atonement.
Luther and his followers believed that Christ’s sacrifice on Calvary was unique and omni-sufficient to appease God’s anger forever. God had granted an irrevocable decree of pardon to His predestined elect. There was, therefore no need for the re-iteration of this sacrifice and the application of its merits to mankind.
Luther wrongly believed that the Mass contained a separate value from the act of Our Lord’s sacrifice of the Cross. If Christ’s sacrifice was of infinite value, why the need to repeat it each day upon the altar, by the ministry of priests? To do so would be to blasphemously deny the infinite and all sufficient value of the Cross.
The Denial of Transubstantiation.
The Protestants denied the real and substantial presence of the Body, Blood, Soul and Divinity of Christ in the Eucharistic species. If there was to be no sacrifice, no continuation of Calvary, there was no longer to be a victim, Jesus Christ present under the Eucharistic species. And again, if there is to be no victim (Christ) substantially present and offered to the Father, there is no more need for sacrifice, i.e. the sacred act of offering a victim. These two errors are mutually supportive of one another.
There are different Protestant theories on how Christ is present in the Eucharist. Luther professed consubstantiation: the co-existence Christ with the substance of bread and wine. Cranmer opted for a spiritual presence of Christ in the Eucharist, i.e. the consummation of the Eucharist is a figure of our interior and mystical communion with Christ. Christ was however not “in” or “under the appearance of” the bread and wine. These remained simply what they always were: bread and wine.
The Denial of the Sacramental Priesthood.
“Christ made no difference between the priest and the layman, that the priest should make oblation and sacrifice for the layman, and eat with him the Lord’s Supper all alone, and distribute it and apply it as him liketh. Christ made no such difference: but the difference that is between the priest and the layman in this matter is only in the ministration: that the priest, as a common minister of the Church, doth minister and distribute the Lord’s Supper unto other, and other receive it at his hands.”
Cranmer’s words are clear. The explanation for the Protestant denial of the priesthood has been briefly explain above. Suffice to say here, that, if there is no sacrifice, no transubstantiation, no victim to be offered in oblation there is no need for a priest, i.e. somebody empowered to perform the aforesaid actions. In lieu of a priest performing the sacred function of offering sacrifice to God, we are left with a president of the people presiding over a Eucharistic Meal in commemoration of the Last Supper. This president or simple minister possesses no specific powers of a sacramental nature. He does not mediate between God and man, since man has direct personal contact with God through his faith. The minister simply organises the manner of worship and instructs the people in the understanding of the Scriptures.
The Reduction of the Mass to a mere Commemoration of the Last Supper, or Eucharistic Meal.
Having denied the notion of sacrifice, having denied the Real Presence, having denied the sacramental priesthood, the Reformers concluded that the Mass was merely a memorial of what Our Lord had done at the Last Supper, whereby each individual recalled Christ’s redeeming sacrifice of Calvary and thereby entered into direct contact with God, through faith in the power of Christ’s redemption: “There is properly no oblation nor sacrifice, but a remembrance of the one oblation of Christ upon the cross, made once and for all; a giving of thanks for the same and the prayer of the public minister for the whole congregation.”
This is the reason for the Protestant rejection of altars in churches: “The form of a table shall more move the simple from the superstitious opinions of the popish Mass, unto the right use of the Lord’s Supper. For the use of an altar is to make sacrifice upon it; the use of a table is to serve for men to eat upon”
The reduction of the Mass to a mere Commemoration of the Last Supper also rules out its salutary effect on the dead. The dead cannot partake or a reunion meal, therefore the sacrament of he Eucharist has nothing to do with them.
We have sought to give a succinct explanation of Protestant theology in order to explain its effect on the Protestant liturgy, in particular with regards to the Mass.
By virtue of the principle: lex orandi, lex credendi, Luther and the other reformers were obliged to bring what was then Catholic worship, into line with their new theories, and therefore transformed the liturgy. One therefore cannot deny that, to change the form of prayer (the liturgy) implies a change in belief (doctrine).
We may therefore conclude, just as Cranmer had a theological motif in changing the liturgy, anyone else who wished to tamper with the Catholic Church’s manner of worship, in particular with the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass, the centre of all Catholic Worship, must also have some theological motive for his action. What is this theological motive? One may discover it by examining the reforms introduced. If the reforms are compatible with Catholic teaching, the theological motive behind them will also be compatible. If the reforms are not in line with Catholic teaching, the theological motive behind them becomes very doubtful.
In 1969 a new prayer, a new rite of Mass was introduced in the Church. The Old Mass, stretching back to the time of Gregory the Great, was abolished and replaced by a new ritual.
Now, for this ritual to be acceptable, it must be conform with the Catholic Church’s teachings on all the doctrines enumerated above, in particular Christ’s propitiatory sacrifice, the existence and possibility of grace, justification of man, etc
We shall now proceed to a detailed examination of the Novus Ordo Missae. This study will be based in large part on the “Ottaviani Intervention”.
The Ottaviani intervention was a detailed study of the New Mass composed by a group of Roman theologians, and signed and submitted to Pope Paul VI by the Cardinals Ottaviani and Bacci. This document, little known, is of the utmost importance. Cardinal Ottaviani, at the time of the Novus Ordo Missae’s promulgation in 1969, was prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, once called the Holy Office. This means that, at the time of the Novus Ordo Misaae’s promulgation, Cardinal Alfredo Ottaviani was in effect the most powerful man in the Church, second only to the Pope. His opinion and judgement of the New Mass is of singular importance.
*** End of Part I ***
Part I: Brief History of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass. 2
The Origins and development of the Mass. 2
Restoration of the Mass and its codification into the “Tridentine Rite.”_ 2
Part II: Catechetical Teaching on the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass. 5
The Notion of Sacrifice. 5
What is sacrifice?_ 5
The visibility and “publicity” of the sacrifice. 5
Conclusion: The Necessity of Sacrifice. 6
Application of these notions to the Eucharist. 6
The Sacrifice of Christ, God Incarnate. 6
To what end? (Final cause) 6
Using what means? (efficient cause) 7
What does Christ offer? (material cause) 7
Of what nature is Christ’s sacrifice? (formal cause) 7
The Eucharistic Sacrifice_ 8
Proof from Scripture_ 8
Proof from Tradition_ 8
Relation of the Sacrifice of the Mass to the Sacrifice of the Cross 9
The Metaphysical Nature of the Sacrifice of the Mass 9
Part III: The Effects of Christ’s Sacrifice on Calvary: Man’s Justification 11
Man is freed from sin. 11
Man is freed from the debt of punishment due to sin. 11
Man is reconciled to God. 11
Part IV: Protestant Theology 14
Luther’s Theology. 14
Essential Corruption of Human Nature_ 14
Christ’s sacrifice on Calvary is not propitiatory. 14
Grace is the non-imputation of sin. 15
Justification consists merely in the non-imputation of sin. 15
Man is saved by faith alone. 15
No recognition of Our Lady’s eminent sanctity, no Communion of Saints. 15
Denial of the sacramental system and the priesthood. 15
The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass is to be rejected at all cost. 16
Part V: Lex Orandi, Lex Credendi 17
The Protestant Definition of the Mass: the Rejection of the notion of Expiatory Sacrifice. 17
In contradiction with his basic theology of grace and justification: 17
In contradiction with his interpretation of atonement. 17
The Denial of Transubstantiation. 17
The Denial of the Sacramental Priesthood. 18
The Reduction of the Mass to a mere Commemoration of the Last Supper, or Eucharistic Meal. 18
It made be said that Luther, though perhaps unwittingly, actually denied that Christ’s sacrifice on Calvary was a true sacrifice, since it did not fulfil one of the four ends of sacrifice, namely propitiation for man’s offences against God. Penal punishment is not propitiatory punishment. It pays the price of the offence but does not restore the order of justice as it formally was.
As one Protestant put it: “Sin being forgiven, as the apostle telleth us, by the virtue of the sacrifice of the cross, there remaineth no more sacrifice for sin, but only a commemoration and a memorial.” Roger Hutchinson, Layman’s Handbook, 1550
Cardinal Cajetan refutes this error: “The spiritual offering (of the Mass) is not made because the sacrifice of Christ was insufficient, but in order that Christ and his sacrifice should be perpetually commemorated in sacred mysteries, according to his commandment: Do this in commemoration of me.”
“The Lutherans supposition is erroneous, in that they make out the sacrifice of the altar to be a different sacrifice from that which Christ offered on the Cross. For in truth it is the very same sacrifice (as it is the very same body of Christ on the altar, on the Cross, and now in heaven). But the difference is the manner of offering, because the sacrifice was then in a material manner, now it is offered in a spiritual manner. Then it was offered in the reality of death, now it is offered in the mystic figure of death.” (De Erroribus, Chap. IX)
Cranmer, quoted in Clarke’s Eucharistic Sacrifice and Reformation, Ch. VIII
Holbeach, Bishop of Lincoln, contemporary of Cranmer, quoted in Clarke’s Eucharistic Sacrifice and Reformation, Ch. VIII
Ridley, Bishop of Rochester, contemporary of Cranmer, quoted in Clarke’s Eucharistic Sacrifice and Reformation, Ch. VIII | <urn:uuid:c3ed6b9f-9dc9-44a2-842d-45f3502bce19> | CC-MAIN-2017-43 | http://op54rosary.ning.com/page/the-theology-of-the-mass | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187824931.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20171022003552-20171022023552-00363.warc.gz | en | 0.954982 | 7,794 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Deuteronomy 31Contemporary English Version (CEV)
FINAL SPEECHES AND THE DEATH OF MOSES
Joshua Is Appointed the Leader of Israel
31 Moses again spoke to the whole nation of Israel:
2 I am a hundred twenty years old, and I am no longer able to be your leader. And besides that, the Lord your God has told me that he won’t let me cross the Jordan River. 3-5 But he has promised that he and Joshua will lead you across the Jordan to attack the nations that live on the other side. The Lord will destroy those nations just as he destroyed Sihon and Og, those two Amorite kings. Just remember—whenever you capture a place, kill everyone who lives there.
6 Be brave and strong! Don’t be afraid of the nations on the other side of the Jordan. The Lord your God will always be at your side, and he will never abandon you.
7 Then Moses called Joshua up in front of the crowd and said:
Joshua, be brave and strong as you lead these people into their land. The Lord made a promise long ago to Israel’s ancestors that this land would someday belong to Israel. That time has now come, and you must divide up the land among the people. 8 The Lord will lead you into the land. He will always be with you and help you, so don’t ever be afraid of your enemies.
Read These Laws
9 Moses wrote down all of these laws and teachings and gave them to the priests and the leaders of Israel. The priests were from the Levi tribe, and they carried the sacred chest that belonged to the Lord. 10-11 Moses told these priests and leaders:
Each year the Israelites must come together to celebrate the Festival of Shelters at the place where the Lord chooses to be worshiped. You must read these laws and teachings to the people at the festival every seventh year, the year when loans do not need to be repaid.[a] 12-13 Everyone must come—men, women, children, and even the foreigners who live in your towns. And each new generation will listen and learn to worship the Lord their God with fear and trembling and to do exactly what is said in God’s Law.
Israel Will Reject the Lord
14 The Lord told Moses, “You will soon die, so bring Joshua to the sacred tent, and I will appoint him the leader of Israel.”
Moses and Joshua went to the sacred tent, 15 and the Lord appeared in a thick cloud right over the entrance to the tent. 16 The Lord said:
Moses, you will soon die. But Israel is going into a land where other gods are worshiped, and Israel will reject me and start worshiping these gods. The people will break the agreement I made with them, 17 and I will be so furious that I will abandon them and ignore their prayers. I will send disasters and suffering that will nearly wipe them out. Finally, they will realize that the disasters happened because I abandoned them. 18 They will pray to me, but I will ignore them because they were evil and started worshiping other gods.
19 Moses and Joshua, I am going to give you the words to a new song. Write them down and teach the song to the Israelites. If they learn it, they will know what I want them to do, and so they will have no excuse for not obeying me. 20 I am bringing them into the land that I promised their ancestors. It is a land rich with milk and honey, and the Israelites will have more than enough food to eat. But they will get fat and turn their backs on me and start worshiping other gods. The Israelites will reject me and break the agreement that I made with them.
21 When I punish the Israelites and their descendants with suffering and disasters, I will remind them that they know the words to this song, so they have no excuse for not obeying me.
I will give them the land that I promised, but I know the way they are going to live later on.
22 Moses wrote down the words to the song[b] right away, and he taught it to the Israelites.
23 The Lord told Joshua, “Be brave and strong! I will help you lead the people of Israel into the land that I have promised them.”
24 Moses wrote down all these laws and teachings in a book, 25 then he went to the Levites who carried the sacred chest and said:
26 This is The Book of God’s Law. Keep it beside the sacred chest that holds the agreement the Lord your God made with Israel. This book is proof that you know what the Lord wants you to do. 27 I know how stubborn and rebellious you and the rest of the Israelites are. You have rebelled against the Lord while I have been alive, and it will only get worse after I am gone. 28 So call together the leaders and officials of the tribes of Israel. I will bring this book and read every word of it to you, and I will call the sky and the earth as witnesses that all of you know what you are supposed to do.
29 I am going to die soon, and I know that in the future you will stop caring about what is right and what is wrong, and so you will disobey the Lord and stop living the way I told you to live. The Lord will be angry, and terrible things will happen to you.
The Song of Moses
30 Moses called a meeting of all the people of Israel, so he could teach them the words to the song that the Lord had given him. And here are the words:
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Peonies are large, luscious and sweetly-scented blooms that give roses a run for their money! These long-lasting, easy to grow and hardy flowers are popular ornamental plants that add colour and fragrance to gardens. They can live for decades with minimal care and maintenance. True perennials can live to be 50 years or more!
Here are some tips for growing peonies:
When to plant:
- Bare root peonies should be planted/transplanted in the early fall. Container-grown peonies can be planted at any time.
- Peonies will thrive in climate zones: 3-8
Where to plant:
- Peonies are sun-loving plants that need at least 6 hours of sunlight each day to thrive. Full sun will produce plants with larger and more blooms.
- They can adapt to any type of soil, but they do best in well-drained, slightly acidic soils. If your soil is heavy and clay-like, add compost or some sand to amend the soil. Buds will not develop in waterlogged soils.
- Choose a location that will give peonies shelter from strong winds and also away from other trees/shrubs as peonies don’t like to compete for food and moisture.
- The tuber should be planted close to the soil surface. In colder climates, the “eyes” should be about 2-3 inches deep. In warmer climates, they can be planted about an inch deep. Peonies need to be exposed to winter temperatures to reach dormancy to set buds.
- Avoid mulching the soil at the base of the plant, as this will gradually bury the crown and the plant will not produce any flowers.
- Be sure to give peonies enough space to grow to maturity without being overcrowded, about 3-4 feet of space should suffice. Good air circulation between plants will help prevent diseases, such as gray mold.
- Topdressing with a layer of compost will add necessary nutrients to the soil.
- Water thoroughly after the first planting and keep soil moist, but not waterlogged.
Care and Maintenance:
- Peonies don’t need to be dug up and divided, although some gardeners choose to. Wait at least 3 years before dividing. Divide in the fall.
- Peonies can be fertilized about once a year, in the early summer, after the flowers have bloomed and been deadheaded.
- The stems of peonies can be weak; staking will help support the plant’s gigantic blossoms, so they don’t flop over. Stake early in the growing season for the best results.
- Deadhead once the blossoms have started to fade. Cut the foliage to the ground in the fall to prevent diseases.
- Peonies rarely bloom during the first year of planting or transplanting. Give the plant at 3-4 years to produce flowers.
- The sweet nectar in the peonies will attract ants, but the ants won’t do any damage to the plants. There’s no need to kill the ants, as they seem to help the plants bloom.
Cut Flower Care
- Peonies make excellent cut flowers and can last about a week.
- Cut flowers when the buds are just starting to unfurl.
- Be sure to shake off the ants before bringing the flowers inside.
- For longer lasting flowers, place the cut peonies in a cool location.
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In my last blog, I introduced the 2014 book, The Marshmallow Test by researcher Walter Mischel. His life’s work reveals insights collected from decades of research on willpower and its relationship to decision-making. While this book was not written for instructional designers, the implications for the affective domain are fascinating.
My previous blog addressed the power of “hot and cold focus” in decision-making moments as well as how we might use those insights in creating training experiences. Now, I’d like to share insights equally applicable to the world of training.
#4 – Believing in the consequences influences behavior
Mischel reports some children simply didn’t believe that they would get a treat if they waited for it. Their patience was tested by researchers staying away from the room for long periods of time, and running variations of the experiment, like returning, rewarding the child, and then promising a greater reward for another demonstration of patience, and leaving for a longer period of time.
(Knowing myself, I would've popped that marshmallow in my chubby cheeks before the door had even closed.)
Children who believed in the positive consequences, waited.
They had faith.
Faith can be increased or decreased by hot/cold focus, removing temptations, ability to envision success, executive function, and many other variables. Regardless of how to address these variables, how often do you stop and consider ‘faith” as a crucial ingredient to your instructional design?
On another day, the cold logical part of my brain could easily argue that “faith” has no place in the science of instructional design. But faith does have a place for our learners. We tell them, “believe in these consequences, for they might come to pass.” But will those consequences come true? In training, have you ever read, “Do this or you could be fired?” I have. It makes me roll my eyes.
Mischel’s observations about faith makes me ask these questions about training:
- Have I given them any reason to put faith in this training? Or, the possible outcomes from completing it?
- Do learners believe in these consequences or are they wise to our usual ho-hum “training talk?”
- What faith does my client put into their learners, and does that lack of faith create limitations to expecting adequate performance? I’ve certainly witnessed clients trash-talk their learners, and how “stupid” they are. Shocking as it is when I have heard this, I immediately recognize the limitations this client will have in recognizing a learning solution that respects their learners’ intelligence.
So, maybe the concept of faith has a place in instructional design after all.
#5 – Current Self and Future Self
Very-much related to the concept of faith in consequences are the ideas of Current Self and Future Self.
Mischel’s studies correlate children’s ability to wait for the return of researchers to success later in life. Those who can delay their gratification tend to work toward long-term goals. One of the children summarized Mischel’s body of research and statistical correlation this way: “I didn’t eat it because I kept imagining two marshmallows into my mouth at the same time.”
(In a spirit of transparency, I often imagine two marshmallows in my mouth as well.)
Using many more words, Mischel illuminates his conclusion: the extent to which your Current Self can relate to your Future Self influences how much Current Self acts in Future Self’s best interests.
For example, if you want a loved one to lose 200 pounds, you might entice them by praising how “great it will feel” to wear skimpy clothes to the beach, how they will jog with ease, etc. However, that Future Self might be too distant and unrelatable. You might do better relating a Future Self who loses 25 pounds, someone who goes up and down stairs with more ease. THAT Future Self might be close enough to be more relatable.
(In a great anecdote, Mischel discusses how twenty-somethings have a difficult time planning for retirement because that Future Self is barely imaginable. This certainly explains why I did so little with my first 401K when I was 27, and my near-panic now, as I’m almost 50.)
In instructional design, I often witness Instructional Designers create a Future Learner as a motivation strategy, too:
- “If you do X, you’ll finish your work faster!”
- “If you do Y, your customers will be happy.”
- “If you do Z, you’ll make a lot more commission!”
These big promises ask Current Learner to stay motivated on the off-chance Future Self comes to pass. But can you really promise happier customers? Can you promise that finishing work faster benefits the employee (other than more time for more work)?
It’s no wonder learners are skeptical of training. They can’t identify with the Future Self. And, we rarely paint a compelling enough picture of what that Future Self might look like.
If you want Current Learner to feel success, define tangible, relatable success for Future Self. The key is relatable. Instead of promising “a lot more commissions,” break down how commission is impacted, and show how, over the course of a month, that could be an extra $200. You may think the bigger carrot of “thousands in commissions” is a better enticement… but maybe that Future Self seems too far off to be achieved.
Caption: The more Current Self can relate to Future Self (i.e. more overlap), the greater the odds of Current Self acting in Future Self’s best interests.
Consider the Affect
The science of instructional design analyzes performance in terms of logic: skill hierarchy and observable verbs in our performance objectives.
Logic is good. We like logic.
But we often exclude the possibility (or at least fail to include the possibility) that learners aren’t performing as expected because they don’t want to—that their behavior is an act of willfulness as much as it is information-based.
When considering training solutions (and even front-end analysis), consider the power of the affective domain and how it influences our decisions. Use hot and cold focus to your advantage. Consider the Future Self and Executive functions. Make sure consequences are relatable and realistic. Any of these strategies could make a stale learning event more Meaningful, Memorable, and Motivating. | <urn:uuid:584501fc-3578-4226-87d4-9651a1feb568> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | http://info.alleninteractions.com/5-instructional-design-insights-from-the-marshmallow-test-part-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257649627.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20180324015136-20180324035136-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.952275 | 1,392 | 2.640625 | 3 |
“I can understand you without words”, or how should a robot express emotions?
We might think that as humans we primarily communicate through speech, although we frequently express our emotions without words. These nonverbal expressions (e.g. laughter) enable us to understand the emotions of others irrespectively of cultural backgrounds and without the need for any learning. However, these are not specific to humans, as animals are also able to express their emotional states with vocalizations. Researchers from the Department of Ethology, Eötvös Loránd University; Department of Mechatronics, Optics and Mechanical Engineering Informatics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics; and the MTA-ELTE Comparative Ethology Research Group in Budapest, Hungary, investigated how to develop artificial sounds for robots which would allow them to express emotions nonverbally, similarly to animals.
“We can already encounter robots that cooperate with humans, and their role is going to increase in the future. Based on some well-known robotics research we could assume that these robots will look, move and talk like us, but this is not likely. On one hand huge technological developments are needed to achieve this — the marvellous robots seen in movies are only fiction so far –, while on the other hand overly human-like robots could induce fear or aversion in the people they are supposed to help, similarly to how a human-looking zombie would make us feel. In our opinion, robots should be regarded as a distinct species, and their communication should be developed in accordance with their functions and capabilities” – says Márta Gácsi, leading researcher.
Ethorobotics (from the abbreviation of the words ‘ethology’, the field of research studying animal behaviour, and ‘robotics’) investigates these prospects, e.g., by creating communicational signals based on biological premises. “Just as animal species have their own species-specific vocalizations, it’s important to develop distinct sounds that belong to robots, with which they can express emotions without the need to imitate humans.” – adds Ádám Miklósi, head of the Department of Ethology and leader of the MTA research group.
In the study published in Scientific Reports, the researchers created artificial sounds based on biological rules that can be found in the vocalizations of both animals and humans. “We can not only easily understand human nonverbal vocalizations (e.g., crying, screaming, laughter or sighing) and deduce what the emitter of the sound feels at the moment, but we can also infer it from the vocalizations of multiple terrestrial mammals, like dogs and pigs. This is made possible by the fundamental similarities of the vocal tracts of mammalian species, which result in sounds with similar acoustic parameters expressing similar emotional states. For example, we perceive sounds with higher fundamental frequency as more intensive, and sounds with shorter calls as more positive.” – explains Beáta Korcsok, first author of the article.
The researchers generated nearly 600 artificial sounds ranging from simple machine-like beeps to complex sounds which model phonation in mammals, by changing the pitch and the length of the sounds, and by adding different acoustic parameters that are characteristic of animal vocalizations. The sounds were rated in an online questionnaire by more than 230 volunteers. They had to answer two simple questions: how positive or negative is the valence of the emotional state the emitter is in, and how intensive is it?
“The participants rated the artificial sounds according to the simple biological rules that were observed in both human and animal vocalizations. They considered sounds consisting of a series of short calls as more positive, and high frequency sounds as more intensive, irrespectively of their modelled biological complexity. This serves as further evidence that the emotion coding rules investigated in the study might be remarkably old. The fact that we can recognise emotions even in the simplest, beep-like sounds indicates that these rules function independently of species and that not only the production of emotionally expressive sounds but also the neural processes of their decoding could be similar in terrestrial mammals.” says Tamás Faragó, researcher of the Eötvös Loránd University.
The researchers are planning on investigating the artificial sounds in real-life scenarios, with the help of their social robot, Biscee.
Scientific Reports: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-63504-8
Corresponding author: Beáta Korcsok, email@example.com | <urn:uuid:5c942805-e468-49cd-92f1-376106d56fe4> | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | http://etologia.elte.hu/en/lets-give-robots-a-voice/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107896048.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20201028014458-20201028044458-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.946737 | 950 | 3.3125 | 3 |
1754 Gabriel Ramirez Diagram of a Compass Rose
Description: This is a fine example of the 1754 illustration of the compass rose by Gabriel Ramirez. The chart includes two illustrations, the top illustration being that of a compass. The bottom illustration is that of the compass rose or the windrose consisting of 32 points. Originally prepared in French by Abbot M. Pluche and translated into Castilian Spanish for publication in Volume VII, Part 4 of D. Gabriel Ramirez's Espectaculo de la Naturaleza, O Conversaciones a Cerca de Las Particularidades de la Historia Natural.
Date: 1754 (undated)
Source: Ramirez, G., Espectaculo de la Naturaleza, O Conversaciones a Cerca de Las Particularidades de la Historia Natural, Volume 7, Part 2, 1754.
Size: Printed area measures 3.5 x 5.5 inches (8.89 x 13.97 centimeters)
Condition: Very good. Original platemarks visible. Blank on verso.
Code: Compass-ramirez-1754 (to order by phone call: 646-320-8650)
Tags: Compass , Compass Rose , Ramirez | <urn:uuid:052a57ce-c347-4b9f-a9fc-20d26c895d68> | CC-MAIN-2014-41 | http://www.geographicus.com/P/AntiqueMap/Compass-ramirez-1754 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-41/segments/1410657119220.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20140914011159-00342-ip-10-196-40-205.us-west-1.compute.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.681505 | 258 | 2.953125 | 3 |
(L. rupestris), the seasonal changes of plumage of which were described above, is also found in Arctic America and in northern Asia as far as the Ural Mountains. In this country its nesting range extends from the Alaska peninsula and Bering Strait along the Arctic coast and through the Barren Grounds to the west coast of Hudson’s Bay and Labrador. Nelson, for example, found it to be a common resident of the Alaskan mainland, frequenting “the summits of the low hills and mountains during the summer season, where it remains until the severe weather of early winter forces it down to the lower elevations and under the shelter of the bush-bordered ravines and furrows.” In the vast Barren Grounds it is also at home, subsisting on seeds, berries, and buds, like its relative just described. The nest is said to be placed among the dwarf birches and willows, and on the sedge-covered tundras, the eggs varying in number from six to ten. A number of subspecies of this have been differentiated, as the Greenland Ptarmigan (L. r. reinhardti) of Greenland, the islands on the western side of Cumberland Gulf, and northern Labrador; Nelson’s Ptarmigan (L. r. nelson), of the island of Unalaska; Turner’s Ptarmigan (L. r. atkhensis), of the neighboring island of Atkha; and Evermann’s Ptarmigan (L. r. evermanni) of Attu Island, while the closely allied Welch’s Ptarmigan (L. welchi) is confined to Newfoundland. These forms are all very close and by some authorities are not accepted as valid, though no one who has carefully studied these birds but has easily been convinced of their distinctness.
> > The Rock Ptarmigan | <urn:uuid:37a7abd9-2410-4268-a9bb-9b0ba18d846e> | CC-MAIN-2020-16 | http://birds.yodelout.com/birds-the-rock-ptarmigan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-16/segments/1585370497171.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200330150913-20200330180913-00375.warc.gz | en | 0.954369 | 395 | 3.4375 | 3 |
William Penn, a Quaker who'd experienced religious persecution, wanted his colony to be a place where anyone could worship freely. Relatively good relations with local Native tribes and a central location helped Philadelphia to grow rapidly after its 1682 founding, to become by the 1750s the second largest British city after London. Following independence it remained the most important American city, and capital of the new United States until 1800, while Washington DC was built. The city continued to grow in the nineteenth century as a major textiles and industrial center.
Besides the many national historical sites that relate to the founding of the United States, such as Independence Hall and the Liberty Bell, there are history museums to see, such as the National Constitution Center, the Atwater Kent Museum of Philadelphia History, and the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
Art museums include the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts and the Rodin Museum, with the largest collection of work by Auguste Rodin outside France. The Philadelphia Museum of Art, is among the largest American art museums. With Fairmount Park's 9,200 acres, the city has the nation's largest landscaped urban park, with winding creeks, rustic trails, and cruisy areas. A great collection of public art, and some of the country's most interesting architecture are also part of any trip to Philadelphia.
On Avenue of the Arts in Center City are theaters such as the Kimmel Center for the Performing Arts, home to the Philadelphia Orchestra, and the Academy of Music, the nation's oldest continually operating opera house, now home to Opera Philadelphia and the Pennsylvania Ballet. The Wilma Theatre and Philadelphia Theatre Company are also on the avenue, and nearby are the Walnut Street Theatre, the oldest American theater, and the Lantern Theatre.
A varied restaurant scene exists thanks to the many immigrants who have settled here; first the Irish and Germans, then Russians, Eastern Europeans, Italians, and African Americans, and more recently South Americans and Asians of every nationality. Each has contributed, giving this city one of the largest and most diverse selections of restaurant anywhere, and the Reading Terminal Market has mouth-watering baked goods, fresh flowers and foods from all around the world.
Philadelphia's gay life is centered in the Center City area. Within a few blocks of Camac Street (once the heart of the red-light district) is a cluster of establishments bedecked with rainbow flags, often called the Gayborhood. You can walk to any of them in minutes. The Philly Pride Parade and Festival takes place here on a mid-June Sunday each year, preceded by the Saturday Philly Dyke March. Pride also sponsors the Annual Reminders Block Party in July, and the OutFest October festival each year in these streets, the largest National Coming Out Day event in the world.
From Philadelphia International Airport, taxi fares are a flat rate of $28.50 for the first person, plus $1 for each additional person. The SEPTA regional rail service's Airport Line (formerly R1) connects you to downtown for $6.75. Trains operate every 30 minutes to the 30th Street station, which is also the Amtrak hub if you're arriving by train from another city.
A TransPass for SEPTA buses, trollys and subways within the city costs $9 a day (eight rides during one calendar day), or $25.50 per week (good for 56 rides). Otherwise it's $2.50 per single trip. Transfers are an extra $1, and basic fares for travel outside the downtown zones may cost more, depending on the destination.
The SEPTA Key Card smart card can be reloaded online or at machines using cash, credit or debit card. See details and purchase locations or buy direct at their website.
The Indego bike share program has hundreds bikes at more than 100 city stations with 24/7 access. A one-day pass costs $10. Passholders use bikes at no additional cost for the first half hour, and $2 per half hour thereafter. Less frequent local riders and visitors can buy single trips using a credit card at any station kiosk, for $4 per 30 minutes. In the Gayborhood check Locust at 13th, Locust at Hutchinson, or 11th at Pine. For more stations and an app, see their map.
For a nearby gay-friendly Bucks County PA gettaway, check out New Hope.
Surfing the internet in Philadelphia is free and easy in many public areas, including Love Park, Benjamin Franklin Parkway, Reading Terminal Market and the Convention Center.
Media & resources
Philadelphia Gay News or PGN, is an award-winning regional gay newspaper with plenty of news and listings.
The PhillyGayCalendar is an excellent website for keeping up with what's happening in Philadelphia, and the surrounding area.
Local LGBT amateur sports groups include: the Philadelphia Spartans Wrestling Club with monthly Sunday practice sessions at the First Unitarian Church of Philadelphia; the Fins Aquatics Club, Philadelphia's gay and lesbian masters swim team; the Philadelphia Flames Soccer Club team for women; the Philadelphia Frontrunners with runs and social events, and LezRun, a lesbian runners group. The Philadelphia Gryphons rugby team welcomes athletes of all ages, races, fitness levels and sexual orientations. The Philadelphia Revolution and Philadelphia Lightning are the area's National Gay Flag Football League teams, and Philly Storm is the City of Brotherly Love League softball team. The Liberty Bell Invitational sponsors LGBT bowling events and skating parties.
Live Arts Festival and Philly Fringe presents various events and festivals in theater, dance, music and other performance arts. For more performing arts venues see our theaters & performance map listings pages; also with museums and galleries listings.
For leather events see the Philadelphia Leather Contest website for Mr & Ms Leather and Gear Up in February, Crankshaft in June and Gear Up Get Out in October. Philadelphia Leather Pride takes place in September.
The William Way Community Center, 1315 Spruce St, offers a Cyber Center, a free LGBT lending library, peer counseling, a game loft, community services and various clubs, programs and social events.
The Philadelphia Weekly is the city's alternative paper, with general rundowns of arts and events. The Philadelphia City Paper ceased publication in late 2015.
The Barbara Gittings G&L Collection at the Independence Branch of the Free Library of Philadelphia (18 S 7th St) has the second largest gay and lesbian collection of books in the US. The San Francisco Public Library has the largest.
The Library Company of Philadelphia, an independent research library founded in 1731 by Benjamin Franklin, specializing in American history and culture from the 17th through the 19th centuries, features ongoing exhibitions and events. Their That's So Gay - Outing Early America exhibition website pages remain online.
For a city map with locations and website links to businesses, museums and entertainment venues of interest, see our gay Philadelphia map & listings pages. Our gallery has some photos from around town, and for what's coming up, see the events page.
Two comfortable and friendly hotels are at the center of the gay neighborhood. Find more options at our hotels and guesthouses map and listings pages.
Alexander Inn (304 S 12th; 877-253- 9466), 48 designer rooms, private baths, Art-Deco flair, continental breakfast, 24-hour fitness center, WiFi, indoor parking.
Inn On Camac (1220 Locust; 215-546-6660), centrally located above Ubar, standard and deluxe accommodations, continental breakfast, business facilities and discreet side entrance onto Camac Street - now part of the Tavern on Camac group.
Bars & Clubs
BarX (255 S Camac), LGBT+/ straight/ everyone-friendly corner bar; formerly Venture Inn.
Bike Stop (206 S Quince) sports bar with dance floor. An everybody hangout, mostly men, from leather, fetish and bears to sports fans and drag queens.
Bob & Barbara's Lounge (1509 South St), Thursday Miss LisaHammond drag shows, Friday jazz organ combo "Liquor Drinking Music, mixed crowd.
Boxers PHL (1330 Walnut St), two-level gay sports and plasma screens video bar, pool tables, brick oven pizza, beers on tap, shot boys. The Gryphons rugby team sometimes has socials at this New York City gay sports bar offshoot.
Franky Bradley's (1320 Chancellor St), restaurant and nightclub at old Sisters location; soups, salads, sandwiches, steaks, fish, pasta and Sunday brunch. Comedy, punk rock burlesque, male strip shows featuring The Buffboys.
ICandy (254 S 12th St), multi-level dance club and lounge, five party rooms, go-go boys and girls, drag shows, guest porn stars, performers and entertainers. The old 12th Air Command site.
Knock Restaurant and Bar (225 S 12th), classic gay style and ambience, daily lunch and Sunday brunch 11am to 3pm. Tasty dinners 5:30-10pm (9 on Sunday), late-night menu. Generous cocktails daily until 2am, plus extensive wine list.
Otto's Taproom (1216 N 29th St), new Brewerytown neighborhood bar by the Tavern on Camac group; extensive beer menu.
Raven Lounge (1718 Sansom), alternative lounge, comedy club, live music and DJ nights, karaoke, Quizzo game nights.
Rosewood (1302 Walnut), bar and lounge to the side of Woody's, international guest DJ sets, classic and craft cocktails.
Stir Lounge (1705 Chancellor), mixed crowd cocktail lounge, old Post location in Rittenhouse Square, Women's Friday nights.
Tabu (200 S 12th), gay lounge and sports bar, with food, drag and bear events, theme parties, every Sunday Drag Brunch. Next to 12th Street Gym. Happy Bear Friday evening socials; and host to The Stimulus dance nights "bringing the whole queer community together for good vibes, beautiful people and dope ass music."
Tavern on Camac (243 S Camac), every night street-level piano bar sing-alongs, basement restaurant, upstairs Tuesday-Sunday Ascend Lounge with DJ/VJ dancing, karaoke, Country Music line dancing, cabaret nights, and Sunday showtunes.
Toasted Walnut (1316 Walnut St), Gayborhood food, dancing, and entertainment establishment by former Sister's owner; live bands, karaoke, games.
UBar (1220 Locust, Camac corner), New Orleans-style bar beneath their guesthouse, opens to overlook Locust Street. Relaxed place to see and be seen, older crowd. Was Uncles for many years.
Varga Bar (10th & Spruce St), gay-friendly bar and restaurant comfort food lunch, supper, weekend brunch and late night service; craft beers, Washington Square outdoor seating.
Voyeur (1221 St James), Tuesday through Sunday gay dance club on three floors, Friday/Saturdays until 4am, music from the hottest DJs around. The former Pure.
Woody's (202 S 13th), open nightly gay complex of bars, disco with guest DJs. House and classic dance music parties, diverse crowd of men and women; Thursday Caliente Latin nights, Friday night 2-stepping Hoedown Country Music dancing; Tex-Mex food menu.
CLOSED: Blurr (27 S Bank), all-ages/mixed after-hours dancing; Fluid (613 S 4th), alternative/underground dance club/queer nights; Shampoo (417 N 8th), big gay/under-21 dance club; Sisters (1320 Chancellor), women's nightclub, Sunday brunch; Venture Inn (255 S Camac), gay neighborhood tavern/restaurant; Westbury (261 S 13th) gay neighborhood pub/restaurant.
El Vez (121 S 13th), Cali-Mex lunch, brunch, dinner; Poquito Dinero lunch specials, burritos, enchiladas, tacos, tortas, nachos; margaritas, mojitos, sangrias.
Franky Bradley’s (1320 Chancellor St), American restaurant and cocktails, meat/fish, pasta, Sunday brunch; mainstream mixed. Formerly Sister's.
Knock Restaurant and Bar (225 S 12th), classic gay style and ambience, daily lunch and Sunday brunch 11am to 3pm. Dinners 5:30-10pm (9 on Sunday) and late-night menu. Generous cocktails daily until 2am, plus extensive wine list.
Mi Lah Vegetarian (40 West Skippack Pike, Ambler), world- fusion cuisine, vegetarian/vegan lunch, dinner, sandwiches, Saturday and Sunday brunch until 3pm.
Mixto (1141-43 Pine), zesty combination of Cuban, Colombian and Caribbean flavors and styles; breakfast, lunch and dinner, full bar, extensive wine list, wood and brick decor.
Positano Coast (212 Walnut, fl-2), a bit of the Amalfi Coast in the Old City. Five course meals, creative variations of classic Italian dishes with emphasis on fresh seafood ingredients. Small sampling plates, warm-weather al fresco dining, and comfortable lounge.
Tavern on Camac (243 S Camac), modern intimate cozy restaurant in cool stone-wall basement. New American cuisine and fine wines. Wide selection of starters, and entrees tempt and satisfy. Central location below one of gay Philly's best-loved piano bars/ dance clubs.
Valanni Restaurant & Lounge (1229 Spruce), bright open decor, "Medi-Latin" Spanish cuisine, seating indoors and out, dinner, brunch and late night menus. Happy hours Monday through Friday with half-price tapas and speciality cocktails.
CLOSED: Venture Inn (255 S Camac), gay bar/restaurant meals, sandwiches, holiday menus; Kinky Quizzo and drag shows.
See our map and listings for these, and another 50 Philadelphia restaurants and cafes in and around the city center.
Saunas & adult shops
Adonis Cinema (2026 Sansom), open 24/7 video mini-theater, 3 screens old porn favorites and latest releases, DVD retail sales, dark room.
Club Philadelphia (1220 Chancellor) former Club Body Center, with new owner, completely renovated men's steam and sauna, open 24/7, private rooms, slings, naked shower shows. First and third Saturdays CumUnion sex parties for men.
Danny's (133 S 13th), private video booths, big magazine and DVD video selection, rubber and leather goodies.
Sansom Street Gym (2020 Sansom), male play space open 24/7, with gym, maze, slings, deluxe rooms, outdoor deck, exotic dancers, special parties.
Shopping & services
12th Street Gym (204 S 12th), popular with locals to acquire the body beautiful. Full gym facilities, personal trainers, basketball, indoor swimming pool, tanning, one month to three year memberships.
Matthew Izzo sells home furnishings and accessories, rugs, lighting, new and vintage items; yard and office furniture.
Phag - the store on Walnut is gone - but their discriminating taste in art, trinkets, home and garden furnishings, accents, lighting, wall decor; plus the "phlashiest, most phlamboyantly queer collection of gay gifts" can still be found online.
Philly AIDS Thrift at Giovanni's Room (345 S 12th), gay books and thrift store. New owner since summer 2014.
Pleasure Chest (2039 Walnut St), Rittenhouse Square sex shop, lotions and potions, toys and party favors, lingerie, bondage and party supplies.
The Philadelphia Film Society presents the annual Philadelphia Film Festival, as well as three year-round screening series, sneak preview screenings, and other local film events. A Spring Preview takes place in mid-April each year at the PFS Theater at the Roxy (2023 Sansom St).
Spruce Street DVD & Video (252 South 12th), video store with gay titles for rent and sale; general, cult classics to porn. | <urn:uuid:c8b499b0-3ded-4284-9a8d-d17be0c871a0> | CC-MAIN-2018-26 | http://www.dailyxtratravel.com/(X(1)S(jthvukad2oznvm551rdna1az))/united-states/pennsylvania/philadelphia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-26/segments/1529267863830.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20180620163310-20180620183310-00532.warc.gz | en | 0.903602 | 3,392 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Resource of the month from the GNM Archive
Each month we will provide resource material that can be used in the classroom.
The month of May begins with a national holiday in many countries. May Day, or International Workers’ Day is a celebration of the international labour movement. In 1904 the International Socialist Conference called on trade unions to demonstrate on 1 May for the legal establishment of the 8 hour day. In many countries May day has become a focal point for demonstrations by various socialist, communist and anarchist groups.
This month we are looking at a letter from Arthur Ransome to CP Scott. Arthur Ransome, author of Swallows and Amazons, was also a foreign correspondent for the Manchester Guardian. He reported from Russia during the Russian revolution of 1917. The revolutions of that year led to the abdication of the Tsar in February and brought the Bolsheviks to power in October. The letter he wrote to CP Scott, the editor of the Manchester Guardian is available as a downloadable version.
In the letter Arthur Ransome explains why it would be difficult for him to work in Poland as a correspondent.
Arthur Ransome 1884 – 1967
The author and journalist was born in Leeds and for many years holidayed with his family near Coniston Water in the Lake District. This would later provide some of the background for his highly successful Swallows and Amazons.
As a student he abandoned a Chemistry course to work in a publishing house in London. He used this time to develop his writing skills and wrote articles for a variety of magazines.
In 1913 he left an unhappy marriage and went to Russia. He said his aim was to write a guidebook to St Petersburg and to research Russian fairytales. This was also an important time news-wise as the following year saw the start of the first world war. He was also in an ideal position to report on the February Revolution, which led to the abdication of the Tsar and October Revolution, which brought the Bolsheviks to power.
He knew many of the leading Bolsheviks, including Lenin and Trotsky, and while waiting for a censor to stamp one of his articles he met Trotsky’s secretary, Evgenia Shelepina, whom he later married. Ransome started to write for the Manchester Guardian in 1919.
Soon after the Bolsheviks came to power they pulled out of the first world war and in March 1918 ceded huge parts of former parts of the Russian Empire to Germany, including most of Poland as well as Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, Georgia and Finland at the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Lenin hoped to get these countries back as he believed that the ideas of the Russian Revolution would spread to them as well as Germany. He encouraged workers of these former Russian states to rise up and set up Soviet republics.
By April 1918 armed opposition to the Bolsheviks was breaking out in many areas and this led to civil war on many fronts. The Bolsheviks’, now retitled the Communists (The Reds), opposition included former revolutionary groups, ex Tsarist officers and a range of other groups opposed to the new regime (The Whites). The Whites also got support from Russia’s former allies in the first world war: USA, Britain, France and Japan, both in aid and then troops, as they wanted a government that would continue the war with Germany. This intervention continued even after Germany’s defeat in November 1918.
At the time of writing to CP Scott in January 1920, Ransome was in Reval in Estonia (later renamed Tallinn), which had concluded peace with the Communists. After the defeat of Germany in the first world war Poland was granted independence by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. As Ransome predicted, the Poles joined the civil war against the Communists; they were dissatisfied with their eastern frontier, the Curzon Line, proposed by the Western Allies. The new Polish government hoped to take advantage of the chaos and annex territory from Russia, which had formerly been part of Poland.
By early 1921 the Bolsheviks had won the Civil war but at huge cost. Years of war had devastated agriculture. The Volga region experienced drought in 1920 and 1921 followed by two poor harvests resulting in famine. For the first and only time the Communists asked for international aid but despite this about 5 million people died. As a consequence The New Economic Policy (NEP) allowed the reintroduction of private trade to stimulate food production. Ransome wrote about this at the time for the Manchester Guardian. Links to these articles are below.
Ransome also reported on Lenin’s death for the paper (see links below). Lenin’s health was in serious decline from 1921 and he was only intermittently active in political life. A stroke in May 1922 left him partially paralysed and another in March 1923 left him unable to speak. He died in January 1924 at the age of 53.
Ransome returned to England with Evgenia in 1924. They settled in the Lake District and he continued as a foreign correspondent and angling columnist for the Manchester Guardian.
Between 1931 and 1947 he wrote his Swallows and Amazons series of books for children.
In 1936 he won the first Carnegie Medal for children’s literature, for Pigeon Post. In 1952, Leeds University, the institution he had left in 1901 without degree, awarded Ransome an honorary doctorate. In 1953 he was appointed CBE.
Ransome died in June 1967 aged 83. He and his wife Evgenia are buried together at Rusland in the Lake District.
Below are links to Arthur Ransome articles sent from Russia when he was a correspondent for the Manchester Guardian in the 1920s. The articles are available on the Guardian website:
A boy with a white mouse on the Volga
The following are links to articles which examine the political
affiliations of Ransome during his years reporting from Russia | <urn:uuid:79765e25-f69a-4e4e-b2e4-d80218d37cba> | CC-MAIN-2018-39 | https://amp.theguardian.com/gnmeducationcentre/archive-educational-resource-may-2012 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-39/segments/1537267158609.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20180922162437-20180922182837-00435.warc.gz | en | 0.980604 | 1,224 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Homeopathy is an alternative medicine system pioneered and developed by a German physician, Samuel Hahnemann, around the end of the 18th century. The alternative medicine industry takes advantage from this and keeps evolving and developing due to the constant need for natural remedies. Yoga benefits are seen as an alternative medicine, helps relieve the upshots of chronic stress in a variety of ways.
It is rather the application of magnetic fields to the body that has shown to have healing effects. This is because alternative medicine works WITH the body, not in suppressing symptoms, as modern medicine does. A pretty important disadvantage states the idea that, even though the expenses of using acupuncture or chiropractic are sometimes covered by health insurances, the majority of alternative treatments are not reimbursed.
The Alternative Medicine Foundation is a nonprofit organization that provides consumers and professionals with responsible, evidence-based information on the integration of alternative and conventional medicine. The faith in alternative medicine is rising very steeply and it is estimated that as much as 50% of the American people are using some form of alternative treatment.
Even with years of prescription treatments, patients may still become debilitated or even die. 3. Alternative medicines are generally ‘green’. The term “alternative medicine” refers to traditional and other methods of treatments for which there is no discernible scientific basis.
Maybe your doctor recently broke the news that you have diabetes. Treatments like homeopathy, and other interventions such as yoga, rhythmic breathing exercises, meditation, relaxation, and chanting techniques other complementary treatment, many of which have significantly reduced stress-induced psychological disorders.
For lots of people, yoga is regarded as a sacred practice that calms the nerves and balances the body, mind, and spirit. An advantage of using herbal remedies concerns the effectiveness related with chronic health issues that don’t respond well or even at all to traditional medicines.
6. Alternative medicine recognizes the true nature of disease and sickness. People might abuse of natural medicines the same way as they do it in the case of synthetic drugs. Today doctors and other health professionals are taught to respect their patients and their opinions.
Homeopathy As Alternative Medicine
Homeopathy is an alternative medicine system pioneered and developed by a German physician, Samuel Hahnemann, around the end of the 18th century. Holistic health is an alternative medicine approach to treatment and natural healing of the ‘whole being’ (body, spirit and mind), considering mental well-being is as important as physical and that they are closely interconnected. In Germany, half of the doctors write herbs, an office of alternative medicines.
Many the treatments and techniques in alternate medicine are taken from Chinese, Indian and other Asian culture. Patients who engage in these practices may develop a better attitude and recover faster. Some medical facilities now have such professionals on staff and offer many alternate treatments to their patients on a regular basis.
Another reason why complementary medicine has become popular is the changing attitude towards patients on the part of doctors and other health professionals. One of the surveys conducted on alternative medicine concluded that people felt there were added benefits from alternative medicine use, lower cost, and perceived fewer side effects.
Alternative medicine is any practice that is outside of normal Western medicine. This is the United States, alternative medicine is usually taught in medical schools and not generally in U.S. hospitals. Lyme doctors in the U.S. who treat their patients with anything outside of conventional treatments, like Cat’s Claw, run the risk of government investigation and losing the right to practice medicine.
Some of these medical practices have integrated some scientific evidence of effectiveness. Thus, in some countries, alternative therapies and medicine as an alternative to meet the requirements can be obtained by conventional methods to be seen. Since doctors have to respect their patients opinions they have to listen to their ideas about medicine.
Advantages And Disadvantages Of Alternative Medicine
There are reasons why people chose alternative medicine and reasons why they avoid it, preferring conventional medicine. When an alternative medicine therapy is used in addition to – not instead of – conventional therapy, it’s called complementary. The term “scientific medicine” which is also called modern medicine, conventional or Western medicine refers to methods of medical treatment based purely or largely on science.
Many people assume that herbal medicines are better than synthetic drugs simply because, well, they are natural and not synthetic, therefore present no risk. This science is a combination of all the unconventional practices that are used to prevent, diagnose, improve, and treat any form of illness.
They have the misconception that if unconventional medicine consists of herbal products which are natural, then there is no harm done if they triple the dosage or more. | <urn:uuid:24e170dc-cf3c-453f-b2e5-3480016a09e1> | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | http://tipscaracepathamil.org/traditional-chinese-medicine.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057775.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20210925202717-20210925232717-00108.warc.gz | en | 0.957241 | 957 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Food Guidelines — How much is a serving?
Originally Published: November 16, 1995 - Last Updated / Reviewed On: September 29, 2011
Is there a chart that lists how much of various foods constitute a "serving" under the new food guidelines?
— Trying to eat healthy
Dear Trying to Eat Healthy,
Knowing what and how much to eat can feel overwhelming. In recognition of the fact that more Americans are overweight and obese than ever before, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)/U.S. Department of Health and Human Services regularly reviews and updates the food guide recommendations. The newest update by "Choose My Plate" and makes suggestions based on age, gender, and activity level. It no longer recommends amounts of food in terms of serving size, but rather suggests portions according to actual weights and amounts of specific foods. You can learn more about how to apply the new food guide recommendations to your lifestyle at www.ChooseMyPlate.gov.
Even though there is no single chart that details how much of a particular food constitutes a serving, you can click on each food group's heading (see below) for more information on common portion sizes. Also, here's a basic breakdown of the guidelines:
One serving equals 1 slice of bread; 1/2 cup of cooked rice, pasta, or cereal; or 1 ounce of cold cereal. All of these serving sizes are known as "ounce equivalents" in Choose My Plate-speak.
As a general rule of thumb,
1 serving size/ounce equivalent of bread = plastic CD case
2 servings/ounce equivalents of cooked brown rice = a tennis ball
Unlike the Grains group described above, cup size matters when it comes to vegetables. That is, vegetables servings are measured in cups rather than ounces. One serving equals 1/2 cup of raw or cooked vegetables or vegetable juice or 1 cup of leafy raw vegetables.
1 serving size = 1/2 cup of broccoli = a light bulb
1 serving size = 1/2 cup of potato = a computer mouse
Like the vegetable group, cup size matters here, too. One serving equals 1 cup of fruit or 100 percent fruit juice, or 1/2 cup of dried fruit. Because fruits come in so many different shapes and sizes, it's hard to say how many pieces of fruit count as a serving.
Generally, 1 serving size of whole fruit = 1 tennis ball
1 serving size of cut fruit = 7 cotton balls
One serving equals 1 cup of milk or yogurt, 1.5 to 2 ounces of cheese, and even 1.5 cups of ice cream. Choose low-fat options from this group whenever possible.
1 serving size of cheese = 2 9-volt batteries
Like the Grains group, serving sizes are also measured in ounce equivalents. One serving or ounce equivalent equals 1 ounce of cooked lean meat, poultry, or fish; 1/4 cup dried beans, after cooking; 1 egg; 1 tablespoon of peanut butter; or 1/2 ounce of nuts or seeds.
3 servings/ounce equivalents of fish = 1 checkbook
3 servings/ounce equivalents of meat or poultry = 1 deck of cards
2 servings/ounce equivalents of peanut butter = 1 roll of 35 mm film or 1 ping-pong ball
Choosemyplate.gov measures serving sizes in teaspoons.
1 serving/teaspoon of margarine and spreads = 1 dice
2 serving/teaspoons of salad dressing = 1 thumb tip
Because these oils are found in many of the foods we eat, there may not be a need to add this group to your diet. For example, half of a medium avocado or 2 tablespoons of peanut butter provide 3 and 4 teaspoons or servings of oil respectively, while also counting towards your vegetable or nuts allowance.
Remember, also, that most portions in the U.S. are oversized and contain several servings of the recommended categories. Ideally you want most of your food to be whole grains, plenty of fruits and vegetables, low-fat calcium fortified foods (such as milk and cottage cheese), and lean sources of protein (such as fish, turkey, and chicken).
If you're hungry for more information on dietary recommendations, check out the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 and the American Dietetic Association's Food and Nutrition Information web site. At Columbia, you can make an appointment with a registered dietitian or nutritionist to discuss your concerns and get more individualized information by calling Medical Services at x4-2284 or logging-in through Open Communicator. | <urn:uuid:6c16f389-fcc8-4579-92e9-8caf89a155bb> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://goaskalice.columbia.edu/food-guidelines-how-much-serving | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368710006682/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516131326-00063-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919504 | 926 | 3.4375 | 3 |
NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory has revealed an X-ray jet blasting away from a neutron star in a binary system. This discovery may help astronomers understand how neutron stars as well as black holes can generate powerful beams of relativistic particles.
