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Staging of Liver Cancer
Health care providers use a process called staging to see if the cancer has spread. Knowing the stage of the cancer is very important when deciding on treatment options. With liver cancer, treatment decisions can be more complicated because many patients also have liver damage. So health care providers also have to consider how well the liver is working before deciding on any treatment option.
Health care professionals in the United States use several different methods of liver cancer staging. One system is called the BCLC (Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer) system.
The BCLC staging system links the stage of the disease to a specific treatment strategy. This system looks at not only the stage of the cancer but also how well the liver is working and the general health of the patient. Health care providers also need to consider the impact of treatment when estimating life expectancy. Currently, the BCLC system is the only staging system that takes into account all of these factors and links the stage of liver cancer to a specific treatment strategy.
To find out if the liver cancer has spread to other parts of the body, health care providers may order a CT scan of the chest (to see if the cancer has spread to the lungs), as well as a bone scan (to see if the cancer has spread to bones), or a PET scan (positron emission tomography) for more detailed images. | <urn:uuid:262c489d-adfb-4730-9a01-85dd1bfd5251> | CC-MAIN-2018-17 | http://www.hepb.org/research-and-programs/liver/staging-of-liver-cancer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-17/segments/1524125948738.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20180427002118-20180427022118-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.955203 | 279 | 3 | 3 |
Google Researchers Make Quantum Computing Components More Reliable
Researchers from a university and Google demonstrate a crucial error-correction step needed to make quantum computing practical.
Quantum computers will make it possible to perform all sorts of calculations at incredible speeds.
A solution to one of the key problems holding back the development of quantum computers has been demonstrated by researchers at Google and the University of California, Santa Barbara. Many more problems remain to be solved, but experts in the field say it is an important step toward a fully functional quantum computer. Such a machine could perform calculations that would take a conventional computer millions of years to complete.
The Google and UCSB researchers showed they could program groups of qubits—devices that represent information using fragile quantum physics—to detect certain kinds of error, and to prevent those errors from ruining a calculation. The new advance comes from researchers led by John Martinis, a professor at the University of California, Santa Barbara, who last year joined Google to set up a quantum computing research lab (see “Google Launches Effort to Build Its Own Quantum Computer”). Martinis now holds a joint position between UCSB and Google, leading work on superconducting aluminum chips that operate at a fraction of a degree above absolute zero. Most of the work behind the new results, reported today in the journal Nature, took place before Martinis joined Google.
Google has been exploring quantum computing since 2009, when it began collaborating with D-Wave Systems, a startup that sells what it calls “the first commercial quantum computer” (see “The CIA and Jeff Bezos Bet on Quantum Computing”). Microsoft also has a sizable quantum computing research program (see “Microsoft’s Quantum Mechanics”).
To make a quantum computer requires wiring together many qubits to work on information together. But the devices are error-prone because they represent bits of data—0s and 1s—using delicate quantum mechanical effects that are only detectable at super-cold temperatures and tiny scales. This allows qubits to achieve “superposition states” that are effectively both 1 and 0 at the same time, allowing quantum computers to take shortcuts through complex calculations. It also makes them vulnerable to heat and other disturbances that distort or destroy the quantum states used to encode information and perform calculations.
Much quantum computing research focuses on trying to get systems of qubits to detect and fix errors. Martinis’s group has demonstrated a piece of one of the most promising schemes for doing this, an approach known as surface codes. The researchers programmed a chip with nine qubits so that they monitored one another for errors called “bit flips,” where environmental noise causes a 1 to flip to a 0 or vice versa. The qubits could not correct bit flips, but they could take action to ensure that they did not contaminate later steps of an operation.
“More work needs to be done before we can say that all the elements required for fault-tolerant quantum computation are in place, but I do think this work shows that we are close,” says Daniel Gottesman, who works on quantum error correction at the Perimeter Institute in Waterloo, Ontario.
The elements still required are not trivial, though. The bit flips that Martinis and colleagues took on can be addressed using classical algorithms that work on a conventional computer. A trickier kind of error, where a quantum property of a qubit known as “phase” is altered by environmental noise, can only be tackled using more complex algorithms that exploit quantum effects. Austin Fowler, a quantum electronics engineer with Google, says the group is now working on that, and on demonstrating error checking on more than nine qubits.
Still, recent results from Martinis and others make Gottesman optimistic that the full set of error correction techniques is within reach. “I think there is a good chance we will see such a demonstration by someone, possibly the Martinis group, within the next few years,” he says.
Hear more from Google at EmTech Digital.Register now | <urn:uuid:8ca4017d-3968-49de-9cce-8ed462e0f212> | CC-MAIN-2019-04 | https://www.technologyreview.com/s/535621/google-researchers-make-quantum-computing-components-more-reliable/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547584203540.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20190123064911-20190123090911-00524.warc.gz | en | 0.921861 | 831 | 3.703125 | 4 |
A fossil is an organism or its remains that were preserved during geological time. They are direct evidence of biodiversity and environmental history. The study of Cenozoic plant fossils in the QTP has been relatively insufficient compared to other paleontological categories. During recent comprehensive scientific expeditions, megafossils of Cenozoic plants were discovered throughout the plateau.
In a recent study published in Science China Earth Sciences, researchers from Xishaungbanna Tropical Botanical Garden (XTBG) reported on the Pliocene Zanda Xiangzi megafossil flora from the western Qinghai-Tibet Plateau for the first time. Twenty-one species belonging to 12 genera and 10 families were identified.
Studies showed that Pliocene vegetation in the Xiangzi area of Zanda Basin was dominated by plateau shrubs. Small-leaved deciduous shrubs such as Caragana, Spiraea, Cotoneaster, Potentilla fruticosa, and Hippophae were main components of the community.
The researchers reconstructed Pliocene climate by using different approaches based on species composition and leaf morphological characteristics.
The results indicated that Pliocene temperatures and precipitation were higher than the present, with clear seasonality. The elevation of the study area during the Pliocene was close to the present. Aridification of the plateau after the Pliocene has driven vegetation transformations from shrub to deserts.
“This study provided basic data for understanding the plant diversity, vegetation evolution process and their responses to environmental changes in the plateau”, said Prof. ZHOU Zhekun, correspondence author of the study.
ZHOU Zhekun Ph.D
Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan 666303, China
Taxa from Zanda Xiangzi flora: Nanophyll & Leptophyll | <urn:uuid:4c2f3d03-7393-419d-8660-a76f51579c8d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://english.xtbg.cas.cn/rh/rp/201911/t20191125_226220.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00441.warc.gz | en | 0.935093 | 397 | 3.90625 | 4 |
Water that repeatedly collects on the floor beneath a toilet or around its base can indicate some type of leak or may be caused by condensation from a toilet that sweats. For more about condensation, see Toilet Sweats.
Toilet leaks can come from a few different problems, including cracks in the porcelain, leaking seals, or a defective wax ring that seals the bottom of the toilet to the waste pipe. For information about leaks that are inside the toilet (typically from the tank to the bowl), please see How to Repair a Running Toilet.
If water is dripping down onto the floor, you can usually identify the source by mopping up any wetness, spreading out a dry newspaper under the toilet, and watching for wet spots. Use a flashlight to check the fittings directly above the wet spots for drips. In some cases, all you need to do is tighten a fitting slightly. If that doesn't do the job, you may need to replace the rubber washers or seals at the connection points. Be sure to check the water supply tube both at the valve and where it attaches to the tank--this is a common source of leaks.
If water seeps out from under the toilet's base, either the toilet needs to be tightened down to the floor or--more likely--the wax ring that seals the connection between the toilet's base and the waste pipe (closet flange) needs to be replaced. If the toilet feels loose against the floor, pry the plastic caps off of the anchor bolts, and slightly tighten the nuts that hold the toilet down. Note: Be careful not to over-tighten because this can crack the porcelain base! If the toilet doesn't feel loose, remove the toilet and replace the wax ring, as discussed in How to Replace a Toilet's Wax Ring.
Before you pull the toilet to replace the wax ring, check for cracks in the tank and bowl. If either the toilet tank or bowl are cracked, you will need to replace the toilet. For information on how to do this, see How to Install a Toilet. | <urn:uuid:edaf54e2-6b89-4c12-9d90-cc7476912812> | CC-MAIN-2014-41 | http://www.toilet-repairs.com/leaking-toilet.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-41/segments/1410657131238.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20140914011211-00062-ip-10-196-40-205.us-west-1.compute.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.915583 | 429 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Young driversThe risk of being involved in a fatal or serious crash is much higher for young drivers whenthere are passengers, especially when they are of the same age and when there is morethan one. This is because friends in the car can- Distract the driver when they have not fully mastered heir driving skills- Encourage riskier driving behaviours, such as driving after drinking alcohol, speeding, swerving and following to close.- Tempt the driver to show off.Having a passenger can simply make the driver less attentive and less able to respond tohazards while driving. If you are a passenger in a car that is being driven by your friend,allow them to concentrate on the driving and try to help by spotting hazards in and aroundthe road.
Seat beltsThe wearing of seat belts was made compulsory in all states of Australia inJanuary 1972. Since that time there has been a dramatic decline in thenumber of deaths and serious injuries in car accidents. It has been provedthat the chances of being injured or killed are 60 per cent less if the personis wearing a seat belt. There are many myths about wearing of seat belts,but in an accident it is much safer to be in the car than to be thrown out of it.Cars are designed to crumple on the outside first and to absorb most of theimpact, leaving the inside compartment relatively intact. If you are thrown through the windscreen or windowsagainst a very hard surface you are more likely to be killed. Also if you are secured by a seat belt and the car is immersed in water or catches fire, you are more likely to be conscious and therefore ableto escape than if you are unconscious because you have struck your head on some part of the car. Seat belts need to be warn by all occupants whether they are in the front or rear of the car, especially young children or babies. A rear seat passenger who is not wearing a seat belt, could become a missile and kill the front occupants as well as themselves. 6 % of front seat fatalities are caused by unrestrained rear seat passengers. Seat belts can cause minor injuries such as abrasions, muscle strains, bruises and whiplash but these do not compare with the more serious complaints of fractures, head injuries, paralysis and death. Sharing a seat belt is ineffective as well as against the law. This applies particularly to people nursing babies and young children, who can be crushed to the death by the force of an adults body in a crash.
PedestriansChildren observe the environmentdifferently, not only are they seeingeverything from a lower viewpoint,they also have not yet developednecessary abilities such as judgingspeed and distance, making lifesavingdecisions and understanding danger,which is a necessity for their road safety.In 2006, 227 pedestrians were killed on the roads, young people accounted for 55%(24%) of these deaths.Child pedestrian deaths and injuries increase with age, particularly when schoolingcommences – the time at which children begin to travel independently. Most childpedestrian deaths result from an error made by the child.In 2006 335 passengers were killed on the roads – young people accounted for 183 (55%)of these deaths. Passenger deaths and injuries tend to be especially high among 16-19year olds because they often spend a lot of time travelling as passengers – rather thandriving, walking or bicycling – and they often travel in vehicles driven by young drivers.
Children safetyChildren tend to focus on one task at a time and ignore other things that are happening around them. E.g. theyfollow a ball onto the road because they want the ball now, not thinking to look for traffic. They are full of energytherefore their speed can put them in dangerous places in seconds. They don’t notice road safety warnings as theyhave little understanding of it. They can’t judge speed and distance of cars properly, they cant judge safe gaps andthis can make crossing the roads very dangerous for them. Children don’t notice things out of the corner of their eyetherefore they wont notice an approaching car. Children are small and cant see over parked cars. Children are easilydistracted. Children may become confused and panic when there is a sudden change in traffic conditions.When out walking with children, hold their hand or holdthem close. This is the most effective way of keepingchildren safe from traffic injury. If you hold ontochildren, you can stop them running into a situation thatmight be dangerous. But sometimes a child doesn’twant to be held. What do you do?Don’t worry – all children complain about holding handsat one time or another. Sometimes they don’tunderstand how this will keep them safe or they mayjust want to do it their way. By making family rulesabout safe walking, explaining them and then sticking tothem, you are helping your child learn how to become asafer pedestrian.Use these road safety messages:•“Whenever we are out walking, we hold hands.”•“If we can’t hold hands, you can keep close by holding onto me, the bag or the stroller.”•“There’s no running ahead.”
When holding your child’s hand, use the opportunity to talk with the child about:•Where it is safe to walk and cross the road.•When it is safe to walk and cross the road.•The need to stop and wait at the side of the road before crossing.•What to look for.•What to listen for.•Why they have to keep checking until they are safely across the road or the driveway.Pedestrians still account for a High percentage of all road fatalities with males accounting for most fatalities andserious injuries. People aged 60years accounted for 16% of serious injury while representing only 16% of thepopulation.Prevention strategies- Always cross at a pedestrian crossing if one is available- Be aware of your surroundings, whenever you cross, even at lights- Always stop, look and listen and keep looking as you cross- Always hold the hand of a child under the age of 5 years when crossing a road- Never cross a road on a bend or curve- Ensure that you have a clear view in all directions- Be alert, never assume that a driver has seen you or intends to stop- Wear bright coloured clothing, especially at nightSafe PlayChildren can dart into traffic very quickly when distracted by games they are playing. Where possible children shouldplay in a fenced yard or park and be supervised by an adult at all times. Driveways are unsafe areas for children to play.Use these road safety messages:•“Always play in the backyard”•“Dont play in the driveway”•“Never follow your ball onto the road”Make some family rules about safe play, talk about them with the children and then stick to them - every time they areusing bikes, trikes or scooters.
Safe CyclingBicycle riders should always:- Wear an Australian Standards approved helmet- Pass other vehicles on the left, except when those vehicles areindicating and turning left- Stopping at red lights or Stop signs- Give way as indicated by signage- Use hand signals when changing direction to the right- Give way to pedestrians using crossings- Keep to the left and give way to pedestrians when using a shared pathBicycle riders should not:- Ride on footpaths, unless the bike rider is under 12 years of age or they are an accompanying a rider under 12 years ofage- Drink alcohol and rideEven if you are an experienced rider, you are exposed and vulnerable in the road environment and are at risk of seriousinjury or death if involved in a crash. Riding defensively and scanning the road can improve your safety. Learning howto share the road safely could save you your life.LegislationUnder NSW law, children less than 12 years of age and an accompanying adult if supervising a child, are allowed tolegally ride on the footpath. This law was introduced because, whilst young children quickly develop skills required toride, steer and stop a bicycle, their development limitations preclude the child’s capacity to ride on a road shared withmoving vehicles. The child rider’s limitations may result in unpredictable and unsafe behaviour, though the child mayhave mastered a range of physical riding skills.Under NSW law, a bicycle is considered a vehicle and subject to the same road rules as other vehicles. Find out moreabout the Road Rules.
Tips for riding your bicycle safely• Always wear an approved bicycle helmet, properly fitted and fastened to your head. For further information onbicycle helmets, click here.• Always obey the road rules, including traffic lights, stop signs and give way signs.• Ride in a predictable manner that does not require other road users to react suddenly to your movements.• Give hand signals when changing lanes or turning left or right.• Make yourself as visible as possible by wearing bright, light or reflective clothing.• Plan your route using quieter streets, bicycle paths or shared paths, wherever possible.• Maintain control of your bike at all times. It is an offence to ride with both hands off the handlebars, feet off thepedals or to carry anything which prevents you from having control.39 bicyclists were killed on the roads in 2006 – 11 (28%) of these deaths were young people and all of them weremales. Bicycles are legitimate vehicles and cyclists have rights and responsibilities like any other road user. Check thebike is first road worthy they should have:- An effective hand or foot operated rear wheel brake- A red light reflector on the rear- Between sunset and sunrise they should have a white front light and rear red light showing which is unbroken orflashing- Also yellow reflectors fitted to each pedal for night or poor weather riding- Handle bars are not loose and are aligned with the front wheel axle- Make sure a warning device is attached (e.g. horn or bell) Safety Considerations - Helmet - Bright, reflective clothing is recommended - Know the appropriate hand signals and make them clear - Follow the rules of the roundabout like a car - Use a hook turn when going right at an intersection - Keep left - Don’t slip stream or pace behind a moving vehicle - Don’t hold onto a moving vehicle (its against the law)
Bicycle riders have the same rights and responsibilities as driversand motorcycle riders. When driving, be on the look out for bicycleriders as they are smaller than cars and harder to see.Tips when driving near bicycle riders• Bicycle riders are more difficult to see than cars or trucks, especially at night. Take care to check for bicycle riders in blind spots.• When overtaking give bicycle riders a safe amount of space. This means at least one metre to the side in a 50 km/h zone, if the speed limit is higher, then bicycle riders need more space for their safety.• Always check for bicycle riders whenever you travel on the road particularly when turning at intersections.• Sometimes a bicycle can travel as fast or faster than a car, particularly in slow-moving traffic. Never underestimate their speed and be sure not to cut them off by moving in front of them. Remember that it takes longer for a bicycle to stop than a car at the same speed.• Check in your rear view and side mirrors to avoid opening your car door into the path of bicycle riders. This can be dangerous and legally your fault. • At times bicycle riders may need a full width lane to ride safely due to rough road edges and gravel. Be Prepared to slow down and allow the rider to travel away from the kerb. Children on bikes can be unpredictable – be prepared to slow down and stop. • Bicycle riders are allowed to ride two abreast, (side by side).
MotorcyclistsMost drivers simply don’t see them becausethey aren’t looking for motorcycles. They arealso harder to see than other vehicles. Theyare small, can blend in easily with thesurroundings and can accelerate much faster than vehicles therefore its hard to judge theirapproaching speed.In 2006, 238 motorcyclists (both riders and pillions) were killed on the roads, youngpeople accounted for 74 (31%) of these deaths. Nearly all the young motorcyclists killedwere males (96%).On a distance of travelled basis, the death rate of motorcyclists is very high – between1998 and 202 the death rate per kilometre travelled was between 18 and 25 times that ofa motor vehicle occupant. This is because of two key reasons:1) as a group, they are more likely to take risks. This is especially so for youngriders; and2) They do not have the physical protection that motor vehicle occupants have.
Reference:Lees, R., & Lees, A. (2006) Personal development, health and physical education(3rd ed.). 82 waterloo Road, North Ryde NSW 2113: Mcgraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd.Healey, J. (2004) Road Safety (Vol 204) PO Box 438 Thirroul NSW 2515 Australia:The Spinney Press.Healey, J. (2009) Safe Driving (Vol 298). PO Box 438 Thirroul NSW 2515 Australia:The Spinney Press.NSW centre for Road Safety, accessed 08-10-2012 retrieved from:http://www.rta.nsw.gov.au/roadsafety/index.htmlNSW centre for Road Safety – Bicycles, Accessed 08-10-2012 retrieved from:http://www.rta.nsw.gov.au/roadsafety/bicycles/index.html
Questions1) List Ways of reducing the risk of injuries and mortality while:- Walking as a Pedestrian- Catching a train or bus; and- Riding your Bike2) As a passenger, what can you do to help a young driver be safe?3) You see a Child playing with a ball near a busy road, how can you make this safer for the child and why?4) What is the differences between males and females when taking risks?5) NEXT WEEK - Class Debate – Is our personal freedom is invaded when we are made to wear seat belts. | <urn:uuid:8665d76c-1a5a-49ac-b7d4-940130fdc99c> | CC-MAIN-2015-06 | http://www.slideshare.net/sallyjanes/road-safety-14774884 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-06/segments/1422115867691.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20150124161107-00090-ip-10-180-212-252.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951565 | 2,925 | 3.34375 | 3 |
The Natural Regional Park initiates a vast programm called “Quiétude Attitude”. So what about "Quiétude Attitude" : it helps us to maintain peace and quiet for wildlife during our mountain outings.Its purpose is to make the location of sensitive areas known as widely as possible and to promote a set of good habits to be adopted in the natural environment to maintain the peace and quiet necessary to wildlife survival.
The Quiétude Attitude programme has been designed to make as many people as possible aware of the location of the designated “quiet areas”.
Wild animals are naturally afraid of humans and try to avoid them as much as possible. However, animals are unable to anticipate situations. An unexpected events can surprise them, triggering stress for the animal, which often flees.
Adopt those 5 good habits and help protect wildlife!The Regional Park invites you to visit its website for more information on this action: | <urn:uuid:7ae25e06-a805-4f50-bd1b-e46eecba0f7e> | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | https://en.ballons-hautes-vosges.com/quietude-attitude-natural-park-vosges.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320300934.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20220118152809-20220118182809-00110.warc.gz | en | 0.957825 | 211 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Financial Accounting is what we simply refer to as “accounting.” It commences with basic
double entry bookkeeping and progresses to the completion of a suite of statements that include the Income Statement, Balance Sheet and Cash Flow Statement. Financial
accounting – as represented by these key statements – is geared towards the needs of external entities such as investors, creditors and tax authorities. Importantly, financial accounting is governed by generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), which ensures that performance interpretation and company by company comparison is done on an “apples to apples” basis.
Financial statements are historical in perspective; they reveal what the company has done up to a point in time and, serve two critical purposes:
Indicate the degree to which the company is profitable, using the Income Statement
Reveal the degree of solvency, that is, the company’s ability to meet its financial obligations. This is reflected on both the Balance Sheet and Cash Flow Statement
Because financial statements provide insight into a firm’s efforts at achieving two of its most important business goals, every well run business should regularly generate an Income Statement, Balance Sheet and Cash Flow Statement. And, business owners and managers ought to pay close attention to these financial statements, as they
are indispensable to sustained success.
COVID-19 and a deep recession have added an additional layer of complexity for businesses of every size – see an earlier article here. Recently, management consulting firm McKinsey, in a report titled, “When Nothing is Normal: Managing in Extreme Uncertainty, highlighted the need for leaders to “respond quickly to the rapidly shifting environment and sustain their organizations through the trials ahead,” knowing that we might be in crisis mode for a long time. None of this pivoting is possible without having a baseline of how your company is doing; having a grasp of the information provided by the financial statements will significantly help. | <urn:uuid:c9b59179-5b20-44ff-ac22-9b77edadd639> | CC-MAIN-2021-43 | https://www.mavenlyconsultants.com/post/financial-accounting-101 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585382.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20211021071407-20211021101407-00696.warc.gz | en | 0.956316 | 393 | 2.640625 | 3 |
When is political authority legitimate? This is one of the fundamental questions of political philosophy. Depending on how one understands political authority this question may be the same as, when is coercion by the state legitimate? Or, when do we have duties to obey the state? Or, when and who has a right to rule through the state?
This entry is concerned with the philosophical issues that arise in the justification of political authority. First, this entry will examine some of the main conceptual issues that arise relating to political authority. What do we mean by political authority? This entry distinguishes political authority from political power, and the idea of morally legitimate political authority from descriptive ideas of authority. It also distinguishes between authority in the sense of morally justified coercion and authority in the sense of capacity to impose duties on others and finally from authority as right to rule. Further distinctions concern the nature of the duties that political authority imposes on subjects.
The main part of the entry (section 4) concerns the nature and merits of different accounts of the legitimacy of political authority. Under what conditions is political authority legitimate? This entry discusses five different views of the legitimacy of political authority. It discusses the instrumentalist theory according to which authority is legitimate to the extent that it gets people to do what they already have a duty to do. It discusses the consent theory of authority according to which authority is legitimate only if the subjects have consented to it. It discusses the theory advanced by John Rawls that authority is legitimate if and only if it acts in accord with principles the subjects agree to. It discusses Ronald Dworkin's view according to which legitimate political authority is akin to the basis of obligations to friendships, families and other associations. Finally it discusses the democratic conception of authority according to which the democratic assembly has legitimate political authority within certains limits because it treats every citizen as an equal in the process of making law.
- 1. Legitimate Authority, de facto Authority and Political Power
- 2. Conceptions of the Legitimacy of Political Authority
- 3. The Puzzle of Political Authority: Philosophical Anarchism
- 4. A Second Form of Philosophical Anarchism
- 4.1 The Consent Theory of Political Authority: The Natural Right to Freedom Argument
- 4.2 The Instrumentalist Critique of the Natural Right Argument
- 4.3 The Consent Theory: The Options Argument
- 4.4 The Instrumentalist Critique of the Option and Natural Right Arguments
- 4.5 The Consent Theory of Political Authority: The Argument from Personal Reasons
- 4.6 Consent Theory: The Argument from Disagreement
- 4.7 The Problems of Irrational, Immoral Failures of Consent
- 4.8 Tacit Consent
- 4.9 The Humean Attack on Tacit Consent
- 4.10 How Can Tacit Consent Be A Basis of Political Authority?
- 4.11 The Basic Objection of Consent Theorists to Tacit Consent
- 4.12 Normative Consent
- 5. Reasonable Consensus Conceptions of Legitimate Political Authority
- 6. Political Authority as Grounded in Associative Obligations
- 7. A Democratic Conception of Legitimate Political Authority
- 8. Legitimate Political Authority in International Institutions
- Academic Tools
- Other Internet Resources
- Related Entries
Let us start with the distinctions between political authority as a normative notion (or morally legitimate authority) and political authority as a non-normative notion (or de facto authority) and between political authority in either of these senses and political power. To say that a state has authority in the normative sense is to say something normative about the relationship between the state and its subjects. This is the relationship that we will concentrate on in what follows.
For most contemporary theorists to say that the state has authority in the descriptive sense is to say that the state maintains public order and that it issues commands and makes rules that are generally obeyed by subjects because many of them (or some important subset of them such as the officials of the state) think of it as having authority in the normative sense (Hart 1961) (Some thinkers have understood the idea of legitimate authority in this descriptive sense as well (Weber 1970); in what follows, we will use the term “legitimate authority” in a normative sense only.) We should note here that the attitudinal component of de facto authority is not accepted by everyone. For both Thomas Hobbes and John Austin, political authority in the de facto sense simply amounts to the capacity of a person or group of persons to maintain public order and secure the obedience of most people by issuing commands backed by sanctions. Subjects need not think of the authority as a legitimate authority, on this account.
Also, the distinction between de facto and morally legitimate authority is not universally accepted or at least it is not accepted that the distinction makes a difference. Hobbes insists that any entity capable of performing the function of de facto authority is necessarily justified and deserves the obedience of the de facto subjects (Hobbes 1668). But most have argued that there is an important distinction between de facto authority and legitimate authority. We will explore in what follows the conceptions political and legal philosophers have had of legitimate political authority.
De facto authority, on anyone's account, is distinct from political power. The latter is concerned with the state's or any agent's ability to get others to act in ways that they desire even when the subject does not want to do what the agent wants him to do. Political power does not require any kind of pro attitude toward the agent on the part of the subject, nor does it require that the state is actually successful at securing public order. It operates completely in the realm of threats and offers. No doubt for the state to have de facto authority or legitimate authority requires that the state have the power to compel those subjects who do not wish to go along. This is necessary for the state's ability to maintain public order and to assure those who do see it as an authority that it will be able to do what it is supposed to do.
The rubric under which the normative notion of political authority is normally known is the idea of legitimate political authority. In this section, we will review a number of different ideas that have been understood to come under this idea of legitimate political authority.
It is important here to note the distinction between theoretical and practical authority. A theoretical authority in some area of intellectual inquiry is one that is an expert in that area. Theoretical authorities operate primarily by giving advice to the layman, which advice the layman is free to take or not. The judgments of theoretical authorities give people reasons for belief while the judgments of political authorities are normally thought to give people reasons for action. Theoretical authorities do not normally impose duties on others, although they might give advice on what a person's duty is.
Most theorists of political authority view it as a species of practical authority rather than theoretical authority, though this view is not held by all . Those who hold that political authority is a species of practical authority maintain that political authorities issue directives that give people reasons for action and not reason for belief. The thought is that political authorities impose duties on their subjects and thereby give them reasons for action. These theorists argue that it is the function of political authorities to get people to act in certain ways so as to solve various collective action problems such as a variety of different types of coordination problems, assurance problems and free rider problems. There have been some dissenting views on this of late. Some have argued that the account of practical reason required by the idea that political authority is a practical authority is incoherent and so they have opted for the idea that political authorities, when legitimate, are theoretical authorities regarding the existence and nature of the duties and reasons for action that people have (Hurd 2001). Since this view is unusual this entry will concentrate on conceptions of political authority that treat it as a species of practical authority.
The rest of this section will discuss a number of different analyses of political authority. There are three basic types of conceptual account of legitimate political authority: legitimate political authority as justified coercion, legitimate political authority as the capacity to impose duties, and legitimate political authority as the right to rule. First, many people have understood legitimate political authority as a political authority that is justified in coercing the subjects of its authority. The notion of justification here is a moral one. The thought is that a political authority might have moral justification in coercing those who come under its authority. This is a particularly thin conception of legitimate authority. For instance, a state can have this kind of authority when it legitimately occupies a territory as a result of a just war. It is morally justified in coercing the inhabitants of the occupied territory.
The moral justification of a group of people in coercing others may be more or less systematic. For instance, a group of people may be morally justified in engaging in just a few actions of coercing others. Or a group may be morally justified in engaging in coercion more generally as in the case of a morally justified military occupation.
This notion of authority need not involve duties on the part of the population that is being coerced. Indeed, they may be justified in trying to escape coercion. This could be the case in a military occupation of a country that is justified on the grounds that it is necessary to stop a third country from engaging in morally indefensible aggression. This conception of morally justified coercion therefore involves no conception of a moral community among persons. In this first conception of authority as justified coercion, the authority may not even issue commands let alone make laws. It may simply justifiably issue threats and offers. The difference between legitimate and illegitimate political authority on this account is that the actions of the illegitimate political authority are not morally justified while the coercive actions of the legitimate authority are justified.
A second conceptual account of legitimate political authority implies that those over whom authority is exercised have some kind of duty with regard to the authority. Or the authority has the moral power to impose duties on the subjects. This duty can be merely a duty not to interfere with the activities of the political authority. Or it can involve the more significant duty to obey the authority. This conception of authority involves the authority and the subjects in a weak kind of moral relationship. The authority is justified in issuing the commands and attempting to force people to comply with the commands while the subjects have some kind of duty not to interfere with these activities or comply with the commands.
The duty of the subjects need not be owed to the authority. It may merely be that the subjects have a duty to obey where that duty is not owed to anyone in particular or where that duty is owed ultimately to people who are not the authority. For instance, if one thinks that one is likely better to respect others' rights by complying with the authority's directives, the action is ultimately owed to those others.
Some have stressed the idea that the holding of justified political authority may only involve a duty on the part of others not to interfere with the political authority and they argue that the duty of non-interference is much weaker than a duty to obey (Morris 1998). It is not clear how great the difference between these two duties is in practice at least as far as citizens are concerned. For many cases of failing to obey an authority are cases of interference with the authority. An analogy may be helpful here. If one is playing a game of baseball with an umpire and one refuses to comply with the directives of the umpire, one is in effect interfering with the umpire's carrying out of his duties by not complying with the directives of the umpire.
While a duty to obey seems to imply a duty not to interfere, there are cases of duties of non-interference that are not duties to obey, such as the duties of foreign powers not to interfere in the activities of a legitimate state. Furthermore, the duty to obey is clearly the more contentious issue in the question of authority since it requires that one make one's actions conform to the specific directives of the authority.
A third conceptual account of authority or set of conceptions of legitimate authority involves the idea that the authority has a right to rule. Strictly speaking, an authority can have a right to rule without the subjects having a duty to comply. The authority may have a “justification” right to rule (Ladenson 1980). This means that the authority has a permission to issue commands and make rules and coerce others to comply and its possession of this right is justified on moral grounds. This “justification right” is not much more than the first notion we discussed above.
A more robust right to rule includes a duty owed to the authority on the part of the subjects not to interfere with the activities of the authority. The subjects owe it to the authority not to interfere with it. This is connected with the right of the authority to rule. Finally, an authority can have a right to rule in the sense that it may issue commands and make rules and require subjects to comply with these rules and commands and the subjects have duties, which they owe to the authority, to comply with the rules and commands.
The distinction between a right to rule that is correlated with a duty not to interfere and one that is correlated with a duty to comply comes in handy when we consider the difference between the duties owed to a legitimate political authority by the subjects of that authority and the duties owed to it by other states and persons who are not subject to that authority. A state with a right to rule in the strongest sense may be owed obedience by its subjects but it is usually owed only a duty of non-interference by those who are not a part of the state such as other states and persons in other states. It is worthwhile drawing a distinction here between internal legitimacy and external legitimacy (Buchanan 2004).
It is not a useful aim of philosophers or political thinkers to determine which one of these conceptual accounts of political authority is the right one. Each one of them grasps a kind of legitimacy of political authority that is worth taking into account and distinguishing from the others. The idea of legitimate authority as justified coercive power is a suitable way of getting at the authority of hostile but justified occupation powers. And the idea of legitimate authority as an authority that has a right to rule over subjects who owe obedience to the authority and that has a right not to be interfered with by foreigners is surely an importantly distinct and perhaps ideal type of authority, which is rarely implemented. The kind of legitimacy that is merely correlated with duties to obey or not to interfere is a useful intermediate category between those two.
What is worth noting is that the idea of legitimate authority as a right to rule in the strong sense described above does describe a kind of ideal of political community. The idea of legitimate authority as a right to rule to which citizens owe obedience gives each citizen a moral duty to obey, which it owes to the authority. So this form of legitimacy is grounded in a moral relationship between the parties that goes beyond the fact that they are fellow human beings. The establishment of a robust right to rule depends on the fact that each citizen rightly takes as a reason for obedience that it has a moral duty owed to the authority. Since a legitimate political authority with a right to rule is predicated on the fact that citizens have moral reasons grounded in the right to rule to obey it, the right to rule engages citizens at a deep moral level. The exercise of political power is founded in a moral relationship between moral persons that recognizes and affirms the moral personality of each citizen.
By contrast, a society in which it is merely the case that coercion is justified is one in which the subjects are permissibly treated as means to morally defensible purposes. The subjects do not owe anything to the authority or have any duties to obey it. So, in the case of an authority as merely justified coercion, the subjects' reasons for obedience are merely their desires to avoid punishment. And that is the level at which the authority deals with them. Such a society does not engage the subjects as moral persons, it merely attempts to administer the activities of persons so as to bring about in a morally justified way a desirable outcome. At the extreme, a prisoner of war camp or even a hostile but justified military occupation gives the authorities justification for coercion. The people who are subjected to that treatment often have no duties to obey and they do not regard each other or the authorities as members of a unified political community. They are merely fellow human beings. To the extent that a political society is best when it involves the mutual recognition and affirmation of the moral status of each person, the kind of society that involves merely justified coercion of some by others is a pale shadow.
And the intermediate form of political authority is incomplete in the respect in which the exercise of political power involves the mutual recognition and affirmation of the status of each person. It is the case that subjects have duties but those duties are not essentially connected to anything in the authority. The subjects instead act more in accordance with reasons that are independent of the authority when they obey the authority. So to the extent that a society ruled by an authority that has the right to rule is an ideal of a moral community, the other types of authority are lesser forms of a morally ideal political community.
To the extent that a duty of obedience is included in the concept of political authority, there can be different forms of obedience on the part of subjects. This implies a very distinct dimension of political authority. When a political authority issues a command and the subject has a duty to obey, what is the nature of this duty? One might have a duty to obey a command merely because it commands the subject to do something that is just and any alternative action would be unjust. Here the duty to obey would depend on the content of the command. Commands that are unjust or perhaps even commands that require actions that are not exclusively just may not involve duties at all.
The commands of a legitimate political authority are usually thought to involve something more than this. The duty of the subject is grounded not in the content of the command itself but in the nature of the source issuing the command. The duty to obey is then automatically generated when the command is issued by the appropriate authority and when it has the right form and provenance. In this respect, the duty to obey is content independent or independent of the content of the particular command. One must obey because one has been commanded and not because of the particular content of the command. One must do it because one has been told to do it. This kind of duty seems to be the most central kind of duty involved in the duty to obey. It is the idea that one must obey the authority because it is the authority. It does not imply of itself that one owes the duty of obedience to the authority so it does not imply that there is a right to rule on the part of the authority.
Here we must distinguish a duty that is owed to the authority and a duty that is merely the result of the authoritative command. The duty that is owed to the authority is grounded in the fact that the authority possesses a feature that gives it a right to command and that it is in virtue of that right that one owes obedience. The idea is that there is something just in itself that the authority be obeyed.
One other distinction that is worth making in this connection is the distinction between a preemptive duty to obey and a duty that is not preemptive. A preemptive duty is one that replaces other duties. It puts other duties out of play when it comes into play. A preemptive duty is not weighed against other duties that might relate to what one is thinking of doing. Of course, a preemptive duty may not preempt all other considerations, its preemption may operate only with a limited scope and thus preempt only some limited set of considerations.
An example of a preemptive duty is the case of a promissory obligation. If I have agreed to do something for you and I suddenly see some pleasurable alternative to fulfilling my obligation, most people would think that I ought to exclude the consideration of pleasure altogether from my deliberations even though the pleasure would be a consideration had I made no promise. It is simply not something that I can legitimately weigh in the balance against the promissory obligation. So if an authority issues a command and the duty to obey is a preemptive duty, then the subject does not weigh the other duties that might otherwise apply to him in the balance with the preemptive duty. The preemptive duty simply excludes the other duties. By contrast, if a duty is not preemptive, then when it comes time to comply with it, one must balance it with other duties that weigh for and against acting in accord with the duty.
Most think that the duties associated with authority are content independent in the sense that one must do what one is told even if one is skeptical about the merits of the command. There is some skepticism, however, about the claim that legitimate political authorities impose preemptive duties on subjects. These people have questioned the rationality of preemptive duties or reasons for action. Surely, there are times when what appear to be preempted considerations all add up to a consideration that outweighs the preempting consideration. How can this be understood on the preemption model? Some have argued that authoritative commands simply give especially weighty content independent duties, which can be balanced against other duties (Shapiro 2002). The discussion of instrumentalism will say a bit more about these criticisms below.
The most demanding notion of authority is the idea of a political authority that has a right to rule that correlates with a duty to obey that is owed to the authority and that is a content independent and preemptive duty.
Most who think of legitimate authority as a kind of moral power to change the moral situation of others think of it as creating duties in others. And this is certainly the most prominent and striking exercise of authority. But political authorities do not only create duties in others in and some cases do not purport to create such duties at all. The most prominent instances of this can be found in international institutions. The Security Council of the United Nations exercises authority in a variety of ways: sometimes acting as a kind of legislative body and sometimes acting as a kind of executive body. Its executive authority is its traditional role in international law. But this executive authority is quite distinct from the kind of executive authority we see in the state. The Security Council exercises its executive authority primarily by authorizing actions and not by carrying them out by itself or by requiring them. One way to describe the moral power of the Security Council is that it gives a liberty to states to prosecute wars. It does this against a background of a general prohibition of all war except in the case of self-defense. It suspends that prohibition for certain states. It does not require them to act, it only permits them to act in a warlike way. This is because the agent of enforcement in the international system is a decentralized one.
Furthermore the Dispute Settlement Mechanism of the World Trade Organization functions in very much the same way. The dispute settlement system first determines whether a state has in fact violated its agreements on trade and tariffs with another state. And when it determines this, it permits the plaintiff state to act in a way that would normally be in violation of its agreements. It permits retaliation through the system of tariffs and non-tariff barriers. It cannot require this retaliation.
Hence the two most effective and authoritative institutions in the international system do not impose duties at all in many cases, they exercise a moral power to alter the moral situation of states but the alteration is from duty to permission in many cases. To be sure, they do this against the background of treaties and agreements that have a kind of legislative force and that do purport to impose genuine duties. And there are duties not to interfere with the authorized activity, but the point remains that the primary exercise is one of changing duties to permissions. This may confirm Applebaum's idea that authority need not impose duties.
One reason for keeping our minds open to different accounts of political authority is that there are different kinds of political authority. Different accounts may be suitable to different kinds of authority. Indeed, different principles grounding authority may be suitable to different kinds of authority. One thing that is not often enough discussed in treatments of political authority is the fact that there are very different kinds of political authority. Within the state alone there is legislative authority, executive authority, judicial authority, and administrative authority; these different kinds of authority can have distinct sub-branches of authority. And there are political authorities outside of the modern state, namely international institutions. These have a very distinct kind of authority at least in the contemporary world and the authority of these different agencies is grounded in different principles.
As an illustration of different forms of authority for different political entities consider the different parts of the modern state. We might think that a democratic legislative assembly has a genuine right to rule in the sense that citizens owe obedience to it. They might owe this obedience because the assembly pools all the democratic rights of all the citizens and so citizens treat each other as equals by complying with the assembly's directives. But citizens do not owe it to courts to respect their judgments about the law. The courts may create duties but the duties are not owed to them. The same presumably goes for policemen and adminstrators as well. They seem to have moral powers to create duties but these duties are not owed to them. Furthermore, the grounds of authority might be distinct for these two kinds of entities. The democratic conception might provide the basis of the authority of the assembly while the authority of courts and administrators may be more instrumentally grounded.
Few theorists after Thomas Hobbes and David Hume have argued that there is a general duty to obey the law or that political authority is generally legitimate (Hobbes 1668; Hume 1965). Most theorists have argued that the legitimacy of political authority is one that holds only when the political authority satisfies certain normatively important conditions. What we will review here are some of the main theories that attempt to explain when a political authority has legitimacy.
General theories are theories that identify general properties that virtually any kind of political regime can have that gives them legitimacy. Special theories are ones that mark off particular classes of regimes that have legitimacy or that have a particularly high level of legitimacy. There are really four types of general theory of political authority and then there are a variety of special theories of political authority. The four types of general theory of legitimacy are consent theories, reasonable consensus theories, associative obligation theories and instrumentalist theories. The two historically important forms of special theory in the West have been the Divine Right of Kings theories and democratic theories.
At the root of all contemporary discussions of the legitimacy of authority is the problem posed by Robert Paul Wolff concerning the incompatibility of moral autonomy and political authority. The problem is really only connected with the kinds of political authority that imply content independent duties to comply with authoritative commands. The basic idea is that it is incompatible for a subject to comply with the commands of an authority merely because it is the command of the authority and for the subject to be acting morally autonomously. Wolff thinks that each person has a duty to act on the basis of his own moral assessment of right and wrong and has the duty to reflect on what is right and wrong in each particular instance of action. Such a person would be violating his duty to act autonomously if he complies with authoritative commands on grounds that are independent of the content of the commands. So the duty of autonomy is incompatible with the duty of obeying political authority. This is the challenge of philosophical anarchism (Wolff 1970).
The worry is that authority is never legitimate because the kind of obedience associated with authority is inconsistent with the autonomy of the subject. We can see, however, that this worry applies only to certain accounts of authority, which imply duties to obey on the part of the subjects. The account of authority as justified coercion is not affected by this argument nor is the account of legitimate authority consisting of a justification right affected by this worry. Still, most accounts of the nature of authority do imply content independent duties on the part of the subjects. We can see that any content independent duty, whether it is a duty not to interfere with the authority's command or it is a duty to obey the authority, is called into question by this argument.
One can see different accounts of the legitimacy of political authority as responses to the anarchist challenge. Let us start with the instrumentalist account of legitimacy. The canonical statement of this notion of legitimate authority is provided by Joseph Raz. He calls it the Normal Justification Thesis. It asserts that “the normal way to establish that a person has authority over another person involves showing that the alleged subject is likely better to comply with reasons which apply to him (other than the alleged authoritative directives) if he accepts the directives of the alleged authority as authoritatively binding and tries to follow them, rather than by trying to follow the reasons which apply to him directly.” (Raz 1986)
This conception of the legitimacy of authority flows from the idea that “authoritative directives should be based on reasons which already independently apply to the subjects of the directives and are relevant to their action in the circumstances covered by the directive” (Raz 1986.) According to Raz, what should guide government decisions about what commands to give subjects is what the subjects already have reason to do. For instance, subjects already have reason to give a fair share of resources for the common good. Authorities merely help them comply with these reasons by establishing an efficient and fair system of taxation. Subjects have reason to defend their fellow countrymen and authorities help them do this by establishing an army in an efficient and fair way. Authorities do these things by issuing commands to subjects that are meant to replace the reasons that already apply to the subjects. Instead of the subject trying to figure out exactly how much he owes and who to give it to by coordinating it with many other people, the authority simply takes over these tasks, determines what the subject has reason to do and expects the subject to take its authoritative command as a reason instead of the reasons that directly apply to the action. An authority does its job well and is therefore legitimate when it enables subjects to act better on the reasons that apply to them when they take the commands as giving them preemptive reasons.
An instrumentalist attempts to meet Wolff's challenge by saying that an authority is legitimate when one complies better with one's duty overall by submission to authority than by trying to act on the basis of one's own assessments of what is right and wrong in each instance. This amounts to a rejection of the duty of autonomy that is central to the anarchist idea. Or at least it is a rejection of the idea that the duty of autonomy is the most fundamental duty. But it does get at something important. Wolff's challenge states in a rather general way the worry that there is something immoral about failing to critically reflect about what one ought to do in each instance of action. And he states that submitting to the commands of the state is precisely a case of failing to act on one's critical assessment of a situation. The instrumentalist suggests a way in which it is not immoral to fail to critically reflect on one's prospective actions in each instance. Indeed, the instrumentalist can argue that it is sometimes immoral to insist on critically reflecting and acting autonomously when one may actually act worse as a result of consistently critically reflecting. We frequently act on the basis of rules of action, without considering all the details of the circumstances in which we act on the grounds that trying to take all the details of each situation into account for each action would produce bad decisions. The instrumentalist argues that we ought to take this kind of attitude to the commands of the state when we will better act in accordance with our duty overall by doing so than by attempting to make independent assessments of the worth of our actions in every case (see Raz 1986, ch. 3.)