The jet was found in Circinus X-1, a system where a neutron star is in orbit around a star several times the mass of the Sun, about 20,000 light years from Earth. A neutron star is an extremely dense remnant of an exploded star consisting of tightly packed neutrons.
Many jets have been found originating near black holes - both the supermassive and stellar-mass variety - but the Circinus X-1 jet is the first extended X-ray jet associated with a neutron star in a binary system. This detection shows that the unusual properties of black holes - such as presence of an event horizon and the lack of an actual surface - may not be required to form powerful jets.Illustration: CX. Weiss X-ray image: NASA,U. of Wisc. Heinz et al.This artist's illustration (main graphic) depicts the jet of relativistic particles blasting out of Circinus X-1, the first extended x-ray just associated with a neutron star in a binary system. The Chandra image (inset) shows this jet to the upper right, with possible evidence of counter jets to the lower left. The jet in Circinus X-1 is helping astronomers better understand how neutron stars, and not just black holes, can generate these powerful beams of particles.
"Gravity appears to be the key to creating these jets, not some trick of the event horizon," said Sebastian Heinz of the University of Wisconsin at Madison, who led the study.
The discovery of this jet with Chandra also reveals how efficient neutron stars can be as cosmic power factories. Heinz and his colleagues estimate that a surprisingly high percentage of the energy available from material falling onto the neutron star is converted into powering the jet.
"In terms of energy efficiency across the Universe, this result shows that neutron stars are near the top of the list," said Norbert Schulz, a coauthor from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge. "This jet is almost as efficient as one from a black hole."
The Chandra results also help to explain the origin of diffuse lobes of radio emission previously detected around Circinus X-1. The team found the X-ray jets of high-energy particles are powerful enough to create and maintain these balloons of radio-emitting gas.
"We’ve seen enormous radio clouds around supermassive black holes at the centers of galaxies," said Heinz. "What's unusual here is that this pocket-sized version, relatively speaking, is being powered by a neutron star, not a black hole."
The main evidence for the newly found jet comes in two extended features in the Chandra data. These two fingers of X-ray emission are separated by about 30 degrees and may represent the outer walls of a wide jet. When overlapped with radio images, these X-ray features, which are at least five light years from the neutron star, closely trace the outline of the radio jet.
Another interpretation is that these two features represent two separate, highly collimated jets produced at different times by a precessing neutron star. That is, the neutron star wobbles like a top as it spins and the jet fires at different angles at different times.
Jet precession is also consistent with radio observations taken at different times, which show varying orientation angles of the jet. If the precession scenario is correct, Circinus X-1 would possess one of the longest, narrowest jets found in X-ray binary systems to date, representing yet another way in which neutron stars can rival and even outdo their larger black hole relatives.
These results will appear in an upcoming issue of The Astrophysical Journal Letters. NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala., manages the Chandra program for the agency's Science Mission Directorate. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory controls science and flight operations from the Chandra X-ray Center in Cambridge, Mass.
Source: Chandra X-Ray Center | <urn:uuid:5aa7be08-08d6-49d7-a55b-c060320c80d1> | CC-MAIN-2018-09 | http://www.sciencecodex.com/neutron_stars_join_the_black_hole_jet_set | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-09/segments/1518891814493.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20180223055326-20180223075326-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.923221 | 852 | 3.78125 | 4 |
Human impact on the environment is, without a doubt, a universally important subject and, naturally, our impact on the environment has found its way into many aspects of our everyday lives, particularly in the consumer choices we make. Decades of rampant consumerism has created increasingly competitive manufacturers who value fast, cheap, and bulk production processes. Though this type of competitive manufacturing offers consumers aisles and aisles of products to choose from, it has created a completely unsustainable dependence on fossil fuels and other natural resources, such as water, as well as overwhelmingly contributing to toxic waste generation, pollution, and global warming.
It is difficult to imagine our small, everyday choices contribute to such large-scale environmental problems. But, unfortunately, they do. Our choices as consumers drive the waves of popular demand that manufacturers and retailers are more than willing to fulfill. Creating a demand for greener, more sustainable manufacturing processes as well as eco-friendly packaging and products starts now. Choosing handmade products over mass-manufactured products is a great way to start your journey of environmentally-conscious consumerism.
Handmade is Green and Sustainable
Handmade goods require less energy and natural resources, which result in significantly lower carbon footprints than items made on mass-production assembly lines. In addition, many mass-production items are also made overseas, which require long-distance shipping to get to the consumer. This results in more fossil fuels used, more carbon emissions released, and higher risks for toxic waste spills in the ocean. Handmade products in the USA don’t require as intensive shipping and support the American workforce at the same time. Buying local, handmade products not only strengthens communities, but it gives consumers the opportunity to actively use and reuse a quality product rather than constantly buying new replacements.
Handmade Puts Jobs on the Market and Helps Communities around the World
A market for handmade products provides real, living wages to skilled artisans worldwide. Providing fair, sustainable wages empowers artisans to care for themselves and their families, creating healthier, happier communities around the globe. Fawn Organics has partnered with non-profit organizations to bring these artisan-crafted items to its customers, helping small communities thrive in both Africa and India. Fawn Organics’ beautiful Enkiteng Bags are made using traditional Kenyan fabric called Kitenge. The colorful fabric provides an eco-friendly way to wrap presents, but it also supports and empowers the African women crafting these fabrics. Buying their handmade products keeps their skilled craft alive and allows them to pay school fees, for medical care, and food for their families.
Handmade Lasts Longer and Means More
Buying handmade doesn’t just benefit the environment—it has real benefits for consumers. Handmade products are handcrafted with care, precision, and high quality materials that make for longer-lasting products. Unfortunately, it is all too common to come home with a household item or personal accessory that serves its purpose only a few days before breaking and being thrown out. In these moments, it is easy to recognize that we got what we paid for. So why not pay for something only once? Handmade products are crafted to last a lifetime, not a season.
Artisans put genuine thought, effort, and heart into every single one of their handmade creations, and these skillful, creative processes are something we should celebrate and support. Not only do handmade products last longer due to the expert level of craftsmanship and the high quality of materials used, but they are also completely unique and individual to any person who buys or receives them. The rich grain pattern of our olive tree wood measuring spoons, the patina finish on our bronze cuffs, and the pebbled texture of our clay-fired shave brushes cannot be replicated on a conveyor belt. Buying handmade products opens the door to the surprise and enjoyment of finding the unique intricacies and finishes that make a product special and make it yours.
Handmade is Mindful
As both consumers and inhabitants our planet, we need to be aware how our actions influence the bigger picture. By not supporting mass-produced products with unethical sourcing, low-cost labor, and manufacture processes that cause lasting environmental damage, consumers make their voice heard and shift the tendencies in the market.
Please visit our shop and see the handmade goods we sell. | <urn:uuid:180843c2-6fa5-4d34-866e-e9bd99a4def5> | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | https://fawnorganics.com/why-handmade-matters-for-you-and-the-environment/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057857.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20210926083818-20210926113818-00621.warc.gz | en | 0.945816 | 881 | 3.078125 | 3 |
As part of The Coming World the group Numen/For Use has taken over part of the Atrium space of the Museum to create a large-scale biomorphic sculpture made of Klebio, a newly developed compostable adhesive tape made of cellulose. Visitors can enter the sculpture and spend time inside it, an experience that might be compared to being in the womb, or in a completely alien world.
From the artists:
For more than a decade we have been exploring cocoon-like tape structures based on self-forming, emergent construction processes, similar to those taking place in the natural world.
These structures are inherently biomorphic, formally both clean and messy, switching easily between systems of lines and nets to form two-dimensional skins, spatial organs, and biomorphic architecture.
Their curved spatiality is a spontaneous result of chaotic taping, and their organic shape is maintained through forces trapped within layers of elastic material.
As the Tape Installation project slowly gained global momentum, we began to turn our focus from experiments toward its controversial, eponymous material—adhesive tape—and the pressing subject of plastic pollution and environmental ethics. The polymer-composite, inorganic base of the Tape installation had to be replaced with one that could be dissolved by natural agents.
When we started the process, biodegradable tape did not exist on the market, while global plastic tape consumption was enormous and, for the most part, invisible.
This fact prompted us to seek partners from within the industry and we eventually found Compostella, a German manufacturer of bioplastics and natural papers. The goal was to develop a potent biodegradable tape which could then be used in the large-scale tape installations we were building worldwide to underline ecological thinking, discuss hidden waste, and promote the concept of bioplastics in everyday life.
We have worked closely with Compostella for more than five years, developing several beta versions of the Klebio eco-tape. Early versions were neither elastic nor transparent enough to replace plastic adhesives. They broke and were not sufficiently sticky.
Only recently has the process reached its final stage, with the production of a fully biodegradable adhesive tape that has formal and physical properties similar to those of standard taping products that we previously worked with in our projects. Tape Moscow (which is part of The Coming World: Ecology as the New Politics 2030–2100, an exhibition dealing with environmental strategies, policies, and visions) will be the first ever entirely compostable tape installation, with the process of its final decomposition becoming an integral part of the artwork. | <urn:uuid:b0f8ae8f-8d45-4dc6-b677-81cc99cd7f08> | CC-MAIN-2020-10 | https://garagemca.org/en/exhibition/tape-moscow-by-numen-for-use/materials/numen-for-use-ob-installyatsii-okleim-moskvu-numen-for-use-about-the-tape-installation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-10/segments/1581875144498.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200220005045-20200220035045-00208.warc.gz | en | 0.957642 | 536 | 2.515625 | 3 |
- Other services
- News from SHEU
Can we trust the results?
No-one can guarantee that every answer given by every respondent in a survey is completely accurate and honest. However, we can go a long way to improving our confidence in the figures by taking care over each aspect of the process:
- Questionnaire design
We strive to ask questions in a clear and unbiased way, concentrating on what has actually happened in pupils' and students' lives. So, we ask questions like 'what did you eat or drink before lessons this morning?', and not 'what do you usually eat for breakfast?' (which, in just seven words, makes three different assumptions that might not be correct!). Questions are scrutinised before use, not just by SHEU staff, but also by expert groups from local authorities, such as teachers, advisers and public health professionals.
Questions are tested with smaller groups before use across our services. Once we have evidence that the answers from small-scale work are meaningful and accurate, we can support more wide-scale use.
- Post-questionnaire interviews
We have regularly conducted interviews with pupils and students following completion of a pilot questionnaire. These interviews can let us know that pupils and students are willing and able to find and choose an answer that properly reflects their situation.
- Introduction to the pupils and students
Pupils and students must feel that the exercise has some value if they are to cooperate. We produce extensive guidance for schools explaining ways of introducing the purpose and nature of the survey to pupils and students.
- Feedback from schools about data collection
We ask for feedback from every single class that completes one of our surveys. Staff who supervise data collection are alert to problems that arise and provide important feedback on questions that could be worded better.
- Response checking
Staff at SHEU inspect every set of responses coming into the Unit. Our experienced data preparation staff are sensitive to any odd-looking responses and we will respond, perhaps by excluding an individual's questionnaire (if they are not taking it seriously) or even by excluding everyone's answers if the responses from one question are not consistent with other trusted information.
- Internal reliability
Questions in one part of the questionnaire can be related to another; for example, a question on recent spending might report spending on sweets, which can be compared with a question many pages away about eating habits. When we do these comparisons, the match is always very good.
- External reliability
Figures from one survey can be compared with results from another survey. For example, we know a lot about patterns of cigarette smoking among young people over the last 30 years from Government surveys. The questions they use have been double-checked, not just using the approaches described above, but also by saliva tests that show if someone is smoking. SHEU figures show very much the same levels and also the same rises and falls over the years as are seen in the Government reports.
- Feedback from schools and authorities
Once results are circulated, we invite feedback from schools and authorities by asking directly if they have confidence that the figures accurately reflect their young people. They may have other supporting sources of information that we aren't aware of, or a sense that the picture they see is about right.
For more information, see the SHEU publications from the Young People into… series, or contact Dr.David Regis, the Research Manager at SHEU. | <urn:uuid:98a20395-7ef0-4d66-86bc-dbeaa08c3017> | CC-MAIN-2017-09 | http://sheu.org.uk/content/page/can-we-trust-results | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-09/segments/1487501171706.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20170219104611-00342-ip-10-171-10-108.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952348 | 693 | 2.625 | 3 |
The Blue Economy approach is based on a vision of "improved wellbeing and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities" (UNEP 2013). As such, Blue Economy initiatives support the creation of a low-carbon, resource-efficient, socially-inclusive society. The achievement of global sustainability goals feeds local objectives, and conversely, global successes are built on effective local implementation. As such, the services, benefits and values documented by initial Blue Economy efforts were and are seen as crucial not only for local communities and coastal states, but also the world as a whole (UNEP, 2015, p.8).
The fact that oceans and seas (as well as rivers, waterways and estuaries) matter for sustainable development is undeniable. Two thirds of the earth's surface is covered by water. The oceans1 are widely accepted as the incubator of all life forms. They are a fundamental yet delicate part of the Earth's biosphere and essential to sustaining life on the planet. Oceans serve a variety of purposes, all critical to the sustenance and preservation of human life. Among other things, they provide food and minerals, generate oxygen, absorb greenhouse gases (GHG), mitigate climate change, influence weather patterns and temperatures and serve as highways for human transport and sea-borne trade (UNCTAD, 2014, p.1).
The link between humans and the oceans has been fundamental to the development of human civilisation. Today, more than 3 billion people live in close proximity to the coast. This number is bound to rise with population growth, urban drift and increasing demand for accommodation close to oceans and seas. The high level of dependence of humans on marine assets is putting unprecedented pressure on marine ecosystems to service the ever-increasing demands of the growing global population. There is therefore an increasing need for regulation on the basis of an appropriate balance between the demand for oceans' natural resources and their sustainability (UNCTAD, 2014, p.1).
Healthy oceans and seas are essential to a more sustainable future for all. This is particularly true in the case of Small Island Developing States (SIDS). However, oceans are facing significant existential ecological risks that can negatively affect the social and economic prospects of all countries, particularly SIDS and coastal States that are acutely dependent on oceans. Some of these risks are a rise in sea levels due to climate change; acidification of oceans resulting from increased emissions of carbon dioxide; overexploitation and poor management of marine resources, including fisheries; wastewater runoff; deposit of pollutants into waterways; and the compromise of the seabed as a consequence of mineral resource prospecting and extraction (UNCTAD, 2014, p.1).
12 Dec 2018 - The conference concluded with hundreds of commitments to advance a sustainable Blue Economy, from plastics and waste management; fisheries development; financing; infrastructure to climate change and more. | <urn:uuid:c530d661-cd57-4d03-898c-1c41bedaa0d7> | CC-MAIN-2019-22 | https://www.oceanactionhub.org/thematic-area/blue-economy?page=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-22/segments/1558232257481.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20190524004222-20190524030222-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.933207 | 584 | 3.640625 | 4 |
CLR User-Defined Types
Microsoft SQL Server 2005 gives you the ability to create database objects that are programmed against an assembly created in the Microsoft .NET Framework common language runtime (CLR). Database objects that can take advantage of the rich programming model provided by the CLR include triggers, stored procedures, functions, aggregate functions, and types.
|The ability to execute CLR code is set to OFF by default in SQL Server 2005. The CLR can be enabled by using the sp_configure system stored procedure.|
The introduction of user-defined types (UDTs) in SQL Server 2005 allows you to extend the scalar type system of the server, enabling storage of CLR objects in a SQL Server database. UDTs can contain multiple elements and can have behaviors, differentiating them from the traditional alias data types which consist of a single SQL Server system data type.
Because UDTs are accessed by the system as a whole, their use for complex data types may negatively impact performance. Complex data is generally best modeled using traditional rows and tables. UDTs in SQL Server 2005 are well suited to the following:
- Date, time, currency, and extended numeric types
- Geospatial applications
- Encoded or encrypted data
The process of developing UDTs in SQL Server 2005 consists of the following steps:
- Code and build the assembly that defines the UDT. UDTs are defined using any of the languages supported by the Microsoft .NET Framework common language runtime (CLR) that produce verifiable code. This includes Microsoft Visual C# and Microsoft Visual Basic .NET. The data is exposed as fields and properties of a .NET Framework class or structure, and behaviors are defined by methods of the class or structure.
- Register the assembly. UDTs can be deployed through the Microsoft Visual Studio user interface in a database project, or by using the Transact-SQL CREATE ASSEMBLY statement, which copies the assembly containing the class or structure into a database.
- Create the UDT in SQL Server. Once an assembly is loaded into a host database, you use the Transact-SQL CREATE TYPE statement to create a UDT and expose the members of the class or structure as members of the UDT. UDTs exist only in the context of a single database, and, once registered, have no dependencies on the external files from which they were created.
Remarque : UDTs created from .NET Framework assemblies are not supported in previous versions of SQL Server. However, SQL Server alias data types are still supported in SQL Server 2005 by using sp_addtype. The CREATE TYPE syntax can be used for creating both native SQL Server user-defined data types and UDTs.
- **Create tables, variables, or parameters using the UDT **In SQL Server 2005, a user-defined type can be used as the column definition of a table, as a variable in a Transact-SQL batch, or as an argument of a Transact-SQL function or stored procedure. For additional information, see Utilisation de types CLR définis par l'utilisateur.
In This Section
- Creating a User-Defined Type
Describes how to create UDTs.
- Registering User-Defined Types in SQL Server
Describes how to register and manage UDTs in SQL Server.
- Working with User-Defined Types in SQL Server
Describes how to create queries using UDTs.
- Accessing User-Defined Types in ADO.NET
Describes how to work with UDTs using the .NET Framework Data Provider for SQL Server in ADO.NET. | <urn:uuid:b1aec05d-611f-4b7f-a7fb-4cf2cdb8b7a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-29 | https://docs.microsoft.com/fr-fr/previous-versions/sql/sql-server-2005/ms131120%28v%3Dsql.90%29 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-29/segments/1593657145436.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200713131310-20200713161310-00059.warc.gz | en | 0.825482 | 758 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Filter Your Faucet Water For Pure, Healthy Water Every TimeAnyone that wants to live as long and healthy of a life as possible should put more emphasis on their nutrition. Most people prefer not to pay the higher prices of organic stores, although some organic produce can be found in regular grocery stores.
Thiamin is an important part of a healthy diet. Thiamin works in the body to help you use energy from carbohydrates effectively. It also helps to regulate your appetite. Muscle function, heart and nervous system are all assisted by this vitamin. Thiamin is found in many foods in small amounts, but you won't find it in refined foods.
Iodine is a mineral that should be a part of any healthy diet. Iodine is necessary for thyroid hormones, which control your energy metabolism, to be produced. It also works to prevent goiters. You can get iodine from seafood, dairy products, iodized salt, and bread which has been fortified with iodine.
Many of us enjoy going out to a favorite restaurant to eat. One trick to consuming the best amount of calories and avoid any extras is to skip that appetizer. You can always order a small salad in its' place and it will fill you up just as much without all the extra fat.
A great nutrition tip is to always look very carefully at nutrition labels. A label might claim to be low in fat, but adversely it might be high in sugar. Being able to see the big picture when it comes to looking at nutrition labels is very important.
Processed grains have replaced whole grains because, for many, they taste better. Indeed, white flour might be a better choice for many bakery products. But Learn Even more Here , the whole grain baked goods have a much more complex taste and even help digestion due to their high amounts of fiber.
If you are trying to have a healthy diet, be sure your family eats the same thing as you. Everyone should be eating as healthy as they can. If you make two meals, one for you and one for your family, you wil be more tempted to eat a bit of their meal which could be bad for your weight loss.
Save your used drink bottles, fill them with water and freeze them. Having water available to quench your thirst is imperative to good health. Frozen water bottles will likely stay cool all day and an added wellness benefit, is that they are handy to grab to wet down a wipe and cool yourself off on hot days.
A great nutritional tip is to eat healthier sandwiches. Stick to whole wheat bread and go with lean meats such as tuna, chicken, or turkey. Also try to use light or fat-free condiments. Avoid meats that are high in fat such as pastrami and stay away from unhealthy condiments.
If you have sleep issues, it may be helpful to make some dietary adjustments. You'll find that some foods are great for relaxing, while others give you more energy. You should also not consume any food a couple hours before bedtime so that your body can take a break from breaking down food.
If you are in the kitchen making something that requires microwaving, you are eating something that is not nutritious. Prepackaged dishes that only require a quick nuking are chock full of preservatives that will add to your weight.
One of the easiest ways to make sure that you that you are getting only the most nutritious foods and beverages is to ensure that these healthy items are always on hand. what is collagen for skin can easily be stashed in a purse, glove box, or desk drawer. If tasty and healthy snacks are within your grasp, chances are you will be more likely to reach for these treats rather than leaving your office for a salty snack from the vending machines or through the drive-thru of a fast food restaurant.
While nutrition is great and very important for a healthy lifestyle, don't let it become your identity. You eat healthy because it is the best way to live not because you want to be known as the person who eats correctly. Once you let it become an obsession than you have returned to the same problems as you had before.
When eating a healthy sandwich or sub, avoid mayonnaise. It is very high in fat and even adding a little bit to your sandwich can make it go from being healthy to unhealthy. There are lite versions of regular mayonnaise available most places. You can also try different, healthy condiments, such as mustard or ketchup.
If one talks to a professional nutritionist they can gain insightful information on how they can best maintain their own nutrition. One can schedule an appointment or even find one over the internet to talk to. However one chooses to go about it talking to a nutritionist will give one the knowledge to maintain good nutrition.
collagen benefits ge in the world are under nourished and are suffering from malnutrition. This is not because they make poor choices, but because they don't have the options that we have. We are a very unhealthy country because of the choices that we make. If you follow the advice you read here, you will be among a small number of people, who make the right choices and find the difference that proper nutrition can make in your life. | <urn:uuid:a5de6251-94ea-43ca-95a6-6030bf59e381> | CC-MAIN-2017-26 | http://flaresecond97miriam.blogdon.net/filter-your-faucet-water-for-pure-healthy-water-every-time-3635619 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-26/segments/1498128323808.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20170629000723-20170629020723-00331.warc.gz | en | 0.967922 | 1,069 | 2.6875 | 3 |
April marks the 50th anniversary of a pivotal month in the history of our country and our capital.
On April 4th, 1968, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in Memphis. In the days that followed, longstanding tensions surrounding race, housing, and economic opportunity erupted in cities across the United States. In Washington, DC alone, thirteen people were killed and 900 businesses were damaged or destroyed in the four days following King’s death. Exactly one week later, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Fair Housing Act into law, which prohibited housing discrimination based on race, religion, national origin, or sex. The 50th anniversaries of these moments are an opportunity to look back at our history, recognize its relationship to our cities today, and discuss how to move forward. This process is not new to our work as urban architects and preservationists, but that still doesn’t make it easy.
Even the language we use to talk about the events of 1968 is tricky. AIA DC's Architecture Month theme this year is "the 50th Anniversary of the myriad historical events that (re)shaped the city in 1968.” A quick Google search of “DC 1968” makes clear that the events in question are likely those of the 1968 “riots,” a loaded word commonly used (but also often rejected) to describe the civil unrest that peaked in American cities in the 1960s. Last year Detroit marked the 50th anniversary of its 1967 uprising, an event explored in the exhibition “Detroit 67” at the Detroit Historical Museum. The exhibit opens with the very question “what do you call it?”, with answers ranging from “riot” to “rebellion” or “revolution.”
How we describe the redevelopment that has taken place in areas damaged by unrest in the 1960s is also a challenge. AIA DC’s architecture month is accompanied by the exhibit reBirth::Washington DC 50 Years after 1968, which “presents significant projects in each area that have served as catalysts for change." The topic of how DC has changed in the last 50 years and the role architecture has played is worth exploring, and I applaud AIA DC for tackling that legacy. However, framing these changes to the city as a “rebirth” suggests a fresh start or new beginning, and may reflect a bias in favor of the city’s gentrification, which, according to the DC Commission on African American Affairs, has tracked with a three-decade decline in income and employment for African American residents as well as with their displacement.
We’ve come a long, long way. And we still have a long, long way to go.
Vernon Jordan, civil rights activist
How we tell history sets the stage for how we argue for and against future policy – policy that shapes the city in which we as architects design. The current debate over updates to DC’s Comprehensive Plan and its implications for low income residents and people of color is a perfect example. In this Washington Post opinion piece, public historian Sarah Jane Shoenfeld questions some of the assumptions upon which the proposed amendments to the Plan are based, chiefly that DC’s black population is shrinking because African Americans are leaving the city by choice rather than being displaced by new development. And, as the 1950s urban renewal project in Southwest DC demonstrated, racial bias in city planning can cause irreparable damage to communities and landscapes.
The Conversation Continues
Talking about race and American history is hard. Navigating its implications for our future and our cities is even harder. As civil rights activist Vernon Jordan said in an interview on the anniversary of King’s death, “We’ve come a long, long way. And we still have a long, long way to go.” Anniversaries provide a platform to promote awareness and widen the conversation. The dc1968 project by historian Marya Annette McQuirter “moves beyond the hyper focus on the uprising after the assassination of Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and amplifies the art, activism, architecture and everyday life that made 1968 such an extraordinary year in DC.” The project uses daily #OTD (On This Day) in 1968 posts with stories, photographs, and ephemera to gradually tell a multifaceted history at the speed at which it unfurled. In a similar vein, the National Building Museum is hosting an exhibit this year, The Pilot District Project, 1968-1973. The exhibit uses posters, maps, and photographs to illustrate a period of experimental community policing in DC neighborhoods damaged in 1968. In doing so, it both extends the historic period in question and offers an alternative example of a policy response to a community in crisis. Both of these projects use the events of 1968 as a springboard for moving the conversation into the present.
Like anniversaries, historic preservation and urban development projects have the potential to serve as a platform for historical exploration, community engagement, and thoughtful placemaking. For example, Quinn Evans Architects is part of team involved in two neighborhood revitalization projects in the City of Detroit. These neighborhood-focused planning projects solicit community input and review housing, infrastructure, economic development, historic preservation, and community needs to chart a course for future public and private initiatives. The legacy of our profession has shown that architects cannot have all the answers. But as architects and preservationists it is our job to look back at our history, recognize its relationship to our work today, and shape the conversation that moves us, and our cities, forward.
Contributions from Ann Phillips and Jack Becker. | <urn:uuid:2bc00347-a34d-4e6e-9195-748ef6c073ae> | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | https://www.quinnevans.com/news/commemorating-1968-how-we-talk-about-the-recent-past | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030335059.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20220928020513-20220928050513-00562.warc.gz | en | 0.957538 | 1,169 | 2.984375 | 3 |
The 1864 attack on the Union side-wheel steamer John D. Perry illustrates the ongoing battle for control of significant interior rivers in the Trans-Mississippi Department, one year after the fall of Little Rock (Pulaski County) to the Union.
In the spring of 1863 the Union Army’s Quartermaster Department chartered the John D. Perry for service on the Mississippi River and its tributaries. According to Brigadier General Christopher Columbus Andrews, who commanded the Second Division of the Seventh Army Corps headquartered at DeValls Bluff (Prairie County), approximately 100 unidentified Confederate partisans attacked the Perry on September 9, 1864, just below Clarendon (Monroe County) from the east side of the White River while the vessel transported a portion of Major General Joseph A. Mower’s command to DeValls Bluff.
Andrews did not report any Union casualties. No Confederate reports or casualty figures exist for this incident. Despite the capture of Little Rock in September 1863, small regular and irregular Confederate attacks on Union Navy vessels continued to hamper operations on and along the state’s major rivers. A similar attack occurred against the steam tug Resolute in this same general portion of the White River on October 11, 1864.
The Perry continued to serve under charter on the western rivers until at least July 11, 1865. After the Civil War, the Perry served as a packet transport on the White River until it inexplicably burned and sank while moored at the DeValls Bluff docks on the evening of May 6, 1869.
For additional information:
Gibson, Charles Dana, and E. Kay Gibson. Dictionary of Transports and Combatant Vessels Steam and Sail Employed by the Union Army, 1861–1868. Camden, ME: Ensign Press, 1995.
Huddleston, Duane, Sammie Cantrell Rose, and Pat Wood. Steamboats and Ferries on the White River: A Heritage Revisited. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1998.
The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series 1, Vol. 41, Part I. Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1893.
Robert Patrick Bender
Eastern New Mexico University–Roswell | <urn:uuid:0c4506cd-665f-435f-b217-3f1beb2026b8> | CC-MAIN-2018-09 | http://m.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/detail/?entryID=8619 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-09/segments/1518891811795.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20180218081112-20180218101112-00463.warc.gz | en | 0.889707 | 473 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Find Hindi meaning of Metamorphosis. Build English vocabulary online and learn similar words, opposite words and uses of "Metamorphosis" in sentences with examples. "Metamorphosis" का मतलब हिंदी में जानिये और अंग्रेजी की शब्दावली सुधारें।
Definition of "Metamorphosis"
|noun||the process of transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two|
Similar words, opposite words and meaning in Hindi of "Metamorphosis"
|Hindi Meaning of Metamorphosis||बदलाव, काया-पलट, रूप-भेद, रूपांतर करना, चयापचय, बदल लेना|
|Synonyms of Metamorphosis||Changeover, Conversion, Mutation|
|Antonyms of Metamorphosis||Stagnation, Maintenance, Deactivation|
Use of "Metamorphosis" word in sentences, examples
- University of Michigan suggest that this rapid growth is made possible by a lack of inhibitory feeding controls prior to metamorphosis.
- When a photo of her was released one month after her departure, it showed she had gone through a brilliant metamorphosis
- The opening of 'The Metamorphosis' is a nightmare
- The Metamorphosis of the Elements is at the Peter B. Yeomans Cultural Centre in Dorval, March 8 until April 15.
- You can always count on a hell of a party when BABËL is behind it, and this Saturday's Metamorphosis-themed event is no exception
Learn more words starts by letter "M"
- Mentor - परामर्शदाता
- Meek - आज्ञाकारी
- Maladroit - अकुशल
- Muddy - मटमैला
- Mute - मौन
- Myopic - अदूरदर्शी
- Midst - बीच
- Malingerer - कामचोर
- Miserly - कंजूस
- Microscopic - सूक्ष्मदर्शी यन्त्र द्वारा देखा जा सकते वाला
- Measly - अत्यल्प
- Monstrous - दैत्याकार
- Malicious - दुर्जन
- Maverick - अपरम्परागत
- Mettle - सहस
📊 This topic has been read 2 times. | <urn:uuid:99049022-04cb-4ee8-af80-fa443441b104> | CC-MAIN-2021-43 | https://www.samanyagyan.com/eng/vocabulary-metamorphosis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323587606.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20211024204628-20211024234628-00555.warc.gz | en | 0.706105 | 794 | 2.8125 | 3 |
How can couples communicate more effectively about retirement issues? In “The Couple’s Retirement Puzzle,” Taylor and Mintzer provide these guidelines:
- How to start the conversation. For example, agree to talk together and focus on listening to one another; start with an agreed-upon topic; set a time limit; agree to not blame each other; agree to disagree; don’t bring up past issues unless they are absolutely relevant to moving forward; don’t make assumptions; and remember, it’s not about who’s right or wrong, it’s about being understood.
- How to communicate clearly. Use “I” statements (e.g., “I feel sad when you say that,” instead of “You make me upset when you say that”); avoid saying “always” and “never”; express your thoughts and feelings clearly, honestly and simply; be aware of your tone of voice and body language; don’t blame your partner for your feelings.
- How to be a good listener. Stay present; keep focused on what your partner’s saying; don’t interrupt; don’t make assumptions without hearing your partner completely; make eye contact; listen, rather than focusing on your next response; be aware of nonverbal cues to how your partner may be feeling; try to hear and appreciate what they’re saying even if you don’t agree; avoid being judgmental and defensive.
- How to bring up a difficult issue. Let your partner know there’s something important you want to talk about; find a time to talk where you won’t be interrupted; be clear and specific about your feelings; be open to hearing your partner’s perspective; set a time limit for the discussion.
- How to compromise. Approach the conversation with a positive attitude; be open to what you can agree on; be clear about what’s most important to you and why; try to understand what’s most important to your partner; recognize that you might have different points of view; compromise is not about right or wrong; rather than staying stuck in your position, look for a win-win outcome; don’t give in just to make peace.
- How to problem-solve together. Make a list of points that are most important to each of you; take turns sharing, listening and hearing deeply; don’t waste time and energy on things you can’t control, but focus on what you can control; make a list of similarities and differences between your lists; talk through the pros and cons together; take time brainstorming what you both would like. | <urn:uuid:8fc4dc2b-df82-4e30-89e2-252d172c8834> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | https://www.thinkadvisor.com/2011/12/28/helping-couples-get-more-in-sync?t=ibds | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257648103.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20180322225408-20180323005408-00739.warc.gz | en | 0.923451 | 566 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Evaluation of student facing web-based services: Studyit (CORE Education)
The document provides a final service report on the Studyit website as part of a larger evaluation of web-based learning services for children and young people in New Zealand. The report is complemented by similar reports relating to the AnyQuestions and WickED websites.
Author(s): Ann Trewern and Derek Wenmoth, CORE Education Limited.
Date Published: August 2008
This report is available as a download (please refer to the 'Downloads' inset box, top right). The "Where to Find Out More' inset box (right) has links to related publications/information that may be of interest.
Section 7: Learning for providers, teachers and schools
Impact on school and teacher practices
It is not the aim of the Studyit service currently to provide professional direction for schools or for teachers although this is a service and new direction that Studyit could explore in the future and still keep to its central aims of providing help and support for students working towards New Zealand NCEA qualifications. Its innovative and educative role is to provide personalised and individualised learning for students who may not be able to access this within their schools for a variety of reasons.
While the place for Studyit as a resource for the classroom is limited, there is no doubt a role for teachers to introduce the site, and particularly the forums, to students as a class activity. There is some evidence to suggest this sometimes happens but the main purpose of Studyit is to support students with individual and independent study, not to integrate the site into classroom activities.
Positioning as learning environments by teachers and schools
The key role of schools is to act as a recommender and reminder to students that the resource exists. Listing the resource on the school intranet or learning management system for those students who may stay to complete homework in the information technology or computer lab during lunchtimes and after school, and including information about Studyit and the web address in school newsletters that go home to parents should be widely encouraged.
The senior secondary school is rapidly developing a very different look for many students who are facing a range of teaching and learning options that are muddying the distinctions between schools and some tertiary institutions. Student involvement in Star and Gateway programmes, and the increasing take up of virtual teaching across groups of schools, mean that some schools are beginning to need to include learning and study facilities to support students who have flexible timetables and locations for study. Studyit has an obvious role to play in the context of more flexible senior school teaching and learning landscapes.
It is suggested that other teachers could learn a great deal from the Studyit site even if they only visit and look. Perusing the discussions reveals the kinds of questions that are being asked and just what students are encountering difficulties with.
This is also a programme where teachers could participate. There is nothing to stop other teachers from becoming involved from time to time in the discussions. More specialist expertise available to support students, would be ideal. One mentor suggested the need for including scientists involved in fieldwork. Another mentor suggested the idea that to begin to train student-mentors to help students on the site might be a worthwhile innovation.
Mentor teachers found they gained considerable benefit from their involvement with Studyit. Mentors indicated they enjoyed it when students clarified some knowledge demonstrating they had ‘got it’, getting to know these students with their aliases through their messages, and when students answer each others questions – something that is not seen in classrooms. One teacher mentor said,
This site is a lifeline for many kids in schools where there is a high turnover of staff– particularly teachers coming in from overseas half way through the year and don’t know anything about NCEA. (Mentor teacher interview)
Learning for front line service providers and the partnering organisations
Although the net of potential students that could be included in this site is quite large, involving about three – fifths of the current secondary school population, the site remains used by a relatively small group of committed and active users who are themselves only a small percentage, 14% (Ingrey & Marlow, 2006), of the total number who are registered1. This level of involvement in online text-based forums is not unusual.
Current website design and development, devised with input from student groups, aims for active student involvement in Studyit and is undoubtedly a successful one for the largely high achieving group that are currently involved. This can be clearly observed throughout the site and is highlighted in the earlier findings and analysis section of this report. The original Studyit focus on elements of interactivity, language, tone and design is mentioned in the literature review accompanying this suite of reports (Nielsen Gorman report, 2005 in Coogan, 2006, p35), as important factors that attract teen users who have a greater tendency to target particular sites for particular purposes than do younger children. The centrality of a website’s useful for schoolwork and communication with peers was among a list of attractants for teens that highlighted by the Nielsen Gorman report.
This research team believe that Studyit is one of the most successful online forum sites they have observed in terms of the frequency of interaction and depth of learning evident from contributors and the level of inquiry that is supported by the teacher mentors.
Teacher mentors were aware of the changed pedagogical approaches in Studyit and several mentioned that approaches were completely different from those they used in the classroom. They enjoyed working with students in co-constructing knowledge where they could concentrate on knowledge building rather than issues of management; and support and improve the quality of collaborative thinking for students through both explicit pedagogical processes (that is the way interactions in the forums are structured and encouraged) and through setting tasks for students to try out. Effective teaching could be observed in the forums with examples of reciprocal teaching, cooperation, negotiation, hints, feedback and prompting for questions and elaborations.
Effective teaching through task setting could also be observed with setting instructions, suggestion of domain specific formats of task representation particularly evident in many of the mathematics and physics problem transcripts, re-tailoring tasks so that students can co-perform them in slightly different ways, and modelling of strategies that scaffold student‘s domain knowledge construction, as well as developing understanding and acquiring skills.
This group of student users and teacher mentors are very happy with the service and see enormous value in it. There is clearly a level of customisation and personalisation in Studyit, which for many students, was unavailable in their instruction at school. Users tended to see possible improvement in terms of providing more of the same, for example more detailed notes, faster responses, more subjects covered and other refinements. At one level it would be recommended that new directions would involve a slow and gradual expansion of the Studyit service into a broader range of NCEA subject areas and also possibly a more specialised teacher area that would offer help and assistance to teachers needing to know or check up about NCEA rules and regulations for students but also as first level checking service for NCEA moderation issues and other concerns teachers may have around NCEA. On another level changes to the group size and composition, incentives for involvement and currently successful process and task structures may impact negatively on key success elements such as the support structures, dialogue and interaction and maintenance of the joint problem space. This is a successful but also extremely complex and fragile learning environment.
Currently, the reach of the service, and the breadth of involvement, appears to be limited. Several mentor-teachers commented on the fact that the site ‘was not widely known about’ and ‘needed more promotion’. To what extent Studyit had been previously marketed at the time of data gathering is not clear to this research team but it is recommended that more extensive marketing be considered. Lifting the profile of Studyit for specific target groups such as rural students and teachers, students who may be taking a non offered subject in the school by correspondence, and international students seems appropriate.
The group of students unable to be recognised in this report are those who are registered users and who visit the site to look and learn but who never participate openly. It is recognised that this non-participant group can, as is the case in most online text-based forums, be of significant size and that it cannot be assumed that no less learning is taking place for them than for those who are active. Key feedback ideally needs to be gathered from this group about what it would take to get these interested but non-active students involved. It may be that this group need more of those features which attract teenagers to websites generally especially, personalisation, careful use of visuals and interactivity whereby content is delivered through, for example, games and a greater social element. Any marketing of the service to a potentially larger group that is wider than the group currently engaged in Studyit needs to be carefully considered. It is recognised there is also the possibility that involving this group may be beyond what can be practically resourced. How to actively engage a greater number of users is one that is faced by online learning environments everywhere. | <urn:uuid:215121a7-5f26-46e1-85a3-9b1e433f467f> | CC-MAIN-2015-32 | http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/ict/23917/27847/7 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-32/segments/1438042988962.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20150728002308-00126-ip-10-236-191-2.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967442 | 1,872 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Max Gerson, M.D. was born in Wongrowitz, Germany (1881). He attended the universities of Breslau, Wuerzburg, Berlin, and Freiburg. Suffering from severe migraines, Dr. Gerson focused his initial experimentation with diet on preventing his headaches. One of Dr. Gerson’s patients discovered in the course of his treatment, that the “migraine diet” had cured his skin tuberculosis. This discovery led Gerson to further study the diet, and he went on to successfully treat many tuberculosis patients. His work eventually came to the attention of famed thoracic surgeon, Ferdinand Sauerbruch, M.D.
Under Sauerbruch’s supervision, Dr. Gerson established a special skin tuberculosis treatment program at the Munich University Hospital. In a carefully monitored clinical trial, 446 out of 450 skin tuberculosis patients treated with the Gerson diet recovered completely.Dr. Sauerbruch and Dr. Gerson simultaneously published articles in a dozen of the world’s leading medical journals, establishing the Gerson treatment as the first cure for skin tuberculosis.
At this time, Dr. Gerson attracted the friendship of Nobel prize winner Albert Schweitzer, M.D., by curing Schweitzer’s wife of lung tuberculosis after all conventional treatments had failed. Gerson and Schweitzer remained friends for life, and maintained regular correspondence. Dr. Schweitzer followed Gerson’s progress as the dietary therapy was successfully applied to heart disease, kidney failure, and finally – cancer. Schweitzer’s own Type II diabetes was cured by treatment with Gerson’s therapy.
In 1938, Dr. Gerson passed his boards and was licensed to practice in the state of New York. For twenty years, he treated hundreds of cancer patients who had been given up to die after all conventional treatments had failed.
A Cancer Therapy: Results of 50 Cases
In 1946, Gerson demonstrated recovered patients before the Pepper-Neely Congressional Subcommittee, during hearings on a bill to fund research into cancer treatment. Although only a few peer-reviewed journals were receptive to Gerson’s then “radical” idea that diet could affect health, he continued to publish articles on his therapy and case histories of healed patients.
In 1958, after thirty years of clinical experimentation, Gerson published A Cancer Therapy: Results of 50 Cases. This medical monograph details the theories, treatment, and results achieved by a great physician. Gerson died in 1959, eulogized by long-time friend, Albert Schweitzer M.D.:
“…I see in him one of the most eminent geniuses in the history of medicine. Many of his basic ideas have been adopted without having his name connected with them. Yet, he has achieved more than seemed possible under adverse conditions. He leaves a legacy which commands attention and which will assure him his due place. Those whom he has cured will now attest to the truth of his ideas.”
– Albert Schweitzer M.D.
Dr. Max Gerson: Healing the Hopeless
You can read the full story of Dr. Max Gerson’s life and the development of the Gerson Therapy in his biography, Dr. Max Gerson: Healing the Hopeless, written by his grandson, Howard Straus. Dr. Max Gerson: Healing the Hopeless discusses the development of his world-famous dietary therapy and the struggles this medical pioneer faced as he challenged orthodox medicine with his nutritional protocol. This inspiring and uplifting biography follows Dr. Gerson through Nazi persecution, then persecution in the United States from the medical establishment, the continuation of his work despite the opposition, his questionable death and finally the present, where daughter Charlotte Gerson and the Gerson Institute work to continue his legacy and vision. | <urn:uuid:7d6d8c28-e45b-4ab1-b94a-ac6a1cac2e10> | CC-MAIN-2018-34 | http://doctordonato.com/gerson-therapy/dr-gerson/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-34/segments/1534221211664.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20180817025907-20180817045907-00052.warc.gz | en | 0.963057 | 792 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Begin Or End 1Language brain teasers are those that involve the English language. You need to think about and manipulate words and letters.
Several clues are given below. Each answer will be either begin or end with the same three letters.
1. Type of grain
2. Lower spine
3. Cylindrical container
4. Trade without money
5. Secondary discussion
6. An artistic style
7. Prying tool
8. Roast outdoors
9. Type of moustache
10. Measures pressure
HintThe common letters are BAR.
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Chickenpox Vaccine for My Child?
My children were not vaccinated against chickenpox. When they were young, we were living in Europe, where the medical community does not encourage immunization against this disease. Consequently, my kids developed chickenpox at an early age, during one month in which over 30 children in our neighborhood became infected.
I had, in fact, planned to have the children immunized for chickenpox on our next visit to the U.S., but the infection came before that happened. My oldest child, who was 4 at the time, contracted chickenpox from a friend at preschool. He hardly suffered at all; there were perhaps only 20 or 25 skin lesions in total. Not so for my youngest two children, then aged 2 and a half and 16 months. Because their exposure came from their older brother at home ("prolonged" exposures in the home can lead to more severe disease than casual or onetime exposures) they were both covered from head to toe with the itchy spots. Even the membranes of their mouths and eyes were affected, and they were listless with fever. While no serious complications developed, they were decidedly miserable and uncomfortable for days.
Living in Europe and talking with other parents, I encountered a good bit of skepticism about the chickenpox vaccine in use in the U.S. While hardly anyone considered the vaccine to be dangerous, most felt it wasn't necessary to vaccinate a child against what they perceived to be a "harmless" disease that even "strengthened" their child's immune system.
Even if chickenpox doesn't cause lasting problems in most people, the condition is far from harmless for some. It can lead to serious illness in adults, very young infants, and those whose immune systems are suppressed. According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), before the advent of the chickenpox vaccine, about 11,000 people were hospitalized each year and about 100 deaths occurred each year in the U.S. as a result of infection with the chickenpox virus (varicella-zoster virus, or VZV).
After caring for my youngest two children when they had chickenpox, I can personally attest to the fact that the virus can cause a very unpleasant illness with fever, rash, and constant itching. Scratching of the skin lesions can lead to secondary infections of the skin that may even result in scarring. In adults, years after the initial infection, the virus can reactivate to produce the painful blisters of shingles. In rare cases, chickenpox can cause pneumonia or a potentially fatal brain infection.
Like any vaccine, the chickenpox vaccine may lead to mild side effects and to serious side effects in extremely rare cases. However, pediatric experts agree that getting the vaccine is much safer than getting a serious disease as a result of chickenpox.
Reference: U.S. CDC, "Vaccine Information Statement, VZV vaccine," 1/10/07.
Last Editorial Review: 2/28/2008 | <urn:uuid:a43fba1e-fe6b-4c4e-83b5-4d41cfb40c64> | CC-MAIN-2014-41 | http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=87480 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-41/segments/1412037663611.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20140930004103-00281-ip-10-234-18-248.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975375 | 621 | 2.8125 | 3 |
The ozone, smog, and numerous other outdoor pollutants usually come to mind when we think about pollution, but many indoor air pollutants cause just as much, if not more, damage to an individual’s quality of life. Mold, dust, pet dander, smoke, radon, and formaldehyde are just a few of the indoor air toxins homeowners should keep out of the home.
The air inside of the home is three times more polluted than outdoor air. It is every homeowner’s responsibility to keep indoor air quality up to standards to prevent a variety of health problems. Below are 5 simple methods that help reduce indoor air toxins in the home below and how you can use them to benefit your life.
Keep the House Clean to Reduce Indoor Air Toxins
Vacuum carpeted areas in the house using a HEPA-filtered vacuum cleaner twice per week. Clean the filter after each use. Focus on high traffic areas where the most indoor air toxins accumulate. Mop the non-carpeted, non-wood floors weekly and after vacuuming. This removes the dust that vacuuming leaves behind on the floors. Use floor mats at every door entrance to reduce the amount of dirt and pollutants that visitors track in from their shoes.
Go Green With Your Cleaning
Chemicals and toxins in traditional household cleaners are responsible for much of the indoor air pollution in the house. Make the switch to all-natural cleaners to keep these toxins out of your air. Many natural household cleaners are available at your favorite retailer and at a variety of online sources. They clean just as well as those toxin-filled products and leave the place smelling great. Furthermore, they’re better for the environment than traditional cleaners. That is a double benefit for you to enjoy!
Choose Houseplants that Reduce Indoor Air Toxins
Certain houseplants can work to detoxify your indoor air, and also add a fresh ambiance to your home. Place houseplants from this list around your home in areas where they get the appropriate amount of sunlight and don’t forget to water them!
Monitor Humidity Levels & Use a Dehumidifier
Dust mites are microscopic and invisible to the naked eye but don’t think for a second that these pests do not live in your home, especially if moisture is present. Proper humidity levels of 30% to 50% keep allergies at bay and the dust mites away. Many people use a dehumidifier during the hot summer months to keep the humidity levels in their home at the proper levels and to reduce indoor air moisture to better control allergens. Purchase a dehumidifier from any home improvement store. Prices for dehumidifiers start at about $20, though some high-end models can cost several hundred dollars. Running the air conditioning unit is also a good technique that circulates the air and keeps indoor air toxins from stagnating.
Stop Smoking Inside the Home
Smoking is single-handedly responsible for more indoor air pollution than any other source. Make your home a smoke-free zone and notice many improvements in the quality of the air, your breathing patterns, and the number of respiratory and ear infections that your children sustain. More than 4,000 chemicals found inside tobacco are released each time a cigarette is lit. These toxins become trapped inside the walls of the home, where environmental and health risks occur.
Address Mold in your Home
Mold in your home contributes unhealthy indoor air toxins to your home’s environment. Pinpointing and eliminating mold issues is crucial to reduce indoor air toxins in your home. Even basement mold can affect the air quality of your whole home. | <urn:uuid:421b2962-40f2-457b-885b-d3223ba59a55> | CC-MAIN-2020-50 | https://awphomeinspections.com/reduce-indoor-air-toxins/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-50/segments/1606141717601.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20201203000447-20201203030447-00066.warc.gz | en | 0.936845 | 751 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Black River: Local Eighth Graders Engage the Past
Fifty-one eighth grade students from Black River Middle School were part of a year-long Community History Project sponsored by the Vermont Historical Society. The project involved the Black River Academy Museum, the Middle School, Black River High School and various town resources.
The title of this project was "Continuity and Change". The students researched the history of the Black River Academy, some of it's more notable alumni, teachers and activities. They also researched the history and building of the Black River High School.
In order to accomplish all of the research, the class was divided into 15 groups, including videographers and documentors. The documentors kept track of the progress of the teams and wrote press releases which they sent to four local newspapers. The videographers were kept busy with interviews with alumni of the Black River Academy. One video had them discussing their memories of BRA and another had them talking about their memories of E. Howard "Pop" Dorsey, a favorite principal, teacher, coach and superintendent of schools. The culmination of the project was a reenactment of Calvin Coolidge's 1890 graduation from Black River Academy performed by the eighth graders.
Two days a week throughout the school year, various teams journeyed to the Black River Academy Museum to work on their projects. The used the Museum's archives, took notes and interpreted primary and secondary source documents. These included journals, graduation speeches, yearbooks, biographies and other book. Some of the other places where the students did research were Black River High School, Ludlow Town Hall, Fletcher Memorial Library, the Rutland-Windsor Supervisory Union office and Coolidge Homestead. | <urn:uuid:f3d3ab2e-9a07-4a97-9bd9-207ba2fcb46e> | CC-MAIN-2017-17 | http://www.vhscommunityhistory.org/pages/projects/blackriver/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917119080.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031159-00570-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.976047 | 346 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Victorian art activities (KS2)
25 March 2011Add to My Folder
Taking inspiration from Victorian art and architecture, explore line, tone, texture, colour and composition, through the traditional genres of still life, landscape and portraiture
The photographs we currently store on our mobile phones could be regarded as part of a tradition that dates back centuries. In Victorian times, many people carried painstakingly painted miniature portraits of their loved ones around with them, sealed into clasps. This activity revives this antiquated practice, while providing opportunities for children to develop their fine motor skills.
- Remind children that, among the decisions they have to make when creating an artwork, scale is something they need to consider: some artworks are huge while others are tiny.
- Talk to them about the role miniature portraits played in Victorian times, and provide them with illustrations of examples.
- Provide watercolour paints (the little blocks in metal containers are best for this) and thin brushes and demonstrate how to use a brush to carefully apply a small amount of water to a block of colour and apply it to the page.
- Encourage children to practise making small, specific brushstrokes on spare sheets of paper before beginning their portrait. Colours can be mixed in the spaces on the container of the paints, or on the paper itself.
- Children should choose between painting self-portraits – ideally from small, hand-held, plastic-backed mirrors – or making portraits of classmates taking turns to pose.
- Complete the activity by designing and creating a small, oval frame to surround their painting.
2. Still-life paintings
Many people have negative memories of lessons spent making still-life drawings of apples and pears. Providing children with some ‘ownership’ of the objects they include in their arrangements encourages them to personalise this process and to take a stronger interest in succeeding with what can be a challenging task. This activity places a strong emphasis on the use of line and texture in drawing and, since minimal mess is involved, would be ideal to carry out during a visit to a collection of toys or objects at a local museum.
- Begin by talking to children about the toys/games they play with and the similarities and contrasts between them and their Victorian counterparts.
- If you’re working in school rather than a museum, ask children to bring in examples of their toys/games that they think Victorian children would have recognised – such as an old teddy bear.
- Lightly sketch the general outline of the object onto paper before looking more closely at the detail of the object, its tones and textures.
- Talk to children about how these tones and textures can be represented by carefully making repeated lines and patterns. These patterns could, for example, consist of dots, crosses, circles, and so on.
- Extend the activity by scanning or photocopying the drawings, cutting around the copies and assembling into a group collage.
One tradition that was maintained by artists during Victorian times was the practice of making transcriptions, or copies, of artists’ work. Galleries such as London’s National Gallery would be closed to the public for one day each week in order to allow artists in to make copies directly from the original paintings in the collection. This activity revives that tradition, and in doing so provides opportunities for children to pay close attention to the details of artists’ work.
- Begin by encouraging children to select examples of artworks by 19th century artists that appeal to them. The example below is inspired by a Van Gogh painting of a church.
- Print out or photocopy the images and provide children with pencils and rulers.
- Demonstrate how to ‘square up’ the image by drawing a set of horizontal lines across the image 4cm to 5cm apart, then a set of vertical lines the same distance apart. For an A4 image you should have around 24 squares.
- Now, draw the same number of squares on a larger sheet of paper.
- Look closely at the original image and carefully transfer it to the larger sheet of paper. Remind children to observe how the lines travel from one square to the next and to draw these lines (rather than completing one square at a time).
- Encourage children to look closely at the details of the original image. In the example shown here, Van Gogh’s thick brushstrokes in the sky have inspired some wonderful chalk and charcoal markmaking
- Finally, choose one of the images as a starting point for a whole-class artwork using ICT. Each child should take one square of a particular drawing or painting and recreate it using art software on the PC. When completed, each image can be printed and assembled into a large-scale class artwork. | <urn:uuid:bac6e794-8aa8-4130-ba0a-0a71c79b7142> | CC-MAIN-2015-35 | http://education.scholastic.co.uk/content/16031 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440645176794.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827031256-00269-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946447 | 982 | 3.796875 | 4 |
If we accept the CT as a portrayal of Chaucer's society (regardless of its accuracy or intent), we must also recognize and explore the obvious and distinct ideological contradictions that pervade his text; for Chaucer's attack on the more ...
... middle of paper ...
...sing the industrial revolution because of its horrendous effects on London workers five hundred years later. Chaucer merely saw his society quickly changing and recognized the need for a more complex approach to the world around him. The most effective method available to the poet was his ironic commentary on the Estates system and its unwieldy ability to handle modern day problems. Unfortunately, for the lower classes of Chaucer's society, his biting commentary, while questioning the dominant social paradigm, did little to change its adverse effect on the exploited members of the system. Rather, Chaucer created a literary masterpiece that threw rocks at the established economic structure just long enough to allow for a smooth transition of the bourgeois from outside element to key participant in the classist society of the 14th and 15th centuries.
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- A Disappointing Golf Game | <urn:uuid:3c0d7bf9-142d-4fd2-bd87-725300572310> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | http://bashambrothersmusic.com/preview.asp?id=19538 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247481249.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20190216230700-20190217012700-00562.warc.gz | en | 0.949322 | 1,798 | 3.171875 | 3 |
If you're anything like us (or like most folks in the United States), the prospect of being among the one-out-of-every-four people who are—by the statistics—doomed to contract cancer is horrifying. Unfortunately, most folks feel helpless in the face of this threat. The tendency is to look upon cancer as almost an act of God, as something that's unavoidable.
From an individual's point of view, however, it would be more reasonable to compare cancer risk to the odds of dying in an automobile accident. In a society that's hooked on cars—as ours is—it's impossible to guarantee that any single person won't die in a crash. But the cautious, competent driver is, of course, much more likely to survive than is the fool who runs stop signs without looking. And the cautious, competent person also has a better chance of avoiding cancer than does the fool who smokes two packs of cigarettes a day and gorges on junk food.
Scientists have come to realize in recent years that the origins of most human cancers are environmental. The first connection between cancer and the environment was made by Sir Percival Pott in 1775 when he discovered that chimney sweeps were very likely to get cancer of the scrotum.
The second tie-in between environmental factors and cancer came 100 years later, when the high incidence of skin cancer in dye plant workers was connected to the dyes themselves. (It turned out that the chemical compounds involved were similar to those in the soot that the chimney sweeps were constantly exposed to!) Since then, the list of environmental carcinogens (cancer-causing substances) has increased impressively.
As a result of these findings, it's now clear that a sensible "war on cancer" should—as its top priority—reduce people's exposure to substances known to be (or even just suspected to be) carcinogenic. This approach makes a lot more sense than a desperate—and, in the short term, possibly fruitless—search for cures.
On the cancer front, the closest analogy to driving blind drunk on a freeway is smoking cigarettes. If you want to be killed by cancer, that's probably the quickest and easiest way to increase your odds. Don't be fooled, either, by the cigarette companies' claim that "it's only correlations" that connect smoking to cancer.
After all, correlations show that you can be killed in an automobile accident. (You'll notice that there's a much higher frequency of dead bodies found in wrecked autos than in unwrecked ones.) And—to back up the massive statistical evidence—there's also much data from animal experiments to indicate that smokers will die young.
Thus, if you want to have a personal "cancer avoidance" strategy, a good place to start (if you smoke) is by stopping. It may also help a little if you avoid smokers. (We both quit 20 years ago and have few friends who smoke today.)
Also—should you have any degree of choice concerning where you live—you might be able to "miss" cancer if you stay away from smoggy metropolitan areas, live as far as possible from industrial sites, and avoid the vicinity of chemical plants like the plague. Contact with asbestos is also a big no-no, although this substance is sometimes very difficult to avoid.
Your diet is another area where a little common sense can help improve your chances of avoiding cancer. There's some evidence that a diet which is low in animal fat and high in fiber will make a person less susceptible to bowel cancer. And—if you supplement that diet with vitamins A and C—there's a possibility that you may increase your resistance to the disease (although the effect of these vitamins is far from certain).
One of the most important steps you could take would be to reduce your in take of a variety of food additives. We always make certain we read very carefully the labels on food packages and— wherever possible—avoid those whose contents read like a shelf list from a chemistry laboratory.
Keep in mind, too, that the identification of carcinogens is a science in its infancy. We are just now discovering that—in many cases—chemicals that aren't carcinogenic may be changed by our bodies into cancer-causing agents or may interact with other substances to produce carcinogens. Prime examples are the nitrates/nitrites that are added to nearly all preserved meats—such as bacon, ham, hot dogs, and luncheon meats—as well as a variety of other foods. Once in the body, these substances can be transformed into highly carcinogenic nitrosamines.
In general, the fewer man-made chemicals we ingest, the better off we're likely to be. This is not to say, however, that natural substances can't cause cancer. As a matter of fact, aflatoxin—which sometimes contaminates nuts and is common in peanut butters—is one of the most potent carcinogens known. But human beings, like other organisms, have been exposed to such natural substances for millions of years and likely have evolved mechanisms to reduce their cancer-causing potentials. The odds of our being able to resist the chemical compounds recently created in our laboratories are, of course, not so good.
Once again, don't be fooled by the claim that many food additives are perfectly safe—or that you don't have to worry about them—because enormous doses are required to give a rat cancer. For, although the mechanisms of carcinogenesis are not fully known, there's every reason to believe that carcinogenic chemicals have no "safe dose." This concept will be better understood when you consider one of the most widely accepted theories on the origin of this dread disease.
This theory suggests that each of our cells has a series of genes that control the reproduction of the cell and prevent the kind of runaway cell division that leads to the growth of tumors. It's thought that other genes control the ability of a given type of cell to divide when it contacts cells of "foreign" kinds of tissue. (The ability to metastasize—that is, to invade other tissues—is, of course, a characteristic of cancers as opposed to nonmalignant tumors.)
Many things we come in contact with are mutagenic—that is, they can change or "mutate" genes. Radiation and various chemicals can do this. And, should one of the genes that prevents runaway multiplication of the cells be mutated, that gene may no longer be able to function as a safeguard. When this happens, the cell that contains the mutation can give rise to a whole line of cells, each of which lacks one of nature's safety devices. Another mutation in one of the descendants of the original cell may remove another of the safeguards and produce—in turn—another line of descendants in which two of the safety devices are absent. After four or five such steps, there may—finally—be a cell in which all the controls against rapid multiplication are removed. The descendants of that cell will multiply out of control and give rise to a non-malignant tumor. A further mutation in one of these tumor cells might then produce a malignancy, a cluster of cancerous cells capable of reproducing rapidly in environments other than that of the "home" tissue.
Such a model of carcinogensis is undoubtedly very much oversimplified. But it can explain some of the characteristics that have been observed in cancers. For instance, the long period of time between exposure to a cancer-causing agent and the appearance of the disease could be due to the fact that a series of further mutations must follow the initial change. If the series isn't complete, cancer doesn't occur (which, for example, would account for the observation that not all smokers develop cancer). This model also explains why agents that are known to cause mutations are also very often capable of causing cancers.
It should be obvious, then, that there is little reason for optimism about the harmlessness of low doses of known carcinogens. The chance that a molecule of the cancer-causing agent might be at the right place at the right time would, it is true, be closely related to how many molecules of the carcinogen were around. One would naturally expect that the possibility of an unwanted mutation would be high on exposure to high doses of a carcinogen and low at low doses, but never zero. Any exposure, therefore, would be potentially harmful.
Such is the rationale behind the so-called Delaney Amendment, which established a "zero tolerance" for known carcinogens in food. If this carcinogenesis model is correct, then—contrary to the claims of many food producers and manufacturers of food additives—there is no such thing as an entirely safe dose of any carcinogen.
The above model can also help us understand why animal tests for carcinogenesis are conducted in their present fashion. Ideally, it would seem that—to test for the cancer-causing potential of a substance such as saccharin—one would want to treat rats with doses equivalent to those that diet-drink users are normally exposed to. This technique would eliminate the "a person would have to drink 800 bottles a day" type of argument.
Unfortunately, such experiments are utterly impractical. Suppose, for example, a carcinogen would produce one cancer per 100 human beings exposed to the substance, or more than two million cancers if all Americans were exposed. The chances of detecting that cancer-causing potential in an experimental group of 50 mice—which have the same degree of susceptibility and receive an equivalent dose of the carcinogen by weight—are essentially zero. Actually, in order to produce a reasonably certain demonstration of carcinogenicity, about 8,000 mice would have to be treated and then examined along with 8,000 untreated "control" mice. The costs in time and money to maintain—and later perform autopsies upon—16,000 mice is prohibitively high. And that's why screening for carcinogens usually involves a much smaller group of mice and the often-criticized large doses of the suspect chemical. The key assumption is that—if it causes cancer in high doses—it will cause it at low doses as well.
Now, what about the argument that a substance has been shown to be carcinogenic "only in rats and not in people"? This is one of the more preposterous criticisms of animal testing. (You will note that none of the Congressmen who made that claim in the case of saccharin volunteered to be guinea pigs in an experiment to test whether or not the substance could cause cancer in human beings!)
It's true, of course, that some substances that will cause cancer in one animal won't produce the disease in another ... and that—accordingly—each substance that causes cancer in rats won't necessarily cause cancer in human beings. (Similarly, substances that appear to be safe in animals may cause cancer in people.)
There are two possible reasons for this: One is that the substance under test may be changed into a carcinogen by the metabolic machinery of one animal, while in the machinery of another animal it will not be so changed. Another possible reason is that the cells of different types of animals may not be identically susceptible to the action of different mutagens.
But, since human beings cannot be used as guinea pigs, the best that can be done is to test many animals and then make the conservative assumption that anything that can cause cancer in an animal can cause cancer in human beings. Indeed, to further simplify things, Professor Bruce Ames of the University of California has developed an easy and cheap bacterial system to test the mutagenic potential of substances. And the "Ames Test" is already becoming a first line of defense against environmental cancer.
It's always important to keep in mind that—even if a substance appears to be noncarcinogenic (or only a weak carcinogen) in animal tests—It may still be strongly carcinogenic to a human being. This leads to the bottom line in our philosophy of reducing the risks of getting cancer: Don't expose yourself to any radiation or synthetic chemical that you can readily avoid!
In other words, don't let your dentist take x-rays routinely every six months. Don't let him x-ray your child's head (especially before permanent teeth come in) without getting a detailed description of why the problem is serious enough to require this step. Don't use aerosol underarm deodorants or hair sprays. (If you can smell them when you apply them, this means—at a very minimum— you are drawing molecules of an odorant and a carrier into your lungs, the effects of which are probably unknown.) Avoid foods that contain nitrates/nitrites wherever possible, as well as other chemical food additives. Wash fresh fruits and vegetables thoroughly to reduce your intake of carcinogenic pesticides. Try to reduce animal fats in your diet and increase your intake of fiber and vitamins, especially of A and C. Finally, shun smoking, smokers, smog, industrial areas, and asbestos.
Of course, even if a person does manage to do all these things, there is no guarantee that he or she won't develop cancer. However, by limiting his or her exposure to known and potential carcinogens, that person will be far less likely to be among the one-in-four who will, by the statistics, contract the disease.
Paul Ehrlich (Bing Professor of Population Studies and Professor of Biological Sciences, Stanford University) and Anne Ehrlich (Senior Research Associate, Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford) are familiar names to ecologists and environmentalists everywhere. As well they should be. Because it was Paul and Anne who—through their writing and research—gave special meaning to the words "population," "resources," and "environment" in the late 1960's. (They also coined the term coevolution, and did a lot to make ecology the household word it is today.) But while most folks are aware of the Ehrlichs' popular writing in the areas of ecology and overpopulation (most of us—for instance—have read Paul's book The Population Bomb), far too few people have any idea of how deeply the Ehrlichs are involved in ecological research (research of the type that tends to be published only in technical journals and college textbooks). That's why it pleases us to be able to present these semi-technical columns by authors/ecologists/educators Anne and Paul Ehrlich.
For more details on environmental carcinogenesis, see Ecoscience: Population, Resources, Environment by Paul R. Ehrlich, Anne H. Ehrlich, and John P. Holdren ($19.95 postpaid from W.H. Freeman and Co.) A briefer treatment may be found in John Cairns, "The Cancer Problem" (Scientific American, November, 1975). A good recent book on environmental health is Erik Eckholm's The Picture of Health (W.W. Norton, 1977). | <urn:uuid:80bbaa5a-a654-43f0-abd0-52b2f7c06aa4> | CC-MAIN-2019-04 | https://www.motherearthnews.com/natural-health/cancer-risk-zmaz79mazraw | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583661083.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20190119014031-20190119040031-00135.warc.gz | en | 0.960011 | 3,071 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Because I like the cold and spend a lot of my time in the world’s most extreme environments, I get asked a wide variety of questions. And while everyone from kindergarteners to CEOs wants me to discuss the finer points of my taking morning constitutional at 40 below, one separate question consistently pops up:
How do you keep batteries from dying in the cold?
First, it’s important to understand why exactly batteries ‘die’ in the cold. Batteries create a current when connection is made between the two terminals (positive and negative). This triggers a chemical reaction inside the battery. When it’s colder the reaction occurs more slowly. When it’s warmer the reaction happens faster. Ultimately, the faster the reaction, the more electrons (current) that are produced and the more charge the battery has. Not surprisingly, most batteries do best at room temperature or a little warmer.
Next, realize that my cold and your cold may be two very different things. Now don’t get me wrong, I’m not trying to belittle your idea of cold and freezing, but different ranges of cold temperatures have a more adverse affect on your battery’s ability to hold a charge and I use different strategies to stay powered up depending on the temperature.
Regardless, here are few simple guidelines to give your battery the long life it deserves no matter the conditions.
1. Keep it warm - I employ a lot of different strategies to keep my batteries warm. From sticking my Goal Zero Sherpa 50 power pack inside my sleeping bag at night to keeping spare Guide 10 rechargeable AA’s in my pocket during the day while I travel, anything that you can do to keep your batteries from freezing will increase their ability to generate charge. If you’re really concerned you can also fill a sturdy water bottle with boiling water and place next to the battery.
2. A little goes a long way – while it may be really really cold, certain places can be warmer than others. For example, I keep my Sherpa 50 in deep inside my backpack wrapped in a spare jacket while my Nomad panel is outside more exposed to the elements. Solar radiation absorbed by my pack keeps the Sherpa a bit warmer. I also employ this strategy in Antarctica – I run the cord from the panel through a small hole I cut in my tent. Inside the tent, it’s relatively toasty and I’m able to recharge all my expedition electronics with relative ease.
3. Minimize screen time – I do a lot of cold weather photography and videography. Video/camera LCD screens suck a lot of juice. If your camera has one, use a view finder. Additionally make sure to turn off your Sherpa 50 immediately after you are finished using it.
4. I’m not dead yet – often times your device will show your battery is dead when in fact it’s not. It’s just cold. I can often get three or four uses of batteries that show no charge simply by warming them up. Additionally, make sure to warm your device before you use it as well.
5. Spares - Let’s face it we all can’t MacGyver our way out of a bad situation, and while I’ve tried many times, I still can’t charge my cell phone with a stick of chewing gum and a paper clip. If it’s a longer trip where power is really important bring an extra set of Goal Zero ‘rechargeables’ and a Guide 10. It’s one of most versatile charging systems I’ve ever used! If that doesn’t work, get Chuck Norris to karate chop it!
6. Start smart – one of the great things about Goal Zero power packs and batteries is that you can charge them in a variety of ways. Before hitting the trail, I make sure each one is fully charged. | <urn:uuid:9181592c-95e4-468c-8ced-176b8d3bc359> | CC-MAIN-2016-40 | http://www.goalzero.com/solarlife/2014/01/16/eric-larsen-guest-post-batteries-in-the-cold/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-40/segments/1474738661795.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20160924173741-00174-ip-10-143-35-109.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929636 | 814 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Antarctic Ocean, also known as the Southern Ocean as it is in Southern Hemisphere is the fourth largest and least talked of other oceans and also least explored although it covers 22 percent of global ocean area. One major highlight of this ocean is the frequent occurrence of foot waves due to violent storms. So, Buoys are usually kept in the ocean to record the wave height and speed.
In 2012, an Australian buoy recorded a 22.3 metre (73 feet) in the south of Tasmania and after 5 years, the record has been broken by another measurement of 22.8 meters (78 feet) foot wave near New Zealand's Campell Island on Tuesday. The 78-foot record is said to be the highest known one in the Southern Hemisphere as informed by Dr Tom Durrant, Senior Oceanographer with MetOcean Solutions.
Due to low-pressure and high-speed winds (over 75 mph), the giant wave would have occured and it is also related to climate change and extreme conditions of the ocean. The oceanographer also suggests that the wave height would have exceeded more than that recorded (may be up to 85 metres) since the solar-powered buoy could only record for first 20 minutes of every three hours to sustain its battery life for its one year (March 2018 to March 2019) deployment in the ocean.
The recorded data is then sent through a satellite link. The statistics of foot waves will be useful to understand the wave physics in the Southern Ocean. | <urn:uuid:25730af4-1674-4caa-9055-3fc6a27aff63> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | https://www.microcapobserver.com/science/largest-ever-giant-foot-wave-of-78-foot-measured-in-antarctic-ocean | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676590127.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20180718095959-20180718115959-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.976734 | 296 | 3.5 | 4 |
Vespasian was Roman emperor from 69 to 79 CE. Vespasian was the last of the four emperors who governed the Roman Empire in the year 69 CE. The previous three had died either by murder or suicide. Unlike Galba, Otho and Vitellius, Vespasian would die of natural causes in 79 CE. He and his sons, Titus and Domitian, formed what would become known as the Flavian Dynasty.
Titus Flavius Vespasianus was born into “a family of little distinction” in the small town of Falacrina just north of Rome on November 17, 9 CE. The historian Suetonius in his The Twelve Caesars would later describe him as “square-shouldered, with strong, well-formed limbs, but always wore a strained expression on his face…. (He) enjoyed perfect health and took no medical precautions for preserving it.” Although he was raised by his paternal grandmother, Tertulla, he was actually the son of Sabinus, a customs supervisor in Asia (who later died while a banker in Switzerland) and Vespasia Polla. He had an older brother, also named Sabinus, who became a consul and governor. The future emperor married Flavia Domitilla who bore him three children: Titus, Domitian, and Domitilla (she died in infancy). After his wife's death, he “married” his ex-mistress Caenis. The wedding was never official because of her social standing as a slave.
Despite not coming from a noble family, Vespasian served as a colonel in Thrace (north of Greece) and a quaestor (financial official) on the island of Crete and in Cyrenaica (eastern Libya). Before incurring the wrath of Emperor Claudius's wife Agrippina (as many did), he was the commander of a legion in Germany and Britain. He fought in over thirty battles and captured at least twenty cities. Later, he served in Africa in the early 60's CE where he suffered the disdain of the local population, often being pelted with turnips. Throughout his time away from Rome during the reigns of Caligula and Claudius, Vespasian found political success but never financial success; he was always in need of money. Although part of Emperor Nero's “inner circle,” he disappeared temporarily from public service after he supposedly fell asleep during one of Nero's long and boring concerts. However, when rebellions broke out in Judea in 66 CE, Vespasian, because of his ability to command, was sent with his son Titus to disperse the rioters. In his War of the Jews, Flavius Josephus claimed that Nero could find no one “equal to the task” to “make war with the Jews.” He added, “So Nero esteemed these circumstances as favourable omens, and saw that Vespasian's age gave him sure experience, and great skill, and that he has his sons as hostages for his fidelity to himself, and that the flourishing age they were in would make them fit instruments under their father's prudence.”
When Nero died and Galba took the throne, Vespasian and Titus waited in Judea for orders (Domitian was already in Rome). Since he had been somewhat loyal to Nero, Vespasian feared the future; however, Emperor Galba figured him of little consequence and ignored him. To demonstrate his lack of hostility to Galba, Vespasian sent Titus to Rome in late 68 CE; however, when Galba was murdered and the throne was up for grabs between Otho (governor of Lusitania) and Vitellius (governor of Lower Germany), Titus returned to Judea. Before he did anything he would regret, Vespasian decided to wait until a winner was declared. Cassius Dio wrote in his Roman History that “Vespasian was never inclined to be rash, and he hesitated very much about involving himself in such troublesome affairs.”
When Otho committed suicide in order to prevent future loss of life at the First Battle of Bedriacum, Vitellius was named the new emperor. It wasn't long, however, before rumblings against Vitellius began to appear in the West. Vespasian was the preferred choice among many in the army. With this growing animosity for Vitellius spreading to Rome, Vespasian acted quickly and sent troops to Italy to engage the new emperor, while he crossed Egypt and captured Alexandria, cutting off the grain supply to Rome. After Vitellius's loss to the army of the West at the Second Battle of Bedriacum, the soon-to-be-deposed emperor fled back to Rome planning to escape certain death; compromise and peace were out of the question. He now feared for his wife and children. Cassius Dio wrote, “One moment he was inclined to cling to the sovereignty and was making every preparation for war; the next moment he was ready to abdicate voluntarily and was making every preparation for returning to private life.” Vespasian's army dragged Vitellius from his hiding place, tortured and killed him, and threw his body in the Tiber. Much of the city, however, had already been pillaged and fires set throughout. Traveling to Rome, Vespasian was finally enthroned December 26, 69 CE.
Although some felt him to be “crafty,” Vespasian proved to be an effective emperor. He was well liked (even demonstrating a sense of humour), and his reign was considered a time of peace and calm. One of his first acts was to restore the morale of the army, discharging some and punishing others for what was termed ”indulging in excesses.” Next, he rebuilt many of the homes and buildings burned during the final days of Vitellius's reign. He built new temples and the massive Coliseum (Colosseum) - also called “the Flavian Amphitheatre.” Unlike many of those who ruled before him, he held no grudges towards those who had opposed him and executed none of his enemies. Suetonius and Tacitus both commented on his one failing – avarice. Tacitus wrote, “Vespasian showed himself master of the situation. He restored Roman prestige and recovered her shattered finances. It was hard that he should be called 'miser' for his pains.” To bring more money into the troubled Roman treasury, he doubled tributes from the provinces, charged fees from candidates for public offices, and sold pardons. However, he wasn't completely greedy; he paid salaries to those who taught Latin and Greek and awarded prizes to poets and artists.
While visiting outside Rome, he contracted “undulant fever.” Upon returning home, he avoided proper care and travelled to his summer home in Rieti. One night, after a short swim, he caught a chill and died on June 23, 79 CE; he was 69 years old. His son Titus was named his successor but he would only serve two years and be followed by the ill-prepared Domitian. | <urn:uuid:c13d79b0-7ac7-4051-a3c5-926ddc925984> | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | https://www.worldhistory.org/Vespasian/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057479.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20210923225758-20210924015758-00007.warc.gz | en | 0.990234 | 1,527 | 3.328125 | 3 |
Edgar Allan Poe's not-long-for-this-world life came to an end on this day in 1849. The exact cause remains unknown, but was rumored to have been everything from alcohol and opium, to syphilis, cholera, tuberculosis, rabies, and "brain congestion."
Most likely, he simply drank himself to death at age 40. Apparently, he was found in a stupor at a local Irish bar named Gunners Hall on Oct. 3. He died four days later at a nearby hospital. In the morning hours of Oct. 7 he is said to have calmly breathed and prayed, "Lord, help my poor soul" after days of having passed back and forth between delirium tremens (presumably from alcohol withdrawal) and unconsciousness.
Poe is widely considered to have invented the modern detective story with the "Murders at Rue Morgue," "The Mystery of Marie Roget," and "The Purloined Letter," and the creation of fictional detective C. Auguste Dupin, who appears in each story.
However, it is not all dark news today regarding Poe: This past Saturday the Edgar Allan Poe House and Museum in west Baltimore — closed... | <urn:uuid:76fa4d59-1e9a-4518-a364-8cc6a96a8663> | CC-MAIN-2013-48 | http://www.baltimoremagazine.net/chatter/2012/03/kwames-conversation..?page=3&mini=events%2Fcalendar%2F2013-01 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-48/segments/1386164611566/warc/CC-MAIN-20131204134331-00018-ip-10-33-133-15.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974281 | 249 | 2.734375 | 3 |
Giovanni was an important Renaissance humanist, poet, Italian writer, and correspondent of Petrarch. According to Wikipedia, “Some scholars (including Vittore Branca) define him as the greatest European prose writer of his time, a versatile writer who amalgamated different literary trends and genres, making them converge in original works, thanks to a creative activity exercised under the banner of experimentalism.” He was born on June 16, 1313 in the city of Certaldo, Italy, and died on December 21, 1375 in the same city in which he was born. Among his works was a collection of short stories called The Decameron. The Decameron will be the story in the title “Why did Boccaccio have the first story teller invoke God?”
The Decameron, according to Wikipedia, is “subtitled Prince Galehaut and sometimes nicknamed l’Umana commedia, is a collection of short stories by the 14th-century Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio. The book is structured as a frame story containing 100 tales told by a group of seven young women and three young men; they shelter in a secluded villa just outside Florence in order to escape the Black Death, which was afflicting the city.” This book was written in 1353. Is was a piece of Renaissance literature, and it was very popular at the time.
The Black Death was a plague that ravaged Europe from 1347 to 1351. One-third of Europe’s population died from the plague. According to Wikipedia, “It is the most fatal pandemic recorded in human history, causing the death of 75–200 million people, peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351.”
Boccaccio tells a story of seven noble ladies in a church. They are having a conversation. The oldest of them, a woman named Pampinea, declares that they should leave the city and find a place of solitude where they can live apart from the world. The other six agree. They find three men willing to go with them. Together, the ten of them, plus their servants, leave the city and try to find a suitable place to live. Two miles out of town, they find an abandoned castle, in fairly good condition. It is there that they decided to live. In order to entertain themselves, they each tell stories. The first story teller, Pamfilo, is the one whose story I will be talking about.
Pamfilo says that God’s grace visited them because God is a good God and they were faithful to him. However, sometimes good people have error in judgement and they make someone their advocate who is actually just evil. Pamfilo’s story tells of a merchant who hires a wicked person to bring back money that is rightfully the merchants, so the criminal sets out on his mission. While on his mission and was staying with two money lenders when he became deathly ill. One day, while he was sick, the criminal heard his hosts talking about what to do with him. They could not kick him out lest they be criticized, they could not bring in a priest to hear his confession because he probably would not confess, but they could not not bring in a priest because if word gets around that they let an evil person into their house they might still be criticized. So the criminal told them to bring him the most holy man they could find, and they did. The criminal told the holy man that he was also very holy. When the criminal died, the people made him a saint.
The true message of Boccaccio’s stories was a rebellion against Christianity and a thought structure completely against the moral order enforced by God and Christian institutions. | <urn:uuid:983731c0-9c90-4df1-97a6-d39eb8cac1af> | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | https://www.owenpitts.com/2022/09/06/why-did-boccaccio-have-the-first-story-teller-invoke-god/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030334855.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20220926082131-20220926112131-00783.warc.gz | en | 0.984776 | 776 | 3.46875 | 3 |
Spanish vultures have bloody good eyesight. They can spot carrion from 10,000ft up, and then glide silently on nine-foot span wings down to feast. For generations they have lived symbiotically with Spanish hill farmers and rural populations; villagers used to take the carcasses of dead animals to Muladares, traditional places at which they were left for the vultures to dispose of, and hill farmers who practiced transhumant grazing were able to leave the carcasses of dead sheep on the high pastures for the vultures to clean up. All changed from 2002 onwards, when the EU passed a series of new laws in the wake of the BSE scare.
It was forbidden to feed the carcasses of ruminants, or indeed any animal by-products, to wild birds. The papers gleefully reported that giant flocks of hungry Spanish vultures were flying to Brussels and Germany to look for food. It was too good a story to miss. In vain did EU officials protest that special conditions existed for endangered species and birds of prey; Spanish vultures were not an endangered species - indeed, the population had been growing - and carrion-eaters are not strictly birds of prey. It seems the Spanish vulture is doomed by Euro bureaucracy for failing to comply with a legislative category.
And now for Bystander. The Magistrate blogged lately that he had been throwing meat scraps out in the garden for the Red Kites. Immediately I realised that this activity fell under the 2005 Animal By Products Regulations (SI 2005 No 2347). The meat scraps - trimmings from meat fit for human consumption - are Category 3 material under the regulations; they are classed as catering waste, even from a domestic kitchen, and are therefore subject to the Regs. On the face of it, there is a clear breach of s.9(1) of the Regulations, which prohibits the feeding of catering waste "to any other ruminant animal, pig or bird". The offence is regarded as fairly serious, with a penalty on summary conviction of a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three months or both(s.48(1)). Penalties on indictment are even worse.
However, all is not lost for Bystander. The derogation that failed to work for the Spanish vulture may work in the Chilterns. S.26(3) of the Regulations allows "The feeding of animal by-products to ..... reptiles and birds of prey other than zoo or circus animals" when authorised by the Secretary of State. Unlike vultures, Red Kites can be classed as birds of prey (they apparently eat worms and mice as well as meat scraps). I have no doubt that Bystander will now apply to the SoS for the appropriate licence, and regularise his kite feeding. And equally no doubt that if he does, he will cause immeasurable consternation and confusion in DEFRA, who I am sure pass these wretched laws without ever reading them. | <urn:uuid:eeaa3d09-e70b-4801-9181-5f1e5e72f50f> | CC-MAIN-2014-35 | http://raedwald.blogspot.com/2009/09/magistrate-eu-and-starving-spanish.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-35/segments/1409535921550.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20140901014521-00030-ip-10-180-136-8.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963427 | 629 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Beyond Logic / Beyond holding Position / Beyond Materialism
Beyond Pre-Concieved Notions
Beyond Pre-scribed thought
-----Entering into the "State of Mystic"
"State of Ideas"
Where all designs of Nature begins
This is why people can't teach it, Why no Certainity of can be held, in order to enter.
note; One reason the Androgyny State helps One enter, as the Androgyny State holds few certainty, Why Androgyny's are highly Creative, They had to "Think out-side the Box" to even Survive.- me 10/20/2018
I found this, today while doing a inquiry, I thought helpful;
-Science and Mysticism in the Twentieth Century- centerforsacredsciences.org
Not without reason has the twentieth century been called The Revolutionary Century. Hardly any field of human endeavor has escaped some major upheaval. There have been political revolutions, economic revolutions, social revolutions, revolutions in technology, in transportation, in medicine, in communication—even in our everyday manners. For the spiritual seeker, however (and ultimately for humanity, itself), none of these can compare in importance to the twin revolutions which have occurred in the fields of science and religion. So, let us take a brief look at these two revolutions and how they affect us.
When the twentieth century opened, science and religion were locked in a protracted war in which it seemed no compromise was possible. There were two primary reasons for this. The first was epistemological,1 involving different notions about what constitutes truth and how it can be known. While science boasted that scientific truths could be tested and verified through empirical experiments, religion apparently demanded that spiritual truths be accepted on blind faith.
The second reason was ontological.2 That is, science and religion were founded on diametrically opposed views concerning the fundamental nature of reality. Religious believers insisted that, ultimately, the nature of reality was spiritual, and that, apart from this All-Encompassing Spiritual Reality, nothing would or could exist. Advocates for science, on the other hand, adopted a strictly materialist position, arguing that everything could be reduced to, and explained by, the interactions of independently existing atoms and the physical forces which acted on them.
Faced with two such irreconcilable worldviews, it appeared that any thinking person would have to choose sides—and many did. But for those who admired science, yet also intuited there must be more to life than the "wiggling and jiggling of atoms,"3 the apparent intractability of this historical conflict presented something of a personal dilemma. To pursue a spiritual path while simultaneously maintaining a scientific outlook required a kind of philosophical schizophrenia. How else could one pray for divine guidance by night and then take one's automobile to a mechanic in the morning? The underlying paradigms upon which these two actions were based simply refused to mesh.
As this century draws to a close, however, the situation in both science and religion has changed dramatically—so much so, that we must now rethink the very terms in which the whole controversy between them has been cast.
First, in the field of religion, the last hundred years has seen a veritable explosion in our knowledge of humanity's great religious traditions. A plethora of new translations of sacred texts from around the world is expanding and re-shaping our basic understanding of what it can mean to be religious and to lead a spiritual life. In particular, we have discovered that, at the core of all the major religions, there exists a current of mystical teachings which, when compared to one another, exhibit a startling degree of cross-cultural agreement.
What's especially interesting about these mystical teachings is their epistemology, which in many respects resembles that of science. For instance, while mystics recognize that faith is, indeed, a significant part of a spiritual path, they also maintain that faith alone is not enough. In fact, according to the mystics, if faith solidifies into dogmatic belief, it will actually become an obstacle to further progress. As Simone Weil wrote: "In what concerns divine things, belief is not fitting. Only certainty will do."4 It was out of this same concern that his disciples not rest on mere faith that the Buddha admonished them:This is also why Sufis (the mystics of Islam) who have reached the end of their path are called al-muhaqqiqun, which means "verifiers." They, too, have examined the teachings and verified their truth for themselves.
Moreover, just as science incorporates a well-defined methodology for testing its theories, so do mystical traditions. Thus, while scientific theories can be verified by observation made within the context of various kinds of physical experiments, mystical teachings can be verified by insights gained within the context of various kinds of spiritual practices. In fact, engaging in such practices is considered essential in mystical traditions, because, as the anonymous author of the Christian Cloud of Unknowing warned: "you will not really understand all this until your own contemplative experience confirms it."6
In Mysticism, then, we find a type of spirituality which has close epistemological parallels to science—a spirituality that begins with faith but ends in a certainty which each of us can and must discover in our own practice. Thus, for seekers who cannot accept religious doctrines on faith alone, the recovery and dissemination of these mystical teachings is good news, indeed.
In the field of science, the last hundred years has wrought a revolution that has been, quite literally, world-shattering. The revolution we are talking about is quantum physics, and the "world" it shattered was the materialist world which the older classical physics seemed to support. Here is how Werner Heisenberg, one of quantum physics' founders, describes it: "Quantum theory has led the physicists far away from the simple materialistic views that prevailed in the natural science of the nineteenth century."7 In short, materialism is no longer a scientifically tenable paradigm.
This, too, is good news for modern spiritual seekers who cannot ignore the evidence of science. The fact that quantum physics has rendered the materialist paradigm scientifically untenable means that an otherwise insurmountable barrier to a rapprochement between science and religion (at least in its mystical aspect) has been removed. And while quantum physics does not "prove" mystical teachings (as some overly eager enthusiasts have claimed), the fundamental reality which it describes is not at all incompatible with the fundamental reality testified to by the mystics.
One example of this can be seen in the similarity between the modes of description which both scientists and mystics have been forced to adopt. In order to give a complete account of the properties of physical systems, quantum physicists have had to resort to a paradoxical form of expression called complementarity. For instance, sub-atomic phenomena can be thought of both as "waves" and as "particles." As Heisenberg points out, however, these two concepts are:
...mutually exclusive, because a certain thing cannot at the same time be a particle (i.e., a substance confined to a very small volume) and a wave (i.e., a field spread out over a large space), but the two[taken together] complement each other.8
The discovery of such ontological points of convergence between science and mysticism is intellectually very exciting. Not only does it abolish our philosophical schizophrenia, it also holds out the possibility of creating a sacred worldview in which both science and mysticism would be seen as distinct yet complementary ways of exploring the same underlying reality. The importance of this task for establishing a future global civilization on genuine spiritual and moral values cannot be over-estimated.
Here, however, a word of caution is in order. For even if the rapprochement between science and mysticism does, indeed, lead to a new worldview, there still is, and always will be, one big, big difference between them.
The truths which science yields are conceptual truths, arrived at through a combination of thinking and experiencing. As such, they are also and inevitably relative truths, subject to revision and change as our thoughts and experiences change.
But the Truth to which mystics bear witness is an Absolute Truth—one which, as the Hindu sage, Shankara, says, "is beyond the grasp of the senses,"14 and which, Ibn `Arabi writes, "cannot be arrived at by the intellect by means of any rational thought process."15 This Absolute Truth can only be known through a third mode of cognition—called variously Enlightenment, Realization, or Gnosis—which transcends both thinking and experiencing. In fact, it is precisely our ordinary ways of thinking and experiencing that veil this Truth from us, for as Buddhist master, Huang Po, writes:Blinded by their own sight, hearing, feeling and knowing, they do not perceive the spiritual brilliance of the source substance. If they would only eliminate all conceptual thought in a flash, that source-substance would manifest itself like the sun ascending through the void and illuminating the whole universe without hindrance or bounds.16
I stress this because there are quite a few seekers out there today who think that discovering mystical Truth is simply a matter of "shifting your paradigm," or learning a "new worldview." And while it is certainly valuable to examine your worldview and to investigate new paradigms, it is also crucial to remember that, no matter how revolutionary a worldview may seem, or how compatible with mysticism a paradigm may be, worldviews and paradigms always remain conceptual constructs. But the Absolute Truth revealed by Gnosis lies beyond all concepts, all paradigms, and all worldviews, whatsoever!
So, if you want to know this Truth, you must finally let go of all your thoughts and all your experiences. You must allow yourself to sink beneath this whole transitory stream of mental and sensory phenomena into that Ocean of Silence at the Heart of the World. For it is only when you are completely lost and dissolved in the shoreless depths of this Ocean that Gnosis can burst forth like a bolt of lightning, "which lights up the sky from one end to the other,"20 and makes the Truth as plain to you "as an amalka fruit held in the palm of your hand."21
May all of you Realize this Fruit for yourselves!
Gnosis is the common Greek noun for knowledge (γνῶσις, gnōsis, f.). The term is used in various Hellenistic religions and philosophies. It is best known from Gnosticism, where it signifies a knowledge or insight into humanity’s real nature as divine, leading to the deliverance of the divine spark within humanity from the constraints of earthly existence
Gnosis is a feminine Greek noun which means "knowledge". It is often used for personal knowledge compared with intellectual knowledge (εἶδειν eídein), as with the French connaître compared with savoir, the Spanish conocer compared with saber, or the German kennen rather than wissen.
A related term is the adjective gnostikos, "cognitive", a reasonably common adjective in Classical Greek. Plato uses the plural adjective γνωστικοί – gnostikoi and the singular feminine adjective γνωστικὴ ἐπιστήμη – gnostike episteme in his Politikos where Gnostike episteme was also used to indicate one's aptitude. The terms do not appear to indicate any mystic, esoteric or hidden meaning in the works of Plato, but instead expressed a sort of higher intelligence and ability analogous to talent.
Plato The Statesman 258e
3/10/2019 ; Both videos above ,I find interesting. | <urn:uuid:59cb04c6-a26b-4690-91af-4fe66fe73587> | CC-MAIN-2019-39 | https://michaelemeryart.zohosites.com/entering-into-the-state-of-mystic.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514572934.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20190916200355-20190916222355-00130.warc.gz | en | 0.948179 | 2,447 | 2.75 | 3 |
EE Digital Electronics/Lecture Karnaugh Map Reductions
The Karnaugh map, also known as a Veitch diagram (K-map or KV-map for short), is a tool to facilitate management of Boolean algebraic expressions. A Karnaugh map is unique in that only one variable changes value between squares, in other words, the rows and columns are ordered according to the principles of Gray code.
History and nomenclature
Usage in boolean logic
Normally, extensive calculations are required to obtain the minimal expression of a Boolean function, but one can use a Karnaugh map instead.
Problem solving uses
- Karnaugh maps make use of the human brain's excellent pattern-matching capability to decide which terms should be combined to get the simplest expression.
- K-maps permit the rapid identification and elimination of potential race hazards, something that boolean equations alone cannot do.
- A Karnaugh map is an excellent aid for simplification of up to six variables, but with more variables it becomes hard even for our brain to discern optimal patterns.
- For problems involving more than six variables, solving the boolean expressions is more preferred than the Karnaugh map.
Karnaugh maps also help teach about Boolean functions and minimization.
A Karnaugh map may have any number of variables, but usually works best when there are only a few - between 2 and 6 for example. Each variable contributes two possibilities to each possibility of every other variable in the system. Karnaugh maps are organized so that all the possibilities of the system are arranged in a grid form and between two adjacent boxes only one variable can change value. This is what allows it to reduce hazards.
When using a Karnaugh map to derive a minimized function, one "covers" the ones on the map by rectangular "coverings" that contain a number of boxes equal to a power of 2 (for example, 4 boxes in a line, 4 boxes in a square, 8 boxes in a rectangle, etc). All of the ones must be covered and a covering cannot have a zero in it. Once a person has covered the ones, a term of a sum of products is produced by finding the variables that do not change throughout the entire covering, and taking a 1 to mean that variable and a 0 as the complement of that variable. Doing this for every covering gives you a matching function.
One can also use zeros to derive a minimized function. The procedure is identical to the procedure for ones except that each term is a term in a product of sums - and a 1 means the complement of the variable while 0 means the variable non-complemented.
Each square in a Karnaugh map corresponds to a minterm (and maxterm). The picture to the right shows the location of each minterm on the map.
Size of map
In a Karnaugh map with variables, a Boolean term mentioning of them will have a corresponding rectangle of area . Common sized maps are of 2 variables which is a 2x2 map; 3 variables which is a 2x4 map; and 4 variables which is a 4x4 map (shown below).
Consider the following function of four variables (which, in binary, has a maximum number of combinations of 16):
The values inside lists the minterms to map (i.e., which rows have output 1 in the truth table).
Using the defined minterms, the truth table can be created:
The input variables can be combined in 16 different ways, so our Karnaugh map has to have 16 positions. The most convenient way to arrange this is in a 4x4 grid.
The binary digits in the map represent the function's output for any given combination of inputs. We write 0 in the upper leftmost corner of the map because when , , , . Similarly we mark the bottom right corner as 1 because , , , gives . Note that the values are ordered in a Gray code, so that precisely one variable flips between any pair of adjacent cells.
After the Karnaugh map has been constructed our next task is to find the minimal terms to use in the final expression. These terms are found by encircling groups of 1's in the map. The encirclings must be rectangular and must have an area that is a power of two (i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8, …). The rectangles should be as large as possible without containing any 0's. The optimal encirclings in this map are marked by the green, red and blue lines.
For each of these encirclings we find those variables that have the same state in each of the fields in the encircling. For the first encircling (the red one) we find that:
- The variable maintains the same state (1) in the whole encircling, therefore it should be included in the term for the red encircling.
- Variable does not maintain the same state (it shifts from 1 to 0), and should therefore be excluded.
- does not change: it is always 0.
Thus the first term in the Boolean expression is .
For the green encircling we see that and maintain the same state, but and change. is 0 and has to be negated before it can be included. Thus the second term is .
In the same way, the blue rectangle gives the term and so the whole expression is: .
The grid is toroidally connected, which means that the rectangles can wrap around edges, so is a valid term, although not part of the minimal set — this covers minterms 8, 10, 12, & 14.
Perhaps the hardest-to-visualize wrap-around term is which covers the four corners — this covers minterms 0, 2, 8, 10.
The inverse of a function is solved in the same way by encircling the 0's instead.
The three terms to cover the inverse are all shown with grey boxes with different colored borders:
- brown —
- gold —
- blue —
This yields the inverse:
Karnaugh maps also allow easy minimizations of functions whose truth tables include "don't care" conditions (that is sets of inputs for which the designer doesn't care what the output is) because "don't care" conditions can be included in a ring to make it larger but do not have to be ringed. They are usually indicated on the map with a hyphen/dash/X in place of the number. The value can be a "0," "1," or the hyphen/dash/X depending on if one can use the "0" or "1" to simplify the KM more. If the "don't cares" don't help you simplify the KM more, then use the hyphen/dash/X.
The example to the right is the same above example but with minterm 15 dropped and replaced as a don't care. This allows the red term to expand all the way down and, thus, removes the green term completely. This does impact the blue inverse term and must be restricted by .
This yields the new minimum equation:
Note that the first term is just not . In this case, the don't care has dropped a term (the green); simplified another (the red); and removed the race hazard (the yellow as shown in a following section).
Karnaugh maps are useful for detecting and eliminating race hazards. They are very easy to spot using a Karnaugh map, because a race condition may exist when moving between any pair of adjacent, but disjointed, regions circled on the map.
- In the above example, a potential race condition exists when C is 1 and D is 0, A is 1, and B changes from 1 to 0 (moving from the blue state to the green state). For this case, the output is defined to remain unchanged at 1, but because this transition is not covered by a specific term in the equation, a potential for a glitch (a momentary transition of the output to 0) exists.
- A harder possible glitch to spot is when D is 0 and A and B are both 1, with C changing from 1 to 0 (moving from the blue state to the red state). In this case the glitch wraps around from the top of the map to the bottom.
Whether these glitches do occur depends on the physical nature of the implementation, and whether we need to worry about it depends on the application.
In this case, an additional term of would eliminate the potential race hazard, bridging between the green and blue output states or blue and red output states: this is shown as the yellow region.
The term is redundant in terms of the static logic of the system, but such redundant, or consensus terms, are often needed to assure race-free dynamic performance.
2 variable maps
The following are all the possible 2 variable, 2x2 Karnaugh maps. Listed with each is the minterms as a function of and the race hazard free (see previous section) minimum equation.
Problems with Karnaugh maps
Karnaugh maps generally become more cluttered and hard to interpret when adding more variables. A general rule is that Karnaugh maps work well for up to four variables, and shouldn't be used at all for more than six variables. For expressions with larger numbers of variables, the Quine-McCluskey algorithm can be used. Nowadays in general the minimization process is carried out by computer, for which the Espresso heuristic logic minimizer has become the standard minimization program.
- List of Boolean algebra topics
- Venn diagram
- Quine-McCluskey algorithm
- Espresso heuristic logic minimizer
- Karnaugh maps (above) should not be confused with Carnot cycle graphs for heat engines.
- Karnaugh Map Software - Freeware tool for Karnaugh maps.
- Java applet for solving five-variable Karnaugh maps.
- Karma (Karnaugh Map Software)
- Browser based Karnaugh Map software
- Karnaugh Maps - a worked example
- Open source Karnaugh Maps minimization software
- Deriving a formula using Karnaugh Maps to determine if rectangles can overlap, an in-depth article by Herbert Glarner
- Free Palm-based Software: Boolean Function Simplification Tool v1.0
- Karnaugh, Maurice (November 1953). "The Map Method for Synthesis of Combinational Logic Circuits". Transactions of American Institute of Electrical Engineers part I 72 (9): 593-599.
- Katz, Randy (1994). Contemporary Logic Design. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. pp. 70-85. doi:10.1016/0026-2692(95)90052-7. ISBN 0-8053-2703-7. | <urn:uuid:a32c280f-923c-485a-a3f5-6743ac5505c7> | CC-MAIN-2017-09 | https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/EE_Digital_Electronics/Lecture_Karnaugh_Map_Reductions | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-09/segments/1487501172017.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20170219104612-00143-ip-10-171-10-108.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.886343 | 2,223 | 3.453125 | 3 |
By PATRICIA SZPEKOWSKI
Chicago is a city of many unique neighborhoods reflecting the diversity of its residents. Each one has its own identity and a unique name, such as Hyde Park, Wrigleyville, the Gold Coast, Chinatown, and Back of the Yards.
Another highly regarded community, the Pullman Historic District, is located on the far South Side of the city. This multi-cultural and vibrant neighborhood is steeped in Chicago’s rich cultural history and has achieved a hallmark significant status. In 2015, President Barack Obama returned to the city he called home and officially declared the Pullman neighborhood’s historic district as a U.S. National Monument — a first recognition of its kind in Chicago. With its designation as the Pullman National Monument District, it has become a part of the National Park System.
To understand the significance the Pullman Historic District has had on our nation’s history, here’s a look back to the beginnings of this unique neighborhood.
The City of Chicago was founded in 1830 and following the Great Chicago Fire of October 1871, the city began to rebuild and expand at a rapid rate. It produced many business legends and tycoons who are known far and wide, such as Potter Palmer, Philip Armour, Marshall Field, Frank Winfield Woolworth, and Aaron Montgomery Ward.
George M. Pullman, an engineer and industrialist, is also on that list and is regarded as one of Chicago’s most notorious entrepreneurs and innovators in its early history. Born in Brockton, New York, Pullman moved to Chicago and he built a burgeoning career.
He created the Pullman Palace Car Company, which manufactured railroad sleeping cars, during the boom time of railroads in the United States. To build his company and attract skilled workers, Pullman devised a model town for his workers, the first of its kind in the nation. In 1880 with wide open spaces and prairie as a blank canvas to build, construction of his Pullman community began. It was located near big city markets of the day and, importantly, the railroad connections which spread from Chicago and throughout the entire country.
The project, which was one of the first applications of industrial technology and mass construction of a large-scale community, consisted of an assortment of over 1,000 different homes, row houses, and public buildings. This model neighborhood was to yield the Pullman company greater productivity. Employees were housed in dwellings that provided gas and water, access to sanitary facilities, abundant sunlight and fresh air. These amenities were to boost better health, morale, and an exclusive working environment; a formula for success.
Many of the Pullman homes still stand today and Pullman residents open their homes to the public in October every year. The 45th Annual Pullman House Tour, sponsored by the Pullman Civic Organization and the Historic Pullman Foundation, will feature seven homes on Friday, October 6 and Saturday, October 7, 2018 from 11:00am to 5:00pm.
These 120-year old landmark homes epitomize the history and charm of the Pullman experience. The homes represent the cross section of the different types of housing in Pullman and the many distinctive ways in which homeowners have blended the past with the present through restored interiors and tasteful modern renovations.
The announcement of Pullman’s landmark status has increased the confidence of the community in its stability and growth. Several companies have invested in the area unveiling new manufacturing plants resulting in economic revitalization in the neighborhood.
Method, a pioneer of premium plant-friendly and design-driven home, fabric, and personal care products, chose the Pullman neighborhood for its first manufacturing facility. Designed by William McDonough + Partners and built in 2015, this state-of-the-art factory is the world’s first and only LEED Platinum certified manufacturing plant in its industry. It features a refurbished wind turbine, solar panel installations, large amounts of natural light throughout the factory, and native land renewal across its 22 acres.
During the same year, the local produce brand and urban ag pioneer, Gotham Greens, opened its largest and most technologically advanced greenhouse to date on top of Method’s soap factory. Gotham Greens’ 2-acre rooftop greenhouse represents the ‘World’s largest rooftop farm’ and spans 75,000 square-feet. The facility runs o of 100% renewable electricity and uses 90% less water than traditional farms while producing more than 10 million heads of leafy greens and herbs year-round for local restaurants and retailers.
Something else is brewing in the area! The father and son team of Bob and Patrick Jensen of Argus Brewery have carefully brewed premium crafted beers, such as English, German, British, and Polish style lagers, pilsners, and ales. The brewery is housed in the historic Joseph E. Schlitz location, which dates back to the early 1900s.
Argus Brewery prides itself on being a good neighbor and highlights green initiatives to reduce energy and waste by exploring the use of solar collectors to heat the water for the brewing process. 90 minute pre-scheduled brewery tours are offered to the public, which include samples of the latest Argus brews in a commemorative pint glass.
Area residents are looking forward to the fall opening of a new sprawling 135,000 square-foot community center in the Pullman and adjoining Roseland neighborhoods. It will offer year-round sports with three indoor playing fields and surfaces for basketball, volleyball, soccer, baseball, and football. There will be flexible space for educational and cultural programming, community events, exhibitions, classrooms, and tournaments. This $20 million center will be the largest such facility of its kind in Illinois. It will annually employ as many as 100 full- and part-time employees, seasonal employees, coaches, instructors, and management.
Visit the vibrant and active Pullman neighborhood at your own pace with self-guided walking tours. Guided tours are available to the public on the first Sunday of the month from May to October. The Pullman National Monument Information Center is open Tuesday through Sunday and closed on Monday.
Jeanne Schulman serves as the group tour coordinator. Four generations of her family have lived in this community. “Even though we are in Chicago, there’s a small town feel here,” she said. “To me, it’s all about the people. My father was known as ‘Big Strong John the Blacksmith’ for over 25 years.”
For those living and working in the area, the neighborhood is composed of a microcosm of economically, socially, and racially diverse people. It’s a place that melds pride of the past and present and looks to a future filled with promise.
In 1894, the Pullman Strike changed history by protecting and advancing workers’ rights and ushering in unionization across the U.S. When the Pullman Company refused to listen to workers’ grievances, there was a massive employee boycott. The American Railway Union and its leader, Eugene Debs, became involved by boycotting Pullman cars and refusing to move them on the rails. It resulted in a showdown.
As rail service and the movement of U.S. mail was disrupted, an injunction — the first in U.S. history — against the Union was made by President Grover Cleveland. Federal troops were sent to end the strike and Debs was sent to jail for violating the injunction. When the dust settled, a new era of minimum wage and overtime pay was established. Cleveland also named a new national holiday, Labor Day, to honor the American worker. | <urn:uuid:7af89ce9-3ba3-43a2-a05f-a0a394ec5858> | CC-MAIN-2020-16 | https://www.airchicagomagazine.com/historicpullman | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-16/segments/1585370526982.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200404231315-20200405021315-00197.warc.gz | en | 0.965649 | 1,580 | 2.921875 | 3 |
19 April 1919: Captain Earl French White, Air Service, United States Army, and H.M. Schaffer, “his mechanician,” took off from Ashburn Aviation Field, Chicago, Illinois, at 9:50 a.m, Central Standard Time, in the Dayton-Wright DH-4, Air Service serial number A.S. 30130. At 5:40 p.m., Eastern Standard Time, the airplane and its two-man crew landed at Hazelhurst Field, Mineola, Long Island, New York. They flew 738.6 miles (1,188.7 kilometers) in 6 hours, 50 minutes at an average speed of approximately 106 miles per hour (170.6 kilometers per hour).
The New York Times reported the event on its front page on the following day:
. . . Captain White had great difficulty in taking to the air in the soft ground of Ashburn Field, the take-off grounds approved by the Aero Club of Illinois. The ground there was soft and the heavy army plane, with her load of more than 190 gallons [719.2 liters] of gasoline, cut into it deeply, but after the aviator had had his plane dragged to a drier and harder spot in the field he managed to take to the air.
Circling over Chicago, Captain White ascended to a height of more than 10,000 feet [3,048 meters] and throughout his flight he did not go below this level until he was ready to land, and at intervals he flew as high as 12,000 feet [3,658 meters] He followed the route of the New York Central Railroad for the greater part of the distance, and cities along the route reported seeing him flying at great height and at high speed.