This response to the philosophical anarchist challenge establishes only a piecemeal duty to obey the state. The instrumentalist argues that some states some of the time issue commands that we (or at least some individuals) ought to submit to without critical reflection on each command. It does not imply that the duty to obey the state extends to all commands of the state and to all subjects. It only applies when the subject would likely better comply with duties overall by treating the commands as authoritative (i.e. establishing content independent and preemptive duties to obey the commands) than by acting on the basis of an independent assessment of the rightness of each action. Whether the commands impose duties or not depends on features of the subject such as his or her knowledge of the issues related to the commands and so forth.
Of course, it is important to note that not every act of obedience will ensure better compliance with reason, there will be cases when the commands of the state do not accord with the best reasons. Raz's conception of authority depends for its cogency on the thought that as long as the subject does better by reason overall by obeying certain classes of commands, the subject has a duty to obey every one of the commands: the correct as well as the incorrect. In some sense, the obedience to the commands has a greater likelihood of ensuring conformity with reason. Finally, this particular account of the duty to obey does not assert that the discharging of the duties is owed to the state. This account does not establish any fundamental right to rule on the part of the state.
The power of this account of political authority and the duty to obey depends essentially on the account of practical reasoning that lies at its base. Many have argued that this conception of practical reasoning is flawed. They have worried that the indirect form of practical reasoning that it requires is not legitimate. The worry can be stated fairly easily. The form of practical reasoning this account of authority includes requires that we ignore the reasons that apply directly to the action we are about to undertake even though sometimes those reasons will count against the action. The question arises, when are the reasons that directly apply to the action so strongly opposed to the action that we must override the preemptive reason?
In the case of rule following, we sometimes encounter particular instances in which following the rule is counterproductive. How do we determine when we ought to follow the rule and when we ought not to follow the rule? Does such determination involve the very deliberation about particular instances that was meant to be excluded by the rule? Some have argued that rule following cannot be rational since it cannot be rational to ignore the particular facts of each case (Hurd 2001).
Raz's main response to this criticism has been to say that we look for clear cases in which the rule is to be overridden and ignore the other cases and that only by doing this do we best comply with reason. Limiting exceptions to the rule to clear cases obviates the need for deliberation in every case.
Another version of the philosophical anarchist challenge may seem to avoid the critical edge of the above approach. This approach, defended by A. John Simmons (Simmons 2001) and Leslie Green (Green 1989) asserts that each person has a right not to be bound by the state's commands. This thesis is quite different from the kind of anarchism defended by Wolff. The latter asserts that each individual has a duty to be autonomous. The present theory asserts merely that a person has a right not be subjected to another's imposition of duties. The philosophical anarchist then argues that only if a person consents to being bound to the political authority can the person actually be bound. The final premise in the philosophical anarchist argument is that it is either practically impossible or at least actually untrue that states can be set up in such a way that they can demand the obedience of all and only those who have consented to their authority. So, the anarchist concludes, no state is legitimate and perhaps no state can ever be legitimate.
It is important to note that this view does not imply that one must never obey the state. It merely implies that one does not have content independent duties to obey the state and that the state does not have a right to rule. A reasonably just state will command one to do things that are reasonably just and in many cases one must obey those commands because they are just. What one is not required to do on the philosophical anarchist view is obey any state just because it has commanded one to do certain things.
To discuss this view, we will first discuss the arguments people have given for the consent theory of political authority. We will also discuss some counterarguments. Then we will discuss a popular modification of the consent theory that is designed to avoid philosophical anarchism.
The consent theory of political authority states only a necessary condition of the legitimacy of political authority. It states that a political authority is legitimate only if it has the consent of those who are subject to its commands. Many have argued that in addition to consent, a state must be minimally just for it to be legitimate (Locke 1990).
A number of arguments have been presented in favor of this view. Locke's argument is that each person has an equal natural right to freedom and that this implies that at the age of maturity no one may be subordinated to anyone else's commands by nature (Locke 1990). Let us call this the natural right argument. Such subordination would violate the equal freedom of the subordinated person. To the extent that political authority involves issuing commands and requiring others to follow the commands, it seems to involve subordinating one person to the commands of another and thus violates the natural right to freedom of the subordinated person.
A natural objection to this line of reasoning is to state that political authority is actually necessary to protecting each person's equal freedom. Locke himself argued that the state of nature would be quite threatening to each person's ability to live freely because there are likely to be many disagreements about what rights each person has and so people are likely to trespass on each other's rights. Furthermore he argued that when there is such disagreement, we need an impartial judge to determine when rights have been violated. And against criminals we need a police power to enforce the rights that people have. Locke argues that only by establishing political society with a legislature that makes known and settled laws and establishing a judiciary that resolves remaining controversies between people and having an executive power that enforces the laws can people's rights and freedoms be protected.
Once we have the above argument in mind, it is hard to see the force of the natural right argument for no political authority without consent. We might think that the very liberty that is being invoked to support the case for the necessity of consent is better protected by a reasonably just political authority. The instrumentalist can then argue that one protects the liberty of each and every person better by instituting political authority and by treating its commands as authoritative. And so the instrumentalist could argue that insofar as liberty is a fundamental value, it would be immoral not to support a reasonably just political authority and treat its commands as authoritative.
The natural right theorist might argue in response that the above argument seems to involve a kind of utilitarianism of rights. Such a view says that it is justified to violate one person's right in order to protect the rights of others. But, such a theorist might say, the natural rights of persons are side constraints against actions; they are not to be violated even if others' rights are better protected as a consequence. This entry will not go into the many issues that arise in the discussion of deontology and consequentialism here. We will return to the issue of side constraints after the discussion of the next argument.
Some have proposed what this entry will call the options argument against the kind of considerations the instrumentalist adduces. The instrumentalist argues that I have natural duties of justice to promote just institutions and that these duties are best satisfied by complying with the authority of a reasonably just state. But the philosophical anarchist could argue that though I may have a duty of justice, it does not entail that I must obey any particular institution for promoting justice. The idea here is that just as Amnesty International may not require me to pay dues to it regardless of my membership even though these dues would clearly advance the protection of human rights throughout the world, so the state may not require me to comply with its commands even though such compliance would advance the purposes of justice in the world. Let us suppose that the reasons clearly favor my support of Amnesty International. Intuitively, it still may not require me to lend it support. Only if I have voluntarily joined and voluntarily remain in Amnesty do I have a duty to do what the conditions of membership require. And I am under no obligation to join Amnesty; I may join other organizations to fulfill whatever duties of aid that I have. So whether I ought to join Amnesty and be subject to membership dues is up to me. The consent theorist seems to think that, in the same way, only if I voluntarily transact to obligate myself to comply with the state's commands can I be said to have a duty to comply with the state. I must somehow enlist myself in the project of promoting the good causes that the state promotes (Simmons 2001).
This argument may miss a central idea in the instrumentalist account of authority. The instrumentalist account is premised on the view that not only does the state help one discharge one's duties of justice; it asserts that compliance with the state is necessary to the discharge of one's duties. Hence, one acts unjustly if one fails to comply with the state's commands.
To understand this, we need to introduce another concept. The idea is that the state does not only promote justice, it establishes justice. What does this mean? It means that for a particular community, the state determines what justice requires in the relations between individuals. It does this by defining the relations of property and exchange as well as the institutions of the criminal law and tort law. To say that the state's legislative activity establishes justice is not the same as saying that the state's activity constitutes justice. Justice is still an independent standard of assessment on this account.
The reason for saying that the state establishes justice is that, in Joseph Raz's words, justice and morality more generally, underdetermine the legislation necessary to bring about justice in a community. This means that one can implement the same principles of justice by means of many different sets of rules. But one can treat others justly only if one is on the same page as the others. So what is just in a particular circumstance will depend in part on the set of rules that the others are acting on. To the extent that the state determines the basic framework of rules, it determines which actions are just and which are not. One does not act justly, on this account, by deciding not to comply with the state one lives in and sending money to another state or association. If one fails to comply with the rules of property or the rules of exchange, one treats others unjustly. The options argument suggests that somehow there is a way that one can discharge one's duty to others by doing something other than obeying the law. Instead of obeying the law of property of the society in which I live, I may simply decide to send money to another part of the world where property rights are enforced. But this argument fails to appreciate the central importance of law to defining justice among persons. Though not all laws are just, justice among persons in any even moderately complex society requires law and obedience to law.
One argument for consent theory essayed by Simmons asserts that a person ought to be free to act on the basis of personal reasons as opposed to impersonal reasons. So even if the state does help each person act more on the basis of impersonal reasons that apply to them independent of the state, a person may refuse, on the basis of personal reasons, to accept the directives of the state. And so, it is argued, the state's imposition of duties on the individual may occur only if the individual has consented to the state's authority (Simmons 2001).
The idea that one can have personal reasons not to obey the commands of a reasonably just state is unclear. It might be referring to the idea that each person has a kind of personal prerogative that permits him to avoid the demands of morality generally. This idea was proposed by critics of utilitarianism as a way to avoid the excessive demandingness of utilitarianism while keeping most of the view intact. Utilitarianism supplies exclusively impersonal reasons for action to individuals. These seem to undermine the personal projects and interests of individuals. Some have proposed that utilitarianism be modified to accommodate the projects of individuals by including a personal prerogative to act on the basis of personal reasons. Others have argued that there ought to be a personal prerogative to ignore the impersonal reasons of any set of moral requirements.
But this role for personal reasons does not seem to provide much in the way of defense of the consent theory. One reason for this is that these are reasons to avoid some of the demands of morality. But the issue at stake in the justification of authority is whether morality demands obedience or not. If we think of these personal reasons as part of the structure of morality, on the other hand, then it would seem that these personal reasons are best protected by a reasonably just state that protects individual freedom. So the response to the claim that individuals have personal reasons to evade the commands of the state seems to fall prey to the same argument that undermines the natural right approach.
There is another way to think of this personal reasons criticism of instrumentalist approaches to political authority. The instrumentalist approach seems to be committed to the idea that an authority can be legitimate even if most of the members of the society do not agree with what it is doing. As long as the state is requiring people to act as they should act, the subjects have a duty to obey, even if they do not see that they have this duty. Now one can see how this may be true in some circumstances, where the members are deeply immoral or irrational. But it seems perverse to think that whether the state has legitimate authority is completely independent of the considered opinions of its subjects. Here is the reason behind the appearance. The state, being a group of people, owes the subjects some kind of duty of respect for the judgments of those members. This duty of respect requires at least some degree of responsiveness on the part of the state in making decisions. Furthermore the state, in part, is an institution that is grounded in the need for decisions against a background of disagreement about what ought to be done. For the state to make decisions against this background that completely ignores the views of the many dissenters seems a particularly egregious violation of the duty to accord some respect to the opinions of reasonable adult human beings.
Consent theories, reasonable consensus theories, associative obligation theories and democratic theories make these observations part of the foundation of their accounts of the legitimacy of authority. The consent theory of political authority requires that for the state to have authority over any person, the state must have the consent of the person to that authority. Consent, on this account, is a necessary condition of the legitimacy of authority though it need not be a sufficient condition. The consent theory clearly makes an attempt to make political authority compatible with a due respect for the opinions of subjects.
But we might wonder if it doesn't go too far. For if consent is a genuinely necessary condition of political authority, then it appears that individuals may have the option of not obeying a perfectly just state that has jurisdiction over the area in which they live. And they may do this on perverse grounds or they may simply wish to free ride on the benefits that the state confers without having to undertake any of the burdens. How can this be legitimate and how can it undermine the authority of a just state? It seems that in the effort to express respect for the reasonable opinions of people, consent theory seems to have gone too far in giving respect to immoral, irrational and unprincipled failures of consent (Raz 1986).
The consent theorist could respond to this difficulty with the claim that it is only the state's claim to authority that is being held hostage, not the state's just activities. For if it is the case that the person is merely free riding on desirable activities and that this is unjust then the person is acting wrongly. Hence, the justice of the actions of the state may be sufficient to condemn the actions of the free rider and this can be done without attributing the right to rule to the state.
But now the instrumentalist could argue that obedience to the authoritative commands of the state may be necessary to acting justly in many instances. The thought is that only if people treat the commands of the state as providing content independent reasons for obedience can a reasonably just state actually perform the tasks that make it just. If people are constantly second guessing the state's decisions, the central roles of coordination, collective action and assurance in the establishment of justice by the state will be undermined. These are collective effects of second guessing. But the instrumentalist will also argue that individuals will often act less in accordance with the reasons that apply to them if they fail to take the commands of a reasonably just state as offering content independent reasons because only the state's commands can clue them in to what the rules that establish justice are in their particular community. The instrumentalist may then argue that it is therefore wrong for the person not to take the commands of the state as authoritative, at least in many circumstances.
Locke, in part desiring to avoid these obvious difficulties or irrational and immoral failures of consent, introduced the notion of tacit consent (Locke 1990). The possibility of tacit consent allows that one may consent without having to go through the usual motions associated with expression of consent. For example, at a board meeting, one consents tacitly to the chairman's scheduling a meeting if one says nothing when the chair asks for objections to the proposal. And that tacit consent is valid to the extent that the failure to object is understood as a kind of consent and is voluntary.
The main problem with tacit consent is the problem of interpretation. How does one interpret the actions of another so as to think of them as consenting though they did not explicitly do so? Theorists differ on the constraints that must be placed on the interpretation of the behaviors of others. Simmons argues that for behavior to count as tacit consent it the behavior must be explicitly understood by all to be a kind of consent, it must be clear how when to perform the act or omission that constitutes tacit consent, it is not difficult to consent and the costs of dissent are not prohibitive. But it is not obvious that Locke had this in mind. Locke thought that the mere residing in a territory and voluntarily benefiting from the actions of a minimally just state were sufficient conditions of tacit consent. One might think that Locke thought the following. If a person voluntarily resides in a territory over which the state has jurisdiction and that person benefits from the establishment of the rule of law and all the other amenities the state provides then that person must know or ought to know that the state's provision of these benefits depends on the obedience of the members of the society. But if the person now continues to reside voluntarily in the state, that person must know that others expect obedience from him unless he is under some special exemption. He must know or ought to know, in other words, that others can reasonably interpret his voluntary residence as committing him to obedience to the laws of the state. So, we have adequate reason to interpret a person's continued voluntary residence as a form of consenting to abide by the laws of the state.
David Hume criticized this interpretive move (Hume 1965). He argued that given the extraordinary costs to most people of moving out of the country of their birth, no one can sensibly interpret the voluntary continued residence of a person in a state as a case of tacit consent. He draws an analogy with a person who has been carried involuntarily onto a ship by others and who now finds himself on the ship subject to the commands of the captain and whose only alternative is to throw himself into a stormy sea. Hume argues that such a person's remaining on the ship can not be interpreted to be consenting to the authority of the captain. The person is merely attempting to avoid the terrible cost of getting off the ship.
But it is not clear why Hume's argument is supposed to work. It sounds like the argument challenges the voluntariness of the consent. But this cannot be a conclusive argument here. After all, many people consent to things in order to avoid the terrible costs of not consenting. People consent to pay their insurance premiums in order not to end up without health care when the time comes that they need it. Promises made on the battlefield to lay down arms on the condition that the opponent will not harm one are also made under severe duress. But we do not think that these promises are invalid or that they fail to obligate. So the fact that the alternative would be terrible is not a reason to think that those who choose to remain in a state are not thereby bound.
Of course, Hume's example includes the fact that the person was carried forcibly onto the ship. This may be doing more work that it should be. For few people would say that the state has necessarily done something wrong by imposing its jurisdiction over a territory on which a person is born. We need, then, to change Hume's example so that the person who is on the boat is on it through no fault of anyone on the boat, though he may have ended up there involuntarily.
One possibility is that Hume thinks that we cannot interpret the continuing residence of a person in a state as a case of consent to the authority of the state because we have no reason to think that the continuing residence was chosen as a result of reflection on whether it constituted consent. The impoverished person who remains in the state in which he finds himself gave no thought whatsoever to any consideration other than that to move would be highly costly or otherwise unpleasant. We have no reason to think that he gave any thought to the question of consent and so it is illegitimate to interpret his behavior in that way.
But it is not obvious that this reasoning succeeds. If a person benefits by residing in a territory and everyone knows that the benefit only arises because of the obedience to law of the members, shouldn't it be clear to this person that his compliance is expected of him if he remains in the territory? And does his remaining in the territory thereby imply that he consents to the authority of the territory?
Of course it is true of any particular person that his compliance is not necessary to the maintenance of the benefits of public order. But at the same time it is clear that unless there is some special reason for this person not to be subject to the rules everyone else is subject to, elementary norms of fairness will suggest to him and everyone else that compliance is expected of him just as it is of everyone else.
This would seem to be a basis for interpreting the person's behavior as a case of consent. Anyone can see that the compliance of each person is expected of those who reside in a territory as long as the law is reasonably just. If someone has not considered these facts, perhaps he should be held responsible for consenting anyway. After all, if we look at Simmons's central board room case we might have the same reaction to someone who, having been told that failure to object implies consent to a policy, fails to object but only because he doesn't want to anger his girlfriend in the group and really gives no thought to the question of consent. Surely he has tacitly consented, despite his irresponsible attitude. So why not think that the person who continues to reside voluntarily in a reasonably just state?
An important objection to the idea of tacit consent is that it begs the question about how a state gets its authority. Some argue that a group of persons that has no authority to issue commands in the first place cannot require people submit to their commands or leave a piece of territory they are falsely claim as under their jurisdiction (Brilmayer 1989; Wellman 2001). In a variation on the boardroom example described above, Brilmayer imagines that instead of the chairman proposing a date for a meeting, a window washer swings in and makes the same proposal and asks for objections. Clearly in that case, failure to register objections would not constitute consent to the proposed schedule. The reason for this is that only a duly constituted authority can have the right to make such a proposal. But, the claim to authority is precisely what tacit consent is supposed to support. So as an account of authority the tacit consent view seems to beg the question.
This criticism is right as far as it goes. But there are four points to note about it. First, it applies to explicit consent as well as tacit consent. My consent to a person's doing something does not legitimate that person's doing it nor does it obligate me to respect his doing it unless he already has a right to make the proposal. In the case of political authorities, my consent to someone's issuing commands over a piece of territory that she has no right to rule over does not legitimate her commands nor does it obligate me.
Second, it is not a criticism of Locke since he clearly thinks that tacit consent only legitimates and obligates under conditions where there is a duly constituted authority. Locke thinks that the right to rule of an authority must be traced back to an original act of consent in the state of nature (where there is no prior political authority) to form a political body. That political body then confers, by the consent of all the members, authority on a particular institutional arrangement (as long as it is minimally just). The function of tacit consent as well as the consent of new members is simply to renew this already created authority.
Third, if Locke is right and consent can create authority out of the state of nature, it may be possible for tacit consent to do the same. We can imagine a state of nature scenario where a highly persuasive person gets up amid the chaos and makes a proposal to create the initial political body from the state of nature and then states very clearly that if there are objections, they should be raised without fear. And we can imagine the very same person making a proposal to create the particular structure of authority over the political body and calling for objections in the same way as before. There is no obvious reason why this could not work. Locke did not suggest this but it does not seem impossible.
These last two points defeat the argument that tacit consent requires a prior duly constituted authority. What Locke's picture suggests is that valid consent or tacit consent do not require that the consented to proposal be made by someone already in authority; they can be valid as long as the proposal is made when there is no authority already in place. The proposals can be drawn up by someone who has the right to make the proposal. In the state of nature, anyone presumably has this right.
Fourth, even if tacit consent cannot establish authority it may still be a necessary condition on the legitimacy of authority. For if a political authority is duly constituted in the way Locke describes but fails to offer its citizens a right of exit or imposes severe burdens on people who wish to exit, it will become illegitimate over time, according to Locke.
Still, this criticism is quite important because it shows that neither consent nor tacit consent can stand alone as bases of political legitimacy. An exclusively consent based theory of political authority seems to require that the original consent take place in a state of nature prior to political authority. And this further requirement seems to weaken the plausibility of the view.
What is worrisome about this kind of approach from the standpoint of consent theory is that it seems to ignore all the particular reasons that people may have for not consenting. Indeed, it seems to rely on the premise that anyone should see that if they reside within the territory of a reasonably just state, they are properly expected to comply with the law, at least insofar as it is reasonably just. Consent theory, by contrast, seems to rely on the thought that individuals may properly reject these kinds of obligations for purely personal reasons.
We can see a dilemma that arises from the above considerations. If tacit consent genuinely arises from voluntary residence in a reasonably just state, then it appears that the interpretation of the person's residence does not take account of what many consent theorists have thought was essential to consent theory, namely the personal reasons of the subject in deciding whether to consent or not. On the other hand, if those personal reasons are ones that the subject may properly take into account in deciding whether to consent, then the interpretive move required for voluntary residence to generate obligations in all subjects of a reasonably just state cannot work. It cannot work because subjects may have personal reasons for not consenting, which voluntary residence does not rule out.
Hence, it appears that tacit consent theory cannot conform to what many have taken to be the highly individualistic spirit of consent theory. So fans of consent theory are not likely to agree to the idea that people generally tacitly consent to the state's authority when they voluntarily reside in its territory. Critics of consent theory are likely, however, to question that highly individualistic approach in the manner sketched above.
David Estlund has tentatively advanced a new and intriguing suggestion for shoring up an essentially voluntarist account of authority. Estlund argues that even in the absence of explicit or tacit consent in some cases persons may be said to have consented to political authority. He describes this as “normative consent”. The idea is motivated in the following way. Estlund notes that actual explicit cases of consenting can fail to produce obligations if what is consented to is seriously immoral. The consent is nullified (in its obligation producing effect) by the evident immorality of its content. Estlund then enquires as to whether the lack of consent under certain circumstances mightn't similarly be nullified in cases where it is plainly wrong not to consent. Why aren't these symmetrical he asks? Estlund envisions a case in which a passenger airplane has crashed and in which there is still a significant chance of saving many passengers through a very well coordinated effort. As it happens an airline attendant stands up and “takes control” by giving commands to various people thus organizing the relief effort. Let us suppose that this is evidently reasonably successful but that it really does require the cooperation of (nearly) everyone to whom the airline attendant chooses to give directives. And let us suppose that the attendant is not giving any clearly immoral commands. Estlund notes that it would be clearly immoral for someone in a position to give essential help not to agree to go along with the attendant's commands. Now suppose that someone in such a situation refuses to consent to the arrangement. Estlund asks whether their non-consent isn't nullified in the light of the fact that it is immoral not to consent. And if the non-consent is nullified, then its normal effect in preserving the liberty of the agent is not produced. In this case the person is no longer free to act independent of the purported authority. Since his non-consent is nullified, he has, in effect, consented and he is therefore under an obligation to the authority. This is normative consent.
Estlund is anxious to distinguish this idea from hypothetical consent or what you would have consented to had you been a better person. Yet he does want to say that this normative consent has a genuine connection to the will.
One might wonder here if there is any genuine connection to the will of the normative consenter and so whether this really does shore up the voluntarist view. But a further issue that might be raised here is whether Estlund has genuinely identified the fallback point of invalidated consent and non-consent. Perhaps the proper description of the fall back point is neither consent nor non-consent. A person who has consented to something deeply immoral doesn't thereby refuse consent to that action, the person simply has failed to do anything morally productive. Perhaps the idea in the case of the seriously immoral non-consent is that the person has simply not done anything morally productive. What happens in both cases is that the previous moral situation of the agent remains in place. In the nullified consent case you still have an obligation not to do what you consented to do and in the nullified non-consent case you still have an obligation to do what you refuse to consent to do. This would suggest that the decision between consent and non-consent has here no normative effect: whatever the agent decides, the previous moral situation remains in place. Hence there is a kind of symmetry that holds here between the two cases. It is just that the default position is neither consent nor non-consent. The one implication this might have is that one may ask the person again until he agrees, whereas normally if a person refuses to consent to something you must leave them alone.
Reasonable consensus views of political authority attempt to find a kind of mean between the extreme individualism of consent theory and the lack of respect for people's opinions of the instrumentalist views. John Rawls argues that the liberal principle of political legitimacy requires that coercive institutions be so structured that they accord with the reasonable views of the members of the society. As long as they do so they have the right to impose duties on their members. The members may not demur on the basis of unreasonable views. Furthermore, it is not necessary on this view that the persons over whom authority is wielded have voluntarily acted or given any sign of agreement. All that need be the case is that the basic principles that regulate the coercive institutions be ones that the reasonable members can agree to (Rawls 1996).
This view seems to be a kind of middle position between consent theory and the instrumentalist views. It does not allow individuals to divest themselves of obligations on spurious or merely self-interested bases because it specifies what is and is not a reasonable basis for agreement to the basic principles of the society. At the same time it evinces a respect for the opinions of the members of society since it requires that the basic principles that regulate the society accord with the reasonable views of the members.
This account of legitimacy is based on an adherence to a principle of reasonableness. The basic principle asserts that reasonable persons will propose fair terms of cooperation with other reasonable persons only on condition that the terms can be justified to those others on the basis of premises that they can reasonably accept. There has been much discussion of this principle and its underpinnings but this entry will focus on a central worry concerning this idea.
A number of criticisms have been made against this kind of view. Many have argued that the relevant notion of reasonableness is likely to be very difficult to specify in a way that is both plausible and compatible with possible consensus. The key difficulty with reasonable consensus theories is that they rely on the possibility of consensus on at least a sufficient number of basic norms to say that there is consensus on the basic principles that regulate a society. So if one attempts to come up with a notion of reasonableness that is sufficiently robust to generate agreement of this sort, then one is likely to have a notion that is quite controversial. And then the view does not seem to take a sufficiently respectful view of the opinions of the members of society since so many are likely to disagree with the conception of the reasonable. On the other hand, if one elaborates a conception of the reasonable that is sufficiently weak for most persons in the society to satisfy it, then one is not likely to generate agreement on the basic principles of the society.
The main worry is that the idea demands a level of consensus among members of society that is incompatible with the ordinary conditions of political societies (Christiano 1996; Waldron 1999). The principle demands that there be a kind of consensus among citizens on the basic principles that underpin the operation of political society.
This consensus seems to be unattainable under the conditions of modern society. One way, however, in which Rawls has argued in favor of the attainability of the consensus is to say that it need only be an overlapping consensus. The idea here is that citizens do not have to agree on everything but only on those principles that apply to the basic structure of society. And even here, when citizens disagree on some issue of social justice, the opposing views are taken off the table. So citizens can disagree on what the nature of the good life is and on religious questions and even different issues relating to social justice. As long as there are certain principles that everyone agrees to, which apply to the basic structure of society, full consensus is not necessary. Hence, the consensus need only be an overlapping one.
Though this idea goes some way towards alleviating the worry that too much consensus is required by Rawls's theory, it does not go nearly far enough. There is one main way in which the overlapping consensus fails to provide the kind of consensus that Rawls requires. If a group of citizens agrees on a set of principles for regulating society and some of the citizens also think that some other principles apply, the overlapping consensus idea is that the citizens who hold the idiosyncratic views must take those particular demands off the table and must argue only on the basis of the shared principles. The idea is that everyone appeals only to those principles that lie in the overlap and not to those that do not lie in the overlap. A legitimate exercise of political power is one that is grounded only in those principles that lie in the overlap. This seems to diminish the amount of agreement necessary to make a society legitimate.
But this appearance is an illusion. To see this we need only think of those people who hold idiosyncratic views. If the society they live in is exclusively grounded in principles that lie in the overlap of principles, then these people will have reason to complain that the society is unjust to the extent that the idiosyncratic principles are ignored. For instance, if someone holds the idiosyncratic view that people ought to receive in accordance with their desert then a society that does not act to make sure that this principle is respected is one that will be considered unjust by that person. They will live in a society that is unacceptable to them in a certain important respect relevant to justice.
Of course, if the desert principle is used to ground the basic institutions of society even though it does not lie in the overlap then those who think that desert is not a proper principle of justice will likely think that they are living in a society that they regard as unjust. The principle of legitimacy will imply in this context that the basic institutions of society are illegitimate because they are not based on principles everyone accepts. But surely the same can be said of those who hold the idiosyncratic principles. They can complain that they are required to go along with institutions that are unjust by their lights. The imposition on them implied by the basic institutions that fail to distribute in accordance with desert is as great as would be the imposition on the others implied by institutions that do distribute goods in accordance with desert. There is a complete symmetry here. Indeed, one way to put this point is to say that those who hold that desert is not a genuine principle of justice are themselves holding an idiosyncratic view when we take into account the fact that many think that desert is a genuine principle of justice.
As a consequence of these considerations, only a complete consensus of political principles will satisfy the principle of legitimacy that Rawls defends. But complete consensus on political principles is impossible to achieve given the conditions of ordinary political societies. And so to the extent that this principle of legitimacy is unsatisfiable in ordinary political societies, it appears to be an unacceptably utopian principle. In particular, it seems to be an unacceptable principle of political legitimacy because a principle of political legitimacy is partly framed for the purpose of according moral credentials to a society in the circumstances of political disagreement.
One classical account of political authority has modeled political authority and the attendant obligations on the obligations of family and the authority of the parents. Plato gives this account of authority and obligation among others in the Crito (Plato 1948). A recent attempt to ground the legitimacy of political authority in this way is Ronald Dworkin's (Dworkin 1986). This view is meant to capture the idea that a political society can have legitimate authority even if it is not a voluntary association and even if there is disagreement on many political principles.
If we take the family as a model here, we can see that children acquire obligations to obey their parents and to love and support their parents and siblings without having voluntarily entered into the relationships. And there may be some relation of authority between parents and children at least till the latter reach the age of maturity. Another model Dworkin invokes is that of friendship. He argues that though friendship does have an important voluntary component, it is not the case that people voluntarily agree to the terms of a friendship. They find themselves acquiring obligations of friendship as the friendship grows. Of course there is little in the way of authority in friendship and even in the family there is little authority once the children reach maturity.
The analogy between obligations of family, friendship and political society is grounded in the idea that in all three of these, individuals are obligated to abide by the rules or norms of the community. Dworkin argues that legitimate political authority arises as a consequence of the acquisition on the part of members of a political society of obligations to obey the rules of a genuine associative community. This gives the putative authority justification for coercing the members into obedience of the rules, which is the key element of authority on Dworkin's account.
Dworkin attempts to discern the basis of obligation in friendships and families by the process of interpretation of these social practices. His thesis is that communities that satisfy four conditions for being genuine communities thereby generate obligations to go along with the terms of the association. The four conditions are: one, each member of the community sees herself as having special obligations to the other members; two, they see the obligations as owed to each of the others personally; three, these obligations are understood to flow from a concern for the well being of each of the members; and four, the obligations are understood as flowing from a plausible version of equal concern for all the members. Any community that satisfies these four conditions is a genuine community and thereby generates obligations in each of the members to comply with the terms of the association.
Dworkin thinks that families and friendships satisfy these constraints in many cases and that only when they satisfy them do they generate obligations. He also thinks that a certain kind of political society can satisfy these conditions, which he calls a community of principle, i.e., a community wherein each member sees himself or herself as bound by common principles to all the others.
One might worry that a political society cannot be expected to generate the kinds of emotional bonds people have towards one another in families or friendships (Simmons 2001). And one might think that in the absence of such bonds, the four conditions will not be satisfied. Dworkin denies this. He agrees that political societies do not generate these kinds of emotional bonds, but he asserts that emotional bonds are not necessary either causally or conceptually to the satisfaction of the four conditions.
Dworkin argues that the attribution of the four conditions to a relationship occurs through an interpretation of that relationship so it need not be the case that each person is aware of satisfying any of the four conditions when they do. Consider a person who appeals to his fellow citizens on the basis of a principle of freedom of speech on the grounds that it is part of their constitution. This person is committed to legal principles that he shares with other citizens. He will be committed to the principles underlying the other elements of the constitution and the legal history of his country. He will be committed to a principle of equality to the extent that it is part of the constitution. We can interpret this person's behavior and the similar behavior of others as committed to special obligations to their fellow countrymen to the extent that it is the shared constitution they are appealing to. We can interpret this person as expressing a kind of equal concern for his fellow countrymen to the extent that he is appealing to legal principles that protect all. And we can interpret him in this way even if he himself would not have asserted it. And to the extent that people conform to this kind of practice more generally, we can interpret their behavior generally as satisfying the four conditions of associative obligation.
The community of principle satisfies the four conditions. Dworkin attempts to show how a political community can generate special obligations of citizens to each other. A community of principle is regulated by principles that have been elaborated in a distinctive way in the particular community. Citizens see themselves as obligated to abide by those principles only in relation to the others who have participated in elaborating them. The principles do require that everyone be included and that everyone's well being counts and counts equally.
The idea of a community of principle is meant to accommodate significant disagreement in the society in two ways. First, people may not think that the principles in the society are the best ones. They may simply be the best interpretation of their shared legal culture and history. So people may try to advance their own conceptions of the best principles. Second, people will disagree about the best interpretations of the shared legal culture and thus may think that the society is grounded in different principles.
But surely, the satisfaction of some of the conditions must depend on exactly what principles are in the community. Principles that are focused on liberty and that avoid any reference to well being, such as Kant would require of political principles, presumably would not satisfy the last two conditions. Principles that are not egalitarian, such as those that governed the United States during the first century of its existence and probably longer, would not satisfy the last condition. So it is not clear that being a community of principle is a sufficient condition for satisfying the four conditions.
It is also not obvious that it is necessary that a community be a community of principle in order for it to satisfy the four conditions in Dworkin's sense. For one can imagine a community in which individuals are committed to democratic resolution of the disagreements on justice that arise and thereby are committed to the equal importance of the well being of each member. They attempt to advance opposing principles of justice and conceptions of the common good and make compromises when they cannot secure sufficient majorities for these. Indeed, this seems much closer to the character of modern democracies than Dworkin's view. Such a society would satisfy the four conditions but it is not clear that it is a community of principle.
Dworkin's idea that modern political societies can be seen as communities of principle is grounded in his emphasis on judicial institutions as the core institutions of modern political societies and his account of legal interpretation. His view is that judges interpret the law by creating a coherent account of as much of the black letter law as possible and by interpreting that black letter law in terms of principles that make the law be the best that it can be. Hence, judges aim at producing a coherent account of the law overall by grounding it in the best basic moral principles that it can be grounded in. From this he thinks of modern societies as being concerned to elaborate common principles by which the society can be guided.
But his emphasis on judicial decision making seems excessive. In the democratic legislative process, citizens often do not see themselves as being guided by common principles. They see themselves as disagreeing with each other about what principles the society ought to be guided by. They also often see themselves as disagreeing with and trying to change the principles they see embodied in the law. They may look at the legislation in their community as negotiated compromises between different principles and not as deriving from a common set of principles. And yet they do see themselves as members of a common democratic community. This aspect of democratic rivalry does not seem to be very well accommodated by Dworkin's view of modern societies as communities of principle.
The basic idea behind the democratic conception of legitimate authority is that when there are disagreements among persons about how to structure their shared world together and it is important to structure that world together, the way to choose the shared aspects of society is by means of a decision making process that is fair to the interests and opinions of each of the members. When there is disagreement about how to organize the shared system of law, property, public education and the provision of public goods, no one can have his way entirely in this context without someone else not getting her way. Each person thinks that the ideas about justice and the common good with which the others wish to organize their shared world are mistaken in some way. Yet there is a need for collective action. The only way to do this that is reasonably fair to all the members is to make the decision democratically.
The thought is that when an outcome is democratically chosen and some people disagree with the outcome, as some inevitably will, they still have a duty to go along with the decision because otherwise they would be treating the others unfairly. If they refuse to go along and disrupt the democratically chosen arrangements, they are assuming for themselves a right to determine how things should go that overrides the equal rights of all the others. They are, in Peter Singer's words, assuming the positions of dictators in relation to the others. For if they turned out to be in the majority, they would demand the compliance of the others.
The idea of fairness that underpins the democratic process is grounded in different ways in different theories. The basic idea of equality is shared by most democratic theorists. Some argue that there is a fundamental duty of equal respect for the opinions of others that grounds democratic decision making in the context of pervasive disagreement (Singer 1974; Waldron 1999). Others wish to ground this duty of respect for the opinions of others in a deeper principle of equal concern for the interests of each member of society (Christiano 1996).
On this kind of view the democratic assembly has a right to rule and to the obedience of its members. This right of the democratic assembly is grounded in the right of each member of the assembly to be accorded equal respect. The duty of equal respect requires that the collective decision process gives each a vote in a broadly majoritarian process and a robustly equal opportunity to participate in the deliberations and negotiations leading to decisions. The equal rights of each of the members are in effect pooled in the democratic assembly so that because one owes each person equal respect, and the democratic way of making decisions embodies this equal respect, one owes the democratic assembly respect.
The democratic assembly can be understood as the assembly of all adult citizens or better as the assembly of all the democratically chosen representatives of citizens. A conception of a democratic assembly requires, on this view, an account of the appropriate form of democratic representation (Christiano 1996). In addition, the democratic assembly is only one part of the complete system of government. It is concerned with legislation only. In addition to this a government requires executive and judicial functions whose legitimacy may depend in part on other factors better grasped by the instrumentalist view.
The duties that are owed the democratic assembly are content independent and preemptive duties. They are content independent duties because each member has the duty, with a class of exceptions we will review in a moment, just because the assembly has made a decision. The duties are preemptive because the citizen must put aside the considerations she initially planned on acting on in order to treat the rest of her fellow citizens with proper respect. The idea of equal respect requires, on this account, deference to the decision of the majority and not acting on one's own judgment when the majority disagrees. So the decision of the majority gives a reason to obey that preempts or replaces the considerations one might act on were there no majority decision.
It is important to note that this conception of authority is what was described as a special conception above. The fact that democratic assemblies have authority does not imply that all other forms of regime never have authority. One might go along with a regime on the basis of the instrumentalist conception of authority or even the consent approach even if it is not democratic. It is clear nevertheless that democratic assemblies have a special kind of authority.
Democratic decision making on this account can be evaluated from two very different angles. On the one hand, one can evaluate a democratic decision in terms of the justice or efficiency of the outcome of the decision. One can ask whether the legislation is just or for the common good. This is the standpoint of the citizen who argues in favor of legislation and against others and tries to put together a coalition of like minded people to advance the legislation. On the other hand, democratic decision making can be evaluated in terms of the way in which the decision was made. Did the process of decision making treat all of its members fairly or with equal respect? Are the institutions of legislative representation and of campaign finance, among others, fair?
But why should the equality embodied in the democratic assembly trump other considerations of justice? The democratic conception of authority requires each person to submit issues to a democratic vote. So if they advocate some policy on the grounds that it conforms with what they take to be the correct principle of justice J, and the majority chooses a different policy on the grounds of an incompatible principle L, the democratic theory says that they ought to accept the policy that is grounded in L because only in this way do they accord the proper equal respect to their fellow citizens.
But someone might ask, why should the principle of equal respect take precedence over the principle J? They are both principles of justice so we need some reason for favoring the equal respect principle in general over the others.
One answer to this is to say that social justice demands that principles of justice be public in the sense that they involve principles that can be shown to be implemented to everyone who is reasonably conscientious and aware of some basic facts of political life (such as disagreement, fallibility and cognitive bias). This is a version of the basic maxim of justice that justice must not only be done, it must be seen to be done. The thought then is that to the extent that there is significant disagreement about the substantive principles of justice in play when policy is being decided, a just society requires some way in which publicly to embody the equal treatment of all the individuals in society. The controversial principles guiding the formulation of policy do not generally satisfy this constraint of publicity. Indeed, given the controversies over justice, individuals will think that the policies do not accord with their favored conception of equality. The democratic process does seem publicly to embody the equal standing of all citizens and the equal worth of their interests against the background of disagreement and fallibility and all the facts that attend these phenomena. So the democratic process seems uniquely capable of publicly embodying the principle of the equal importance of each person and the equal importance of the advancement of their interests (Christiano 2004).
Critics of this view might still take issue with the thesis that social justice requires that principles be public and that this gives priority to the principles that underpin democracy over those that underpin substantive policy proposals. The question must be, why is publicity, in the sense sketched above, so important?
The question that arises for a democratic theory of authority is, when do the considerations of the justice or injustice of the outcome override the considerations connected with the fairness of the process of decision making?
The claim that a democratic assembly has a right to rule is not incompatible with the idea that there are limits to that right. Indeed, theorists have argued that the very same principle that grounds democratic authority also ground limits to that authority (Christiano 2004.) The principle of public equality on which the argument for democracy is founded also grounds a set of liberal rights (freedom of conscience, association, speech and private pursuits). The reason for this is that democratic assembly that fundamentally denied these liberal rights to individuals would publicly violate the duty of equal respect to those individuals. Those who violate the basic liberal rights of others are publicly treating them as inferiors. To the extent that the democratic assembly's claim of authority is grounded in the public realization of the principle of equal respect, the authority would run out when the democratic assembly makes law that undermines equal respect. This establishes, at least for one conception of democratic authority, a substantive set of limits to that authority.
International Institutions have acquired political authority over the last half century or so. They are quite diverse in character. For some, their authority has a somewhat different form than the authority associated with the organs of the state. And the grounds of the authority of international institutions may be distinct as well. Overall, these are complex institutions with a number of parts and so different principles may apply to the different parts. For example, with regard to the World Trade Organization, some principle of state consent may be the ultimate basis of the legitimacy of its law making function, while a very different kind of standard would be relevant to judging the legitimacy of the dispute settlement mechanism.
Because global institutions operate in the context of a lack of overarching and centralized political power, the form and grounds of authority are likely often to be distinct. As I noted above, some of the most powerful global institutions have powers to create permissions rather than duties as in Security Council of the United Nations authorizations of the use of force. Another example is when the World Trade Organization's dispute settlement mechanism rules that a state may restrict trade with another state in what would normally be a violation of their agreements in order to retaliate against a state that has violated the trade agreements.
Another interesting feature of international institutions is that state consent appears to be a possible basis for the legitimacy of international institutions. To be sure many would argue that international institutions ought to be evaluated solely on an instrumental basis and others would argue that only democratic international institutions can be legitimate. But state consent does have a fighting chance of playing a large role in underpinning these institutions. The international system is highly decentralized and states are by far the most important instruments for making power accountable to persons that we know of.
To be sure, the state consent doctrine raises many questions. For one thing, we must ask whether the consent of states that do not represent their peoples is a genuinely legitimating act. Second, we must ask about the fairness of the conditions under which consent is given. If the conditions are unfair and more powerful states take advantage of the vulnerabilities of the weaker state, what impact does this have on the legitimacy of the state? Third, what normative weight, if any, attaches to a state's refusal of consent when it's cooperation is necessary to the achievement of morally mandatory aims such as the prevention or mitigation of global warming?
- Applebaum, Arthur Isak, 2010, “Legitimacy without the Duty to Obey,” Philosophy and Public Affairs, 38: 215–239.
- Austin, John, 1832, The Province of Jurisprudence Determined, H. L. A. Hart (ed.), London: Weidenfeld & Nickolson, 1955.
- Beran, Harry, 1987, The Consent Theory of Political Obligation, London: Croon Helm.
- Brilmayer, Lea, 1989, Justifying International Acts, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
- Buchanan, Allen, 2004, Justice, Legitimacy and Self-Determination, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Buchanan, Allen and Robert O. Keohane, 2006, “The Legitimacy of Global Governance Institutions,” Ethics and International Affairs, 20 (4): 405–437.
- Christiano, Thomas, 2004, “The Authority of Democracy,” Journal of Political Philosophy, 12(3): 245–270.
- Christiano, Thomas, 2011, “Democratic Legitimacy and International Institutions,” in The Philosophy of International Law, Samantha Besson and John Tasiolas (eds.), Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Christiano, Thomas, 1996, The Rule of the Many, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
- Dworkin, Ronald, 1986, Law's Empire, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Estlund, David, 2007, Democratic Authority, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Edmundson, William, 1998, Three Anarchical Fallacies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Green, Leslie, 1989, The Authority of the State, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Hart, H.L.A., 1961, The Concept of Law, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Hobbes, Thomas, 1668, Leviathan, Edwin Curley (ed.), Indianapolis: Hackett Publishers, 1992.
- Hume, David, 1748, “Of the Original Contract,” in Hume's Ethical Writings, Alasdair MacIntyre (ed.), London: University of Notre Dame Press, 1965.
- Hurd, Heidi, 2001, Moral Combat, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Ladenson, Robert, 1980, “In Defense of a Hobbesian Conception of Law,” Philosophy and Public Affairs, 9: 134–159.
- Locke, John, 1690, Second Treatise on Civil Government, C. B MacPherson (ed.), Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 1990.
- Morris, Christopher, 1998, An Essay on the Modern State, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Plato, Euthyphro, Apology and Crito, F. J. Church (trans.), New York: Macmillan, 1948.
- Rawls, John, 1996, Political Liberalism, New York: Columbia University Press.
- Raz, Joseph, 1986, The Morality of Freedom, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Raz, Joseph (ed.), 1990, Authority, New York: New York University Press.
- Shapiro, Scott, 2002, “Authority,” in The Oxford Handbook of Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law, Jules Coleman and Scott Shapiro (eds.), Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Simmons, A. John, 2001, Justification and Legitimacy: Essays on Rights and Obligations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Singer, Peter, 1974, Democracy and Disobedience, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Waldron, Jeremy, 1999, Law and Disagreement, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Weber, Max, 1918, “Politics as a Vocation,” in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (eds.), London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970.
- Wellman, Christopher, 2001, “Toward a Liberal Theory of Political Obligation,” Ethics, 111 (4): 735–759.
- Wolff, Robert Paul, 1970, In Defense of Anarchism, New York: Harper & Row.