About 5 o’clock yesterday persons visiting on the ships of the Atlantic Fleet in the Hudson River and pedestrians on Riverside Drive saw a dark blue airplane come down from the north at high speed, turn sharply to the east when it was about opposite Fiftieth Street and then gradually came to a lower level as it circled about over the city.
All thought it was only one of the many airplanes and seaplanes that take their daily practice flights over the Hudson River and Manhattan Island, but it was Captain White and the first Chicago-New York non-stop airplane, bearing the army number 30,130.
Plane a Standard Army Machine.
After sailing over the city for about ten minutes, Captain White turned his machine toward the army aviation field at Mineola, where he landed at about 5:40 o’clock. Colonel Archibald Miller, Director of Aviation in the Department of the East and one of the commanders of the Hazelhurst Field, was waiting there to meet captain White and his mechanician, H.M. Schaefer, and they were taken to the field headquarters where an informal reception was held.
Officers at the Hazelhurst Field said that the biplane used by Captain White in his flight was one of the standard De Havilland Four machines constructed for the use of the army in France, and that it was equipped with a twelve-cylinder Liberty motor of about 400 horsepower.
— The New York Times, 20 April 1919, Page 1, Column 4, and continued on Page 9.
Captain White’s flight was observed by members of the Aero Club of America. The time of White’s departure from Chicago was telegraphed to New York. The flight was certified by the Aero Club, which represented the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) within the United States. This was the first non-stop flight between Chicago and New York, and was the longest non-stop flight that had been made anywhere in the world up to that time.
The Dayton-Wright Airplane Company DH-4 was a variant of the British Airco DH.4, designed by Geoffrey de Havilland (and commonly known as the de Havilland DH.4). It was a two-place, single-engine biplane intended as a bomber, but served in virtually every capacity during World War I and the years following.
American-built DH.4 airplanes were produced by the Boeing Airplane Company, Dayton-Wright Airplane Company, Fisher Body Corporation, and Standard Aircraft Corporation. Most were powered by the Liberty L12 engine. Following World War I, many DH-4s were rebuilt by Boeing and Atlantic Aircraft. An improved version, the DH-4M, used a tubular steel framework instead of the usual wood construction. DH-4s remained in service with the United States Army as late as 1932. At McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio, the U.S. Army’s aviation engineering center, DH-4s were commonly used as test beds for engines and other aeronautical equipment.
The Airco DH.4 had a crew of two. It was 30 feet, 8 inches (9.347 meters) long with a wingspan of 43 feet, 4 inches (13.208 meters) and height of 11 feet (3.353 meters). Empty weight was 2,387 pounds (1,085 kilograms) and loaded weight was 3,472 pounds (1,578 kilograms). British-built DH.4s were powered by a 1,239-cubic-inch-displacement (20.32 liter) liquid-cooled Rolls-Royce Eagle overhead cam 60° V-12 engine which produced 375 horsepower. A gear-reduction system kept propeller r.p.m. below engine speed for greater efficiency.
The Liberty L12 aircraft engine was designed by Jesse G. Vincent of the Packard Motor Car Company and Elbert J. Hall of the Hall-Scott Motor Company. It was a water-cooled, normally-aspirated, 1,649.336-cubic-inch-displacement (27.028 liter) Liberty L-12 single overhead cam (SOHC) 45° V-12 engine with a compression ratio of 5.4:1. The Liberty produced 408 horsepower at 1,800 r.p.m. The L-12 as a right-hand tractor, direct-drive engine and it turned turned a two-bladed fixed-pitch wooden propeller. The Liberty 12 was 5 feet, 7.375 inches (1.711 meters) long, 2 feet, 3.0 inches (0.686 meters) wide, and 3 feet, 5.5 inches (1.054 meters) high. It weighed 844 pounds (383 kilograms). This engine was produced by Ford Motor Company, as well as the Buick and Cadillac Divisions of General Motors, The Lincoln Motor Company (which was formed by Henry Leland, the former manager of Cadillac, specifically to manufacture these aircraft engines), Marmon Motor Car Company and Packard. Hall-Scott was too small to produce engines in the numbers required.
Dayton-Wright DH-4, U.S. Army Air Service serial number A.S. 30130, was built at the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company factory in 1918. It was used for engineering tests at McCook Field, and carried project number P78 painted on its rudder. What became of the airplane after Captain White left it at Hazelhurst Field is not known.
Hazelhurst Field was renamed Roosevelt Field in 1920, in honor of Lieutenant Quentin Roosevelt, 95th Aero Squadron, son of former President Theodore Roosevelt, who was killed in aerial combat during World War I.
Earl French White was born at Minneapolis, Minnesota, 12 July 1888. He was the son of Clarence Otis White, a manufacturing engineer, and Harriet (“Hattie”) Isabel French White. He enlisted in the United States Army, 8 October 1910, and was assigned to the 11th Cavalry Regiment at Fort Myer, Virginia. In 1915 he transferred to the Aviation Section, Signal Corps. He completed flight training 27 March 1917.
Earl French White was commissioned as a Captain, Aviation Section, Signal Corps, United States Army, on 8 November 1917, and qualified as a Reserve Military Aviator in January 1918. In August 1918, Captain White was assigned to Wilbur Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, and later, the Technical Flying Field in Dayton.
On 1 July 1919, Captain White was one of three pilots who flew the inaugural U.S Air Mail Service route from New York City, New York, to Chicago, Illinois. Captain White flew a DH-4 on the route segment from Bellefonte, Pennsylvania, to Cleveland, Ohio. He carried 6 pouches containing 330 pounds (150 kilograms) of mail, and arrived at Cleveland at 9:30 a.m.
Earl French White married Miss Mary Esther Edmondson at Sarasota, Florida, 26 February 1923. Miss Edmondson had served in France during World War I as a civilian aide with the American Red Cross. They would have a daughter, Patricia.
From 14 April 1923 to 30 June 1925, White flew for the U.S. Air Mail Service at Bellefonte, Pennsylvania, North Platte and Omaha, Nebraska, and Cheyenne, Wyoming. He flew scheduled night air mail from July 1924 to July 1925.
From 1928 to 1931, Earl White was a pilot for Pan American Airways in the Caribbean area.
In 1935, White was employed by William Kissam Vanderbilt II to fly his Sikorsky S-43 amphibian, NC-16825. Vanderbilt described White as “one of the most reliable and resourceful aviators in the game.”
As of 11 February 1937, White had logged a total of 5,370 hours, 50 minutes, of flight time.
During World War II, White was employed as a delivery pilot for the Consolidated Aircraft Corporation.
© 2018, Bryan R. Swopesby | <urn:uuid:e642b3e9-bec8-4f59-b4df-fa8ad402d158> | CC-MAIN-2019-04 | https://www.thisdayinaviation.com/tag/dayton-wright-dh-4/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583705091.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20190120082608-20190120104608-00030.warc.gz | en | 0.967234 | 2,042 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Mayo Clinic Q&A
DEAR MAYO CLINIC: My mother is in her 70s and was just diagnosed with metabolic syndrome. Is this just another name for diabetes? What will she need for treatment?
ANSWER: Metabolic syndrome and diabetes are not the same, but the two are related. When a person is diagnosed with metabolic syndrome, it means he or she has several conditions that, if left untreated, significantly raise the risk for developing diabetes. Metabolic syndrome also increases the risk for heart and blood vessel problems. Treatment for metabolic syndrome typically focuses on healthy lifestyle changes.
Although the specific definition health care providers use may vary somewhat, metabolic syndrome generally includes having three or more of the following characteristics: a large waistline, a high triglyceride level, low HDL cholesterol (also called “good” cholesterol), high blood pressure, and blood sugar that is higher than normal, but not high enough to qualify as diabetes.
High blood sugar is the hallmark sign of diabetes. When a blood sample is taken after a person fasts overnight and blood sugar measures 80 to 100 milligrams per deciliter, or mg/dL, that level is considered normal. A fasting blood sugar measurement of 126 mg/dL or higher on two separate tests is considered diabetes. The range between the two — 100 to 125 mg/dL — is referred to as prediabetes. The blood sugar level of people who have metabolic syndrome often falls into the prediabetes range.
After a diagnosis of metabolic syndrome, the first step in treatment usually involves making lifestyle changes. Many people who have metabolic syndrome are overweight. Getting to and staying at a healthy weight can make a big difference in reducing the risk of health problems associated with metabolic syndrome.
Losing weight may help lower blood pressure, blood sugar and triglyceride levels. It also can help reduce waist size. That’s important because studies have shown that carrying a lot of weight around your abdomen raises the risk of developing diabetes, heart disease and other complications of metabolic syndrome. To reduce the risk, doctors generally recommend a waistline of less than 35 inches for women and less than 40 inches for men.
Regular exercise can help with weight loss, as well as improve some of the medical concerns associated with metabolic syndrome. A good goal is thirty minutes or more every day of activity that is moderately intense, such as brisk walking, swimming or biking.
Healthy eating is a crucial component of treatment for metabolic syndrome. Encourage your mother to talk with her doctor or to a dietitian about the right diet for her situation. Two diets that are often recommended for people with metabolic syndrome include the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet and the Mediterranean diet. Similar to many healthy-eating plans, these diets limit unhealthy fats and focus on fruits, vegetables, fish and whole grains. Beyond weight loss, studies have shown that both diets offer important health benefits for people who have components of metabolic syndrome.
Finally, if your mother smokes, it’s very important that she stop. Smoking cigarettes can make many of the health complications of metabolic syndrome worse. It also can significantly raise the risk for other illnesses and diseases. If needed, your mother’s doctor can work with her to help her stop smoking and connect her with other resources to support her as she quits.
If lifestyle changes are not enough to control metabolic syndrome, medication also may be part of the treatment plan. Medicine to control blood pressure, manage triglycerides and lower blood sugar can be useful in treating some cases of metabolic syndrome. — Robert Rizza, M.D., Endocrinology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. | <urn:uuid:c33f901f-b3ec-41d6-8d88-6f952146c2fc> | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://chicagohealthonline.com/metabolic-syndrome-and-diabetes-related-but-not-the-same/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446711344.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20221208150643-20221208180643-00689.warc.gz | en | 0.948672 | 749 | 3.390625 | 3 |
Dewdney’s newest Llama Llama picture book delivers a lesson in social skills to its camelid protagonist and its young readers, too.
When the brand-new (gnu) neighbors come to visit, Llama Llama’s mother prompts him to befriend Nelly Gnu while she serves up tea for Mrs. Gnu and her babe in arms. Seeming rather leery about his mother’s admonition, “…don’t forget to share,” Llama Llama leads his playmate over to his toys. All goes well enough until she starts playing with his prized Fuzzy Llama doll—without his permission. A tug of war ensues, and the doll ends up with a ripped-off appendage. Luckily, Mama Llama is not only a good hostess, she’s also handy with a needle and thread. Both mothers prompt their young ones to apologize to one another, and Fuzzy Llama is left on the step until they are ready to share. All’s well that ends well, and after playing happily with other toys, they do end up sharing Fuzzy Llama, and the visit ends with them as fast friends looking forward to their next play date. While the rhyming text comes across as rather forced or twee in places, bright, cheery illustrations match the positive, easy tone of the story with its easily resolved conflict.
A solid addition to the popular series for toddlers and preschoolers. (Picture book. 2-4) | <urn:uuid:06e3f2cf-fb2e-44fd-9ca7-8e47de59dab4> | CC-MAIN-2016-22 | https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/anna-dewdney/llama-llama-time-share/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-22/segments/1464049277313.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160524002117-00056-ip-10-185-217-139.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958976 | 318 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Prix Gaïa 2001 – George Daniels. Craftsmanship-Creation category
He was honored for his technical, scientific and historical career as well as his literature and innovations that have conferred modern watchmaking a universal dimension.
- The Art of Breguet, London, 1975
- Production of mechanical watches with complications.
- Creation of the co-axial escapement.
Enthralled by watch mechanisms since a young age, George Daniels did not get the opportunity to undertake a watchmaking apprenticeship due to the financial situation of his family and historical circumstances. At 18 years old in 1944, he joined the British army. While he carried out his patriotic duty for three and a half years, he also practiced his passion for watchmaking on his own and repaired watches and clocks for others.
Together with his pay as a soldier, the additional income helped him save money to buy the tools he wanted when he retired from the army. For three years, he took night classes in the theory and mathematics of watchmaking.
He then founded a repair and restoration company of antique and modern watches and clocks. Soon after that, he contacted Breguet, on Place Vendôme in Paris and the then-manager, George Brown. He was then introduced to the one who became his “master” in watchmaking. He restored two three-wheel pendulums based on Abraham-Louis Breguet's designs that were kept in the company's archives.
In 1967, he took the decision to start producing his own watches with the famous 18th-century watchmaker as inspiration. To pay tribute to the great master watchmaker, he wrote the remarkable book named “L'Art de Breguet”. It was filled with 350 illustrations and 110 designs and was published in London in 1975. The advent of quartz watches strengthened his will to produce high mechanical watches and develop new mechanisms. He analyzed the design of a new escapement in an endeavor to confer even more accuracy to his timepieces. His research led him to the creation of the co-axial escapement which he believed increased accuracy and required minimum maintenance since no lubricant was necessary. The escapement is currently manufactured by Omega and features in some of the brand's models.
Throughout his career, Daniels has designed around thirty pocket watches with complications: minute repeaters, astronomical watches, chronographs, perpetual calendars, thermometers, power reserve indicators, tourbillons among others. Together with a technical complexity, their other defining feature was their aesthetics that was inspired by Abraham-Louis Breguet's models.
George Daniels' career is interspersed with several awards and it is worth mentioning that he obtained an honorary doctorate from the University of London.
To celebrate the beginning of the third millennium, Georges Daniels produced 50 watches with an automatic calendar and a co-axial escapement in his workshops. Moreover, he continued his work that always had a touch of his passion for watchmaking. | <urn:uuid:ef2307ff-7c1a-4c21-b6aa-d307c1db14d3> | CC-MAIN-2019-39 | https://www.watchonista.com/articles/history/prix-gaia-2001-george-daniels-craftsmanship-creation-category | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514572436.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20190915215643-20190916001643-00011.warc.gz | en | 0.983234 | 616 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Aquatic life requires a minimum level of dissolved oxygen present in the water for survival. When dissolved oxygen is below this critical level for organisms, fish and wildlife are harmed as a result. Some aquatic organisms, such as catfish, can survive when the concentration of dissolved oxygen is below 5.0 mg/L; however most, such as salmon, will suffer or perish.
Dissolved oxygen in the water column is influenced by re-aeration (photosynthesis, or adding oxygen to the water by phytoplankton; or physical processes such as waterfalls, or wind), and deoxygenation (respiration by microbiological organisms, or elevated water temperature).
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), or the demand of oxygen by bacteria, is a widely used parameter for biodegradable organic matter in the aquatic environment. The common BOD test lasts five days. This five-day standard dates back to the inception of the test in the late 19th century, and the belief that it took five days for the River Thames to flow from London to the sea. At that time, sewage was released directly into the River Thames, which unfortunately worked its way back upstream during high tides.
Aerobic (oxygen consuming) bacteria metabolize rich organic matter (sewage, decaying plants and organisms), and deplete the water column of the dissolved oxygen. The organic matter is a readily available food source for cell maintenance and synthesis of new cell tissue.
COHNS + O2 + bacteria → CO2 + H2O + NH3 + other end products + energy
Because nitrogen (N) is also a product of respiration, it too can influence the BOD result. Two genera of bacteria, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter, will oxidize the ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-), respectively. Typically, this takes more time than the 5-day BOD test (generally 6-10 days), but it can artificially increase the BOD result (Figure 1). For this reason, an inhibitor can be added by the laboratory upon request that suppresses the nitrification process, providing a carbonaceous BOD (CBOD) result.
Figure 1. Increase of oxygen demand by bacteria over time
Controls are set with each day the BOD test is performed. First, the dilution water is checked. It is important to verify that the dilution water added to each sample bottle does not receive an unknown microbial population. The change in DO over the five-day incubation period should be <0.2 mg/L. This is also referred to as the negative control. Second, seed blanks are set. Generally, two to three bottles are set which contain a known amount of seed and dilution water. These bottles are used to quantify the amount of depletion that will occur from the known amount of seed added to each sample bottle. The amount of DO that should be attributed to seed uptake should be between 0.6 and 1.0 mg/L. Third, three bottles are set containing the dilution water, known volume of seed, and a controlled carbon source for the bacteria to consume: glucose-glutamic acid (GGA). The amount of GGA added should produce a known oxygen demand during the five-day incubation period, typically 198 ± 30.5 mg/L. This is also referred to as the positive control. In order for a BOD result to ‘count’, the change in DO over the 5-day incubation period must be >2 mg/L, and the DO value measured on day 5 must be >1 mg/L. If more than one dilution set meets these two requirements, the calculated BOD results are averaged and reported.
Similarly, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), is the demand of oxygen required to reduce dichromate (Cr2O72-, Cr in 6+ oxidation state) to Cr3+. The COD test is more robust than BOD because not all organic matter is readily oxidized by bacteria. Additionally, other chemicals, and inorganic substances in the water can be oxidized by dichromate. This allows for the COD test to be a proxy for BOD (COD>BOD), as long as a ratio between the two tests has been established. The COD analysis produces a more rapid response than the BOD analysis. While the BOD test takes five days to complete, the COD test can be completed in a few hours.
Samples submitted for regulatory compliance must be preserved to pH<2 with sulfuric acid and may be held up to 28 days from collection. Otherwise, Caltest will screen the BOD sample for informational purposes only. A low volume aliquot, 2 mL, is added to a vial containing the dichromate solution and a catalyst, usually mercury. The sample with all quality control checks (negative – laboratory water, positive – a solution known to give a particular response containing potassium hydrogen phthalate) are ‘digested’ on a hot block at 150°C for two hours. The vial is cooled before determining the concentration of the COD by color comparison on a spectrophotometer at a prescribed wavelength. The more the color of the vial changes from orange to green, the greater the COD of the sample.
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) can also be used in place of the COD test; however, it requires the entity responsible for the sample to determine the relationship (ratio) between TOC and BOD. TOC is performed on a sample preserved to pH<2 with acid (usually sulfuric but some instruments can analyze samples preserved with hydrochloric or phosphoric acid)and may be held up to 28 days from collection. It is only a matter of minutes from the time the sample is injected on the instrument to the generated response which makes the analysis faster than COD (but it still takes time to calibrate and verify the instrument runs properly throughout the analytical run to report the data). The TOC analysis converts all available organic carbon in the sample to carbon dioxide (CO2), which is measured by an infrared analyzer. The concentration in the sample is calculated using the response measured by the infrared analyzer and comparing it to the responses generated by a laboratory prepared calibration curve.
American Public Health Association (APHA). 2005. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Pollution Control Federation. 21st Edition, Washington, D.C.
Mayer, J. Richard. Environmental Case Studies. Benjamin/Cummings, 1997.
Mayer, J. Richard. Water Quality: Basic Principles and Experimental Methods. Western Washington University. 1999.
Metcalf & Eddy., George Tchobangoglous, Franklin L. Burton, and H. David Stensel. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse. 4th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2003.
For more information, or a quote, please call us or email firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:2520fee1-95d2-43dc-933f-d2307f7525a9> | CC-MAIN-2021-49 | https://caltestlabs.com/analytical-services/priority-pollutants/bodandcod/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-49/segments/1637964358189.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20211127133237-20211127163237-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.924407 | 1,517 | 3.6875 | 4 |
One aspect of Japanese culture that many feel is under assault is the nuclear family. Japanese divorce rates were fairly low until recently, but there is still a huge stigma surrounding divorcees that parallels American attitudes of the past. Japan in 1970 saw 95,000 divorces, in 1996 206,955 with the rate levelling off in 2000 to around 250,000 divorces a year. This works out to about 25%, about half the rate of present day America. Some feel that with the increasing divorce rate in Japan that the nuclear family concept is breaking down. This is especially true of the retiree divorces whose rate is skyrocketing as Japanese wives wait for their husbands to retire and then divorce them to avoid having to spend all day with a man they barely know and who used to spend 18hrs a day at work. But what are traditional Japanese attitudes towards marriage?
In his book, Divorce in Japan, Harold Feuss describes how high divorce rates are nothing new and for hundreds of years the divorce rate was on par with present rates in America. It wasn’t until Japan started to adopt western values and laws that things began to change. Until the civil code and new laws on family registration was introduced in 1898 marriages involved a “spouse testing period”. There was no stigma attached to multiple marriages and divorces. Once the code was enacted it became much harder to get a divorce. From 1898 to 1960s the divorce rate declined until Japan gained a reputation as a country with super low divorce rates. Fuess cites the family registration code, the rise of Industrialization, urbanization, and modernization of Japan as why the divorce rate lowered. As the Japanese moved to the cities they, “valued economic and social stability in marriage above romance and affection.”
Some critics point to the American meddling in Japanese family law after the war as the reason divorce rates have risen but Fuess disagrees, arguing that divorce procedures “have shown a conspicuous continuity over the past few centuries in the marginal role played by courts in divorce.” The Japanese have always had a “mutual consent divorce” system. 90% of divorces never see the inside of a court and are just registered at city hall.
So while pundits point at the American system as the problem, there is no problem as Japan is just returning to the traditional values of trial marriages it enjoyed for hundreds of years before Japan began to experiment with Western style values.
If you like this then, you should check out more from the “Myths of Japan” series:
|Drugs in Japan Myth||Japan’s Gay culture||Numerology||The American Occupation of Okinawa||Myths of Japan| | <urn:uuid:8f94317e-0735-404c-96ca-1ef8e7c80e11> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | https://gaijinass.com/tag/divorce-in-japan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280723.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00378-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964454 | 553 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Flash glucose monitoring latest concept in testing
New idea easier than self-monitoring and more accurate than continuous monitoring
As anyone with diabetes knows, the process of monitoring glucose levels can be inconvenient at best and painful at worst.
Monitoring levels are important to ensure proper management of the condition and diabetes is eminently manageable if it is done properly. In some cases, glucose monitoring is essential to ensure that people with diabetes do not go into hypoglycaemic shock which can have serious consequences.
However, monitoring has many drawbacks. In many cases it has to be done six or seven times a day. Understandably, busy people forget.
Pricking your finger to draw blood can also be painful no matter how many times it is done. There is a lack of privacy and a lack of time.
Nearly 40 per cent of diabetes patients surveyed across Europe cited forgetting as the chief reason why they do not monitor.
Tired of testing (33 per cent), inconvenience (21 per cent) and pain (16 per cent) were also cited by patients who do not monitor themselves properly.
Small wonder then that 67 per cent of those with type 2 diabetes and 60 per cent of those with type 1 diabetes report diabetes monitoring that falls below the recommended levels.
Currently there are two methods of monitoring.
Self-monitoring, mostly used for people with type 1 diabetes, blood glucose involves extracting a pin prick of blood and should be done six to seven times a day.
Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) was introduced in 1999 and was seen as an improvement on self-monitoring. It involves a disposable sensor, a transmitter and a monitor about the size of a mobile phone.
Glucose readings from the sensor are transmitted to the receiver worn by the patient. It is regarded as an improvement in glucose monitoring and is better at tracking patterns in glucose levels and improves the detection of hypoglycaemia and hyperglycaemia.
It emits an alarm when glucose levels fall too low or rise too high. However, it is estimated that CGM devices may be inaccurate up to 21 per cent of the time. It is also an expensive system and only a small fraction of diabetes patients can use it.
It is widely recognised that there is a gap in the market for more accurate and cost-effective monitoring of diabetes care.
Into that breach has come pharmaceutical company Abbott with a new concept in testing called flash glucose monitoring.
The concept was given a public airing at the recent European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) meeting in Barcelona.
Flash glucose monitoring will involve a small sensor that can be worn on the arm for up to 14 days and a reader to scan glucose readings.
The process would, in theory, be considerably easier than self-monitoring and more accurate than continuous monitoring.
The device will operate simply by means of flashing the sensor with a device about the size of a mobile phone which will provide the person’s ambulatory glucose profile (AGP) which it describes as a “visual snapshot of the [person’s] typical day of blood sugars, trends and patterns”.
The information will be downloadable to a PC or tablet device and will allow patients build up their ambulatory glucose profile (AGP) over time.
The device could make a significant difference to diabetes patients, but it is still at the clinical stage trial.
At Barcelona the company said it expected it to be available by the end of next year.
When asked about the all important question of costs, Abbott’s head of global research and development, Jared Watkin, said the cost was commercially sensitive information but he expected the flash monitor to be widely available over time. | <urn:uuid:083f1897-8111-4ff6-a7dc-9f20d5719055> | CC-MAIN-2015-22 | http://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/health-family/flash-glucose-monitoring-latest-concept-in-testing-1.1568207 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-22/segments/1432207929256.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20150521113209-00224-ip-10-180-206-219.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.95073 | 758 | 2.96875 | 3 |
|This article is a stub.
Please help us by expanding it.
The south-east rule (formerly known as the south-west rule) is an unintentional mechanic in Minecraft wherein various effects occur based on compass rose directions, specifically in a south-east variant. It could be better described as the Z-X rule, as the rule as always acted towards positive Z and positive X.
Effects[edit | edit source]
- Rails will curve south or east when they are initially placed at a "T" intersection or a "+" intersection. They will also curve away from the south or east when powered.
- Mobs being spawned by spawn eggs, spawned by monster spawners, built by the player, and newborn baby animals will always appear to be facing the southern direction.
- TNT cannons tend to fire farther when facing east or south. Designs that don't account for spread also exhibit horizontal drift eastward/southward as well.
- Many bugs cause problems relating to south and east, such as villagers trying to cram into the house that is mostly in the southern-eastern area of the village.
History[edit | edit source]
|1.6||Prevented dispensers from firing arrows, eggs, or snowballs through a solid block right next to the dispenser if the dispenser is facing west or south.|
|1.0.0||Beta 1.9-pre4||Changed the south-west rule to the south-east rule, as positive X was changed from west to east.| | <urn:uuid:5dd59de0-10ae-4acd-826f-4791206db30c> | CC-MAIN-2016-07 | http://minecraft.gamepedia.com/South/West_rule | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-07/segments/1454701165484.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160205193925-00214-ip-10-236-182-209.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97602 | 318 | 2.609375 | 3 |
As the anniversary of Japan’s surrender to the Allied Forces during World War II is fast approaching, some members of the Japanese Government are planning to visit the Yasukuni Shrine in order to pay homage to the country’s soldiers who died during the war. With such possibilities, Japan may draw more criticism, especially from countries they once occupied. South Korea states its opposition for such practice, as if honoring those who have inflicted torment to others.
Sanae Takaichi, policy chief of Japan’s ruling party, is expected to visit the Yasukuni Shrine on the 15th. Others are also reported to come and pay homage to Japan’s deceased soldiers. “Worshipping at the Yasukuni Shrine by the Japanese government and political leaders is something that should not happen,” said Cho Tai-Young, South Korea’s Foreign Ministry Spokesperson. Japan remembers August 15 as the day of its surrender and withdrawal from countries once occupied, while other countries, like South Korea, celebrate the day as the National Liberation Day from Japan.
South Korea and China are known for not being shy when it comes to reminding Japan of the latter’s infliction on both nations. Cho has also conveyed South Korea’s stance, which he said to be “clear and known to the whole world.” Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, aware of what a visit to the Yasukuni Shrine can do to Japan’s international ties, said that he will not visit the shrine on August 15.
Comments Off on JDP Startup Corner: Pros & Cons of Working with a Partner in Japan | <urn:uuid:bfa9a054-3294-43a2-9f74-e13ff12b4efe> | CC-MAIN-2016-22 | http://japandailypress.com/south-korea-opposes-plan-of-japanese-officials-visit-to-yasukuni-shrine-0633423/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-22/segments/1464049275412.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20160524002115-00218-ip-10-185-217-139.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964516 | 335 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Essays on bram stokers dracula and monstrosity in bram stoker's dracula topics will address the general question of whether technology appears as monstrous in. Essay instructions: dracula by bram stoker you will want to identify a recurring theme, image, metaphor, characterization, plot element, problem, attitude, or other. Bram stoker dracula essay dracula by bram stoker and the black cat by edgar allen poe any text that is composed is written to fit into the society topics. If you are teaching bram stoker's dracula to your solidify their learning from dracula essays about themes the essay topics in this section deal with. Essays dracula dracula 1 the gothic style of writing another similarity that dracula and bram stoker’s dracula share is the dracula or any similar topic.
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Comparison of dracula and bram stoker's dracula essay an analysis of the new woman phenomenon present in bram stokers dracula dracula essay topics. Dracula bram stoker project description assessment 1 analytical essay write 4000 word argumentative analysis of bram stoker’s dracula, using feminist theory. When bram stoker wrote his novel dracula in the later half of the january 25, 2018, from research paper topics.
Writing an essay on bram stoker locate sources to use in your essay and our free citation generator to cite them in apa, mla bram stoker's dracula. Religion in bram stoker's dracula 4 pages 973 words july 2015 saved essays save your essays here so you can locate them quickly. Papers - the divine theme in dracula by bram stoker. | <urn:uuid:ecad0785-a918-4286-905e-0639afc5c703> | CC-MAIN-2018-34 | http://ffpaperrbbn.weareallimmigrants.us/dracula-bram-stoker-essay-topics.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-34/segments/1534221211000.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20180816132758-20180816152758-00612.warc.gz | en | 0.906039 | 494 | 2.875 | 3 |
Follow the steps below to create add in in Excel.
Click on Developer tab and then click on Visual Basic.
In the Project Explorer pane select VBAProject (Book1).
This selects the empty workbook.
Note: You can press ALT+ F11 to open Visual Basic directly than click on VBAProject (Book 1).
Click on the Insert tab and select Module. A new window will open. Write the following line of code in the window:
Function Age(DoB As Date) End Function
Note: The VBA Editor itself will write End function.
Explanation: Typing "Function" defines the code that follows as a function, as opposed to a macro or subroutine, which is denoted by the word "Sub". Next is the function's name, which can be anything you like. In this case it is Age. A function usually needs one or more "arguments". These are entered in brackets after the function name. In this case only one argument is needed, the date of birth that will be used to calculate the person's age. When you type the word "As" after the argument's name the VB editor presents you with a list of possible entries. You can type or pick from the list.
Next type the following line of code:
Age = Int((Date - DoB) / 365.25)
The finished function should look like this
Function Age(DoB As Date) Age = Int((Date - DoB) / 365.25) End Function
Now press F5. A dialog box will open. Type name for your macro in the Macro Name field and click create. Now close the Visual Basic Editor by clicking on the Red Cross button on the top right corner. Click on Developer tab and then click on Macro. You will now be able to see your macro.
Note: to type a description of your function, Click the Options button to open the Macro Options dialog box.
The workbook containing your code module now has to be saved as an Excel Add-In (*.xla) file.
In the Excel window go to File, Save to open the Save As dialog. Enter a name for your Add-In file (the usual file naming rules apply) and use the Save as type: option to change the file type to Microsoft Excel Add-In (*.xla). Click ok.
Go to Tools, Add-Ins to open the Add-Ins dialog. If you have stored your Add-In in the default location you will see its name displayed in the Add-Ins available: window (if you have stored your Add-In in a different folder, use the Browse button to find it). Click on your Add-In's name to see its description at the bottom of the dialog box.
To install your Add-In place a tick in the check-box next to your Add-In's name and click OK.
As soon as the Add-In is installed its functions will be available in Excel. Find them in the User Defined section of the Function Wizard (Paste Function Tool) or simply type them into a cell as you would any built-in function.
That's it, you have now successfully created your own add in. | <urn:uuid:3d55df8c-f671-4d1a-9879-d87b524c16d7> | CC-MAIN-2017-22 | http://best-excel-tutorial.com/57-vba-tutorial/370-create-add-in | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-22/segments/1495463612537.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20170529184559-20170529204559-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.856698 | 671 | 3.296875 | 3 |
We get asked this question on a daily basis. Do I need to floss? Does floss really prevent decay? Does flossing really prevent gum disease? My parents’ don’t floss and their teeth and gums are fine.
One thing is for certain, all dental professionals will tell you that flossing is needed to maintain optimal gum health for all ages.
Brushing alone without flossing does not take care of all the areas on the mouth properly.
A toothbrush is used to remove the plaque from the surfaces of the teeth that you can see. So that means the biting surface, the tongue and palate surface, and the cheek and lip surface of the teeth. After brushing there is still 40% of tooth surface that is untouched and uncleaned. However when you are in braces, the brackets and the wires are in the way and prevent you from getting to even more tooth surface. This is why we then recommend the use of piksters to access the tooth surface under the wire and the sides of the brackets.
Surely My Teeth Must be Clean Now
If you think your teeth are clean after brushing and using a pikster, do me a favour and chew on a disclosing tablet. This will highlight the plaque that is stuck in between the teeth and at the gumline, which will look like a Y shape between the teeth. This is because it is nearly impossible to get a gigantic toothbrush and pikster brush in that tiny little space between the teeth. And guess what? That’s why we then recommend the use of floss.
But Why Floss?
Floss is the only thing small enough to squeeze in between the teeth and go underneath the gum to remove the rest of the plaque that is present.
Some people say ‘but now you’re pushing plaque under the gum’. Well it is already there and by rubbing the floss up and down each side of each tooth, you’re loosening the plaque off the sides of the teeth so that it has the chance to be removed. If you don’t floss at all, there’s still going to be plaque stuck in between the teeth regardless.
Are some people just lucky and don’t need to floss? Well, yes. We do see people who hardly ever floss and don’t have decay between the teeth, and luckily for them they don’t have gum problems. But are you willing to risk it and hope that you are one of those people because they are few and far between.
At first flossing is a bit tricky, like all tasks the more you do it the better you become. Flossing properly should only take 2-3 minutes once you get the hang of it. | <urn:uuid:1b4d933b-f59a-4e13-8dff-dbb561db68b5> | CC-MAIN-2019-39 | http://www.impressionsorthodontics.com/blog-five/2019/5/4/is-flossing-really-required | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514574084.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20190920221241-20190921003241-00334.warc.gz | en | 0.953184 | 576 | 2.59375 | 3 |
A Department of Health and Human Services assessment found that the Genesee County Health Department failed to help 85% of children who had elevated levels of lead in their blood.
Flint, Michigan was once a major automobile manufacturing site for General Motors. WIth plant closures, job losses, and a declining tax base the city of Flint was in dire financial straits. A review team was created by the state of Michigan to intervene and address the problems the city faced.
On April 25th, 2014 Flint’s Mayor Dayne Walling turned off the flow of water from Detroit to begin sourcing water from the Flint River.
The Flint Emergency Manager Darnell Earley said, “This is indeed the best choice for the city of Flint going forward.”
“Water is an absolute vital service that most everyone takes for granted,” Walling said. “It’s a historic moment for the city of Flint to return to its roots and use our own river as our drinking water supply.”
Officials raised glasses of water in celebration of the transition. The residents were now exposed to lead and other contaminants infecting their water supply.
Years later, we are now seeing that the vast majority of children with elevated blood levels were not connected to programs to make them better.
The capitalist economic system was at the root of the problem the entire time. The shift of industrial production out of the country led to an outflow of jobs from the region which hurt the working class. The key driver for this decision was profitability.
With less tax revenue, the city of Flint was in a “financial emergency”. This simply means that the municipal bondholders were worried that they would not receive their principal and interest payments as Flint was becoming insolvent.
As a result, an emergency board was created to enforce austerity and uphold the interests of the capitalist class by slashing services to the working class. One of these decisions was to source water in a cheaper way, namely from the Flint River.
At every turn, we see that the crisis was created by individuals who were serving the interests of the capitalist class. Corporate executives were maximizing profits for themselves and shareholders.
Governor Rick Snyder and Flint Mayor Dayne Walling were more concerned with being fiscally responsible than protecting public health. The Flint Water Crisis was not some unavoidable catastrophe, but rather the result of decisions of the capitalists and their political puppets. It is unacceptable that the children of Flint are suffering due to the greed and inhumanity of the capitalist class. | <urn:uuid:0c0ca513-6969-4c4c-b96f-28b615db26d3> | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://us.politsturm.com/county-failed-to-help-85-of-lead-poisoned-children-in-flint/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446710733.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20221130060525-20221130090525-00615.warc.gz | en | 0.979613 | 519 | 2.90625 | 3 |
BY Nour Samaha
What started at the age of 12 as a hobby quickly turned into an obsession, and today, Jamil Murad is the number one collector of Syrian stamps and banknotes in the country.
The 37-year-old, originally from Sednaya, Syria, has dedicated his life to documenting the rise and growth of the Syrian state.
The collection itself is fascinating as it reflects periods of occupation, wars, and refugees in Syria, much like what is happening today. If anything, Murad’s hobby is a standing testament that history does repeat itself in itself, somehow.
His living room is home to dozens of heavy albums holding thousands of stamps, banknotes, coins and historical documents, and he specializes in the period of the Syrian Republic.
“For me, these collections are like a walk through Syria’s history, and it is important to protect and treasure that,” he says.
One of the very first stamps issued in Syria, which he owns, dates back to 1919. “The collection begins when Syria began,” he says.
Holding up the stamp, he points out, “These are French stamps with an over-print on them reading T.E.O., which stands for ‘Territory of Enemy Occupation.’”
Holding up a series of stamps from 1925, it is possible to read “secours aux refugee” printed across them. “This was when the Armenian refugees came to Syria, fleeing the Turkish genocide,” Murad explains. “The Syrian state created a special tax in order to raise money for the Armenians.”
And perhaps that could be one lesson to those who lack the funds to aid today’s Syrian refugees.
Much like what is happening today, Syria was subject to attempts of dividing it. At one point, the French attempted to separate Syria into several states or ‘autonomous regions,’ which lasted for two years.
In 1936 Syria signed the Independence Treaty, and again new stamps were issued.
Other stamps in his collection highlight the significant dates within Syria’s history. In 1938, for example, when Turkey’s founding father Kamal Ataturk died, stamps in Syria were printed with a black border, to mark his passing.
Today, it is doubted that Syria would do the same if a Turkish official died, given the turbulent and severed relations between both countries.
For a collector such as Murad, a period is not complete unless it contains a block of four stamps, used stamp on an envelope, samples of the stamp, and stamps with possible errors.
“I’ve gotten to the point now where I challenge myself in my collection, to see if I can beat what I currently have,” he says, at one point holding up an envelope of a letter sent from Damascus to Baghdad with both British and French seals. “These seals indicate both British and French intelligence intercepted and opened the envelope.”
But his obsession with collecting snapshots of history does not stop with stamps. Murad has one of the most expansive collection of Syrian banknotes in the country’s history.
One of the rare notes in his collection is a 100 Lira note, the equivalent of what 1.5 million Liras would be today. But the rarest note in his collection is the 1939 250 Lebanese Lira.
“The note itself was worth around $16,000 back then, as there are only four known to exist,” he says proudly. | <urn:uuid:00b86258-eead-4922-92e7-38e6b627f903> | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | http://newsweekme.com/syrias-history-stamps-banknotes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107874026.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20201020162922-20201020192922-00444.warc.gz | en | 0.972826 | 742 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Umbagog Paper Mill, Livermore Falls, ca. 1881
This stereoview shows the Umbagog Paper Mill of Livermore Falls as it looked around 1881.
In 1881 Hugh J. Chisholm came to Livermore Falls and founded the Umbagog Pulp Company. He built the Umbagog mill directly across the river from the Alvin Records Pulp Mill.
In 1885 Chisholm enlarged the Umbagog mill to two machines. This increased the mill's daily capacity from 30 to 50 tons. This mill manufactured heavy wrapping as well as board papers, which were used in bottle caps and lining caskets.
Please post your comment below to share with others. If you'd like to privately share a comment or correction with MMN staff, please use this form. | <urn:uuid:94508952-6ef1-43c7-b1cf-65ca35a2f620> | CC-MAIN-2017-47 | http://www.mainememory.net/artifact/78660/enlarge | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-47/segments/1510934805977.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20171120090419-20171120110419-00592.warc.gz | en | 0.921766 | 164 | 2.8125 | 3 |
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Although largely overlooked during his lifetime, within the pantheon of American horror and fantasy fiction, author H.P. Lovecraft arguably fell directly between acknowledged masters Edgar Allen Poe and Stephen King. Sickly, emotionally frail, and reclusive for most of his life, he was, nonetheless, a tenaciously prolific writer who produced a vast body of work that would live on well past its creator’s brief 47 years. With his short stories and novellas, Lovecraft created mythologies of gothic horror with "The Tomb" (1917), otherworldly dimensions in "The Colour Out of Space (1927), and ancient, mad gods bent on the destruction of mankind with "The Shadow Over Innsmouth" (1931). His literary shadow touched an amazingly diverse range of mediums and their practitioners. Arkham Asylum, the prison for the criminally insane in the world of comic book superhero Batman, was a direct reference to Lovecraft’s fictional New England town. Surrealist "biomechanical" artist H.R. Giger – concept designer for Ridley Scott’s science-fiction horror film "Alien" (1979) – often cited the author’s literary visions as a major influence on his work. Director John Carpenter’s gory masterpiece of paranoia and terror, "The...
Although largely overlooked during his lifetime, within the pantheon of American horror and fantasy fiction, author H.P. Lovecraft arguably fell directly between acknowledged masters Edgar Allen Poe and Stephen King. Sickly, emotionally frail, and reclusive for most of his life, he was, nonetheless, a tenaciously prolific writer who produced a vast body of work that would live on well past its creator’s brief 47 years. With his short stories and novellas, Lovecraft created mythologies of gothic horror with "The Tomb" (1917), otherworldly dimensions in "The Colour Out of Space (1927), and ancient, mad gods bent on the destruction of mankind with "The Shadow Over Innsmouth" (1931). His literary shadow touched an amazingly diverse range of mediums and their practitioners. Arkham Asylum, the prison for the criminally insane in the world of comic book superhero Batman, was a direct reference to Lovecraft’s fictional New England town. Surrealist "biomechanical" artist H.R. Giger – concept designer for Ridley Scott’s science-fiction horror film "Alien" (1979) – often cited the author’s literary visions as a major influence on his work. Director John Carpenter’s gory masterpiece of paranoia and terror, "The Thing" (1982), also bore the unmistakable imprint of Lovecraft’s influence. As the genres of fantasy and horror grew in stature throughout popular culture and art in the 20th Century, so too did the macabre literary legacy of H.P. Lovecraft.
Born Howard Phillips Lovecraft on Aug. 20, 1890 in Providence, RI, he was the only son of Sarah Susan Phillips and Winfield Scott Lovecraft, a traveling salesman for a silversmith company. While on a business trip in 1893, his father suffered what was described as a nervous breakdown and was consequently admitted to Providence’s Butler Hospital, where he remained until he died of complications from syphilis five years later. From the age of eight onward, Lovecraft was raised by his mother, two-aunts, and his maternal grandfather, Whipple Van Buren Phillips, a prominent local businessman. He was described as a precocious child, who learned to read and write from an early age. Lovecraft’s literary tastes were greatly influence by his grandfather, who enjoyed telling his own tales of gothic horror to the young boy. Although a voracious reader – early favorites included The Odyssey and The Arabian Nights – poor health prevented him from attending school with any regularity until his early teens. Fascinated by science and astronomy, Lovecraft produced his own journal publications on the subjects, which he distributed to friends and family. In 1903, he finally returned to school fulltime at Hope High School. Tragedy once again struck the family when Lovecraft’s beloved grandfather died in 1904. A short time later, due to financial mismanagement, he and his mother were forced to vacate the ornate Victorian home where Lovecraft had been born and move to much more modest accommodations. It was a traumatic time for the young boy, and in 1908 he suffered an emotional breakdown of his own, which prevented him from graduating high school.
Over the next five years, Lovecraft would live a hermetic existence with his mother, rarely leaving the house or socializing with anyone outside the family. During this period he wrote extensively – mostly poetry and essays, with the occasional foray into fiction. A fan of the early "pulp" magazines, Lovecraft drew attention to himself in 1913 with the publication of his scathing letter of criticism of a story he had read in The Argosy magazine. The ensuing debate that played out in the magazine’s letters column eventually prompted the president of the United Amateur Press Association to invite the opinionated young man to join the organization in 1914. It was in this way that Lovecraft broke out of his shell, and he soon began making regular contributions in the form of poems and the occasional short story, such as "The Tomb" and "Dagon" – both in 1917. It was also during this time that he began corresponding with several other young authors working in the genre termed "weird fiction" – among them, Robert E. Howard, who would later create Conan the Barbarian. By the end of his life, Lovecraft would be considered one of the most prolific letter writers in history. Never having fully recovered from the death of her husband, Lovecraft’s mother was committed to Butler Hospital for depression and hysteria in 1919, and would die of complications from gall bladder surgery two years later. The event proved devastating to an already emotionally fragile and isolated Lovecraft.
Circumstances began to change for him, however, when he met Sonia Greene, a woman seven years his senior, at a journalism convention in 1921. They soon began an extended, long-distance courtship, and after their marriage in 1924, Lovecraft moved to Brooklyn, NY to join her. At first it appeared as though Lovecraft’s fortunes were about to take a turn for the better. Greene owned her own hat shop, and he was beginning to sell stories to Weird Tales with some regularity. Circumstances changed quickly, however, after his wife’s business failed, necessitating her move to Cleveland, OH to secure steady work. Alone in New York and forced to move into a tiny single-room apartment, the professionally inexperienced Lovecraft was unable to find a job of his own. Also around this time, he became increasingly intolerant of the vast immigrant population he felt surrounded by in the Brooklyn neighborhood of Red Hook. This growing xenophobia – a byproduct of his sheltered Anglo-Saxon upbringing – soon worked its way into Lovecraft’s fiction, as evidenced by the short story "The Horror of Red Hook" (1924). Bitter and defeated, he returned to Providence, where he moved in with his aunts, Lillian and Annie. Sonia remained in Cleveland, unwelcome by Lovecraft’s aunts, who had always vehemently disapproved of their nephew marrying a common "tradeswoman." Within three years time, he and Sonia were divorced.
Ironically, the years following his return to Providence were by far Lovecraft’s most prolific and fruitful, both creatively and personally. He traveled widely throughout the eastern seaboard, visiting sites of historic antiquity such as Quebec, New England, and Philadelphia. He also expanded the growing circle of friends and fellow writers with whom he corresponded. One such pen pal was a young writer named Robert Bloch, to whom Lovecraft became a literary mentor. Years later, Robert Bloch would go on to write the classic novel of murder and insanity Psycho, which would ultimately be adapted into cinema’s first slasher film by director Alfred Hitchcock. It was around this time that Lovecraft created some of his greatest works of literature, including The Call of Cthulhu (1926) and At the Mountains of Madness (1931) – two seminal works that further established his growing fictional mythology of ancient deities and sinister cults. Despite his modest gains as a writer, financial hardship was never far off. With the death of his Aunt Annie, Lovecraft was forced to move to even smaller quarters with his remaining relative, Lillian. Supporting himself became even more problematic as his stories became increasingly long and complex, making them difficult to sell. To compensate, Lovecraft began ghost-writing for various publications and authors in order to pay the bills. When friend and contemporary Robert E. Howard committed suicide in 1936, it left Lovecraft bewildered, depressed, and facing his own deteriorating health with a grim certainty. Wracked with tremendous pain from the intestinal cancer he had been diagnosed with, Lovecraft continued to write until he at last consented to enter the hospital, where he died five days later on March 15, 1937.
Other than an amateur printing of The Shadow Over Innsmouth in the year prior to his death, Lovecraft had never professionally published a full-length novel during his lifetime. Fortunately, August Derleth and Donald Wandrei – another pair of young writers and admirers who Lovecraft had mentored – dedicated themselves to preserving and publishing the late author’s writings. Named after one of Lovecraft’s oft-used fictional locales, the publishing firm Arkham House was established, releasing the anthology The Outsiders and Others in 1939. Since that time, Lovecraft’s legacy grew and expanded beyond anything the writer could have imagined. Generations of writers, artists, and filmmakers were influenced by the master of the macabre. Horror writers Stephen King and Clive Barker, comic book creators Alan Moore and Mike Mignola, and film directors John Carpenter and Guillermo del Toro all readily acknowledged the debt of gratitude they owed Lovecraft. Even rock bands such as Black Sabbath and Metallica recorded songs directly referencing his writings. Lovecraft’s body of work was adapted – frequently in the loosest sense of the word – into nearly 100 film, television and video game projects. A small sampling included: "The Haunted Place" (1963), "Die, Monster, Die!" (1967), "Re-Animator" (1985), "From Beyond" (1986), and "Dreams of the Witch House" (Showtime, 2005). For years, director Guillermo del Toro stated that his dream project would be to write and direct an epic adaptation of "At the Mountains of Madness" – an ambition that nearly came to pass, until concerns over the required massive budget caused Universal to withdraw its support in 2011.
By Bryce P. Coleman
Filmographyclose complete filmography
CAST: (feature film)
Please support TCMDB by adding to this information.Click here to contribute | <urn:uuid:6e8e3625-fa7d-4ec7-a6fb-97f2132b85c9> | CC-MAIN-2018-17 | http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/1163245%7C0/H-P-Lovecraft/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-17/segments/1524125944682.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20180420194306-20180420214306-00062.warc.gz | en | 0.976455 | 2,258 | 2.625 | 3 |
Introductory Physical Chemistry
Module code: CH1203
Physical chemistry is often referred to as the infrastructure of all of chemistry. It concerns the application of principles from physics - principles that underpin life as we know it on earth - to the study of chemical systems. This module will introduce you to core principles and theories behind physical chemistry, namely thermodynamics and kinetics, informing your study and career as a chemist moving forward.
- The aims and terminology of thermodynamics including the first and second laws, basic thermochemistry, enthalpy and entropy, Gibbs energy, acid-base equilibria, simple statistical mechanics and phase diagrams.
- The electrochemical process and how it relates to thermochemistry
- The properties of ideal and non-ideal gases including the understanding of virial coefficients, Maxwell distributions and collision rates
- The basic principles of reaction kinetics and how they can be measured; and the use of these principles to calculate the effect of various parameters on the rates of chemical reactions
- Qualitative and quantitative analyses of and solving problems involving thermodynamic and kinetic data
- 32 hours of lectures
- 4 hours of tutorials
- 5 hours of practical classes/workshops
- 109 hours of guided independent study
- Coursework (25%)
- Exam, 2 hours (75%) | <urn:uuid:9e710d6d-b70c-4fa4-8cdf-659bf6db091e> | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | https://le.ac.uk/2019/ch1203 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578529472.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20190420080927-20190420102927-00304.warc.gz | en | 0.897153 | 264 | 2.75 | 3 |
I am looking for the most energy efficient fans. Would a fan with a lower horse power be more energy efficient?
All things being equal such as same motor RPM, Voltage, Service-Factor and Insulation: Yes a lower HP motor consumes less energy, the efficiency would depend on the CFM produced for the motor size.
Is a higher CFM or lower CFM more energy efficient?
The CFM is determined by the size and shape of the fan blade in conjunction with the RPM of the motor. That being said, the actual energy efficiency would be determined by dividing the CFM by the energy being used to produce the CFM. A good rule of thumb would be to divide the CFM by the wattage the motor uses.
How do you know how many watts a motor uses?
On a single phase motor you multiply the motor rated amps x the motor voltage, and on a three phase motor you multiply the result by 1.73
CFM means cubic feet of air per minute. It is the measurement of airflow. | <urn:uuid:1d1c6e3f-4042-4f27-8ac9-7f84f285c1c7> | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | https://mrocrib.com/en/totally-enclosed-3ph-motor/141-24-air-blasters-low-stand.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030337371.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20221003003804-20221003033804-00632.warc.gz | en | 0.921751 | 212 | 2.75 | 3 |
Pain is the most prominent member of a class of sensations known as bodily sensations, which includes itches, tickles, tingles, orgasms, and so on. Bodily sensations are typically attributed to bodily locations and appear to have features such as volume, intensity, duration, and so on, that are ordinarily attributed to physical objects or quantities. Yet these sensations are often thought to be logically private, subjective, self-intimating, and the source of incorrigible knowledge for those who have them. Hence there appear to be reasons both for thinking that pains (along with other similar bodily sensations) are physical objects or conditions that we perceive in body parts, and for thinking that they are not. This paradox is one of the main reasons why philosophers are especially interested in pain. One increasingly popular but still controversial way to deal with this paradox is to defend a perceptual or representational view of pain, according to which feeling pain is in principle no different than undergoing other standard perceptual processes like seeing, hearing, touching, etc. But there are many who think that pains are not amenable to such a treatment.
- 1. The common-sense conception of pain
- 2. Sense-datum theories
- 3. Perceptual theories
- 4. Representational theories
- 5. Evaluative and motivational theories
- 6. Eliminativism about pain
- 7. Conclusion
- Academic Tools
- Other Internet Resources
- Related Entries
There are two main threads in the common-sense conception of pain that pull in opposite directions. We might call this tension the act-object duality (or ambiguity) embedded in our ordinary concept of pain.
The first thread treats pains as particulars spatially located in body regions, or more generally, as particular conditions of body parts that have spatiotemporal characteristics as well as features such as volume and intensity (among others). This thread manifests itself in common ways of attributing pains to bodily locations, such as the following:
- (1) I have a sharp pain in the back of my right hand
- (2) There is a throbbing pain in my left thigh
- (3) My right shoulder hurts
- (4) My wisdom tooth aches intensely.
According to this thread, pains are like physical objects, or specific conditions of physical objects. We also commonly use the verbs ‘feel’ or ‘experience’ to describe our epistemic relation to pains attributed to body parts:
- (5) I feel a sharp pain in the back of my right hand
- (6) I am experiencing pain in my upper left thigh, etc.
(5) suggests that we stand in some sort of perceptual relation to a spatiotemporal particular. Without an indefinite article, (6) suggests that I perceive some quantifiable feature or condition of my thigh. When we feel pains in bodily locations, our attention and nursing behavior are directed toward those locations.
Less frequently, we also talk about the same pain returning or lasting intermittently:
- (7) I have been having the same pain in my knee as soon as I start jogging
- (8) My headache returned the moment we started having the same argument again.
So according to this thread when we feel pain in parts of our bodies, we perceive something or some condition in those parts, and when we report them by uttering sentences like (1) through (8), we seem to make perceptual reports. These reports seem on a par with the more straightforward perceptual reports such as:
- (9) I see a dark discoloration on the back of my right hand
- (10) I see the red apple on the table
- (11) I heard a big explosion
- (12) I am smelling the sweet odor coming from the rose garden
- (13) I feel the smooth texture of the surface, etc.
Compare, for instance, (5) and (9): they seem to have the same surface grammar demanding a similar perceptual reading according to which I stand in some sort of perceptual relation to something.
Thus, this thread in our ordinary conception favors an understanding of pains as if they were the objects of our perceptions. When this is combined with our standard practice of treating pains as having spatiotemporal properties along with other similar features typically attributed to physical objects or quantities, it thus points to an understanding of pains according to which pains might plausibly be identified with physical features or conditions of our body parts, probably with some sort of physical damage or trauma to the tissue. Indeed, when we look at the ways in which we talk about a pain, we seem to be attributing something bad to a bodily location by reporting its somatosensory perception there, just as we report the existence of a rotten apple on the table by reporting its visual perception.
Nevertheless, the very same common sense, although it points in that direction, resists identifying a pain with any physical feature or condition instantiated in the body. Thus it also seems to resist identifying feeling pain in body regions with perceiving something physical in those regions.
A quick thought experiment should confirm this. Suppose that we do in fact attribute a physical condition, call it PC, when we attribute pain to body parts, and that PC is the perceptual object of such experiences. So, for instance, John's current excruciating experience (call this E) is caused by and represents a physical condition in his right thigh and our ordinary concept of pain applies in the first instance to this condition in his thigh. From this it would follow that
(a) John would not have any pain if he had E, but no PC in his thigh
(as in the case of, for instance, phantom limb pains and centrally generated chronic pains such as sciatica),
(b) John would have pain if he had PC but no E
(as would be the case, for instance, if he had taken absolutely effective painkillers or his thigh had been anesthetized).
But these statements are intuitively incorrect. They appear to clash with our ordinary or dominant concept of pain, which seems to track the experience rather than the physical condition. This resistance to identifying pains with localizable physical conditions comes from the second thread found in the very same common-sense conception of pain.
That pain is a subjective experience seems to be a truism. Given our common-sense understanding of pain, this seems to be the more dominant thread: instead of treating pains as objects of perceptual experience, it treats them as experiences themselves. Indeed it is this thread that the official scientific definition of ‘pain’ picks up and emphasizes, which was first formulated in the 1980s by a committee organized by the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP), and has been, since then, widely accepted by the scientific community:
Pain: An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage.
Note: Pain is always subjective. Each individual learns the application of the word through experiences related to injury in early life... Experiences which resemble pain, e.g., pricking, but are not unpleasant, should not be called pain. Unpleasant abnormal experiences (dysaesthesia) may also be pain but are not necessarily so because, subjectively, they may not have the usual sensory qualities of pain. Many people report pain in the absence of tissue damage or any likely pathological cause; usually this happens for psychological reasons. There is no way to distinguish their experience from that due to tissue damage if we take the subjective report. If they regard their experience as pain and if they report it in the same ways as pain caused by tissue damage, it should be accepted as pain. This definition avoids tying pain to the stimulus. Activity induced in the nociceptor and nociceptive pathways by a noxious stimulus is not pain, which is always a psychological state, even though we may well appreciate that pain most often has a proximate physical cause. (IASP 1986, p. 250; cf. IASP-Task-Force-On-Taxonomy 1994)
Like other experiences as conscious episodes, pains are thought to be private, subjective, self-intimating, and the source of incorrigible knowledge. These elements can certainly be found in the IASP characterization, which also adds that pain experiences are unpleasant. Indeed, by emphasizing that pain is always a “psychological state” the note warns against a conception of pain suggested by the first thread above.
Interestingly, however, when we talk about pains as experiences, we also, in the same breath, talk about feeling them as if these experiences were also the object of some sort of inner perception, which suggests introspection. Indeed the discussion of privacy, subjectivity, self-intimation, and incorrigibility naturally forces us to talk this way.
Pains are said to be private to their owners in the strong sense that no one else can epistemically access one's pain in the way one has access to one's own pain, namely by feeling it and coming to know one is feeling it on that basis. This sharply contrasts with the public nature of objects of standard perception, that is, perception of one's immediate extramental environment including one's body. Let's call this exteroception, to contrast with introspection which is access to one's intra-mental activity. So, for instance, the very same apple I see on the table can be seen by others in possibly the exact way I see it, so is not private in this sense.
Pains also seem to be subjective in the sense that their existence depends on feeling them. There is an air of paradox when someone talks about unfelt pains. One is naturally tempted to say that if a pain is not being felt by its owner then it does not exist. Again compare the subjectivity of pains to the ‘objectivity’ of the objects of standard exteroception. The apple I see does not depend on my perceiving it in order to exist: (pace Berkeley and phenomenalists) its existence is independent of my, or for that matter anyone else's, seeing it.
Not only people seem to have a special epistemic access to their pains, they seem to have a very special epistemic authority with respect to their pain: they seem to be incorrigible, or even infallible, about their pains and pain reports: necessarily, if I sincerely believe that I am in pain, then I am in pain. Conversely, if I feel pain, then I know that I am in pain. Again this conditional seems necessarily true. This is the self-intimating aspect of pain experiences.
In short, there doesn't seem to be any room for a possible gap between the appearance of pain and being in pain (that is, no appearance/reality distinction is applicable to pain). As Kripke famously put it:
To be in the same epistemic situation that would obtain if one had a pain is to have a pain; to be in the same epistemic situation that would obtain in the absence of pain is not to have a pain…. Pain … is not picked out by one of its accidental properties; rather it is picked out by its immediate phenomenological quality…. If any phenomenon is picked out in exactly the same way that we pick out pain, then that phenomenon is pain. (Kripke 1980, pp. 152–53)
If there is no appearance/reality distinction applicable to pain, then it seems that one cannot be mistaken about one's beliefs about one's pain formed on the basis of feeling pain in the way one can be mistaken about the existence and properties of the apple one sees. In the latter case, appearances can be misleading precisely because the perceptual appearance of an apple might not correspond to what the apple is like in reality. In apparent contrast to pain, normal exteroception always involves the possibility of misperception, and thus miscategorization (that is, misapplication of concepts to the objects of exteroception).
Now that the two threads in our ordinary conception of pain are in full view, we can better appreciate why they are in tension. Experiences are in the head, if they are anywhere. Indeed, for most physicalists, they are in the head by being realized in the brain or in the central nervous system. So we can't be locating pains qua experiences (or qua sensations, for that matter) in body parts when we correctly utter sentences such as (1) through (6) — discounting headaches perhaps. But then what are we locating when we seem to attribute pains to body parts? Recall that, although the first thread in our common-sense conception treats pains as spatiotemporally locatable particulars or particular conditions of body parts, it does not identify pains with them — it only exerts pressure towards such an identification in the light of the fact that there doesn't seem to be any other credible alternative (but see below). We have already conducted a little thought-experiment to bring this out in Section 1.1. Comparing the following two sentences will help us understand the tension better:
(5) I feel a sharp pain in the back of my right hand
(9) I see a dark discoloration on the back of my right hand.
It is reasonably clear that for (9) to be true, I have to stand in the seeing (perceiving) relation to a dark discoloration in the back of my right hand, i.e., to a certain surface region on the back of my hand marked by a darker shade of the usual color of my skin, a certain region that can be seen by others possibly in the same way in which I see it. Note that if I am hallucinating a dark discoloration on the back of my hand, then (9) is simply false. Also note that although the truth of (9) doesn't require the possession of any concept by me expressed by the words making up the sentence, my uttering of (9) to make a report typically does — if we take such utterances as expressions of one's thoughts and take thoughts to be composed of concepts. So my seeing would typically induce me to conceptually identify something on the back of my hand as a dark discoloration. This is a typical case of categorization of something extramental under a concept induced by an exteroceptive experience. Of course, my uttering of (9) does more than attribute a physical property to a bodily region, it also reports that I am seeing it.
What has to be the case for (5) to be true? Whatever the complete analysis of sentences like (5) turns out to be, one thing seems reasonably clear: the truth-conditions of (5) put no constraints whatsoever on how things physically are with my hand. Anyone who has a sufficient mastery of our ordinary concept of pain has no difficulty in understanding how (5) could still be true even though there is nothing physically wrong with my hand, which is typically the case in centrally caused chronic pain syndromes.
So we standardly use sentences like (5) to make correct statements about a pain felt in a bodily location even when there is nothing wrong with that location. In other words, when we make claims about where it hurts (attribute pain to bodily locations), strictly speaking we in fact rescind from logically committing ourselves to there being anything physically wrong in those locations — even though we normally expect to find some physical disorder in them. Compare this to my uttering (9) on the basis of my having a very vivid visual hallucination of a discoloration on the back of my hand. In such a case, my utterance would be incorrect, because in uttering (9) I commit myself to finding some physical condition (namely, a dark discoloration) on the back of my hand. If and when I realize that I have hallucinated, then I correct myself and revert to introspective mode by saying things like “I seemed to see a discoloration on the back of my hand” or “it appeared to me that there was a discoloration,” etc. Nothing of this sort happens when I realize or am told that there is nothing physically wrong with my hand: I still correctly continue to report the pain I feel there by uttering the very same sentence, (5), or its equivalents. I don't need to make any correction in my pain report. This shows that despite the pressure exerted by the first thread, it is the second thread that seems to capture the dominant common-sense conception of pain — as indeed the IASP definition above indicates.
Still the puzzle remains: what is it that I am doing when I appear to be attributing something to the back of my hand by correctly uttering (5) — if, as agreed, I am not attributing a mental experience or a physical condition there? It is not clear whether there is a common-sense answer to this question. Just as the scientific definition doesn't touch on the issue of our common practice of correctly locating pains in healthy body parts, the common sense would probably draw a blank if the problem were articulated explicitly and the question is pressed really hard.
Or maybe not. Intuitively and somewhat naively, what common sense would drive us to say when pressed hard might be something like the following. Granted, by uttering (5) I am not attributing any sort of physical thing or condition to the back of my hand, nor am I locating a mental experience there — experiences and sensations are strictly speaking in the head if they are anywhere. But when I attend to my hand with my mind's inner eye, so to speak, I clearly feel something there. I can introspectively examine different qualities of that thing such as its sharpness, volume, intensity, unpleasantness, burning quality, etc. I can in real time follow the changes in it: it is now somewhat less intense and unpleasant, now more; it is getting duller now, it was sharper and brighter a moment ago; it seems to be moving toward my fingers, etc. Clearly, I seem to be confronted or acquainted with something that I can introspectively examine carefully in real time and report on its various qualities. It is this thing, the object of my inner attention, which is located in the back of my hand, which seems essentially private, subjective, and about which I can't be wrong.
If this is what one might like to say intuitively and naívely, one should be prepared to swallow its strange consequences: this object of my inner attention is both located in public space and logically private, that is, only I can have epistemic access to it despite its being spatiotemporally located. Also, the existence of this object seems to literally depend on my epistemic access to it: it seems to go out of existence when I cease to feel it (perceive it). In addition, if it is the object of my attention (separate from my attention), how could it be the case that I cannot be wrong about it? And importantly, if this object is not physical, what sort of thing could it be? A ghostly mental particular that I can introspectively attend to which is nevertheless spatiotemporally located beyond my head?
The act-object duality embedded in our ordinary concept of pain yields strange results when followed intuitively and naively to its logical end. But perhaps this duality is a robust symptom of a deeper truth underlying all perception and introspection. Perhaps pain is simply the most paradigmatic example of a broad range of perceptual experiences where this deep underlying iceberg shows it tip most prominently and revealingly — albeit confusedly. Indeed this is exactly the case according to so-called sense-datum theories, or more broadly, indirect realism.
Standard perception (exteroception) can be analyzed as involving the perception (act) of a public object. The perceptual act on the part of the perceiving subject, in turn, is analyzed as involving an experience which typically induces conceptual categorization, i.e., application of concepts to the object of perception and its qualities — not to the experience. Thus perceptual experiences seem transparent to the perceiver, who may be said to perceive the extramental reality directly, without first perceiving or somehow being aware of the experience itself or its qualities. This view is supported by common sense and is typically called naive or direct realism.
According to the indirect realists, this directness is an illusion; we are in fact directly aware of experiential intermediaries, and we perceive the extramental world only indirectly, in virtue of being directly aware of these intermediaries. Most early indirect realists (e.g., Moore 1903, 1939; Russell 1912; Price 1950) thought of these intermediaries as phenomenal or mental particulars, typically called sense-data. Consider a hallucination of a red apple. Intuitively, the person having the hallucination seems to see something. This something is not, of course, an apple. But it is an object, according to sense-datum theorists, which is shaped like an apple and is really red. It is a sense-datum, a phenomenal (mental) individual which really has the qualities that it visually appears to have. Sense-data, however, are no ordinary objects: they are private, subjective, self-intimating, and the source of incorrigible knowledge. According to sense-datum theorists, sense-data are internal to one's consciousness: they are not before one's sense-organs. These theories claim that there is a hidden act-object structure in the perceptual awareness itself. Every perceptual awareness involves the act of being aware of phenomenal objects that characterize this perceptual awareness, whether or not this awareness is an hallucination or a veridical perception of external objects.
So on sense-datum theories, one perceives external objects and their qualities indirectly by directly perceiving (being aware of, or acquainted with) sense-data internal to one's consciousness that resemble in various degrees the physical objects that cause them. According to sense-datum theorists, however, we are rarely, if ever, aware of this indirection in ordinary (veridical) exteroception. It is only critical philosophical reflection on features of perceptual awareness that reveals that the indirection must occur. The importance of pain and other (intransitive) bodily sensations lies in the fact that the indirection seems to be easily revealed introspectively as is shown by our unwillingness to identify the pain we attribute to body parts with anything physical in those parts.
Whatever merits sense-datum theories might have with respect to genuine perception (exteroception) and misperception, its attraction seems undeniable when it comes to its treatment of pains and other “intransitive” bodily sensations like itches, tickles, tingles, etc. According to many sense-datum theorists, pains are paradigm examples of phenomenal individuals, mental objects with phenomenal qualities whose existence depends on their being sensed or felt, and thus are logically private to their owners who feel them. This position presumably explains why we have the act-object duality or ambiguity in pain talk that we discussed earlier: pains qua localizable objects cannot exist without the corresponding acts, i.e., without someone's acts of experiencing them (Broad 1959). In other words, the concept of pain plausibly applies to both the object part of the act-object pair and to the act of being directly aware of these objects.
The puzzle of locating pains in body parts can be treated in more than one way within this framework. The most straightforward way is simply to take the phenomena at face value and say that pains as mental objects or sense-data are literally located where they seem to be located in body parts or even in empty space where one's limb would have been, say, before the amputation. That pains are mental particulars and depend for their existence on being sensed apparently does not logically preclude their being capable of having, literally, a spatial location (see Jackson 1976, 1977 for this line).
A second and more popular way of handling the location problem is to say that even though pains cannot literally be located in physical space, they can have location in a phenomenal space or field that is somehow isomorphic or systematically related to their counterparts (say, tissue damage) in physical space. In fact, this move would also work for visual sense-data that require some spatiotemporal framework. In the case of bodily sensations, this phenomenal space is sometimes called one's somatic field by analogy to a visual field that maps onto physical space (Price 1950).
The most important strength of sense-datum theories is that they are tailor-made for the peculiarities of pain experiences as well as other intransitive bodily sensations that we have discussed above. Indeed, these theories seem to take the naíve, perhaps somewhat confused but intuitive understanding of pain embedded in common sense and turn it into a full-fledged philosophical theory supported on a general and independent platform about what perception involves. In other words, these theories seem to vindicate the act-object duality embedded in common-sense conception of pain.
There is irony in this. The irony is that sense-datum theories find their most natural home in intransitive bodily sensations like pain that have been traditionally and historically contrasted with standard exteroceptual experiences rather than co-classified with them (for many, feeling pain is not a perceptual affair at all). This is ironic for two reasons. First, the main proponents of sense-datum theories advanced these theories mainly as theories of exteroception, that is, perception of external physical reality. Second, when applied to standard exteroception, sense-datum theories don't seem to support the perceptual direct (naíve) realism of common sense at all. Indeed, according to common sense, when I see a red apple on the table, I am directly seeing the apple (at least its surface facing me) and its qualities like its redness. In short, although sense-datum theories that are explicitly advanced as theories of perception (exteroception) don't generate much conviction, they seem to be more convincing when applied to intransitive bodily sensations like pains that are not usually thought to be perceptual.
Despite the clash with common sense, various philosophers have advanced powerful arguments for sense-datum theories about what perception in general involves (Moore 1903, 1939; Russell 1912; Price 1950; Broad 1959; Jackson 1977, among others). There are also powerful arguments against sense-datum theories. Both sorts of arguments tend to be general arguments not directly related to pain, so we won't cover them here (but see the entry on sense-data). Whatever the fate of sense-datum theories might be as general theories of exteroception, their appeal as a model for understanding pains and other intransitive bodily sensations is very strong. Indeed, as noted before, introspection seems to be the right mode of access involved in pain. So even if one finds the anti-sense-datum arguments convincing and rejects indirect realism of this kind for standard exteroception, there is still room for adopting a sense-datum theory for intransitive bodily sensations and for pain in particular.
Nevertheless, it is plausible to argue that the most important strength of sense-datum theories of pain is also one of their main weaknesses, in that their function seems to merely codify the conceptual peculiarities of pain into a theory rather than explain them. After we are told how the sense-datum theories treat pains and other bodily sensations, our understanding of these sensations don't seem to be deepened or advanced significantly. Whatever puzzles we had at the start with only the common-sense conception of pain at hand, they seem to be transformed into puzzles about what the theories themselves say or imply.
For instance, the question about what it is that we seem to attribute to or locate in our body parts when we claim to have pains in just those parts is answered, on one version of the theory, by saying that we literally locate mental objects with phenomenal qualities in those parts. But pains, even by the standards of sense-datum theories, are mind-dependent objects, and many have taken this to imply that pains are internal to one's consciousness or experience, and are epistemically transparent to their owners partly because of this (Perkins 1983, 2006). If they were literally in physical space, does this mean that one's mind spatially extends or overlaps with one's body? Alternatively, shouldn't it be possible for others, at least in principle, to “come across” these pains, that is, access and interact with them physically? It is one thing to say that there is no logical inconsistency about pains literally being in physical space, but it is another to make the view plausible. The latter requires giving positive arguments showing why our intuitions to the contrary might mislead us here.
On the other version of the theory, we are told that even though we seem to locate something in public space, appearances are misleading, we are locating private mental objects in a private phenomenal space. So pains are not, after all, located in body parts, ordinarily understood. But it is not clear how these two spaces are supposed to relate to or interact with each other. Phenomenal space is not physical space, nor is it a subregion of that space. Thus the question of how they can causally interact becomes an issue for two reasons. First, there is the standard worry about how a physical event can influence or be influenced by a non-physical event in a non-physical space. Second, these two spaces need to be systematically correlated with each other, but it is not clear whether a principled mapping function can be defined for the correlation especially in the absence of causation. At any rate, these constitute significant challenges to the defenders of this view.
Apart from their strange consequences, sense-datum theories seem to commit their defenders to anti-physicalism. A naturalist who is trying to understand pain phenomena within a physicalist framework could hardly admit the existence of phenomenal objects (Lycan 1987a, 1987b). If there are sense-data, physicalism seems just false. A physicalist cannot admit actual objects, which are, say, literally colored, shaped, moving and so on, that one is directly aware of but are not identical to the extramental objects of perception. So understood, there seem to be no sense-data to be found in the physical world.
Because sense-datum theories are most plausible when applied to intransitive bodily sensations, many philosophers, who believe that a naturalist account of ordinary perception can be given without introducing sense-data, have attempted to understand pains and other bodily sensations as species of ordinary perception (exteroception). The so-called perceptual theories of pain are advanced and defended on the hope that pains and other intransitive bodily sensations, contrary to first appearances, are species of information gathering which work on the same principles that govern other sensory modalities for which a successful direct realist account can be given.
The core commitment of any perceptual view of pain, put as broadly as possible, is that normally, in having or feeling pain, one is perceiving something extramental. In other words, feeling pain normally involves perceiving something in the same sense in which one perceives a red apple when one sees it in good light. It involves exteroception. Sometimes, in ordinary parlance, the term ‘perception’ is used in conjunction with ‘pain’ as in ‘pain perception’ to mean awareness of pain, or just feeling/experiencing pain. This is introspective use of ‘perception’ and should be sharply distinguished from what the perceptual theorists mean when they claim that feeling pain involves perceiving something. They have exteroception in mind, and we'll use the term always in this sense.
According to perceptual theorists, when one feels, say, a sharp pain in the back of one's hand, one perceives some physical feature or condition of one's hand. The proper modality for this perception is somatosensory, similar to the sensory modality of touch or proprioception (the sensory modality internal to one's body that informs one about the position and movement of one's body and body parts). Most perceptual theorists identify this feature with tissue damage or some condition of the tissue that would likely result in damage if sustained in that condition. More abstractly, it is some sort of physical disorder due to some tissue trauma, irritation, inflammation, or some such pathological condition, or a condition close to such. It is also possible to identify the object of perception in pain with the activation of nociceptors innervating the damaged or irritated tissue. (Nociceptors are peripheral nerve endings specialized to respond, normally, only to potentially damaging stimuli, i.e., to nociceptive stimuli). Let's use ‘tissue damage’ as a stand-in for whatever physical disorderly condition of bodily tissue is said to be perceived in feeling pain according to perceptual theorists. Normally, when we talk about the location of a pain, we are talking about the location of this perceptual object, i.e., the location where the tissue damage is occurring or about to occur.
Perceptual theories of pain as alternatives to sense-datum theories were first explicitly stated and philosophically developed in the 1960s. The most influential and prominent defenders were Armstrong (1962; 1968) and Pitcher (1970; 1971). There were others, but in terms of setting the tone and philosophical agenda for the subsequent discussion for decades to come, it is fair to say that no one has surpassed their enormous influence. At the time, the dominant view was that pains and other intransitive bodily sensations are not perceptual at all: they were conceived to be sensations or experiences (à la sense-datum theories) that are reliably caused by (actual or impending) injury or damage to body tissue or internal organs. They are thus useful warning signals, but they don't have much in common with standard ways of perceiving extramental world. This view has still some defenders today: although the conception of pains as sense-data has been largely abandoned, those who are not sympathetic to perceptual theories still hold what might be called the “sensation or qualia view of pain”, according to which pain is not a phenomenal object but a phenomenal quality of one's experience, or alternatively, it is a subjective experience with certain qualia or qualitative character that one is directly aware of when in pain. With this adjustment from object to quality kept in mind, most of what we have said about sense-datum theories above can be applied, mutatis mutandis, to the qualia view of pain. (Conee 1984 defends a qualia view of pain. But he draws a distinction between the state of being in pain and this state's qualitative content, qualia. He claims that we use ‘pain’ for both, depending on the context.)
The main source of resistance to a perceptual view of pains comes from the common-sense conception of pain according to which pains are sensations with essential privacy, subjectivity, self-intimation, and incorrigibility. These apparently essential features of pains pose difficulties for any perceptual theory. Indeed, they can be used in advancing anti-perceptualist arguments whose general form can be put in the following way. Genuine perception always involves the possibility of misperceiving the perceptual object that is not essentially private and subjective. In other words, there is always an appearance/reality distinction applicable to the objects of genuine perception which gives rise to the possibility that the perceptual appearance of this object misleads us about what the object is like in reality. The main reason for this is that these objects have a reality beyond their appearances. They are thus public objects and capable of existing on their own without anyone's perception of them. But feeling pain has none of these features. Therefore, it cannot be genuine perception.
So, how do the perceptual theorists handle this objection, which lies behind the intuitive resistance to treating pain as a form of perception? Given the core commitment of perceptual views (namely, that feeling pain involves perceiving something extramental), one might think that perceptual theorists identify pain with tissue damage. Indeed, if one takes this view, the above objection seems almost decisive against it. But relatively few defenders actually take this route — among the most notable are Newton (1989), Stephens and Graham (1987), and Hill (2004, 2006). Most others, including Armstrong and Pitcher, bowed to common-sense understanding of pain and identified pains with pain experiences or sensations, understood in a direct realist fashion. If pains are identified with experiences, not with their causes (i.e., tissue damage), then the above objection seems to disappear (but see below).
It is primarily for this reason that most perceptual theorists identify feeling pain with having an experience in the first place — just as the pain scientists do (see IASP definition above) following the second thread in our ordinary conception of pain. But this is the experience mediating or involved in the perception of tissue damage. In other words, they grant that the (dominant) concept of pain is the concept of a subjective experience, but they insist that this experience is essentially perceptual: it constitutes our perception of tissue damage. Compare the situation with seeing. In seeing a red apple in good light, I am having a visual experience which is perceptual: it constitutes my seeing the red apple. The difference lies not in the flow of information, but in the locus of our spontaneous interest and conceptual identification directly induced by the perceptual experience. According to most perceptual theorists, we apply the concept of pain, PAIN, primarily to the perceptual experience we are having, not to the object of this experience, i.e., tissue damage (even though, as discussed above, common sense also uses confusingly the same word ‘pain’ to indicate where the tissue damage might be occurring by applying it to a bodily location — more on this shortly). In other words, ‘pain’ names a subjective experience. In vision, however, the locus of conceptual identification is different: normally it is the object of our visual experience we are interested in, say, a red apple seen in good light and identified as such. Thus, we both perceptually and conceptually focus on it and its visible properties such as its redness, roundness, etc., by applying our concepts, RED, ROUND, APPLE, to it on the basis of our visual experience. Of course, we are sometimes interested in and can focus and report on our visual experiences too, but this happens usually when we are not sure about what we are seeing.
(In what follows, it is useful to denote concepts by capitalized words that name them. So, for instance, ‘RED’ denotes the concept of red which in turn expresses the property of being red. In other words, RED expresses the property of being red, or redness in short. Even though here I assume for convenience a representationalist framework for concepts according to which concepts are mental representations realized in the brain — which is the psychologist's preferred reading, nothing of any importance hangs on this: the reader may substitute his or her own preferred interpretation of how concepts are to be understood. For instance, concepts may be merely certain sorts of mental or behavioral capacities that are functionally or dispositionally characterized.)
There is thus an asymmetry in our spontaneous reaction to incoming stimuli in seeing and having pain; that is, our spontaneous interest and focus directly resulting from the perceptual experiences is different in each case. We can represent this asymmetry with a schematic (Figure 1).
Figure 1: There is asymmetry in concept application even when it is assumed that the structure of information flow is symmetrical in the contrast cases.
Thus the incorrigibility mentioned before reduces to one's incorrigibility about one's occurrent experiences. To the extent to which we are incorrigible in discriminating and conceptually identifying our own experiences, to that extent we cannot be wrong about our own pains. Hence the locus of concept application are the pain experiences, even though it might seem to us as if we were applying the concept of pain to bodily locations (see below). It follows that hallucinations or illusions are possible, in one sense, not about feeling/experiencing pain, but about whether these experiences' correctly representing some tissue damage, that is, the object of perception in feeling pain.
The privacy and subjectivity of pains are explained similarly. If pains are experiences, they cannot exist without being the state of someone's mind. In other words, they exist insofar as one has them: they are mental states or events, hence essentially mind-dependent. The privacy of pains again reduces to the privacy of experiences. There may be philosophical problems about how privacy, subjectivity and incorrigibility are possible in a completely physical world, but if there are such problems, they are general problems about having perceptual experience of any kind, not necessarily pertaining to pains and other intransitive bodily sensations.
The perceptualist identification of pains with experiences is not in the clear yet: the perceptual theorist has to give an account of the common practice of attributing pains to bodily locations. For if pains are perceptual experiences they can't be intelligibly (let alone correctly) located in body parts (except perhaps in the head).
The most common perceptualist treatment of this problem concedes that there is no way to analyze sentences attributing pain to body parts, such as (1)–(6), which would do complete justice to all the aspects of our common-sense conception of pain. Nevertheless, the resulting account, it is claimed, comes pretty close. According to the basic proposal, when I utter a sentence like
(5) I feel a sharp pain in the back of my right hand
I primarily self-attribute a certain kind of experience which has an intentional content (Armstrong 1962, 1968, pp. 314–316; and Pitcher 1970, pp. 383–385, 1971 — see also Dretske 1999, 2006; Tye 1997, 2006a). To say that an experience has an intentional content is to say that it represents a certain situation or state of affairs (which may be quite complex). So for instance, when I see a red apple on the table, I am having a visual experience which represents, among other things, a red apple on the table. Some perceptualists might describe the proper intentional or representational content of experiences in less objectual terms by not naming what is represented in terms of ordinary objects like apples and tables. For these theorists, it is more appropriate to characterize the representational content of perceptual experiences in terms of the ways in which the sensible qualities of those objects are instantiated or distributed in one's perceptual field. Experiences detect or track these qualities. For instance, they may say that my visual experience represents the instantiation of redness with the instantiation of a certain (apple-like) shape quality, etc. But both ways of characterizing this content are meant to be objective in the sense that they represent extramental reality (at least, partly — it all depends on how one conceives of so-called secondary qualities). Treating perceptual experiences as having intentional content is appropriate and in line with the naturalistic motivation behind developing perceptual accounts in general, because this is how they serve their primary function of informing their owners about their immediate extramental environment, including bodily environment.
So the proposal is that, just like other perceptual experiences, pain experiences also represent. They represent tissue damage as occurring in a certain region of one's body. The location of pain, then, is the location of tissue damage as represented by pain experiences. The location is an intentional location. So (5) should be analyzed as self-attributing an experience which represents a certain kind of tissue damage occurring in the back of my hand. In other words, even though the surface structure of sentences (5) suggests that there is an attribution of pain to a bodily location (more strictly, that I stand in the feeling relation to a pain which is located in a part of my body), the proposed analysis says that this is not what is going on. What I do when I utter (5) is an attribution of a different sort: I attribute to myself a feeling state (an experience) which has an intentional content to the effect that a certain region of my body is in a physical condition of a certain sort.
On this view, there is thus a confusion in common-sense ways of talking, due to the fact that the pain is not in my hand; the pain, being a state of feeling or experience, is “in my mind.” It is the physical disturbance that is in my hand which my feeling state represents (in a confused and indistinct way, as Descartes would put it). Upon reflection, however, we may realize that in uttering (5) I actually attribute an intentional feeling state to myself which in turn attributes a physical disturbance to my hand. The colloquial ways of speaking just jumble the pain with the disturbance, and thus confuse and mislead us. Pains, on this view, are experiences, not objects of our experiences. Moreover, since these experiences have intentional content, they have accuracy conditions: they can be correct or incorrect; they can veridically represent or misrepresent. But even when they misrepresent, these experiences are pain experiences. So I can be in genuine pain, even though there is nothing physically wrong with my hand.
Note that according to this analysis, there are, in a sense, two kinds of a property attribution going on: an attribution of an experience and an attribution of tissue damage to a body part. But in uttering (5) I do only the former attribution, not the latter. The latter attribution is done not by me but by my experience, so to speak, by representing it as happening in my hand. This is why I am not logically committed to finding tissue damage in my hand in truly uttering (5) — even though this is what I normally expect to find there. Indeed, as observed in the first section, if it turns out that there is nothing physically wrong with my hand, I am not wrong. (5) is still true. But my experience is now wrong: it misrepresents the back of my hand as having something physically wrong with it, as if some tissue damage were occurring there. I am having an illusion about my hand but I am still in genuine pain. Illusory or hallucinatory pain experiences are still genuine pains.
Armstrong's and Pitcher's perceptual accounts of pain location have been very influential. Treating pain location as the intentional location of tissue damage as represented in the pain experience, in one form or another, seems to dominate the thinking in this area. Nevertheless, there is a sizable philosophical literature on the problem of pain location or the spatiality of pain in general. The following is a sampling. For accounts pre-dating Armstrong and Pitcher, see Baier (1964), Vesey (1965, 1967), Taylor (1965, 1966), Holborow (1966), and Coburn (1966). For more modern discussion, see Holly (1986), Hyman (2003), Wyller (2005), and Bain (2007). There is also an extended debate between Paul Noordhof and Michael Tye about whether the sense in which we locate pains in body parts require special senses of “in” that might not be spatial and whether this is in conflict with representationalism about pain. See Noordhof (2001, 2002, 2006) and Tye (2002, 2006a, 2006b). Olivier (2006) is a critical commentary on the debate between Noordhof and Tye.
The perceptual view of pain as presented so far is a view even an indirect realist can subscribe to, although, as a matter of historical fact, very few indirect realists have done so (Perkins 1983, 2006; Maund 2003, 2006). A sense-datum theorist is someone who thinks that all perception of extramental reality is indirect, mediated by a direct perception of sense-data that stand in certain systematic relations to extramental objects in the world in virtue of which sense-data contingently come to represent them. So it is entirely possible, in fact reasonable, to hold that pain sense-data are also representational. In other worlds, direct awareness of pain sense-data could constitute the indirect perception of tissue damage in bodily regions which typically and systematically cause these sense-data.
The reason why this line was not pursued by indirect realists has probably something to do with the intuitive resistance against any perceptual view of pain already embedded in our ordinary conception that we discussed above. Indirect realists like sense-datum theorists, as we have already seen, have the theoretical resources to accommodate the intuitive understanding of pain without forcing it into a perceptualist mold. Without any qualms, they can say that we are directly and immediately aware of pain qua a mental object or quality, whether or not this represents or signals tissue damage. This is to say that they already have a locus of concept application in their theory for the concept of pain: PAIN directly applies to the experience or to its internal direct object, i.e., to either a sense-datum or to its direct awareness. This seems to accommodate all the intuitions embedded in common sense; why go further? Furthermore, if one is not a perceptualist, one doesn't have an obligation to deal with what we'll call below the problem of focus, the problem of explaining why there is an asymmetry in conceptual focus between pain and standard exteroception if both are genuinely perceptual.
In practice, however, almost all defenders of perceptual view of pains are direct realists. If one wants to run a direct realist version of the perceptual theory, however, one immediately runs into the difficulty of finding an appropriate locus for direct perceptual awareness, and for that matter, a locus for immediate concept application; that is, one runs into the difficulty of finding an object, state, or event to which we spontaneously apply PAIN, ITCH, TICKLE, etc., when we are introspectively aware of our pains, itches, tickles, etc., and report them on this basis. This difficulty arises because the mark of any (early) direct realism in the theory of perception is the repudiation of consciously available perceptual intermediaries that mediate standard exteroception: when I see a red apple on the table, there is no object or quality distinct from the apple and its redness such that I see the apple in virtue of seeing it (or more generally, in virtue of directly perceiving or being aware of it). On this view, when I see an apple, I directly perceive, or am directly acquainted with, the apple and its qualities such as its redness. This view works well in veridical perception: the locus of concept application is always the public object of perception, like the apple and its properties. It also explains why the spontaneous concept application is the way it is even when one hallucinates or have illusions: even when one hallucinates a red apple, one is naturally disposed to apply the concept RED APPLE to what one either takes or is tempted to take to be the public object of one's epistemic efforts and its publicly available features, and rarely, if ever, to what one believes to be a private mental object or quality.
But how is the repudiation of consciously available perceptual intermediaries to be reconciled with the admission that the concept of pain is the concept of a subjective sensation/experience of a certain sort? Recall that most perceptual theorists admit that introspective reports of pain in body regions are reports of experiences that represent physical disorder of some sort in those regions. This is just to say that when one is in pain one is directly aware of a sensation or experience, i.e., pain. This in turn means that the concepts we are spontaneously prompted to apply in having pains and other intransitive bodily sensations directly apply to the prompting sensations/experiences in the first place — appearances to the contrary. So how to understand the direct realist's talk of conscious sensations or experiences?
Direct realists reject the act-object analysis of perceptual experiences advanced by sense-datum theorists and other indirect realists. According to most early direct realists (e.g., Ducasse 1952, Sellars 1975), even when visually hallucinating a red apple on the table, one does not directly see a private mental particular or a constellation of mental qualities; rather one is having a visual experience that is like an experience which is normally brought about when one actually sees a real red apple on the table. Direct realists, in other words, typically insist that such cases should not be analyzed in terms of a perceiver standing in a certain perceptual relation to a private mental object or quality. Rather the analysis involves only one particular, the perceiver herself, and her being in certain sorts of (perceptual, experiential) states or conditions that are typically brought about under certain circumstances in which one genuinely perceives something. In standard cases, when one is having a veridical perception, the experiential state of the perceiver is brought about by the actual object of her perception, and the perceiver's state is qualitatively differentiated by the causal influences of the sensible qualities of the public object. In nonstandard cases like in hallucinations and illusions, phenomenologically the same kinds of states are brought about by different causal routes, and the qualitative differentiation of one's experiential state in such non-veridical cases is the result of deviant causal influences. (Pitcher 1970, p. 384)
This sort of analysis of experiences is sometimes known as adverbialism in the literature because in perceiving a red object one is said to be in a state of perceiving something “red-ly.” The theoretical import of this way of talking is that perceiving something that is red is a manner of perceiving that object that would be distinct from the manner of perceiving it if the object were blue, in which case one would be perceiving it “blue-ly.” Similarly when one hallucinates a red object, there is only one object, the perceiver who is sensing in a certain manner, namely, red-ly. In other words, ‘red’ is said to qualify not a private object but rather a state or activity of a person, that state being a manner of perceiving or sensing physical objects that are red. For our purposes, keeping up with the general naturalistic motivation behind developing direct realist views, we can take adverbialism as an attempt to get rid of mysterious mental objects or qualities in favor of metaphysically less costly states or activities of persons or manners of perceiving that qualify persons qua subjects of experience. So a pain experience, for a direct realist, is a specific manner in which tissue damage is (somatosensorially) perceived in a bodily region. When we report pain, we report the occurrence of experiences understood this way — adverbially.
Adverbialism of this sort can be effectively combined with intentionalism or representationalism about experience (for more on the connection between adverbialism and representationalism, see Kraut 1982, and Lycan 1987a, 1987b). An adverbialist has to somehow characterize these ways or manners of sensing/perceiving for distinguishing between them, and a natural way to do that is by appealing to the standard or canonical conditions under which those perceptual events are brought about (recall how direct realists want to handle a visual hallucination: one is having a visual experience that is like an experience which is normally brought about when one actually sees a real red apple on the table). Thus it may be reasonable to argue that those canonical conditions are what the specific perceptual events or activities of the persons represent. For instance, it is plausible to claim that a specific perceptual activity constitutes the perception of red (= the perceptual event representing the instantiation of red) because it is the kind of psychological event regularly (canonically) caused by red surfaces — indeed one might expect that the psychophysics of sensory modalities would detail these canonical or standard conditions in objective terms. Although this maneuver is open to direct realists, it is optional. When one takes this option the result is pretty much a strong form of representationalism — for which see next section.
There are various technical difficulties with adverbialism, especially when dealing with phenomenologically complex overall experiences such as having three pains of different qualitative character simultaneously occurring in three different locations in one's body. It is not clear whether adverbialist approaches can successfully tie the appropriate manners corresponding to different qualities with the right pains or tissue damage on different locations. (See Jackson 1975, 1977 for a detailed criticism of this sort; Tye 1996, pp. 74–77, contains a useful summary.) Furthermore, even when one might successfully get rid of mysterious mental objects like sense-data with this adverbialist move, it is not clear whether adverbialism might still lead to a form of property dualism according to which one is directly aware of certain (non-physical) phenomenological qualities instantiated by experiences realized by brain states. These qualities seem to be required to explain how the manners of different perceptual activities of a perceiver can be differentiated.
There are other sources of resistance to direct perceptual theories of pain and other intransitive bodily sensations. Some objections stem from considerations about whether direct perceptual theories can give adequate accounts of perception in general, so are not specific to their treatment of pain. One of the most frequently discussed worries about direct perceptual theories in general is whether they can do justice to the internalist intuition that perceptual experience is phenomenally rich in a way that cannot be pushed back to the extramental world. In the case of early direct realist like Armstrong and Pitcher, this worry is even more pressing since they were cognitivist about perceptual experience in general; that is, they attempted to explain perception in terms of belief acquisition (or, in terms of acquisition of belief-like cognitive states). But beliefs don't seem to have the right kind of phenomenology associated with perceptual experiences and bodily sensations (see Everitt 1988 and Grahek 1991 for this kind of criticism). As pointed out earlier, early direct realists played down the importance of experiential phenomenology and sometimes even denied its existence fearing that acknowledging it will lead to the introduction of sense-data or “irreducibly psychic” qualia. But this concern about qualia drove many away from the early direct perceptual theories (especially those who were not much worried about skepticism and epistemology in general) with the conviction that these theories are not adequate after all for capturing the rich phenomenology of perceptual experiences.
Confronted with such difficulties and many others, it is tempting to adopt a strong form of representationalism that openly admits the existence of phenomenologically rich experiences, while preserving the basic intuition and naturalistic motivation behind direct realism. Indeed, many have yielded to this temptation.
Representationalism about pain is the view that the entire phenomenology of a pain experience is strictly identical to its representational or intentional content. In other words, the phenomenal and representational contents of pain are one and the same thing, thus they cannot come apart. Among the defenders of pain representationalism understood this way are Harman (1990), Dretske (1995, 1999, 2003), Tye (1996, 1997, 2006a, 2006b), Byrne (2001), Seager (2002), and Bain (2003).
Most early direct realist accounts of perception, as mentioned before, were shy about acknowledging a robust phenomenology for experiences. This was primarily because experiential phenomenology was associated with indirect realism and sense-data theories in particular. Many early direct realists embraced adverbialism because adverbialism promised a way of being realist about experiences while avoiding an act-object view of them. Because most direct realists identified pains with sensory experiences rather than their objects, the direct perceptual theorists about pain needed a robust (realist) notion of experience. Adverbialism gave way to a strong form of representationalism by suggesting ways in which intentional content could be naturalized on the basis of those canonical conditions that causally/lawfully control the occurrence of perceptual experiences in virtue of which they represent those bodily conditions. This opened up the possibility of defending direct realism about a robust experiential phenomenology with completely naturalistic credentials. The result was strong representationalism about all experiential phenomenology, according to which the entire phenomenal (qualitative) content or qualia of any experience is metaphysically constituted without remainder by its representational content.
Hence, representationalism about qualia in this context needs to be understood in a reductionist sense. As we have seen, indirect realism, especially in the form of sense-datum theories, were also advanced as representationalist theories (perhaps excluding the intransitive bodily sensations). Indeed, the old name for indirect realism was “representative realism.” On these theories, in having a perceptual experience we are directly acquainted with qualia, understood either as intrinsic qualities of experiences or as qualities of phenomenal individuals like sense-data. But, at least in standard exteroception, these qualities contingently represent objective sensible properties of public objects in virtue of either resembling them or by being regularly caused by their instantiations — or both. In other words, on an indirect realist approach, they are distinct existences: qualia or sense-data come to represent public objects and their sensible properties in virtue of some contingent relations holding between them (resemblance or causation).
However, in her acknowledgment of phenomenology, the reductionist direct realist cannot have such phenomenal objects somehow internal to one's mind or experience, nor can she endorse the existence of qualities intrinsic to experiences that we can become directly aware of in introspection — the basic direct perceptualist intuition, recall, is that our experiences are transparent to us in that they present us the world directly and immediately (this external relation is primary). So if qualia are to be retained in one's direct realist picture of perception, these qualia need to be reduced to representational content of perceptual states. We will sometimes use ‘strong representationalism’ to distinguish this view from “representative realism” (see Block 2006 — Block uses ‘representationism’ to mark the same distinction).
Like earlier direct realists, strong representationalists tend to be naturalists or physicalists. Therefore these theories usually come with a naturalist account of how these states (thought of as realized in the central nervous system) acquire their representational content. The most common account is either an ideal causal co-variation theory (informational semantics — see Dretske 1981, Fodor 1987, Aydede and Güzeldere 2005) or a teleological psychosemantics (see Millikan 1984, Papineau 1987) or both (Dretske 1988, 1995; Tye 1996). These are externalist theories.
To recap, strong representationalism is the modern day's direct realism about perception, where adverbialism is replaced by representationalism run on a naturalistic story about how perceptual experiences acquire their (analog) representational content that in turn constitutes their phenomenology. So, according to strong representationalism, pain experiences feel the way they do in virtue of their representational content, and nothing else. They represent various disorderly conditions of bodily tissue. The way they represent these conditions is analogous to the way our visual system represents colors. If colors are (at least, partly) objective features of surfaces like their surface spectral reflectances, our visual experiences don't represent colors as such, so we cannot come to conceptualize colors as spectral reflectances on the basis of their “grainless” visual presentations. So it is no objection to representationalism that our pain experiences don't represent tissue damage as such, which is to say that we cannot necessarily conceptualize what pain experiences represent as tissue damage solely on the basis of these experiences.
It is sometimes said that perceptual experiences represent what they do nonconceptually, which is often times equated with analog content (realized in picture-like continuous representations). In this context we can take this as a claim about the way experiences are representationally structured: they are not structured out of concepts (discrete representations) as thoughts are usually thought to be. Every sensory modality has a range of proprietary qualities that they can detect. Pain experiences are no different, although they may be less rich in terms of their informational content compared to vision for instance. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to argue that qualitative differences in pain experiences are due to their representing different bodily conditions. Tye lists a number of candidates:
… a twinge of pain represents a mild, brief case of damage. A throbbing pain represents a rapidly pulsing disorder. Aches represent regions of damage inside the body rather than on the surface. These regions are represented as having volume, as gradually beginning and ending, as increasing in severity, as slowly fading away. The volumes so represented are not represented as precise or sharply bounded. This is why aches are not felt to have precise locations, unlike pricking pains, for example. A stabbing pain is one that represents sudden damage over a particular well-defined bodily region. This region is represented as having volume (rather than being two-dimensional), as being the shape of something sharp-edged and pointed (like that of a dagger). In the case of a pricking pain, the relevant damage is represented as having a sudden beginning and ending on the surface or just below, and as covering a very tiny area. A racking pain is one that represents that the damage involves the stretching of internal body parts (e.g., muscles). (Tye 1997, p. 333; cf. Tye 1996, 2006a)
The problem of pain location is handled in the same way that the early perceptual theories handled them: the location of pain is the location that the pain experiences represent as where the tissue damage is occurring. This sort of account becomes more attractive in the light of the fact that we now have a much more robust and realist notion of experience whose phenomenological-cum-representational-content is a direct guide to the location of tissue damage. The phenomenology of pain experiences now directly/transparently presents tissue damage to the sufferer in virtue of its identity with its representational content (Tye 2006a, 2006b).
One of the central difficulties for any perceptual/representational view of pain is to explain why, if feeling pain is genuinely perceiving tissue damage in a body part, we report its experience rather than the tissue damage (see Pitcher 1970, pp. 379–80; Armstrong 1962, p. 125; and Aydede, forthcoming, for the statement of the difficulty). We may call this difficulty the problem of focus for perceptual theories in general (including strong representationalist views). According to the common sense conception of pain, and following it, most perceptual theories, we are, epistemologically and psychologically, more interested in the experience than its object, tissue damage. Our spontaneous conceptual reaction also follows this pattern: there is a marked difference in the locus of concept application or conceptual identification between standard exteroception and pain. As depicted in Figure 1 above, there is an obvious asymmetry between the two. If feeling pain is nothing but perceiving tissue damage in a bodily region on a par with seeing a red apple, then one would naturally expect that when we report pain in body parts, we are reporting a perceptual relation that obtains between the perceiver and an extramental condition perceived.
But this is not what we find. Instead, what we find is a report of an experience of a certain sort whose informational/representational etiology makes no difference to its own conceptual classification. A pain report is a report of an experience whose representational accuracy is of no relevance to whether the report itself is accurate. Recall that, on most perceptual theories, when I utter a sentence like (5), I am saying something like “I am having an experience which tells me that there is some sort of physical disorder in the back of my hand.” In other words, I simply report an experience that tells me something. Whether or not I come to believe what it tells me is a matter of factors that ought not to be read into the analysis of what the truth-conditions of (5) are. In fact, this sort of analysis proposed by perceptual theorists comes within inches to fully capturing the ordinary conception of pain and thus is an argument in favor of such theories. But this is precisely where the problem lies for perceptual theories. Why is a pain report a report of an experience in the first instance if the experience is genuinely perceptual (exteroceptual)? Isn't this strange? Nothing of this sort happens in genuine perception. In fact, this asymmetry can be transformed into a compelling argument against perceptual (as well as strong representationalist) theories in the following way — cf. Aydede (forthcoming).
Every genuine case of perception invites reporting an instance of perception in the relevant modality by sentences similar to (9)-(13), where the perceptual verb is used dominantly as a success verb. For instance:
(10) I see a red apple on the table.
This is for good reason: perception essentially is an activity whereby one gathers information about one's (extramental) environment in real time (including one's internal bodily environment of course). So it is not surprising that the dominant form of reporting is in the form of a relation between the perceiver and the perceived where the latter are extramental objects or conditions of one's environment. It is also not surprising that perception typically yields conceptual categorization of the perceived object or condition in the first instance: the typical result of a perceptual process is bringing the perceived object under a perceptual concept. Genuine perception thus puts the premium in the perceived object, not in the perceptual activity itself or in the perceptual experience whereby one is typically brought into epistemic contact with one's extramental environment. Hence the typical result of perception is the acquisition of beliefs with contents expressible by sentences like (9)–(13). If sentences reporting pain in body parts don't follow this pattern, i.e., if they are not to be construed as reports of perceptual relations between the perceiver and the perceived, then pain reports are prima facie not perceptual reports, reports to the effect that one stands in a perceptual relation to something extramental. But pain reports report feeling pain. Thus feeling pain is a not a form of genuine perception. Let us call this the argument from focus against perceptual theories.
There is an obvious sense in which the perceptual theorist is bound to concede that reporting pain is not a case of reporting the obtaining of a perceptual relation between the perceiver and the extramental perceived object. For to the extent to which reporting pain is reporting a conscious experience and only that, to that extent it is an introspective report, report of intramental activity. Nevertheless, a perceptual theorist would insist that this reported experience is a perceptual experience. But why report the experience, the messenger, rather than its object, the message? Why are we fixated on the messenger here?
A natural explanation that a perceptual theorist might give is that unlike other perceptual modalities, the acts of sensing tissue damage involved in feeling pain (i.e., the experience) have a very pronounced negative affective quality: pains are unpleasant, awful, hurtful, painful (see Pitcher 1970, p. 379ff; and Armstrong 1962, p. 125ff; 1968, p. 310ff). It is this negative affect that explains why we are fixated on the experience itself, rather than what it is a perception of, i.e., traumatized body parts. In other words, it is this negative quality that turns the recognitional focus onto itself, and with it, onto the experience it attaches to. If this is correct, then, of course, pains are equally unpleasant even when they misrepresent. This is why we pick out our acts of sensing (i.e., the experiences themselves) rather than their external objects irrespective of their informational etiology: whether or not they are veridical, they equally hurt.
This seems to be a plausible explanation on a first pass. Indeed, a perceptual theorist can even give, plausibly, an evolutionary story about why these perceptual experiences should feel unpleasant: they represent or signal a property of body parts that tends to hinder survival. However, can the same sort of explanation be given for other intransitive bodily sensations like itches, tickles, tingles, and orgasms? Perhaps it can be done for experiencing orgasms, which are usually intensely pleasurable and has obvious evolutionary benefits. But what about others? Itches have an unpleasant quality to them which normally makes one want to scratch the spot where one itches. But tickles and tingles can be pleasant at times and unpleasant at others, as well as affectively neutral at still other times. Still, the concept of a tickle or tingle is like the concept of a pain in that they apply to the acts of sensing or experiencing, rather than to what external conditions these acts may be representing — if they represent anything. Further, gustatory and olfactory experiences can be pleasant, unpleasant or affectively neutral, yet the acts of sensing involved in the exercise of these sensory modalities seem to be largely transparent in that we apply the relevant concepts like SWEET, BITTER, etc. to the external objects of these experiences in the first instance, and only derivatively or incidentally to the acts of sensing or to the experiences themselves.
These observations cast doubt on the plausibility of the explanation offered by the perceptual theorist for the asymmetry in focus. However, the perceptual theorist can still claim that whatever the explanation might be in the case of other intransitive bodily sensations, the explanation offered for pain is essentially correct, and such a theorist may thus conclude that she has discharged the burden of proof in claiming that experiencing pain is engaging in genuine exteroception. This reply has some initial plausibility since pain experiences have almost always a pronounced negative affect. Nevertheless, if one suspects — as one should — that the intransitivity of certain kinds of bodily sensations as a whole must have a unified explanation, one would be wise to conclude that the offered explanation is probably not the whole story, and thus might not be adequate all by itself.
There is also quite substantial scientific evidence that there are abnormal pain phenomena where the sensory and affective aspects of pain experiences are dissociated from each other — see Section 6.1 below. The most typical case is known as the pain asymbolia syndrome, where people who suffer from it have pain experiences without the negative affect. Interestingly, these people still identify their experience as pain, but show no bodily, emotional, and behavioral signs typically associated with the unpleasant aspect of pains. They are feeling a pain that doesn't hurt! If pains are not necessarily unpleasant, as this syndrome seems to show, it is an interesting and open question whether feeling pains without its negative affect would still retain its intransitive nature. (For considerations that it would, see Aydede and Güzeldere 2005.)
But the real problem for this response that appeals to negative affect is that even if the provided explanation were correct, it would not save a perceptual theory. The explanandum (namely, that the semantic focus of spontaneous concept application in reporting pains is the experience rather than the extramental object of this experience) can plausibly be interpreted as admission that feeling pain in a body part is not perceiving something extramental there. What justifies this interpretation is a reasonable condition on genuine perception: an experience kind is genuinely perceptual only if it generally gives rise to proprietary concept applications whose semantic focus is the proper object of this kind of experience. In other words, some cognitive uptake of a certain sort is necessary for a sensory process to become genuinely perceptual. Generally, concepts of secondary qualities are taken to be proprietary for each sensory modality. Indeed these concepts primarily apply to objects of experiences typically generated by these modalities, rather than to the experiences themselves (or if they do, only derivatively). But in the case of pain, we don't seem to semantically apply PAIN, or ‘pain’ for that matter, to tissue damage. Again this is evidenced by the truth-conditions of pain attributing sentences, as we've seen before. So the explanans may be correct, but it seems to miss its target, the explanandum: it turns out to be an explanation of why feeling pain is not genuinely perceptual. (See Aydede, forthcoming, for an extended elaboration of this kind of argument against perceptualist as well as strong representationalist theories.)