How to cite this entry. Preview the PDF version of this entry at the Friends of the SEP Society. Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). Enhanced bibliography for this entry at PhilPapers, with links to its database. | <urn:uuid:572fab76-13f2-4c14-b2ce-33c4545493dd> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | http://seop.illc.uva.nl/entries/authority/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662515466.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20220516235937-20220517025937-00388.warc.gz | en | 0.961458 | 19,386 | 2.796875 | 3 |
About the State Park
Bastrop State Park is located in Bastrop, Texas, and is part of the “Lost Pines” ecoregion, so-named because it’s home to the westernmost population of loblolly pines, separated from the Piney Woods of East Texas by over 100 miles. In September 2011, a devastating wildfire burned 95% of the park, leaving just 50-100 acres of the park’s forest untouched. With dedicated efforts to replant millions of loblolly pine seedlings, the park is expected to be reforested in 30 years. 1 Most of the park’s historic structures which were built by the Civilian Conservation Corps, such as the rental cabins, group barracks, dining hall, and swimming pool, were not destroyed in the fire.
Opportunities for camping, picnicking, hiking, bicycling (paved or gravel roads only), geocaching, swimming (summer), birding, and nature study are available. There are 7 miles of hiking trails, and a hilly 12-mile road that for driving and bicycling connects Bastrop with nearby Buescher State Park.
The park is home to various birds and wildlife, including: white-tailed deer, Eastern Cottontail, squirrels, Virginia opossums, and nine-banded armadillo. Birders may observe the following species: turkey vulture, red-bellied woodpecker, pileated woodpecker, Eastern phoebe, blue jay, Western scrub jay, American crow, Carolina chickadee, black-crested titmouse, Northern mockingbird, Northern cardinal, and field sparrow.
Fishing in available in 1/2-acre Lake Mina. The park’s former 10-acre lake is now dry due to dam failure experienced in late May 2015. Located a short drive from the park, 900-acre Lake Bastrop offers fishing, boating, canoeing, swimming, and water skiing opportunities.
For more information on the Civilian Conservation Corps’ work at Bastrop State Park, visit The Texas State Library and Archives Commission’s collection of over 420 architectural and survey drawings from the park.
Located on State Highway 71 three miles east of Bastrop in central Bastrop County, and just 32 miles east of Austin.
Open 7 days a week year-round from 8 AM to 10 PM for day use activities.
Check for restricted park access before any trip.
A park entrance fee is charged per day — $5 per person for adults 13 years of age and older. (Listed fees may be inaccurate at certain times of year due to seasonal changes. Contact the park directly to confirm fees.)
Campsite and other facility fees are in addition to the park entrance fee.
Visit parks often? Learn about the $70 Texas State Parks Pass which exempts the passholder, and the passengers in their vehicle, from the entrance fees at all Texas State Parks.
Check the Wild Texas Events Calendar for activities scheduled at the park.
Bastrop, Texas Weather
Official Contact Information
The State Park is managed by the Texas Parks & Wildlife Department.
|Bastrop State Park
100 Park Road 1A
Bastrop, TX 78602
- AggieReplant: Rooted in Tradition, Texas A&M University, “Bastrop Lost Pines Recovery,” accessed May 25, 2016, http://replant.tamu.edu/node/137. ↩ | <urn:uuid:91a3cf7d-83eb-4996-9bf3-0a17ee960624> | CC-MAIN-2018-47 | http://www.wildtexas.com/bastrop-state-park/?shared=email&msg=fail | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-47/segments/1542039747215.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20181121052254-20181121074254-00359.warc.gz | en | 0.926349 | 736 | 2.53125 | 3 |
What does the Marcellus Shale industry mean to the Lehigh Valley and all of Pennsylvania?
Aside from a handful of groups that rely on permanent crisis for support, people in this state realize the importance of this new energy resource. The natural gas being extracted from the shale two miles underneath us is providing jobs, energy independence and, to the surprise of many, tax revenues — $1.4 billion in state and local taxes during 2009-10 alone.
Some critics talk about how Gov. Tom Corbett should make the drillers "pay their fair share." But what does this term, "fair share," mean?
Is it the more than $76 billion that shale gas contributed to the gross domestic product in 2010 that is expected to increase to $231 billion in 2035?
Or the 600,000 jobs the industry supported in 2010 — expected to grow to more than 1.6 million by 2035?
Or is it the spinoffs that have created a boom in support industries, ranging from engineering to environmental services to pipe manufacturing to residential and commercial construction?
When critics say "fair share," they mean they want dollars from the prosperous gas industry to pay or subsidize other industries and projects. Some critics are falsely saying the state is providing billions in subsidies to the fossil fuels industry. Some are saying to focus subsidies on expensive renewable sources of energy. But what about the impact on commonwealth families?
Philadelphians are already enjoying lower energy bills. In the Lehigh Valley, engineering firms and support businesses are expanding because of jobs in the Marcellus fields — while reducing carbon emissions. With record low prices and home heating bills that have dropped by 40 percent this winter, some folks still think another tax will solve our problems.
On behalf of the 5,000 member businesses and organizations — employing 140,000 people — the Greater Lehigh Valley Chamber of Commerce recognizes the economic benefits and opportunity for energy independence that shale gas formations can bring to Pennsylvania's businesses, commerce and communities. We also understand the need to protect our environment, natural resources and infrastructure from adverse consequences from developing and extracting shale gas.
What "fair share" should mean is a per-well impact fee — precisely the approach the Corbett administration and the Legislature have been discussing — not an additional tax. The impact fee would focus money on the towns and counties that actually host the drilling sites, ensuring repairs for wear and tear on the area and underwriting increased environmental enforcement.
But the value of the industry extends beyond the impact fee. As a jobs report by President Obama's administration put it: "Of the major fossil fuels, natural gas is the cleanest and least carbon-intensive for electric power generation. By keeping domestic energy costs relatively low, this resource also supports energy intensive manufacturing in the United States."
The Chamber believes that an impact fee on natural gas extracted from shale gas formations should be established, subject to the following conditions:
•This fee should be used solely to address direct and indirect impacts, both present and future, associated with natural gas extraction. This includes, but is not limited to, remediation of environmental contamination, infrastructure repair and maintenance, public safety issues, and increased regulatory agency costs associated with properly overseeing the associated industries, and a reasonable fund to address non-recoverable and unexpected costs that are not otherwise covered by responsible parties.
•This fee should be imposed, collected and managed at the state level so that all impacts, including those that may occur "downstream" from well locations, may be addressed in an equitable and consistent manner.
•Funds raised through this assessment should not be added to the state's general fund nor be available for any other purpose, but instead should be set aside in a trust fund and used solely for purposes outlined above.
Slowly, everybody's catching on. In Pennsylvania, we got this one right. The Chamber encourages its current and future members to explore the business opportunities Marcellus Shale presents to Pennsylvania.
The members of the Greater Lehigh Valley Chamber of Commerce are committed to working with Gov. Corbett's administration, our public officials and the gas industry to ensure all Pennsylvanians prosper and grow for generations to come.
T. Anthony Iannelli is president and CEO of the Greater Lehigh Valley Chamber of Commerce. | <urn:uuid:fc20435e-9d03-4029-bfdc-d2cee4eb34fc> | CC-MAIN-2014-23 | http://articles.mcall.com/2012-01-30/opinion/mc-marcellus-shale-gas-ianelli-yv-0129-20120130_1_shale-gas-marcellus-shale-impact-fee | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-23/segments/1405997881423.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20140722025801-00124-ip-10-33-131-23.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946341 | 873 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Neural control of breathing
The muscles that make us breathe need to work or ‘contract’ both when we are awake and asleep to bring oxygen into the lungs (and remove carbon dioxide) to keep us alive. This contraction of our breathing or ‘respiratory’ muscles occurs because signals from the brain travel to the ‘motoneurones’ which are specialized cells in the spinal cord that cause muscles to contract. This ‘neural drive’ can come from different places in the brain, but the main area that controls breathing during rest (i.e. not exercising) and sleep is the brain stem, which is at the base of the brain. At the top of the brain is the somatosensory cortex, a region involved in making voluntary movements. The somatosensory cortex is the part of the brain that sends neural drive to the muscles in your shoulder, arm and hand when you reach for that last piece of chocolate cake! But there are also pathways from this region to the respiratory muscles. Those pathways are used when you need to modify your breathing, for example to sniff or take a larger breath in before you speak1, 2.
There is more neural drive to the respiratory muscles in older people
If we measure the electrical signals in muscles, using a method called electromyography (EMG), we can work out how much neural drive is going to those muscles. For example, the amount of EMG in the main breathing muscle, called the ‘diaphragm’, is usually higher in people aged over 50 years of age3. We think this is due to changes in the respiratory system and loss of muscle strength as people get older. However, because the EMG measurement is taken at the muscle, it cannot tell us which part of the brain is controlling the muscle. This is important if we want to know which part of the brain is controlling the respiratory muscles. In our recent paper, published in the Journal of Physiology4, we used a specialised method that allowed us to work out where in the brain the neural drive to the respiratory muscles was coming from. Therefore, we should be able to work out where in the brain the increased neural drive to the diaphragm3 comes from.
Does neural drive come only from the brain stem that controls automatic breathing, or is it also from the somatosensory cortex that controls voluntary breathing (e.g. sniffing and speaking)?
Using electroencephalography (EEG) to measure if the somatosensory cortex controls breathing
The somatosensory region at the top of the brain that controls voluntary movements is close to the skull, and therefore we can measure its activity with electroencephalography (EEG) electrodes on the scalp. Although the electrical signals are very small, if we take measurements during lots of breaths (e.g. 50-100 breaths) and measure what happens to the combined or averaged EEG signal ~1-2 seconds before all these breaths, we can measure what is happening in the somatosensory cortex. What we are looking for is a slow negative change in the electrical activity of the brain called a Bereitschafts, or readiness potential. This readiness potential tells us if the somatosensory cortex was involved in a breath (or any movement for that matter).
In our paper4, we measured a group of older people with lung disease (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; COPD), a group of older people without lung disease and a group of young people without lung disease. In our experiment, we used EEG to look for readiness potentials when people were sniffing. We use a sniff to confirm our measurement is working because it is a voluntary movement and usually generates a readiness potential. Then, we look to see if there is a readiness potential in resting breathing. In resting breathing in young, healthy participants, there are usually no readiness potentials. This is because the neural drive to the respiratory muscles for resting breathing control comes from the brain stem, not the somatosensory cortex.
Lung disease did not affect neural control!
If there were more readiness potentials during resting breathing in the older people with and without lung disease, compared to the young healthy people, this would mean that somatosensory cortex is giving more neural drive to the respiratory muscles than normal. We expected that the somatosensory cortex would control breathing in more people with COPD because the disease damages the respiratory system and so more neural drive is needed to make sure the lungs are bringing in enough oxygen and removing carbon dioxide5.
To our surprise, the number of readiness potentials that we measured was much higher in both the older group with COPD and the group of healthy older people without lung disease. We also found that there was no relationship between the amount of damage to the lungs or how strong the respiratory muscles were, with the number of readiness potentials. This means that ageing was the main reason that the somatosensory cortex was helping to drive the breathing muscles. Lung disease seemed to have no effect!
So by measuring the activity of the brain using EEG, we were able to work out that the increased neural drive to the breathing muscles in older people3 is probably coming from both the brain stem and the somatosensory cortex, compared to only the brain stem in young people. We think that this occurs because the brain stem, which controls automatic breathing, is affected by ageing4.
Contract – the shortening of a muscle to make a movement.
Respiratory muscles – the muscles in our chest, abdomen and neck that contract to make us breathe.
Neural drive – electrical signals sent to muscles for movement control.
Motoneurones – cells in the spinal cord that control muscles.
Electromyography (EMG) – is the measurement of the electrical activity of a muscle.
Diaphragm – the main respiratory muscle.
Electroencephalography (EEG) – is the measurement of the electrical activity of brain cells.
Bereitschafts (readiness) potential – movement-related electrical activity in the brain that is recorded using EEG.
- Hudson AL, Navarro-Sune X, Martinerie J, et al. (2016). Electroencephalographic detection of respiratory-related cortical activity in humans: from event-related approaches to continuous connectivity evaluation. J Neurophysiol 115, 2214-23.
- Tremoureux L, Raux M, Ranohavimparany A, et al. (2014). Electroencephalographic evidence for a respiratory-related cortical activity specific of the preparation of prephonatory breaths. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 204, 64-70.
- Jolley CJ, Luo YM, Steier J, et al. (2009). Neural respiratory drive in healthy subjects and in COPD. Eur Respir J 33, 289-97.
- Nguyen DAT, Boswell-Ruys CL, McBain RA, et al. (2018). Inspiratory pre-motor potentials during quiet breathing in ageing and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Physiol, DOI:10.1113/JP275764.
- De Troyer A, Leeper JB, McKenzie DK, Gandevia SC (1997) Neural drive to the diaphragm in patients with severe COPD. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 155, 1335-40.
Anna Hudson, PhD, is a respiratory physiologist investigating the neural control of the human respiratory muscles in health, disease and motor impairments. She works at NeuRA in Sydney, Australia. | <urn:uuid:c0043196-68aa-470e-bb87-ceee84df1cb6> | CC-MAIN-2021-43 | https://platypustechnical.com.au/2018/12/15/measuring-brain-control-breathing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323585196.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20211018031901-20211018061901-00036.warc.gz | en | 0.936585 | 1,569 | 3.703125 | 4 |
Displaying 1 - 20 of 107 resources in World Cultures and Organizations:
1. Adirondack Whole Life Center
Workshops and teaching opportunites for adults and children and families to learn how to live more harmoniously with the natural world. ...
2. Agromisa Foundation
Knowledge Centre for Small-Scale Sustainable Agriculture ...
A nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting volunteerism, providing community service, encouraging collaboration, and improvingcultural awareness in locations throughout the world. ...
4. AMURT Sudan
Sustainable solutions to the humanitraian crisis in South Sudan is the focus of AMURT Sudan ...
5. Aotea Harbour, New Zealand
Aotea, New Zealand
Conservation and protection the resources within Aotea Harbour, New Zealand. Site maintained by local tribe (hapu), Ngati te Wehi. ...
6. Association for the Study of Literature and Environment
ASLE promotes the exchange of ideas and information pertaining toliterature that considers the relationship between human beingsand the natural world. ...
7. BAN Waste Coalition
Coalition united to prevent a nuclear waste dump from being sited in California`s Ward Valley. ...
São Paulo, Brazil
The hip gringo's guide to Brazil. Geotourism, ecotourism, cultural, society and environment. ...
9. British Association of Nature Conservationists
BANC is a totally voluntary organisation, whose members range from academics, to countryside professionals and conservation lobbyists in the UK. ...
10. Britsh Antarctic Survey
The British Antarctic Survey is responsible for all of the British Government`s scientific research inthe Antarctic, South Georgia, and the South Sandwich Islands. ...
11. Bruno Manser Fund
The BMF, Association for the people of the rainforest, has for main activity the support of the Penan tribe in Sarawak, East Malaysia, Borneo, and ...
12. Builders Without Borders
Builders Without Borders is an international network of ecological builders who form partnerships with communities and organizations around the world to create affordable housing out ...
13. Campus Greens
Chicago, IL, USA
Campus Greens is a national organization that unites students across the country who share Green values. The national office acts as a network of support ...
14. Canadian Council on Ecological Areas (CCEA)
The organization promotes the establishment of a comprehensive system of protected areas in Canada, representative of the nation`s ecosystem diversity. ...
15. CENN - Caucasus Environmental NGO Network
CENN - Caucasus Environmental NGO Network is non-governmental, non-profit organization established in 1998. Since establishment, CENN through its various projects acted as a voluntary effort ...
16. Center for Historical Archaeology
Gainesville, FL, USA
The Center for Historical Archaeology provides archival research in French, English, and Spanish archives, underwater wreck sites assessment and dating, and cultural material analysis. ...
17. Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN)
Palisades, NY, USA
CIESIN is the World Data Center for Human Interactions in the Environment, specializing in global and regional network development, science data management, decision support,and training, ...
18. Center for Marine Conservation
Washington, DC, USA
The Center for Marine Conservation is the leading ocean conservation organization committed to protecting ocean environments and conserving the global abundance and diversity of marine ...
19. Citizen Alert
Nevada-based environmental group dealing primarily with issues affecting the Great Basin region. ...
20. Co-Op for Bolsa Chica
A consortium of organizations planning for Bolsa Chica Project`s 4-point program. ...
Displaying 1 - 20 of 107
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More or Less: Solving the Grim Equation is the important new ‘eco’ book from Pat Dodd Racher
More or Less: Solving the Grim Equation considers how globalisation increases corporate power and marginalises communities, how fossil fuel use accelerates climate change, and why material standards of living will have to decline in all countries where populations use more than their fair share of natural resources.
More or Less: Solving the Grim Equation continues the story begun in Empty Plates Tomorrow? which was published in 2007. The more we consume now, the less will be available to future generations, because continuous population growth and economic expansion on a finite planet are impossible. The dangerous consequences of the Fossil Fuel Age are apparent all over the planet and in the atmosphere above it.
The future of ‘less’ will be different but need not be the appalling dystopia which some predict. There are hopeful, if small, initiatives all around the world, and examples from Wales feature in this book.
The debt-laden global financial system is a colossal barrier because repayments of debt interest and capital require economic growth. The alternative is a depression in which populations are impoverished, unless governments agree debt cancellations with each other and plan for progressive reductions in energy use. Governments with the welfare of their populations at heart will also have to control the global banking industry, which contributes in no small way to the staggering wealth inequalities on this small planet.
With colour pictures and graphic illustrations
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Animal Wildlife | Manatee | The manatee is a large marine mammal and the manatee is also commonly known as the sea cow. The manatee is found in warmer waters only in the eastern hemisphere around subtropical regions such as Florida and the Caribbean. The average manatee can often weight more than 500kg and can grow to lengths of over 4.5 meters. Despite their large size it is not uncommon for the manatee to reach more than 70 years old.
The manatee spends most of its time grazing on plants in warm, shallow waters that are seldom deeper than a couple of meters. The manatee is a herbivore and therefore only really feeds on aquatic plants like sea grass and algae but it has been thought that certain species of manatee may eat smaller fish but not necessarily on purpose . The female manatee generally grows to larger sizes than the male manatee meaning that the female manatee is also heavier than the male manatee. The large size of the manatee makes the manatee one of the biggest mammals in the world, but the manatee obviously has a long way to go before it will be the size of a blue whale!
Manatees inhabit warm, shallow marshlands under water, where the manatee spends a great deal of its time sleeping. As the manatee is indeed a mammal, manatee do not have gills and therefore cannot breathe underwater so the manatee has to resurface regularly in order to take in air. Manatees usually breed only once every couple of years, with the manatee gestation period lasting about a year. Manatees only give birth to one manatee calf at a time. Mother manatee then spend 12 to 18 months to weaning the manatee calf.
Manatees can often be seen in large herds, often of more than 20 manatee individuals. This however, is quite rare as the manatee is generally a solitary animal and with the exception of the mother manatee nursing her manatee calf, manatees tend to spend most of their time alone. The manatee has been linked to mermaids in ancient folklore and the people of West Africa, believed the manatees to be sacred so anyone that killed a manatee was a sinner. The people of South America, would hunt manatees for their meat and then use the bones of the manatee to treat basic ailments.
Despite popular belief, the dugong is not another name for the manatee, or even a type of manatee. The dugong inhabits waters close to Australia and although closely related to the manatee, the two have one obvious difference. The tail of the manatee is broad and flat, but the tail of the dugong is forked and therefore more fish-like in appearance.
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Camels are interesting animals. Today camels live in the Australian Outback, Middle East, and Northern Africa but did you know they once lived right here in the United States? It’s true! Camels are sometimes called ships of the desert because they are helpful animals that can carry large loads. Keep reading to find out more interesting camel facts for kids!
Click here for more animal facts for kids
What is a Camel?
A camel is a large mammal. A mammal is an animal that has hair, gives birth to babies (they do not lay eggs), and feeds their babies milk.
Almost all camels are domesticated. A domesticated animal is an animal that is raised on a farm or somewhere other than the wild. There are very few camels left in the wild. Camels have been domesticated for around 5,000 years.
There are two different types of camels: Dromedary Camels also called Arabian camels and Bactrian Camels.
Dromedary/Arabian Camels vs Bactrian Camels
There are two species of camel Dromedary or Arabian camels and Bactrian camels. Find out more about the two species of camel
Dromedary or Arabian Camels have only one hump.
Where do Dromedary/Arabian Camels Live?
They live in the Middle East, North Africa, West Asia, and in the Australian Outback.
Dromedary or Arabian Camels weigh between 650-1,300 pounds.
Bactrian Camels are camels with two humps.
Where do Bactrian camels live?
They live in the Gobi Desert and other places in Central Asia and East Asia such as mountainous southwest Mongolia and northwest China and some also live in the Australian Outback.
Bactrian Camels are a little bigger than Dromedary Camels. They weigh between 650-2,200 pounds.
There are very few Bactrian camels that still live in the wild.
Australian Feral Camel
Australian feral camels are not a separate species of camel. They can either be Bactrian camels or Dromedary camels. When people think of Australian animals they usually do not think of camels. Camels weren’t originally from Australia.
They were brought to Australia in the mid-1800s by British India and Afghanistan to be used as a form of transportation during the construction and colonization of the western parts of the county.
In the 1920s camels were no longer needed when motorized transportation took over. The camels were released into the wild. Today they live in the Australian outback.
Did you know that camels were once living in the United States? I don’t mean like in zoos that we see today. In the 1850s camels were brought to the Southwest deserts in America to transport supplies for setters and army forts from Texas to California,
Today we do not have any camels living in our deserts. The only place to see camels in the U.S is at zoos and farms.
What does a Camel Look Like?
Camels are large, they are 7ft tall measuring from the top of their hump to their feet.
Camels have long legs. They also have long curved necks.
Camels are built to survive in a harsh environment. They have learned to adapt to the extremely high and low temperatures that they call home. The sand alone in the desert can reach temperatures of 150 degrees. They are not bothered by extreme temperatures, sandstorms, and even lack of food and water.
A camel’s fur is thick and long on its hump and head. This is to protect them from the sun and helps them stay cool. A Camel’s coat (hair) reflects the desert sun and keeps them cool in very hot temperatures. It will also keep them warm in cooler temperatures. The hair on their belly is shorter. The shorter hair on their belly allows heat to escape and keeps them cool.
Camels have three sets of eyelids. The third eyelid is thin and camels are able to see a little bit when it is closed. They will keep that third eyelid closed during a sandstorm.
Camels also have two tows of thick long eyelashes. These eyelashes also protect the camel’s eyes by helping to keep the desert sand and dust out of their eyes.
When a camel feels the desert winds blowing, they will tighten muscles in their nostrils. Camels can close their nostrils to keep sand and dust out.
Camels have very tough padded feet. This helps keep the camel’s feet protected from the hot sand.
Camels have thick lips which allow them to eat the thorny plants without getting hurt. Their top lip is split and each side can move separately. This helps them grasp food the same way you would use your fingers to do so.
Camels have sharp teeth in their bottom jaw, and flat teeth in the back of their mouths.
Camels are intelligent and have good eyesight and hearing.
Camels can kick all four legs. This includes both the front and back legs. When camels need to rest they rest lying down with their legs tucked under them.
Camels are social animals, they will travel with other camels to search for food. In extreme temperatures, camels will huddle close to other camels pressing against each other’s bodies. This helps keep the camels cool because their body temperature is lower than the air around them.
A camel’s pee is thick like syrup and a camel’s poop is dry. Sometimes camel poop or dung is used to make fuel.
Camel’s hair is used to make wool for clothing. Camels also produce milk for people to drink. Camel milk is lower in fat than cow’s milk.
In countries such as Egypt, Somalia, Saudi Arabia, and Kazakhstan some people eat camel meat as another source of protein. Camel meat takes like a gamey lean beef. Some cuts of the meat can be tough. The older the camel the more tough the meat.
Camels live 40-50 years.
What’s in a Camel’s Hump?
What is in the camel’s hump? This is a question that many people ask. What is the number one answer to that question…water! People always think that a camel holds water on its hump. This is not true at all. So, what is in the camel’s hump? The real answer is fat. Yes, it’s true a camel’s hump stores fat.
After a camel eats whatever nutrients that are not used are stored in the camel’s hump as fat.
Camels can store up to 80 pounds of fat in their humps at one time.
So, why do camels need to store all that fat? Camels live in harsh environments. Food and water aren’t always available.
When no food is available, the fat in the camel’s hump converts to energy and water so the camel can survive.
The ability for camels to live off the fat in their humps allows them to go without food and water for a couple of weeks (depending on the temperature) if needed. In cooler climates, camels can go even longer without food. Camels have oval blood cells that do not clump together like ours do when they are dehydrated. This allows them to go long periods without water.
When all the fat in the hump is used up the hump will get smaller and even flop over on the camel’s side.
What do Camels Eat?
Camels are herbivores meaning they eat mostly greens and vegetation.
A camels diet consists of grass, grains, seeds, twigs and even plants with thorns. A camel’s lips are thick to protect the camel from the thorns.
They are ruminants which are animals with more than one stomach and digest food in two steps. First, animals will eat food. Next, it will eat the partially digested food called cud. Camels will chew cud up to 50 times before swallowing it.
A camel can drink up to 40 gallons of water at one time and in under 3 minutes.
A mother camel is pregnant for 13 months. She will give birth to one calf, twins are rare.
A calf weighs between 80-90 pounds when they are born. They are around 4 ft tall. Just tall enough to reach its mother’s milk.
Even though their mother’s milk is their main source of food, they will start to nibble on plants. After the calf turns two or three months old it will start eating food regularly.
Calves are born with barely visible and very tiny humps. Their hump develops when they are finished nursing (getting milk) from their mother.
Shortly after birth, the calf will try to stand. He or she will fall to the ground but continue to try. After a couple of hours, the calf will successfully stand.
Calves are sometimes born with white hair. Their hair will turn brown as they get older.
Calves stay with their mother for one to five years.
A camel will become an adult and have its calves between the ages of 4 and 5.
Camels are sometimes called “ships of the desert.” This is because they hold a lot of items to transport through the desert. Camels have been transporting and delivering goods for centuries. Throughout history, they were an essential part of goofs getting from one place to another.
Camels can hold up to 900 pounds but usually carry loads around 400 pounds.
In Africa in the 14th-century camels carried dug up slabs of salt dug to Timbuktu where it was traded for an equal weight of gold.
In Asia, camels carried silk and herbal medicines west. After traveling west, camels would bring back jade, walnuts, perfumes, and glass east.
Some camels work on farms. They pull plows and carry crops from the fields.
In Arabia and Australia, they have camel races in large stadiums.
In Egypt, many people own camels to give tourists rides around the pyramids.
Camels can run at speeds up to 40 miles per hour, but only for short amounts of time.
They usually travel 25 miles a day at 3 miles per hour.
If you want to learn more about camels, check out your local library or find out if your local zoo has a camel exhibit.
Camels Leo Statts
Bactrian Camel Anita Ganeri
Camels Judith Jango-Cohen
Click here for more Mammal Facts
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American painter Gilbert Stuart's legacy is defined, in part, by his iconic painting of the first U.S. president, George Washington. Yet there's more to this presidential artwork and its curious creator than meets the eye.
1. THE PAINTING IS NOT NAMED AFTER ITS SUBJECT OR ITS COMMISSIONER.
Instead, the Lansdowne Portrait is named for the Marquess of Lansdowne. Born William Petty-FitzMaurice, he was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the end of the American Revolution and the beginnings of the peace negotiations. American senator William Bingham commissioned this portrait in 1795. It was a present for the Marquess, in thanks for his support of the Jay Treaty and normalizing relations between the two countries. During that time, the newly minted United States was nearing the 20th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, which paved the way for Washington's presidency.
2. STUART PAINTED A NUMBER OF PORTRAITS OF WASHINGTON.
The Lansdowne Portrait isn't even his most popular portrait. That honor would go to the 1796 Athenaeum Portrait. Not only is that unfinished portrait counted as the most iconic image of Washington, but it's also the basis of the president's depiction on America's dollar bill. Churning out copies of his greatest works, Stuart turned his Washington portraits into a cottage industry. He ultimately sold 130 copies of Athenaeum for $100 apiece.
3. STUART WAS A COWARDLY PATRIOT.
As the American Revolution approached, the Rhode Island-born painter fled to England to escape the conflict. There and in Ireland, he developed a reputation as a portrait artist. Stuart won praise for capturing the character of his subjects, as he did with the 1782 painting of William Grant, The Skater.
4. IT WAS A DESIRE TO PAINT WASHINGTON THAT DREW HIM BACK STATESIDE.
Well, that and mounting debt that chased him out of England and then Ireland. Stuart planned to use the education he'd acquired overseas to paint America's political elite in the prestigious manner of European royalty. He wrote to a friend:
"When I can net a sum sufficient to take me to America, I shall be off to my native soil. There I expect to make a fortune by [portraits of] Washington alone. I calculate upon making a plurality of his portraits, whole lengths, what will enable me to realize; and if I should be fortunate, I will repay my English and Irish creditors. To Ireland and English I shall be adieu."
Stuart returned to the U.S. in 1793. But meeting Washington was no easy task.
5. JOHN JAY MADE THE CRUCIAL INTRODUCTION.
Reaching New York City, Stuart sought a contact that could get him closer to the president, and found Founding Father John Jay. After impressing John Jay by painting his portrait, the American statesman obliged the painter with a letter of introduction that sent Stuart to Philadelphia, which served as the country's capital until 1800. There, the president and the portraitist would meet again and again, spawning the Lansdowne Portrait, the Athenaeum, and the Vaughan, among other works.
6. THIS PAINTING HELPED REDEFINE WASHINGTON'S IMAGE.
Previous paintings, like John Trumbull's George Washington Before the Battle of Trenton, presented the sitting president as a general contemplating battle. Stuart's full-length portraits portrayed him as "a civilian commander in chief." Here, he is a man of peace, but nonetheless shown as strong, holding a compelling oratorical pose, while clutching a ceremonial sword.
7. THE PAINTING HELPED DEFINE THE CONCEPT OF PRESIDENT.
As the first president, Washington was well aware that his actions set a precedent. This informed not only his politics, but also his attire. At his inauguration in 1789, Washington purposely chose to wear clothing made in America, instead of English garb. His buttons were embossed with eagles, a symbol of this new nation. In this portrait, captured toward the end of his second term, he's shown in a formal black suit that was often his preference to wear in public. It's respectable, but not regal. The intention was to set Washington apart from the royal portrait tradition by rejecting their ornate and expensive robes.
8. THE SETTING IS PART OF EUROPEAN TRADITION.
"State" portraits—praising paintings of powerful men—often set their subjects in porticos with columns, drapes, and a bit of open sky. This setting would then be draped in symbols, often of status or accomplishment. Stuart took this concept used for monarchs, bishops, and military leaders and re-imagined it for this new brand of leader.
9. STUART LACED THE PORTRAIT WITH AMERICAN SYMBOLS.
The top of the Neo-Classical chair from which Washington appears to have risen is topped with an oval that's inlay displays the stars and stripes of the American flag. Within the gold-hued table leg to the President's right, you'll spot a pair of eagles, perched proudly, holding a cache of arrows ever ready for war. Even the books shown on the floor—General Orders, American Revolution, and Constitution & Laws of the United States—allude to the United States' growing history.
10. A CEREMONIAL STAFF MAY HAVE INSPIRED THE TABLE LEG IN THE PAINTING.
The House of Representatives once boasted a wooden mace that looked like "a bundle of reeds tied together and topped by an eagle." It was meant as a symbol of America's strength through unity. Unfortunately, the staff was destroyed when the British set fire to Washington, D.C. in 1814.
11. THE SILVER INKWELL CONTAINS SEVERAL SYMBOLS.
The inkwell itself is meant to represent Washington's legacy of signing in legislation, like the 1795 Jay Treaty. The little dog on which the well rests is inspired by Greek historian Plutarch's work, symbolizing “the conservative watchful, philosophical principle of life.” The griffin of the Washington family crest is engraved on the inkwell.
12. THE RAINBOW AT WASHINGTON'S BACK SYMBOLIZES HOPE.
Its meaning reaches back to the biblical tale of Noah's Ark. In the painting's context, the colorful rainbow suggests things are looking up for this new nation that fought so hard for its creation. The dark clouds in the other window are believed to represent the dark times of the Revolutionary War, which had passed.
13. THE PIECE WAS PRAISED FOR ITS PHYSIOGNOMY.
Stuart believed in physiognomy, the idea that a person's character is reflected in their features. Because of this, he strived to have Washington's strength of character conveyed through his capturing—and he succeeded. A London journalist seeking to describe the piece to a 1797 audience wrote, "The countenance is mild and yet forcible. The eye, of a light grey, is rendered marking by a brow to which physiognomy attaches the sign of power. The forehead is ample, the nose aquiline, the mouth regular and persuasive. The face is distinguishable for muscle rather than flesh, and this may be said of the whole person.”
14. STUART WASN'T TOTALLY PLEASED WITH THIS PIECE, AND BLAMED WASHINGTON.
It annoyed Stuart when his portraits would be unfavorably compared to Jean-Antoine Houdon's sculpture of Washington, where the president's jaw was more relaxed, allowing for a more natural countenance. Stuart once explained the cause for this difference, saying, "When I painted him, [Washington] had just had a set of false teeth inserted, which accounts for the constrained expression so noticeable about the mouth and lower part of the face."
15. IN 2001, THE PAINTING PERMANENTLY RETURNED HOME.
The original painting was shipped off to the Marquess of Lansdowne in 1796, but as he did with Athenaeum, Stuart made copies. One of the versions made its way to the White House (as Stuart's way to distinguish the original from the copies, the White House’s copy has United States misspelled as “United Sates” on one of the books on the floor). The original was the property of the Marquess until his death, when it was sold.
After several more exchanges in the 19th century, it became property of the Dalmeny family and toured around England and Scotland. Beginning in 1968, it was displayed on indefinite loan in the Smithsonian’s new National Portrait Gallery until 2000. That year, the painting’s owner, Harry Dalmeny, announced that he was going to sell the piece at auction, unless the National Portrait Gallery could find $20 million to buy it. Soon after the announcement, the Donald W. Reynolds Foundation gave the Portrait Gallery $30 million—$20 million to buy the painting and another $10 million for a place to display it and a national tour.
16. FIRST LADY DOLLEY MADISON FAMOUSLY SAVED THE WHITE HOUSE COPY.
When the British were descending on the White House during the War of 1812, President James Madison sent word to his wife, the nation's beloved First Lady, to evacuate. But before she did, quick-thinking Dolley made sure their copy of Stuart's work was rescued, so it would not be destroyed by the advancing invaders. She had it broken out of its frame and spirited away from the White House's hallowed halls before she made her escape. The White House was burned down, but the Madisons and their treasured Lansdowne were preserved. | <urn:uuid:8d0e2086-b282-4fa4-87d1-4b93ff64a8ef> | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/77060/16-revolutionary-facts-about-gilbert-stuarts-lansdowne-portrait | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656103037649.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20220626071255-20220626101255-00161.warc.gz | en | 0.961837 | 2,085 | 3.375 | 3 |
New book to spark enthusiasm for descriptive statistics and probability in the classroom
Aug 28, 2015 7:00 AM
Whether you teach introductory statistics courses in engineering, economics or natural sciences, or master courses on applied statistics or probability theory, you’ll want to consider using a new book: “Statistics with JMP: Graphs, Descriptive Statistics and Probability” by Peter Goos and David Meintrup. Unlike other comparable books, it covers all levels of mathematical depth, statistical concepts and real-life applications. What sets the book apart is that it clearly shows mathematical derivations and presents a step-by-step guide to making calculations and graphs.
The origin of the book is a series of lectures on descriptive statistics and probability presented in Dutch by Peter Goos at the faculty of Applied Economics of the University of Antwerp in Belgium.
Goos (who is also with the University of Leuven in Belgium) migrated the course demos, exercises and exam from Excel to JMP and teamed up with David Meintrup from University of Applied Sciences, Ingolstadt/Germany, to thoroughly revise, extend and translate the content into English. Goos and Meintrup are both passionate educators and longtime JMP users, so they were a dream team to work on this book.
The pair’s motivation to write this book was twofold: As expressed in their preface, they did not want to "sweep technicalities and mathematical derivations under the carpet.” For the sake of deepening the students’ understanding of statistical concepts, they showed all mathematical derivations in detail throughout the book.
Their second impetus was to “ensure that the concepts introduced in the book can be successfully put into practice.” Step-by-step instructions and numerous screenshots show how to generate graphs, calculate descriptive statistics and compute probabilities in JMP 12. They chose JMP “because it is powerful, yet easy to use.”
To illustrate the methods and to emphasize their usefulness, the book contains many examples involving real-life data from various application fields, including business, economics, sports, engineering and natural sciences. All data sets are available with stored scripts to easily reproduce figures, tables and analyses. The data files are wrapped by a JMP Journal and packaged as a JMP add-in (except two larger data sets that are available separately), making them ready to use in the classroom. This add-in is available as a resource from the JMP Academic Community, or with additional supporting material from the Wiley book companion website.
With the purchase of this book, you receive a 12-month license for JMP Student Edition. The software is directly available for download and can be activated using the code found in each hard copy; an electronic copy is also available upon request.
But wait, there’s more! A companion book, “Statistics with JMP: Hypothesis Tests, ANOVA and Regression,” which follows the same approach, is planned for early 2016.
Book details: 978-1-119-03570-1, Hard cover, 368 pages, April 2015. Also available as an e-book on Amazon, Apple iBooks and Google Play. Visit the Wiley book page for a book index, a sample chapter or an evaluation copy. | <urn:uuid:17d821f1-27c1-489e-bc02-75451205cbab> | CC-MAIN-2018-47 | https://community.jmp.com/t5/JMP-Blog/New-book-to-spark-enthusiasm-for-descriptive-statistics-and/ba-p/30627 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-47/segments/1542039742937.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20181115203132-20181115225132-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.928715 | 681 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Exploration is the act of searching an unfamiliar area in order to learn about it. It involves the discovery of new information. Human beings explore even when they have everything they need where they are. They are the only mammal that does this.
Neanderthals existed for hundreds of thousands of years in Eurasia. But their range was limited compared to modern humans. In less than 500,000 years humans have explored and spread out to all the continents. Exploration had its most dramatic rise during the Age of Discovery. This is when European explorers sailed and charted much of the rest of the world. Humans have explored geographically even into outer space. They explore ideas, art, even the very nature of life.
Early historic explorations[change | change source]
Phoenicians[change | change source]
The Phoenicians were a culture that existed in the coastal region of the Levant as early as the 3rd millennium BC. They were not a significant culture until about 1100 bc. By the 9th century BC the Phoenicians had became the dominant culture in the Mediterranean Sea. They grew wealthy through trade. Instead of war they used trade agreements and alliances to expand their colonies. The Phoenicians developed advanced navigational skills and had the best ships in the Mediterranean. They explored over land routes and developed caravan routes to trade with distant places. Carthage got its start as a Phoenician colony on the north coast of Africa. It grew to be their largest and most successful colony.
Carthaginians[change | change source]
Gradually the western Mediterranean Phoenician colonies all came under the control of Carthage. The Carthaginians were explorers too. Two major explorations are are mentioned by early writers. Both took place around 500 BC. Pliny the Elder wrote that Carthage sent an explorer named Himilco to explore the remote parts of Europe. The report, or periplus (sailing record), has not survived but other early writers have seen it. He had as many as 60 ships in his fleet. He would have traveled along the Iberian Peninsula up the coast of Gaul. Avienus, a Roman writer of the 4th century AD, wrote about the expedition. Himilco moved north from Brittany to the British Isles. It is likely he was looking for tin, a rare metal at the time. He reached a land called Latin: insula sacra, “The Holy Island”, generally believed to be Ireland.
About the same time, Hanno the Navigator was sent to explore the western coast of Africa. His periplus has survived and is one of the earliest surviving manuscripts. The periplus records landmarks, ports and sailing distance between them. It is a guide for other ship captains to follow. Hanno's 60 ships moved south along the African coast. He may have reached as far as as an island off the coast of Sierra Leone. There is no record of any other explorations of the west Africa coast until the time of Henry the Navigator, the Portuguese explorer.
Greek explorers[change | change source]
One of the first scientific explorers was Pytheas of Massalia. He was an ancient Greek from the then Greek colony of Massalia (now Marseille). He made a voyage to northwestern Europe in about 325 BC. He circumnavigated Great Britain. Pytheas was the first person on record to describe the Midnight Sun. He is the first known scientific visitor and reporter of the Arctic polar ice. His account of the tides is the earliest known to suggest the moon as their cause.
Chinese exploration[change | change source]
During the 2nd century BC, the Han dynasty explored much of the eastern part of the Northern Hemisphere. In 139 BC, the Han diplomat Zhang Qian traveled west in an unsuccessful attempt to secure an alliance with the Da Yuezhi. He discovered countries the Chinese did not even know existed. He had traveled as far as the Indus River in northwestern India.
Medieval explorations[change | change source]
Vikings[change | change source]
During the Viking Age Three different groups of Vikings can be identified from different parts of Scandinavia. The Danes, Swedes (also called the "Rus") and Norwegian vikings. The 'Rus', founded the settlement of Kiev. Named for themselves they called it Russland (later known as Russia). Swedish Viking explorer Garðar Svavarsson was the first to circumnavigate Iceland in 870 and establish that it was an island. About 890 CE Vikings, led by Ohthere of Norway, traveled north above the Arctic Circle to the White Sea.
About 982, the Norwegian Erik the Red explored Greenland. In 986 he returned to Iceland, from where he sailed. He convinced others to follow him and founded the first settlement there. By the year 1000 there were a thousand settlers living there. Erik's second of three sons, Leif Erikson was probably the first European to set foot on North America. He landed at a place he called "Vinland".
Marco Polo[change | change source]
Marco Polo (1254-1324) was a Venetian merchant and explorer. He traveled across Asia during the height of the Mongol Empire. He was one of the first Europeans to explore Eastern Asia. He left Venice at age 17 with his father and uncle. They traveled what later became the Silk Road. They reached Cathay (China) where Marco Polo entered the court of Kublai Khan. He traveled and explored China for 24 years. He brought back ivory, jade, jewels, porcelain and silk. He brought back many other things including noodles from China which the Italians called pasta.
Age of Discovery[change | change source]
This was a period in European history from the early 15th century to the early 17th century. During this relatively short period of time, the way Europeans saw the world was completely changed. The European powers sent ships around the world to search for new trading routes. They were in search of trading goods such as gold, silver and spices. In the process, Europeans discovered new people and lands completely unknown to them. Some of the explorers of this age are:
- Christopher Columbus was a Genoese navigator and explorer in the employ of Isabella of Castile. Under the Portuguese flag in 1492 he sailed three ships to discover a trade route to asia. Instead he discovered the Americas. It was thought he was the first European to discover America, but Norse explorers had discovered the continent centuries earlier. His discovery triggered a series of explorations by other Europeans. He made a total of four voyages. The cost was high among the native populations, many of which were wiped out completely. They had no immunities to common diseases of Europe. As many as five million native Americans died due to disease, starvation and war with Europeans.
- Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese mariner. He was the first European to sail to India via the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa. He made three voyages to India via this new trade route. In 1497 he left Lisbon with four ships plus a storage ship of unknown name. No European explorer before him had sailed further than the place that is now called South Africa. Vasco da Gama sailed around the bottom of the African continent. His voyages put Portugal in a very powerful position to trade with India. The Portuguese set up outposts along the African coast.
- Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer. Flying the flag of Spain he discovered the Strait of Magellan (named for him) connecting the Atlantic ocean with the Pacific. He was the first European to sail the Pacific Ocean. He was killed in the Philippines in 1521. But his ships, under command of the Basque navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano sailed west to Spain completing a circumnavigation of the globe. This proved the earth was round.
- Giovanni da Verrazzano was a Florentine explorer of North America who sailed under the French flag. He is known for being the first European (since the Norse) to explore the East Coast of the United States. In 1524 the King of France sent Verrazzano search for a “Northwest Passage” to Asia through North America. He explored the coast between Cape Fear in North Carolina and Newfoundland. He explored what is now New York Harbor and Narragansett Bay. He wrote accounts of lands and inhabitants he found. Some were accurate, but some were not. His return the same year gave France claim to all of North America. He sailed two more times to the Americas. On his last trip he was captured killed and eaten by cannibals. This is believed to be on Guadeloupe in the Caribbean Sea.
- Samuel de Champlain was a French navigator, cartographer and explorer. In 1608 he founded Quebec City. He discovered lake Champlain (named for him). He is recognized as the father of New France. Champlain explored much of western New York and the eastern Great Lakes.
- James Cook was an English explorer, navigator and cartographer. Captain Cook made three voyages to the Pacific Ocean. He mapped many areas and recording several islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He explored the east coast of Australia. He discovered the Hawaiian Islands. He was also the first to map parts of Newfoundland and New Zealand. In 1769 he received a gift from a Polynesian priest named Tupaia. It was a map of all the major islands of the South Pacific—the first any European had ever seen. It matched what Cook had already explored and included other parts of the Pacific he had not seen. It allowed him to bring back an accurate map of the Pacific.
Modern explorations[change | change source]
Exploring the universe[change | change source]
There are many reasons humans explore outer space. It was first explored with human eyes. Ancient men mapped the universe they could see. Then came the invention of telescopes. In the mid-twentieth century man actually began exploring space with rockets and Spacecraft. The most important reasons are scientific research and the interest of humans to learn more about the universe. Space exploration has developed new technologies. It has created new products and new industries.