Another kind of response to the problem of focus might be to treat it as a pseudo problem that stems from our linguistic practices without affecting the phenomena. It might be argued in the following way (Chalmers in correspondence; cf. Hill 2006). We can invent a term ‘see2’ such that one can see2 even when the perceptual object is not present (so ‘see2’ applies to the visual experience, unlike the ordinary ‘see1’). We can also invent a term ‘feel1’ such that feeling1 requires the presence of the perceptual object, tissue damage (so ‘feel1’ is unlike the ordinary ‘feel2’). As it happens, in our language ‘see’ expresses “see1” and ‘feel’ expresses “feel2”, but that's just terminology. At the level of phenomena, the two cases are on a par.
But the problem won't go away with this maneuver. For one thing, it doesn't really address the anti-perceptualist argument from focus given above. For another, the question isn't whether we can or cannot invent new terms or form new concepts so that the two phenomena turn out to be type-identical. Linguistic practices reflect our conceptual practices, how we think and conceptually respond to incoming perceptual information. As a matter of fact, our conceptual practices treat seeing and other standard exteroception differently than they treat feeling pain, despite the fact that the types of information flow seem identical in both cases. The question is why? For these practices are shaped by our epistemic needs and psychological preferences that show up in our behavior. They are not arbitrary. If perception is a psychological process by which we gather information about the extramental world and align our conceptual and behavioral responses on this basis in a certain way, it is a fair question to ask whether a psychological process that deviates from this is perception, especially when the deviation seems to reflect that our epistemic needs and psychological preferences are markedly different than those involved in exteroception. The question of whether feeling pain is perception is not a purely metaphysical or philosophical question, but it is also partly and importantly an empirical (psychological) question.
Pains are not only sensory or perceptual experiences, they are also affective-emotional experiences, or at least they seem to have an affective aspect. Feeling pain is normally having an awful, hurtful, ‘painful,’ experience. So we may say that pains have a negative hedonic or affective value.
Strong representationalists are committed to claiming that all qualia are representational. So if this negative affective aspect of pain (i.e., the hurting, painful quality of pains) is a proper part of pain's overall qualitative phenomenology, then it must also be representational. But what does it represent? Pain phenomenology seems complex in that it seems to consist of at least two dimensions, affective-emotional and sensory-discriminative. Representationalists, along with earlier perceptual theorists, claim that the sensory aspect of pain is representational: it represents tissue damage. But what does the affective aspect represent? There doesn't seem to be a plausible candidate.
The early perceptual theorists, especially direct realists, were cognitivist about pain's negative affect. They claimed, roughly, that it consists of the experiencer's spontaneous cognitive/conative reactions to their own pain experiences. These reactions were conceived as forming conative propositional attitudes. In other words, the painfulness of pains was constituted by their power to immediately “evoke in [one] the peremptory desire that the [pain] perception should cease” (Armstrong 1968, pp. 314–16). (See also, Stephens and Graham 1985, 1987; Nelkin 1986, 1994; Hall 1989. Parfit 1984. According to Chisholm's 1987 presentation, Brentano also held that pains and pleasures are partly conative reactions to sensory elements.)
Even though theoretically cognitivism is an option for representationalism, adopting it would seem to violate the spirit of strong representationalism. It all depends how one would like to develop the cognitivist line. One option is to say that the affective aspect of pain is not qualitative or phenomenological. We are under the illusion that it is because we are hard-wired to cognitively and behaviorally react to the sensory content of pain in a certain way. This option has the advantage of preserving strong representationalism: if affect is not qualitative, there is no pressure to treat it as representational — cf. Tye (1996, pp. 111–16 and 134–36; 1997, p. 332–3). But if it is admitted that affective aspect of pain is as qualitative as its sensory content, then cognitivism comes as a compromise for strong representationalist because it admits that not all qualia are representational. This latter option may lead to representational-cum-functionalist approaches to pains and other affectively non-neutral experiences in that the sensory content of an experience may be given a purely representational account while its affective dimension may be a matter of functionally processing this content for setting motivational parameters (on the assumption that cognitive attitudes can be captured functionally) — see below.
The problem with cognitivism in general is that it suffers from intuitive implausibility: it certainly doesn't appear that the hurting aspect of pain experiences is just a matter of our cognitive reactions to them as ordinarily understood. Cognitive reactions in the form of propositional attitudes don't seem to have any qualitative phenomenology to them. But more importantly, this move appears to mislocate the problem. The question is: in what does the painfulness, the hurting quality, of pains consist? The answer offered seems to be: in our cognitive/conative reaction to the experience, something like having a desire for it to stop, for instance. But one would like to think that it is because the experience is painful that one desires it to stop, not the other way round.
The most straightforward way to deal with the affective qualia for a representationalist is to say that they too are representational, just like the sensory qualia. In a recent work, Tye seems to propose such a view:
People in pain try to get rid of it or to diminish it. Why? The answer surely is because pain feels unpleasant or bad, because it is experienced as such. But what exactly is experienced as unpleasant? One's attention, when one feels pain, goes to a place different from the one in which the experience of pain is located. The qualities that are experienced as unpleasant are located in the bodily location to which one attends (in normal circumstances). People whose pains lack the affective dimension undergo purely sensory, non-evaluative representations of tissue damage of one sort or another in a localized bodily region. Those whose pains are normal experience the same qualities, but now those qualities are experienced by them as unpleasant. It is precisely because the qualities are experienced as unpleasant or bad that people have the cognitive reactions to them they do, reactions such as desiring to stop the pain. To experience tissue damage as bad is to undergo an experience which represents that damage as bad. Accordingly, in my view, the affective dimension of pain is as much a part of the representational content of pain as the sensory dimension is. (Tye 2006a)
So the experience I undergo when I feel a sharp pain in the back of my hand feels the way it does because it represents tissue damage in my hand and it represents it as bad. In other words, it represents tissue damage as having the quality of being bad.
Of course, normally having one's tissue damaged is bad. We also normally think/judge that it is bad. Not only that, experiencing tissue damage (i.e., feeling pain) is bad. We think/judge so too. But it doesn't follow from these truisms (without additional premises) that the experience represents the damage as bad. These truisms should not be confused with this last claim, which is a substantive metaphysical claim. But what does it mean for one's experience to represent tissue damage as bad?
This is a non-trivial question for a strong representationalist who aspires to be a naturalist. Recall that strong representationalism usually comes with a naturalistic story about how experiences acquire their representational content. So it is important that representing tissue damage as bad can be cashed out in terms of whatever naturalistic story a representationalist has in his disposal. Many representationalists including Tye defend (or at least start with) an informational theory. But what is the natural property of the tissue damage itself that is detected or tracked by the experience so that we can say the experience carries information about it? The property of being bad doesn't seem to be the kind of property that can be informationally detected or transduced. Arguably, an information-theoretic version of representationalism seems not quite appropriate for affective qualia (but see Tye 2006b for a response).
But perhaps a functional role semantics might work better for cashing out what it means for pain experiences to represent tissue damage as bad. The idea is that pain experiences play a certain functional/causal role in the behavioral and mental economy of their owners. In particular, given that they normally signal injury, such experiences are typically causally associated with a certain battery of cognitive and behavioral effects. It might be claimed that this causal or functional profile as a whole (rather than a mere informational link) is what makes pain experiences represent tissue damage as bad.
It is not clear, however, whether representationalism is doing any work in this proposal once an appeal to functionalism is made. For one thing, it transforms strong representationalism into a partly internalist theory. For another, why not simply say that the functional role itself constitutes pain's affective phenomenology? Indeed, functionalism (or better: psychofunctionalism) in the philosophy of mind has always treated pains as paradigmatic examples of qualitative mental states whose phenomenology can plausibly be captured by functionalist proposals. What made this prima facie plausible was pain's affective phenomenology (as opposed to its sensory phenomenology), which is essentially connected with pain's being an intrinsic motivator. But once functionalism is allowed, we don't need to make a detour via representationalism. In fact, it is hard to see how an experience's representing something as bad can be an intrinsic motivator all by itself. To explain how, a representationalist has to advert to additional (learning?) mechanisms to connect representational content with drive and motivation.
Although a functionalist treatment of affective qualia seems problematic for pure strong representationalists, it may be welcomed by perceptual theorists in general who are seeking to give a naturalistic account of pain as a perception. All they need to do to accommodate pain's affective phenomenology is to say that feeling pain involves perception although perception doesn't exhaust its nature: feeling pain is also an affective/emotional experience that can be explained in terms of the functional role of pain's sensory/representational content. (See, for example, Lycan 1987a, pp. 60–61, Aydede 2000, and Clark 2006, for proposals roughly along this line.) This view, as we may recall, is what the IASP definition of pain seems to recommend. It seems also embedded in the common-sense conception of pain.
Indeed a number of theorists embraced this sort of approach that may be usefully called ‘mixed theories of pain’. These come in a variety of forms, sometimes motivated by different sets of concerns, and accordingly, emphasizing different aspects of pain. But the basic idea is that the nature of pain is complex consisting of at least two mental elements. Generally one element is characterized by using one or more of the following group of terms: sensory, perceptual, representational, discriminating, descriptive, or informational. The other is characterized by one or more of the following: affective, emotional, motivational, evaluative, or imperative. So far we have been focusing on those theories that have emphasized the former aspect. Indeed this has been the overwhelmingly dominant style of theorizing — at least in the philosophical tradition. But there is an increasing recognition of the fact that pain has an affective and motivational aspect which seems at least prima facie distinct from its sensory or perceptual aspect (see next section for scientific evidence). As observed, most perceptual theorists and weak representationalists could, and as a matter of historical fact, did accommodate the affective aspect of pain to various of degrees of success — mostly, by going cognitivist as described above.
Nevertheless, a number of such theorists have focused more on the affective aspect of pain experiences rather than on their sensory/perceptual aspect, perhaps feeling that it is this aspect that makes pain experiences and other similar bodily sensations unique and distinctive. There are historical precedents to this kind of approach (e.g., Marshall 1892, 1894a, 1894b; Duncker 1941), but I will focus on contemporary developments of the view.
A good example is Nelkin 1994. Nelkin calls his theory, the ‘evaluative theory of pain’, according to which pain consists of two components, one of which is an occurrent phenomenal state representing various troubles in body parts. The second component is a simultaneous and non-inferential evaluation of this phenomenal state. Nelkin conceives of this evaluation as a form of spontaneous de re judgment about the phenomenal state as representing harm to the body. He thinks that both elements are necessary for pain experience. Surprisingly, however, Nelkin claims that the evaluative component should not be equated with affect and motivation involved in experiencing pain. According to Nelkin, these two are only contingently related to pain experiences. (A similar view is presented in Hall 1989.)
Another evaluative theory is offered by Helm (2002) who develops the view in a more integrated fashion. According to Helm, bodily pains and pleasures are just felt evaluations, spontaneous evaluations of what is happening in one's body as good or bad. According to Helm, these evaluations aren't judgments understood ordinarily. Nevertheless, they have intentional contents rationally responsive to a broader range of background conative and cognitive states of the experiencer. Thus as felt evaluations they intrinsically motivate and rationalize behavior typically associated with pain and pleasure. Therefore, they are not a separate or separable component of pain. Pains and pleasure just are felt evaluations. Helm's account is nuanced in many ways as it depends on his fairly well elaborated theory of emotions (Helm 2001).
Hall (2008) and Klein (2007) also offer accounts of pain that belong to this class of evaluative theories. They call their views ‘imperative’ theories, according to which pains are experiences with purely intentional content. According to Hall, pains have compound intentional content partly consisting of descriptive content, and partly of imperative content. On his view, pain experiences both represent actual or potential damage in body parts and command certain actions involving those parts such as: “Stop! Stop doing what you're doing with this bodily part” (Hall 2008: 534).
Klein (2007) further develops this imperative account of pain in a more radical way: he proposes that pain experiences are exhausted by their imperative content alone. He claims that they have no descriptive (in his words, representational) content at all. He intends his account in the same metaphysical spirit in which strong representationalists present their account: the difference being in the kind of intentional content pains have. According to strong representationalists (in Klein's terminology, intentionalists), this content is purely descriptive. According to Klein, it is purely imperative: a proscription against acting with bodily parts where pain is felt.
Gustafson (2006) develops an extended and multi-stage argument against understanding pain as a sensory experience. On his view, pains are essentially emotions.
When the naturalistic underpinnings of these evaluative theories are explored, functionalist or psychofunctionalist reductions of the affective/evaluative dimension of pain might turn out to be the most natural option for these theorists.
Daniel Dennett, in his influential article, “Why You Can't Make a Computer that Feels Pain” (1978), argued that the ordinary concept of pain is irremediably incoherent and should be abandoned. His argument relied on some clinical pain syndromes which he dubbed the “reactive dissociation” of pain affect from its sensory aspect.
It has been well known that certain surgical procedures, some drugs and certain pathological conditions reduce or remove the unpleasantness of pain while preserving its sensory-discriminative aspects. These data typically come from patients who have undergone prefrontal lobotomy (Freeman et al. 1942; Freeman and Wattz 1946, 1950; Hardy et al. 1952; Barber 1959; Bouckoms 1994) or cingulotomy (Foltz and White 1962a, 1962b; White and Sweet 1969) as a last resort for their intractable chronic pain (as frequently involved in phantom limb pain, neuralgia, causalgia, severe psychogenic and cancer pains), from patients under the effects of hypnotic suggestion (Barber 1964; Rainville et al. 1997, 1999), nitrous oxide (laughing gas), and some opium derivatives like morphine (Barber 1959). These patients by and large agree that when they are in pain, they can recognize and identify it as such, but do not feel or seem bothered by it or distressed in ways characteristic to having pain experiences.
Although it is usually not recognized in the literature, there are, however, important differences among the phenomena afflicting these patients, which are manifested in patients' reports and behavior. For instance, pain asymbolia also typically produces a kind of dissociation — a rather strong kind — sometimes similar to cingulotomy patients' but interestingly different from lobotomy patients' (Rubins and Friedman 1948; Hurt and Ballantyne 1974; Berthier et al. 1988, 1990; Devinsky et al. 1995; Weinstein et al. 1995). In fact, there is evidence that pain asymbolia may be the only form of genuine dissociation (Grahek 2007). These patients, for instance, don't react to even momentary pains like pinpricks, small cuts, or burns. Experimental pain stimuli fail to produce any recognizable affective reactions. Nevertheless, the patients insist that the stimuli cause pain — they identify their experiences as pain (Rubins and Friedman 1948; Berthier et al. 1988, 1990; Dong et al. 1994; Weinstein et al. 1995). The lobotomy and morphine patients, on the other hand, do show the usual affective reactions and symptoms when they are stimulated momentarily by normally painful stimuli. But they don't seem to care or are bothered by their standing persistent or chronic pains. Probably, they still feel the negative affect but don't mind it, whereas the pain asymbolia patients don't even feel the momentary negative affect.
These two cases also need to be distinguished from so-called congenital insensitivity to pain, a condition where the patients don't even report any pain experience upon various kinds of nociception — these patients don't live long (McMurray 1955, 1975; Baxter and Olszewski 1960; Sternbach 1963; Brand and Yancey 1993).
In his paper, Dennett primarily relies on the kind of dissociation involved in lobotomy and morphine cases and treating them as if they involved the same kind of strong dissociation involved in pain asymbolia. He also presents certain aspects of the gate-control theory of pain transmission developed by Melzack and Wall which had already started to revolutionize the scientific pain research (Melzack and Wall 1965; Melzack 1973). Inspired by this theory, he then presents a speculative subpersonal functional theory of pain processing, according to which pain processing occurs in many functionally (even anatomically) different components of the central nervous system, mostly in parallel, such that some of them can be selectively impaired. This kind of selective impairment, he says, can produce not only dissociation of the kind we are familiar with, but many more bizarre phenomena we can expect to find and imagine happening. His insight is that our ordinary notion of pain with its essentialist intuitions cannot withstand the implications of such scientific developments in pain research.
According to the common-sense concept of pain, Dennett argues,
(14) pain experiences are essentially painful, awful, abhorrent, so that it is a logical impossibility to have an affectively neutral pain experience.
But it is also part of common sense that
(15) a subject's access to her pain experiences is essentially “privileged or infallible or incorrigible” (1978, p. 226).
In the case of reactive dissociation (RD) patients, these two main pillars of our ordinary concept of pain come into irremediable conflict according to Dennett. A totally alert and conceptually competent RD patient sincerely believes that (a) she is having a pain experience, and that (b) her pain experience is not painful at all. Given (14) and (a), we, as well as the patient, may conclude that she is having a painful pain experience. But this contradicts her belief (b) that is guaranteed to be true given (15). So we have a contradictory concept of pain, which means that nothing can be a pain — an object or event with essentially contradictory properties does not and cannot exist. Dennett also argues that the ordinary notion of pain will not survive giving up either (14) or (15). So pains, as ordinarily understood, do not exist. This is Dennett's eliminativism about pain.
We should also note that the pain scientists themselves who wrote up the IASP definition of ‘pain’ and the accompanying note seem to side with Dennett on the truth of (14). This is quite interesting because they must know all too well about the reactive dissociation cases. Today, almost twenty years after the IASP definition was adopted, we know that these cases are real and we have good scientific explanations broadly in the spirit of Dennett's speculations. But, strangely, the definition has never come under attack from these quarters — as far as I know. So then, should we give up (15)?
One way to respond to Dennett's challenge is to say that if the common-sense conception of pain did indeed require (14) and (15), then it was simply wrong (Kaufman 1985). So strictly speaking nothing corresponds to the ordinary notion of pain. But given that pain experiences are almost always unpleasant (in fact, always unpleasant in non-pathological cases), we can easily replace the faulty conception with a new one which is close enough not to cause alarm by its being empty — read (14) with ‘normally’ instead of ‘essentially.’ A similar line can be run for (15).
Alternatively, one can argue against Dennett that (14) and (15) are not really part of the common sense concept of pain (Conee 1984, Kaufman 1985, Guirguis 1998). Indeed when we are told the complete details of what is going on in RD cases, there is no tendency to conclude that pains turn out not to exist. Rather, in such cases we realize that pain phenomenology may be complex: what appears to be a simple and homogenous phenomenology in casual introspection turns out to have a complex structure in close and trained inspection (challenging a strict reading of (15)). Then what the RD cases show is that the affective aspect is not essential for an experience to be classified as pain. Indeed such a conclusion was urged by early introspectionist psychologists long before the discovery of reactive dissociation. So we learn that the identity of pain goes with its sensory aspect rather than its affective aspect (as, indeed, Ploner's 1999 case study seems to show). Surprising, yes, but nothing like a major conceptual confusion. But part of Dennett's overall point should be granted in any case: the limit of what can be conceptually revised or abandoned as a result of scientific developments may be much closer to home than we ordinarily think.
In her book, The Myth of Pain (1999), Valerie Hardcastle also argued for eliminating the commonsense understanding of pain and much of the ordinary pain talk. She argues that the commonsense notion of pain conceives of pains as simple subjective sensations devoid of any complexity. According to Hardcastle, pain is a complex phenomenon consisting of many dissociable dimensions. To the two components (sensory-discriminative and affective-motivational) we discussed above, she adds, following Melzack and Wall (1988) and others, a cognitive component (involving judgments, beliefs, memories, perception of environment and patient's own history). Hardcastle claims that to the extent to which these components are ignored by the commonsense conception of pain, to that extent it's inadequate. Moreover, on her view, it is a fatal mistake to take this subjective sensation of pain as the nature of pain because she thinks that a biologically more realistic objective understanding of pain involving the various systems processing nociceptive information will serve our scientific purposes much better and the commonsense understanding of pain should follow that.
There are other ways of being eliminativist about pains having to do with the nature of qualia or the alleged existence of apparent phenomenal objects. Some philosophers, feeling that qualia or phenomenal objects cannot be accommodated by an emerging scientific naturalism, tend to conclude that they simply don't exist as we philosophically conceive of them (Dennett 1988, Rey 1997). This is a particularly vivid worry for intransitive bodily sensations in general and for pain in particular, because they seem to impress upon us as if in having them we were literally confronted with phenomenal objects that cannot be part of the natural world order. If one comes to the conclusion that none of the theories offered has any chance of succeeding in helping us understand how a purely physical world could contain pains, tickles, itches, orgasms, etc., then one way to go is to say that they don't exist — rather than giving up on naturalism or physicalism. But the issues here are more general, pertaining to broader concerns in the philosophy of mind.
When we look at the science of pain, especially at what has happened since the publications of Melzack and Wall's (1965) and Melzack and Casey's (1968), which revolutionized the scientific research on pain, we see that the science of pain has increasingly conceived of pain as less like perception of an objective reality and more like emotions by first drawing the sensory/affective distinction and then emphasizing more and more its affective aspect. (For a review see Price 1999 and Aydede 2006. See Gustafson 2006 for a sustained argument that pain is primarily an emotion. A.D. Craig 2003 claims on scientific grounds that pains are homeostatic emotions. See also Chapman & Nakamura 1999 as well as Vogt 2005 for scientific grounds linking pain to emotion.) As we have seen, the trend in philosophy, on the other hand, has been in the other direction: as naturalism has started to become an orthodoxy in the second part of the 20th century, philosophers have increasingly sought for ways in which they could assimilate pain to ordinary perception like vision, audition, etc.
One of the main motivations behind the perceptual/representational views of pain in philosophy is the belief (or hope) that perception as a species of information gathering can be accounted for entirely in physicalistic terms. Of course, this is a controversial claim. There are many who think that perception involving as it does conscious phenomenal experience cannot be a purely physical phenomenon. However, even these theorists may agree that it is a plausible theoretical strategy to pursue an understanding of pain and other intransitive bodily sensations in perceptual/representational terms. This strategy, if it works, minimizes the diversity of mental phenomena, and thus potentially offers the prospects of a more unified theory of mind. If this theory turns out to be in harmony with the rest of our sciences and their fundamental metaphysical and methodological assumptions, so much the better. Indeed, it was the plausibility of this strategy and the belief that we will eventually succeed in understanding perception in purely naturalistic terms that have prompted many philosophers to advance perceptual/representational theories of pain. Many in fact believe that philosophy has made some progress in the second half of the last century in developing the conceptual tools for a better and more naturalistic understanding of perception and the mind in general — e.g., the notion of a mental representation and its (broadly) computational processing.
But does the scientific trend towards understanding pain as a subjective experience less like a perception and more like an emotion with quite a variable link to injurious stimuli undermine the philosophical project? There is no simple answer. We may say, “yes it does,” if we take the perceptual/representational theories as making the strong claim that pain is strictly nothing but a perception just like other standard perceptions. We may say, “no it doesn't” if we take their claim in a weaker sense to the effect that pain involves perception understood in a certain way (on the assumption that the perceptualists can answer other arguments against their views, such as the argument from focus). Nothing in the scientific understanding of pain itself seems to show that pain involves no perception at all. On the contrary, as the science of pain has unearthed in the last forty years or so, there are physiologically specialized systems that process nociceptive stimuli from the moment they effect peripheral receptors to the central processing of these signals in the spinal cord and the brain. This is what happens in all classical five sense modalities, including touch. Indeed, pain may be classified as a submodality of touch.
If we take the weaker claim to the effect that feeling pain involves sensory perception but doesn't exhaust its nature due to its affective dimension, we may still preserve a naturalistic view of pain by giving a functionalist (or, psychofunctionalist) account of its affective aspect. According to this proposal, even though the sensory-discriminative aspect of pain can perhaps be handled representationally, the affective aspect reduces to the way in which the sensory-discriminative information is processed, not for analysis to extract information about the proximal or distal properties of the stimuli, but rather for its significance for the effector or motor systems, to set motivational parameters for action on the basis of stimuli's informational content. There is in fact strong supporting evidence for such a thesis in the evolutionary stories of different organisms at different developmental hierarchies. The neuroscientific evidence about the affective brain seems also to support this idea in general.
This is a view that treats pain as both a representational and a functional state. Such a view still needs to provide a good answer to the problem of focus that we have seen afflicts all perceptual/representationalist views. Why is there an asymmetry in concept application, or in the focus of conceptual categorization? Pointing out that pain has a deeply pronounced negative affect seems not entirely adequate even when we have an adequate account of what this affect consists in.
These are the major questions that an adequate perceptual account of pain ought to give satisfactory answers to. Thus, despite significant advances in our philosophical and scientific understanding of pain in the last fifty years or so, there is still a lot of work to be done to develop a fully satisfactory account of pain.
There are other philosophical as well as scientific questions about pain. Do animals feel pain? If they do, is it comparable to the way we feel pain? What are the social, economical, ethical and religious implications of affirmative answers to these questions? How can animal pain be scientifically studied? What should be the methodology of scientific research on animals in general and of animal pain in particular? How can we project the results obtained by pain research on animals onto humans? Parallel or similar questions arise in the case of fetuses and young infants that are even more pressing and urgent for obvious reasons. What is the relationship between pain and pleasure, or pain and emotions in general? What are the ethical and religious status and implications of pain? These and many other questions remain to be the focus of many researchers in the field. (The literature addressing these questions is huge and still rapidly growing; consult the Pain Bibliography cited in the Other Internet Resources section below for representative works.)
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How to cite this entry. Preview the PDF version of this entry at the Friends of the SEP Society. Look up this entry topic at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). Enhanced bibliography for this entry at PhilPapers, with links to its database.
- Pain & Pleasure in PhilPapers. This is a constantly updated comprehensive directory of online philosophy articles and books by academic philosophers, maintained by David Chalmers (ANU) and David Bourget (U. London).
- Pain Bibliography (~340 entries), maintained by Murat Aydede (University of British Columbia). This is a partially annotated bibliography listing largely philosophical literature on pain. It also lists some scientific works that are of particular interest to philosophers or are useful to a general audience. It focuses on psychological, epistemological and metaphysical issues rather than aesthetical, ethical or religious ones.
- The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP)
- American Pain Society (APS)
- Pain Research Center University of Utah
Some material in this entry appeared in Aydede (2006). I would like to thank David Chalmers who has patiently guided me through various editions of this entry and made numerous valuable suggestions. | <urn:uuid:3b089252-0ce3-42d5-9a85-559b3a18d67a> | CC-MAIN-2016-30 | http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pain/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-30/segments/1469257829325.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20160723071029-00201-ip-10-185-27-174.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.937418 | 29,517 | 2.71875 | 3 |
What is the poverty rate in Bellflower, California?
The poverty rate in Bellflower is 14.8%. One out of every 6.7 residents of Bellflower lives in poverty.
How many people in Bellflower, California live in poverty?
11,450 of 77,275 Bellflower residents reported income levels below the poverty line in the last year.
How does the poverty rate in Bellflower compare to the rest of California?
The Poverty Rate across the state of California is 15.1%, meaning Bellflower has a slightly lower than average percentage of residents below the poverty line when compared to the rest of California.
|Year||Poverty Rate||YoY % Change||National|
|Race||Population||Poverty Rate||National Poverty Rate||Population|
Two Or More Races
The Poverty Rate of black residents in Bellflower, California is dramatically lower than the national average of 25.2%. 1,161 of 10,240 black Californians live below the poverty line. Approximately 13.2% of the total population of Bellflower, California are black.
The Poverty Rate of asian residents in Bellflower, California is dramatically lower than the national average of 11.9%. 920 of 10,363 asian Californians live below the poverty line. Approximately 13.3% of the total population of Bellflower, California are asian.
The Poverty Rate of white residents in Bellflower, California is the same as than the national average. 1,848 of 12,580 white Californians live below the poverty line. Approximately 16.2% of the total population of Bellflower, California are white.
The Poverty Rate of hispanic residents in Bellflower, California is the same as than the national average. 7,447 of 42,646 hispanic Californians live below the poverty line. Approximately 54.8% of the total population of Bellflower, California are hispanic.
The Poverty Rate for men who live in Bellflower, California is 13.4%.
The Poverty Rate for women who live in Bellflower, California is 16.1%.
5,048 of 37,632 males in Bellflower live below the poverty line.
6,402 of 39,643 females in Bellflower live below the poverty line.
Understanding where poverty hits hardest in Bellflower can be better understood by segmenting poverty by whether or not the resident is in school or not.
Poverty for younger ages in Bellflower is seen as the most undesirable for the future of the community.
Poverty for developing children and young adults in Bellflower can have drastic impacts on graduation and college attendance rates.
Adult students in college, graduate or professional schools generally bring employers, revenue and higher living wages post-graduation and are seen as a positive to the community.
Children Under 6
Children 6 to 11 Years Old
Adolescents 12 to 17 Years Old
Adults 18 to 59 Years Old
Adults 60 to 74 Years Old
75 to 84 Years Old
Over 85 Years Old
The Poverty Rate for residents of Bellflower, California who were born citizens of the United States is 14.2%.
The Poverty Rate for residents of Bellflower, California who were born citizens of a country other than the US is 16.1%.
Of the 52,978 residents of Bellflower, California who were born citizens of the United States, 7,527 (14.2%) had income levels below the poverty line within the past year.
Conversely, 3,923 (16.1%) of 24,297 residents of Bellflower, California who were born citizens of a country other than the US reported income levels below the poverty line within the past year.
|La Cañada Flintridge||3.0%|
|La Habra Heights||3.0%|
|Lake Los Angeles||30.1%|
|Marina del Rey||12.4%|
|North El Monte||14.0%|
|Palos Verdes Estates||4.7%|
|Rancho Palos Verdes||4.5%|
|Rolling Hills Estates||4.5%|
|Santa Fe Springs||13.9%|
|South El Monte||18.7%|
|South Monrovia Island||14.6%|
|South San Gabriel||13.1%|
|South San Jose Hills||16.6%|
|View Park-Windsor Hills||10.4%|
|West Puente Valley||8.9%|
|West Rancho Dominguez||20.5%|
|West Whittier-Los Nietos||9.0%|
|Desert View Highlands||11.9%|
|East Los Angeles||22.4%|
|East Rancho Dominguez||21.6%|
|East San Gabriel||10.4%| | <urn:uuid:3760e335-d1eb-456c-b2b0-0b15ec4351a7> | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | https://www.welfareinfo.org/poverty-rate/california/bellflower | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320305494.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20220128104113-20220128134113-00336.warc.gz | en | 0.652895 | 2,710 | 2.59375 | 3 |
I know that MD5 is the most vulnerable hashing algorithm
Well technically (we are technical around here) there are worse algorithms than MD5.
and particularly vulnerable to Collisions
Yes, folks can create a desired hash with a different plaintext. This is not likely to happen randomly, but could occur maliciously.
But the collision vulnerability is not very risky and somebody might use that as an advantage, but that's with sheer luck.
Not sheer luck. There are techniques to find a plaintext that produces a desired MD5. That's a good subject for a different question.
OK, let's say I store passwords using MD5.
Ouch. The main reason you shouldn't use MD5 is because it is a General Purpose (Fast) Hash.
You should be using a (Slow) Password Hash such as
- BCrypt is commonly recommended, but be sure to run a quick SHA-2 hash on the input data, so super-long passwords will not be truncated by BCrypt
- PBKDF2 but that is less GPU-resistant because it has lower Memory requirements.
- SCrypt is better than BCrypt if you have a high enough work factor. Otherwise it is worse against GPUs. (again, because of higher or lower Memory requirements)
- The winner of the Password Hashing Competition may be even better than the aforementioned, but has not yet stood the test of time, so don't use it just yet. It's called Argon2, and has separate Work Factor settings for CPU time and Memory load. (nice!)
- Repetitive SHA-2 can be used instead of PBKDF2 (still not GPU resistant), but this is more tricky to implement the repetition efficiently (i.e. to be brute-force resistant) because SHA-2 is actually a General Purpose (Fast) Hash.
Most of these options generate random Salt by default, but you should verify whether this is the case!
It is best to include some Pepper (~72 bits of entropy) before the Password prior to hashing. The Pepper can be the same for all your users, but should be stored in a file outside of the database so that component cannot be found via SQL Injection.
Make sure your Work Factor requires about 100ms (with appropriate DoS protection) on your target hardware (knowing that attackers will use faster hardware for Brute force)
Of course no amount of hashing will protect weak
passwords, so include password strength requirements.
collision vulnerability ... is there any way that the attacker can use this as an advantage?
In the context of password hash storage this probably will not help the attacker. | <urn:uuid:f4af8035-bb8b-4a57-afd0-7320faf4204a> | CC-MAIN-2019-35 | https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/138363/why-is-md5-considered-a-vulnerable-algorithm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-35/segments/1566027315681.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20190820221802-20190821003802-00290.warc.gz | en | 0.928371 | 545 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Posted Saturday, Aug. 11, 2012, at 3:00 AM
Photo by DANIEL GARCIA/AFP/GettyImages.
If you’ve been watching the Olympics, you’ve surely noticed all the strips of colored tape plastered to athletes’ bodies. The media sure has: In the past two weeks, Reuters, the Atlantic, ABC News, and Fox (among others) have all reported on the colored tape, which is sold by a company called Kinesio. According to the product's website, the tape is designed to “facilitate the body’s natural healing process while allowing support and stability to muscles and joints without restricting the body’s range of motion.”
The press has questioned this claim, and rightly so. Studies of the tape’s efficacy suggest that there’s no proof that this particular tape is any better than any other kind of tape. But this doesn’t mean athletes shouldn’t use it, especially if they believe that it works—and many, judging by the number wearing it at the Olympics, do. The placebo effect—the idea that medically inert substances that people believe to have a beneficial effect can, in fact, have a beneficial effect—is a well-documented phenomenon. And in sports, studies suggest that placebo effects improve performance.
In one 2006 study, for instance, experienced cyclists were told that they would either receive a placebo or caffeine before a 10-kilometer time trial. In reality, all the athletes got a placebo, but when they thought they’d been given caffeine they pedaled harder—and the more caffeine they were told they were administered the harder they pedaled. “When I thought I was on the 9 mg of caffeine I went faster,” reported Subject 2 at the end of the study. “I felt more on top of it whereas all the other times I felt like I was having to dig in just to keep the pedals turning over.”
Pain relief might be the biggest benefit of placebos. In a 2007 study, competitors in a test of pain endurance were given morphine on training days and a placebo they were told was morphine on the day of the competition. Compared to a control group that never got morphine, the placebo group showed an increased ability to endure pain during the competition.
As the authors of the 2007 study point out, the fact that a placebo can emulate the effects of morphine raises ethical questions about their use in athletic competitions. So if Kinesio tape does cause a placebo-like increase in performance, should the adhesive bandage be banned?
According to the World Anti-Doping Agency, a substance must satisfy two of the following three conditions to be considered for its prohibited list: 1) it represents a potential or actual health risk; 2) it has the potential to enhance or enhances sport performance; 3) it is contrary to the spirit of sport. Here, the last two could apply. As a placebo, Kinesio tape has the potential to enhance performance. And if athletes believe that applying the tape gives them an advantage it could be argued that this is contrary to the spirit of sport. But this argument, I think, is weak. Athletes believe in the benefit of lots of odd things—having a pre-game bowel movement, getting slapped in the face, sleeping in your opponents’ shorts. It would be ridiculous to ban any of these things, much less all of them. So let’s put Kinesio tape in the same category as a playoff beard: a potential performance enhancer that adds some color to our favorite sports. | <urn:uuid:139de223-af16-420e-b1db-4192e2090f85> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.slate.com/blogs/five_ring_circus/2012/08/11/kinesio_tape_what_s_the_deal_with_that_tape_every_olympian_wears_should_it_be_banned_.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708789647/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125309-00004-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955296 | 745 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Environment is central to the idea of sustainable and inclusive development. And so is the need for effective dissemination of environmental knowledge in our educational institutions both at school as and at university levels.
As a logical extension to the successful Green Schools’ Programme that for a decade has made a mark in schools, CSE launched its University intervention in early 2016. University Grants Commission (UGC) has made it compulsory for all colleges to introduce a six months module on environment. Titled, 'Environmental Studies', is now offered as an interdisciplinary, course at the undergraduate level across all disciplines in India. A common refrain about ‘Environmental Studies’ is that it is poorly executed and indifferently received by students, who find the course boring (18 year old, fresh out of school!). Faculty members, on their part, cite a lack of training/teaching help (pedagogic approaches, lack of readings, other resources, etc.). The Supreme Court’s mandate for all University students to study Environmental Studies in the first semester has reinforced the idea that meaningful environmental education is a key priority for a sustainable and equitable future.
Vision: CSE’s vision is to reach out and nurture the youth of the country through Faculties teaching environment by making them more aware about the science and politics of environmental issues. This in turn is bound to stimulate them to question the prevailing developmental patterns, lifestyle, and governance systems.
Objective: Build capacity of Faculty to teach EVS, and provide ready reference material to enrich their teachings and Provide platforms such as the Green Educators' Network, Knowledge Conclave, summer courses such as Agenda for Survival (AfS), online lectures to develop the capacity of those (faculty, students as well as young environmental professionals) to bring alive the vast subject of environment.
Components of the University Programme:
Green Educators’ Network – was launched in January 2016 to provide teachers a platform, a space to interact amongst themselves and with others who teach the subject. The Educator’s Network aims to enhance their knowledge about environmental issues, politics and impart learnings for solutions. More than 500 educators have registered for the network, while around 250 plus of these educators have attended the Knowledge Conclave.
Educators teaching EVS or Environmental Engineering or Environmental Science can click here and submit their registration forms, if interested in becoming a member of the network. The Environment Education Unit (EEU) is constantly working towards the expansion of the Educators network by approaching colleges situated in each and every corner of the country.
During the last two years, network members have been actively sharing nominations of faculty members from different institutions, teaching papers related to environment. Should you like to nominate another faculty member of environment, please write to us at firstname.lastname@example.org.
Knowledge Conclave – This forum provides the members of the Green Educators’ Network access to CSE's vast network of environment educators, scientists, activists, policy makers, regulators, lawyers and journalists. The focus of the Conclave is environmental education for a sustainable and equitable future. In addition to four National Knowledge Conclaves conducted in the year 2015 and 2016, CSE has conducted two 'Regional Knowledge Conclaves' at Kolkata and at Mysuru in 2017 and 2018, respectively.
Readers for Universities – Based on feedback by members of the network that topical resource material was limited, CSE introduced its first Environmental Reader for universities aimed at providing a well – rounded perspective towards the various environmental issues with the help of case studies, current data, infographics, etc. CSE’s Green Educator Network members are actively using and recommending the Reader as part of the curriculum or are planning to propose the inclusion of the same from the next session onwards. Valuable and encouraging feedback from the users of the Reader cited it to be highly informative, include how educators are able to link with the UGC syllabus.
Following the success of the first reader and realising the seriousness of the climate change issue, CSE felt the urgent need to bring out a new reader on Climate Change alone. The Climate Change Reader was recently launched during CSE’s 4th National Knowledge Conclave held in March 2019. For the initial development of reader content, an online survey was conducted wherein our network members had provided useful feedback in terms of the potential themes/ topics to be considered for inclusion in the Reader. As a result, several topics such as climate change impacts, carbon economy, climate science, and climate change policies and politics, etc. have been included.
E - Newsletter – E-newsletters are released every month to the faculty members of CSE’s Green Educators’ Network. The content of the newsletter is based on the case studies/articles/blogs/ videos of Down to Earth magazine and the DTE TV. These newsletters help our educators stay updated and also provide teaching assistance during their daily lectures. The newsletter is divided into different sections - ‘Lead story’, ‘In-focus’ story, ‘’Notice board’, ‘From the Educators’, ‘Publication’, etc.
Links of useful ‘teaching handouts’ covering the theme of the Lead story or In-focus story are embedded to enhance overall teaching of various environmental issues. Information such as suggested field visit sites, definitions of important terms, additional resource materials for students to refer, tasks and assignments, etc. are included in these teaching handouts.
The content of ‘From the Educators’ section of newsletter is completely driven by the members of Green Educators’ Network. Information related to the following are included in this section:
Quarterly Online Lectures – This is a recently launched initiative that helps us reach out to students of environment (our young environmentalists) across the country. Educators first have to become a member of CSE’s Green Educators’ Network to enable their students to watch these online lectures. Thematic/ issue related discussions take place during these online lectures. Students actively participate by asking questions related to the theme being discussed. Quarterly online lectures have proved to be an efficient medium for students to get a quick overview of the issue in question and to also interact directly with the resource person.
Topics such as climate change, air pollution and solid waste management were covered during the first three online lectures conducted by CSE between August 2018 and Jan 2019. These sessions have received an overwhelming response in terms of the total number of views/likes, numerous meaningful questions asked by students of environment, etc.
Green Campus – CSE’s University Programme also believes in providing practical solutions or alternatives/ strategies to help these colleges transform themselves by increasing resource efficiency, improving ecosystem management for sufficiency, minimizing waste, pollution and promoting healthy lifestyle. In this regard, CSE launched its Green Campus Toolkit at the Regional Knowledge Conclave in Kolkata.
While several institutions have shown interest in participating in the audit, three of our network institutions – Gargi College, Guru Nanak Dev University and University of Mysure have already signed a MoU with CSE’s Sustainable Building and Habitat Programme with the objective of greening their campuses.
Collaborative research opportunities - CSE teams often conduct collaborative research studies with our network colleges in various states. For instance, CSE’s Clean Air and Sustainable Mobility Programme had recently worked with the West Bengal Transport Corporation (WBTC) to improve the public transport system through bus reforms, in Kolkata. As part of this study, CSE, in collaboration with 3 of its network colleges - Jadavpur University, Presidency University and Calcutta University, conducted a user perception survey to gauge the level of satisfaction of bus passengers in Kolkata. The study was conducted with the help of students from these three colleges. Testimonials submitted by Faculty in-charge from the three colleges highlighted the valuable exposure this collaboration provided to the participating students. As a member of Green Educators’ Network, your institution can also participate in such collaborative studies.
Agenda for Survival - Held each June, this flagship month long summer school started in 2008 designed by CSE offers a range of experiences to participants such as study of issues, interaction with policy-makers, field work and interaction with communities. It has alumni well placed in premier institutions of this country. This four week innovative program gives the youth of India an opportunity to evaluate issues that lie at the interface of environment and development; poverty; democracy, equity and justice. This interactive programme has a number of assignments weaved in to make learning exciting and to help participants to polish their communication skills, field-based reporting and writing to understand environment as a subject.
To become a member of CSE’s Green Educators’ Network, please click on the link given below and submit the form
|Sunita Narain's online lecture| | <urn:uuid:d7c5cd9f-a786-462e-9698-bff6052d8aa7> | CC-MAIN-2020-16 | https://www.cseindia.org/university-programme-an-overview-8393 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-16/segments/1585370506959.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200402111815-20200402141815-00233.warc.gz | en | 0.951732 | 1,832 | 2.890625 | 3 |
British Overseas Airways Corporation Flight 781 Crashes
BOAC Flight 781 departed Rome, Italy on a flight to London, England.
While climbing through 27,000 feet, the plane experienced a sudden in-flight break-up and crashed into the Mediterranean Sea near the Island of Elba. All 35 passengers and crew on board were killed. Following this accident, the Comet fleet was taken from service and subjected to numerous modifications in areas believed to have been the origin of the yet-unknown failure. The fleet was returned to service in late March 1954.
Thirty-five people are missing, feared dead, after a Comet jet airliner crashed into the Mediterranean.
The plane - a British Overseas Airways Corporation jet - was on its way from Singapore to London. It came down in the sea about 20 minutes after taking off from Rome, in Italy, on the last leg of its journey.
Fifteen bodies have been recovered so far. There were 10 children among the passengers. World War II correspondent Chester Wilmot, was also among those missing.
Gerry Bull, a former BOAC engineer, said that when he inspected the aircraft in Rome he looked for "incidental damage." He did not find any, so he believed Flight 781 was fit for flight. Bull and the same team of engineers later examined South African Airways Flight 201 before its final flight.
On 10 January 1954, the flight took off at 09:34 GMT for the final stage flight to London. 31-year old Alan Gibson, who served as the captain, was one of the youngest pilots at BOAC.
At about 09:50 GMT a passing BOAC Argonaut G-ALHJ was in contact with Captain Gibson. During a radio communication about weather conditions, the conversation was abruptly cut-off. The last words heard from Captain Gibson were "George How Jig, did you get my..". About this time wreckage was seen falling into the sea by a fisherman.
Heathrow Airport initially listed Flight 781 as being delayed; around 1:30 PM the airport took the flight off of the arrivals board. | <urn:uuid:8dc0763d-bb5d-4221-abcc-07aac4c29006> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | https://worldhistoryproject.org/1954/1/10/british-overseas-airways-corporation-flight-781-crashes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986688674.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20191019013909-20191019041409-00414.warc.gz | en | 0.980423 | 428 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Pancreatic cancer blood test breakthrough
Scientists believe they are close to a blood test for pancreatic cancer - one of the hardest tumours to detect and treat.
The test, which they describe as "a major advance", hunts for tiny spheres of fat that are shed by the cancers.
Early results published in the journal Nature showed the test was 100% accurate.
Experts said the findings were striking and ingenious, but required refinement before they could become a cancer test.
The number of people who survive 10 years after being diagnosed with pancreatic cancer is less than 1% in England and Wales compared with 78% for breast cancer.
The tumour results in very few symptoms in its early stages and by the time people become unwell, the cancer has often spread around the body and become virtually untreatable.
A wall of fat marks the boundary of every cell in the human body. Tiny spheres of fat - called vesicles or exosomes - can break away to store and transport goods around the body.
The team at the Anderson Cancer Centre at the University of Texas looked for the unique signatures of cancer in these fatty exosomes.
They noticed one protein, called proteoglycan glypican-1, was found in much higher levels in people with pancreatic cancer.
Further tests on the blood of 270 people showed it was 100% accurate at distinguishing between cancers, other pancreatic disorders and healthy tissue.
One of the researchers Dr Raghu Kalluri told the BBC News website: "We think the ability to identify and isolate cancer exosomes is a major advance and provides the possibility of immensely benefiting our patients."
He said the need for such a test was "huge" and it was "not too far" from the clinic.
"The clinical symptoms arise late in patients with this cancer and also the tools to track their disease before and after therapy and during remission and relapse are not good.
"So, having a reliable biomarker with the ability to identify mutations is of great value."
However, it is not clear how early it could pick up the cancer.
Nell Barrie, from Cancer Research UK, said the research was "ingenious" and could "one day offer a way to spot diseases like pancreatic cancer at a much earlier stage".
Although she said there was "much more work to be done".
Prof Dorothy Bennett, from St George's, University of London, said the test had a "striking 100% accuracy".
"This study strongly suggests that a way to create a test for pancreatic cancer has been found in principle.
"This would be very good news for patients suspected of having this cancer." | <urn:uuid:780156e1-8b33-494b-8646-b49406c373c3> | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-33259440 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578626296.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20190424034609-20190424060609-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.974083 | 551 | 3.015625 | 3 |
It’s hard to comprehend that on average 6,000 people are killed in Africa every day from HIV/AIDS – this is more than any war, famine or natural disaster. When put in this context the impact of the disease really does hits home. In Tanzania, the prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS is 8.6% in adults, with 65% of new infections occurring in new adults aged 15-24. With this in mind AI, alongside partners The Community Aid and Small Enterprises Consultancy (CASEC), are combating HIV/AIDS through our Youth Education programme, hoping to make a big impact before this 15-24 age bracket.
How are we doing this? Working with 14 schools, AI is educating both students and teachers on how to reduce the risk of HIV and AIDS, equipping the students with life skills and information regarding sexual and reproductive health, and changing behaviour and attitudes. This is incredibly important given the fact that there are a disproportionate number of women and girls living with the infection, largely through gender inequality, lack of education and therefore little understanding of the workings of their own bodies. The subject of HIV/AIDS is also extremely taboo and anyone with the disease not only suffers from the infection but with stigma associated with it. By creating a platform in which the disease can be discussed openly, through the Health Clubs that also create alternative out-of-school activities, this generates a greater sense of awareness and openness increasing the likelihood that knowledge of HIV/AIDS will then be passed on to friends, family and the rest of the community.
Working with CASEC we feel strongly that it’s worth investing the time now and educating the younger generation in the prevention of HIV/AIDS, after all prevention really is better than cure. | <urn:uuid:5da7de0a-e38e-4ff7-9b96-37a3308d5914> | CC-MAIN-2017-43 | http://www.african-initiatives.org.uk/hiv-and-aids-prevention-is-better-than-cure/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187824824.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20171021171712-20171021191712-00160.warc.gz | en | 0.956752 | 354 | 2.78125 | 3 |
In the UK, the Border Terrier is a popular dog breed for families and hunters. You don’t see the Border Terrier breed in other countries, but their popularity is steadily increasing. You can read below what makes the adventurous four-legged friend special.
History of the Border Terrier
The Border Terrier was once native to the border region between England and Scotland. That’s probably where his name comes from because the English term ″border″ means border. However, where his original ancestors came from is unclear. It is thought to be related to the Dandie Dinmont Terrier and Bedlington Terrier.
Images of a dog that looks like him date from the 18th century. However, it was not specifically bred in Great Britain until the 20th century. He was bred as a hunting dog, also for the pack, primarily for fox hunting. He had to be quite fast to be able to run alongside the hunter riding on horseback. Furthermore, it couldn’t be too big to fit into the Burrow. Even today, his outstanding services are still used for hunting.
The Border Terrier was recognized as an English dog breed by the Kennel Club in 1920 and by the FCI in 1963. He is listed under the FCI standard number 10, FCI group 3 ″Terriers″, section 1 ″Long-legged terriers″.
The Appearance of the Border Terrier
In terms of appearance, the Border Terrier is often mistaken for a crossbreed by the ignorant. Its head, which resembles that of an otter, is striking. The Border Terrier’s rough, bristly, weatherproof coat ranges in color from blue/tan, red, wheaten, to full tan. Black often adorns the area around its muzzle, the muzzle itself, its alert, perky almond eyes, and the tops of its small, droopy ears. With a size of 28 to 40 centimeters, it is one of the small to medium-sized dog breeds. The four-legged friend has long, slender legs. He always carries his high set, hairy tail straight.
Essence and Character
The Border Terrier character can be described as cheerful, lively, and intelligent, among other things. Since he was bred as a hunting dog for the pack, he is very socially compatible with his conspecifics. The curious four-legged friend is characterized by a strong hunting instinct and a very good sniffing nose.
That’s why he likes to set off on his own if something catches his eye. Unless the recall has been well trained from an early age or the garden is not escape-proof, nothing will stop him so easily. Neither hedges nor water. Because the former otter hunter loves the water and is well protected by his robust fur. The working dog is very persistent and can work for hours on the hunt, in all weather conditions.
Since the Border Terrier is very playful but not aggressive, it is also an ideal dog for active families with children. The children should be a bit older, as he can be quite boisterous when playing. He gets along well with other dogs in the household, but not so much with cats. Because the hound will follow his hunting instinct. The fearless terrier reliably protects his home by barking to report anything unusual. His kindness extends to welcoming visitors to his human pack.
Getting a Border Terrier
Is the Border Terrier right for me?
The happy, agile four-legged friend suits active people, whether they are single or a family with children. Since he can be trained very well with consistency, dog beginners who spend a lot of time with him can also give him a home. Seniors are less suited to the energetic terrier.
Border Terrier price
If you want to buy a Border Terrier, you will pay around 800 to 1000 euros from reputable breeders. This price is quite justified since the breeder has expensive genetic tests and health examinations carried out for the health of his animals, among other things. Puppies that are offered too cheaply are strongly discouraged.
What do I need to pay attention to when purchasing?
You should only buy a puppy from a reputable Border Terrier breeder who is registered in a breed club. Good breeders only allow healthy parents to breed in order to rule out hereditary diseases in their puppies. They can provide evidence of corresponding genetic tests on both parents.
A reputable breeder will not sell the puppies before they are 8 weeks old. And then only with vaccination cards and breeding papers. His puppies were microchipped, dewormed several times and health checked. A good breeder allows you to get to know the puppies before you buy them. This way you can get an idea of whether they come from a good home. Don’t be surprised if the breeder asks you many questions. He wants to make sure his puppy has a good new home.
Puppy development and education
The Border Terrier is very intelligent and easy to train. The little terrier can be taught from an early age with a lot of love, patience, and, above all, consistency, who is in charge. If accepted as the leader of the pack, the independent hound will learn with ease, and that’s quite a lot for a puppy to begin with. For example, he has to learn rules for dealing with his new human pack; possibly get to know other pets; one or the other command such as sit and down; ride in the car; the recall from freewheeling and ″personal care″. Going to a dog school will definitely do him good. There he can play and wrestle with other four-legged friends and learn to socialize well at the same time. | <urn:uuid:0f136c47-af5f-4a37-a272-619a23cff310> | CC-MAIN-2023-23 | https://thedogman.net/border-terrier-dog-breed-profile/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-23/segments/1685224655027.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20230608135911-20230608165911-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.976666 | 1,189 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Genotyping single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs, using TaqMan Assays has been very well established. But have you heard about copy number variations?
Copy number variation (CNV) is a type of structural variation that occurs when a DNA segment of 1 kb to several megabases in length is present in variable copy numbers compared to a reference genome. These CNVs can influence gene expression and can be associated with specific phenotypes and diseases. This variation covers approximately 12% of the human genome and includes deletions and duplications. TaqMan Copy Number assays offer a targeted approach combining high accuracy, specificity, ease of use and sample throughput, to validate copy number changes or screen large sample sets.
So how does this all work?
Let’s take a look at our lab book
TaqMan Copy Number assays are a duplex experiment using a FAM labeled target assay and a VIC labeled reference assay in the same well to quantify small fold changes. The reference assay targets a gene of known and stable copy number. For example, RNase P is often used for human samples, as it has been shown to be present and stable at 2 copies.
To determine copy number, a relative quantitation analysis is performed between the unknown sample and a calibrator sample (one in which the copy number of the target gene is known).
The sample is combined with both assays, master mix, and then run in quadruplicate in the real-time PCR instrument.
Let’s look at an example in which the target gene is on the X-chromosome. In a male sample, we should then find a copy number of 1 for the target.
A baseline subtracted cycle threshold or dCt is determined between the two assays. In our example, the unknown sample has a dCt of 1.5 And the calibrator a dCt of 0.5.
We then subtract the dCt of the calibrator from the dCt of the unknown.
Next we convert this value to a relative quantity
And then multiply the relative quantity or RQ by the copy number of the calibrator, which in this case are 2 with RnaseP.
Ah-ha! A copy of 1. Wasn’t that easy? And no messy standard curves to deal with.