Scientific research[change | change source]
In scientific research, exploration is one of three purposes of empirical research. The other two are description and explanation. The term is commonly used metaphorically. For example, a person may speak of exploring the Internet, exploring sexuality, or concepts one cannot physically explore.
Related pages[change | change source]
References[change | change source]
- Maggie Koerth-Baker (20 December 2012). "How humans evolved to explore". BoingBoing. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
- "Why Explore?". Maritime Museum of BC. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
- Rick Gore (October 2004). "Who Were the Phoenicians?". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
- "Phoenician Exploration". The Mariner's Museum. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
- "Ancient Carthage". Santorini Books. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
- Christopher Jones (13 December 2011). "High North: Carthaginian Exploration of Ireland". Gates of Nineveh. Gates of Nineveh. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
- "The Periplus of Hanno the Navigator". History of Information. Jeremy Norman & Co., Inc. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
- Kenneth Pletcher, The Britannica Guide to Explorers and Explorations That Changed the Modern World (New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services, 2010), p. 22
- "Pytheas of Massalia: The First Scientific Explorer". Greek News Agenda. 4 June 2013. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
- Kenneth Pletcher, The Britannica Guide to Explorers and Explorations That Changed the Modern World (New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services, 2010), p. 24
- Jill N. Claster, The Medieval Experience, 300-1400 (New York: New York University Press, 1982), pp. 138–140
- "The History of Viking Iceland". AncientWorlds LLC. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
- Kenneth Pletcher, The Britannica Guide to Explorers and Explorations That Changed the Modern World (New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services, 2010), pp. 25–26
- "Leif Erikson (11th century)". BBC. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
- "Marco Polo". History Channel. A&E Television Networks, LLC. Retrieved 5 May 2015.
- "The Age of Discovery, Part 1". The Map as History. Retrieved 5 May 2015.
- "Christopher Columbus, Explorer". The Mariners' Museum. Retrieved 5 May 2015.
- "Vasco da Gama, Explorer". The Mariners' Museum. Retrieved 5 May 2015.
- Kenneth Pletcher, The Britannica Guide to Explorers and Explorations That Changed the Modern World (New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services, 2010), p. 77
- Reader's Guide to American History, ed, Peter J. Parish (London; Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1997), p. 212
- Kenneth Pletcher, The Britannica Guide to Explorers and Explorations That Changed the Modern World (New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services, 2010), p. 106
- Kenneth Pletcher, The Britannica Guide to Explorers and Explorations That Changed the Modern World (New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services, 2010), p. 109
- David Hackett Fischer, Champlain's Dream (Toronto: Vintage Canada; New York: Simon and Schuster, 2009), p. 3
- David Dobbs (January 3013). "Restless Genes". The National Geographic Society. Retrieved 5 May 2015. Check date values in:
- "Why We Explore; Human Space Exploration". NASA. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
Other websites[change | change source]
|The Simple English Wiktionary has a definition for: explore.|
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Exploration.| | <urn:uuid:4cef78a7-050a-488c-aee6-43be8e157fd8> | CC-MAIN-2018-26 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploration | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-26/segments/1529267863463.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20180620050428-20180620070428-00562.warc.gz | en | 0.944687 | 2,944 | 3.828125 | 4 |
How to Recognize your United States AncestorEdit This Page
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Imagine you have searched a record and found a person who is a possible match for your ancestor. It gets exciting, for finding your ancestor in a record is one of the true joys of genealogical research.
However, there are pitfalls along the way. Sometimes we want so much to find our ancestor that we ignore those pitfalls and end up "barking up the wrong family tree." Correct connections come from building the identity of your ancestor and comparing what you know about your ancestor with what you learn about each possible match.
This guide will help you ask questions and help you decide if a person is, in fact, your ancestor.
As you compare what you already know about your ancestor against the new information you found, you can decide whether you can feel reasonably sure that you have located your ancestor.
Once you have found a person in a record who may be your ancestor, the following steps will help you determine if you have, in fact, found your ancestor.
Step 1. Build an identity for your ancestor
As you research, your goal is to build on the identity of your ancestor. You need to know enough to be able to recognize him or her in the records you search. Your ancestor's identity also helps you to not be sidetracked when you find another person with the same name—a possible match.
These ideas will help you identify your ancestor clearly:
- Make a time line with dates and places of events in your ancestor's life. Time Line for My Ancestor or Time Line of a Specific Record for a Possible Match
- Include identity, origin, family, associates and neighbors. Use the FAN club principle by asking:
- Who are the family, associates and neighbors?
- What did they do together?
- When did they get together?
- Where did they meet together?
- Why did they associate with each other?
- Also include: property purchases, military service, and of course births, marriages and deaths.
- Consider mentioning what was happening in the community and how those events may have affected your ancestor.
- On your time line, include other people named in documents you find for each date and event.
- Briefly give the source of your information.
- Here are examples of timelines:
|1816, Nov 16||Samuel Richman was born in Woodstown, Salem Co., NJ. Source: biographical encyclopedia entry for son, S. Luther Richmond.|
|1819||Jonathan Richman, brother of Samuel Richman, was born in Woodstown, Salem Co., NJ. Source: Census 1850, 1860.|
|1843, Apr 11||Samuel Richman married in Bridgeton, Cumberland Co., NJ. Source: Family Bible record.|
|Samuel Richman had 7 children. Source: biographical encyclopedia for son, S. Luther Richmond.|
|1850||Samuel Richmond made shoes in Salem City, Salem Co., NJ. Jonathan Richmond was listed as being in the household. Source: 1850 Census.|
|1899, Jan 13||Death of Samuel Richmond. Source: biographical encyclopedia for son, S. Luther Richmond.|
- Use an analysis chart to identify and evaluate what you know.
- Consider what your findings may suggest.
|What Do I Know About the Possible Match?||Analysis and Conclusions|
|Biographical encyclopedia says the father of Samuel Richman/Richmond was Isaac Richman and that they lived in Woodstown, Salem Co., NJ.||Look for records associating Samuel Richman/Richmond with Isaac Richman in Woodstown, Salem Co., NJ.|
|Samuel Richman/Richmond may have been a Methodist because there is a Methodist hymnal in our family artifacts.||Check Woodstown and Salem City Methodist church records.|
|Samuel Richman/Richmond and his brother lived in Salem City, Salem Co., NJ and were shoemakers, according to the 1850 census.||If the family did come from Woodstown, they must have moved to Salem City at some point.|
Step 2. Learn about the person who is a possible match
Do the following to identify this person clearly:
- Make a time line of information given in the record of the possible match person. This time line may be quite small but will establish dates and places clearly.
- On that time line, include other persons mentioned in the record.
- Use an analysis chart to identify and evaluate what you know.
- Evaluate what that information may suggest.
|Date||Record: Woodstown Methodist Church, Salem Co., NJ|
|1839, Apr||Sybilla Richman and Samuel Richman, members of Class No. 3, Woodstown Methodist Church, Salem Co., NJ.|
|1839, Nov||Isaac Richman and Jonathan Richman "Joined on probation," Woodstown Methodist Church, Salem Co., NJ.|
|1840, Oct 4||Isaac Richman and Jonathan Richman "Received into full membership," Woodstown Methodist Church, Salem Co., NJ.|
|1841, Sept||Jonathan Richman "removed" from Woodstown Methodist Church, Salem Co., NJ.|
|1842, Apr||Samuel Richman "removed' from Woodstown Methodist Church, Salem Co., NJ.|
To print a working copy of a time line for a specific record, click here.
For helps in making a time line, see Tip 1. How do I make a time line.
Step 3. Analyze and compare your ancestor with the possible match
- Is the possible match person living in the right place to be my ancestor?
- Is this event in the right time to be within the lifetime of my ancestor?
- Is the possible match person too young or too old to have been my ancestor?
- Are names of children of the possible match consistent with what I know about the children of my ancestor?
- Do the ages of the children seem logical or are they too young or too old to belong to my ancestor?
For more questions to help you analyze, see Tip 2 Is this my ancestor.
Step 4. Make a decision about the possible match
To decide about the possible match person, do one of the following:
- Confirm the person as your ancestor.
- Suspect that the person may be a relative with the same name.
- Eliminate that person as your possible ancestor.
- Decide that there is not enough information yet to confirm or eliminate this person as your ancestor. In that case, see Tip 3 If I am not sure, what should I do next?
Step 5. Write a brief summary of your research findings
After your research, write a brief summary or report about your ancestor. Either you can explain what records proved your ancestor's life events and can document his or her life history, or you can explain what records did not lead you to a definite conclusion. Either way, you will have made a valuable contribution to your family's genealogical research efforts.
Be sure to include in your paragraph the title, author, and call number of the book or film of all records you have searched.
Tip 1. How do I make a time line?
To help you single out your ancestor, include on a time line:
- Events in date order (the same order they happened in your ancestor's life
- Birth, marriage, and death information for each family member
- Dates of other events, such as buying or selling land
- Other persons associated with these events, such as neighbors on a census or witnesses on a deed or will
- Happenings in the community that may have affected your ancestor
- Events that are not yet proven but may help identify your ancestor. (Be sure to clearly mark these as unproven.)
A word processor is a useful tool when making a time line, because you can easily insert new dates as needed.
To print a working copy of a time line, [click here.
Tip 2. Is this my ancestor?
- Is this the right spouse?
- To verify the name of a wife, check marriage records, children's birth records, land records, cemetery records, church records, and probate records.
- Are the economic conditions of this person consistent with the known family history?
- It is highly unusual for a wealthy person to be found in a poor section of the county on a small, rented acreage, or for a poor person to suddenly be a noted county official, living in a mansion.
- The following records give a good indication of the economic condition of the family:
- Census records: notice the column listing property values.
- Tax lists: check both property and personal property taxed.
- Land records: see both the number of properties and the acreage of lands owned.
- Is the FAN Club of your ancestor the same people as the FAN Club for the possible match?
- The following records are rich resources for learning the Family, Associates, and Neighbors (FAN Club) of both your ancestor and the possible match:
- Land records for witnesses and neighbors
- Censuses for neighbors
- Marriage records to learn the names of grooms for sisters or aunts
- Church records to learn names of other members
- Check other records to see what the possible match person did after this record was made.
- Migration can be a good clue:
- If your ancestor moved, see if the possible match person stayed around or did they seem to have migrated?
- Conversely, if you have a burial record or other proof that your ancestor stayed around, try to determine if the possible match moved.
- If their data matches, the possible match person is still a candidate.
- Is the possible match person affiliated with the church you know your ancestor belonged to?
- For example, does the possible match person appear in Presbyterian church records, but you know your ancestor was a Quaker?
- Be careful here, since people may have changed religions. For example, your ancestor may have been a Quaker originally, but went to war or married out of the faith.
- There is a person living in a neighboring county who has the same name as my ancestor. Could they be a possible match person?
- They may be the same person. Check county boundary changes or parent counties. Your ancestor could own land in a neighboring county, or could have lived on his farm when a new county was formed, finding himself in another county without actually moving.
- For more information, see County Boundary Changes.
- Why is the name of the possible match person spelled differently from my ancestor's name?
- The name of a person was commonly spelled differently in different documents. For more information, see Name Variations.
Tip 3. If I am still not sure, what should I do next?
Choose another record which has a possible match person, and repeat the first 4 steps in this guide.
Other major records available in most places in the United States include:
- Census records, both federal and state
- Birth, marriage and death records, frequently known as "Vital Records"
- Cemetery records
- Church records
- Land records
- Probate records (wills, administrations, inventories).
Many of these records were created on a county or town level. In this FamilySearch Wiki, search for the county you need. The county page will list various types of records with links to online resources and to records available through the Family History Library or Family History Centers.
Future Changes to the Wiki
Changes are coming to the FamilySearch Research Wiki in the near future. Find out more on the Wiki Community News page.Community News | <urn:uuid:86c41aa5-1da8-4527-9f19-81092ff34a36> | CC-MAIN-2016-07 | https://familysearch.org/learn/wiki/en/index.php?title=How_to_Recognize_your_United_States_Ancestor&oldid=1461467 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-07/segments/1454701166650.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160205193926-00036-ip-10-236-182-209.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935167 | 2,493 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Good vs. bad is a common theme everywhere. It’s in novels: your protagonist is “good” and no matter what genre you’re writing in, there’s always a “bad” guy who happens to be the villain of the story, your protagonist’s rival, or simply just someone who is mean and considered “bad” by the readers.
This theme pops up (a little too frequently) in real life as well.
It’s probably one of the more common ones and it’s the broadest because there’s so much you can do with it.
But here’s the thing: Everyone has different opinions, different perspectives. So, who exactly is good and who is bad? Who’s right and who’s wrong?
When you think of a hero, you think “good.” When you think of a villain, you think “bad.” We assume the protagonist is automatically good because they’re the “protagonist.” And we assume the antagonist is bad because they’re in competition with the protagonist.
But what exactly is good and what is bad? Who decides?
What makes a character Good?
Good or nice characters typically have certain traits that include, but are not limited to:
- Kind to all
- Cares about others
- Puts others before him/herself
And there’s plenty more, but I could create a whole post on traits alone.
What is the ultimate goal for a good character? They want to help others, save and protect others, etc. They don’t want to help people in order to brag that they did a good deed, either. They simply do something good out of the kindness of their heart and because it’s the right thing to do.
What makes a character Bad?
Similar to the good guy, they’re personality is made up of many traits that allow them to do the evil things they wish.
Like the good guy, there’s more that I could list, but these first popped into my head.
Notice that some traits are the opposite of the good guy’s, but some are the same. For example, brave is a common trait because no matter what you do (evil or not) they need to have the guts to carry through with it. I also put “patient” and “impatient” depending on the type of bad guy. I believe it can go either/or, or just one.
What’s the ultimate goal for any bad guy? They want to get what they want. They try to get that in any way they can whether it’s kidnapping a princess or trying to take over the world, among other ways.
Who is right?
The good guy and the bad guy
A key to creating good guys and bad guys that exist together in the same novel is that they should have a few things in common. One major thing they should have in common is that they both believe they’re the good guy.
Both of their reasons for doing what they do are both right. You yourself might not agree so, but both characters must whole-heartedly believe their the good guy, they’re doing the right thing.
Perspective and Opinion
The author may have the good and bad outlined in their mind as they write the story, but ultimately the reader will decide.
Everyone who reads has a different opinion about what they’ve read. They either like it or don’t like it. They either agree with it or they don’t agree with it. They also have a different perspective. You might think something in the book means one thing, but your friend might interpret it differently. And everyone has a different theory about something.
In other news, I’ve challenged myself to read five books between Sunday, February 19 and Sunday, February 26. Feel free to join me and check out my daily updates on Twitter, Tumblr, and my Bookstagram! | <urn:uuid:989a8f1c-1dbe-4f7c-be46-9f513c303b77> | CC-MAIN-2020-40 | https://rachelpoli.com/2017/02/21/on-heroes-and-villains-what-is-right-what-is-wrong/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400211096.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200923144247-20200923174247-00782.warc.gz | en | 0.961078 | 857 | 2.5625 | 3 |
What is Femvertising?
Many argue that since 2008 a fourth wave of Feminism has been developing; it’s about connecting people through technology and promoting gender equality as well as raising awareness of issues relating to gender fluidity, sexuality and transsexuality. Feminist messages have become increasingly prevalent through technology and social media, so it is no surprise that they have spread into all industries including marketing and advertising.
Today, increasing numbers of adverts use Feminism as a selling tool in an attempt to appeal to female consumers. This phenomenon has been dubbed Femvertising.
Last year a great article featured on the Guardian website about this phenomenon. Nosheen Iqbal begins her article, in a somewhat cynical manner, with the claim that since early in 2014, although there are some earlier examples, large companies have been ‘wising up to feminism “trending”… on social media’ and begun to exploit it as a marketing tool.
She points out the arguable hypocrisy of how the ‘advertising industry, once bent on selling us sex is now selling us its disgust with sexism’. Examples of successful Feminist marketing campaigns include Dove’s Campaign for Real Beauty which is meant to celebrate the diversity of women and natural beauty, but which also refreshed the brand image and increased Dove’s sales considerably.
Other examples include Pantene’s 2014 #ShineStrong campaign which included a video about how women apologise too much; the Sorry, Not Sorry short film went viral. It aimed to encourage women act more confidently around their peers and sold huge amounts of shampoo.
The key example used in Iqbal’s article, which was also addressed in Rock’s 2014 article in the Guardian, is Always’ 2014 #LikeAGirl campaign, another example of a video with a Feminist message which went viral.
This campaign was particularly interesting from a consumer behavior perspective because it took an essential item that not many people want to talk about, feminine hygiene products, and created something which turned viral and got huge numbers of consumers talking about. In turn, this raised brand awareness and sales.
Why Does This Work?
Lucy Rock summarized this whole trend very simply with the statement that ‘Female empowerment sells products.’
But, it’s important to note that it is a little more complex than that. Using Feminist messages exudes a strong emotional influence on consumers and can be used to address new consumer needs and motivations. Plus, it’s an excellent way of encouraging social discussion and word-of-mouth recommendations.
It can also be argued that it helps society and women as a whole because it encourages women to have confidence, high self-esteem and feel good about themselves.
However, it’s essential to remember that ultimately these are still adverts. Their purpose is to sell. It is to make a profit. In these situations, you can’t deny, it is the corporations and the businesses who ‘win’.
But women aren’t stupid and they know this. In the 2014 Guardian article, Rock admitted that the #LikeAGirl campaign ‘brought a lump to my throat, even though I know it’s exploiting my emotions in an attempt to flog me sanitary protection’. She counters this by asking if this really matters because as long as it’s encouraging discussion about gender equality and helping shift social norms then surely it’s a good thing?
Regardless, by looking at sales figures, it’s clear to see that the majority of women in today’s society respond positively to these styles of adverts and feel encouraged to buy, whether they realise it or not.
What Do I Think?
On a personal note, I feel conflicted about Femivertising; as a consumer I remain indifferent because as long as the product is decent I’ll still buy it, I’ve never really found these types of campaigns affect me on an emotional level.
As a woman who identifies as a Feminist I feel a little disgusted that people would exploit something as important as gender equality to make money.
Whereas, as a marketer with several years of experience working in various industries, I think it’s a fantastic selling tool and it would be stupid not to utilise it while it’s still relevant. I feel like a hypocrite believing that but I honestly feel like if it was relevant to my business I wouldn’t hesitate to include some variation into my marketing strategy.
It’s tough but I guess it does work… | <urn:uuid:de849593-9b17-4035-895a-220880b41cd9> | CC-MAIN-2018-34 | http://racheloatesphotography.co.uk/introduction-femvertising/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-34/segments/1534221215261.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20180819165038-20180819185038-00415.warc.gz | en | 0.957466 | 944 | 2.734375 | 3 |
500 BC: "People made" Sake
For roughly the next 1,500 years, rice was both eaten and enjoyed as an alcohol-type of gruel that became the focal point of communal rice growing villages. At some juncture sake became a product made by humans in the most interesting sort of way.Kuchikama no Sake took root in farming villages as a way to communally make sake in a shorter time frame than allowing a batch of harvested or cooked rice to rot.
Farmers somehow realized that if they chewed rice and spat it out into wooden tubs or buckets, the enzymes in their mouths would break the long-chain starch molecules into glucose. This glucose would sit in the bucket for about a week and allow airborne yeasts to propagate and ferment the sugars into alcohol. Chewing and spitting became a vital bonding and communal activity that produced a concoction that was used for religious and ceremonial activities. It is important to note, as sake is a major component in the religious landscape of Japan, it has and continues to be used in most every religious ceremonies and festivals; the bond between the Shinto gods and humans has always been connected through sake.
In an effort to make the Gods even happier, village leaders decided to have female virgins do the chewing and spitting instead of the rank and file. And so began the next phase of sake's history: Bijinshu which became the first technical improvement in the manufacturing of ancient sake. Sake became an event and an occasion since it was a focal point for community building and religious celebration, which was not lost on the Imperial Court of Japan.
The period when sake was made by accident can be considered sake’s first form of production. Minzoku no Sake was the the first, albeit unofficially, recognized period when sake was made for a specific reason. It was a time of function more than exploration in the make-up of sake. People made sake as an extension of their everyday lives; sake was a food source with a kick. Sake's continued success was that it made both the people and the gods happy from this early juncture. The concept of using rice for something other than food took root and launched the next incarnation of Nihonshu. | <urn:uuid:ca901159-ba96-42f5-8975-c8a9e7df8bca> | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | https://www.sakesocial.com/pages/japanese-sakes-colorful-past | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100523.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20231204020432-20231204050432-00446.warc.gz | en | 0.984376 | 459 | 3.421875 | 3 |
In Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, what does Jekyll's expression "the hard law of life being one of the most plentiful springs of distress" mean?
Dr. Jekyll writes this idea in his memoir of his terrible experience, which is recorded in Chapter 10: "Henry Jekyll's Full Statement of the Case." It is best understood from within the context of Jekyll's record. At the beginning of his memoir, he explains that he has always keenly felt the dichotomy within himself of a high nature and a low nature; a nature that was dedicated to the "futherance of knowledge or the relief of sorrow and suffering" and a nature that "laid aside restraint and plunged in shame." He explains that this "profound duplicity," this duality, this division between the powers of "good and evil" that he was aware of and indeed cultivated, caused him to hide his evil "pleasures" with an "almost morbid shame." It is in the context of this discussion of "evil ... pleasures" that Jekyll writes:
I was driven to reflect deeply and inveterately on that hard law of life, which lies at the root of religion and is one of the most plentiful springs of distress.
The three clues that lead to understanding this expression are "root of religion" and "plentiful springs" and "distress." If evil behavior of which a moral man is "morbidly ashamed" (morbidly here means unwholesomely, extremely) is juxtaposed with these clues, then distress caused by the root of religious doctrine that ever springs up leads straight to guilt. Jekyll was compelled to "reflect deeply" as an habitual behavior upon the "hard law of life" that is guilt. This is confirmed by his next sentences where he confesses to be a "profound double-dealer," in other words, one who shows one lifestyle to the world in "the eye of day" while guiltily hiding quite another lifestyle "plunged in shame" and the dark cover of night. In summary, "the hard law of life being one of the most plentiful springs of distress" means guilt and unstoppable feelings of guilt. | <urn:uuid:ffc7ae69-17da-4039-a79c-cd3086bfb0ab> | CC-MAIN-2019-47 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-does-hard-law-life-being-one-most-plentiful-244525 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-47/segments/1573496670135.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20191119093744-20191119121744-00188.warc.gz | en | 0.972347 | 457 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Be here now.
— Ram Dass (Richard Alpert)
This session introduces the intangible gift of ourselves. The children will learn that the best gift to give others is to be truly present to them. It is important to stress that the gift of themselves is not their physical selves, but the intangible positive qualities they can give through love and caring. Giving of themselves also does not mean giving away their possessions. When a friend is talking to them, the effort they make to be attentive is the intangible gift of themselves.
This session will:
- Introduce the intangible gift of being oneself, and demonstrate how to give this gift intentionally by being aware and present
- Make concrete the concepts of "being present" and "being aware"
- Demonstrate how the connections between being oneself, being aware of others, and being generous in spirit are naturally connected to one another
- Engage participants in the spiritual practices of opening and closing rituals.
- Understand that being themselves and paying attention to others around them are gifts they can offer
- Experience the importance and challenge of being centered in oneself, paying attention to others, and responding authentically. | <urn:uuid:b9d45a5b-301b-40f7-a217-cbcd84eaad97> | CC-MAIN-2019-13 | https://www.uua.org/re/tapestry/children/welcome/session15/119851.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-13/segments/1552912201882.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20190319012213-20190319034213-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.948832 | 234 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Heartburn is a common symptom experienced by most adults at least once in their lifetime. It is the sensation one gets when acid from the stomach refluxes and encounters the esophagus. It can create a burning sensation or pain in the lower chest.
Symptoms of heartburn in adults can be obvious and include:
- A burning sensation in the middle of the chest that may radiate up to the throat
- A foul taste in the mouth
- Indigestion-like pain
- Nausea due to hiccupping or belching
According to the American College of Gastroenterology, at least 15 million Americans experience heartburn every day. The level and frequency to which one experiences heartburn, however, is something that should be paid attention to as it could be indicative of other underlying conditions.
“Occasional heartburn is normal and not a significant cause for concern,” says Eugenio Hernandez, M.D., Vice President of Clinical Affairs, Florida. “However, recurrent acid reflux can result in gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and can have serious consequences for one’s health.”
Is It Heartburn or GERD?
If you feel that burning sensation in your chest more than twice a week, you may have GERD.
GERD affects up to 20 percent of the U.S. population. It is the result of a weak lower esophageal sphincter. That weakness allows the contents of the stomach to flow back into the esophagus and throat. Anyone can develop GERD and it does not discriminate among ages and ethnicities. However, you are more likely to have GERD if you are overweight, pregnant, exposed to second-hand smoke and/or take certain medications including antihistamines, painkillers, and antidepressants. The incidence of GERD can also increase with age, particularly after the age of 40.
In addition to GERD, complications that could arise as a result of frequent heartburn include severe inflammation and ulceration of the esophagus, esophageal rings or strictures (which are essentially scarring resulting from chronic reflux) and Barrett’s esophagus (which is when the cells in the bottom part of the esophagus start to change after years of reflux). If cells continue to become damaged, they can eventually turn into cancer. These symptoms can and should be treated in a timely manner before they get worse.
Heartburn and Pregnancy
Heartburn and indigestion are common in pregnancy due to hormonal changes and the positioning and pressing of the baby against the mother’s stomach. According to the National Institutes of Health, up to 45 % of moms-to-be experience heartburn and it can be more common during the second and third trimesters. Progesterone, also known as the pregnancy hormone, acts as a muscle relaxer. In the case of heartburn, the hormone can loosen the esophageal valve that closes your stomach off from your esophagus allowing acid to backflow up to your esophagus.
“Increased pressure in the abdomen from pregnancy can contribute to heartburn,” said Lindsay South Robison, M.D. “Hormone changes during pregnancy can also slow digestion and relax the sphincter in the lower esophagus, which then allows more acid to reflux up into the esophagus.”
With mild heartburn, prevention with the following diet and lifestyle modifications can be effective:
- Follow a healthy diet with limited fat intake
- Avoid foods that may relax the lower esophageal sphincter such as alcohol, caffeine, spicy food, carbonated drinks, peppermints/gum, chocolate, and acidic foods such as tomatoes, lemons, and oranges (including juices)
- Avoid or eliminate smoking
- Finish eating dinner at least three hours before bedtime
- Avoid eating before lying down and sit up straight while eating
- Eat smaller, more frequent meals throughout the day rather than three large meals
- Review your medications with your doctor to determine if any could be contributing to your heartburn symptoms.
“Elevating the head of the bed or using a wedge pillow can help with nighttime heartburn symptoms by using gravity to prevent reflux of acid into the esophagus,” said Dr. Robison.
Those with more severe warning signs such as difficulty or painful swallowing, chest pain, weight loss, anemia, or black stools may also be encouraged to undergo an endoscopy.
Lastly, it is important to note that the over-the-counter heartburn medication Zantac has had sales suspended from some of the nation’s largest retailers when low levels of a probable cancer-causing chemical in Zantac and related generic drugs was found. See Gastro Health’s position on Zantac here.
Dr. Iris H. Lee, Gastroenterology Associates of Northern Virignia, First in Va to Utilize Esophyx™ Device
Dr. Iris H. Lee, Gastroenterology Associates of Northern Virignia, First in Va to Utilize Esophyx™ Device to Perform Tif™ Procedure – Transoral Incisionless Fundoplication Solution for Acid RefluxRead Article
Do I Need to Stop My Heartburn Medication?
Your doctor puts you on acid reduction medication. Or you pick up an over the counter medication to treat your heartburn. And then you hear from your friend that these are bad medicines with lots of side effects, and now you’re scared.Read Article
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease – A Clinical Discussion on the Pathophysiology, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment
Gastroesophageal reflux is a condition characterized by the backward flow of gastric acid and at times gastric contents into the esophagus.Read Article | <urn:uuid:24963eee-d68a-4b4f-ab21-1adaf327eb5f> | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | https://gastrohealth.com/news/patient-care/when-your-heart-burns---but-not-in-a-good-way | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780053759.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20210916204111-20210916234111-00228.warc.gz | en | 0.919788 | 1,235 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Monster sunspot 1890 has today rotated into a direct line with Earth, raising the possibility of any geoeffective events over the next 48-72 hours. The size of 1890 has decreased some over the past few days, with a area size of 920 being reported by solen on Nov 8th.
Even with the decrease in size sunspot 1890 retained a magnetic delta structure in the southeastern section making chances high that we will see more activity from the sunspot over the next few days. NOAA forecasters are estimating a 60% chance of M-class solar flares and a 20% chance of X-flares for Nov 8th.
For a complete list of solar flares that we have had during November 2013, please visit our updated Solar Flare List page.
X1.1 Solar Flare From Sunspot 1890 - November 10, 2013
CHANCE OF FLARES: Big sunspot AR1890 has quieted since the X-flare of Nov. 8th, but this could be the calm before the storm. The sprawling Jupiter-sized sunspot has a 'beta-gamma-delta' magnetic field that harbors energy for strong flares. NOAA forecasters estimate a 50% chance of M-class flares and a 20% chance of X-flares on Nov. 10th. credit: Spaceweather.com | <urn:uuid:66f95d5b-4ba1-4e83-866b-ae037e39d85a> | CC-MAIN-2015-48 | http://mysolaralerts.blogspot.com/2013/11/sunspot-1890-is-now-directly-earth.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-48/segments/1448398446500.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20151124205406-00064-ip-10-71-132-137.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.925369 | 274 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Blindness and decision making can be viewed upon as having the same similarities. Blindness can be seen as a physical flaw, and not the metal blindness as in the ability to recognize what one perceives. Decision-making, like blindness is related by the roles in which people play. Together blindness and decision-making are key elements in true caricatures of one's self.
In the play King Lear, Lear is the most profound character and he is the blindest person of all. Lear's social status of being an authoritative figure with great additions; was suppose to be able to distinguish good from bad. However his lack of sight prevented him from doing so. Lear's first act of blindness occurred at the beginning of the play with his plan to divide the kingdom into three parts. His reason for doing this was to see which daughter loved him the most. He was then deceived by his two eldest daughters, and did not see Cordelia's true love for him.
As a result he banished his daughter Cordelia from his kingdom using these words:
"Then hast her, fience; let her be thine;
for we have no such daughter, nor shall ever see
That face of hers again. Therefore be gone
Without our grace, our love, our benison."
Lear's speech of banishing Cordelia out of the country signifies his blindness in not recognizing his daughter's love for him. Therefore leaves him blind to encountering deception by his two eldest daughters Regan and Goneril.
Like Lear, another character that falls into blindness is the Earl of Gloucester; who was another prime individual of not only the flaw of mental blindness but also his actions led him into physical blindness too. Gloucester's blindness affected him with the lack of ability to see the goodness of... | <urn:uuid:f8dd5138-ed3c-4dd7-abd3-a5605b3f42e7> | CC-MAIN-2016-44 | http://www.writework.com/essay/role-blindness-played-king-lear | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-44/segments/1476988720154.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20161020183840-00510-ip-10-171-6-4.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.985302 | 364 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Trees are essential elements for our life. They help us in many ways providing many privileges. They protect our soil from being decayed. In summer season they give us shade and the wind. Trees take carbon dioxide as their food and forsake oxygen which is our primary source of living. In this way, they maintain our ecological balance of nature. We can get multiple needful materials, from trees. They give us wood for making furniture for decorating our house. Most of the trees give flowers for beautifying our environment and fruits as delicious seasonal food and as business material. We can take care of trees by saving them from being burnt and damaged or eaten by the domestic animals like goats, cows, etc. We should plant trees to revive our wonderful source of important needs which furnish our life and exaggerate it entirely to decorate the nature and its beauty. | <urn:uuid:8b1e5738-01bb-4f78-bdd4-2ef1b3e37175> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | https://www.jinjeera.com/importance-of-tree-plantation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257645413.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20180318013134-20180318033134-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.975307 | 173 | 2.734375 | 3 |
What is stuttering? Stuttering is a communication disorder in which the flow of speech is broken by repetitions (li-li-like this), prolongations (lllllike this), or abnormal stoppages (no sound) of sounds and syllables. There may also be unusual facial and body movements associated with the effort to speak. Stuttering is also referred to as stammering.
I think my child is beginning to stutter. Should I wait or seek help? It is best to seek ways that you, the parents, can help as soon as possible. (click on If You Think Your Child is Stuttering for ways to help immediately) If the stuttering persists beyond three to six months or is particularly severe, you may want to seek help from a speech-language pathologist who specializes in stuttering right away. (click on speech-language pathologists for listings by state or country.) | <urn:uuid:51583ab8-64ae-40b0-938b-9dcd4d3f4996> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | https://www.wtps.org/Page/23727 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247479627.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20190215224408-20190216010408-00109.warc.gz | en | 0.96713 | 185 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Calakmul is an ancient Mayan city found deep in the jungle of the southeastern Mexican state of Campeche, near the border with Guatemala. The site is also in the heart of the biosphere of the same name which covers an area of 700,000 hectares. The archeological site itself is well over 70 square kilometers and is home to approximately 6,000 structures that range enormously in size.
Calakmul was first documented by the biologist Cyrus Longworth Lundell in 1931. But it is widely believed that the existence of the ancient city had become an open secret of sorts between the few people living in this remote territory and workers who would delve into the jungle to harvest chicle trees.
In Mayan, Calakmul means “the city of the adjacent pyramids,” but in antiquity the city was known as Oxte’Tun, meaning three stones. The date of Calakmul’s foundation has been lost to time, but most scholars agree that the city first rose sometime between 700 and 350 BCE. During excavations, archaeologists discover a network of Mayan roads or Sacbés connecting Calakmul with the powerful pre-classical age cities of Mirador, Nakbé, and Uaxactún. This fact, even taken on its own, hints at an extremely early foundation date, power, and prestige.
During the classic age, starting in the second half of third-century BCE, Calakmul had risen to considerable importance. But it would not be until several centuries after that the city would reach its greatest splendor. During the fifth century CE, Calakmul had become bold and strong enough to begin challenging the city which would become its greatest rival, Tikal. It is also during this time that the powerful Kan dynasty appears to have consolidated its power in the city.
Much has been written about the causes of the wars between Calakmul and Tikal. But when it comes right down to it, the catalyst for these conflicts was most likely economic. During this time, Tikal was powerful enough to extend its reach along the banks of the Usumacinta River. They used this route to trade and collect tribute from great cities including Yaxchilán and Piedras Negras. Control of the Usumacinta also allowed Tikal a monopoly over trade with the then-booming cities of the Yucatán Peninsula.
But hostility turned to war in 562 CE under the leadership of the king of Calakmul, Sky Witness, who launched an all-out invasion of Tikal. The battle was hard-fought, but in the end, Calakmul managed to capture Tikal’s ruling class, including its king who they put to death, and turned the once hegemonic power into a vassal kingdom.
The conquest of Tikal was a great victory for Calakmul, but the Kan lords soon discovered that the disappearance of Tikal from the equation of Mesoamerican power politics had created an enormous power vacuum that they were not yet prepared to adequately fill. After a period of growing pains, Calakmul managed to consolidate its power and launched further invasions, this time targeting the magnificent city of Palenque.
Eventually, chafing under the yoke of Calakmul, Tikal would rebel against its new master. Though this conflict would prove disastrous for Tikal, they eventually regained their composure and risked everything during a third and final war in the 9th century, which would ultimately see them come out on top by bringing Calakmul to its knees. Much more can be said about these great conflicts, which have been nicknamed the Star Wars, but we will save further details for an upcoming article on the topic.
Visitors to Calakmul often note that the city feels quite dispersed. This is likely because the great distance between structures and the surrounding thick vegetation makes it a little hard to imagine its original layout. It is enriching and well worth one’s time to take a few minutes to study a map of the city and try to imagine its temples painted in bright red atop large landscaped artificial platforms.
Calakmul’s Structure 1 is a 50-meter, or 160-foot tall structure to the east of the city’s main core. It is often believed to be the tallest construction at Calakmul, but this is indeed not the case, as it was built atop a natural hill.
The massive structure known as Structure 2 is one of the largest in the Mayan world and comes in at a whopping 55 meters, or 180 feet tall. During excavations, archaeologists discovered that the enormous temple visible today is the final 8th-century iteration of a temple that was first built sometime in the pre-classic, likely in the 2nd or 3rd century BCE.
The Lundell Palace, also known as Structure III, is a large multi-purpose construction made up of several rooms. It likely served as the official residence of several of Calakmul’s leading families.
Like Structure III, Structure VI likely also was built to serve several functions. It is also the largest structure of an architectural complex located to the west of the central plaza.
Calakmul contains 117 stelae making it one of the largest collections of these carved stone time capsules in the Mayan world. Calakmul also houses several incredibly vibrant murals, though sadly, these sections of the archaeological site remain off-limits. Interestingly these murals depict scenes of everyday life, such as at its market, as opposed to the more commonly seen motifs of ceremony, coronation, or battle.
If you go
Getting to Calakmul is not really possible on a whim. As it is not possible to spend the night close to the site, your best bet is to spend the night at a hotel or campsite in Xpujil.
From Xpujil you will drive along the highway to Escarcega for about an hour before reaching the entrance to the Calakmul national park, within the biosphere of the same name. When entering the park you will have to drive for another hour or 90 minutes, depending on the conditions of the road before you get to the entrance to the archaeological site.
Day trips to Calakmul are offered from Campeche, but honestly, the trip is so long that you will hardly get any time at the site.
If you are driving, it is smart to leave your vehicle at the entrance to the national park and take a ride in the back of a pickup truck or van offered by local guides. This is a good idea for a number of reasons. First of all, there is no cell phone reception out this far, so if your vehicle stalls you will be out of luck. Second, the drivers of these shuttle vehicles are great at spotting wildlife and alerting their passengers to the sight of wild cats, tapis, and exotic birds.
Exploring Calakmul requires a lot of walking, so make sure you are up for it before heading out. That being said, if hiking around is too difficult, you may luck out and spot one of the few locals with rickshaw tricycles who frequent the site to give older folks a lift in exchange for a tip.
The entrance fee to Calakmul is 80 pesos from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m., Monday through Saturday. On Sunday admittance is free for Mexican nationals and foreign residents of Mexico with ID. Be warned that the entrance to Calakmul national park costs 65 pesos and usually closes by 2:30 p.m. | <urn:uuid:281bc176-1eb1-4da2-a3b4-7c2c14f9020c> | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | https://yucatanmagazine.com/the-ambition-power-and-downfall-of-the-great-calakmul/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764494976.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20230127101040-20230127131040-00234.warc.gz | en | 0.970056 | 1,592 | 3.5625 | 4 |
The summer of 2014 brought about the rebirth of an ancient discussion – discrimination against black people by white authoritative figures. It was a discussion of institutional racism and violence targeted against people of color. Thanks to social media, the deaths of Michael Brown and Eric Garner became well publicized and were spread like wildfire. With the deaths of these two young boys came issues of police brutality and social injustice which continue to flourish throughout various social media platforms to this day.
Eric Garner was killed when a New York City police officer held him in an illegal chokehold while arresting him in June 2014. It was caught on video, and Garner could be heard repeating “I can’t breathe”, a short phrase that soon became a trending hashtag to commemorate Garner and to question the lack of legal action taken against the officer who was investigated for the murder but never charged. Michael Brown’s case, however, was more difficult without video footage as evidence of what actually happened. He was fatally shot in August 2014 in Ferguson, Missouri after an altercation with the officer over Brown potentially shoplifting from a nearby gas station. Since this incident followed many similar ones, it quickly went viral, capturing national attention and a demand for justice. The murders of these two seemingly innocent boys led to a new movement called “Black Lives Matter”, representing a new wave of online activism through which people share, comment, like, and produce posts contributing to a nation-wide awareness of police brutality against black people. Photo courtesy of blacklivesmatter.com
According to Yarimar Bonilla and Jonathan Rosa, within a week following Michael Brown’s death, over 3.6 million tweets expressing concern about the subject were posted, and the hashtag #Ferguson had appeared over 8 million times on Twitter. This movement then went offline, and protesting began in Ferguson as well as in other major cities nationwide. There was a sudden resurgence of social justice demonstration that spread throughout the country, with its roots embedded in the movement’s online development. Despite this call to action, there is still a separation between online and offline activism. There persists a sort of stigma in which people who are online activists think that by creating and using a hashtag, their contribution to an issue is complete. This is called “slacktivism” – a term that refers to a person who believes they are making great changes simply by sharing information on a current issue online, clicking the “like” button, retweeting, etc. Shannon Fisher says, “It all starts with one post — one post that usually includes information about a topic, sometimes linking to an article with facts and figures, and a hashtag related to the post.” This is not to discredit the fact that this is an amazing way to spread awareness. Friends will see a post or hashtag, like, favorite, and re-post it, and millions of people will suddenly be exposed to information that they may not have been aware of previously. Thanks to the internet and constantly advancing technology, it is now easier than ever to reach powerful figures in society, such as celebrities and politicians, and get them involved. But the real question is whether or not tangible action is really being taken after this first step of spreading awareness occurs. Is this new aspect of social media – slacktivism – taking over traditional forms of activism and instead allowing us to share a message via social media, and then step away from the issue and forget about it? We are constantly being fed (literally through newsfeeds) trending hashtags representing social justice messages, but because of how common they are it is easy to scroll by and avoid acting upon them.
We have a powerful tool at our fingertips – the internet. Social media makes communication so much easier, and we can turn slacktivism into activism. The key is learning how to transform sharing tweets and liking posts into a call to action, and to engage people in the issues at hand. | <urn:uuid:a9bc9e18-4f19-460f-b6c4-c168af0d91c8> | CC-MAIN-2017-43 | https://socialmedianyu.wordpress.com/2015/09/23/the-age-of-slacktivism/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187828134.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20171024033919-20171024053919-00458.warc.gz | en | 0.972447 | 797 | 2.890625 | 3 |
There are many types and styles of martial arts. Here are some of the most favored styles: Jujitsu Muay Thailand, Karate and more. Continue reading if you’re interested in learning more about the martial arts. You’ll also find interesting facts about each type. You can find out about the history, principles, and benefits of each style here.
Jujitsu can be described as a hybrid martial art.
Jujitsu, also known by Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu is a popular fighting sport with ancient roots. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu’s main focus is on grappling and ground fighting. You can use leverage and joint locks to control your opponent. Mitsuyo Makeda, an ancestor of the Japanese martial art Jujitsu developed Jujitsu. This style emphasizes ground fighting techniques like chokeholds or joint locks.
The hybrid martial arts evolved from traditional Japanese grappling and judo. Jujitsu originated in Japan as a sport and has since spread to other parts of the world. It was made the national martial art of the country in late 1800s and has continued to grow in popularity. In the United States, it has been adopted by MMA athletes. It has been widely used in mixed martial arts competitions worldwide in recent years.
Muay Thai is a striking and stand-out art form
Muay Thai, a martial art, combines 8 points contact with the opponent. This style of combat emphasizes position control and physical balance to engage the opponent from the best distance. Its origins date back 16 centuries, when it was created as a peaceful art of martial arts, but quickly became a popular skill for war. Muaythai has remained a highly-popular sport in the world. Its practice is both easy and challenging.
The most common technique for clinching is to strike from a distance while clinching. It uses elbows and knees to knock down an opponent. Muay Thai also uses sweeps in order to catch an opponent’s strikes without knocking him down. This style is a different style than Kickboxing, which is considered a combat sport in the Western world.
Karate is a Japanese martial Art.
Karate was originally developed in Japan. However, it was brought to America by U.S. military personnel during World War II. During this time, martial arts from Okinawa, where many Americans were serving, were introduced to the Japanese mainland. In 1922, a formal exhibition was authorized by the Japanese government. Soon, karate became popular in the United States, and Robert Trias, a U.S. Marine, introduced karate to his new homeland. This event brought attention to karate as he was the first to introduce it to the Japanese mainland. Karate was a popular martial art in the United States during the 1960s. Today, however, it is largely replaced by taekwon do.
The history of karate in Japan can be traced back to the early sixteenth century. King Sho Shin issued the first of two kinmu seisaku, which were bans on weapons, on a martial art in 1613. The first of these bans was enforced to protect the emperor from invading Chinese forces, which were attempting to conquer the country. The Satsuma domain invasion resulted in the second kinmu seisaku.
Jujitsu refers to unarmed close combat. Some techniques can be deadly and some could even prove fatal. Most jujitsu practitioners train in a noncompetitive environment, and they learn how to break fall so that they can practice dangerous throws without getting hurt. Jujitsu is not only about basic attacks. It also includes defensive skills like parrying or blocking.
While many academies offer training in grappling, only a few provide instruction in striking. High-level grapplers will focus on the most effective techniques while beginners should learn as much as possible about grappling defense. Even if you only train a few months, even a White Belt level technique can make you a world champion. Many people wonder why they should learn jiu-jitsu and risk serious injury.
French boxing, a hybrid martial art, is called French boxing
The origins of French boxing go back to the aristocratic era. Although the principles of this hybrid martial art are similar to boxing and kickboxing in some ways, it has a distinct style. The arm action is similar to boxing, and its kicks are similar to those of kickboxing. Savate is active work at a lower tier than both boxing and kickboxing. The main blow can land when the fighter hits his opponent’s hip with his heel. As with kickboxing, the aim is not to knock down the opponent; rather, the fighter aims to distract him or make him fall.
Another way to savate is canom. This involves fighting with a stick. The cane has a length of 95 to 100cm and weighs in at 125 to 140g. This art was developed in the nineteenth century when dueling was banned in France. Canom is very similar to swordfighting. It was first taught by Charles Lecour and is still used in French boxing. | <urn:uuid:d43285ad-a71d-45dc-87be-f91131a57486> | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | https://sro53.com/martial-arts-types/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764499842.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20230131023947-20230131053947-00182.warc.gz | en | 0.977479 | 1,041 | 2.53125 | 3 |
In at least two well-developed paragraphs (and a paragraph is at least five to seven sentences) discuss the negative attitudes toward immigrants and the nativist sentiment that prevailed in the Gilded Age. Then, using our NewsBank database or credible news sources available online or via other mediums, compare these to the current attitudes in America about immigration and any political debate/discussion that surrounds it.
The guidelines for this assignment are:
- Your response must be two well-developed paragraphs of a minimum of five sentences each.
- Your complete word count on this assignment must be at least 250 words.
- You must use at least three credible sources. One of these is the Gilded Age Nativism Resource on our course page. The other two are credible news sources.
- You must cite all direct quotes and paraphrased material with proper APA in-text citations in the paragraphs.
- At the bottom of your submission (right below the paragraphs), you must include an APA-style bibliography of all the sources you used.
- Your submission should be free of grammar, content, and style errors | <urn:uuid:78385f43-bcaa-404f-851c-246d9b7fc734> | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://deluxeessays.com/gilded-age-assignment/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446711151.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20221207085208-20221207115208-00031.warc.gz | en | 0.895043 | 228 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Commonly large drawings/blueprints require much shorter as well as much more scalable variations for recommendations. Scanning is needed. To do the scan, the illustrations need to be digitally dealt with. Photos are taken in high resolution. After that the huge images have to be scaled so that the check is simpler. The picture editor commonly deals with such plans if the images remain in raster-i. e if they are not scalable. Converting raster to vector is the initial step before the editor takes control of the task. He does that by transforming the contours of the drawings. If he receives the drawings in the initial format after that he first has to examine if they remain in a condition to be converted from raster to vector. Why does this happen? The drawing may be extremely pale and also thin and could not catch the ink marks. They could not be scanned to CAD. For this reason converting from raster to vector ends up being mandatory. Just the picture will be tidy. If the sketches consist of excessive text, or overlapping notes, the quality is in doubt. Also messy patterns as well as double sketches can be in charge of a poor check, https://pinkmirror.com and even transforming it from raster to vector. In this instance even if the resolution is high it will not total up to quality.
To stay clear of the low quality of the last prints, a number of points enter into consideration. The original drawing has to be sent to the editor to earn a list where it needs improvement. The procedure of conversion is done. A lot of drawings and also illustrations are carried out in black ink or sometimes in blue ink on a white history. Maintaining this in mind the editor is able to develop the clear background initially. This also ought to have the ability to eliminate the creases (frequently the initial drawing is folded or rolled). As soon as the wrinkles are also ironed out, a proper conversion from raster to vector is feasible. When the real process begins, exactly how the editor saves the job is essential. If the images will become scanned after that TIFF documents are the very best for scanning. They offer the maximum quality.
The ideal resolution is also vital for the conversion. If the resolution is lower, the quality of the scan is very poor. It will certainly be blurred or smudged. The resolution is determined in dpi i.e dots each inch. A minimum of 300 dpi is excellent for transforming raster to vector. Anything much less is a patchy job. The resolution gives appropriate form to the sides of the illustration. The lines stand out. When the lines and also the curves are distinct then vectorization is simple. Generally less than 300 dpi picture can not be utilized for transforming raster to vector. The information, sharpness will certainly additionally be missing out on. The illustration additionally could look distorted. And also this isn’t really simple for the scan. When re-scanning is done, and afterwards there are opportunities of the drawing obtaining a better resolution for converting from rector to raster to vector.
Vital Suggestion for conversion:
Prior to scanning get in touch with a seasoned photo editor before the task implementation. It will reduce the unneeded time consuming procedure of re-scans, if the demand is urgent.
Converting raster to vector is the initial action before the editor takes over the task. If he obtains the illustrations in the initial style after that he initially needs to examine if they are in a condition to be transformed from raster to vector. Even messy patterns and also dual illustrations could be responsible for a poor scan or also converting it from raster to vector. Generally much less compared to 300 dpi picture could not be made use of for converting raster to vector. When re-scanning is done, and also then there are possibilities of the attracting obtaining a better resolution for converting from rector to raster to vector. | <urn:uuid:ffd56dae-2bbf-4c89-ac75-0448bd14de90> | CC-MAIN-2018-47 | https://sumikochandler.wordpress.com/2018/01/19/raster-to-vector/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-47/segments/1542039741979.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20181114104603-20181114130603-00207.warc.gz | en | 0.953213 | 805 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Biodiversity Heritage Library
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Subject "Bat-compatible mine gates"
Effect of gate installation on continued use by bats of four abandoned mine workings in western Montana / submitted by Paul Hendricks.
By: Hendricks, P. - Montana Natural Heritage Program. - Montana. Mine Waste Cleanup Bureau.
Publication info: Helena, Mont. :Montana Natural Heritage Program,c1999.
Holding Institution: Montana State Library (archive.org)
Subjects: Abandoned mined lands reclamation Abandoned mines Anabat bat detection systems Bat-compatible mine gates Bats Culvert gate system Environmental aspects Habitat Hibernacula Jefferson County Lake County Lewis and Clark Caverns State Park (Mont.) Little brown bat Montana Plecotus townsendii | <urn:uuid:e31dbc89-5f6d-4257-891b-c8a9e8c27ea9> | CC-MAIN-2017-30 | http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/subject/Bat-compatible+mine+gates | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-30/segments/1500549423681.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20170721022216-20170721042216-00149.warc.gz | en | 0.721171 | 176 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Russia’s space program has a reputation for sticking to ideas once they’ve got them right. Their Soyuz (pronounced sah-yooz) craft are a testament to this, having undergone 4 iterations since their initial inception but still sharing many of the base characteristics that were developed decades ago. The Soyuz family are also the longest serving series of spacecraft in history and with it only having 2 fatal accidents in that time they are well regarded as the safest spacecraft around. It’s no wonder then that 2 of the Soyuz capsules remain permanently docked to the International Space Station to serve as escape pods in the even of a catastrophe, a testament to the confidence the space industry has with them.
Recent news however has brought other parts of the Russia space program into question, namely their Proton launch stack. Last week saw a Proton launched communications satellite ending up in the wrong orbit when the upper orbital insertion model failed to guide it to the proper geostationary orbit. Then just this week saw another Proton launched payload, this time a Progress craft bound for the ISS, crashed shortly after launch:
The robotic Progress 44 cargo ship blasted off atop a Soyuz U rocket at 9 a.m. EDT (1300 GMT) from the central Asian spaceport of Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan and was due to arrive at the space station on Friday.
“Unfortunately, about 325 seconds into flight, shortly after the third stage was ignited, the vehicle commanded an engine shutdown due to an engine anomaly,” NASA station program manager Mike Suffredini told reporters today. “The vehicle impacted in the Altai region of the Russian Federation.”
Now an unmanned spacecraft failing after launch wouldn’t be so much of a problem usually (apart from investigating why it happened) but the reason why this particular failure has everyone worried is the similarity between the human carrying Soyuz capsule and the Progress cargo craft that was on top of it. In essence they’re an identical craft with the Progress having a fuel pod instead of a crew capsule allowing it to refuel the ISS on orbit. A failure then with the Progress craft calls into question the Soyuz as well, especially when there’s been 2 launches so close to each other that have experienced problems.
From a crew safety perspective however the Soyuz should still be considered a safe craft. If an event such as the one that happened this week had a Soyuz rather than a Progress on top of it the crew would have been safe thanks to the launch escape system that flies on top of all manned Soyuz capsules. When a launch abort event occurs these rockets fire and pull the capsule safely away from the rest of the launch stack and thanks to the Soyuz’s design it can then descend back to earth on its usual ballistic trajectory. It’s not the softest of landings however, but it’s easily survivable.
The loss of cargo bound for the ISS does mean that some difficult decisions have to be made. Whilst they’re not exactly strapped for supplies at the moment (current estimates have them with a year of breathing room) the time required to do a full investigation into the failure does push other resupply and crew replacement missions back significantly. Russia currently has the only launch system capable of getting humans to and from the ISS and since they’re only a 3 person craft this presents the very real possibility that the ISS crew will be scaled back. Whilst I’m all aflutter for SpaceX their manned flights aren’t expected to come online until the middle of the decade and they’re the most advanced option at this point. If the problems with the Proton launch stack can be sorted expediently then the ISS may remain fully crewed, but only time will tell if this is the case.
The Soyuz and Progress series have proven to be some of the most reliable spacecraft developed to date and I have every confidence that Russia will be able to overcome these problems as they have done so in the past. Incidents like this demonstrate how badly commercialization of rudimentary space activities is required, especially when one of the former space powers doesn’t seem that interested in space anymore. Thankfully the developing private space industry is more than up to the challenge and we’re only a few short years away from these sorts of problems boiling down to switching manufacturers, rather than curtailing our efforts in space completely. | <urn:uuid:c684bded-60a0-4ba5-88b5-22ec84085548> | CC-MAIN-2019-47 | https://www.therefinedgeek.com.au/index.php/tag/launch-escape-system/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-47/segments/1573496668561.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20191115015509-20191115043509-00085.warc.gz | en | 0.961612 | 913 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Eastern Kansas facing its own water supply shortages
LAWRENCE (AP) — While most discussion about water shortages in Kansas focuses on western parts of the state, officials say the eastern region also needs to address looming water shortages.
The state is planning a $20 million project to dredge sediment from the John Redmond Reservoir near Burlington. But researchers say by the end of the century, the state’s 24 federal reservoirs will have lost more than half their original capacity, and dredging won’t be possible.
The Lawrence Journal-World reported Gov. Sam Brownback has directed state agencies to develop a 50-year plan for sustaining the state’s water resources. Much of the work so far has been on western Kansas, where the Ogallala Aquifer is a primary source of water. The aquifer is rapidly being depleted, mostly by irrigation. | <urn:uuid:1f95c2ed-3a82-429b-9935-1f769a72b019> | CC-MAIN-2015-06 | http://www.hayspost.com/2014/05/27/eastern-kansas-facing-its-own-water-supply-shortages/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-06/segments/1422115863825.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20150124161103-00065-ip-10-180-212-252.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951243 | 178 | 2.890625 | 3 |
To understand the complex dynamics of an ecosystem, we need to examine how physical forcing drives biological response, and how organisms interact with their environment and one another. The largest animal on the planet relies on the wind. Throughout the world, blue whales feed areas where winds bring cold water to the surface and spur productivity—a process known as upwelling. In New Zealand’s South Taranaki Bight region (STB), westerly winds instigate a plume of cold, nutrient-rich waters that support aggregations of krill, and ultimately lead to foraging opportunities for blue whales. This pathway, beginning with wind input and culminating in blue whale occurrence, does not take place instantaneously, however. Along each link in this chain of events, there is some lag time.
Our recent paper published in Scientific Reports examines the lags between wind, upwelling, and blue whale occurrence patterns. While marine ecologists have long acknowledged that lag plays a role in what drives species distribution patterns, lags are rarely measured, tested, and incorporated into studies of marine predators such as whales. Understanding lags has the potential to greatly improve our ability to predict when and where animals will be under variable environmental conditions. In our study, we used timeseries analysis to quantify lag between different metrics (wind speed, sea surface temperature, blue whale vocalizations) at different locations. While our methods are developed and implemented for the STB ecosystem, they are transferable to other upwelling systems to inform, assess, and improve predictions of marine predator distributions by incorporating lag into our understanding of dynamic marine ecosystems.
So, what did we find? It all starts with the wind. Wind instigates upwelling over an area off the northwest coast of the South Island of New Zealand called Kahurangi Shoals. This wind forcing spurs upwelling, leading to the formation of a cold water plume that propagates into the STB region, between the North and South Islands, with a lag of 1-2 weeks. Finally, we measured the density of blue whale vocalizations—sounds known as D calls, which are produced in a social context, and associated with foraging behavior—recorded at a hydrophone downstream along the upwelling plume’s path. D call density increased 3 weeks after increased wind speeds near the upwelling source. Furthermore, we looked at the lag time between wind events and aggregations in blue whale sightings. Blue whale aggregations followed wind events with a mean lag of 2.09 ± 0.43 weeks, which fits within our findings from the timeseries analysis. However, lag time between wind and whales is variable. Sometimes it takes many weeks following a wind event for an aggregation to form, other times mere days. The variability in lag can be explained by the amount of prior wind input in the system. If it has recently been windy, the water column is more likely to already be well-mixed and productive, and so whale aggregations will follow wind events with a shorter lag time than if there has been a long period without wind and the water column is stratified.
This publication forms the second chapter of my PhD dissertation. However, in reality it is the culmination of a team effort. Just as whale aggregations lag wind events, publications lag years of hard work. The GEMM Lab has been studying New Zealand blue whales since Leigh first hypothesized that the STB was an undocumented foraging ground in 2013. I was fortunate enough to join the research effort in 2016, first as a Masters student and now as a PhD Candidate. I remember standing on the flying bridge of R/V Star Keys in New Zealand in 2017, when early in our field season we saw very few blue whales. Leigh and I were discussing this, with some frustration. Exclamations of “This is cold, upwelled water! Where are the whales?!” were followed by musings of “There must be a lag… It has to take some time for the whales to respond.” In summer 2019, Christina Garvey came to the GEMM Lab as an intern through the NSF Research Experience for Undergraduates program. She did an outstanding job of wrangling remote sensing and blue whale sighting data, and together we took on learning and understanding timeseries analysis to quantify lag. In a meeting with my PhD committee last spring where I presented preliminary results, Holger Klinck chimed in with “These results are interesting, but why haven’t you incorporated the acoustic data? That is a whale timeseries right there and would really add to your analysis”. Dimitri Ponirakis expertly computed the detection area of our hydrophone so we could adequately estimate the density of blue whale calls. Piecing everything together, and with advice and feedback from my PhD committee and many others, we now have a compelling and quantitative understanding of the upwelling dynamics in the STB ecosystem, and have thoroughly described the pathway from wind to whales in the region.
Our findings are exciting, and perhaps even more exciting are the implications. Understanding the typical patterns that follow a wind event and how the upwelling plume propagates enables us to anticipate what will happen one, two, or up to three weeks in the future based on current conditions. These spatial and temporal lags between wind, upwelling, productivity, and blue whale foraging opportunities can be harnessed to generate informed forecasts of blue whale distribution in the region. I am thrilled to see this work in print, and equally thrilled to build on these findings to predict blue whale occurrence patterns.
Reference: Barlow, D.R., Klinck, H., Ponirakis, D., Garvey, C., Torres, L.G. Temporal and spatial lags between wind, coastal upwelling, and blue whale occurrence. Sci Rep 11, 6915 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-86403-y | <urn:uuid:a3518ef8-0149-4dd2-84c0-3eb9f266e25e> | CC-MAIN-2024-10 | https://blogs.oregonstate.edu/gemmlab/category/new-zealand-blue-whales/page/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2024-10/segments/1707947476396.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20240303142747-20240303172747-00500.warc.gz | en | 0.948651 | 1,228 | 3.9375 | 4 |
Mosaicism in the mouse trophectoderm
The issue of mosaicism in the mouse trophectoderm is examined by reviewing two sets of evidence: one arguing for a mosaic, the other for a non-mosaic character. Evidence for mosaicism includes documented cellular contribution from the inner cell mass to the trophectoderm, and data that reveal the gradual pace of the allocation process that separates the inner cell mass and trophectoderm lineages. Evidence suggesting a non-mosaic character for the trophectoderm is based on the polarization process undergone by exterior cells in the eight-celled embryo, the heritability of the changes brought about by this process, and the formation of gap junctions between the resulting apolar, trophectoderm progenitor cells. Since inner-cell-mass cells are developmentally labile, spatially heterogeneous and translocate to the polar trophectoderm, it is concluded that the polar trophectoderm is a mosaic tissue.
Cruz, Y.P. 1990. "Mosaicism in the mouse trophectoderm." Tissue and Cell 22(2): 103-111.
Tissue and Cell
Mosaicism, Cell allocation, Mouse embryo | <urn:uuid:945e2b7c-5e80-4cc9-bf49-182ca52b05dd> | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | https://digitalcommons.oberlin.edu/faculty_schol/3511/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296943555.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20230320175948-20230320205948-00756.warc.gz | en | 0.847387 | 337 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Sir Toby Caulfield, later Lord Charlemont, must have had a very strong desire to live like an English gentleman, for he was prepared to build an unfortified English-style mansion in an unsettled area of Ulster during the period 1611-19. Described by Pynnar in 1619 as "the fairest building in the north", it had three storeys in a U-shaped plan - the northwest wing of which has now disappeared. It had fireplaces in projecting breasts and massive chimney stacks capped with octagonal stone shafts, as well as flat-headed mullioned and transomed windows, most of which have been torn out. The gatehouse, with its vaulted passage and guard chambers, probably belong to an earlier O'Donnelly bawn on the site. During the 1641 Rebellion the house was burnt by Patrick "the Gloomy" O'Donnelly and some of the interior stonework still shows signs of scorching. In the 1660s the house was partially rehabilitated by the Caulfields, who were in residence in 1670 when Archbishop Oliver Plunket was permitted to use the courtyard for ordinations. It was probably disused by 1700 and was a ruin when John Wesley preached in front of the gates in 1767.
Castlecaulfield village. NGR: H 755626. | <urn:uuid:498bf157-4a8e-4d7f-85f3-a492a30fe21c> | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | http://www.irelandseye.com/aarticles/travel/attractions/castles/Tyrone/castlecaulfield.shtm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233506676.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20230925015430-20230925045430-00261.warc.gz | en | 0.987894 | 282 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Conservation-based study by Fermanian Business and Economic Institute to be shared at San Diego Zoo event
A conservation-based field may be the next economic trend for San Diego, according to an impact report to be released next week. The report, commissioned by the San Diego Zoo from the Fermanian Business & Economic Institute (FBEI) at Point Loma Nazarene University, works to quantify the burgeoning field of biomimicry and its effect on San Diego. Details of the report will be announced by Dr. Lynn Reaser, chief economist of the FBEI and principal author of the report, at an event at the San Diego Zoo on November 18.
Biomimicry is the discipline of studying nature’s best ideas and then applying these designs and processes to solve human problems. Notable examples of biomimicry-inspired products include Velcro, wind turbines inspired from whale flippers, bullet trains based upon a kingfisher’s beak, and many others. Companies that are currently working in this field include QUALCOMM, Proctor and Gamble, and PAX Scientific, as well as entrepreneurial startups.
“The completed report organizes many existing efforts in this field by significant companies across the globe, then develops in greater detail the potential economic and investment implications on the global, U.S., and regional economies, and finally articulates a compelling case for making the San Diego region a global biomimicry hub,” said Randy M. Ataide, executive director of the FBEI. ““Biomimicry could represent a revolutionary change in our economy by transforming many of the ways we think about designing, producing, transporting and distributing goods and services.”
The San Diego Zoo’s effort to build biomimicry as a new approach to solving technical and economic challenges arises from its mission to conserve endangered species. “The key to biomimicry is the value we place on natural systems and species,” said Paula Brock, chief financial officer for the San Diego Zoo. “Biomimicry offers an opportunity to bring successful economics together with conservation. We hope this study will inspire new companies and entrepreneurs to focus upon the development of this field.”
A key finding of the report is that biomimicry holds the potential to attract sizable capital inflows, driven by the prospects of rapid growth and high rates of return, and that venture capital potential could flow into the field at a pace at least equal to that of biotech, estimated to be about $4.5 billion in the U.S. in 2010. Modeling done by the FBEI projects that a San Diego biomimicry hub could add $325 million to San Diego’s gross regional product and $162 million in total personal income on an annual basis, with an initial 2,100 new jobs created for San Diego.
The study also analyzed the multi-year efforts of the San Diego Zoo, administered by San Diego Zoo Global, in encouraging the viability of biomimicry and concluded that this work and investment in the field has successfully positioned the region to now lead in the formation of a global biomimicry hub composed of critical regional stakeholders including for-profit and non-profit firms, government agencies, private and public universities, scientists, researchers and entrepreneurs. The study determined that “The Zoo is currently the only facilities-based provider of biomimicry services in the world” and also that “The Zoo plans to build the first biomimicry research and education network to drive major biomimicry research and commercial applications.”
Attendees at the upcoming event will receive a copy of the entire report. Registration is required to attend. To RSVP for the November 18, 2010, event at the San Diego Zoo, visit www.sandiegozoo.org/biomimicry or call 619-231-1515, extension 5477. For further information or a copy of the report, contact Helen Cheng at HCheng@sandiegozoo.org or 619-552-3927 or Cathy Gallagher at the FBEI at CathyGallagher@pointloma.edu or 619-849-2564.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF THE REPORT IS AVAILABLE AT www.pointloma.edu/economicreports
The 100-acre San Diego Zoo is dedicated to the conservation of endangered species and their habitats. The organization focuses on conservation and research work around the globe, educates millions of individuals a year about wildlife and maintains accredited horticultural, animal, library and photo collections. The Zoo also manages the 1,800-acre San Diego Zoo Safari Park (historically referred to as the Wild Animal Park), which includes a 900-acre native species reserve, and the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research. The important conservation and science work of these entities is supported in part by The Foundation of the Zoological Society of San Diego.
Point Loma Nazarene University is a selective liberal arts university located
in San Diego, California, and sits on a 90-acre campus overlooking the Pacific
Ocean. In addition to more than 50 undergraduate areas of study, PLNU offers
graduate program regional centers in Bakersfield, Arcadia, Mission Valley (San Diego) and the Inland Empire. Founded in 1902, PLNU serves more than 3,500 students. | <urn:uuid:8cc63277-3bca-48f2-a401-b8a49cc60fc0> | CC-MAIN-2017-39 | https://fbei.wordpress.com/2010/11/11/biomimicry-may-be-major-economic-driver-for-san-diego/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-39/segments/1505818689471.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20170923033313-20170923053313-00665.warc.gz | en | 0.922608 | 1,127 | 2.65625 | 3 |
New Jersey Environmental Digital Library (NJEDL) is an open repository of digital research and educational materials. Our chief activity is to collect, organize, and make available digital information on New Jersey's environment - emanating from the state's government agencies, non-profit and non-governmental organizations, research institutes, and academic departments - for the use of students, scholars, citizens, and government officials.
- Preserving the state's cultural resources and artifacts pertaining to the environment and natural resources for use online by current and future generations of citizens, educators, researchers, and students.
- Ensuring that these materials are available 24/7 and maintained in perpetuity.
- Maintaining a search portal that assures simple, effective access strategies that make all resources readily available.
- Actively promoting and facilitating participation by New Jersey environmental organizations wishing to use or contribute to NJEDL.
Using NJEDL Materials:
NJEDL makes digital versions of collections accessible in the following situations:
- They are in the public domain.
- The originating institution or individual has granted permission to make them accessible.
If you believe that NJEDL has collected and made accessible material that does not follow these guidelines, please contact us. We are eager to hear from any rights owners, so that we may obtain accurate information. Upon request, we will remove material from public view while we address a rights issue. | <urn:uuid:80be9fab-bbff-4499-98eb-9edf830412cc> | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | https://njedl.rutgers.edu/index.php/about | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500041.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20230202232251-20230203022251-00022.warc.gz | en | 0.902365 | 289 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Brahms was very respectful of earlier composers, and preferred to compose his music in styles that had been seen previously. His contempories tended to dismiss him as being conservative as he wasn’t very exploratory. His quintet was intended for skilled performers.
This is a quintet of 2 violins, a viola, a cello, and a piano. All of the parts are technically demanding. First violin and piano share the majority of the melody, but during the fugato it is distributed more evenly. There is also use of instrument specific techniques such as pizzicato and double stopping. This makes the parts idiomatic. Each part also uses almost the entire range of the instrument.
Pulse remains steady throughout the piece, but metre switches from compound to simple at various points. There is use of syncopation in the opening melody, and the second theme… | <urn:uuid:5b81bbe0-f678-422d-a132-ed1cd36f263e> | CC-MAIN-2017-43 | https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-notes/a2_music_edexcel_brahms_piano_quintet | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187825473.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20171022222745-20171023002745-00223.warc.gz | en | 0.97941 | 181 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Here are some positive tips to extend your child’s thinking when completing the optional maths homework provided in CGP workbooks.
Ask them to complete one of the following reasoning statements after a problem or calculation.
Ask them to draw a pictorial representation of the calculation or problem.
Write the calculation as a word problem.
Set an investigation from the calculation.
See where a calculation takes them. Can they start with a calculation and generate others from that starting point? | <urn:uuid:84291b91-4920-4fa0-b03a-bbbd7b470c42> | CC-MAIN-2017-34 | http://www.castlemortonprimaryschool.co.uk/extending-optional-maths-homework/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-34/segments/1502886102307.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20170816144701-20170816164701-00247.warc.gz | en | 0.901789 | 97 | 3.984375 | 4 |
By Roy Peterson
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nice set of methods. excellent presentation.
Learners view the steps for determining the square root of a complex number in Excel.
Students read step-by-step instructions for determining the square root of a number using the TI-86 calculator.
Learners follow step-by-step instructions for calculating the square root of a number using the TI-83 Plus scientific calculator. Steps for determining impedance are also shown. | <urn:uuid:73c31d33-8f7d-4e1b-9d74-e2aa807a5003> | CC-MAIN-2015-40 | https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/formal-science/mathematics/tmh1802/simplifying-square-roots | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-40/segments/1443737931434.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20151001221851-00202-ip-10-137-6-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.78864 | 106 | 3.359375 | 3 |
There is an implicit assumption that large blazes are somehow undesirable or unnatural. Thus the entire premise of thinning is to reduce or stop such blazes. While there is no doubt that low-intensity blazes are common in such forests, big blazes were not unheard of, if you take a long-enough perspective. There are worse things that can happen to a forest than a fire — like logging.
And that is another problem with the HCN piece. It starts with the premise that thinning is beneficial for the forest. But any logging introduces disease and weeds and human activity that can impact wildlife. Logging roads are long-term sources of sedimentation and often the newly established route for ORVs. Logging equipment compacts soils and can alter hydrological patterns.
Furthermore, the concept of thinning to decrease large blazes starts with a flawed assumption about big blazes. Large blazes are driven by climatic conditions, not fuels. Low humidity, high winds and severe drought are the ingredients behind every large fire in the West. Under these conditions, fires can spread through even scattered trees, much less only partially thinned forests.
Even if thinning did work, it is a program that has no end, in part because most agencies still engage in the practices that have altered fire regimes — fire suppression, livestock grazing and logging.
The best thing we could do for the majority of our forests in the West is to get out of the way. Let them burn, or die from insects or drought, if they will. Stop trying to play God in the woods.
Author of Wildfire: A Century of Failed Forest Policy | <urn:uuid:9a2e10f7-e0e3-4be8-b5aa-5ea7dd8d001b> | CC-MAIN-2016-22 | http://www.hcn.org/issues/335/16708 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-22/segments/1464051417337.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160524005657-00214-ip-10-185-217-139.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946912 | 334 | 3.59375 | 4 |
See what makes October 23 special at Famous Daily.
History, birthdays, holiday, and a quote!
What happened on October 23
- October 23, 0042 BC - Roman Republican civil wars: Second Battle of Philippi - Brutus's army is decisively defeated by Mark Antony and Octavian. Brutus commits suicide.
- October 23, 0425 "Valentinian III is elevated as Roman Emperor, at the age of 6."
- October 23, 0502 "The Synodus Palmaris, called by Gothic king Theodoric the Great, discharges Pope Symmachus of all charges, thus ending the schism of Antipope Laurentius."
- October 23, 1086 "A Muslim army from Africa defeats Castile's Alfonso VI October 23 at Zallaka Yusuf ibn Tashfin, Berber leader of the Almoravids, sends cartloads of Christian heads to the chief cities of Spain and Africa's Magrib as evidence of his victory"
- October 23, 1086 "At the Battle of az-Zallaqah, the army of Yusuf ibn Tashfin defeats the forces of Castilian King Alfonso VI."
- October 23, 1157 The Battle of Grathe Heath ends the civil war in Denmark. King Sweyn III is killed and Valdemar I restores the country.
- October 23, 1641 Outbreak of the Irish Rebellion of 1641 - anniversary commemorated by Irish Protestants for over 200 years.
- October 23, 1642 Battle of Edgehill: First major battle of the First English Civil War.
- October 23, 1679 Meal Tub Plot against James II of England
- October 23, 1694 "American colonial forces, led by Sir William Phipps, fail to seize Quebec."
- October 23, 1707 "The first Parliament of Great Britain, i.e., the United Kingdom, meets."
- October 23, 1739 "War of Jenkins' Ear starts: British Prime Minister, Robert Walpole, reluctantly declares war on Spain."
- October 23, 1790 Slaves revolt in Haiti (later suppressed)
- October 23, 1805 "Sailing ship ""Aeneus"" sinks off Newfoundland killing 340"
- October 23, 1812 "Claude Franois de Malet, a French general, begins a conspiracy to overthrow Napoleon Bonaparte, claiming that the Emperor died in Russia and that he was now the commandant of Paris. De Malet is executed on October 29."
- October 23, 1813 "The Pacific Fur Company trading post in Astoria, Oregon is turned over to the rival British North West Company (the fur trade in the Pacific Northwest was dominated for the next three decades by the United Kingdom)."
- October 23, 1855 "Kansas Free State forces set up a competing government under their Topeka, Kansas, constitution, which outlaws slavery in the United States territory."
- October 23, 1864 "Battle of Westport, Missouri"
- October 23, 1864 Union Gen Samuel R Curtis defeats Conf Gen Stirling Price
- October 23, 1867 72 Senators are summoned by Royal Proclamation to serve as the first members of the Canadian Senate.
- October 23, 1870 Franco-Prussian War: the Siege of Metz concludes with a decisive Prussian victory.
- October 23, 1871 Columbia and Sappho (US) beat Livonia (UK) in 3rd America's Cup
- October 23, 1876 New Orleans Mint reopens as an assay office
- October 23, 1906 "Alberto Santos-Dumont flies an airplane in the first heavier-than-air flight in Europe at Champs de Bagatelle, Paris, France."
- October 23, 1910 Blanche Scott became First woman solo a public airplane flight
- October 23, 1911 First use of aircraft in war: An Italian pilot takes off from Libya to observe Turkish army lines during the Turco-Italian War.
- October 23, 1915 "25,000 women march in NYC, demanding right to vote"
- October 23, 1917 Lenin calls for the October Revolution.
- October 23, 1917 "The Canadian Railway War Board holds its first meeting in the Canadian Pacific Boardroom in Windsor Station, Montreal. The name was changed to the Railway Association of Canada in 1919. The RAC represents the interests of all railways operating in Canada."
- October 23, 1927 "City of Netanya, Israel founded"
- October 23, 1929 "Great Depression: After a steady decline in stock market prices since a peak in September, the New York Stock Exchange begins to show signs of panic."
- October 23, 1929 "The first North American transcontinental air service begins between New York City and Los Angeles, California."
- October 23, 1930 "The first miniature golf tournament was completed in Chattanooga, Tennessee."
- October 23, 1932 """Fred Allen Show"" premieres on radio"
- October 23, 1935 "Dutch Schultz, Abe Landau, Otto Berman, and Bernard ""Lulu"" Rosencrantz are fatally shot at a saloon in Newark, New Jersey in what will become known as The Chophouse Massacre."
- October 23, 1941 "Burning of the Odessa, Ukraine, Jews: 19,000 Jews are burned alive at Dalnik in Odessa, by Romanian and German troops. The next day, another 10,000 Jews are killed. Romanian Lieutenant-Colonel Nicolae Deleanu administered the executions."
- October 23, 1941 "Walt Disney's ""Dumbo"" released"
- October 23, 1941 World War II: Field Marshal Georgy Zhukov takes command of Red Army operations designed to prevent the further advance into Russia of German forces and to prevent the German armies from capturing Moscow.
- October 23, 1942 "All 12 passengers and crewmen aboard an American Airlines DC-3 airliner are killed when it is struck by a U.S. Army Air Forces bomber near Palm Springs, California. Among the victims is award-winning composer and songwriter Ralph Rainger (""Thanks for the Memory"", ""Love in Bloom"", ""Blue Hawaii"")."
- October 23, 1942 "During WW II, Britain launches major offensive at El Alamein, Egypt"
- October 23, 1942 "World War II: The Second Battle of El Alamein starts - At El Alamein in northern Egypt, the British Eighth Army under Field Marshal Montgomery begin a critical offensive to expel the Axis armies from Egypt, never to return."
- October 23, 1944 Soviet army invades Hungary
- October 23, 1944 "The largest naval battle in the history of warfare was fought near Leyte Gulf in the Philippines on Oct 23-26, 1944"
- October 23, 1946 UN General Assembly 2nd session convenes (First NYC) (Flushing Meadows)
- October 23, 1947 "NAACP petition on racism, ""An Appeal to the World"" presented to UN"
- October 23, 1954 "Britain, England, France and USSR agree to end occupation of Germany"
- October 23, 1956 Revolt against Stalinist policies began in Hungary
- October 23, 1956 Thousands of Hungarians protest against the goverment and Soviet occupation. (The Hungarian Revolution is crushed on November 4).
- October 23, 1957 "First test firing of Vanguard satellite launch vehicle, TV-3"
- October 23, 1958 "Soviet novelist Boris Pasternak, wins Nobel Prize for Literature"
- October 23, 1958 "The Springhill Mine Bump - An underground earthquake traps 174 miners in the No. 2 colliery at Springhill, Nova Scotia, the deepest coal mine in North America at the time. By November 1, rescuers from around the world had dug out 100 of the victims, marking the death toll at 74."
- October 23, 1958 USSR lends money to UAR to build Aswan High Dam
- October 23, 1963 "The beautiful Diane was born in Chesterfield, Derbyshire UK"
- October 23, 1965 "Vietnam War: The 1st Cavalry Division (United States) (Airmobile), in conjunction with South Vietnamese forces, launch a new operation, seeking to destroy North Vietnamese forces in Pleiku in the II Corps Tactical Zone (the Central Highlands)."
- October 23, 1968 "Kip Keino (Kenya) wins gold medal for 1,500m (3 min 34.9 sec)"
- October 23, 1970 "Gary Gabelich sets auto speed record 622.4 mph (1,002 kph)"
- October 23, 1973 A United Nations sanctioned cease-fire officially ends the Yom Kippur War between Israel and Syria.
- October 23, 1973 Nixon agrees to turn over White House tape recordings to Judge Sirica
- October 23, 1973 The Watergate Scandal: US President Richard M. Nixon agrees to turn over subpoenaed audio tapes of his Oval Office conversations about the scandal.
- October 23, 1977 Panamanians vote 2:1 to approve the new Canal treaties
- October 23, 1980 "Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin resigns, due to illness"
- October 23, 1982 Number one hit on UK music charts - Culture Club - Do You Really Want To Hurt Me
- October 23, 1984 NBC airs BBC footage of Ethiopian famine
- October 23, 1989 "Phillips Disaster in Pasadena, Texas killed 23 and injured 314."
- October 23, 1989 "The Hungarian Republic is officially declared by president Mtys Szrs, replacing the communist Hungarian People's Republic."
- October 23, 1990 Iraq announces release of 330 French hostages
- October 23, 1991 Dr Jack Kevorkian's suicide machine kills 2 women
- October 23, 1992 Emperor Akihito becomes the first Emperor of Japan to stand on Chinese soil.
- October 23, 2001 The first iPod is released.
- October 23, 2002 Moscow Theatre Siege begins: Chechen rebels seize the House of Culture theater in Moscow and take approximately 700 theater-goers hostage.
- October 23, 2004 "Brazil's ""Operation Cajuana"" launches its first rocket into space, the VSB-30, just 14 months after its space program was hit a deadly launch pad accident."
- October 23, 2009 "A huge explosion occurs at an oil refinery in Cata¤o, Puerto Rico."
- October 23, 2009 A huge explosion rips through an upmarket area of Peshawar in Pakistan.
- October 23, 2009 A universal mobile phone charger that works with any handset is approved by the International Telecommunication Union.
- October 23, 2009 "A white Kenyan, Thomas P. G. Cholmondeley, is released after five months of an eight month prison sentence for manslaughter."
- October 23, 2009 "At the end of their three-week synod in the Vatican, more than 200 African Roman Catholic bishops issue a 12-page document urging what they call corrupt political leaders on the continent to repent their sins or resign and criticising multinational companies who exploit and destroy the earth. (BBC) (Reuters) (CBC)"
- October 23, 2009 "Bernard Fellay, Superior General of the Society of St. Pius X, says that the Vatican is considering the possibility of converting the Lefebvrist group into a personal prelature."
- October 23, 2009 "Jean Todt defeats Ari Vatanen in an election to become the new head of the F‚d‚ration Internationale de l'Automobile, replacing former head Max Mosley, who held the position for 16 years"
- October 23, 2009 "The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) launches its first human rights body, the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights"
- October 23, 2009 The Swiss Government says that the United States has formally requested the extradition of film director Roman Polanski for having unlawful sex with an underage girl in 1977.
- October 23, 2009 "The UK GDP contracts by 0.4% between July and September, meaning that the United Kingdom has been contracting for 6 successive quarters for the first time since records were kept in 1955."
- October 23, 2009 "Vitit Muntarbhorn, United Nations Special Rapporteur for North Korea, says the country should improve its ""abysmal"" rights record, adding it should provide food to over 8 million citizens" | <urn:uuid:8efdeebf-5600-431c-b3f3-848a7a2831ec> | CC-MAIN-2015-35 | http://www.datesinhistory.com/oct23.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440644062782.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827025422-00165-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952313 | 2,565 | 2.953125 | 3 |
What is a Hanoverian?
Hanoverians are horses of predominantly Hanoverian descent, which are bred according to the breeding regulations of the Verband Hannoverscher Warmblutzuchter e.V. (VHW) – the Hanoverian Warmblood Breeders Association in Germany.
They are registered with and have pedigree papers issued by, either the NZHS, the Verband, or any other Hanoverian Society that is recognized by the Verband, and are therefore eligible to wear the trademark registered Hanoverian brand.
In order for a horse to be eligible for Hanoverian birth registration and branding, both parents must have earned breeding approval from the authorizing body of the German Hanoverian Verband or one of its daughter societies. However, birth-branded Hanoverians are not automatically eligible to be used for breeding registered stock. Both stallions and mares must meet certain criteria in order to qualify for entry into the breeding Studbook. Rigorous selection procedures for stallions ensure that only those that meet the criteria will gain breeding approval. Mares in all Hanoverian breeding countries, including New Zealand, must undergo appraisal and classification by authorized inspectors.
The registration of a foal must take place in accordance with the society’s studbook regulations and the brand be applied before the foal is weaned.
The modern Hanoverian horse originates from the Hanover breeding area in Germany and is a product of decades of stringent selection of breeding stock, with the objective of continually improving correctness, athleticism and temperament in the offspring.
Originally, in keeping with the times, the horses were used in war, in agriculture, and as riding and carriage horses. As war, farming and transport became mechanized, the purpose of the horses changed, and they needed to be more suitable for pleasure and sport. Judicious introduction of Thoroughbred, Arab, Trakehner and Holstein bloodlines, has brought us the modern Hanoverian, more refined, more elegant, more rideable than his ancestors, yet inheriting their courage, power and athleticism.
Today, the Hanoverian breeding area is the largest in Europe and has spread to include daughter societies in all corners of the globe. However, it originated in Lower Saxony, where horses have been bred since ancient times. | <urn:uuid:33f83354-2e8e-4c81-b03a-a8c3f17b80ae> | CC-MAIN-2017-17 | http://nzhanoverian.com/the-hanoverian-horse/what-is-a-hanoverian/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-17/segments/1492917120206.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20170423031200-00531-ip-10-145-167-34.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.946334 | 472 | 2.578125 | 3 |
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Challenge confident learners and help them reach their full potential. This SATs Challenge skills test papers book is packed with activities and practice questions to help high achievers extend their knowledge ahead of National Tests.
- Targeted activities to develop understanding in the lead-up to SATs tests
- Practice questions to assess performance and identify where more revision is needed
- Perfect for use at home or in the classroom as part of our SATs Challenge programme
- Makes it easy to meet the needs of able learners in mixed-ability groups
Use this book as part of our SATs Challenge programme, which also includes teacher guides and stimulating pupil workbooks.
Supplied as a pack of 10 copies.
This product has not been reviewed yet. | <urn:uuid:5f6e2528-e786-4e35-b7bc-852419be829b> | CC-MAIN-2021-43 | https://shop.scholastic.ie/products/SATs-Challenge-Grammar-Punctuation-and-Spelling-Skills-Test-Papers-Year-6-x-10-9789999617468 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-43/segments/1634323587719.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20211025154225-20211025184225-00125.warc.gz | en | 0.940364 | 206 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Now you can, with the scannable Shomi Link that lets students instantly connect print to digital content using their mobile devices.
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The beauty of the Shomi Link is that it comfortably fits into a line of text, in any size or colour, allowing you to link as many resources as you want into your worksheet. That means, the ability to bring your one page of print to life with a variety of videos, slides, photos, games and other printed materials. The digital content can even be amended or deleted at any time after the Link is generated, making your worksheet content dynamic.
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Particularly for younger learners, scanning the Shomi Link takes only seconds, compared to the time taken to type out long URLs which often result in manual errors.
And to top it off, this world’s first font based mobile linking platform captures data in real time, meaning you’ll get feedback on which resources students are using.
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For instructions on how to generate a Shomi Link, click here. | <urn:uuid:eec48e60-71b8-470e-81e5-829e9e3a8645> | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | https://shomi.link/resources/blog/interactive | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243990419.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20210511214444-20210512004444-00236.warc.gz | en | 0.92355 | 333 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Introduction of Tibet:
Tibet is province-level distractive region of China, located in a high mountain area in the south-western part. Throughout history, Tibet, at times has Governed itself as an independent state and at other times has had various levels of association with China. Tibet's internal Government was for centuries a theocracy (State government by religious leaders) under the leadership of Buddhist Lamas or Monks. In 1959, Dalai Lama the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism and at that time the head of Tibet's in the name of cultural revolution) fled to India during a Tibetan revolted against Chinese control in the region. In the China took full control over Tibet and imposed installed a sympathetic Tibetan ruler in 1965 A.D. and replaced the theocracy with a communist administration.
Tibet is so big that covers an area of 1,222,000 sq. kilometers. Lhasa is the largest capital city of Tibet. Tibet is the highest plateau on the earth or it is also called the roof of the World. Southern part of Tibet is situated entirely the Himalayas, and many of the world's highest summits are located in the main Himalayan chain. Brahmaputra Sutlet, Indus, Ganga and some other rivers, all have their sources in Tibet. Tibet has a dry and cold climate with an average annual temperature. Temperatures in the mountain and plateaus are especially cold and strong winds are common year round. The daily temperature has big contrast. On a typical summer day, the temperature can rise from 5 degree before sunrise to 25 degree by the midday, In general, temperatures in Tibet change frequently.
Every year thousands of Hindu religious people come to visit the sacred Kailash Parbat and Mansarovar Lake, situated in the China's Autonomous Region of Tibet from around the globe and neighboring country India via Nepal.
As per the legend, a person who crosses the Kailash circuit once, all his sins are gone away. Going around Mt. Kailash 108 times means that one is directly receiving Nirvana (freedom). According to the description of Ramayana, one who takes bath in Mansarovar Lake reaches Bramalok (heaven); whereas the one drinking the water from Kailash knows the world of Shivalok (Shivas abode).
A great mass of black rock soaring to over 22,000 feet, (6,714 meters) Mount Kailash has unique distinction of being the world's most venerated holy place at the same time that it is the least visited. The supremely sacred site of four religions and billions of people, Mount Kailash is seen by no more than a few thousand pilgrims every year. Before the dawn of Hinduism Jainism or Buddhism, the cosmologies speak of mount Kailash as the mythical mount Meru, the center and birth place of the entire world. The mountain was already legendry before the great Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were written.
Mount Kailash is so deeply embedded in the myths of ancient Asia that it was perhaps a sacred place of another era, another civilization, now long gone and forgotten. Hindus believe mount Kailash to b abode of lord Shiva. For Hindus, to make the arduous pilgrimage to mount Kailash and have the darshan (divine view) of Shiva's abode is to attain release from the clutches of ignorance and delusion.