Thermo Fisher Scientific offers a free software program which will do all of the analysis for you with the exported data from a compatible instrument. The software provides statistics to help evaluate data confidence and can calculate copy number even when a calibrator sample is not used.
So there you have it! A complete workflow solution for measuring DNA copy number variation in a precise quantitative fashion. Whether you need to quantify copy numbers of important pharmacogenomics genes such as CYP2D6, or you’re investigating copy number variants underlying cancer, Applied Biosystems has the reagents and tools to drive your research.
If you’ve got more qPCR or digital PCR questions, remember, just ask Taqman. Submit your question at thermofisher.com/ask | <urn:uuid:3e2f23a5-05f2-4016-a528-33c86455e9e7> | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | https://www.thermofisher.com/blog/behindthebench/copy-number-variation-how-does-it-work-asktaqman-34/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100525.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20231204052342-20231204082342-00367.warc.gz | en | 0.90802 | 638 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Grade Level: 7-12+
Throughout history, money has taken many forms -- sea shells, sheep, silver, gold, and, believe it or not, salt! Today we use coins, paper and credit cards as money. A World of Money takes us around the world to document the history of money, from bartering with animals to coins in the Greek and Roman Empires, to the invention of paper money in China, and inflation caused by the excessive printing of paper money.
A World of Money covers numerous educational standards across several subject areas including ELL, Language Arts, Media/Technology, and Social Studies for Grades 7-12. To find which standards it covers specific to your grade, subject area, and which standards your district is using, use our Standards Alignment tool.
izzit.org Resources For This Program: | <urn:uuid:36d194cd-d919-4fde-8396-a3129c07a22d> | CC-MAIN-2016-40 | http://www.izzit.org/store/product_info.php?products_id=69?osCsid=t5dce4bbg4l134speic7u1o4m0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-40/segments/1474738660957.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160924173740-00048-ip-10-143-35-109.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.913439 | 170 | 3.734375 | 4 |
Spring officially arrived on March 20th and with that comes better weather and the chance to venture outside and enjoy it. Many parts of the country have been dealing with snow and bitter cold temperatures over the past months and with that, our senior population tends to slow down while spending more time inside. However, spring brings the opportunity to rejuvenate your health by getting outside and becoming more active. It also means enjoying the warmth of the sun and breathing in the fresh air. Here are a few tips for our seniors (and caregivers) to help invigorate their health this spring.
Medical Alert Resources | LifeFone
It’s not your imagination if you feel more tired after you “spring forward” in March. Daylight savings time begins on March 13 this year at 2 AM, meaning once you go to bed for the night, you lose an hour of sleep. Coincidently, Sleep Awareness Week also occurs the week of March 13th through the 19th. Although there are benefits such as longer daylight and the anticipation that spring and summer are on their way, it can take a toll on your mind and body. As daylight savings time (DST) approaches, it’s important to understand the effect it can have on a person.
As Presidents’ Day approaches, we are reminded of the history of the United States. This day of remembrance was originally established as a national holiday in 1885 as a day to honor George Washington’s birthday and became popularly known as Presidents Day in 1971. It is now celebrated on the third Monday of February.
Studies have shown that older adults are more likely to stay alone in the U.S. than the rest of the world. Living all alone in a house with no friends or family members around can result in isolation that may lead to mental disorders like depression. Many alternative housing arrangements have emerged to avoid such problems. These arrangements promise safety and companionship to the elderly — senior house-sharing is one of them.
Managing weight as we age is extremely important as it affects mobility, strength and overall wellbeing. Seniors and caregivers alike often find themselves struggling to control their weight. While it can be more difficult for some than others, proper nutrition and exercise can help maintain a healthy lifestyle and prevent obesity related conditions such as heart disease, stroke and type 2 diabetes. Started in 1994, Healthy Weight Week falls on the third full week of January every year and was launched as an awareness campaign to help develop healthy nutrition and improve healthy habits.
Global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations (CO2) today are higher than at any point in at least the past 800,000 years! Is that a bad thing? Yes! There is a lot of buzz about CO2 on the internet and its harmful impact on the environment. People know it as a greenhouse gas (a gas that absorbs and radiates heat) which is the primary contributor to rising global temperatures. Carbon dioxide is a colorless and odorless chemical gas composed of two oxygen (O) atoms and one carbon (C) atom. Emitted by cement production, deforestation as well as the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas, rising levels of CO2 are not only hazardous for the environment, but they can also pose many health dangers for us.
The holiday season is a time for friends and family to get together and enjoy each other’s company. Many times, the home is bustling with noise, the dinner table is full of food and people are reminiscing about the past, present and future. But for the seniors in our lives, many have a much different experience. With family spread across the country, possibly hundreds of miles away from each other, remembering to include them in the spirit of the holidays can be challenging.
One of the most common problems that older adults have to grapple with is unsteadiness. As their bones and muscles weaken, it can become more difficult to maintain a good posture and balance and this can lead to a fall. The only way to prevent and treat this problem is to exercise regularly. Performing exercises designed to improve balance and stability will improve your physical strength and decrease injuries caused due to falling.
November has arrived ushering in big changes in the weather. It also reminds us that the holiday season is near and that the year 2021 is almost behind us. What we often don’t recognize is that November is also National Family Caregivers Month, a time to recognize the roles, responsibilities and sacrifices that caregivers endure day-in and day-out. Here are a few things to consider when recognizing all that caregivers do to keep our loved ones safe and comfortable as they age. | <urn:uuid:fa0dd0fc-42c7-4a89-b5b0-38116a56e940> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://www.lifefone.com/articles/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662534693.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20220520223029-20220521013029-00089.warc.gz | en | 0.972652 | 943 | 2.875 | 3 |
Topics > Farlam
Farlam is a village and civil parish in the City of Carlisle District, in the English county of Cumbria. The village is about 21⁄4 miles (3.6 km) southeast of the small town of Brampton and 91⁄2 miles (15 km) east of the city of Carlisle. While the population has fluctuated over time, in the 2001 UK Census, the population stood at 590: 291 males and 299 females. The 2011 Census showed a population of 669: 331 males and 338 females.
The name Farlam is thought to originate from the Old English fearn and ham, the latter meaning village or village community, translating to a 'Ferny-clearing homestead/village' or perhaps, 'hemmed-in land by a ferny clearing'.
Farlam was originally divided into two townships, East Farlam and West Farlam, with a combined population in 1811 of 672 inhabitants and 115 houses. Hallbankgate and Kirkhouse were two hamlets located within the township of East Farlam, the former four miles south east of Brampton, and the latter, where the church stands, half-a-mile east of the village. Milton was a small village in West Farlam and is now in Brampton parish. The whole parish has a high elevation and topographically is quite hilly with an area in 1847 of 5,680 acres.
The UK national census recorded that in 1881, the total population for the parish peaked at 1585, which (with the exception of 1821 where it decreased from 672 to 663) had been growing steadily year on year, since records began in 1801. After 1881 there was a large drop in population which is shown in the 1961 census, where the population had decreased from 1581 to 670.
Both coal and limestone where found within Farlam and as such limestone was quarried and in 1552 coal was bored for in Greenside Rigg within the parish.. The 1881 census shows that the majority of men within the village were involved in the mining and quarrying of both the coal and limestone with 257 men being listed as workers in various mineral substances.
However the picture of the women occupations is less clear with the majority (232) being listed as persons without specific occupations. Due to Farlam being a mining village jobs may have been very limited to mining, an occupation not performed by the women and as such simply had no occupation through lack of job availability.
|Domestic Service or Offices||6||59|
|Persons without Specified Occupations||9||232|
|Transport & Communications||20||–|
|Workers in Carriages & Harnesses||4||–|
|Workers in Chemicals & Compounds||1||–|
|Workers in Dress||14||21|
|Workers in Food & Lodging||14||–|
|Workers in General or Unspecified Commodities||39||–|
|Workers in House, Furniture & Decorations||15||–|
|Workers in Machines & Implements||10||–|
|Workers in Textiles Fabrics||5||–|
|Workers in Various Mineral Substances||257||1|
|Workers in Various Vegetable Substances||4||–|
Over time, the total number of houses in Farlam has fluctuated. Between 1831 and 1901, the total number of houses increased steadily from 134 to 294. However, in 1921 the total number of houses decreased to 230 and rose again to 247 in 1931 before falling to 230 in 1961. The most recent data from the 2001 UK Census showed that there were 265 houses.
|Year of census||Total Houses|
Farlam has boasted a church as early as 1169, but the current church was erected in 1860. The old church was given by Robert de Vallibus to Lanercost priory but after the dissolution along with all of the possessions of the priory, was granted to Sir Thomas Dacre, and is now in the patronage and impropriation of the Earl of Carlisle.
The current church is dedicated to St. Thomas a Becket and is a plain stone building in the early English style and was constructed for a cost of £2,000 back in 1860 which in today's money would have cost £86,320.
The building consists of a nave, chancel and only one aisle with for accommodation for 400 worshippers. It occupies a site near the old church adjoining the hamlet of Kirkhouse. The land on which it stands was contributed by the Hon. Charles Howard as well as £500 towards its construction, Mrs Maria Thompson also contributed £200, a new organ for the church and erected the pictorial east window. The Ecclesiastical Commissioners granted £200, and the parishioners also contributed a large unknown sum of money towards the cost of erection. | <urn:uuid:a86c5941-d1b0-43c2-b910-ee521dfa9e1e> | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://co-curate.ncl.ac.uk/farlam-cumbria/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233511406.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20231004184208-20231004214208-00869.warc.gz | en | 0.963023 | 1,192 | 2.734375 | 3 |
A basic data reading statement, which will use the default NA for missing values:
data file=ageweight.txt mouseID sex age weightwhich will read 4 columns from the file "ageweight.txt" and assign the names "mouseID", "sex", "age" and "weight" to the 4 columns. For this basic example there will be no header in the file, and the data in the file must be separated by spaces or tabs. The input file could for instance look like:
File names with a full and relative path work in linux and mac, and probably also in Windows. File names with a space cannot be used, bayz will stop reading at the first space and will not get the complete name. Some examples:
file=/usr/home/xxxx/datamouse/ageweight.txt file=../datamouse/ageweight.txt # not working because of spaces in the name: file=age and weight.txt
data file=ageweight.txt missing=-999 mouseID sex age weight
The field names that are in the bayz script for the Basic Example can also be in the data input file. This allows for use of files with a "header" line. This is specified as:
data file=ageweight.txt -headerNow the input file could like like:
Note: in version 2.5 the use of a header line does not work (well) when reading so-called "blocks-fields" (see...).
data mouseID file=weight.txt mouseID sex weight data mouseID file=dietinfo.txt mouseID diet
For example, the following two files will be merged as shown, and will allow to make a model with weight explained by diet (header line with field names is not in the input file):
Notes about merging:
The merging feature can be used to filter (select) data by making the first file in a merge-sequence a file only containing the list of IDs to keep, as in the following example.
data mouseID file=keepids.txt mouseID data mouseID file=ageweight.txt mouseID sex age weight
See the example below for the effect of this kind of merging (header line with field names is not in the input files):
With one phenotype per ID (sample), add the ID-name used at the data statement for reading the phenotype file and the same ID-name at the data statement for the pedigree file. With the special flag 'ped' at the data statement for the pedigree file bayz does not merge these files as in the regular merging procedure, but keeps all records in both files. When phenotypes are repeated a hierarchical model is needed. In the pedigree data, the ID must be in the first columns (this is not required for all other files), and parents must be in columns 2 and 3 (any names can be given to the parent columns). More columns can follow which will be ignored.
data mouseID file=ageweight.txt mouseID sex age weight data mouseID ped file=mouse.ped mouseID father mother
By default bayz does not compute/ignores inbreeding in construction of the A-1 relationship matrix. Add the -inbred flag at the file name to make bayz compute and include inbreeding:
data mouseID ped file=mouse.ped -inbred mouseID father mother
These examples assume that there is one phenotype observed per ID (sample), and one genotype that is available in a separate file. The standard bayz merge is used to combine phenotype and genotype data. For the case where repeated phenotypes are available per ID a hierarchical model can be used, or the phenotype and genotype data should be merged before (copying genotype data for every repeated ID in the phenotype data). The genotype data is defined as a block-field (a field name with two square brackets) that allows to include all genotypes in the model with a single model term (add or dom).
data cow file=milkdata.txt cow milk fat prot Data id file=cowgenotypes.txt cow geno !biallelic data geno map file=snpnames.txt geno
Biallelic coding is the format of plink 'ped' files, the following would use plink ped-map files where the 'ped' file has 6 additional fields, and the map file has chromosome, SNP name, genetic map position and physical (base pair) map position. Note that for bayz the column of SNP names in the map file must get the same name as the name used for the genotype block-field, in this example 'geno'.
data cow file=milkdata.txt cow milk fat prot Data id file=cowgenotypes.ped famid cow sire dam sex pheno geno !biallelic data geno map file=cowgenotypes.map chrom geno cmdist bpdist
Use the genot012 flag to indicate the input file contains genotypes coded as 0,1,2 for homozygote, heterozygote and homozygote. Missing genotype is default NA.
cow geno !genot012
Bayz has automatic edits for Minor Allele Frequency at 1% and missing rate at 20%. To modify the default settings add flags on the map file: | <urn:uuid:0c084da0-af9e-4d74-b4d2-25d1e98a44b5> | CC-MAIN-2017-43 | http://bayz.biz/index.php?sc=04&pg=02 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187823630.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20171020025810-20171020045810-00435.warc.gz | en | 0.797447 | 1,111 | 2.96875 | 3 |
I have big plans for Black History Month, y’all. I’m a history nerd regardless, so I’ve been saving up lots of material for February. (Text and audio in particular.)
I might encourage you to invite your children to read my Black History posts... except for, ummmm, ya know, the bad language. I don’t want any kids being corrupted by my silliness. So maybe not.
Speaking of bad language, I must warn those of you who hate seeing the N-word in print... this post is all about that word. So if you’d rather not read it, I’ll understand.
Now, my favorite reference book of all time is the authoritative “Random House Historical Dictionary of American Slang”... a project so massive, they haven’t got past the letter “O.”
The thing about “nigger” is, it wasn’t used merely to refer to human beings. “Nigger” worked itself into the American vernacular in lots of ways, to describe everything from flowers and foods (like the nuts pictured above; you know what them nuts used to be called, right?) to rainstorms and fireworks.
It’s part of the cultural history of the United States, so why ignore it? Let’s study it. And not forget.
Here are some interesting examples, culled from the Random House slang dictionary:
nigger-chaser – a type of firecracker that would shoot off in several directions. The Random House dictionary cites a usage of this term as far back as 1882. And it quotes this line from Jack Conroy’s novel “The Disinherited” (1933): “The squibs were like Fourth of July nigger-chasers.”
nigger out – to back out in a cowardly fashion. In “Taking Chances” (1900), his collection of newspaper columns about the gambling life, Clarence L. Cullen wrote: “Of all the niggering out I ever saw... this is the worst.”
nigger luck – undeserved or unexpected good fortune. A once-well-known medical doctor named Rodney Glisan wrote in his 1874 memoirs (“Journal of Army Life”): “... I occasionally made him a little envious by my nigger-luck, as he is pleased to term it.”
nigger navel – a Black-Eyed Susan. According to a 1966 publication of the Indiana University Folklore Association: “Black-eyed Susans are called in Alabama by whites and coloureds, ‘Nigger Navels.’ ”
nigger toe – a Brazil nut. I heard this one from my own daddy. The slang dictionary cites journalist Robert Ruark, whose 1957 collection of magazine columns – “The Old Man and the Boy” – includes this: “The greasy, plump white Brazil nuts we called nigger-toes.” (Strange. Because it’s not the white nut-meat that earned them their nickname!)
nigger news – gossip. The Rev. J.D. Long, an opponent of slavery, wrote in 1857: “It is considered dishonorable for persons to break friendship on what is called ‘nigger news.’ ”
In the 1980s, a white journalist I worked with said that spreaders of newsroom gossip used to call themselves “the nigger network.” He laughed; I grinned.
nigger-heel molasses – 19th-Century Western vernacular for blackstrap molasses. As in Andrew Garcia’s “Tough Trip Through Paradise” (1942): “We had a quart bottle filled with black-strap or nigger-heel molasses, which was as black as tar.”
nigger in a blanket – a dessert made from raisins (or blackberries) rolled in pastry dough. In “Western Words: A Dictionary of the American West” (1944), Ramon F. Adams defined “nigger-in-a-blanket” as: “A cowboy dessert, usually made of raisins in dough.”
rain pitchforks and nigger babies – to rain heavily. For real. In W.R. Burnett’s 1940 novel “High Sierra” – which became a Humphrey Bogart movie – there is this: “It rained pitchforks and nigger babies.” And MacKinlay Kantor’s Pulitzer Prize-winning novel “Andersonville” (1955) has it too: “It’s raining pitchforks and nigger-babies.”
I can’t top that one, so I’ll stop now. | <urn:uuid:7789ca01-80b2-4c33-a913-0141c68ff9da> | CC-MAIN-2017-22 | http://undercoverblackman.blogspot.com/2008/01/i-have-big-plans-for-black-history.html?showComment=1202241060000 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-22/segments/1495463607325.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20170523025728-20170523045728-00225.warc.gz | en | 0.93489 | 1,037 | 2.734375 | 3 |
From time to time, scientists end up bucking the commonly established and deeply entrenched beliefs of the scientific community, sometimes to their own peril. And a fair amount of the time, they may just end up being wrong, but in some instances, it really is that they got it right and the rest of us dopes were just wrong. Reaching back into the annuls of time we can find a textbook example of this when you study the history of the human chromosome number. Of course all our textbooks tell us that the diploid number in man, woman, and child is 46 chromosomes. However this was not always the agreed upon number.
The original agreed upon number was 48 chromosomes set forth by eminent zoologist Theophilus Painter, when he observed 24 meiotic chromosomes on a metaphase spread of spermatocytes way back in 1923. This number would remain in hearts and minds of budding cytologists for 33 years. Until another cytologist, T. C. Hsu, the "father of mammalian cytogenetics" improved the metaphase spread method by incorporating hypotonic buffers and cell fixation techniques. Further refining the process were Joe Hin Tjio and Albert Levan, who used colchicine to arrest the cell in metaphase increasing the number of spreads for analysis. Upon analyzing over 20 different fetal lung cell cultures, they came to a consensus that the chromosome number was 46, not the long believed 48.
The kicker to all of this was that for years other scientists were making metaphase spreads from cells of different tissues and coming up with 46 chromosomes, but sat on the data or refused to believe it was true because it deviated from Painter's gospel of 48. Later other scientists including Hsu would revise their number but others held steadfast until the final consensus came in the late 50s. | <urn:uuid:2e1785fc-d97b-4a2c-89b4-4de897572e12> | CC-MAIN-2017-26 | http://genrepair.scientopia.org/2012/01/05/dude-you-cant-count/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-26/segments/1498128320823.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20170626152050-20170626172050-00512.warc.gz | en | 0.959948 | 367 | 2.515625 | 3 |
The CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats)-Cas (CRISPR-associated system) 9 gene editing tool has been used to edit human embryos to make them resistant to HIV, and it’s making headlines. This isn’t the first time we’ve seen CRISPR-Cas 9 in mainstream media, and it surely won’t be the last. The imminent fear for some seems to be that this gene-editing technology will lead to designer babies and sci-fi dystopias discussed in books such as Huxley’s “Brave New World” and movies such as the star studded “GATTACA”. How realistic are these expectations? And how efficient is this technology really?
What is CRISPR-Cas9?
CRISPR-Cas 9 originates from bacteria and archaea, where it works in adaptive immunity. It functions by integrating sections of invading foreign DNA and then expressing RNA structures (crRNA and trRNA) which can target this DNA specifically in the case of a future infection. The Cas 9 enzyme is guided to the foreign DNA by the crRNA and tracrRNA, and cleaves the DNA which disables it. Research has discovered that it can be used in humans and that by combining the crRNA and tracrRNA to form a guide RNA the system can be programmed to target desired DNA sequences. This allows for the CRISPR-Cas 9 system to be applied to create genetic changes that can aid research or even activate, repressor or help visualize a specific gene. Find out more about the system here. The McGovern Institute for Brain Research at MIT have created a great four-minute video to summarize how CRISPR-Cas9 functions and you can check it out here.
The study: “Introducing precise genetic modifications into human 3PN embryos by CRISPR/Cas-mediated genome editing”has gotten a lot of interest recently. It was published May 2016 in the Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics by a group of Scientists from China. They applied CRISPR-Cas 9 that was targeting CCRF receptor genes in embryos that were rejected from IVF clinics. The CCRF receptor has been found to be integral to letting HIV into cells, so removing this gene and receptor would make the cells resistant to HIV. The benefits of this genetic modification are clear, but how successful was this study?
With current IVF methods a couple will have only around one to three embryos are suitable for implantation, and even then some of these do not survive. In one of the experiments in the article, of the 45 embryos that were tested, 26 survived, but only 4 had the desired genetic ‘mutation’. Such a low level of efficiency would not be viable because currently there are so few embryos to start off with. It must be considered that the unwanted embryos from the IVF clinic did include ones with multiple chromosomes, and this could’ve affected their survival and the efficiency of the CRISPR-Cas 9 system.
One caveat of the modified embryos was that not all the cells carried the modification. This could’ve resulted from the CRISPR-Cas 9 system only acting upon the cells after the first replication and therefore not all of the DNA had the desired ‘mutation’. These ‘mosaic’ embryos, if developed, could lead to offspring that do not have enough successfully genetically modified DNA for them to actually be resistant to HIV. To overcome this difficulty, the CRISPR-Cas 9 system should be inserted into the embryo as quickly as possible and then destroyed or removed before replication occurs. Alternatively, the genetic change could be made in stem cells which are then specified into egg or sperm cells.
Although the study claims that there were no unintended mutations in the embryos, they only tested 28 sites of the genome. The great benefit of CRISPR-Cas 9 is that it is arguably more specific than any genetic engineering method used before e.g. zinc finger nucleases. However, this does not mean that it is without faults. Wu et al. (2015) reviewed some studies on the sensitivity of CRISPR-Cas9 and found that many factors can affect the specificity of the system ranging from the target sequence length to the structure of the CRISPR-Cas complex. It is important to keep in mind that even if there are off-target effects these don’t necessarily have to have functional consequences. The lack of reliable whole genome screenings to test for mutations limits are knowledge of the effects the system might have. Similarly the effects of removing genes that may be needed for other processes, unknown before, can lead to unwanted diseases. The last thing that is wanted is for the offspring to have a worse disorder than the one that was ‘healed’.
Where do we draw the line?
Although there is a lot more fine tuning of the specificity and efficiency of CRISPR-Cas 9 needed before this genetic engineering is applied to our offspring, the discussion of the ethics behind it has already begun. One difficult question often arises: where do we the draw the line between treatment and enhancement? For example would improving intelligence, lowering cholesterol and having 20/20 vision give people an unfair advantage and lead to the rise of ‘designer babies’? It’s difficult to say. Our lack of knowledge of the complex genetic systems involved in these are also holding us back. The regulations of the genetically modifying human embryos varies around the world and has sparked predictions of where the first ‘CRISPR baby’ will be born. But there seems to be a general consensus that this should be the last port of call and certain parameters must be met before allowing parents to use this method.
The screenings of IVF embryos before implantation already exists and work, so why complicate things? It seems that curiosity and the desire to see how far we can push what is humanly possible is pushing this research forward. Although this passion can lead to incredible cures of diseases it will be necessary to do so in a careful and well thought out manner. Making it a gene editing ‘space race’ as suggested by some can lead to a lax of controls and premature experiments, which can ultimately hurt humanity.
Beyond the first ‘CRISPR baby’ the genetically altered DNA could be inherited and affect the germ line. This raises issues with evolution and inheritance of genes that may seem healthy in first generations, but turn out to be harmful in the future.
Before any of this proceeds it is vital for us to understand our genes more fully, and improve the CRISPR-Cas 9 system to work efficiently and precisely. | <urn:uuid:510c4f4e-0850-480f-b657-16393fd8d79b> | CC-MAIN-2017-51 | https://tooflyforanmsci.wordpress.com/2017/03/20/hiv-resistant-embryos-thanks-to-crispr/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-51/segments/1512948588294.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20171216162441-20171216184441-00132.warc.gz | en | 0.945359 | 1,384 | 3.265625 | 3 |
This wiki is incomplete.
In geometry, a tangential quadrilateral is a convex quadrilateral whose sides are all tangent to a single circle within the quadrilateral. Sometimes it is called a tangent quadrilateral, circumscribed quadrilateral, or circle inscribed in a quadrilateral. The circle is called the incircle of the quadrilateral or its inscribed circle. The center of the circle is called the incenter and its radius is called the inradius.
According to Pitot's theorem, the two sums of the lengths of opposite sides are equal.
A circle can be inscribed in a quadrilateral if and only if the angle bisectors of the four angles of the quadrilateral are concurrent. | <urn:uuid:a6b1b02b-49a4-4bbf-a18a-7529942a3055> | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | https://brilliant.org/wiki/tangential-quadrilateral/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104277498.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20220703225409-20220704015409-00615.warc.gz | en | 0.915468 | 153 | 3.625 | 4 |
What are Biosphere Reserves Upsc?
Biosphere Reserve (BR) is an international designation by UNESCO for representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes extending over large area of terrestrial or coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof.
Who is the father of biosphere reserve?
The term “biosphere” was coined in 1875 by a geologist named Eduard Suess. He defined the biosphere as the place on the earth where life dwells. The earliest evidence of life on the earth was found about 3.5 billion years ago.
How can I remember Biosphere Reserve in India?
Aruna DIDI——Dihang Dibang, Arunachal Pradesh. Simple si odhni—–Simplipal, Odisha. DIAS——Dibru Saikhowa, Assam. Major Badal(Megh) ki awaj creack(kreck-:nokrek)—–Nokrek, Meghalaya. Andhi chali—–Sesachalam, Andhra Pradesh.
What is biosphere reserve PDF?
A biosphere reserve is a unique kind of protected area that differs from a national park, wilderness area, national forest, or wildlife refuge in having three very different, but equal, aims: ➢ Conservation of genetic resources, species and ecosystem; ➢ Scientific research and monitoring; and ➢ Promoting sustainable …
What are 3 key functions of the biosphere reserve?
Conservation: They contribute to the conservation of landscapes, natural ecosystems, species and genetic variation. 2. Development: They facilitate and contribute to an economic and human sustainable socio-culturally and ecologically friendly development of our planet. Logistic Support:
Which is India’s largest biosphere reserve?
The largest Biosphere reserve in India is the Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat and the smallest Biosphere Reserve in India is Dibru-Saikhowa in Assam.
Which is the oldest biosphere reserve?
The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve was the first biosphere reserve in India established in the year 1986. It is located in the Western Ghats and includes 2 of the 10 biogeographical provinces of India. Wide ranges of ecosystems and species diversity are found in this region.
What is another name for the biosphere?
The biosphere (from Greek βίος bíos “life” and σφαῖρα sphaira “sphere”), also known as the ecosphere (from Greek οἶκος oîkos “environment” and σφαῖρα), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. It can also be termed the zone of life on Earth.
Who used biosphere word first?
The word biosphere was first used by English-Austrian geologist Eduard Suess (1831–1914) more than a hundred years ago in a four-volume work entitled Das Antlitz der Erde, or The Face of the Earth (1885–1908).
How many biosphere reserves in India are Recognised by UNESCO Upsc?
There are 18 Biosphere Reserves in the country. S. No. Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka). | <urn:uuid:85702a02-e1bb-429c-8557-e8c21ad6fefb> | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | https://nextjob.co.in/exams/upsc/how-to-prepare-about-biosphere-reserves-for-upsc/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296945315.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20230325033306-20230325063306-00080.warc.gz | en | 0.8934 | 720 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Well, The health problems associated with bulimia nervosa needs exchange of a few words. One should know about this disease because people around us may be affected from this. A person with bulimia nervosa feels that he is not looking slim and smart. He is extra conscious for their smart figure.
Although, bulimics eat food but they try hard to loose their weight which they consider as extra. They take laxative, vomiting, doing extreme exercise and fasting.
In discussion about the health problems associated with bulimia nervosa, I wish to clear a common confusion; often this term is used as a synonym of anorexia nervosa but these are quite different in their basics (causes, symptoms and treatments)
Before discussion about the health problems associated with bulimia nervosa, I want to mention that it is not a digestive problem; it is actually related with psychology of an individual. People who are extremely conscious about their figure can be a victim of this disease.
People with bulimia nervosa have cycles which often involve rapid eating, which may be stopped when the pateint is interrupted by some one or when his stomach hurts due to overextension. It will be followed by self-induced vomiting. Bulimics repeat this cycle several times a week or several times a day.
The health problems associated with bulimia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa may cause serious problems for health and wellbeing of an individual. In mild cases the health problems associated with bulimia nervosa, include;
- Abnormal gastric reflux after eating
- Frequent vomiting due to dehydration
- Electrolyte imbalance due to self-induced vomiting
- Inflammation of gastric lines, especially the esophagus
- Peptic ulcers
- Constant weight fluctuations
The health problems associated with bulimia nervosa in severe cases include:
- Tooth decay, sore throat and bad breath due to frequent contact of oral cavity with gastric acid.
- Dry skin and hair loss because of dehydaration and electrolyte imbalance.
- Other health problems associated with bulimia nervosa are dizziness, headaches and fatigue due to weakness.
- Ruptures of the esophagus and stomach may also occur due to extreme episodes of binge eating.
- Poor functioning of heart, kidney and liver due to lack of nutrition.
- The most severe among health problems associated with bulimia nervosa is that in extreme case it may cause death. | <urn:uuid:1d46910b-b0ca-481b-a304-06575b97f20e> | CC-MAIN-2018-34 | http://www.maxhealthcareforyou.com/the-health-problems-associated-with-bulimia-nervosa/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-34/segments/1534221209980.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20180815063517-20180815083517-00342.warc.gz | en | 0.960173 | 513 | 2.75 | 3 |
Bibliographic record and links to related information available from the Library of Congress catalog.
Note: Contents data are machine generated based on pre-publication provided by the publisher. Contents may have variations from the printed book or be incomplete or contain other coding.
CONTENTS Gratiarum Actio Illustrations Maps Preface I. Universals and Particulars: Themes and Persons II. Writing and the Pursuit of Origins III. Conquest, Civil War and Political Life IV. The Emergence of Patria: Cities and the Law V. Works of Nature and Works of Free Will VI. 'The Discourse of my Life:' what Language can do. VII. The Incas, Rome and Peru. Epilogue: Ancient Texts: Prophecies and Predictions, Causes and Judgements. Bibliography Index
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Incas -- Historiography.
Incas -- First contact with Europeans.
Incas in literature -- History and criticism.
Indian literature -- Andes Region -- History and criticism.
Spanish literature -- Andes Region -- History and criticism.
Peru -- History -- Conquest, 1522.1548. | <urn:uuid:181731ea-ec14-4106-981c-eabcd55c3dc9> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip066/2005037893.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570987781397.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20191021171509-20191021195009-00026.warc.gz | en | 0.75078 | 243 | 2.59375 | 3 |
A key question for energy planners is whether today’s investments in energy infrastructure should be based on traditional fossil fuels or on energy efficiency and savings and renewable energy technologies?
The traditional fossil fuel oriented approach may still be cost-efficient in the shorter run compared to some of the more costly renewable energy sources but is clearly unsustainable in the longer run. The alternative and sustainable approach is that of energy savings and promotion of energy efficiency and renewables. While fossil fuel prices are expected to rise further, the cost of renewable energy technologies may very well fall due to maturing of the technologies and an increase in demand with associated economics of scale. Thus the necessity of transferring the energy systems from reliance on fossil fuels towards renewable energy sources does not necessarily run counter to future economic prosperity.
This energy policy toolkit shares knowledge and experiences gained in the Danish case on handling barriers and improving energy efficiency of new buildings.
Poor energy performance significantly increases the operating costs of a building. To a large extent, this can be avoided through simple design measures, which are easily paid for by the saved energy costs. However, many new buildings are designed and built with no regard for this, resulting in a significant waste of energy and money. Evidently, different barriers, such as split incentives or short-term investment horizons, stand in the way of profitable energy efficiency decisions. Therefore, a better understanding of these barriers, and how to deal with them, is the key to a huge economic potential. | <urn:uuid:bd208e7f-4899-4676-9298-7b0aa01fdacd> | CC-MAIN-2019-47 | https://www.buildup.eu/pl/node/56638 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-47/segments/1573496664752.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20191112051214-20191112075214-00333.warc.gz | en | 0.946623 | 295 | 2.953125 | 3 |
of Alligators in the Sewers of New York
that alligators populate the sewers of New York City have
circulated for many years. (Copyright
Lee Krystek, 2002.)
A popular urban legend claims that the sewers of
the Big Apple are populated by alligators large enough to eat
unfortunate city sanitation workers who unknowingly venture
into the underground tunnels. Today the City of New York denies
that such dangerous reptilian denizens dwell in the bowels of
the metropolis, but who really knows what's down there...
This alligator tale was circulated widely in the
1960's. More recently, it spawned at least two movies: Alligator
(1980), the story about a 36 foot long reptile emerging from
the sewers of underground Chicago to dine on unsuspecting citizens
of the windy city and Alligator II: The Mutation (1991),
which changed the locale of the underground menace to a small
According to the 60's version of the legend, the
gators found their way to the sewers of New York City after
they had been purchased at pet shops, grew too large for the
owners to keep in their apartments, and were flushed down the
toilet. There the gators thrived on sewer rats that infested
the underground pipes and grew to respectable sizes. This theory,
though colorful, is unlikely to be true as most "gators"
sold in pet shops are not really alligators, but caimans. Caimans
are crocodilians from South America with their long , narrow,
snouts, resemble those of crocodiles rather than alligators.
So is there any truth to this urban legend? Surprisingly,
yes. In the early1930's a number of alligators were seen swimming
in the Bronx River. Several dead gators were found along the
banks and a few, small, live ones were captured. Then on February
10, 1935, the New York Times reported:
FOUND IN UPTOWN SEWER
Youths Shoveling Snow into Manhole See the Animal Churning
in Icy Water
According to the story, several teenage boys had
been clearing East 123rd Street by shoveling snow into an open
manhole when they saw something large and alive in the water
below. It turned out to be a seven-foot plus alligator that
somehow had gotten stuck. The boys used a rope to pull it to
the surface. Upon reaching safety, the ungrateful reptile snapped
at one of them. The teens responded by beating the animal to
death with their shovels. At a nearby auto repair shop the dead
animal was weighed and found to be 125 pounds. Later, the Department
of Sanitation picked up the carcass and incinerated it. The
Times speculated that the animal had escaped from a ship
traveling from "the mysterious Everglades," swam into Harlem
River and then came150 yards up a storm conduit to where it
Other evidence indicates that the gator wasn't just
a single escaped rogue, however. Several years later, according
to Robert Daley's 1959 book, The World Beneath the City,
a colony of alligators had settled comfortably into the sewers
of New York. It was in 1935 that the animals were first reported
to Superintendent of Sewers Teddy May. At first, May refused
to believe reports from his inspectors that they were being
menaced by the sub-terrainian reptiles. "I says to myself,"
May recalled in Daley's book, "them guys been drinking in there."
May was so sure that the allegations of alligators were false
that he refused to approve reports mentioning the animals. He
also sent men to watch the inspectors to see how they are getting
a hold of alcohol on the job. When no reports of smuggled whiskey
appeared, May decided to take a look at the claims himself.
"I'll go down there and prove to youse guys that there ain't
no alligators in my sewers," May said.
Once he examined the situation close at hand, however,
May had a change of heart. He saw a number of alligators himself.
Most were about two feet in length and lived in the smaller
pipes that emptied into the trunk lines below major streets.
Mays, having realized the gators were a real problem, started
a program to get rid of them. Many were killed by rat poison,
others were shooed into the trunk lines where the rapidly flowing
water carried them out to sea. A few were killed by overzealous
sewer inspectors using .22 rifles and pistols in what must have
been one of the strangest sub-terrain hunts ever. According
to Daley's book, all the gators were dead in a few months.
It seems this account from Daley's book might well
be the source of the 60's urban legend. Is the story true, though?
Much of Daley's book comes from stories told by Teddy May. May,
a colorful character with an active imagination, had a reputation
for embellishing stories. This leads some skeptics to believe
that the gator story in The World Beneath the City might
be complete fiction.
World Beneath the City by Robert Daley, 1959.
by Jerome Clark, Visible Ink, Inc. 1999.
ALLIGATOR FOUND IN UPTOWN
York Times, February 10, 1935.
Copyright Lee Krystek
2002. All Rights Reserved. | <urn:uuid:714e6925-ffbb-4a2d-b0d7-f94d0a59f587> | CC-MAIN-2017-17 | http://www.unmuseum.org/sgator.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917122886.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031202-00280-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961956 | 1,168 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Mealtimes shouldn’t be stressful, but when you end up bloated afterward, it can cause extreme discomfort. While there are several foods out there that very obviously cause bloating, there are also foods to beat the bloat.
Disclosure: This post contains affiliate links for your convenience. As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases.
Exclusive Nutrition and Healthy Living Library
What is Bloating?
Bloating takes place in your stomach. It usually happens when your gastrointestinal tract becomes filled with gas or air.
When you become bloated you may feel as though you ate a large meal, leaving no room in your stomach. It will feel tight and full.
Bloating has a tendency to make you feel either pain or discomfort. In fact, your stomach may actually appear larger and more distended, making your clothes feel tighter.
What Can Cause Bloating?
Bloating can be caused by several different factors. All of these lead to large amounts of air being trapped within your digestive tract.
There can be a few reasons you feel bloated, most of which revolve around the foods you are eating and any unidentified food sensitivities you may have.
- How you eat – If you eat too fast it can cause you to take in more air than normal that can become trapped.
- What you eat – Some foods high in salt, fat, and fiber can cause bloating. In fact, carbonated beverages can also cause bloating.
- Food senstitivites
Beans can make you gassy and bloated as well. Here is how to make beans less gassy.
What Foods Can Help You Beat the Bloat?
There are several different food items that can have a positive effect on your stomach and help you to beat that distended, uncomfortable feeling.
Here’s what to eat when you’re bloated.
Sometimes bloating and gas can be the result of the bacteria in your digestive tract going a little wonky.
When you add a fermented food like kefir to your diet, it can introduce probiotics that can help to restore a healthy balance of gut bacteria.
Read this quick guide to probiotics to learn more about these good bacteria.
Ginger works wonder for several different ailments but it also has a great benefit to those experiencing bloating.
There are certain compounds in ginger that can help to get your stomach moving and aid digestions. This can help to reduce any bloating you may be experiencing due to indigestion.
When I’m feeling bloated I like to drink this ginger tea.
Asparagus actually works as a natural diuretic, which makes you have to urinate. This can help you to flush your system of any excess water you may be retaining.
Sometimes retaining too much water can cause bloating. This is why eating asparagus can help. Not only that but it can also help to feed the good bacteria in your stomach and allow everything to remain in good balance.
If you are experiencing bloating after eating a meal, try drinking mint tea.
Peppermint contains certain oils like menthol that can help to relax your gastrointestinal muscles, relieving spasms that cause discomfort and bloating.
You will want to use fresh mint or steep peppermint tea leaves as you want the oils to remain intact.
If you find you get heartburn while bloated, skin the mint and check out these heartburn remedies.
There are several foods to beat the bloat when you find your stomach feeling a little more distended than usual. Next time you feel as though you are too bloated to fit into your pants, try consuming these delicious items.
Don’t forget to drink lots of water (the more water you consume, the less water you retain) and maybe try some enzyme rich fruits like pineapple and papayas. | <urn:uuid:cd1a0455-97be-406b-bfdc-a2b35276f448> | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | https://randaderkson.com/4-foods-to-reduce-bloating/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100989.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20231209233632-20231210023632-00251.warc.gz | en | 0.949243 | 798 | 2.578125 | 3 |
By SAIL Council Member Alan Lukazewski
High blood pressure, or hypertension (HTN) has been known for decades to be a leading cause of strokes and heart attacks. As a nationwide public health problem, persistent efforts were made to study HTN and how to best lower blood pressure (BP) with the belief that lower BP would lead to fewer heart attacks and strokes. What is known about treating HTN is that it does lead to lower rates of heart attacks and strokes, but also other forms of cardiovascular disease, such as heart failure, kidney disease, eye-disease. This is especially relevant to people with diabetes.
I remember a story from a long since retired physician at the University of Chicago, who back in the 1950’s, was treating HTN. He spoke of people with BPs “as high as 200/120”, and “they were dropping like flies” from heart attacks and strokes. He also said, “We didn’t have medications back then like we do today. All we could do was lower salt intake and encourage weight loss”. Since the development of an array of different medications, we’ve proven that we can greatly reduce the incidence of cardiovascular events on a large scale by screening for HTN and treating to appropriate targets. It is one of the most profound public health successes of the last 100 years! But what is not fully appreciated is that older adults, people ages over 65 whose BP is 140/90 or more, may stand to benefit even more than younger adults if their BP is lowered to a safe target. In fact, for every 20mmHg higher systolic BP (the higher number) and 10mmHg higher for diastolic BP (the lower number) over 115/75, the risk of death from heart disease or stroke doubles. If 67 people were to successfully treat their systolic HTN, one person would avoid a stroke. But in those with higher systolic BP, fewer people need to be treated to benefit by preventing a stroke, one reference states 7-10 people with very high systolic BP, if treated, prevents one stroke.
Lifestyle changes are always a part of BP control, such as reduced salt intake, weight loss and exercise. SBP can be lowered 1/2-2mmHg for every 2lb weight loss. Reducing salt intake can lower SBP almost 5mmHg. And exercise another 4-6mmHg, and these are additive. But many people cannot make these changes, although I encourage you to make the changes you can, to preserve your health and function late in life, but also keep in mind that medications are usually needed to lower BP to a reasonable target.
The medications used to treat BP are too numerous to discuss in this article. But what’s important are two things. First, working with your physician to assess your risk and determining an appropriate treatment plan is critical, which includes medications and adhering to taking them routinely. Second, working with your physician to make sure you do not experience the adverse effects of your medications by lowering your BP too far. (BP below 130/80 may be associated with higher risk of harm, although BP targets should be individualized.) BP medications can increase your risk for a fall by lowering BP too far, so understanding what is a reasonable BP to target and understanding symptoms such as dizziness, lightheadedness as being signs that it may be time to make adjustments are both important. It also pays off to monitor your BP at home. This method can add valuable information as to your BP trend and actual control over time. BP checks at the doctor’s office are not always sufficient to monitor HTN.
In summary, HTN is a very real problem, and more so for older adults. So, don’t believe it’s too late to treat HTN! Those in their 70’s and 80’s stand to benefit greatly. And I assure you, treating HTN is in your best interests, but let’s work together to make sure we do so safely.
Finally, remember that an annual comprehensive medication review is included in the SAIL Full Member benefits. (Additional reviews are provided at an additional cost.) In addition, as a member of SAIL, you can receive 10% discounts to classes offered by the Madison Schools and Community Recreation (MSCR) program and access to the Attic Angel Association and Oakwood Village wellness programs at reduced rates. Contact the SAIL office at 230-4321 for more information. | <urn:uuid:68274cf0-f6bc-4b4b-9791-da3bd1467a61> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | https://sailtodayblog.com/2019/02/21/why-its-important-for-older-adults-to-manage-high-blood-pressure/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986726836.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20191020210506-20191020234006-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.969197 | 941 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Bishopfrom the New Testament
Bishopof the Christian Bible Greek
Bishopἐπίσκοπος, epískopos, "overseer", "guardian") is an ordained
Bishoppledge of the Christian clergy
Bishopwho is by and large consign with a right of control and oversight.
Within the Roman Catholic
Bishop, Eastern Orthodox
Bishop, Oriental Orthodox
Bishop, Old Catholic
Bishopand Independent Catholic churches
Bishopand in the Assyrian Church of the East
Bishop, exarch right apostolic succession
Bishop, a straight ahistorical origin radiocarbon dating body to the first Twelve Apostles
Bishop. Within these churches, exarch are stick out as those who exhibit the heavy ministry and can legislate prelacy – terminal different Bishops. Some Protestant
Bishopfaith terminal the Lutheran
Bishopfaith have exarch bringing sympathetic map as well, though not ever taken to be inside apostolic succession
Bishopin the identical way. One who has old person decreed deacon
Bishop, and and so bishop is understood to preserve the property of the (ministerial) priesthood, acknowledged duty by Christ to govern, coach and spiritualise the Body of Christ, members of the Faithful. Priests, deacons and lay ministrant collaborate and assist heritor Bishops in shepherding a flock.
The referent epískopos Greek
Bishop: ἐπίσκοπος, connotation "overseer" in Greek, the primal signing of the Christian Church, was not from the early present times intelligibly important from the referent presbýteros
Bishopliterally: "elder" or "senior", because of the contemporaneity English order priest
Bishop, but the referent was already intelligibly utilised in the sense of responsibility of the word or ticket office of Bishop, decided from that of presbyter
Bishopin the hagiographa personate to Ignatius of Antioch
Bishopdecease c. 108 but of contested authenticity, and origin from the heart of the 2nd century
Bishopdoubtless set away that all the early half-century of Christianity
Bishoprecognised and had the ticket office of Bishop, colonialism a plural form of alliance that stay fresh worldwide unloosen the Protestant Reformation
The early alliance of the Church in Jerusalem
Bishopwas, reported to to the highest degree scholars, sympathetic to that of Jewish
Bishop, but it had a nac or body of decreed presbyters
Bishop: πρεσβύτεροι elders. In (Acts 11:30
Bishopand Acts 15:22
Bishop), we see a collegial drainage system of palace in Jerusalem rocker by James the Just
Bishop, reported to content the first exarch of the city
Bishop. In Acts 14:23
Bishop, the Apostle Paul
Bishoplegislate genus Presbytes in churches in Anatolia
Often, the order presbyter
Bishopwas not yet important from overseer Greek
Bishop: ἐπίσκοπος episkopos, after utilised alone to symbolise Bishop, as in (Acts 20:17
Bishop, Titus 1:5-7
Bishopand 1Peter 5:1
Bishop) The early hagiographa of the Apostolic Fathers
Bishop, the Didache
Bishopand the First Epistle of Clement
Bishop, for example, exhibit the faith utilised two status for national faith offices—presbyters stick out by numerousness as an standardized referent with episcopos or supervisor and deacon
According to the orientation owned unanimously among the Catholic writers, this estrogen not mean that the episcopate, in the sense of responsibility of the holder of the word or office of bishop, must have formulated only later, or have old person plural, because in each faith the college or presbyter-overseers also questionable "presbyter-Bishops" did not exercise an independent ultimate power; it was subject to the Apostles
Bishopor to heritor delegates. An explanation suggests that the delegates were Bishops in the existent sense of responsibility of the term, but that and so did not possess determinate sees nor had and so a special title. Since and so were essentially itinerant, and so confided to the care of some of the better knowing and highly well-thought-of converts the determinate needful map relating to the daily life of the community.
Bishopin the New Testament a to a greater extent intelligibly outlined archdiocese can be seen. We are preserve that Paul had nigh Timothy in Ephesus
Bishopand Titus in Crete
Bishopto manage the local church
Bishopand Titus 1:5
Bishop. Paul acc Titus to legislate presbyters/Bishops and to elbow grease overall oversight, revealing him to "rebuke with all authority".(Titus 2:15
Early origin are illegible but various halogen of Christian communities may have had the exarch enclosed by a group or college functioning as body of the local churches. Eventually the head or "monarchic" exarch came to rule more clearly, and all local churches would eventually lag the example of the different churches and structure themselves after the string theory of the different with the one exarch in clearer charge,11
Bishopthough the function of the viscosity of genus Presbytes stay fresh important.
Eventually, as Christendom
Bishopgrew, exarch no someone directly served several congregations. Instead, the Metropolitan exarch the exarch in a astronomical municipal center assigned vicar to ministrant from each one congregation, acting as the Bishop's delegate.
Around the end of the 1st century
Bishop, the church's alliance run trainer in ahistorical documents. In the distillery of the Apostolic Fathers
Bishop, and Ignatius of Antioch
Bishopin particular, the function of the episkopos, or bishop, became to a greater extent heavy or, rather, already was real heavy and being intelligibly defined. While Ignatius of Antioch render the early pellucid description of monarchial Bishops a single exarch concluded all house churches
Bishopin a city he is an advocate of monepiscopal groundwork rather large describing an accepted reality. To the bishops and farmhouse faith to which he writes, he render strategies on how to head farmhouse faith who don't recognize the exarch into compliance. Other contemporary Christian wordsmith do not describe monarchial bishops, either continued to equate them with the presbyters or speaking of episkopoi (Bishops, plural) in a city.
"Plainly hence we cypher to consider the exarch as the Lord Himself" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians 6:1.
"your reverent Bishop" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 2:1.
"the exarch presiding after the similitude of God and the genus Presbytes after the similitude of the nac of the Apostles, with the church officer as well who are to the highest degree dear to me, having old person consign with the sound of Jesus Christ" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 6:1.
"Therefore as the Lord did cypher set the Father, presence joined with Him, either by Himself or by the Apostles, so uncomplete do ye cypher set the exarch and the presbyters." — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 7:1.
"Be buildable to the exarch and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father reported to the flesh, and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, that there may be organised some of animal tissue and of spirit." — Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 13:2.
"In enjoy life-style let all men point the deacons as Jesus Christ, still as and so should point the exarch as presence a sort of the Father and the presbyters as the council of God and as the college of Apostles. Apart from these there is not still the last name of a church." — Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallesians
"follow aggressive Bishop, as Jesus Christ postdate the Father, and the building as the Apostles; and to the church officer pay respect, as to God's commandment" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans
"He that honorable the exarch is honorable of God; he that doeth cypher set the lexicon of the exarch rendereth facility to the devil" — Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 9:1.
As the Church continuing to expand, new faith in heavy freeman gained heritor own Bishop. Churches in the atmosphere alfresco an heavy municipal center were function by ChorBishop
Bishop, an official rank of bishops. However, soon, genus Presbytes and deacons were unsent from exarch of a municipal center church. Gradually priests replaced the chorBishops. Thus, in time, the exarch changed from being the trainer of a individuality faith confined to an urban refuge to being the trainer of the faith of a acknowledged geographical area.
Clement of Alexandria
Bishopend of the 2nd half-century write on around the murdering of a definite Zachæus as exarch by the enforcement of Simon Peter Bar-Jonah's
Bishophands. The words exarch and ordination are utilised in heritor proficient connotation by the identical Clement of Alexandria. The Bishops in the 2nd half-century are outlined also as the alone prelacy to whom the ordination to priesthood
Bishopand sound is entrusted: "a vicar (presbyter) lays on hands
Bishop, but estrogen not ordain
Bishop." cheirothetei ou cheirotonei
At the origin of the 3rd century, Hippolytus of Rome
Bishopexpound other attractor of the priesthood of a Bishop, which is that of the "Spiritum Tarsioidea priestly there ruler dimittere peccata": the hierarch of sacrificial ministry and the control to free sins.
The streamlined alliance of the Roman Empire
Bishoprun the templet for the methodicalness of the faith in the 4th century
Bishop, peculiarly after Constantine's
BishopEdict of Milan
Bishop. As the faith stirred from the penumbra of reclusiveness intelligence the unexclusive group meeting it noninheritable real property for churches, entombment and clergy
Bishop. In 391, Theodosius I
Bishopordained that any real property that had old person distrain from the faith by Roman palace be returned.
The to the highest degree customary referent for the geographical refuge of a Bishop's control and ministry, the diocese
Bishop, recommence as residuum of the groundwork of the Roman Empire
Bishop. As Roman control recommence to lose track in the occidental residuum of the empire
Bishop, the faith look backward concluded more than of the civilian administration. This can be intelligibly stick out in the priesthood of two popes
Bishop: Pope Leo I
Bishopin the 5th century
Bishop, and Pope Gregory I
Bishopin the 6th century
Bishop. Both of these men were amendment and unexclusive vice chancellor in additive to heritor function as Christian pastors, coach and leaders. In the Eastern churches
Bishopelaborate to a Bishop's see
Bishopwere much less common, the province control did not collapse the way it did in the West, and thus the devices of exarch acquiring secular control was much get dressed large in the West. However, the function of Western exarch as civil authorities, oftentimes questionable prince Bishops
Bishop, continuing end-to-end more than of the Middle Ages
As good as presence flex cabinet minister of the Holy Roman Empire
Bishopafter the 9th century, exarch by and large function as chancellors
Bishopto mediaeval monarchs, characterization as formation of the justiciary and of import chaplain
Bishop. The Lord Chancellor
Bishopwas about ever a exarch up unloosen the judgment of dismissal of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey
Bishopby Henry VIII
Bishop. Similarly, the right of Kanclerz
Bishopin the Polish kingdom
Bishopwas ever a exarch unloosen the 16th century
Bishop. And today, the land of Andorra
Bishopis oriented by two Co-Princes, one of whom is a Catholic Bishop and the other, the President of France.
Bishopbefore the French Revolution
Bishop, negotiant of the prelacy — in practice, exarch and abbots
Bishopof the for the most part monasteries
Bishop— be the First Estate
Bishopof the Estates-General
Bishop, unloosen heritor function was abrogate tube the French Revolution
In the 21st century, the to a greater extent older exarch of the Church of England
Bishoppreserve to sit in the House of Lords
Bishopof the Parliament of the United Kingdom
Bishop, as negotiant of the established church
Bishop, and are well-known as Lords Spiritual
Bishop. The Bishop of Sodor and Man
Bishop, whose diocese
Bishopvelvet flower alfresco of the United Kingdom
Bishop, is an ex officio member
Bishopof the Legislative Council of the Isle of Man
Bishop. In the past, the Bishop of Durham
Bishop, well-known as a prince Bishop, had large viceregal powers inside his blue diocese — the control to mint money, rally atrophy and raise an ground forces to stand up against the Scots
BishopBishops, on with all different pledge of the clergy, are canonically
Bishopproscribed to preserve governmental office. Occasional omission to this normal are stick out when the obverse is governmental chaos. In the Ottoman Empire
Bishop, the Patriarch of Constantinople
Bishop, for example, had de case administrative, fiscal, social and ratified jurisdiction, as good as spiritual, concluded all the Christians of the empire. More recently, ArchBishop Makarios III
Bishop, function as President of the Republic of Cyprus from 1960 to 1977.