For many travelers or visitors, Tibet has a special appeal. This is particular true of the remote south – western corner where the great curve of the Himalaya swings northwards tilting the Tibetan plateau towards the "heavens"
Lake Mansarovar, the word 'manas' means mind or consciousness: the name Mansarovar means lake of consciousness and enlightenment. Mansarovar lying at the height of 15,000 fits or 4560 meters from sea level. It is held deep spiritual influence and wide religious significance among Hindus and Buddhists. Making round Mansarovar Lake and taking a dip in it is believed to be Purge one's soul from sins and the body from sickness. By taking a dip in the Mansarovar Lake, one can retain youth and vitality, still there others, who believe one can not only clean his soul but also secure his place ion heaven after the end of mortal live. One more school of thought is that taking a dip in it helps one attain moksha (free from the cycle of birth and re-birth in worldly life). Mansarovar Lake is so big, for making round by walking path, it takes 3 days for locals and pilgrimage or adventure lovers its takes 5-7 days for camping. Round of Mansarovar Lake, we can see also eight Buddhist Monasteries and popular is Chiu gompa monastery. Here we can see birds and wild ducks here. All adventure travelers, the Tibet lying Mansarovar Lake promises treasures of Shangri – La. Visiting once this pilgrimage area and adventure paradise is a life time achievement
Raksas Tal is named after the flesh –eating demons of Hindu mythology believed to lurk beneath its dark waters. A representation of dark, malevolent forces, this lake is generally shunned by pilgrims. According to legend, the water of this lake was poisonous. This condition changed when a gold fish from Mansarovar Lake tunneled through a narrow isthmus to let sacred water flow into Raksas Tal, thus neutralizing the poison. Raksas Tal is the lake where Ravana is said to have done penance to invoke Lord Shiva. Local people say that the water from this lake should never be drunk. This lake is located in the west part of Mansarovar Lake at 4545 meters from sea level and Raksas Tal is 15 meter below of Mansarovar Lake. No one can see any birds and wild ducks in this Lake.
Situated 70 Kilometers to the west part of Mount Kailash. One has to first get to Major village by automobile from where Tirthpuri is situated at a distance of 4 Kilometers on the bank of the river Sutlej. There is no any Himalayan mountain range around Tirthpuri. The region has red colored dried up mountain hills that is beautiful in their own sense. It is believed that is was here in Tirthpuri of the demon Bhasmasur was burnt to ash. It is also known the first Tirthankar of the jain faith meditated hare. Hot springs are also located in this region believed to have curative powers. Similarly Tibetans believe that minerals found here known as ringers have special curative powers swallowed by them. Tirthapuri is also well known for its medical hot springs believed to have powerfull healing properties.
Khojarnath is a small village between Taklakot and Hilsa, an ancient temple of (Monastery type) Shree Ram , Goddess Sita and Lakshman is situated here. This temple was built in around 7th century and has a big gold painted statue of Shree Ram, Sita and Lakshman. Getting Khojarnath temple is easier with Helicopter from Simikot –Hilsa, It is 8KM distance from hilsa by land transportation. So, one can catch plain from Kathmandu to Nepalgunj and Nepalgunj to Simikot then connect with helicopter service. It is 85 Kilometers away from Mansarovar Lake one way drive. It takes 3 hours round trip from Mansarovar Lake.
Ancient puranas and many Hindu traditions eulogize the sanctum sanctorum Kailasa, filled with beautiful, silvery snow –clad mountains to be the abode of lord parama Shiva. Aruna Mountain stretching on the westernside of Kailasa contains great pearls dhatus and Herbal medicines; this blessed part of Kailasa is further adorned with Nandhi and Ganapati mountains. On the westernside of Kailasa Mountain, the Atmalinga of Siva glows in his heart. This Atmalinga is formed from the snow named pushpadanta, which emanates through the path created Ashtapadu from the tip of Kailash. The holy water of sailodha river stream originates from Atmalingam. The yogis and the Saptarishis (the blessed sevensaints) will have a holy dip in pious waters and receive lord shivas benediction in form gnana(wisdom) hence this the most blessed part of the Kailash mountain and acquires great prominence in Hindu culture.
Astapad is another holy mountain near Mount Kailash; it lies in front of Nandi Mountain. Astapad means mountain of Eight steps, many saints, Rishi's, Monks, have used caves at Astapad for meditation. Drive from Darchen to Serlung Monastery, walk 10 minutes little climb up, visit Astapad then walk down 10 minutes and drive back to Darchen. It takes 3 hour round trip from Darchen.
Nandi Mountain is situated to the south Part of Kailash. One can be reach Nandi Mountain, Jeep drive from Darchen to Serlung Monastery then walking in the trail on the shore of the river which flows through Darchen and originates from Mt. Kailash. We can see also Atmalingam, to complete Nandi Parikarma you need about 10-12 hours from Darchen round trip. In general, near Sapatrishi cave, very steep up and we climb through the climbing rope which our mountain climbing staff helps for climbing up till Sapatrishi cave. We can see Sapatrishi cave end of mount Kailash which is we can also say base camp of mount Kailash. The altitude of Sapatrishi cave is 5800 meters from Sea level. After Sapatrishi cave, climb up 200 meter and pass hills and descend down the will be other side very steep down till end of hills and after follow the small river till to Serlung Monastery. Jeep is waiting us whole day here.
According to Hindu myth, well-known Rishis, Saints have meditated at Saptarishi cave which is at the basement of Mount Kailash from when Atmalingam can be viewed. Therefore if is believed that only physically fit and spiritually clean people can pay homage to this cave and Nadi Parikrama. Monterosa Treks and expedition provides mountain guides, Mask-regulator and Oxygen bottles for emergency rescue incase needed as well as climbing rope. | <urn:uuid:dcfdcabe-aa08-451b-aada-63e7a6d84f04> | CC-MAIN-2017-22 | http://www.kailashtourpackage.com/about-kailash-tour.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-22/segments/1495463608058.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20170525083009-20170525103009-00405.warc.gz | en | 0.949181 | 2,195 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Some six million years ago, the mountains and pampas of what is now Argentina were shaded by the wings of the largest flying bird ever discovered, the condor-like Argentavis magnificens. Now researchers led by Sankar Chatterjee of Texas Tech University have analyzed its capabilities, feeding measurements into a computer program to simulate the great bird's flight, and concluded this 70-kg bird with a wingspan over six meters was probably as large as any flying bird could get. It was so large that, while an excellent glider, it could not take off from level ground. If it came down to the flatlands for prey, it probably needed to find a slight downslope into a headwind just to get airborne. While some researchers believe the bird was a scavenger, Chatterjee and his colleagues believe its skull and beak (over half a meter long!) were better suited for a hunter-killer lifestyle.
(Comment: This is one of those species we humans should be truly sad that we never got to observe in person. We don't know when it became extinct, but it was presumably long before the first humans appeared in that region. As to its lifestyle, almost all predators will scavenge when the opportunity presents itself. We recently discovered that even the ocean's apex predator, the orca, will scavenge. It seems reasonable that A. magnificens would take whatever it could find, living or dead. ) | <urn:uuid:55a67ff8-edaf-4535-9b62-208f23de6c90> | CC-MAIN-2017-39 | http://mattbille.blogspot.com/2007/07/argentinas-winged-wonder.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-39/segments/1505818687333.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20170920161029-20170920181029-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.979385 | 296 | 3.65625 | 4 |
Special Topics Courses Offer Deeper Dive into Subjects
(Posted November 24, 2014)
HUNTINGDON, Pa. -- College students across the nation know of classes like "Survey of Western Art" or "Introduction to American Politics," but sometimes students and their professors want to drill down into the subject matter. At Juniata College, that means taking a special topics class.
A special topics course allows a professor, and students, to focus his or her attention on one aspect of the material such as "Medieval Medicine" or "The Ancient Egyptians."
"Public History" was a special topics course taught by David Hsiung, Charles R. and Shirley A. Knox Chair of History, that has now made it into the full-time curriculum. " 'Public History' is a course that looks at history outside of the classroom -- history as it's presented in museums, national parks, historic sites or homes, and documentary films," says Hsiung, "It's about how history is represented to the public, and the special concerns that you, as a historian, have to be aware of."
The official process of getting a special topics class on the books is pretty simple. The professor first has to have an idea -- a creative idea that generates interest and a sense of uniqueness. Professors do not have to go through Juniata's official class approval process to get the course into the full-time curriculum. Instead, in order to give it a test run, he or she simply proposes the idea to their academic department as a special topics class.
"If everyone in the department agrees to it," says Hsiung, "then I literally write the proposal in onto a printout that the department eventually submits to the Registrar's office as it creates the schedule to go on the web."
The evolution of a special topics course differs from professor to professor and department by department. Hsiung wanted to break down his "American Revolution" course into one, specific time period as a way to narrow his students' focus, coming up with a course called "1776." Generally, the idea must be approved by the department chair but, Hsiung says, "It's an internal thing for the most part; we often give our colleagues the benefit of the doubt. In the history department, it's really more consensus."
"If it's a writing course, then that's not something that just the history department can decide. This is something that must meet a college requirement rather than a departmental requirement."
David Hsiung, Knox Professor of History
If the course becomes popular, the professor can opt to have it become part of the college's curriculum. Professors must submit a proposal to the Curriculum Committee. The committee only gets involved in the process of special topics classes for two reasons:
--When a professor wants to make it an official course after the special topics class has been offered no more than three times.
--When a special topics course is considered as an official required credit or part of a special skill.
"If it's a writing course, then that's not something that just the history department can decide," says Hsiung, "This is something that must meet a college requirement rather than a departmental requirement."
The wide range of special topics classes at the college represents the variety of learning opportunities liberal arts students get to experience. In the past, there have been special topics classes in the biology department such as "Animal Behavior" and "Botany." Caitlyn Pingatore '15 says, "When I was a freshman I took 'Marine Biology,' which was a really neat special topics class where we explored different parts of the ocean and marine life in a way that other science courses did not offer."
More recently, the chemistry department added "X-Ray Crystallography" to the list. Richard Hark, professor of chemistry, says the course is "to take advantage of our recent acquisition of a single crystal X-ray diffractometer."
The chemistry department has been through the process before, however. "Last spring, I enrolled in a special topics class called 'Applied Water Chemistry,'" says Arielle Maines '15, "I took it because I love chemistry, but I also knew this course would allow me to become familiar with the many different types of chemistry that exist out there."
In the spring of 2015, the math department will take the lead with "Bayesian Statistics," which is taught by Kim Roth, associate professor of mathematics. "'Bayesian Statistics' is a modern technique that is often used in the sciences and is based on the idea of prediction based on prior knowledge," says Roth, "I think the students will really benefit from exposure to a technique based on a different notion of probability than the introductory course."
Overall, special topics classes, as the name implies, allow students to sharpen their focus on more specific subjects of interest. Special topics courses leave students with a deeper connection to a topic and offers students the opportunity to really immerse themselves in learning.
By Laura Bancroft '15
Contact April Feagley at email@example.com or (814) 641-3131 for more information. | <urn:uuid:d970333a-2921-40ce-938b-69ea3d6b0fb3> | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | https://www.juniata.edu/about/news/archive.php?action=SHOWARTICLE&id=6044 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057496.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20210924020020-20210924050020-00319.warc.gz | en | 0.970537 | 1,073 | 2.53125 | 3 |
However, there’s a part I found strange - maybe I don’t understand if fully (math/vocabulary wise). In “Section 2.X.2.1, Triangle Tessellation” there is a part about how the vertices for inner triangles are created. Specifically:
Ah, I’ve somehow overlooked the part where it says that this is for “equilateral triangles”… which is even more disturbing since then I cannot find a general description/algorithm in this text. Well I’ll have the chance to test on different cards soon, so I’ll see how much they differ… I hope that it’s not too much
Hmm, thinking about it a bit more I think that the described algorithm should suffice anyway, as it should be possible to apply the same barycentric coordinates to any triangle then?
I think there is a mistake in the description… :-S
The right algorithm should be :
“the inner triangle corner is produced at the intersection of two lines extended parallel to the corner’s two adjacent edges…”
Otherwise as you point obtuse triangles can cause problems.
Same mistake in the openGl 4.0 specification (page 104). | <urn:uuid:779c5b3e-6711-415c-89e3-6985104a76af> | CC-MAIN-2022-40 | https://community.khronos.org/t/triangle-tessellation-in-gl-arb-tessellation-shade/61460 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-40/segments/1664030336978.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20221001230322-20221002020322-00569.warc.gz | en | 0.907937 | 270 | 3.140625 | 3 |
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Nevada Middle School Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) Comparison Report, 2017-2019
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Priority health risk behaviors (i.e. preventable behaviors that contribute to the leading causes of morbidity and mortality) are often established during childhood and adolescence and extend into adulthood. Ongoing surveillance of youth risk behaviors is critical for the design, implementation, and evaluation of public health interventions to improve adolescent health. The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) is a national surveillance system that was established in 1991 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to monitor the prevalence of health risk behaviors among youth. YRBS data are routinely collected on high school students, but only a few states collect data in middle schools. The Nevada Middle School YRBS is biennial, anonymous and voluntary survey of students in 6th through 8th grade in regular public, charter, and alternative schools. Students self-report their behaviors in five major areas of health that directly lead to morbidity and mortality, these include: 1) Behaviors that contribute to unintentional injuries and violence; 2) Tobacco use; 3) Alcohol and other drug use; 4) Unhealthy dietary behaviors; and 5) Physical inactivity. The Nevada Middle School YRBS provides prevalence estimates for priority risk behaviors and can be used to monitor trends over time. If you have any questions or comments please contact https://www.unr.edu/public-health/research-activities/nevada-youth-risk-behavior-survey | <urn:uuid:546d15bc-fe6b-43a2-afc2-a1352143591e> | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://scholarworks.unr.edu/handle/11714/7348 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446709929.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20221126212945-20221127002945-00188.warc.gz | en | 0.901028 | 365 | 3.46875 | 3 |
The decorative arts in the age of discovery will be examined at a lecture entitled "Technology and Invention in 19th-century Decorative Arts" to be held at the Lockwood-Mathews Mansion Museum on Wednesday, July 10 beginning at 11:00am.
Innovations in manufacturing and transportation in the 19th century made the production and distribution of consumer goods cheaper, allowing consumers in the U.S. and Europe to buy decorative items at affordable prices. In the lecture, Ethan Robey an expert in the History of Decorative Arts and Design will explore some of the many technical innovations in the manufacturing of decorative arts objects, as well as the depiction of industry and technology as decorative motifs in the second half of the 19th century. The lecture will focus on the periodic world's fairs, those great celebrations of progress, where many manufacturers displayed their innovations.
This is the third in a series of lectures at the Mansion on “Technologies and Discoveries of the Victorian Era.” The lectures are $25 for members, $30 for non-members per session. The price includes lecture, lunch and choice of a Mansion or exhibit tour. Lunch is courtesy of Michael Gilmartin's Outdoor Cookers. The chair of the Lecture Committee is Mimi Findlay of New Canaan. To reserve a seat, please contact the Mansion by July 3rd at 203-838-9799, ext. 4.
Ethan Robey is Assistant Professor of the History of Decorative Arts and Design at Parsons The New School for Design and the Associate Director of the Master's Program in the History of Decorative Arts and Design, jointly run by Parsons and Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum. His scholarship addresses issues of display, consumerism and taste in the nineteenth and twentieth century, including his recent contribution to the exhibition catalogue for Inventing the Modern World: Decorative Arts at the World's Fairs, 1851-1939.
The Lockwood-Mathews Mansion Museum’s 2013 cultural and educational programs are made possible by generous funding from the LMMM Distinguished Benefactors: The Xerox Foundation, Klaff’s, Mrs. Cynthia C. Brown and The Maurice Goodman Foundation. The Museum’s Education Program is made possible in part by a generous donation from AT&T.
Also on exhibit at the Museum, “What Is It? Technologies and Discoveries of the Victorian Era” which is open until October 6th. The “What Is It?” exhibit is made possible in part thanks to a grant from the Connecticut Humanities (CTH), a non-profit affiliate of the National Endowment for the Humanities that funds, creates and collaborates on hundreds of cultural programs across Connecticut each year. CTH brings together people of all ages and backgrounds to express, share and explore ideas in thoughtful and productive ways. From local discussion groups to major exhibitions on important historical events, CTH programs engage, enlighten and educate. Learn more by visiting www.cthumanities.org.
The Lockwood-Mathews Mansion Museum is a National Historic Landmark located at 295 West Avenue in Norwalk. Tours are offered on the hour Wednesdays through Sundays (Noon, 1 p.m., 2 p.m., and 3 p.m.). Admission is $10 for adults, $8 for seniors and $6 for children 8-18. Children under 8 are admitted free.
For more information on tours and programs, visit www.lockwoodmathewsmansion.com ,e-mail firstname.lastname@example.org, or call 203-838-9799. | <urn:uuid:0ae044b3-ccee-459a-b44e-5ab25542f516> | CC-MAIN-2016-36 | http://www.connecticutmag.com/index.php/name/Lecture-at-Lockwood-Mathews-Mansion-Museum-On-19th-Century-Decorative-Arts/event/14873/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-36/segments/1471982295854.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20160823195815-00047-ip-10-153-172-175.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.935582 | 751 | 2.640625 | 3 |
With the study of electricity, we begin a qualitatively different phase of our study of physics. Up to now, we have for the most part dealt with topics which are macroscopic, and of which we have some intuitive appreciation. For the next few chapters, we will be concerned with the microscopic world, which is largely hidden from our senses and our common sense.
So far, most of the forces, pressures and stresses we have studied have been communicated by direct contact: I lean on the wall and the wall pushes on me (otherwise I would fall through it!). The sole exception has been gravity, which we have unquestioningly accepted as a given part of our experimental environment. As we will see below, there is a more causal way to deal with gravity, and it is intimately related to the way which we treat electricity.
The basic problem which electricity presents to our intuition is: how can the electric force act at a distance, without direct contact? When you pet your cat on a dry day, the fur will rise to meet your hand, defying gravity with no more explanation than "static". What actually happens is a transfer of "electric charge" from the cat's fur to your hand. Since there are two types of electric charge, which we call "positive" and "negative", we explain the behavior of the cat's fur by saying that negative charge has been rubbed off on to your hand, leaving the cat positively charged and your hand negatively charged. And as we all have heard, opposites attract!
At the heart of this simple phenomenon is one of the most universally applicable ideas in physics: action at a distance is caused by charges, which are the sources of forces. In the case of the electric "Coulomb" force, the magnitude is proportional to the product of the charges, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Like all forces, it is a vector quantity, whose components can be written
or, in scalar form,
Here, q 1 and q 2 are the magnitudes of the charges, R is a vector which points from one to the other, and r is the distance between them. Since R / r is a unit vector pointing from one charge to the other, we see that the vector equation has the same magnitude as the scalar equation; the unit vector factor gives F a direction, but does not change its magnitude.
Note that the force can be either attractive, when the charges have opposite sign, or repulsive, when the charges have like sign. Since R points from one charge to the other, when the product of the charges is positive, the force which one charge exerts on the other is directed away from the first charge, and so the other charge is repulsed. If the product of the charges is negative, the force one charge exerts on the other is directed toward the first charge, and they are attracted. Think of the force as "between the charges", since both charges feel the same force, either repulsive or attractive, relative to each other. Often (but not always!) we will assume that the two charges are equal in magnitude (|q 1| = |q 2|).
The magnitudes of the charges are measured in "Coulombs" (abbreviated C), which is a new fundamental unit for us. The proportionality constant e is called the "electrical permittivity" of the medium through which the force acts. It is a measure of the "effectiveness" with which the electrical force is felt across the medium. It is often written as the product of k and e 0, where e 0 = 8.85 * 10 - 12 C 2 / N m 2 is the electrical permittivity of the vacuum , and k is the "dielectric constant" of the medium (1 for the vacuum, 1.00059 for air, 80 for water at 20 degrees C).
While the cat and your hand are certainly macroscopic objects, physicists have identified the two objects which account for the vast majority of freely moving electrical charge in the universe as microscopic "electrons" and "protons". For the present, we will simply consider them as VERY small "particles": the electron is negative (by convention ) and the proton is positive. The mass of the electron is 9.109 * 10 - 31 kg, the mass of the proton is 1.673 * 10 - 27 kg, and the magnitude of their electrical charge is
All free electric charge appears to be "quantized" in units of e; free charges less than e have never been observed, and all charges are integer multiples of e. Why this is so, and why e has the value it has, are two of the fundamental mysteries of the universe; and two of the most interesting problems in physics! Coming down to Earth, the charge lost by your cat was therefore a LARGE number of electrons. In addition to electrons and protons, charge is also carried by "ionized" atoms and molecules, especially in biological systems. These "ions" are formed by the addition or removal of electrons; their protons are tightly bound in their nuclei, as we will see in Chapter 7. Often we will express the macroscopic charges observed experimentally using a "number" variable to count the number of particles or ions involved as
The force of gravity is very similar to the Coulomb force; the charges are now the masses of the objects which are gravitationally attracted, and the constant of proportionality ("Newton's Constant", equal to 6.673 x 10 - 11 N m 2 / kg 2) is now in the numerator:
Note that gravitational forces are always attractive, since mass is always positive. Note also that both the Coulomb and gravitational forces are vectors: therefore the superposition of two or more forces is equal to their linear sum.
We can now see how to compute the value of g, the "constant" acceleration due to gravity. The force due to a spherical source is equivalent to a point source at its center. This can be seen using the field model in the next section. Approximating the earth by a sphere, we set m 2 equal to the earth's mass (m E) and r to its average radius (r E). The acceleration g is then G m E / r E 2, or approximately 9.8 m / s 2!
The notion of mass as gravitational charge is perhaps the best "theoretical" notion of mass we have. Note that this idea of mass is qualitatively different from the idea of "inertial mass": that quantity which makes it difficult to change the velocity of an object. That these two quantities, gravitational charge and inertial mass, are equal, is another of the fundamental mysteries of physics.
The next section is about the electric potential.
If you have stumbled on this page, and the equations look funny (or you just want to know where you are!), see the College Physics for Students of Biology and Chemistry home page.
©1996, Kenneth R. Koehler. All Rights Reserved. This document may be freely reproduced provided that this copyright notice is included.
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Music and Technology
A Very Short Introduction
Mark Katz surveys the age-old interrelationship between music and technology, from prehistoric musical instruments to today's digital playback devices. This Very Short Introduction takes an expansive and inclusive approach meant to broaden and challenge traditional views of music and technology. In its most common use, "music technology" tends to evoke images of twentieth and twenty-first century electronic devices: synthesizers, recording equipment, music notation software, and the like. This volume, however, treats all tools used to create, store, reproduce, and transmit music - new or old, electronic or not - as technologies worthy of investigation. All musical instruments can be considered technologies. The modern piano, for example, is a marvel of keys, hammers, strings, pedals, dampers, and jacks; just the sound-producing mechanism, or action, on a piano has more than 50 different parts. In this broad view, technology in music encompasses instruments, whether acoustic, electric or electronic; engraving and printing; sound recording and playback; broadcasting; software; and much more. Mark Katz challenges the view that technology is unnatural, something external to music. It was sometimes said in the early twentieth century that so-called mechanical music (especially player pianos and phonographs) was a menace to "real" music; alternatively, technology can be freighted with utopian hopes and desires, as happens today with music streaming platforms like Spotify. Positive or negative, these views assume that technology is something that acts upon music; by contrast, this volume characterizes technology as an integral part of all musical activity and portrays traditional instruments and electronic machines as equally technological.
About this Author
Mark Katz is John P. Barker Distinguished Professor of Music at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and Founding Director of the hip-hop cultural diplomacy program, Next Level. His books include Capturing Sound: How Technology Has Changed Music (2010), Groove Music: The Art and Culture of the Hip-Hop DJ (2012), and Build: The Power of Hip Hop Diplomacy in a Divided World (2019).
If the product is in stock at the store nearest you, we suggest you call ahead to have it set aside for you, or you may place an order online and choose in-store pickup. | <urn:uuid:dfa08cbd-964d-412d-ac42-eb4d34d91db1> | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | https://www.mcnallyrobinson.com/9780199946983/mark-katz/music-technology-a-very-short-intro?blnBKM=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764499804.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20230130070411-20230130100411-00483.warc.gz | en | 0.924333 | 468 | 3.125 | 3 |
The SOVA Project is happy to feature this blog post written by one in our team of fantastic SOVA Ambassadors—these are young people who help create meaningful blog posts from adolescents’ perspectives. We hope you can use their post to start a conversation with your adolescent.
In a world of such immediate communication through smartphones and the Internet, it is important to recognize the importance of words and how they can be used both positively and negatively.
Certain phrases demonstrate powerful exclusion against one or more groups or classes based on sex, class, or ability. Phrases of sexual exclusion may include “boys and girls” or “ladies and gentlemen,” automatically assuming that everyone only adheres to one of these two particular genders. Phrases of class exclusion include “poor people” or “developing country.” These common phrases may shame or offend individuals who are part of a community that is wholeheartedly and uniquely theirs. Lastly, phrases that demonstrate ability exclusion include “disabled person” or calling someone “crazy.” Again, these words are hurtful and insensitive to certain groups.
Many times, I have been upset by people calling others “messed up” or “slow” with regard to their mental abilities. Some people are not aware that these words they are using are extremely exclusive and offensive. In an effort to learn how I could actively improve situations like this, I took a class that focused on using sports as a means to empower individuals with a variety of abilities. It did so through inclusion and respect for all. We had guest speakers come into the class to talk about their experiences playing sports and how it made them feel accepted and become a stronger person. I gained a lot from this experience and I learned that everyone is deserving of equal respect and should never be treated with such ableist language.
Recognizing microaggressions in everyday language is one key to preventing bullying. Take this situation for example: you overhear a conversation escalating and hear a teenager tell a 60-year-old man “okay boomer, go back to figuring out how to use that smartphone of yours.” Using disrespectful language like this towards someone who is from a different generation is a dangerous form of mockery and discourtesy. I find myself trying to be especially conscious of what I am saying when dealing with people of different age groups at school and at work, so I can help prevent hurtful things like “okay boomer” from being said.
We always want to try our best to include everyone and avoid saying things that can be misinterpreted as hurtful or exclusive. That being said, it is still okay to make mistakes. Sometimes we need to ask for a refresher every now and then on what phrases may be offensive to somebody. This is especially important when it comes to respecting gender identity, race identity, and class.
It is important to remember that a conversation about language should be an educational conversation, not a shaming one. If you are in a situation where something hurtful is said, perhaps take some time to discuss the history of what was said and what the current climate around it is. You can also offer others some action steps to learn from, for example, by suggesting a YouTuber who creates great content on the subject. For a more systematic approach, you can also:
- Explain why what was said wasn’t great.
- Explain why it matters.
- Try your best not to judge others for their mistakes.
- Consider who is around.
- Consider your relationship with the person and implications of the conversation.
- Care about the person and the cause.
Have you ever had a conversation with your child about offensive language? Have they ever told you that you have used language or terms that have made them upset? How did you react? Did they explain to you why? Have you ever taken any steps to unlearn language that you used to use that you have since learned can be offensive? | <urn:uuid:f228a22b-de55-4f7f-bb5d-2b87e74b72c6> | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | https://wisesova.pitt.edu/page/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656103640328.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20220629150145-20220629180145-00642.warc.gz | en | 0.966463 | 827 | 3.15625 | 3 |
By Eric Slack, Storage Switzerland
-- Entropy is a scientific concept which essentially states that, if left alone, all organized systems will progress towards a state of disorganization. It means that, basically, everything eventually falls apart - unless it's periodically maintained. Any homeowner can see this principle in action, when they neglect to paint the house or weed the garden. IT should also relate to this concept.
In the IT environment, entropy could be defined as the degradation of a system due to the constant change it sees (changes in workloads, resources, administration, etc), without the corresponding maintenance and upgrades required to keep it in tune. For the storage manager, this shows up as the quiet deterioration in performance or available storage capacity that seems to occur over time. This could be capacity that's not consumed but is still unavailable, due to the day-to-day cycle of allocating, modifying, copying and deleting data. This wasted space could also be the result of inefficient provisioning processes, or just duplicate data objects that aren't deleted.
Storage entropy isn't so much the result of poor technology, but more a function of human nature and our environment. We forget things, we have too much to do and, given the tools we have to work with, it's difficult to keep track of complex, virtual resources like storage; especially with turnovers in personnel and a slower cycle of hardware replacement. Server virtualization can add to this problem by abstracting physical resources while generally increasing the number of server instances consuming those resources. So, while data growth is driving storage purchases, entropy is making things worse.
What should IT do about this? Maybe nothing; after all, you don't want to spend $10 to save $9 or even $11. Historically, the incremental cost (especially the work involved) of saving a TB of storage has often been greater than the cost of buying new capacity. But factors such as power, floor space and current economics may have spawned a change in attitude, and with new technologies available, spending that $10 could end up saving $50 or $100. This systemic disorganization that defines entropy can come from a number of sources, and the methods available to address these causes are likewise varied. However, the strategies employed must be evaluated against the potential savings they can produce to see what kind of Return On Effort is likely.
Enterprise array management software has tools that can be used to identify wasted space. Some of this waste is just the result of inefficiency, as capacity is allocated to servers, returned to the storage pool and reallocated. Over time, this pool can become somewhat fragmented, especially if multiple storage systems are in use. Storage virtualization, at both the block and file level, can help consolidate the existing pool of usable storage into larger volumes to use with new applications.
Good storage resource management (SRM) tools can also identify storage that's allocated but not used. These orphaned files or volumes could be assigned to servers or VMs that are no longer in use but were never returned to the storage pool. Capacity could also be mapped to an invalid HBA or port WWN and reserved for a future project that never materialized. In a perfect world these allocations would be recorded, but people get busy. They also leave the company. Turnover, mergers and acquisitions are another source of storage entropy, as storage systems come into the environment as a result of this consolidation. When some of the "old" team doesn't accompany the new storage assets, there's a good chance orphaned data exists on these systems.
Some independent SRM tools can analyze the relationships between hosts and disk groups, LUNs, clones, mirrors, snaps, etc. to identify mapping or masking errors and other conditions that cause files to be lost. They can also highlight when changes are made in the environment, which can cause lost capacity. Since they're vendor-independent monitoring solutions, they can perform across the entire environment, not just within a single array or arrays from one manufacturer. Like rust, storage entropy never sleeps, so tools that specialize in identifying conditions like this should be run as part of the regular preventative maintenance schedule.
Compared with physical servers, a virtual environment can make storage entropy worse. With virtual servers there are no boxes, no support contracts, no physical reminders of their existence, or their storage consumption. Even when VMs are set up, documented and properly managed, they can still cause storage entropy. Through the normal cycle of allocation, expansion and decommissioning, VM storage resources can become out of synch with current requirements. Resources that support a virtual server environment must be balanced regularly to maintain cost-efficient operation and stay optimized.
There are tools available from server virtualization platform vendors, as well as independent monitoring tools that can help in this resource balancing process. Some even enable a VM to be managed through its lifecycle, while optimizing resources along the way. Like the other SRM tools, virtual infrastructure management tools that are platform independent can offer unique functionality.
In addition to reclamation tools that enable wasted capacity to be identified, some arrays and separate appliances also include thin provisioning. Thin provisioning was originally developed as a solution to the over-allocation that resulted from an OS's or application's inability to handle volume expansion easily. Rather than wrestle with the downtime and complexity common with expanding a database or file system's capacity, they would be set up initially with enough storage to support expected future growth. This saved time and assured availability of storage, but resulted in a significant amount of "white space," or unused capacity.
Thin provisioning alleviated this problem by allowing capacity to be over-subscribed to these applications, but not actually allocated by the storage system. Kind of like the way a bank has more deposits on the books than actual cash on hand, thin provisioning enables a storage system to support more applications than it has the physical storage capacity for at any given time. The trick is to keep real capacity ahead of actual usage by the applications and file systems. Now available from a number of vendors, thin provisioning provides a way to keep one type of storage entropy in check, but only on newly created volumes. Data that is migrated in from storage that's not "thin" presents a potential problem.
Historically, when files were deleted, the file system simply marked them as "available to be overwritten." The storage array had no awareness of this condition and still considered this capacity as "used." There was no way to reclaim this wasted space. So, as data sets are created, modified and deleted, entropy can set in, making thin volumes "chubby" over time. Also, when "thick" volumes are migrated into a thin-aware storage system, they're no longer thin.
New developments in thin provisioning have addressed this issue. When files are deleted, a utility can be run that essentially writes zeros to the bits in those deleted files. Then, when a volume is copied into an array with a "zero block detection" capability, the zero blocks are stripped out and a thin volume is created. For many environments, this requires extra maintenance steps, but the effort can capture wasted space and save money.
As an improvement on this technology, thin-aware file systems can essentially zero out the blocks from deleted files automatically, and then communicate with the storage array to identify these blocks for reclamation. Using a common API, the automated process results in a method to keep thin volumes thin and reduce storage entropy, without generating more work for storage managers. While a number of storage vendors support zero block detection, only a small subset has developed the APIs to support a thin-aware file system.
Different storage vendors use different block sizes, and smaller blocks can mean more effective zero-block detection and more space savings. Also, the processing required to perform these XOR functions can affect performance, depending on where it's carried out. Some vendors do this in software, putting the load on the array CPU; others use ASICs dedicated for this purpose.
Another way entropy creeps into storage is by the creation of duplicate files and data sets. Backups can be the cause of this, as can other data protection processes, such as disaster recovery. Virtual machine images can contain a significant amount of duplicate data, since they're usually created from the same group of templates. User applications, such as MS Office, also generate files that are very similar in content to files created by other users.
Data deduplication can certainly reduce the amount of duplicate data in the backup and DR processes, and keep these data sets that way with subsequent backups. But deduplication technologies are now also getting put into non-backup applications, such as archives and secondary storage tiers, helping to alleviate this wasted capacity.
Identifying and locating these orphaned files or pockets of unusable storage is the first step, but it must also be collected before it can be reused. Proprietary arrays typically have volume management utilities and other tools to handle this second part of the process. But if multiple vendors' storage platforms are used, or if additional functionality (such as thin provisioning or deduplication) is needed, a block- or file-based storage virtualization appliance may be the answer. These "storage-agnostic" solutions can reduce entropy, while they facilitate the consolidation of reclaimed capacity across platforms.
Entropy is all too common in IT. In storage systems it can show up in the form of reduced usable capacity and performance over time, as systems are added, reconfigured and decommissioned, to meet the dynamics of day-to-day operation. Inefficient storage allocation, reserved capacity that's lost or forgotten and duplication of data objects can accumulate, even in the most organized environments. Storage arrays have tools that can help curb this waste, but often, other methods must be employed. Technologies such as thin provisioning, data deduplication and advanced storage infrastructure management solutions can help address the problem. In the end, storage entropy will still occur, but the proper tools and a little preventative maintenance should help keep things from going to pieces.
Eric Slack is a senior analyst with Storage Switzerland, an analyst firm focused on storage, virtualization and cloud computing. | <urn:uuid:e717fa9c-2145-4cff-a4e0-291e9a0c5324> | CC-MAIN-2014-52 | http://www.infostor.com/index/articles/display/4558081368/articles/infostor/storage-management/how-to_combat_storage.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-52/segments/1418802768208.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20141217075248-00082-ip-10-231-17-201.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945129 | 2,087 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Benefits of the Dilatometer Test
- Determine accurate values for strength or compressibility of the soil strata
- Provides accurate parameters for P-y analyses for lateral loads on deep foundations
- Accurately measures the low strain shear wave velocity using the true interval method
- Accurately evaluates ground improvement by performing before and after DMT
To assure high quality control, all dilatometer tests are performed by a registered professional engineer. We have performed the deepest dilatometer test in the world at Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant at a depth of 398 feet. We were the organizers of the Second International Conference on the Flat Dilatometer Test (2006).
Dilatometer Test (DMT), ASTM D 6635: In 1975, Dr. Silvano Marchetti invented the Flat Dilatometer, consisting of sharpened blade with a circular membrane located on one side, to investigate H-pile behavior for lateral loads. He performed tests at ten well-documented research sites and developed empirical correlations with classical soil properties. In 1980, he published a classic paper presenting those correlations; most of which are routinely used today. (Marchetti, 1980) In 1981, Marchetti traveled to the United States on sabbatical and worked with Drs. John Schmertmann and David Crapps. While they were initially skeptical of Dr. Marchetti’s invention, they were convinced by the impressive speed and accuracy of the results.
Figure 1: DMT Blade
Figure 1 shows a photograph of the stainless steel Dilatometer blade under a direct push rig. The blade, 15 mm thick and 96 mm wide in cross-section, is pushed into the soil at a constant rate of 2 cm/sec, preferably using a load cell to measure the penetration thrust as shown in Figure 2.
Generally the operator stops penetration at 20 cm depth intervals, records the thrust
at the test depth using a load cell, and then inflates the membrane.
The surrounding soil usually collapses the 60-mm-diameter stainless steel membrane flush against the blade during the penetration. (In very weak soils, a vacuum must be applied prior to pushing.)
Electrical conductivity between the center of the membrane and the underlying body of the blade completes a circuit that activates a buzzer and a light on the dilatometer control unit. To run the test, the operator slowly inflates the membrane with nitrogen gas supplied from the control unit. When the membrane center moves away from the blade, the electrical continuity is lost and the light and buzzer go off. At that instant the operator reads the gas pressure at the control unit and records the membrane lift-off pressure as the “A‑pressure” on the data sheet. The operator then continues to inflate the membrane. When the membrane has inflated an additional 1.1 mm at its center, an electrical switch inside the blade reestablishes the electrical circuit and reactivates the buzzer and light, prompting the operator to record the corresponding gas pressure as the “B‑pressure”. When below the water table, the operator can slowly deflate the membrane, and record the water pressure that pushes the membrane back in contact with the blade as the “C‑pressure”. Nearly all of the correlations are based on the thrust, “A‑pressure” and “B-pressure”. The “C‑pressure” can be used to determine the groundwater table in clean sands and to determine the undrained shear strengths of soft clay (Lutenegger, 2006).
Figure 2: Push Clamp using Four Load
Cells to Measure Thrust
The dilatometer blade has a cross-sectional area of about 14 cm2 and can be pushed with a direct push rig into soil with an N60-value of about 45 blows per foot or with a heavy drill rig into soil with an N60-value of about 35 blows per foot. Tests can be successfully performed in all penetrable soils, including clay, silt, and sand. If the soil contains a significant amount of gravel, there may be point contacts against the membrane instead of a continuous medium, causing inaccurate results. Furthermore, the gravel will often tear a hole in the membrane.
DMT results have been correlated with the parameters that geotechnical engineers need the most — soil shear strength and deformation properties. The computer program for the dilatometer data reduction evaluates and outputs the following soil properties and parameters:
- Tangent vertical constrained modulus [M],
- Undrained shear strength for clays [cu],
- Drained friction angle for sands [Φ],
- Total unit weight of soil [γt],
- Coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest [ko],
- Preconsolidation pressure [pc], and
- Over consolidation ratio [OCR].
In-Situ Soil Testing, L.C. specializes in dilatometer tests to support geotechnical engineering and ground improvement firms. As engineers, we know that one of the most important challenges the geotechnical engineer faces is determining accurate values for the strength or compressibility of the soil strata at the project site. The weaker the soils are, the more critical they are to the geotechnical engineering design. We generally perform dilatometer tests at 20 centimeter (8 inch) depth intervals. From the high quality test data at close depth intervals, the soil profile and the soils’ strength and deformation properties can be accurately defined. By having sufficiently high quality test data, your engineers can confidently perform design computations and safely optimize the design. Additionally, the data can be analyzed using probablistic methods.
The accuracy of settlement computations (Schmertmann, 1986 and Monaco, 2006) based on dilatometer test data has been demonstrated by many researchers, as shown in Figure 3. From a data base of various projects in a wide variety of soil types,
the average ratio of predicted settlement from dilatometer analysis versus actual measured long-term settlement is 1.07 with a standard deviation of 0.22. We provide our clients with an Excel spreadsheet template that is used to compute settlement beneath a spread footing from dilatometer test data.
Figure 3: Comparison of Predicted and Measured Settlement—(Data from Schmertmann, 1986 and Hayes, 1986)
Figure 4: P-y Curves from DMT and Lateral Load Capacity Predictions (Marchetti, 1991)
Dr. Silvano Marchetti originally developed the dilatometer to predict the lateral load capacity of piles. Because the DMT tests the soil horizontally, it is an excellent method to evaluate lateral capacity (Marchetti, et al., 1991 and Robertson, et al., 1989). The engineer can determine accurate P-y curves and continuous P-y profiles from those methods and use them with numerical computer programs such as LPILE and COM624. (Figure 4)
For ground improvement projects, we recommend performing dilatometer tests before, during and at completion of the improvement. By performing tests during the improvement phase, the amount of improvement achieved can be evaluated.
In cohesionless soils, ground improvement techniques often both increase lateral stresses and compact the soil. These changes lead to both a greater friction angle and increased stiffness as any excess pore pressures rapidly dissipate.
Figure 5: Better measurements of ground improvement using DMT instead of CPT (Marchetti, 1998)
They also may encourage an “ageing” process that further increases the shear strength and stiffness. The amount of improvement that occurs depends on the dynamic effort and the distance away from the dynamic source. The improved soils will be fairly heterogeneous in both the vertical and horizontal directions. A large number of tests are needed to confirm that the soils have been adequately improved at all desired locations.
In-situ tests with high shear strain and disturbance effects measure ground improvement poorly because they destroy the improvement during the test. Because the DMT accurately measures both the soil’s deformation modulus and the at rest lateral pressure with minimal ground disturbance, they provide an excellent choice to determine whether sufficient ground improvement has been performed (see Figure 5). As documented at the St. Johns River Power Plant near Jacksonville, Florida, the dilatometer M values were found to be more accurate in evaluating soil improvement than relative density correlations based on electronic cone qc values. (Schmertmann, et al., 1986).
Figure 6: Seismic Module, Control Unit and Computer
At the Second International Conference on the Flat Dilatometer in April 2006, the true interval seismic test was unveiled. The geophones are spaced exactly 0.50 meters apart in a module located directly above the blade. When a plate is struck horizontally at the ground surface, a shear wave is sent through the soil and received at the upper geophone first and later at the lower geophone. Both waves are recorded, digitally processed, and transmitted serially through the single wire DMT cable to the computer at the surface. The second wave is shifted to the left by a delta time until it is superimposed on the first wave. The shear wave velocity is easily computed as the difference in the shear wave travel distances between the upper and lower geophones by this computed delta time. Photo 6 shows the seismic module, control unit and computer and Photo 7 shows the shear waves before and after superimposition.
Photo 7: DMT True Interval Shear Wave Measurements and Calculations | <urn:uuid:33acad0f-81fc-4b49-b791-254951a3f611> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | https://insitusoil.com/dilatometer-test/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247494424.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20190220024254-20190220050254-00595.warc.gz | en | 0.913473 | 1,968 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Byline: SUSAN FERRISS; Cox Washington Bureau
Santiago Tapextla, Mexico — When a group of college students from Atlanta rolled into this obscure village on Mexico’s Pacific coast, they found classic scenes of Mexican rural life.
Peasant farmers ferried bags of corn on donkeys. Women cooked tortillas over open fires.
But there was something about the color of this village that gave the students — all African-Americans — a feeling of instant kinship.
“To be a black Mexican seems almost impossible. But they’re here,” said an excited Kieran Pearson, 20, a student from Atlanta’s Morehouse College.
The students from Morehouse and its sister institution, Spelman College, quickly discovered that the people of Mexico’s “Costa Chica” are of indisputable African origin.
The descendants of slaves brought in chains to Mexico’s isolated Pacific Coast centuries ago, the Afro-Mexicans of the Costa Chica have the dark skin and features more commonly associated with areas in the Caribbean or Brazil. Blacks also live in Veracruz state, along the Gulf of Mexico, but are concentrated in greater numbers in about 50 towns on the Costa Chica, a 250-mile stretch of land between Puerto Escondido and the resort city of Acapulco.
Many blacks of recent generations have intermarried with indigenous Mexicans or mestizos, who are of mixed Spanish and Indian descent. But the Costa Chicans say they’re proud of their black roots.
“Relatives! You are welcome here,” a nearly toothless but spirited village elder, Bertoldo Narvaez, 55, told the students in Spanish as they gathered under a large tree.
Just as Mexico’s indigenous minorities are demanding recognition for their cultures, Afro-Mexicans are calling on Mexico to more fully acknowledge the country’s African heritage. Blacks and Indians alike complain of discrimination and of living in areas with few paved roads and schools and little plumbing.
Blacks on the Costa Chica have formed an ethnic rights group called “Mexico Negro,” and they are forging ties with other blacks in the Americas, including the United States.
“No one on the Costa Chica was talking about reaching out to other people of the African diaspora 10 years ago. This is really new,” said Stanford University graduate student Bobby Vaughn, who is studying black identity in Mexico.
The village of Santiago Tapextla (pronounced Ta-PEST-la) is a poor hamlet of several thousand residents. Last March, it hosted the fifth annual Reunion of Black People, an international gathering of blacks from Mexico, the United States, Honduras, Ecuador and other countries.
Census figures do not exist on black Mexicans. But Vaughn estimates they may number no more than 100,000 out of Mexico’s almost 100 million people.
No breakdown of the number of black Mexicans who have come to the United States is available, either. But in 2000, 48 percent of the nation’s 35 million Hispanics said they were white, 2 percent said they were black and 50 percent said they were of some other race or multiracial.
In Georgia, the numbers were much the same, with a slightly higher percentage of blacks: 46 percent of the state’s 435,227 Hispanics said they were white, 4 percent said they were black and 50 percent said they were of some other race or multiracial.
In Mexico, blacks participated in the earliest missions of the Spanish conquistadors. For more than two centuries, between the late 1500s and early 1800s, blacks may have outnumbered Spaniards nationwide before they began blending with the mestizo population.
For several years, students from Morehouse and Spelman have sought to learn about the black culture of the Costa Chica. The trip that students take annually is part of a five-week Spanish language program in the state of Oaxaca (pronounced Wa-HA-ka). The Costa Chica is in Oaxaca and the state of Guerrero.
Maceo Morales-Cozier, 19, who grew up in Atlanta and studies at Morehouse, knew of the Costa Chica blacks because his mother, anthropologist Beatriz Morales-Cozier of Morris Brown College, has written about the area’s religion and culture.
She said the traditional Dance of the Devil, which is performed using masks around the time of Mexico’s Day of the Dead in early November, is a Costa Chica tradition with roots in the Congo.
Blacks on the Costa Chica are mostly poor farmers who grow corn and a few other cash crops. Some are fishermen, and many migrate to work as laborers in Acapulco — or, increasingly, the United States.
Mexican Leonides Narvaez, 44, worked in Charlotte, where he saw firsthand the United States’ strong black heritage.
“I think the people of color there thought I was one of them,” he said, speaking to the students at a thatched-roof restaurant, where workers prepared a special meal of chicken soup and tortillas.
Narvaez grinned at the memory of his encounters with black Americans. “They used to walk past me and say, ‘Wassup!’ ” he told the amused Americans.
The students were struck by the similarities between their history and the black Mexicans’ experience. But they noticed differences, too.
“Here, they listen to the elders, while in the United States, we try to hush them up,” Maceo Morales-Cozier said.
Pearson said he was surprised that some Costa Chicans told him they felt Mexican first, then black. “I feel black first, then American,” he said. “But maybe it’s because they have more of a connection to the land here and grow their own food.”
Vaughn said that after slavery ended in Mexico in the 1820s, legal discrimination didn’t exist. That might have contributed to blacks having more of a sense of being Mexican, he said. However, while blacks might not have trouble getting jobs as laborers today, Vaughn said, they do face discrimination when it comes to obtaining more professional work.
Stereotypes abound, too.
“I’ve heard comments like, ‘Those blacks are so confused and disorganized,’ ” said Glynn Jemmott, a Catholic priest from Trinidad who has lived for more than a dozen years in El Ciruelo on the Costa Chica.
Most of the Atlanta students said they only recently learned that blacks live in Mexico. But the black Mexicans told them they were not alone. Many of their countrymen don’t even know they exist.
“You never see blacks on television,” Narvaez said. “Once in a while, you see a black maid on a soap opera. But that’s about it. The politicians don’t want to admit that blacks live in Mexico.”
Ricardo Avila, a 22-year-old high school teacher in El Ciruelo, said textbooks never include information on Mexico’s black history.
He has tried to incorporate lessons on his own into classes at the high school, one of the few schools serving the black population of the Costa Chica.
Avila also said black Mexicans often are mistaken for foreigners when they travel to other parts of Mexico.
“In another part of Oaxaca, the police stopped me and asked me to sing the national anthem. I refused, but I showed them my voter credential,” Avila said. “Sometimes it really bothers me.”
Spelman student Veronica Chapman noticed that blackness seemed exotic to most Mexicans.
“People stare at us in Oaxaca,” she said. “I want to say, ‘You know, there are Mexicans who look just like me who live right down the road from you.’ ” | <urn:uuid:d340de06-5b89-4579-915c-fe1a8cd2ac45> | CC-MAIN-2018-30 | https://irvinweathersby.com/malcolm-and-mexico/racial-kinship-bridges-borders-opens-doors/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676590329.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20180718213135-20180718233135-00557.warc.gz | en | 0.963993 | 1,702 | 3.109375 | 3 |
ARE 438/538 is designed to provide advanced art and visual culture education students with comprehensive and engaging practical experience in curriculum design and art and visual culture education teaching approaches. On Saturday mornings students will work collaboratively with one another to lead a small class of k-12 students and to encourage sustained reflection on what Joseph Schwab has called the four “commonplaces” of curriculum: teachers, students, context, and content.
This course investigates ways in which children develop in art with an underlying emphasis on understanding children’s art as a social practice. Beginning with an analysis of the history and discovery of child art, we use original children’s artworks to examine contemporary theories of children’s development in art and the implications of these theories for educational contexts and for research. We consider children’s making in various mediums, and explore their implications for various pedagogical settings and strategies (i.e.: classrooms, museums, and community programs).
In this course, students are introduced to some foundational ideas in the discipline of Art and Visual Culture Education (AVCE). We explore AVCE histories, influential theories, purposes, and implications. Through readings and class discussions/activities, students gain an introductory understanding of the practices and structures of art and visual culture education in schools, museums, and community settings in the United States. | <urn:uuid:ecd4a638-52a4-4968-9624-ff469217c58e> | CC-MAIN-2021-25 | https://www.shanacinquemani.com/sample-syllabi.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623488262046.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20210621025359-20210621055359-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.929209 | 275 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Diwan- E- Aam
It is a delicate palace which can be seen while visiting the Amber Fort. It has forty pillars and is a best example of intricate craftsmanship. It was built by Mirza Raja Jai Singh between 1631-40, it is located close to the Machchhi Bhawan. The wide assembly hall measures 201′ by 67′ and has flat roof with two gateways of arched red sandstone to the north and south. The hall is divided in three parts and has nine bold arches. This is built in red sandstone and is plastered with white shell plaster which looks like white marble. There is also a raised rectangular stage from where the emperor used to address the audience.
Diwan- E- Aam is the initial fragile palace that will be seen, as one come across the the palace region through an inflicting stairway. The forty pillars of the chamber have carved out paintings by the artisans of Rajasthan and precious stones are embedded on them.
It is featured with fabulous alabaster work, extra ordinary floral glass inlay designs, and smooth marble lattices. Many chambers, rooms and galleries are also there which were once used by princes and other royalty. A separate place similar to a pavilion is also there from where Maharajahs used to receive its general public and used to hear their problems and several issues regarding the kingdom. During the proceedings the king used to sit in the mid of the chamber with his prominent courtiers and officers on the northern side and the less prominent officials and the general public sat on the western part of the chamber and in the adjoining courtyard.
From the southern area of this palace the royal ladies used to watch the proceedings of Diwan- E- Aam from the Zenana house which means Women's quarters and that’s why this part was always kept clear. Shah Jahan was very fond of marble which can be seen in Diwan- E- Aam or Hall of Public Audience. It was built in marble and it was the place where the Raja addresses its general public as well as other courtiers from its nobility.
‘Takht-i-Murassa‘ or the Throne room was made in marble and was embedded with precious stones and was connected with a three arched Jharokha. This room also have a way to the royal apartments from where the royal ladies used to watch the ceremonials of Diwan- E- Aam through the windows made of marble and these windows are covered with perforated screens on both sides of the Throne while not being seen by those in the hall. There is a dias of marble known as ‘Baithak' below the chamber. Baithak serves the seat of Wazir, who reads the news to the emperor. There were silver balustrades for the nobility, where the courtiers used to stand according to their positions and ranks.
Opposite to the Diwan- E- Aam is the Sukh Nivas, which have doors of sandalwood and are decorated with ivory. There is a way running through the hall, which carried chilled water in earlier times which acts as an air cooler with the help of the breeze. The rooms have the magnificent decoration of mirrors. The shining mirrors lustures the walls and ceilings of the hall and can easily spellbind any visitor with their complex designs and patterns. | <urn:uuid:ffd06984-40ac-4280-a06f-c11039b1ab0f> | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | https://pinkcity.com/amber/diwan-e-am-or-the-hall-of-public-audience/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296946637.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20230327025922-20230327055922-00475.warc.gz | en | 0.979343 | 699 | 2.6875 | 3 |
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Let's Go Shopping
Students begin to explain how they observe, identify, and sometimes judge others by behavior and appearance. The group participates in an engaging role play simulating people they would see at a shopping mall on a given afternoon.
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ESL Grammar Practice Worksheets: Future Tense
Your class is going to get plenty of practice with these future tense worksheets, but will they enjoy themselves? You will have to find out! Learners practice using going to and will in various exercises, practicing with each type of the...
3rd - 8th English Language Arts CCSS: Adaptable
New Review Intro to Economics
There's an opportunity cost to everything you do, but it's minimal when you're learning about an applicable topic like economics. Join the Crash Course team as they introduce a 35-part video series on economics and briefly address some...
12 mins 9th - 12th Social Studies & History
New Review Supply and Demand
What do strawberries, gasoline, and human kidneys have in common? Explore the concept of supply and demand, and the varying degrees of demand for particular items in the free market, with an informative video from Crash Course economics.
10 mins 9th - 12th Social Studies & History | <urn:uuid:67fbdb60-f790-41c8-8b42-fb8440d9218a> | CC-MAIN-2017-13 | https://www.lessonplanet.com/teachers/lets-go-shopping-english-language-arts-7th-9th | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-13/segments/1490218189583.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20170322212949-00603-ip-10-233-31-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919278 | 316 | 3.34375 | 3 |
Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center
Scope and Content
This collection was acquired by the Rutherford B. Hayes
Presidential Center in 2006.
Homer Everett was born January 30, 1813 in what is now Milan, Ohio,
to Jeremiah and Elizabeth Every Everett.
The family came to Lower Sandusky (Fremont,
Ohio) in 1815. At the age of 17, in 1830, Homer entered
under the employ of Jesse S. Olmstead, residing with his family and working in
his store. Homer was appointed
postmaster in 1837. He resigned as
postmaster when he was elected sheriff, a position which he held for four
years. After studying law in his spare
time, Homer was admitted to the Bar in Columbus,
Ohio in 1841. He practiced law in Fremont with Nathaniel B. Eddy and then with Lucius B. Otis. In
1847, Homer was elected county auditor.
He resigned in 1852 to go into law practice with Ralph P. Buckland. James H. Fowler joined the practice when
Buckland retired. Homer served as mayor
during the Civil War. He also served two
terms in the Ohio Senate (1867-1871). Additionally,
Homer was the first president of the Sandusky County Pioneer and Historical
Society in 1873; Rutherford B. Hayes was secretary of the society at that
time. Homer was the main author of the
1882 work History of Sandusky County Ohio.
Homer married Hannah Bates in 1837, and they had one
daughter together, also named Hannah.
His wife died in 1840, and in 1842 he married Susan Albina
Brush. From this marriage, Homer had two
sons and two daughters: George Homer, Charles Egbert, Albina
Elizabeth, and Lillie. Susan, his second
wife, died in 1855. Homer married his
third wife, Minerva E. Justice, in 1873.
In the spring of 1887, Homer traveled to Osborne, Kansas
to visit his eldest daughter, Hannah Hatfield.
It was in the Hatfield house that Homer died on June 22, 1887, aged 73
years, 4 months, and 22 days.
Scope and Content
This book, “Household Memorandums” was written by Homer
Everett and his children, namely Lillie and Charles. The scattered entries span from June 28,
1863, to April 29, 1874. It also
includes clippings from northwestern Ohio
newspapers, mainly concerning Everett’s
time as a member of the Ohio Senate (1867-1871).
Among the entries are those giving detailed accounts of the
home front reaction to the news of the Union victory at Gettysburg,
Vicksburg, and other battles; the New York draft riot; the
election of Abraham Lincoln; and the deaths of local soldiers. Everett and his
family also comment on efforts by Sandusky Countians
to gather provisions for the soldiers; local social gatherings, and daily life
in Fremont, Ohio during the mid 1860s.
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Lake County is divided into 18 geographic subdivisions called Townships. Each Township is comprised of two separate government entities; The Road District and Township which are separate taxing districts. Townships are managed by eight officers elected to a four year term as follows: Supervisor, Clerk, Assessor, four Trustees and Highway Commissioner. The Supervisor, Clerk (non-voting member), and Trustees serve as the Township Board and are the legislative branch of the township government. The duties of the Township Officers are limited to those powers specifically provided for in the State Statutes or necessarily implied from the grant of power.
The Supervisor is the Township’s Chief Executive Officer who oversees the day to day operations of township government. He or she is responsible for the township funds and serves as treasurer for both the Township and the Road District. The Supervisor administers the State mandated program of General Assistance.
The Clerk is the custodian of the township records. He or she is responsible for keeping accurate records of all Township Board meetings as well as ex-officio clerk for the Highway Commissioner. The Clerk is responsible for posting and publishing all ordinances and notices of both the Township and the Road District.
The Assessor is responsible for appraising real property and maintaining property record cards on all parcels in the Township.
The Trustees are the legislative arm of the Township. In addition to setting policy and procedures, the Trustees audit all bills and pass the annual budgets of the Township, Assessor, and Road District.
The Highway Commissioner is responsible for construction and maintenance of all roads and bridges that are not part of the Federal, State, County or Municipal Road Systems. | <urn:uuid:827ed7aa-02c1-4298-9c09-10d916861dc0> | CC-MAIN-2018-13 | http://www.lakevillatownship.org/township-government/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-13/segments/1521257646875.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20180319101207-20180319121207-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.956367 | 334 | 2.625 | 3 |
Newsweek advised the public that "political decisions [about fluoridation] were at odds with expert advice" and "fluoride from your tap may not do much good-and may cause cancer"
In 1992, Newsweek published another fluoride safety related article, "Is Science Censored?", a look at how political considerations influence what scientific studies get published.
An Oakland Tribune article describes how "Rather than admit the uncertainties of fluoride, public health officials have often suppressed legitimate scientific doubts in order to reassure the public."
JADA (Journal of the American Dental Association) suprisingly admits the often stated "optimal" intake level of 1 ppm (part per million) has yet to be determined scientifically -but why should a lack of research stop them from forcing you to drink it.
The Washington Post Newspaper reported research at the Georgia School of Dentistry & the University of Connecticut showing children should only brush their teeth once a day to avoid fluoride overexposure.
The world renowned Wall Street Journal, in December of 1998, joined the rising chorus of voices in questioning fluoride exposure and documenting the injuries resulting from too much fluoride.
The Globe & Mail, Canada's largest daily paper is warning their readers of fluoride dangers.
The Ireland Independent recently reported on the health problems associated with fluoridation and how the medical establishment is dragging their heels in recognizing scientific studies critical of this practice.
The San Diego Tribune reported that a "Critique of Touted Dental Study Reveals Fluoridation Conclusions Not Supported by Data"
In March of 2000, the Cleveland Plain Dealer ran a 7 page article in their Sunday newspaper supplement titled "The Invisible FEAR", questioning fluoridation.
The book, CENSORED 99, documents the most important, under-covered news stories for the year. Their annual review of 1998 identifies water fluoridation as a major issue which had its' roots in deception.
An article commissioned but never published by the Christian Science Monitor, detailing the history of fluoridation, shows how WW II decisions affected the water supply in America. The article was finally printed by the Earth Island Institute.
Dartmouth University just released a multi-year study (Sept '99) involving 280,000 children which linked fluoridation with high lead levels in children.
U.S. News & World Report cites an EPA estimate of 1.7 million children already negatively affected by lead.
The Toronto Star, one of Canada's largest newspapers, recently reported on why Dr. Hardy Limeback, a leading Canadian fluoride authority and former fluoride advocate now opposes fluoridation.
Most recently, The Chicago Tribune quoted the former Editor of the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Mr. Lundberg said he and his editorial staff endured constant pressure, threats and intimidation from AMA leaders, members and its lobbyists in Washington during his 17-year reign as editor of the Chicago-based medical group's prestigious journal."
Lundberg said there were often telephone calls from irate AMA members and letters from state medical societies and AMA officers "threatening political action against the editor and the Journal for publishing what offended them ideologically, or more likely imposed on (physicians') ability to earn money." (article)
On September 21,1999, the San Jose (Cal) Mercury News reported that - We are constantly dealing with well funded industries that send out a continual barrage [of data] that exonerates their products from any ills. The article goes on to cite the questionable, but predictable, results of corporate & industry sponsored "scientific studies."
Even government oversight of the public health is questionable. The EPA is now investigating why its own officials ignored evidence for 18 years that W.R. Grace and Co. had used ore laden with asbestos in an array of building products.
Pro-fluoridationists in California often cite a study, "California Oral Health Needs Assessment" (1994) as proving the effectiveness of fluoridation. Unfortunately, this so-called scientific study was never subjected to peer review as every credible scientific paper is. Here's why:
This Oral Health Needs Assessment showed that the worst tooth decay occurred in Asian-American children in Head Start programs for the poor; 45 percent suffered from baby bottle tooth decay, a severe form of early childhood tooth decay. The study pointed out that these children lived in fluoridated communities.
But how can fluoridation be sold to city officials when poor children with the highest tooth decay rates already have fluoridated water? Simple!
The authors of the study omitted the above information from a sales brochure they created to push fluoridation. Cited instead was the 40 percent of baby bottle tooth decay in Hispanic Head Start for poor children who live in non-fluoridated areas.
Kids get too much fluoride, dentists warn -Canadian Broadcasting Company (text & videoclip of broadcast )
FEAR of FLUORIDE - Questions about the safety of this cavity-fighting chemical aren't just for right-wing conspiracists anymore.
"Fluoride Should We Be Drinking This? An EPA study links fluoride to Attention Deficit Disorder and lead poisoning." - Kalamazoo Express, Michigan (Nov. '99)
Fluorides and the Environment
Editorial: Why Fluoride Is An Environmental Issue
Gar Smith, Editor, Earth Island Journal
Clear and Present Danger
Bob Woffinden, London Guardian
Fluoridation and Hip Fractures
John R. Lee, MD
The Impact of Fluoridation on Salmon in the Northwest US and British Columbia
Richard G. Foulkes and Anne C. Anderson,RPN
EPA Whistleblowers on Fluoride
William L. Marcus, Ph.D and Robert Carton, Ph.D
Fluoride Risk in Baby Food
American Dental Association
Fluoride: The Phosphate Connection
by George C. Glasser
The Effects of Fluorides on Plants
Alan Davison and Leonard Weinstein
Fluoride: Industry's Toxic Coup
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More than a movement
October 22, 2020
Ahmaud Arbery. Tamir Rice. Breonna Taylor. George Floyd. For the past few months countless articles have begun in similar fashion. For the past few months, civil unrest has culminated into a nationwide movement of protests and petitions. It has become a movement heedless of race, religion or creed. The months from May until now have left a defining mark on the nation, but the cries for equity across all races has been a song already sung for decades. The names that enumerate this page are a testament to this.
Though the phrase “Black Lives Matter” may bring uncomfortable sighs and head scratches, it is a discussion that must be had. These past few months have shown that this is more than a movement, and it is a conversation that will likely continue beyond our lifetimes. As we navigate a time of numerous changes, it is essential to reflect on the events that have brought us here. Like the African American Culture Club officers that are illustrated below, we must recognize the change happening around us, and decide whether there must also be a change within.
Read the full story here: https://mhsnews.net/918/infocus/more-than-a-movement/ | <urn:uuid:10d76d9e-75ed-4217-a866-9512ae877367> | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | https://mhsnews.net/1013/student-life/more-than-a-movement-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764495001.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20230127164242-20230127194242-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.954265 | 260 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Chemistry Assignment Help
Chemistry is a branch of science which involves the study of substances of which matters are made, it investigates the chemical properties of matter, and the changes matters go through due to chemical reactions. Chemical reactions are very interesting phenomena, due to the fact that when a chemical reaction takes place, something new is created out of this.
Chemistry is deeply connected to our lives, unlimited inventions are happening, due to chemistry.
Chemistry is a fascinating yet very complex subject. Students, who are pursuing their course under this subject, have to take multiple chemistry assignments during the course of their academic career. Writing on the topics related to chemistry, is very difficult as it requires plenty of time to research, conduct experiments successfully, and then put everything on paper in suitable manner. Students, often are not in the best conditions to give the required attention to the chemistry assignments, that’s why they search for efficient Chemistry Assignment Help providers.
Branches Of Chemistry
We have enlisted five major branches of chemistry. These branches overlap with one another in several ways. Let’s discuss these branches briefly.
Organic chemistry involves the study of chemical compounds which contain Carbon and Hydrogen bonds.
However, the organic chemistry overlaps with many other sub categories of chemistry, you will find out it later in this article.
Inorganic chemistry studies the compounds that are not organic. In other words, we can say that inorganic chemistry studies every substance except those which contain Carbon. Most of the elements of periodic table are studied under inorganic chemistry.
Physical chemistry investigates how physical properties of any substance are affected by chemical structures.
Sub-fields of physical chemistry are:
Analytical chemistry involves figuring out the qualitative and quantitative analysis of chemical compounds present in substances.
Following are the parts of analytical chemistry:
This branch of chemistry incorporates the study of chemical processes that take place inside living organisms. In short, biochemistry combines chemical science with the life science. It studies the chemical reactions in the living organisms at molecular levels.
Biochemistry is further divided into following branches:
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What every journalist must remember
50 tips for budding journalists
A journalist starting a new job must learn the house rules. Most media organisations will have a set of guidelines and a style guide. These usually cover what they are expected to produce, how they should produce it, and, often, how the journalists should behave.
However, there are general tips about starting off in journalism that apply to all journalists. Here are a some to consider.
Your journalism checklist
1: It's a vocation, not a job
Being a journalist is more than earning a wage. You have a unique role in society, and that is to inform the public debate with information that, had it not been for you, the world would never have known.
2: You are born with a news sense, you can't be taught one
You can be taught about essential law for journalists, and you can be taught about editorial ethics and the basics about how to create stories, but if you don't have a news sense you are going to find it difficult to spot the stories that are going to matter.
3: Your duty is to scrutinise the executive and shine a light in dark places
This means that you should always be challenging those in power to make sure they are genuinely representing the interests of the people they are supposed to represent and serve. Your job is to unearth what some people want to hide, as long as that information is in the public interest.
4: All journalism should be based on what you investigate
No significant stories will be handed to you on a plate. You will have to apply your skills of observation and your ability to analyse situations in order to assess the importance of an event.
5: You are on duty 24 x 7
Don't expect to keep office hours. As a journalist you never stop. You should always be working on a story. If the phone rings in the middle of the night, you must be available to follow up the new lead. A journalist never watched the clock to see what time their shift ends because there should be no thing as a shift for a journalist who aims to make a difference.
6: Don't expect to be given stories; your job is to find them
Following up on a news release, or attending a staged event, is part of the process of news gathering and news processing, but real journalism is about finding original content that is not being spun or promoted by those with a vested interest in getting you to work on their behalf free of charge. That's an insult to real journalism.
7: Your job is to always question
You must be the person who those with something to hide are afraid to talk to. You must be always researching information, uncover facts, and asking questions which make those who are trying to hide secrets (or any information that would be valuable to your audience) feel uncomfortable. Your audience may not have access to those in power. As a journalist you have to work on behalf of those who depend on you to unearth the truth. You then need to process the information gathered from this questioning in a way that serves the needs of your audience.
8: Don't recycle the known
If you report about information that is already being recycled by others you will be doing only a fraction of your job. Of course we have to churn out the daily round of general information that will appear in the news diaries of all our competitiors, but to make a difference, we need to invest time and effort on the stories that do not appear on the wires or in news releases.
9: Always be working on your own investigation
There will be days when your editor hands you a story that you need to deliver by a deadline. That's fine, and that's the way newsrooms work. But always have a list of your own stories which you are following up. Ensure that your editor is aware of these stories and make it clear that once you have finished the story s/he has set, you will be continuing to work on your own investigations.
10: Don't live a wires-led life
If possible, try surviving a week producing content without looking at the news wires and news releases. Get into the habit of being a news hunter and gatherer rather than a public relations information processor, which, sadly, is what many journalists evolve into when they have fogotten their real calling.
11: Don't just follow the competition
Some news meetings spend far too much time worring about what the competition is doing. Be confident and list the issues you are going to investigate on behalf of your audience in order to produce content that has a distinct differential to that produced by your competitiors. Make them follow you, not the other way around. You should be setting the news agenda with your own investigations.
12: Always check the detail in a glowing industry news release
Please don't just reprint industry news releases. Yes, there might be some positive news about a new technological development at a local factory, but there may may also be job losses or other repercussions which could be of far more interest to your audience. News releases have a value, but there is also a danger that you get so carried away with the positive spin you are handed that you miss the actual story hidden between the lines.
13: Broadcast and publish for your audience
This one sounds obvious, but, without a clear committment to serve your audience, it could be easy to fall into the trap of broadcasting or publishing in order to try to win peer-group approval or personal praise and glory. That is not why we work as journalists. If we win plaudits, that's great, be we do not produce journalism for that reason. We produce journalism to inform the public debate.
14: Treasure, nurture and keep in touch with contacts
Your contacts will know if you are using them for your own ends, and, if you do, they may not be available the next time you want to talk to them. You need to keep in touch with them, let them know how your investigations are progressing, check they are okay from time to time, and don't just drain them and dump them. A journalist's contacts book is one of the most valuable possessions. Without it you will struggle.
15: Apply the same journalistic rigour to those with whom you agree
You might be sent out to cover a campaign about an issue about which you feel passionately. The next day you might be asked to cover an event you fudementally disagree with. What you feel doesn't matter. What matters are the facts. And you can't report objectively on the facts if you take one side or the other. You must remain impartial and report with integrity leaving any emotions at home.
16: Don't have favourites
It's natural to take a liking to an individual or to dislike someone. And it's sometimes hard to avoid letting these personal preferences show. However, they must never impact what you do and how you do it. If a contact feels they are favoured over another, they might try to exploit the situation. You need to rise above this at all times.
17: Don't do deals
If you ask someone for a quote, or for information that is vital to your piece, never do so on the basis that they will get something back. You must never promise to cover something they want covered in return for their cooperation on a story you want to do. That will always backfire. You must always seek information in a professional manner.
18: Don't accept gifts
There is a saying that there is no such thing as a free lunch. However, journalists will often be invited to an event to promote something where they will be given food and drink. That's fine if it's a reception for everyone and where there are no favours expected. But be careful with individual invitations and never accept gifts. There will always be a bill to pay, and that bill could be expensive because it could call your integrity into question.
19: Don't make exceptions
There should be no exceptions to the ethical rules you set for yourself. This point is a continuation of points 15 and 16 because it means that you must ensure that your personal favourites, your personal values and those things you are committed to in your life don't affect how you report on what is happening. You owe it to your audience to let them decide whether something is distasteful or not. Your job is to present the facts for them to make those decisions. There can be no exceptions to this rule.
20: Respect privacy
It's imporant to ensure that the privacy of individuals is respected. The only exception is when that privacy has to be challenged because the person is a public figure who has a duty and responsibility to the community and who may have behaved in such a way as to fail in their responsiblity. This is a tough area and one that we try to cover in a module in this site's ethics section with our Privacy module and in the basic journalism section with a piece entitled Deciding whether news is in the pubic interest.
21: Take notes and keep them safe
When I started in newspapers there was a rule that not only did you have to keep every notebook you used, but you also had to make copies of every story you wrote. And when you took notes when covering a story you had to make sure they were accurate and have all the facts checked. That was before the internet. Now it's a lot easier to store and index all the information you gather and make backups just in case you need to refer to the notes in the future.
22: When writing an update on a story make sure you know its history
It's important for you to be able to assess the significance of recent developments and put them into the correct context. It also helps make sure you don't make a fool of yourself by claiming something is new when, in fact, it could be a rerun of an old story given new life because it's a slow news day. Don't be caught out; know your history.
23: Be sure of your facts
You can waste a lot of time and effort building a story around incorrect information. Every fact you use needs to be checked and checked again. Don't accept anything without first testing it and then finding a second source to confirm it.
24: Know your limitations, but always stretch them
We all have comfort zones where we are happier working. These could be favourite topics which we feel we know enough about to make a reasonable contribution to the public debate. And, while it's important not to stray into areas where you have absolutely no idea what you are doing or what you are talking about, it's also important not to limit yourself.
25: Check and check again
I had a news editor when I worked on my first newspaper who would always try to make the reporters feel so unsure that they would have to check every fact at least twice. I remember writing a story about a woman called Jane. The editor asked me whether I was sure that was the right spelling and whether it could be Jayne. He asked twice. I checked twice.
26: Make sure you have written what you think you have written
Part of my newspaper training was to learn how to touch type. I also had to learn shorthand. As a result I can type really quickly without looking at the keys. This is a useful when you are in a rush, but it can be a problem in terms of accuracy. Experience has taught me that what you think you wrote down is not always what appears on the paper or screen.
27: Always get a second pair of eyes to check your copy
I was first introduced to the second-pair-of-eyes rule when I started on my first newspaper. Every line was examined first by the news editor, then by the sub editors, then by the news editor again before the paper was about to be published and finally by the editor. It's not always possible to get someone to check your copy, even if that person is not a journalist.
28: Resist the pressure to inflate the top line
Reporters are often under pressure to find great stories. And there will be the temptation to pick out a good quote or sensationalise a line in the story to try to make the piece more newsworthy. But resist the pressure. If the story is lame, either call the office and say so or offer it as a news in brief and work on something else. But never try to make a story seem stronger than it really is.
29: Leave a note when going undercover, just in case.
A journalist shouldn't really be working on any investigations that have not, first, been talked through with their editor. However, as more and more of us work alone, this is not always the case. If you are working on an investigation that could be dangerous, always leave a paper trail so that you can be traced if things go wrong.
30: Keep a diary of stories covered and follow them up in three months
This is called forward planning. If a story is worth doing, and I presume that any story you cover will be, then it's probably worth following up. Whenever you do a story put a few dates in your diary. First, any dates the interviewees mention, such as the next time they are holding a meeting etc. Then any dates that are in the public domain, such as anniversaries of events etc. And finally your own three or six months check on how things have developed.
31: Keep copies of all emails, texts, dates of phone calls and never throw a notebook away.
32: Trust your instincts when researching, but stick to facts when broadcasting or publishing.
33: Check the side streets when there is a fire on the main street.
34: Realise that a politician will always have a script.
35: Watch out for those who would like to see you compromised.
36: Deal with your own motives, likes, dislikes, feelings, beliefs, they must have no impact in your delivery of impartial and objective journalism.
37: Don't put interviewees in danger.
38: Respect intellectual property, from a comment to user-generated content, and always provide acknowledgement.
39: Never use "will have to wait and see" or "time will tell", if you don't know how a story will end, don't go there.
40: Never say "the victim has not been named"', they have, soon after birth, what you mean is "police have not released the name of the victim."
41: More than = quantity, over = height and weight.
42: Don't use long words when short words will do.
43: Avoid sub-clauses that may complicate and obscure the information you are trying to get across.
44: Convey a sense of urgency only when it is appropriate, but remain honest and do not inflate the importance if it doesn't merit it.
45: Never sweeten with respect if none is due.
46: People are never evacuated, buildings and bowels are.
47: Be sensitive when knocking on the door of the bereaved; some will want to invite you in for a cup of tea, show you precious family photos and may let you take one away with you, others will set the dogs on you.
48: Rumours are useful for a heads-up on a potential story, but they are not news until they are verified.
49: Be thorough and ensure that your work is spot on, but don't take too long polishing, there are people out there who need to know about the facts you've uncovered.
50: Always get your round in (buy a drink at the bar).
The author of this piece, David Brewer, is a journalist and media strategy consultant who founded Media Helping Media, handing the site over to Fojo in early 2018. David has worked as a journalist and manager in print, broadcast and online. He has spent many years delivering journalism training and media consultancy services worldwide. | <urn:uuid:5e6aa256-b834-4168-8ae1-5214101accdb> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | http://mediahelpingmedia.org/training-resources/journalism-basics/418-50-tips-for-budding-journalists | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247481612.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20190217031053-20190217053053-00166.warc.gz | en | 0.971213 | 3,289 | 2.515625 | 3 |
General Copyright InformationDisclaimer: The information contained in this copyright primer is for general use only. The following broad formulations should not be relied on as a substitute for legal advice from a licensed attorney.
Introduction to the Why, What, Who, and When of copyright
Why Is Copyright Important?
Copyright law in the US forms the basis of a complex system of legal protections that afford the producers of intellectual property (IP) control over the who, what, and when of content reproduction and alteration. These laws affect you in how they guide what you, the consumer of another’s copyrighted materials, may modify, copy, and distribute.
What Is Copyrighted?
Where colleges previously were concerned with the photocopying and distribution of copyrighted print materials, they now contend with a torrent of data and data formats that the Internet and World Wide Web (www) have put at our fingertips. As you are almost always accessing someone else’s IP online, it is best to assume that the material you would like to download, copy, stream, or alter is copyrighted, regardless of whether it is a short video clip, a small image file, or an entire song or movie you find online.
Who Can Use Copyrighted Materials?
Simply because something is copyrighted does not mean you are barred from using it. Depending on the certain factors (purpose, effect, nature, and amount of the use,) you as an educator or student may be protected by 1976 Copyright Act fair use provision, which stipulates that certain limited non-profit, educational uses of copyrighted materials do not constitute an infringement of copyright.
When Can I Use Copyrighted Materials?
If, after reviewing this document, you conclude that your use of the proposed copyrighted materials is protected by fair use, please proceed to reproduce or modify the content as you see fit.
Copyright – A Primer
- What is copyright?
- What is copyrighted?
- What is not copyrighted?
- What protections are afforded?
Fair Use Guidelines
- Introduction to fair use
- Fair use in the classroom and the lab
- Other fair use considerations
- When do I need permission?
- Fair use and copyright myths
The Oxford English Dictionary defines copyright as “the exclusive right given by law for a certain term of years to an author, composer, designer, etc. […], to print, publish, and sell copies of his [sic] original work.” (2010).
The authority to control U.S. copyright law rests with Congress, which is charged with promoting the progress of science and arts by securing authors’ and inventors’ rights to their creations. Congress, in promoting the general welfare, seeks also to promote the progress of knowledge by incentivizing the creation and distribution of new, original works.
Works that satisfy the litmus test—expression in an original, fixed, and creative form—for whether a work can be copyrighted are automatically considered copyrighted. The Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1983 amended previous copyright law by eliminating the need to register for copyright. This does not mean that verbal utterances that are not recorded in any fashion are be copyrighted, but rather any expression that can be fixed to a medium for preservation is afforded copyright protection automatically, as long as it accords with these three principles:
- Originality: the expression must precede other expressions so it may not be a copy of another’s expression. It must be original, a concept that also has gradations of originality. A chronological list of historical dates is not considered original enough while an academic article using those same dates in a creative or intellectual fashion helps to constitute the author’s originality of expression.
- Tangibility: a work must be fixed in a tangible medium. Others must be able to physically access the expression by, for example, watching it on a television, reading it in a book, or hearing it on an mp3 player.
- Minimal Creativity: hard work and sweat alone may not be enough to guarantee copyright protections. To be copyrighted, the work must include content or expression that transcends or exceeds the original. Thankfully, the threshold for minimal creativity is very low.
Certain types of works cannot be copyrighted. Any work residing in the public domain is not afforded copyright protection. The public domain is a protected category of expression such as facts, ideas, words, and works for which copyright was not secured or has expired (always verify as public domain protection is the exception and not the rule). Works and content in the public domain include:
- Facts: you do not need permission to state that the height of Mount Everest is 8,848 meters, even if you found it on Wikipedia or in an encyclopedia. Copyright law does protect the creative selection and arrangement of facts. But a fact is a fact, you cannot copyright it.
- Ideas: your particular idea of a “girl meets boy” story would be copyrighted if it were expressed in an original and creative way. But you cannot claim copyright protections for the basic idea of a story such as “boy meets girl.”
- Slogans: short phrases, names, and words may be protected by trademark law but they do not qualify for copyright protection.
- Blank Forms: these are intended to record rather than convey, so they do not qualify as expressions.
- Government works: judicial rulings and administrative publications are not a protected category.
Copyright law affords creators significant control over their work, including the right to:
- Make copies of a work.
- Create new works based on previous copyrighted work.
- Perform the protected work.
- Sell or distribute copies of a work.
- Receive benefits and compensations based on exercising the previous rights.
Thankfully for libraries, colleges, instructors, and students, there are exemptions to copyright law that limit the rights of the copyright holder. These exemptions are typically grouped together under the Fair Use Doctrine, which, while it may be a formal, written declaration of rights, is not a black and white rule that makes it clear when a use is protected by fair use. Deciding to forgo the permission to use copyrighted material in accordance with fair use is often a balancing act involving four factors:
- Purpose: nonprofit educational uses are more likely to fall under fair use than commercial uses.
- Nature: published, factual or non-fiction works are more likely to qualify for fair use than unpublished and/or highly creative work such as art, fiction, and films.
- Amount: fair use is more likely in effect if the amount in question is small in quantity and not crucial or central to an entire work.
- Effect: the lesser the effect on the potential market your use of copyrighted material has, the more likely it is to be covered under fair use. That is, if you use copyrighted material repeatedly, if you make it accessible to the whole world over the web, or if you make numerous copies, you may have diminished the creator’s ability to exercise the right to claim financial compensation for the use of copyrighted work.
We have a checklist for fair use that helps put your proposed use in the context of fair use. The checklist can be found here.
Fair use favors educational over commercial use, but just because a use is for classroom purposes does not constitute fair use. Once you have verified that the purpose, nature, and effect of your proposed use qualify as fair use, you need to verify that the amount in question is fair use. This is where most questions about copyright on a college campus come into play. You may make copies of the following works according to the rules as long as the purpose, nature, and effect of your use likewise qualify as fair use (taken from US Report House of Representatives 1997 Report 94-1476, Section on Brevity):
- An article from a journal, newspaper, or database.
- A book chapter or excerpts from a book constituting up to one chapter.
- A poem, short story, essay, illustration, and other works:
Poetry: (a) A complete poem if less than 250 words and if printed on not more than two pages or, (b) from a longer poem, an excerpt of not more than 250 words.
- Prose: (a) Either a complete article, story or essay of less than 2,500 words, or (b) an excerpt from any prose work of not more than 1,000 words or 10% of the work, whichever is less, but in any event a minimum of 500 words.
- Illustration: One chart, graph, diagram, drawing, cartoon or picture per book or per periodical issue.
- Special' works: Certain work in poetry, prose or in 'poetic prose' which often combine language with illustrations and which are intended sometimes for children and at other times for a more general audience fall short of 2,500 words in their entirety. Paragraph 'ii' above notwithstanding such 'special works' may not be reproduced in their entirety; however, an excerpt comprising not more than two of the published pages of such special work and containing not more than 10% of the words found in the text thereof, may be reproduced.
But consult with Other fair use considerations (below) for questions of spontaneity and cumulative effect.
So the amount of copyrighted material you have proposed to copy is minimal and accords with the rules and guidelines above. What other considerations might mitigate fair use?
- Spontaneity: “the inspiration and decision to use the work and the moment of its use for maximum teaching effectiveness are so close in time that it would be unreasonable to expect a timely reply to a request for permission” is the government’s way of saying that:
- Requesting permission is preferred but not always necessary, and;
- Even if your use is fair use, you may need to request permission in the future if you intend to use it again (Report 94-1476). So your use is not fair use if you copy from semester to semester as repeated use erodes your claim to minimal or negligible effect on the copyright holder’s rights. By extension, copying the same material for other courses or for other institutions would not be fair use.
- Cumulative Effect: “not more than one short poem, article, story, essay or two excerpts may be copied from the same author, nor more than three from the same collective work or periodical volume during one class term. There shall not be more than nine instances of such multiple copying for one course during one class term.” That is, accumulated uses of one particular author may constitute copyright infringement despite any individual qualification as fair use since the aggregate use violates the amount qualification.
- When you use the materials repeatedly or in a cumulative way that amounts to more than any individual use.
- When your proposed use requires copying or distributing more than 2500 words of a work or the entirety of a work.
- When your proposed use is not for educational purposes.
- I found the material online so it is not copyrighted. Unless your use involves hard facts, assume any content you find online is copyrighted.
- I don’t need permission because no one will know about my use or it will not hurt anyone. Not true. Creators, companies, and corporations routinely seek out uses of their copyrighted material to determine whether it is being used unfairly. Legal communications and action often follow. Deciding whether or not your use constitutes harm is up to the copyright holder, not you.
- The author or creator is deceased, so it has to be in the public domain. False. Copyright law is designed to protect the rights of creators, and those rights currently persist for 70 years after their death. This means that although Picasso died in 1973 and most of his famed works are much older, his works are still copyrighted until 2043 at the earliest.
- Citing the work is enough to qualify for fair use or exculpate me in the case of a violation. While proper citation of borrowed content is in the spirit of academic integrity, it has less to do with determining whether a proposed use is fair. Stated another way, just because one can cite an entire book does not mean you can copy and distribute it in its entirety. | <urn:uuid:961978df-78ea-4542-a387-fd1d7655933a> | CC-MAIN-2016-36 | http://library.nwciowa.edu/policies/copyright | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-36/segments/1471982967784.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20160823200927-00193-ip-10-153-172-175.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.929762 | 2,514 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Regular sample detailed lesson plan in science grade 5 Curriculum Guides for TLE Grade 1 to 10 | DEPED TAMBAYA - Four. Establishing music. Now, elegance i will teach you a technology song. I'm able to sing it first then repeat it afterwards technological know-how is so (captivating 3x) 2x the wonder of lifestyles we have a look at, we infer, we analyze, we describe technological know-how is so charming, the marvel of existence. Objectives at the give up of the lesson, the beginners are expected to: a. Identify the voice of the verb in a given sentence. B. Provide fee the importance of a carabao as guy‟s pleasant friend. C. Rewrite sentences from energetic to passive voice of the verbs and vice versa. Concern matter : the foolish farmer and his carabao lesson: lively and passive voice of verbs reference: dynamic series in english vi pp.116-122 substances used: images, cartolina values infused: admire and love animals method student‟s hobby.
I. Targets: at the stop of the lesson the students must be capable of; 1. 2. Three. Four. Ii. Define what opaque, translucent, and transparent is. Pick out the substances as to opaque, translucent and obvious admire the significance of mild to our each day residing. Classify the substances as to opaque, translucent and transparent subject count:. Pupils do as advised. Graduated cylinder d. What are the requirements to be followed even as having organization pastime. I need you to reply this exercise. Bamboo stick c. Solid 2. Assessment ultimate time we mentioned approximately the three levels of matter. Rock b. Water c. Volume d. Air c. Which of the following can degree the volume of liquid? A. Air (gas) b. Developmental training 1. C. What do you name a country matter which has a particular shape and might occupy space? A. Region d. Water 5.
Be achieved through the scholars then. Which cloth casted a mild shadow? Excellent! While you targeted the light on the clear cellophane what have you ever observe on the mild? Coloured cellophane best small amount of light can pass through the item . Focus the flashlight on cellophane. They'll solution the subsequent questions. 1. Describe the shadow cast by means of the piece of coloured cellophane. Do you see a shadow? 2. E book due to the fact the light cannot bypass through opaque substances now class. Do you notice a shadow? Four. Do the equal at the piece of coloured cellophane. In opaque materials you can't the things in the back of of it. Fill out the subsequent table.) Now. Test an appropriate column. Five. Elegance primarily based from the hobby that you have finished which material casted a shadow? Excellent! Why do you believe you studied that e book casted a shadow? Superb! If the mild can not bypass thru on that object. Which substances cast a shadow? Substances casts a darkish shadow casts a light shadow does no longer solid a shadow at all e book clean cellophane coloured cellophane 6. Discussion (the leader of the organization will provide an explanation for their paintings inside the front. Write on it. Do you have got any idea about sort of material is that? Superb! And aside from that. Do you see a shadow? Three. Based totally from the ones materials. 3. Awareness the flashlight on the ebook then study if the shadow is shaped. Which did now not cast a shadow? 7. | <urn:uuid:eec1b40d-a4d3-4875-be90-534dcfaac6d3> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | http://ota-tech.info/read/regular-sample-detailed-lesson-plan-in-science-grade-5-curriculum-guides-for-tle-grade-1-to-10-deped-tambaya | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571483.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20220811164257-20220811194257-00475.warc.gz | en | 0.919617 | 746 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Today NASA launched two unmanned spacecraft from the Air Force Station from Cape Canaveral in Florida after two days of delay.
The ships, called Grail Grail-A and-B are directed to a point in space 1.5 million kilometers to balance out the gravity of the Sun and Earth carrying two robotic probes to the moon with the hope of discovering what is inside it. The ships are estimated to reach the moon between December 31 and January 1.
They will enter into orbit around the moon and chase in circles. Scientists verify changes in distance between the two spacecraft to measure the gravitational field of the moon.
These sister ships were designed to precisely map the moon’s gravity to help scientists to find out what lies beneath the lunar crust and if the core is solid, liquid, or a combination of both. The mission cost is $ 496 million. | <urn:uuid:51a37aa6-c5df-4879-832e-523563432bac> | CC-MAIN-2021-25 | https://www.ecuadortimes.net/nasa-sends-sister-ships-to-the-moon/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623487621450.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20210615145601-20210615175601-00097.warc.gz | en | 0.951998 | 171 | 3.46875 | 3 |
at least 50 years the Venetian merchants had accepted the depredations
of the Slav pirates centered around the Narenta
[Neretva] River on the Dalmatia coast, sometimes assisted by other Dalmatia
neighbors, as an unavoidable fact of life. Finally, the merchants settled
into a custom of simply paying annually for safe passage through the
Pietro II Orseolo
was of a different mind. From the time of his election as the 24th
Doge of Venice, 991, at the age of 30, he wove a net of diplomacy
through the Northern Adriatic and upper coast of Dalmatia as a foundation
for the total extinction of the Dalmatian pirates and Venice's first
major territorial expansion.
diplomacy to isolate the Narentan Slavs from their neighbors in the
former Roman cities of Dalmatia, Orseolo personally put to sea on
Ascension Day 1000 at the head of one of the mightiest fleets ever
seen in the Adriatic. As the fleet drew near, many of the Narentan
leaders surrendered immediately, without a battle. The islands of
the Narenta delta that remained recalcitrant quickly found their cities
efficiently and methodically assaulted and captured.
Venice in complete triumph, the strength of the pirate lairs broken
forever, the Doge assumed a further title: Duke of Dalmatia. The Dalmatian
cities acknowledged the rule of Venice by agreeing to pay annual tributes.