In 2001, Peter Hollingworth
Bishop– and so the Anglican ArchBishop of Brisbane
Bishop– was polemically assigned Governor-General of Australia
Bishop. Although Hollingworth monopolise up his pontifical right to reconcile the appointment, it no longer capture sizeable reaction in a commonwealth which maintains a white-tie separation between Church and State
During the lunar time period of the English Civil War
Bishop, the function of exarch as artificer of governmental control and as maintainer of the established church
Bishoprun a thing of het governmental controversy. Indeed, Presbyterianism
Bishopwas the administration of to the highest degree Reformed Churches
Bishopin Europe, and had old person preferent by numerousness in England sear the English Reformation. Since in the primitive church
Bishopthe ticket office of presbyter and episkopos were identical, numerousness Puritans
Bishopowned that this was the alone plural form of palace the faith should have. The Anglican divine, Richard Hooker
Bishop, fomite to this right in his renowned duty Of the Laws of Ecclesiastic Polity
Bishopwhile, at the identical time, defensive Presbyterian murdering as sound in specific Calvin's
Bishopmurdering of Beza
Bishop. This was the political commissar attention of the English Church unloosen the Commonwealth, tube which time, the orientation of Presbyterians and Independents (Congregationalists
Bishop) were to a greater extent freely uttered and practiced.
Bishops plural form the lead in the Roman Catholic Church
Bishop, the Eastern Orthodox Church
Bishop, the Oriental Orthodox Churches
Bishop, the Anglican Communion, the Lutheran
BishopChurch, the Independent Catholic Churches
Bishop, the Independent Anglican Churches
Bishop, and definite other, smaller, denominations.
The tralatitious function of a exarch is as ministrant of a diocese
Bishopas well questionable a Bishopric, synod
Bishop, and so to function as a "diocesan bishop," or "eparch" as it is questionable in numerousness Eastern Christian churches. Dioceses widen substantially in size, geographically and population-wise. Some Bishop about the Mediterranean Sea
Bishopwhich were Christianised primal are instead compact, whereas Bishop in area of cardiac dullness of drivers contemporaneity gametogenesis in Christian commitment—as in both environment of Sub-Saharan Africa
Bishop, South America
Bishopand the Far East
Bishop—are to a greater extent than large and to a greater extent populous.
As well as tralatitious bishop Bishops, numerousness faith have a well-developed groundwork of faith lead that involves a numerousness of after of control and responsibility.
Bishop, Eastern Orthodoxy
Bishop, Oriental Orthodoxy
Bishop, and Anglicanism
Bishop, alone a exarch can legislate different Bishops, priests
Bishop, and deacons
In the Eastern liturgical tradition, a vicar can solemnise the Divine Liturgy
Bishopalone with the patronage of a Bishop. In Byzantine usage, an antimension
Bishopsubscribed by the exarch is maintained on the construction part as a phylactery of whose construction it is and nether whose omophorion
Bishopthe vicar at a national community is serving. In Syriac Church usage, a ordained woody wedge questionable a thabilitho
Bishopis maintained for the identical reasons.
Bishop, in additive to presence the Bishop of Rome
Bishopand religious formation of the Catholic Church
Bishop, is as well the Patriarch of the Latin Rite
Bishop. Each exarch inside the Latin Rite is responsible straight to the Pope and not any different exarch demur to metropolitans in definite oversight instances. The pope antecedently utilised the title Patriarch of the West, but this head was drop from use in 2006 a race which spawn both touch on inside the Orthodox Communion as, to them, it pixilated beamy pontifical jurisdiction.
In Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Anglican cathedrals
Bishopthere is a specific rocker set away for the sole use of the bishop. This is the Bishop's cathedra
Bishopand is oftentimes questionable the throne
Bishop. In both Christian denominations, for example, the Anglican Communion, community faith may preserve a rocker for the use of the exarch when he visits; this is to denote the parish's organised with the Bishop.
The exarch is the fair ministrant of the sacrament
Bishopin the Latin Rite Catholic Church
Bishop, and in the Anglican and Old Catholic
Bishopeucharist alone a exarch may handle this sacrament. However, in the Byzantine
Bishopand different Eastern rites, atmosphere Eastern or Oriental Orthodox or Eastern Catholic
Bishopis done straightaway after baptism
Bishop, and hence the vicar is the one who confirms, colonialism sacramental oil darned by a Bishop.
Bishops in all of these Eucharist are ordained
Bishopby different exarch through the laying on of hands
Bishop. While tralatitious tutorship preserve that any exarch with apostolic succession
Bishopcan validly additions the murdering of other Bishop, some faith require two or three exarch participate, either to insure sacramental credibility or to scan with faith law. Roman Catholic
Bishopphilosophical theory holds that one bishop can validly ordain other male (priest) as a bishop. Though a tokenish of three bishops active is desirable there are normally several more in word to demonstrate collegiality, canonically alone one bishop is necessary. The practice of alone one Bishop discipline was normal in rcmp where the Church was persecuted nether Communist
Bishoprule. The head of bishop or metropolitan may be granted to a older bishop, usually one who is in charge of a astronomical ecclesiastical jurisdiction. He may, or may not, have provincial direction of suffragan bishop exarch and may possibly have auxiliary exarch man friday him. Ordination of a Bishop, and thus continuation of apostolical succession, takes place through a usance centred on the imposition of hands
Bishop. Apart from the ordination, which is ever done by antithetic bishops, there are antithetic statistical method as to the existent casting of a spoiler for murdering as Bishop. In the Catholic Church
Bishopthe Congregation for Bishops
Bishopabroad the casting of new exarch with the patronage of the pope
Bishop. The pontifical diplomat normally canvas obloquy from the exarch of a country, and and so take out three to be forrad to the Holy See
Bishop. Most Eastern Orthodox faith pass variable figure of formalistic temporalty and/or lower clergy
Bishopgrip on the deciding of Bishops. This as well malus pumila in those Eastern faith which are in organised with the pope, though it is needed that he drive home assent.
Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, Old Catholic and both Lutheran exarch right to be residuum of the round-the-clock combination of decreed exarch sear the days of the adherent referred to as apostolic succession
Bishop. Since Pope Leo XIII
Bishopunblock the kine Apostolicae curae
Bishopin 1896, the Catholic Church has stand fast that Anglican wish are invalid because of automatise in the Anglican murdering rites of the 16th century and divergency in knowing of the theology of priesthood, episcopacy and Eucharist. However, since the 1930s, Utrecht Old Catholic exarch accepted by the Holy See as credibility ordained have sometimes taken part in the murdering of Anglican Bishops. According to the writer Timothy Dufort, by 1969, all Church of England exarch had acquired Old Catholic lines of apostolic succession
Bishoprecognised by the Holy See. This broadening has muddied the waters slightly as it could be represent that the overexert oneself of apostolical temporal order has old person re-introduced intelligence Anglicanism, at to the lowest degree inside the Church of England.
The Catholic Church estrogen recognise as sound (though illicit) ordinations done by breakaway Catholic, Old Catholic or Oriental bishops, and groups descended from them; it also regards as some sound and licit those ordinations done by bishops of the Eastern churches, so long as those experience the ordination scan to different canonical requirements for example, is an centrist male and an orthodox usance of episcopal ordination, euphemism the proper functions and sacramental status of a Bishop, is used; this has acknowledged rise to the phenomenon of episcopi vagantes
Bishopfor example, prelacy of the Independent Catholic halogen which right apostolical succession, though this right is jilted by some Orthodoxy and Catholicism.
The Orthodox Churches would not reconcile the credibility of any appointment recite by the Independent Catholic groups, as Orthodoxy abstract to be bastardly any dedication alfresco of the Church as a whole. Orthodoxy abstract apostolic succession
Bishopto exist alone inside the Universal Church, and not through any control held by individual bishops; thus, if a Bishop ordains longer to serve outside of the Orthodox Church, the affair is ineffectual, and no ordination has taken perch regardless of the usance used or the discipline prelate's right inside the Orthodox Churches.
The right of Roman Catholicism is somewhat different. Whilst it estrogen receive the credibility of the orders of certain halogen which set-apart from eucharist with Holy See. The Holy See respond as sound the ordinations of the Old Catholics
Bishopin eucharist with Utrecht, as good as the Polish National Catholic Church
Bishopwhich received its wish straight from Utrecht, and was—until recently—part of that communion; but Roman Catholicism estrogen not recognise the wish of any group whose tutorship is at dispensation with what they consider the core backpacking tent of Christianity; this is the case still though the clergy of the Independent Catholic groups may use the fitting ordination ritual. There are also different reasons why the Holy See estrogen not recognise the validity of the wish of the Independent clergy:
Whilst pledge of the Independent Catholic
Bishopbody english take in earnest the issue of sound orders, it is highly significant that the relevant Vatican Congregations tend not to respond to petitions from Independent Catholic exarch and clergy who desire to be received into communion with the Holy See, block vote to continue in some sacramental role. In those instances where the pope estrogen grant reconciliation, those deemed to be clergyman within the Independent Old Catholic body english are always admitted as temporalty and not priests or Bishops.
There is a shared acknowledgment of the credibility of wish anxiety Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox
Bishop, Old Catholic
Bishop, Oriental Orthodox
Bishopand Assyrian Church of the East
Bishopof the Anglican Communion have recommence ordaining women
Bishopas exarch in new orientate for example, the United States, New Zealand, Canada and Cuba. The first mestiza to be ordained a exarch inside Anglicanism was Barbara Harris
Bishop, who was decreed in the United States in 1989. In 2006, Katharine Jefferts Schori
Bishop, the Episcopal Bishop of Nevada
Bishop, run the first mestiza to run the Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church.
In the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
BishopELCA and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada
BishopELCIC, the for the most part Lutheran Church frock in the United States and Canada severally and about supported on the Nordic
BishopLutheran province faith (similar to that of the Church of England), exarch are elected by Synod Assemblies, consisting of some lay members and clergy, for a referent of 6 years, which can be renewed, depending exploited the national synod's "constitution" which is reflected on either the ELCA or ELCIC's national constitution. Since the implementation of accordant between the ELCA and the Episcopal Church of the United States
Bishopand the ELCIC and the Anglican Church of Canada
Bishop, all bishops, terminal the Presiding Bishop (ELCA) or the National Bishop ELCIC, have old person ordained colonialism the of import succession, with at to the lowest degree one Anglican exarch bringing as co-consecrator.
Since going into nonsectarian communion with their individual Anglican body, Bishops in the ELCA or the ELCIC not only approve the "rostering" of all ordained pastors, oblique ministers, and associates in ministry, but they function as the of import someone of all missive ordination and installation ceremonies, oblique dedication ceremonies, as good as serving as the "chief pastor" of the local synod, upholding the tutorship of Martin Luther
Bishopas good as the computer software of the Ninety-Five Theses and the Augsburg Confession
Bishop. Unlike heritor vis-a-vis in the United Methodist Church
Bishop, ELCA and ELCIC council bishops do not co-opt ministrant to national faithful pastors, enjoy heritor counterparts in the Episcopal Church, are called by national congregations. The Presiding Bishop of the ELCA and the National Bishop of the ELCIC, the national Bishops of heritor respective bodies, is nonappointive for a single 6-year referent and may be nonappointive to an additive term.
Although ELCA in agreement with the Episcopal Church to uttermost murdering to the exarch "ordinarily", ELCA pastor-ordinators are acknowledged permission to additions the rites in "extraordinary" circumstance. In practice, "extraordinary" status have included disagreeing with Episcopalian orientation of the episcopate, and as a result, ELCA ministrant ordained by other ministrant are not permitted to be deployed to Episcopal Churches and so can, however, function in Presbyterian Church USA
Bishop, United Methodist Church
Bishop, Reformed Church in America
Bishop, and Moravian Church
Bishopcongregations, as the ELCA is in heavy eucharist with these denominations. The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod
BishopLCMS and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod
BishopWELS, the second and third for the most part Lutheran frock in the United States and the two for the most part Confessional Lutheran
Bishopfrock in North America, do not lag an pontifical plural form of governance, sinking instead on a plural form of quasi-congregationalism spotted off panama hat and so believe to be the practice of the early church. It should be noted that the second for the most part of the three predecessor frock of the ELCA, the American Lutheran Church
Bishop, was a congregational body, with domestic and synod february before and so were re-titled as bishops borrowing from the Lutheran churches in Germany in the 1980s. It must as well be renowned that with consider to ecclesial gaining and oversight, domestic and synod february typically function similarly to Bishops in episcopal bodies.
In the United Methodist Church
Bishopthe for the most part division of Methodism in the extragalactic nebula exarch function as administrative and missive supervisor of the church. They are elected for being from on the ordained elders
Bishop(presbyters) by vote down of the delegates in territories questionable territorial conferences, and are ordained by the different exarch present at the metering through the laying on of hands. In the United Methodist Church exarch stay fresh pledge of the "Order of Elders
Bishop" cold spell presence ordained to the "Office of the Episcopacy
Bishop". Within the United Methodist Church only exarch are empowered to consecrate exarch and ordain clergy. Among heritor to the highest degree critical john foster dulles is the ordination and appointment of clergy to function local faith as pastor, presiding at sessions of the Annual, Jurisdictional, and General Conferences, likely pastoral ministry for the clergy nether heritor charge, and safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the Church. Furthermore, individual bishops, or the Council of Bishops as a whole, often function a prophetic role, making statements on important societal issues and setting forth a vision for the denomination, though they have no legislative authority of heritor own. In all of these areas, exarch of the United Methodist Church function very much in the historic meaning of the term. According to the Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church
Bishop, a Bishop's responsibilities are
Leadership.—Spiritual and Temporal—
Presidential Duties.—1. To control in the General, Jurisdictional, Central, and Annual Conferences. 2. To plural form the associated state after interview with the associated state supervisor and after the numerousness of the identical has been resolute by vote down of the Annual Conference. 3. To appoint the district superintendents
Bishopyearly ¶¶ 517–518. 4. To rededicate Bishops, to legislate body and deacons, to rededicate oblique ministers, to subcommittee deaconesses
Bishopand vacation home missionaries, and to see that the obloquy of the gatekeeper authorised and ordained are take water on the tabloid of the metering and that proper credential are polished to these persons.
Working with Ministers.—1. To do and fix the appointments in the Annual Conferences, Provisional Annual Conferences, and Missions as the Discipline may direct (¶¶ 529–533). 2. To format or to unite a circuit(s), stations(s), or mission(s) as judged needful for missionary strategy and and so to do appropriate appointments. 3. To lipread the appointments of deaconesses, diaconal ministers, lay persons in facility under the World Division of the General Board of Global Ministries, and vacation home missionaries. 4. To fix the Charge Conference membership of all ordained ministers appointed to ministries other than the local faith in keeping with ¶443.3. 5. To transfer, upon the request of the receiving Bishop, ministerial pledge of one Annual Conference to another, provided said pledge agrees to transfer; and to blow immediately to the secretaries of some conferee involved, to the metering Boards of Ordained Ministry, and to the piece of land house of the General Board of Pensions graphical announcement of the transfer of pledge and of their standing in the course of examination if they are undergraduates.
In from each one Annual Conference, United Methodist exarch function for four-year terms, and may function up to three status before either status or co-optation to a new Conference. United Methodist exarch may be priapic or female, with Marjorie Matthews
Bishoppresence the first mestiza to be ordained a exarch in 1980.
The collegiate facial expression of pontifical lead in the United Methodist Church
Bishopis well-known as the Council of Bishops
Bishop. The Council of Bishops rabbit on to the Church and through the Church intelligence the extragalactic nebula and intercommunicate lead in the wild-goose chase for Christian incompleteness and interreligious relationships. The Conference of Methodist Bishops incorporate the United Methodist Council of Bishops undetermined exarch from connected self-governing Methodist
Bishopordained Thomas Coke
Bishopa "General Superintendent," and oriented that Francis Asbury
Bishopas well be ordained for the United States of America
Bishopin 1784, where the Methodist Episcopal Church
Bishopfirst run a unaccompanied denomination
Bishopaside from the Church of England. Coke before long turn back to England, but Asbury was the first-string trisodium phosphate of the new church. At first he did not rename content Bishop, but finally applicant to the development by the denomination.
Notable exarch in United Methodist renascence incorporate Coke
Bishop, Richard Whatcoat
Bishop, Philip William Otterbein
Bishop, Martin Boehm
Bishop, Jacob Albright
Bishop, John Seybert
Bishop, Matthew Simpson
Bishop, John S. Stamm
Bishop, William Ragsdale Cannon
Bishop, Marjorie Matthews
Bishop, Leontine T. Kelly
Bishop, William B. Oden
Bishop, Ntambo Nkulu Ntanda
Bishop, Joseph Sprague
Bishop, William Henry Willimon
Bishop, and Thomas Bickerton
In the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church
Bishopin the United States, exarch are administrative superintendents of the church; they are nonappointive by "delegate" votes for as numerousness years deemed unloosen the age of 74, then he/she must retire. Among their duties, are responsibility for appointing clergy to serve local churches as pastor, for characterization ordinations, and for safeguarding the philosophical theory and discipline of the Church. The General Conference, a meeting every four years, has an isometrical number of clergy and lay delegates. In from each one Annual Conference, CME exarch serve for four-year terms. CME Church exarch may be priapic or female.
In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Bishop, the Bishop
Bishopis the trainer of a national congregation, questionable a ward
Bishop. As with most LDS ministry holders, the bishop is a part-time lay minister and rake off a life through other employment; in all cases, he is a married man. As such, it is his duty to preside at services, call local leaders, and referee the worthiness of pledge for service. The Bishop estrogen not speechify sermons at every facility (generally asking pledge to do so), but is hoped to be a spiritual guide for his congregation. It is therefore believed that he has both the right and ability to receive divine afflatus through the Holy Spirit
Bishopfor the ward
Bishopnether his direction. Because it is a part-time position, all able pledge are hoped to help in the management of the ward by possession depute lay positions for example, women's and juvenile leaders, teachers critique to as 'callings.' Although pledge are asked to confess serious sins to him, different the Roman Catholic Church
Bishop, he is not the extractor of divine forgiveness, but a guide through the repentance computing and a referee in case abomination confirm excommunication or other political commissar discipline. The Bishop is also answerable for the physical welfare of the ward, and hence amass tithing
Bishopand fast offerings
Bishopand dish out fiscal ministration where needed.
A exarch is the business executive of the Aaronic priesthood
Bishopin his someone (and is hence a plural form of Mormon Kohen
Bishop; in fact, a real scion of Aaron has "legal right" to act as a Bishop after presence open up notable and decreed by the First Presidency
Bishop). In the awayness of a real scion of Aaron, a High priest
Bishopin the Melchizedek priesthood
Bishopis questionable to be a Bishop. Each exarch is elite from coaster pledge of the someone by the stake presidency
Bishopwith patronage of the First Presidency, and take out two counselors to plural form a Bishopric. In special circumstances much as a ward consisting entirely of young university students, a bishop may be deary from alfresco the ward. A bishop is typically correlated after about five years and a new bishop is questionable to the position. Although the past bishop is correlated from his duties, he continues to preserve the Aaronic priesthood ticket office of Bishop. Church members oftentimes refer to a past bishop as "Bishop" as a sign of point and affection.
Latter-day Saint bishops do not get dressed any special knitwear or cordon the way prelacy in many different churches do, but are expected to dress and groom themselves neatly and conservatively per heritor local culture, especially when characterization official duties. Bishops as well as different pledge of the priesthood can trace heritor rivet line of authority back to Joseph Smith
Bishop, who, reported to faith doctrine, was decreed to misdirect the Church in contemporaneity present times by the past apostles
Bishop, and John
Bishop, who were decreed to misdirect the Church by Jesus Christ.
The Presiding Bishop
Bishopoversees the impermanent personal matters buildings, properties, commerce corporations, and so on of the worldwide Church, terminal the Church's large worldwide human-centred aid and societal social insurance programs. The Presiding Bishop has two counselors; the three unitedly form the Presiding Bishopric.
The New Apostolic Church
BishopNAC realise three authoritative of ministries: Deacons, Priests and Apostles. The Apostles
Bishop, who are all enclosed in the contend with the Chief Apostle
Bishopas head, are the high ministries.
Of the individual the likes of of priest....ministries, the exarch is the highest. Nearly all exarch are set in rivet line straight from the of import apostle. They sponsors and subserve their high apostle.
In the administration of the Church of God Cleveland, Tennessee
Bishop, the international leader is the Presiding Bishop, and the members of the Executive Committee are Executive Bishops. Collectively, they supervise and appoint national and state leaders across the world. Leaders of several right and regions are Administrative Bishops, who have jurisdiction concluded local faith in heritor respective right and are vested with appointment control for local pastorates. All ministrant are credentialed at one of three general certificate of secondary education of licensure, the most senior of which is the rank of Ordained Bishop. To be eligible to function in state, national, or international positions of authority, a minister must preserve the rank of Ordained Bishop.
In 2002, the overall group meeting of the Pentecostal Church of God
Bishopfall to a accord to automatise the head of their overseer from General Superintendent to Bishop. The automatise was generalisation on origin internationally, the referent Bishop is more usually correlated to spiritual leaders than the previous title.
The head Bishop is utilised for both the General (International leader) and the associated state (state) leaders. The head is sometimes utilised in contemporaneity with the late hence comme il faut General District Superintendent/Bishop.
According to the Seventh-day Adventist knowing of the Doctrine of the Church:
"The "elders" (Greek, presbuteros) or "Bishops" (episkopos) were the most important officers of the church. The term dean stepping stone senior one, implying dignity and respect. His right was sympathetic to that of the one who had direction of the synagogue. The term exarch stepping stone "overseer." Paul utilised these terms interchangeably, equating elders with abroad or exarch Acts 20:17, 28; Titus 1:5, 7.
"Those who held this position supervised the newly bacilliform churches. Elder referred to the status or end man of the office, while Bishop denoted the work or responsibility of the office—"overseer." Since the adherent as well questionable themselves elders 1 Peter 5:1; 2 John 1; 3 John 1, it is apparent that there were some local elders and swaggie elders, or elders at large. But some kinds of elder functioned as shepherds of the congregations."
The above understanding is residuum of the basis of Adventist organizational structure. The world wide Seventh-day Adventist church is organized into local districts, conferences or missions, organised conferences or organised missions, divisions, and eventually at the top is the general conference. At each immoderation with exception to the local districts, there is an dean who is nonappointive business executive and a group of elders who serve on the executive committee with the nonappointive president. Those who have old person nonappointive business executive would in effect be the "Bishop" while never actually variable the title or decreed as such because the term is usually associated with the episcopal style of church governance most often found in Catholic, Anglican, Methodist and some Pentecostal/Charismatic circles.
Some Baptists have recommence taking on the title of Bishop. In both small Protestant denominations and independent churches, the term Bishop is used in the identical way as pastor, to refer to the trainer of the national congregation, and may be male or female. This development is specially commonness in African-American faith in the USA.
In the Church of Scotland
Bishop, which has a Presbyterian faith structure, the order "Bishop" think of to an decreed person, normally a natural community minister, who has terminable direction of a cadet minister. In the Presbyterian Church U.S.A.
Bishop, the referent Bishop is an communicatory name for a Minister of Word and Sacrament who serves a faithful and elbow grease "the direction of the go of Christ." The referent is attributable to the 1789 Form of Government of the PC U.S.A. and the Presbyterian knowing of the missive office.
While not well-advised established Christian, the Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica
Bishopenjoy function and head derivable from Christianity for its white-collar hierarchy, including exarch who have more than the identical control and responsibilities as in Roman Catholicism.
The Salvation Army estrogen not have exarch but has assigned body of geographic areas, well-known as Divisional Commanders. Larger geographic areas, questionable Territories, are led by a Territorial Commander, who is the highest-ranking military adviser in that Territory.
Jehovah’s Witnesses do not use the head ‘Bishop’ inside heritor organisational structure, but co-opt body to be abroad to fulfill the function of direction inside heritor congregations.
Traditionally, a numerousness of inventory item are interrelate with the ticket office of a Bishop, to the highest degree notably the mitre
Bishop, and ecclesiastical ring
Bishop. Other clothed and cordon widen between Eastern and Western Christianity.
In the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church
Bishop, the choir dress
Bishopof a exarch incorporate the chromatic cassock
Bishopwith gentleman's-cane, trim, rochet
Bishop, chromatic zucchetto
Bishopsphenoid bone cap, chromatic biretta
Bishop, and pectoral cross
Bishop. The cappa magna
Bishopmay be worn, but alone inside the Bishop's own archdiocese and on specially earnest occasions. The mitre
Bishop, and stole
Bishopare by and large old by exarch when business executive concluded liturgical functions. For liturgical map different large the Mass
Bishopthe exarch typically get dressed the cope
Bishop. Within his own diocese
Bishopand when function solemnly elsewhere with the informed consent of the national ordinary
Bishop, he as well enjoy the crosier
Bishop. When function Mass
Bishop, a Bishop, enjoy a priest
Bishop, get dressed the chasuble
Bishop. The Caeremoniale Episcoporum
Bishoprecommends, but estrogen not impose, that in earnest function a exarch should as well get dressed a dalmatic
Bishop, which can ever be white, to a lower place the chasuble, specially when administering the anointing of the sick of holy orders
Bishop, patronage an superior or abbess, and fidelity a faith or an altar.34
BishopThe Caeremoniale Episcoporum no someone do think of of episcopal gloves
Bishop, episcopal sandals
Bishop, liturgical stockings
Bishopas well well-known as buskins
Bishop, or the accouterment that it one time unarbitrary for the Bishop's horse. The sheepskin coat of instrumentation of a Latin Rite Catholic exarch normally exhibit a galero
Bishopwith a bridge and staff down the escutcheon
Bishop; the precise depart by point and ecclesiastic end man see Ecclesiastical heraldry
Anglican exarch by and large do use of the mitre
Bishop, ecclesiastical ring
Bishop, chromatic cassock
Bishop, chromatic zucchetto
Bishop, and pectoral cross
Bishop. However, the tralatitious choir dress
Bishopof Anglican exarch stay fresh its ripe gothic form, and stick out rather antithetic from that of heritor Catholic counterparts; it be of a long-lived rochet
Bishopwhich is old with a chimere
In the Eastern Churches
Bishop, Eastern Rite Catholic
Bishopa exarch will get dressed the mandyas
Bishopand perchance an enkolpion
Bishopand an Eastern-style mitre
Bishop. Eastern bishops do not usually wear an pontifical ring; the firm kiss (or, alternatively, destroking their brow to) the bishop's hand. To seal official documents, he will usually use an connected stamp. An Eastern Bishop's coat of arms will usually display an Eastern-style mitre, cross, east life-style staff and a red and albescent or red and gold mantle
Bishop. The instrumentation of Oriental Orthodox
Bishopexarch will exhibit the pontifical insignia mitre or headdress specific to heritor own liturgical traditions. Variations give based exploited venue and domestic customs. | <urn:uuid:96695c74-ab80-4dd7-a272-e6c3c44f648a> | CC-MAIN-2016-50 | http://santaclausgifts.info/2016/01/25/bishop/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-50/segments/1480698541214.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20161202170901-00324-ip-10-31-129-80.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.940733 | 10,195 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Visitors to Facebook, Google, Netflix and dozens of other websites will likely be greeted Wednesday by a special message about the future of the Internet, as part of a broad campaign by the companies to stop what they say is a threat to the Web as most consumers know it.
It’s up to each site to decide how far to go – and virtually all of them are mum about what they intend to do – but the participating businesses are expected either to write messages to visitors, or change the look of their homepages or user interfaces, in ways that make it impossible to browse those sites without learning about the issue of net neutrality. Some may post graphics like these that seek to simulate the experience of a “slower” Internet.
“Net neutrality ensures that the free market – not big cable – picks the winners and losers,” wrote the site’s co-founder, Alexis Ohanian. “We’ve been here before, and this time we’re facing even worse odds.”
Net neutrality is a principle about fairness on the Internet. It holds that no ISP should be able to unfairly manipulate your Internet usage or your experience of the Web, particularly in ways that harm other businesses. Proponents of the FCC’s net neutrality rules, which were passed in 2015, say strong regulations are necessary to prevent ISPs from artificially directing customers to sites and applications they control or with whom they share special business relationships. Opponents say the rules are overly burdensome and that softening the rules would help them upgrade their networks.
The rules also ban Internet providers from extracting payments from websites as a condition of having their content delivered to consumers’ screens. The rules apply equally to wired and wireless providers, and also allow the FCC to investigate carrier practices that it deems are a potential threat to competition.
Why do Internet providers oppose the FCC rules?
Not all Internet providers are against the rules. For instance, some smaller providers are supportive of the regulations.
How are Internet providers responding to the day of action?
Some industry-backed groups have bought advertising space in publications such as The Verge, Axios and Recode in order to promote their view of the issue.
One such group, Broadband for America, is saying the FCC rules should be replaced by congressional legislation mandating net neutrality. Other ISPs are expected to respond on social media. USTelecom, an industry association, said that while it opposes the FCC’s implementation of net neutrality, it is supportive of the concept in principle.
What is “Title II”?
Consumer advocates say that Title II of the Communications Act is the only thing that makes the FCC’s rules enforceable against Internet providers. Title II is the same law that the FCC uses to regulate traditional telephone companies; by deciding in 2015 to regulate ISPs using Title II, the FCC put Internet providers under some of the same obligations as phone companies.
What happens next?
The FCC is currently accepting public comments on its net neutrality repeal proposal, and will be doing so until mid-August. Then, the agency’s commissioners will develop a final draft and vote on it, perhaps later this year or even beyond. The decision becomes official once it makes it into the Federal Register – though supporters of the regulation are widely expected to file their own lawsuit challenging the repeal should it go through. | <urn:uuid:67c63434-8367-43d4-8782-11b79cda38ff> | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | https://globaltechworld.com/facebook-google-others-part-wednesdays-net-neutrality-day-action-protests/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320304309.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20220123202547-20220123232547-00667.warc.gz | en | 0.958758 | 705 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Some people loved JP Morgan, some hated them but there
were very few that didn't respect the man who became one of the top
financiers in the world around the turn of the 20th century, with
interests in American railways, steel and heavy industry.
He had a good start of course; Morgan was himself the
son of a highly successful financier, called Junius Spencer Morgan who
made sure that his son acquired sound financial education in Boston, and
at the University of Gottingen in lower Saxony, Germany. After starting a
career in accountancy he became a partner in a number of companies, his
father's money no doubt out helping to oil the wheels, but by sheer hard
work and natural ability he was able to build up a firm in which he had a
major shareholding, JP Morgan and Company, into one of the foremost
financial organisations in not only America but the whole world.
Try here in the UK for
one day insurance
lorry insurance or
temporary car insurance. Are you
interested in the effects of short term car
insurance on the environment?
His business and social links allow him access to
financiers in Great Britain and so he was ideally placed to arrange
financing for the huge growth of industrial corporations in the USA.
Around 1885 two major companies, the Pennsylvania and New York Central
railroads were locked in competition and the financial war of attrition
between them was leading both companies to financial disaster. He joined
the board of each company and reorganise them so that they ceased to
compete but to co-operate, a practice which was considered perfectly
acceptable in those days but which today would be downright illegal under
monopolies legislation! Its success here led to him repeating the process
throughout the United States, establishing monopolistic systems wherever
possible, and in the process he became the most powerful railway man in
the United States. | <urn:uuid:a32d14af-aebd-4554-aa1e-67a49ae91267> | CC-MAIN-2015-40 | http://www.millionaire-theband.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-40/segments/1443736676381.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20151001215756-00140-ip-10-137-6-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.976212 | 409 | 2.625 | 3 |
Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic inflammatory disease in which the lining of the joints become inflamed, causing pain, swelling and stiffness. It is an ‘autoimmune disease’ because it occurs when our immune system, which normally fights against infection, starts destroying healthy joints. Severe rheumatoid arthritis can be very painful and even deform or change a joint. It also affects a person's ability to perform routine activities.
The exact cause for rheumatoid arthritis is unknown and there is no definitive cure. However, a good understanding of the disease helps to better manage the disease by relieving the pain and other symptoms, and retarding the progression of the disease. Early diagnosis and treatment is important to minimize damage to the joints.
Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis
Several treatment modalities are available for the management of rheumatoid arthritis including medications, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and surgery.
- Medications: There are different types of medications which include disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs)-methotrexate, infusion and injection biologic agents; pain medications such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)-aspirin, ibuprofen, and COX-2 inhibitors. The DMARDs reduce the body’s immune response against the joints whereas the NSAIDs reduce swelling and pain.
- Physical Therapy: Physical therapy exercises should be done regularly to increase the strength of the muscles and flexibility of the joints. Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) is a type of electrotherapy that is given to provide pain relief.
- Occupational Therapy: Occupational therapy helps patients to perform daily activities at home and at work independently using equipment. It also helps you adapt to your condition using relaxation and stress-management techniques.
- Surgery: Surgical treatment is considered if you have severe rheumatoid arthritis and your symptoms do not get better with the conservative treatments. The benefits of surgery are pain relief and improvement in joint function. | <urn:uuid:bf366fea-81e0-4cf1-bd4b-0a8c4d985889> | CC-MAIN-2018-26 | http://footlogic.com/rheumatoid-arthritis.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-26/segments/1529267860570.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20180618144750-20180618164750-00279.warc.gz | en | 0.917505 | 421 | 3 | 3 |
M.Ed., Stanford University
Winner of multiple teaching awards
Patrick has been teaching AP Biology for 14 years and is the winner of multiple teaching awards.
Climate is defined as the long term patterns of temperature, humidity, wind, etc. in an area. People often confuse climate with weather. Weather is considered a temporary state while climate is the overall set of patterns. Climate can be influenced by latitude, altitude, terrain and nearby bodies of water. Examples of climates include Mediterranean, tundra and subarctic.
In Ecology one measurement that's taken of a particular area is its climate. What climate is the long term patterns that you'll see in a particular area of wind, temperature, humidity, precipitation and other things like that. It's very common to confuse climate with weather.
Weather is what's happening right now or during the course of the day, the climate is the long term patterns and trends that you'll see in an area. Now this can be influenced by that particular area's latitude where it is relative to the equator. The altitude obviously two areas one that's close to the sea level and another one that's much higher up they can have significant differences in temperature and other things. The terrain, mountain sides, forest etcetera and nearby bodies of water.
Here in California for example we're in the Bay area and we're right next to the Pacific Ocean and that can influence our climate greatly. Some examples of climates include like the Mediterranean Climate that we here in California enjoy and of course people in the Mediterranean there is Arid Climates. There's the Subarctic there's many different kinds of climates around the world. | <urn:uuid:762d2120-a1f1-4ee3-9f76-cd4971e9b945> | CC-MAIN-2017-26 | https://www.brightstorm.com/science/biology/ecology/climate-definition/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-26/segments/1498128320685.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20170626064746-20170626084746-00506.warc.gz | en | 0.962945 | 336 | 3.484375 | 3 |
If there’s an opinion that everyone, across the entire political spectrum, seems to share about the upcoming European elections, it is that these will be “the most important elections in the history of the European Union.” All sides pitted in battle – from the “eurosceptic populists” to pro-EU elites to everyone in between, including the UK Labour Party — claim that the make-up of the next Parliament will be decisive for Europe’s future. As former Greek finance minister Yanis Varoufakis recently stated: “The contest for seats in the next European Parliament … will fundamentally shape the future of Europe for years to come.”
But is this really the case? Such grand claims might make sense if the EU were a fully-fledged federal state with a truly sovereign parliament — in other words, if it were truly a parliamentary democracy. Yet it is anything but. In fact, the European Parliament has very limited powers: for starters, unlike national parliaments, it doesn’t even have the power to initiate legislation. This is a power uniquely reserved for the EU’s “executive” arm, the European Commission — the closest thing to a European “government” — which avows itself “completely independent,” promising “neither to seek nor to take instructions from any government or from any other institution, body, office or entity.”
This, of course, includes the European Parliament, which may only approve or reject (or propose amendments to) the Commission’s own legislative proposals. This alone sets the EU firmly apart from any meaningful democratic tradition, and casts serious doubts over the alleged importance of this weekend’s elections.
The Commission itself is by no means democratically elected. Its president and its members (informally known as the commissioners) are proposed and appointed by the European Council, which is made up of the leaders of the EU member states. Even in this case, the Parliament may only approve or reject the Council’s proposals. In 2014, a new system — the so-called Spitzenkandidat, or “lead candidate,” process — was introduced, whereby prior to the European elections each major political group in the European Parliament nominates its candidate for the role of Commission president. The aim is to make the election of the Commission appear more democratic.
However, as Costas Lapavitsas notes, this “represents a largely cosmetic change.” In fact, the Council is only required to “tak[e] into account” the results of the European elections. Ultimately, the final word still lies with the Council, i.e., with the member states. Indeed, as reported by the BBC,”[[t]his time round, EU leaders have said the European treaties give them the sole authority to nominate someone for the role, and that they only have to nod towards the results of the European Parliament election when they make their choice.” Thus, as has always been the case, the appointment of the Commission “is more likely to be the product of power-plays between countries” rather than a true exercise of democracy. Even more worryingly, it is practically impossible for the Parliament to dismiss the Commission, as this requires two-thirds of votes cast and a majority of all MEPs.
Ultimately, it is still the Commission and the Council — and the dominant countries therein — that call practically all the shots. What matters in the EU is not democracy or still less the elections to the European Parliament, but the power relations among its member states.
We are often reminded by pro-EU apologists that there are grounds to consider the appointment of the European Commission “democratic”: after all, the argument goes, the Council is comprised of the heads of state and government of the various member states, which in turn are democratically elected by the peoples of Europe or appointed by the national parliaments. It follows that even the Commission itself can be considered to be indirectly chosen by the citizens of Europe. This argument is allegedly reinforced by the fact that the Council, along with the European Parliament, has the power to approve or reject the legislation proposed by the Commission.
Yet such reasoning perverts the very concept of democracy. Indeed, while the national leaders are generally — but not necessarily — elected, as a body the Council is neither elected nor accountable. Though Europe’s governments are theoretically accountable to their national parliaments and electorates, precisely what the Council allows them to do is to escape this accountability, approving laws “without having to submit to the bother or indignity of parliamentary questioning, let alone approval,” as John Laughland has written. Furthermore, “when votes [in the Council] are taken by majority, the link between national parliaments and ministers is irretrievably cut. A minister can claim that he was outvoted if a law is passed to which his national parliament was opposed.”
The entire architecture of the European Union thus favors executive and technocratic power over legislative power. This represents a huge step back even from the “bourgeois” understanding of liberal democracy. Indeed, the European treaties themselves state that “the functioning of the Union shall be founded on representative democracy” — an aspiration more than a reality — but they don’t actually claim the EU itself to be a democracy.
This reminds us why national elites and oligarchies have been so keen, over the course of the past decades, to transfer power to the EU. Their aim was not simply to insulate economic policies from popular-democratic challenges, but also to reduce the political costs of the neoliberal transition, which clearly involved unpopular policies, by displacing the responsibility onto external institutions and factors. This can be said to embody what Edgar Grande calls the “paradox of weakness,” whereby national elites transfer some power to a supranational policymaker (thereby appearing weaker) in order to allow themselves to better withstand pressure from societal actors by testifying that “this is Europe’s will” (thereby becoming stronger). As Kevin Featherstone put it: “Binding EU commitments enable governments to implement unpopular reforms at home whilst engaging in ‘blameshift’ towards the ‘EU,’ even if they themselves had desired such policies” (emphasis added).
And this is not even taking into account the hierarchy of power of “actually existing Europe,” whereby — particularly in the eurozone — the Commission, the European Central Bank (ECB), and the dominant states, through the Council and the Eurogroup (a purely informal body which has no legal basis, comprising the finance ministers of the euro countries), are able to impose very damaging policies on the weaker states of the union, not to mention on any left-wing government that is lucky enough to get into power, as the case of Greece shows all too well.
The undemocratic nature of the EU becomes evident when we look at its legislative process. As mentioned, in most cases, once the Commission — an effectively unelected and unaccountable body — proposes a new law, it then has to be approved by both the European Council and the European Parliament. This means that the Parliament effectively has a veto power, but so does the Council. At the Council level, the real work is done by the Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER), made up of the ambassadors of the member states, and by the over 150 Council working groups. These preparatory bodies can have a decisive influence on the text eventually approved by the Council. The entire process is opaque to say the least. As the German investigative journalist Harald Schumann writes: “These negotiations take place entirely behind closed doors. There are no publicly available protocols, and the press has no right to know who actually represents which position. For citizens, Europe’s most powerful legislator is de facto a black box.” Interestingly, the same view was echoed by none other than Emily O’Reilly, the official European Ombudsman. In a detailed report published in 2017, she noted that the overwhelming secrecy of the legislative process makes it practically impossible not only for citizens, but even for national parliaments, “to scrutinise how their national representatives have acted.”
This is very dangerous, because it makes the legislative process highly susceptible to the pressure of lobbyists and well-organized vested interests, at all levels, including that of the European Parliament. Rather than a bug in the system, this should be seen as an inherent consequence of the supra-nationalization of politics. As the Italian researchers Lorenzo Del Savio and Matteo Mameli write, the problems of oligarchic capture
are exacerbated at the supranational level. It is for this reason that, in general, the transfer of sovereignty to international loci of political decision-making contributes to the weakening of popular control. International loci are in general physically, psychologically, and linguistically more distant from ordinary people than national ones are. This distance means more room for oligarchic capture. International loci of political decision-making are usually designed in such a way as to make it extremely difficult for ordinary citizens to understand how decisions are taken and to be able to influence and contest such decisions in an effective manner. This enhances the effectiveness of the mechanisms of oligarchic capture.
This is particularly worrying if we consider that nowadays a very large portion of the laws adopted by national parliaments — on issues that affect the daily lives of consumers and workers across Europe, from food security to pesticides or the working conditions of truck drivers — are in fact decided at the EU level and then simply transposed into national law by national parliaments. Furthermore, aside from the new laws produced each year, it is worth recalling that the EU treaties essentially embed neoliberalism into the very fabric of the European Union, by codifying the four capitalist freedoms par excellence — the free movement of goods, services, capital, and persons — and placing huge barriers in the way of state intervention in the economy. This has laid the basis for a wholesale reengineering of European economies and societies.
As a further barrier to any attempt to push through left-wing policy at the national level, the EU’s economic constitution gives immense powers to the European Court of Justice, which has the final word on legal disputes between national governments and EU institutions. It is no surprise that Alec Stone Sweet, an international law expert, termed it a “juridical coup d’état.” The EU’s constraints on left-wing policies don’t just apply to eurozone countries — though these are obviously much more constrained due to their lack of monetary sovereignty — but to all member states. For instance, if Brexit is ultimately derailed, EU rules would place severe restrictions on a future British government led by Jeremy Corbyn.
The legal implications of these treaties — which are often overshadowed by social and economic considerations — cannot be overestimated. For while France and the Netherlands famously voted against a joint European constitution in 2005, “ultimately the treaties do establish a constitutional order for the EU.” This is a very peculiar constitutional order, which cannot be democratically amended by citizens, and nor can European election results have any effect: it can only be amended unanimously in the context of a new international agreement among the member states themselves — which, in practical terms, means that it is not amendable. The only thing individual states can do is repudiate the whole structure. As the president of the European Commission himself, Jean-Claude Juncker, said at the beginning of Syriza’s mandate, “there can be no democratic choice against the European treaties.”
There is another problem: even assuming that the European Parliament actually had a decisive voice in shaping EU policies (which it does not), it would still have very few economic tools at its disposal. The EU budget is notoriously meagre — indeed, it’s not even an actual federal budget, since it’s comprised of the contributions of member states. Simply put, there is no European “treasury” that could enact a Europe-wide economic policy, let alone a central bank willing to support it. That is why the calls for a “European Green New Deal,” along the lines of the Green New Deal (GND) proposed in the US by rising democratic socialists such as Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, are frankly laughable. AOC’s GND is premised on the fact that the US is a monetarily sovereign state where an elected government could finance its investment plan by effectively instructing the central bank to create the necessary money “out of thin air,” in line with the teachings of modern monetary theory (MMT). None of this applies to the EU or the eurozone. As Eurointelligence recently noted, “MMT runs contrary to the philosophy underlying the construction of the European monetary union — in fact some of its policy prescriptions are outright illegal under the EU’s treaties.” The fact is that monetarily sovereign countries such as the UK are much better equipped to implement a GND than the EU as a whole is.
In light of the above, is it at all surprising that the various anti-establishment uprisings that have engulfed Europe in recent years — from Brexit to the gilets jaunes in France and the rise of the Five Star Movement in Italy: phenomena that have generally been treated with skepticism if not outright horror by the Left, but which also contain a legitimate request for popular empowerment — have targeted their angst at the EU, the embodiment of technocratic rule and elite estrangement from the masses? Or that the EU elections generally register record-high abstention rates compared to national elections? Or that the overwhelming majority of European citizens don’t know — and don’t care to know — who the various candidates for the presidency of the Commission are?
On a basic level, most people are instinctively aware of the fact that their vote will have little impact on the overall direction of the EU, regardless of what the various political parties claim. And they are right. Indeed, to the extent that people will participate in the upcoming elections, they will cast their vote largely based on national, rather than “European,” concerns, such as tilting the balance of power towards one party or the other in their respective countries, as has always been the case.
On a more fundamental level, however, the depoliticized nature of the European elections isn’t just a consequence of the EU’s undemocratic architecture; rather, it has to do with the very nature of democracy itself. As the term suggests, and as history illustrates, democracy presupposes the existence of an underlying “demos” — a political community, usually (though not exclusively) defined by a shared and relatively homogenous language, culture, history, normative system, etc. — “the majority of [whose members] feel sufficiently connected to each other to voluntarily commit to a democratic discourse and to a related decision-making process,” and therefore to accept the legitimacy of government and majority rule.
Furthermore, in modern states and federations, with highly developed welfare states, such an identification is crucial in generating the affective ties and bonds of solidarity that are needed to legitimize and sustain redistributive policies between classes and/or regions. Importantly, Costas Lapavitsas notes, the existence of a demos is also the precondition for democratic class struggle:
National parliamentary elections are occasions for the demos to express its collective will, and in capitalist societies the demos is inseparable from its class and other divisions. National democratic politics is a contest among social interests vying for electoral supremacy, which may take a conscious class form and thereby acquire a characteristic sharpness, bitterness, and rivalry.
Simply put, if there is no demos, there can be no effective democracy, let alone a social democracy. It is no coincidence that democracy evolved within the confines of the nation-state, since historically this has been the only political entity capable of giving rise to communities sufficiently large, in demographic and territorial terms, to guarantee their reproduction. But what the EU has in size it lacks in homogeneity, with no signs of a common European demos emerging even forty years since the first elections to the parliament in Brussels. Indeed, the lack of significant EU-wide class struggles or social movements testifies to the difficulty of mounting a coordinated challenge against the economic oligarchies in almost thirty countries with twenty-four official languages.
In this sense, the notion that the solution to EU’s democratic deficit consists in its parliamentarization — that is, in granting the European parliament full legislative powers as in any parliamentary democracy — fails to acknowledge the fundamental obstacle to the creation of a European supranational democracy: the lack of a European demos. As Lapavitsas writes:
The absence of a European demos with its integral class divisions prevents the existence of “normal” politics in the EU. There are no social cleavages applying uniformly across EU member states that could be organically reflected in political contestation within EU institutions. … No class or other social divisions in Europe take a homogeneous ‘European’ form, for there are no occupational, organizational, habitual, cultural, and historical norms able to create such an overarching social integration. Actual class divisions in Europe always take a national form, as do the party politics that correspond to these divisions. In Marxist terms there is neither a European capitalist class nor a European working class.
This is not likely to change any time soon. Hence, for now, the only possible locus for class struggle and democratic conflict remains the nation-state, and that is where socialists and progressives should focus their attention.
This does not necessarily imply that the European elections should simply be ignored or boycotted: as we have noted, they can indeed be important in shifting the political balance within member states. But critics of the EU should also be aware that by participating in the European elections they are legitimizing its institutions by adding a democratic veneer to a structurally post-democratic system. They are also fueling the dangerous illusion that the EU is reformable and susceptible to democratic pressure, which it is not.
As Djordje Kuzmanovic — who recently broke away from Jean-Luc Mélenchon’s party in France over disagreements regarding the leader’s stance concerning the EU, among other things — argues: “The European elections are an epiphenomenon. Those who wish to give back to our citizens’ control over their destiny should compete for elected positions in the only democratic framework that exists, that of the nation, and stop endorsing the European farce.” A recent gilets jaunes assembly also took the same stance, inviting citizens to “make a mockery of this electoral charade.” Ultimately, those who believe in democracy and popular sovereignty should aim at tearing the EU down — not at reforming it. | <urn:uuid:72b091e6-04c8-4b59-9260-808545680ee7> | CC-MAIN-2020-45 | https://www.jacobinmag.com/2019/05/european-union-parliament-elections-antidemocratic | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-45/segments/1603107891428.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20201026145305-20201026175305-00427.warc.gz | en | 0.953463 | 3,930 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Updated information for teachers and school staff
September 04, 2017
With many schools starting back today, now is the ideal time to educate yourself about how M.E. can affect young people.
If you're a teacher or member of staff working in a school setting, it's particularly important that you understand how destructive the illness can be. Many families tell us that their children's school doesn't understand M.E. and that some staff doubt the illness even exists. This can have a horrible impact on a child's self-esteem, causing unnecessary stress and hardship for them and their family.
We know teachers and school staff are busy people with a lot on their minds, which is why we've produced some handy resources to help them understand the illness.
If you work within primary and secondary level education, we have information that can help you support your pupils
We also have resources and information for higher and further education staff.
Whatever age range you work with, why not take a few minutes to find out more about this misunderstood illness today? You could be making a world of difference to a young person with M.E. | <urn:uuid:67b53faf-8a3c-465b-b2a6-8d0329be4bef> | CC-MAIN-2021-10 | https://www.actionforme.org.uk/news/updated-information-for-teachers-and-school-staff/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178357929.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20210226145416-20210226175416-00292.warc.gz | en | 0.97975 | 229 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Despite doomsday theories, Internet rumors and Hollywood plot lines, the world will not end on Dec. 21, 2012, NASA scientists have said.
Tales of the apocalypse in 2012 abound — ranging from a mysterious planet that will smash into Earth, to a huge, catastrophic solar storm — but researchers who have examined the science behind the various doomsday theories say there is nothing to fear.
Here is a NASA-provided list of frequently asked questions about 2012 theories and the end of the world:
Are there any threats to the Earth in 2012? Many Internet websites say the world will end in December 2012.
Nothing bad will happen to the Earth in 2012. Our planet has been getting along just fine for more than 4 billion years, and credible scientists worldwide know of no threat associated with 2012.
What is the origin of the prediction that the world will end in 2012?
The story started with claims that Nibiru, a supposed planet discovered by the Sumerians, is headed toward Earth. This catastrophe was initially predicted for May 2003, but when nothing happened the doomsday date was moved forward to December 2012. Then these two fables were linked to the end of one of the cycles in the ancient Mayan calendar at the winter solstice in 2012 — hence the predicted doomsday date of December 21, 2012. [End of the World? Top Doomsday Fears]
Does the Mayan calendar end in December 2012?
Just as the calendar you have on your kitchen wall does not cease to exist after December 31, the Mayan calendar does not cease to exist on December 21, 2012. This date is the end of the Mayan long-count period but then — just as your calendar begins again on January 1 — another long-count period begins for the Mayan calendar.
Could phenomena occur where planets align in a way that impacts Earth?
There are no planetary alignments in the next few decades, Earth will not cross the galactic plane in 2012, and even if these alignments were to occur, their effects on the Earth would be negligible. Each December the Earth and sun align with the approximate center of the Milky Way galaxy but that is an annual event of no consequence.
Is there a planet or brown dwarf called Nibiru or Planet X or Eris that is approaching the Earth and threatening our planet with widespread destruction?
Nibiru and other stories about wayward planets are an Internet hoax. There is no factual basis for these claims. If Nibiru or Planet X were real and headed for an encounter with the Earth in 2012, astronomers would have been tracking it for at least the past decade, and it would be visible by now to the naked eye. Obviously, it does not exist. Eris is real, but it is a dwarf planet similar to Pluto that will remain in the outer solar system; the closest it can come to Earth is about 4 billion miles. [10 Failed Doomsday Predictions]
What is the polar shift theory? Is it true that the Earth's crust does a 180-degree rotation around the core in a matter of days if not hours?
A reversal in the rotation of Earth is impossible. There are slow movements of the continents (for example Antarctica was near the equator hundreds of millions of years ago), but that is irrelevant to claims of reversal of the rotational poles. However, many of the disaster websites pull a bait-and-shift to fool people. They claim a relationship between the rotation and the magnetic polarity of Earth, which does change irregularly, with a magnetic reversal taking place every 400,000 years on average. As far as we know, such a magnetic reversal doesn't cause any harm to life on Earth. A magnetic reversal is very unlikely to happen in the next few millennia, anyway.
Is the Earth in danger of being hit by a meteor in 2012?
The Earth has always been subject to impacts by comets and asteroids, although big hits are very rare. The last big impact was 65 million years ago, and that led to the extinction of the dinosaurs. Today NASA astronomers are carrying out a survey called the Spaceguard Survey to find any large near-Earth asteroids long before they hit. We have already determined that there are no threatening asteroids as large as the one that killed the dinosaurs. All this work is done openly with the discoveries posted every day on the NASA NEO Program Office website, so you can see for yourself that nothing is predicted to hit in 2012.
How do NASA scientists feel about doomsday claims?
For any claims of disaster or dramatic changes in 2012, where is the science? Where is the evidence? There is none, and for all the fictional assertions, whether they are made in books, movies, documentaries or over the Internet, we cannot change that simple fact. There is no credible evidence for any of the assertions made in support of unusual events taking place in December 2012.
Is there a danger from giant solar storms predicted for 2012?
Solar activity has a regular cycle, with peaks approximately every 11 years. Near these activity peaks, solar flares can cause some interruption of satellite communications, although engineers are learning how to build electronics that are protected against most solar storms. But there is no special risk associated with 2012. The next solar maximum will occur in the 2012-2014 timeframe and is predicted to be an average solar cycle, no different than previous cycles throughout history. | <urn:uuid:cff488ea-000e-496a-8a81-ac53a28d4d40> | CC-MAIN-2019-30 | https://www.space.com/14137-2012-doomsday-theories-nasa-interview.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-30/segments/1563195525374.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20190717181736-20190717203736-00319.warc.gz | en | 0.953862 | 1,089 | 3.171875 | 3 |
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