The 500-year territorial expansion of Venice had begun. | <urn:uuid:697fe582-a126-4d3c-8b52-efa457100bb4> | CC-MAIN-2023-14 | http://boglewood.com/timeline/dalmatia.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296948756.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20230328011555-20230328041555-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.921177 | 349 | 3.828125 | 4 |
A rare earthquake of magnitude 5.9 struck North Korea off its east coast and a nuclear detonation has been ruled out as the cause. The quake occurred at 4.18am local time on Thursday (13 July) at a depth of 537.6 kms below the East Sea, also known as the Sea of Japan.
Both the Pentagon and the US Geological Survey (USGS) said the quake is unlikely to have been triggered by a nuclear test. Major Jamie Davis, a Pentagon spokesman, cited the depth and location from initial reports for ruling out a nuclear test. He added that the Pentagon is monitoring the region for more information.
"It occurred at 500 km below the seabed. There's no way it was caused by a nuclear test. It's a natural earthquake," John Bellini, a geologist with the USGS, told South Korea's Yonhap news agency. Some reports put the quake's magnitude at 5.8 and 6.
USGS experts said a quake of this magnitude in the region is rare. The previous occasion when a large quake hit this area of the Sea of Japan was thought to be in 2004.
North Korea's previous nuclear tests had triggered seismic events in the region, but the tests are usually underground on land and not underwater. The country has conducted five underground nuclear tests since 2006 with the last two detonations taking place in 2016.
Thursday's quake occurred amid widespread concerns that Pyongyang could carry out its sixth nuclear detonation as part of its efforts to strengthen its nuclear and missile programmes. | <urn:uuid:afaeb4fa-559b-442d-b902-76da137385d5> | CC-MAIN-2017-43 | http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/5-9-magnitude-earthquake-strikes-north-korea-sea-japan-nuclear-detonation-ruled-out-1630110 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187822513.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20171017215800-20171017235800-00810.warc.gz | en | 0.969832 | 313 | 2.90625 | 3 |
How well do you really know your dog? Like most trainers and competitors, Nancy Tanner of Bozeman, Montana, assumed she knew hers inside out – until some whales and their trainers taught her an important lesson. You too can adopt the simple technique she learned at a marine mammal park to improve canine interactions at all levels.
Tanner’s path of discovery began five years ago at Sea World in San Diego, California, where she took a behind-the-scenes tour.
“I chose ‘Lunch with the Orca Trainers,’ and it changed my whole approach to training,” she says. “In addition to enjoying great food, I got to watch the whales and ask questions. Sea World’s training program is impressive, but what they require from their trainers in knowledge, observation, and applied skills is even more so. I came away realizing that I might not know my dogs as well as I thought.”
What caught Tanner’s attention was the whales’ “free-time pool.” In this large, safe, comfortable environment, whales do whatever they like. Sometimes the pool is occupied by a single whale and sometimes by two or more. Trainers are always present but they never initiate activity. They simply watch and wait.
Occasionally the trainers add interactive objects such as beach balls, chunks of ice, or a bird kite on a tall pole. If a whale jumps for the kite the way orcas in the wild leap at low-flying birds, the trainer can acknowledge this with a whistle, but that is all. Shaping and luring are not allowed. If the whale initiates play, the trainer plays the whale’s game and does whatever that particular whale likes best, such as scratching his tongue, pouring water into his mouth, or throwing ice balls into his mouth. There are no food rewards. The free-time pool is used to build the trainer/animal bond but the two interact only if the whale wants to. The pool is never used for active training.
Tanner, who runs workshops and competes with her own dogs in agility and canine freestyle, thought for weeks about what free-time insights might contribute to her dog training. She started practicing what she calls “Observation Without Direction.”
“I wanted to come into my dogs’ world and learn by following their lead, not mine,” she says. “So I started to plan a free time routine by replicating, as much as possible, the whales’ free-time pool.”
This was at first a challenge because most of the areas she and her dogs visited were associated in some way with training. “I realized that my house, yard, and training field wouldn’t work for this project at all,” she says, “and what I had thought of as ‘free time’ while hiking actually involved working with my dogs the whole time.”
Tanner decided to look for an area she had never used for training. “It had to have boundaries for safety,” she says, “so that I would never have to call or correct them. No other dogs could be present except my own and no other people unless they were family. There could also not be any large distractions that would reward the dogs in a big way. Small self-rewards would be fine. In addition to being safe and free from distractions, it had to be a dog-friendly environment.”
She chose a trail that has streams and trees with a steep drop on one side, a steep hill on the other, and a large meadow at the end.
“We go once or twice a week,” says Tanner. “I have no rules when we get out on this specific remote trail. The dogs can sniff, run, sit, follow, or do whatever they like. It’s up to them. I don’t bring food or toys. If they pick up a stick and initiate a game with me, I play fetch with the stick. If they play their I-am-going-to-lie-down-and-stalk-you hide-and-seek game, I will pop behind a tree and play. I initiate nothing. This free time is on their terms. We usually go for half an hour to two hours, depending on my day.”
What The Dogs Did
What did Tanner’s dogs show her, and how has Observation Without Direction changed their training?
“There is trust and relationship on both ends now,” she says. “When my dogs and I work, they are way more engaged. Our relationship isn’t just about what I want to do and the dogs doing learned behaviors. It’s about them taking part in my interests and me taking part in theirs. It is important to note that free time is not putting a dog in the backyard and then going inside to cook dinner. The trainer is working hard by observing and being attentive and intentional. There is a simple bit of magic to watching dogs and really being observant.”
Tanner’s dogs are very different from each other, and now their differences define her approach to training.
“Story is an amazing dog,” she says of her six-year-old Border Collie. “Honest and balanced is the best way to describe him. He enjoys dogs, people, work, play, and eating. He is a dog’s dog. What free time showed me was that he is inventive and all about ‘the game.’ He is always thinking up new games and keeping things light and fun. If he had a motto it would be, ‘Walk lightly and carry a big stick; fetch is way more fun that way.’”
While Story has always been a willing partner, Tanner never felt that she was tapping into all of him. “He was almost too polite,” she says. “Through free time I observed that he liked to keep the party going. He was always inventing new games with either me or the other dogs. His self-reward is sharing his enthusiasm for games and including those around him. I have never observed him playing a game by himself. He always wants to include others. This was very cool for me as I knew how I could use this in training. Lightbulb!”
Tanner turned Story’s training into a big game, and this approach has made them partners in competition and in life. “There is no leader or owner. We come at it together. Whether it is freestyle, agility, hiking, or fun tricks, his pay-off is the interaction of the game. It also holds me accountable for being there 100 percent when I step out with him. There is no half way in anything we do together.”
Ocean, an eight-year-old Border Collie/Australian Shepherd, was a shy puppy. “At seven weeks,” says Tanner, “she was spooky and cautious. I worked for years building her confidence slowly but consistently through tricks, play with a purpose, agility, freestyle, and herding. Dog sports are where she shines because it is all work. Working became her safe place.
“Ocean is an amazing competition dog and loves to learn new things, but what I discovered through free time is that she did not have confidence outside of working. She did not want to explore or interact with the environment without my direction and was unsure of making choices on her own. It took her a year or two to leave me during free time, but once she started trying new things (digging, rolling in scat, exploring streams) all on her own, I saw another layer to my dog and watched her confidence grow. She is learning that choices are good, exploring can be wonderful, and if she needs to check in, I am always there.”
The first time Ocean felt comfortable enough to walk away from Tanner, she found elk scat and enjoyed herself immensely. She had never before shown any interest in scat, but after that experience, she sat taller and walked with all four paws solidly on the ground.
“This was a breakthrough for us,” says Tanner. “To this day she rolls in elk, deer, and coyote scat with gusto, and you cannot diminish her enthusiasm afterwards. While she will always have some cautiousness, she has more balance than ever before. In agility I let her decide whether she wants me close or needs more distance. In freestyle, if she renegotiates the path, we go with it. She is amazing and one of the most fun dogs to work with!”
Franny, an 11-year-old mixed breed, had low motivation for training and was never interested in human-directed activity. “Nothing got her involved,” says Tanner. “Tricks, agility, play with a purpose, fetch, tug, none of this was of interest to her, even in small spurts. She would patiently watch me go through my motions and slowly walk away. She showed zero interest even when I tried to hand her a steak.”
During free time, Tanner observed that Franny had stealth hunting skills, that her prey drive was alive and well, and her motivation was high. “She was focused and tenacious, so I brought this into her training. I would ask her for one small thing, maybe come to me in the house, and then say YES! and throw a meatball across the room. The reward of orienting, stalking, chasing, catching, and eating the meatball made a powerful impact on our training and relationship. I found a way to reach her through what she found highly rewarding. She is almost 12 now and still enjoys learning new things. I adore working with her.”
$eeker, a three-year-old Border Collie, has always lacked dog social skills and is more interested in people.
“In free time,” says Tanner, “I learned that $eeker is a mimic, and this caught me totally by surprise. He doesn’t just follow the lead of my other dogs, he copies what they are doing. I found this interesting because he lacks the ability to read canine social cues, so it was almost as if he was ‘trying’ through imitating. I noticed that if Ocean rolled in something, he did it next to her. If Story runs circles, he runs circles, too. If Franny was licking her paws, he would lick his paws, too. If Ocean marked, he would mark.
“I started bringing one of my other dogs when working with $eeker. For example, if I was chaining a complicated sequence, I would work with Ocean and then $eeker, and flip back and forth. He caught on faster this way than if I worked him by himself.”
Putting the Plan Into Action
As soon as she felt confident describing Observation Without Direction and the benefits of free-time training, Nancy Tanner began sharing her insights in workshops, online forums, and seminars. It didn’t take long for the technique to change canine lives.
Katie Tracanna lives in Dennis, Massachusetts, with six dogs. One of them, a six-year-old Shepherd/Border Collie named Wiley Coyote, competes with her in musical freestyle, trains for rally competition, makes therapy dog visits, and is an enthusiastic running partner.
After she discovered Tanner’s ideas in an online workshop, Tracanna found a perfect free-time location at the beach. “You have to walk a ways to get to the spot,” she says, “but when you do, you’re surrounded by sea grass, sand, and the ocean. It’s a perfect place for free time with Wiley because I can see for a mile in all directions, so I don’t have to worry about anyone approaching when I want to just let him ‘be.’ And that’s what we do when we reach this spot. Wiley makes the rules. He can engage with me, swim, run the beach, and basically do whatever he wants for as long as we’re out there.
“Usually, he entertains himself for a few minutes and then starts engaging me in some sort of game, which could be chase, digging in the sand where I’m sitting, running around in a large circle, or a ‘bash brothers’ game where he likes to slam into me like a wrestler. We’ve modified these games to include in our training sessions as rewards, and they’ve helped build our bond because there are no limitations. It’s just us being in the moment together, cueing off each other and having fun.”
In Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, retired dog judge Sue Ailsby has shared her life with Chihuahuas, Miniature Schnauzers, MinPins, Australian Cattle Dogs, Portuguese Water Dogs, and 17 generations of Giant Schnauzers. A trainer and competitor, her main interests are research, learning, teaching, bonding, and refining skills in service dog training, conformation, obedience, rally, agility, sled racing, scent hurdle racing, tracking, nose work, treiball, herding, carting, duck hunting, and tracking.
“I was taught as a child that the dog is my enemy,” she says, “and both his mind and body must be mastered. When I realized that the dog should be, at worst, a junior partner, it changed everything. Having a friend doesn’t mean imposing my own opinions on that friend, always doing what I want to do. If you’re going to be friends, you have to honor the other person’s opinions and let her choose. It’s the same with dogs. Giving the dog respected downtime hugely increases the bond and the dog’s desire and willingness to work for and with me.”
When she first read Tanner’s comments about the free-time pool, where the whales can do whatever they want and nothing is required of them, Ailsby says the idea hit her over the head like a sledgehammer.
“It’s true that Scuba and Stitch, my Portuguese Water Dogs, can usually choose to interact with me, but I don’t usually choose to reciprocate. My dogs know that when I’m working on the computer, they might get a momentary tug or a ball-toss out of me, but after that I give them the ‘leave me alone, I’m working’ hand signal. When I’m talking on the phone, I’ll probably pet them, but not tug or toss. When I’m doing chores, they follow me around and get in my way, but all I’m doing with them is getting them out of my way without kicking them in the head. When I’m lying down, they can jump on the bed, but they have to lie down.
“I realized that I have no trouble being ‘present’ when training – training makes the whole rest of the world go away – but there was no time when I was in the dog’s world. That night Stitch and I went to the guest room in the basement to see what she would like to say to me when I’m actually listening.”
Now, says Ailsby, the dogs have faith that when they speak, she will listen. “This makes all training, as well as living with the dogs, easier because the dogs no longer think or behave as if they need to ‘shout’ at me to have me hear them. I recommend Observation Without Direction and free-time sessions to everyone who wants better, closer relationships with their dogs.”
Freelance writer CJ Puotinen lives in Montana, where she enjoys observing Chloe (her Labrador Retriever) and Seamus (her husband’s Cairn Terrier) in the great outdoors. She is the author of The Encyclopedia of Natural Pet Care and other books and a frequent contributor to WDJ. | <urn:uuid:d0e08934-d7a5-4043-a0f3-0f6a9ee5d611> | CC-MAIN-2019-30 | https://www.whole-dog-journal.com/training/an-observation-technique-that-will-improve-your-dog-training/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-30/segments/1563195526799.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20190720235054-20190721021054-00352.warc.gz | en | 0.980578 | 3,423 | 2.546875 | 3 |
A few years ago, Marthe (UG psychology student) found out that her dad had Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). Not only was she and her family struck by the devastating symptoms of the disease, also were they confronted with the consequences of stigma. She writes about her experiences and importantly gives some suggestions how to prevent stigma around this disease.
There is a problem with the treatment of first responders that badly needs our attention: how do we make sure that first responders receive help and, more generally, how can the burdensome stigma of mental healthcare be suppressed?
Adults with ADHD are at high risk to be confronted with negative attitudes and beliefs which can be described as stigmatization. In our research group at the Department of Clinical and Developmental Neuropsychology, we developed a disease specific assessment tool, measuring various facets of stigmatization towards adults with ADHD. | <urn:uuid:55523ddf-30b2-4639-b8b2-ab5063856dc1> | CC-MAIN-2021-31 | https://mindwise-groningen.nl/tag/stigmatization/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046151972.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20210726000859-20210726030859-00426.warc.gz | en | 0.976235 | 174 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Definition of International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice (French: Cour internationale de Justice; commonly referred to as the World Court or ICJ) is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands. Its main functions are to settle legal disputes submitted to it by states and to provide advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorized international organs, agencies, and the UN General Assembly.
Established in 1945 by the UN Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court.
The Court's workload covers a wide range of judicial activity. To date, the ICJ has dealt with relatively few cases. However, since the 1980s there has been a clear increase in willingness to use the Court, especially among developing countries. After the court ruled that the U.S.'s covert war against Nicaragua was in violation of international law (Nicaragua v. United States), the United States withdrew from compulsory jurisdiction in 1986. The United States accepts the court's jurisdiction only on a case-by-case basis. Chapter XIV of the United Nations Charter authorizes the UN Security Council to enforce World Court rulings. However, such enforcement is subject to the veto power of the five permanent members of the Council. Presently there are twelve cases on the World Court's docket.
The ICJ is composed of fifteen judges elected to nine year terms by the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council from a list of persons nominated by the national groups in the Permanent Court of Arbitration. The election process is set out in Articles 4-19 of the ICJ statute. Judges serve for one year terms and may be re-elected for up to two further terms. Elections take place every three years, with one-third of the judges retiring (and possibly standing for re-election) each time, in order to ensure continuity within the court.
Should a judge die in office, the practice has generally been to elect a judge of the same nationality to complete the term. No two may be nationals of the same country. According to Article 9, the membership of the Court is supposed to represent the "main forms of civilization and of the principal legal systems of the world". Essentially, this has meant common law, civil law and socialist law (now post-communist law). Since the 1990s four of the five permanent members of the Security Council (France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) have always had a judge on the Court. The exception was China (the Republic of China until 1971, the People's Republic of China from 1971 onwards), which did not have a judge on the Court from 1967-1985, because it did not put forward a candidate. The rule on a geopolitical composition of the bench exists despite the fact that there is no provision for it in the Statute of the ICJ.
Judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate opinions. Decisions and Advisory Opinions are by majority and, in the event of an equal division, the President's vote becomes decisive. Judges may also deliver separate dissenting opinions.
As stated in Article 93 of the UN Charter, all 193 UN members are automatically parties to the Court's statute. Non-UN members may also become parties to the Court's statute under the Article 93(2) procedure. For example, before becoming a UN member state, Switzerland used this procedure in 1948 to become a party. And Nauru became a party in 1988. Once a state is a party to the Court's statute, it is entitled to participate in cases before the Court. However, being a party to the statute does not automatically give the Court jurisdiction over disputes involving those parties. The issue of jurisdiction is considered in the two types of ICJ cases: contentious issues and advisory opinions.
When deciding cases, the Court applies international law as summarised in Article 38 of the ICJ Statute provides that in arriving at its decisions the Court shall apply international conventions, international custom, and the "general principles of law recognized by civilized nations". It may also refer to academic writing ("the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations") and previous judicial decisions to help interpret the law, although the Court is not formally bound by its previous decisions under the doctrine of stare decisis. Article 59 makes clear that the common law notion of precedent or stare decisis does not apply to the decisions of the ICJ. The Court's decision binds only the parties to that particular controversy. Under 38(1)(d), however, the Court may consider its own previous decisions. In reality, the ICJ rarely departs from its own previous decisions and treats them as precedent in a way similar to superior courts in common law systems. Additionally, international lawyers commonly operate as though ICJ judgments had precedential value.
If the parties agree, they may also grant the Court the liberty to decide ex aequo et bono ("in justice and fairness"), granting the ICJ the freedom to make an equitable decision based on what is fair under the circumstances. This provision has not been used in the Court's history. So far the International Court of Justice has dealt with about 130 cases.
- Wiktionary. Published under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. | <urn:uuid:607674e3-5b1f-433b-bb32-97be01447778> | CC-MAIN-2020-24 | https://dictionary.lawyerment.com/topic/International_Court_of_Justice/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590348523564.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200607044626-20200607074626-00345.warc.gz | en | 0.958599 | 1,114 | 3.890625 | 4 |
Lift every voice and sing…
by Victor Leslie, Major –
As we come to the end of another Black History Month, I chronicle some reflections on our rich heritage and legacy as African Americans and challenge our readers to make a commitment to “bring Good News to the poor…proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the oppressed will be set free, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (Luke 4:18-19).
Our history and legacy are characterized by heartbreaking hardship, fighting faith and tremendous triumph. It is a legacy of a people fortified through the bonds of family and by the grace and promise of God. It is a legacy that still mystifies others as to how our people took on a system of racism, exploitation, outright humiliation, degradation, and discrimination with such dignity, courage and determination—and persevered. It is a history of dismantling, brick by brick, the Berlin Wall of segregation, bringing it crashing down to open new pathways of opportunities for liberty, justice, equality and economic development. Yes, ours is a rich heritage and legacy that we must recapture, retell, remember and respect, not just to bring some permanence to our own history but to also challenge current thinking about our level of progress. As Malcolm X said, “History is a people’s memory…we have to know something of the background in order to address ourselves to the present.”
Without doubt, our past has many rich valuable lessons to help us understand ourselves, but we cannot become trapped in the past if we want to confidently chart a course for the future. The reality is that the past is dead, the present is alive and the future, although unborn, is awaiting us. Our time calls us to move beyond the old walls and use our new freedom to actively evaluate innovative ways to carry on with our calling, responsibility and obligation to stand up and speak “the word of truth, by the power of God” (2 Corinthians 6:7), no matter how painful it may be.
In a society where we applaud and celebrate every African American “first” as a collective victory, let us not forget the disproportionate presence of African Americans at the bottom of America’s ladder of socioeconomic injustice. In our cities “where the scars of past discrimination still contaminate and disfigure the present, let us not close our eyes to it and declare there is a level playing field and hope that it will go away by itself” (Colin Powell). In a world still marked by intense class divisions and social inequality, let us not cloak ourselves in the dangerous myth that the health and safety of our neighbors is not our problem. As Archbishop Desmond Tutu says, “We can ultimately be free only together, we can be human only together, we can be prosperous only together and we can be safe and secure only together.” To do otherwise, would dishonor God, for we cannot love God if we fail to love our neighbors (1 John 4:20-21).
In this 21st century, as we gather at the river of time to celebrate the context and content of our African American history, let us gratefully pause to reflect on the sacrificial involvement of the thousands of African Americans, unwilling to remain the suffering invisible mass, “fighting to conquer their past, hoping to revel and flourish in the present and determined to gain a successful and prosperous future.” But like “Old Man River,” we must keep rolling on, moving forward with new vision, inspiration, courage and strength to finish the unfinished symphony.
I encourage you to join me and make the choice to not hide in the shadows but instead step forward and make our voices be heard, trusting God to help us find the heart, the language, the caring and the confidence to embrace and sustain his mission to confront sin and to articulate a vision of transformation far beyond that which any man can offer. Only through the actions of brave Christian people can we continue to make the needed changes for a positive future. “We must rise to this moment. To do this, we must be the shapers of events, not just observers, for if we let this moment pass, we may lose the possibilities of the future” (Shirley Franklin).
“Lift every voice and sing…a song full of the faith that the dark past has taught us, a song full of the hope that the present has brought us; facing the rising sun of our new day begun, let us march on till victory is won.” | <urn:uuid:c412c50b-48aa-4693-bf91-3b168918d511> | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | https://caringmagazine.org/lift-every-voice-and-sing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243988741.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20210506053729-20210506083729-00322.warc.gz | en | 0.935478 | 947 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Do you ever wonder why so much organic food also carries animal welfare labels?
The short answer is that while the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) organic standards are very precise about pesticides and other growing practices for the crops people and animals eat, it doesn’t include very many specific instructions about the way the animals themselves are raised.
“When people pick up organic milk, they’re expecting that the cows are out on pasture most of the time,” says Luke Meerman, one of the farmers behind Michigan-based Grassfields Cheese. And he’s right. In a phone survey conducted for the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), 68 percent of the consumers contacted said they expected that animals raised on organic farms “have access to outdoor pasture and fresh air throughout the day.” Similarly, 67 percent said they believe “animals have significantly more space to move than on non-organic farms.”
But as Meerman, whose family runs a 90-cow farmstead cheese operation, can attest, organic certification doesn’t require either full-time pasture access or more space for the animals. That’s one reason his family has chosen to add the Animal Welfare Approved (AWA) label to its line of cheese.
“Organic is about what the cow is eating and what you’re doing to the land,” Meerman says. “AWA is about the cow.” He takes special care to manage his animals’ pain, and keep young cows with their mothers for a week after they’re born, for example. And those are just two of the many welfare practices that organic doesn’t require.
“There are lofty ideals in the current standards,” says Suzanne McMillan director of the ASPCA’s Farm Animal Welfare campaign. “There are references to ability to engage in natural behavior, comfort behavior, the reduction of stress. But the USDA organic program really is failing to meet both the spirit of organic and consumer expectations around animal welfare.”
For as long as federal organic standards have existed, a group of farmers, consumer advocates, and scientists, called the National Organic Standards Board (NOSB), have helped shape those rules. The board has long been aware of gaps in the animal welfare portion of the regulations, so in 2011, it issued a set of detailed formal recommendations to the USDA. In a rare instance of consensus, every NOSB member signed off on the board’s recommendations.
The organic rules already included a few general recommendations for treating animals well, such as the Organic Pasture Rule, which requires farmers to allow cows and other ruminants to graze for at least 120 days a year. But for laying hens and other poultry, the rules are much less specific.
The NOSB’s proposed rules aim to fix that. They include space requirements for poultry, specifying two square feet per bird. The NOSB also recommended requiring farmers to note how many animals die on their farms before slaughter—something USDA currently doesn’t document, but can serve as an important indicator of general welfare.
Arriving at the space requirement for poultry wasn’t easy, says small-scale organic farmer and NOSB member Colehour Bondera.
“We discussed the whole potential range of space options, up to and including a full-time pasture requirement,” he recalls. NOSB members heard from a range of poultry industry spokespeople. “The people running the large production facilities said, ‘we can’t shift our operations this way.’ Those number kept going around and around in circles, for over 6 months.”
In the end, they landed on two square feet, which Bondera describes as “ludicrously minimal.” But the NOSB acquiesced, he says, because “it was like, ‘Let’s make it so there’s some bare minimums here.'”
Nearly four years after that initial proposal, the agency is finally poised to issue a proposed rule by the end of this year.
According to a spokesperson for the USDA, the rules will be “based on the NOSB’s recommendations,” but just how closely they follow the details of the recommendations will not be entirely clear until the department releases its draft and takes public comments.
In March, 14 animal welfare, food, and agriculture organizations sent a letter to the USDA expressing support for the National Organic Program move to set new standards and urging them to move swiftly. The letter reads: “Consumers mistakenly believe that organically raised animals are raised more humanely when, in truth, there is often little difference between conventional and organic production in terms of animal treatment” and asks that the NOP “establish minimum space requirements for all species.”
Does Size Matter?
Big growers and processors now make up a sizable portion of the organic market; in fact, many small-scale producers have been crowded out of the very sector they helped create.
“The problem, when you talk about the organic industry, is that it’s everything from your small farmer to the largest egg producer in the U.S., who has an organic line,” says Dena Jones, director of the Farm Animal Program at the Animal Welfare Institute. “The consumer has no way of knowing, without doing a lot of research, whether this is a good product in terms of animal welfare or not.”
Many organic advocates point out that because of their size and influence, large farms and organic food companies tend to shape policies. “The truth is that the NOSB is made up primarily of people representing large entities that are looking out for their own bottom line,” Bondera says.
And large farms often have the most to lose when higher standards are put in place. In 2012, a year after the NOSB’s recommendations, the USDA conducted an economic impact analysis of poultry raised with a range of animal welfare standards. The study found that birds with more living space (two square feet per bird) and with more consistent access to the outdoors would cause the price of organic eggs to “increase substantially” among large organic egg producers and “likely cause a substantial number of producers to exit organic production and switch to conventional production.”
While fewer, more expensive organic eggs would mean fewer choices for consumers, some advocates would welcome the shift. Jones feels that the economic side of the argument has won out for too long. It’s time for organic agriculture to adhere to “what’s in the animal’s best interest,” she says, “and not just what’s in the best interest of the bottom line.” | <urn:uuid:cc49b70e-f8b8-4e08-ada6-1cca63d8cfff> | CC-MAIN-2018-51 | http://civileats.com/2015/04/23/just-because-your-chicken-is-organic-doesnt-mean-it-was-raised-humanely/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376826856.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20181215105142-20181215131142-00119.warc.gz | en | 0.960312 | 1,430 | 2.53125 | 3 |
LEADERS OF THE PACK
“Did you know birds have language?” I was asked this question by a friend who was relatively experienced in the outdoors—a successful big-game hunter and hiker of fourteeners. I was surprised. Of course bird calls mean something, but she had been to some recent outdoor training and the idea that birds communicated was a revelation.
Most bird calls are territorial—essentially, the bird is telling other males to “bug-off” while providing a “come-on” to stray females. Learning calls is a great way to find and identify birds. In the spring and early summer that’s the best way to find birds. You can walk along and, for some common birds, hear the next one on territory and the next and the next as you walk along a trail.
But what about in the fall when birds aren’t on territory? How do you find migrant warblers if they aren’t singing their characteristic, territorial songs? One of the best ways is to listen for chickadees. In a patch of aspen woods that I know well, I hear chickadee territorial calls in the spring and then I don’t hear the birds at all. They become furtive while nesting. Once it is autumn, however, the woods are either silent, or there is the incessant nasal “de-de-de” emitted by a group of black-capped chickadees.
My question was “how do you find migrant warblers?" What does that have to do with chickadees? Simple, chickadees are active and noisy. Usually, their calls serve the purpose of telling the rest of the group “I’m here.” “Now, I’m here.” “Now, here.”But, if a hawk is spotted or a noisy human, the calls become strident. The chickadee alarm call is well-known to most people, and it certainly is to other birds. So, it makes sense. If you are a migrant warbler having just flown in from Canada or Montana, attach yourself to a group of local chickadees. They know where to feed. They make plenty of noise so you can stay with the group in unfamiliar terrain, and they collectively sound the alarm if there’s something amiss.
Back to the walk in the woods…it is quiet…nothing singing, nothing moving. Then you hear some chickadees. Check it out. Here they come—often 4 to 6 or more, just talking away. The trick is not be entertained too much by the chickadees hanging upside down and flitting quickly from bush to bush. Instead, look for the other birds in the flock. They are there. On a recent walk, I saw orange-crowned, yellow-rumped and yellow warblers with a flock of chickadees.
Another flock had only a large group of Wilson’s warblers—the little guys with the black cap that breed in Colorado’s high mountains and further north into Canada.
Any time of year it is worth checking out a group of chickadees. Several of our year-around residents also travel in chickadee flocks—especially downy woodpeckers and white-breasted nuthatches. This post provided by Nic Korte, Grand Valley Audubon Society. Send questions/comments to firstname.lastname@example.org]To learn more and to participate in the activities of Grand Valley Audubon, send an email to email@example.com and “like” us on Facebook!] | <urn:uuid:5b90914b-8cb4-466c-8fab-9b89f284cf61> | CC-MAIN-2015-35 | http://www.gjsentinel.com/blogs/birds_and_more/entry/leaders-of-the-pack/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-35/segments/1440645359523.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20150827031559-00256-ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954797 | 769 | 3.421875 | 3 |
Shocked quartz in distal ejecta from the Ries impact event (Germany) found at ~ 180 km distance, near Bernhardzell, eastern Switzerland
Summary, in English
Impact ejecta formation and emplacement is of great importance when it comes to understanding the process of impact cratering and consequences of impact events in general. Here we present a multidisciplinary investigation of a distal impact ejecta layer, the Blockhorizont, that occurs near Bernhardzell in eastern Switzerland. We provide unambiguous evidence that this layer is impact-related by confirming the presence of shocked quartz grains exhibiting multiple sets of planar deformation features. Average shock pressures recorded by the quartz grains are ~ 19 GPa for the investigated sample. U–Pb dating of zircon grains from bentonites in close stratigraphic context allows us to constrain the depositional age of the Blockhorizont to ~ 14.8 Ma. This age, in combination with geochemical and paleontological analysis of ejecta particles, is consistent with deposition of this material as distal impact ejecta from the Ries impact structure, located ~ 180 km away, in Germany. Our observations are important for constraining models of impact ejecta emplacement as ballistically and non-ballistically transported fragments, derived from vastly different depths in the pre-impact target, occur together within the ejecta layer. These observations make the Ries ejecta one of the most completely preserved ejecta deposit on Earth for an impact structure of that size.
- ISSN: 2045-2322 | <urn:uuid:c5c4b563-0f5a-466c-be7c-de8b3d21fad4> | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | https://www.geologi.lu.se/sanna-alwmark/publication/50c1438f-6e02-4962-a932-e02ce56eae3d | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500288.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20230205193202-20230205223202-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.888103 | 353 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Wikipedia and Britannica
The Kid’s All Right (And So’s the Old Man)
by Paula Berinstein | Consultant, Berinstein Research
Many Searcher readers, especially those of us who went to library school, remember the hushed reverence with which the 11th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the last published in the U.K., was spoken. Here was a classic work of scholarship that was so definitive, so monumental, that it was still unmatched decades after its completion in 1911.
So it is perhaps with mixed feelings that we regard the upstart Wikipedia [http://www.wikipedia.org]. The bottom-up, dynamic, nonprofit, Web-based encyclopedia continues to mushroom in popularity (about 2.5 billion page views per month) and size (more than 873,000 articles and 43,000 contributors associated with the English-language version, and more than 89,000 total volunteers working on over 2,550,000 articles in more than 200 languages). And as it grows, a battle of sorts has emerged between it and the iconic Britannica (which now contains over 65,000 articles and 35 percent updated content in the 2005 print edition and more than 120,000 in the online edition). The Britannica also now appears online as well as in hard copy, DVD, and CD-ROM. The most blatant symbol of the battle is Wikipedia’s page devoted to correcting errors in Britannica.
The primary question for info pros is, of course, reliability. Can "the public" concoct and maintain a free, authoritative encyclopedia that’s unbiased, complete, and reliable? If not, then Britannica may rest on its laurels and its good name, although with the Web so free and accessible, it’s been taking licks for some years. But if the answer is "Yes," what happens to that shining beacon of scholarship, its publishers, and its academic contributors? Is encyclopedia publishing a "zero sum" game?
To address the question, let’s first look at the contributors to each. Wikipedia’s are volunteers, including a core group of about 2,000, and you know what they say about volunteers. Managing them is like herding cats. But, like cats, these volunteers manage themselves pretty well, a feat that seems next to dumbfounding. An international nonprofit, the Wikimedia Foundation, manages the infrastructure and pays the bills, but it doesn’t run the endeavor in a top-down fashion.
What characterizes these volunteers? For sure they have online access. They’re skilled in using wikis, which implies a certain level of both intelligence and geekiness. And oh yes, Wikipedia’s contributors are people with time on their hands, for sustained participation takes time.
Why do they contribute? In today’s busy world with time at such a premium and most of us overworked, who would take the time from their busy schedule on a regular basis to do careful research and meticulous writing? Articles aren’t signed, so it can’t be for the glory, although Wikipedia leader Jimmy Wales says that recognition within the community, where you do get known, serves as a powerful motivator for some. Some contributors may harbor personal or organizational agendas, but with a bunch of picky people overseeing their contributions, expression of those agendas in articles is not likely to last long.
Surveys of open source project participants have found that some sort of public interest or community spirit is often part of the motive. These enterprises offer an opportunity to contribute to something that has lasting value and will continue to grow. Open source publishing allows writers and software developers to apply their skills outside a strictly business environment. Casual writers and editors sometimes participate as a hobby or learning experience.
Wikipedia leader Jimmy Wales confirms these results and describes Wikipedia volunteers in this way:
They’re mostly in their late twenties and thirties, professionals, some graduate students, some professors. Lots of geeks who are working in Wikipedia outside their field of expertise. The example I like to give would be of a math professor who works on Elizabethan history articles. Part of the motivation that people have for doing this is that in our modern world, people are strongly encouraged by the organization of society to specialize in some area, but they may be very well-rounded intellectually. So math professors really focus on a very, very narrow subset of mathematics and professional work, but they have broad intellectual interests and really enjoy having the opportunity to interact with people intellectually on other types of subjects.
So I’d say the main two motivations people have are the big picture charitable goal, the idea that we’re doing something to give a free encyclopedia to every single person on the planet. And then also just the fun of doing it. It’s just like lots of geek fun to get on and start working with people.
Wales does not know if any "Wikipedians" write for other encyclopedias.
Britannica ’s contributors are chosen for their professional expertise. As the company’s literature says, they are "Nobel Prize winners, authors, curators, and other experts." Another blurb says, "Most are authors, university professors, commentators, museum curators, scientists, and other experts chosen for their field expertise." These writers get paid for their work on the encyclopedia and they get bylines.
Tom Panelas, director of corporate communications at Britannica, says:
… essentially we look for the best expert on every subject and try to commission an article from him or her. We’ve had good luck most of the time. Our contributors have included Einstein, Freud, Marie Curie, and more than 100 Nobel laureates, including many that write for us today, such as Milton Friedman. Top historians such as Joseph Ellis and Robert Dallek are among our contributors today.
We go about selecting these people through a number of means. Our editors are knowledgeable in the subjects they cover, and we also have many outside scholars and experts advising us, such as our editorial board, which itself has several Nobel Prize winners and university presidents.
These people oversee our staff editors, give them guidance, and suggest contributors and other advisors to us. We have about 4,800 contributors worldwide.
Asked whether any Britannica contributors write for Wikipedia, Panelas says:
Not that we know of. I think it’s unlikely. Our contributors tend to be busy and serious people who expect to be paid for their work. They also want their handiwork respected and taken seriously, and few would want to submit something that would be subject to the whims of someone who knows little or nothing about the subject.
Wikipedia’s slogan is "the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit." As librarian K. G. Schneider points out in her blog, Free Range Librarian [http://freerangelibrarian.com/archives/052905/wikipedia.php], this description is aimed at Wikipedia’s content providers and maintainers, not its readers. In his first law, "Books are for use," library theoretician Ranganathan meant that "information does not exist to please and amuse its creators or curators," explains Schneider. "As a common good, information can only be assessed in context of the needs of its users."
Who exactly are the users of both Britannica and Wikipedia?
Britannica’s Panelas says, "Our customers tend to be knowledge and information seekers, a broad group consisting of students, professionals, and lifelong learners. They tend to be better educated than the population as a whole, or they aspire to be. Beyond that they share few demographic characteristics."
Wikipedia’s users are potentially everyone under the sun. Because it has versions in about 200 languages, its reach is potentially far greater than that of Britannica. Britannica offers only an English-language version, although the company does produce other works in other languages.
So not only do the characteristics of Wikipedia’s and Britannica’s contributors differ, so do their audiences. Wikipedia’s audience is far more general than that of Britannica, which implies that its mission and scope must be so as well.
When asked about Wikipedia’s mission, Wales says that the most important thing about Wikipedia is that:
… by free, we mean freely licensed. So free in the sense of GNU or in the sense of open source software so people can take our work, and they can copy it, modify it, redistribute it. They can do all this freely, commercially or non-commercially.… Then when people are working in Wikipedia, they can feel comfortable that their work won’t ever be made proprietary. It’s a gift from the Wikipedians to all of humanity, and that’s really a core value for us.
This statement makes it sound as though the mission is primarily related to intellectual property. But on Wikipedia’s e-mail list, Wales says," It is my intention that we be valued for completeness and coherency and ‘brilliant prose’ *as well as* for being freely licensed, with magnificent breadth and speed and usefulness, etc."
Wikipedia’s community pages assert that its goal is to create a free, democratic, reliable encyclopedia, the largest encyclopedia in history in terms of both breadth and depth. Wikipedia itself defines "encyclopedia" as a written compendium of knowledge.
Panelas describes Britannica’s mission:
To publish highly useful works of superior quality in the broad areas of reference, education, and learning in all media and for all ages. Reference, encyclopedias specifically, is what we’re known for and what we’ve concentrated on for most of the 237 years we’ve been in business, but for about 60 years we’ve published in related areas, including the school curriculum, educational film and video, and the classics (Great Books of the Western World), to name a few.
According to Britannica’s Web site, it is "the most authoritative source of the information and ideas people need for work, school, and the sheer joy of discovery." Also "The definitive source of knowledge. Period." It also notes, "32 volumes are packed with 44 million words covering the breadth of human knowledge." More prose indicates that Britannica "continues to capture the staggering breadth and depth of human knowledge with unsurpassed accuracy and accessibility," and that it is "the most thorough, entertaining and up-to-date treatment of virtually every subject imaginable."
Wikipedia’s mission is more diffuse than Britannica’s. It is trying to be many things to almost all people. Britannica knows exactly what it is and doesn’t aspire to exceed that.
Does it make sense to compare a work that tells you how to make coffee with one that employs Nobel Prize winners to expound on lofty subjects? Delving into the scope of each illustrates that the two differ enough to make doing so a vain exercise. Wikipedia is large and diffuse. Britannica is finite and well-defined.
When asked about the scope of Wikipedia, Wales says:
First of all, Wikipedia’s an encyclopedia, so that’s a very broad scope, and one of our sayings is, "Wiki is not paper," meaning we don’t have to restrict ourselves based on space considerations. There’s always more room available since it’s all electronic. But at the same time, of course, you can’t have an encyclopedia article about absolutely everything. We have rules like verifiability.… If somebody wants to write an article about their cat, for example, that would just get deleted because there’s no way for anyone else to verify the information. So those are the kinds of things that we balance to figure out the overall scope of our work.
Wikipedia’s guidelines also say that subjects of articles should be notable. The community pages explain that what constitutes notability is always under debate: "Few of us believe that there should be articles about every person on Earth, every company that sells anything, or each street in every town in the world." When asked about that criterion, Wales glosses over it and says that the information needs verifiability.
Notability is actually a very controversial requirement within the community simply because it’s so subjective. What’s notable enough? So what we prefer to do is more or less shy away from notability, just because it ends up being a pretty unproductive discussion, and focus a lot more on things like verifiability: whether or not the information can be verified. That’s a much easier thing to decide rather than "Is it important enough?" That’s a very tough argument to have.
He concedes that determining whether something is verifiable entails a complex process, but essentially, it means attribution to a reputable source:
Well, a simple example would be references to published books, academic papers, that sort of thing. That makes information verifiable. You can say, "I found it in this book." An example of something that might or might not be verifiable would be something like a Web site about a band. Lots of little garage bands have very puffy Web sites about themselves that they made themselves, but you can’t find any reference to the band anywhere else. Not in any newspaper, not in any music sites, and you realize, "Oh, this is just somebody who made up a Web site." So the information that’s contained within that Web site is something that you really can’t verify.
There are definitely kooks and crackpots out there who have self-published books and you have to treat those with great caution. One of the rules that we have in Wikipedia is no original research. People are always coming out with their new theory of magnetism or something like this, and they want to put it into Wikipedia, and we just don’t allow that. And so in different areas the standards for what would count as a legitimate source will vary, just depending on the nature of the subject. For something in physics we’re going to want to have some reference to a mainstream physicist published in a mainstream journal or book. Whereas for other things, a lot of pop culture things, there are no academic references, and the only real sources are Web sites on the Internet. Things like that. So it just depends. There’s no simple formula to answer this kind of question, really.
When asked to compare Britannica’s scope with that of Wikipedia, Panelas says:
We can’t cover as may things as they do but we wouldn’t even try to. What they do is very different from what we do. We don’t have an article on extreme ironing, and we shouldn’t. Wikipedia does what it does, and their strengths come at a cost. The cost of piling up large numbers of articles is a high level of inaccuracy, sloppiness, and just plain poor articles. For some people it’s a price worth paying, and that’s fine. There’s room in the world for many sources of information with different virtues and shortcomings.
The Wikipedia Process
Wikipedia exemplifies a fascinating new paradigm. It is open to everyone, not only to read, but also to create and maintain, and governed primarily by community consensus. This model is so disruptive that it’s worth examining in some detail.
Anyone can edit a Wikipedia article. Until recently, when a brouhaha erupted over alleged character assassination in an article about John Seigenthaler, an associate of Robert F. Kennedy, anyone could initiate an article. (The Seigenthaler article’s author, who was identified shortly after the story broke, said he was only joking.) Now you must be a registered user to offer an article, but, of course, anyone can register. The logic behind the change is that forcing people to register will slow down the creation of new pages and allow quality checkers to keep up. According to Jimmy Wales, quoted in Business Week on Dec. 14, 2005, "… we’re preventing unregistered users from creating new pages because so often those have to be deleted."
Articles are not signed, but every change is linked to some kind of identifier, either a user name or an IP address. A history page for each article shows the text of every change and the identifier of the person who made the change. You can see all changes made by an individual, compare versions by hitting a button labeled "Compare Selected Versions," and see at a glance whether previous versions include major or minor edits. These abilities allow users and nonusers alike to spot trends and, potentially, agendas. Users who abuse the system are blocked.
All changes are tracked. As new changes come in, the changes go onto a list for easy spotting. This practice is supposed to help the community keep an eye on everything and exercise quality control. Sometimes it fails, largely due to the volume of edits. Sometimes the problem is that an article isn’t well-linked to anything else. That’s how the false Seigenthaler article managed to stay intact for 123 days before discovery.
Why not sign articles? Since no one "owns" any part of any article, if you create or edit an article, you should not sign it. On the other hand, when adding comments, questions, or votes to back-end (i.e., community) pages, it is good to "own" your text. So the best practice is to sign it.
The idea behind Wikipedia is that it’s self-cleaning. If someone posts an article or change that includes an error, the community will find the error and fix it. This approach resembles that of the open source software community, where code is open and available to all, and where thousands of eyes are more likely to spot problems than just a few. Wikipedia is a bit different from open source software, though, as Jimmy Wales points out. With open source software, a final version emerges as the official issue, at least for that release. Wikipedia is never locked for good; there is never an official version of an article.
Wikipedia requires that participants take neutral stances and write without bias, which isn’t always easy to do. As a Wired article, "The Book Stops Here," March 2005 [http://wired-vig.wired.com/wired/archive/13.03/wiki.html], says, "Wikipedia represents a belief in the supremacy of reason and the goodness of others." Yes, people will clash, but respectfully, and out of their conflict, something like the truth will emerge.
Whether the system works depends upon several things happening: 1) someone who knows what they’re doing actually finding the error; 2) noble, nonpartisan intentions; 3) members practicing the philosophy, "If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it"; and 4) the existence of a community familiar with the rules and respectful of its members, except for trolls and vandals.
Community is key in Wikipedia. Anyone can participate, but a relatively small core community does most of the work (see Table 1 below). There are written community standards, like intolerance for bad behavior (vandalism, trolling, personal attacks); encouragement of a friendly, helpful, thoughtful environment; and writing from a neutral point of view. As Wales puts it:
The wiki process, in and of itself, is something of a mutually assured destruction-type of process. In other words, if you write something that’s biased, it’ll just be deleted. And so everybody who participates has an incentive to try to write for the enemy, as we put it, or write for people who may not agree with you and try to phrase things in a way that’s as neutral as you possibly can because that’s the only way to write something that will survive the test of time.
In practice, these lofty goals can’t always be met. Some contributors have complained of cliquishness and left. Others have alleged an anti-elitist attitude in the committee that forces out "experts."
When asked about that, Wales says:
I’m not sure of any specific incident, but there are people who do come and go from time to time. Some people do leave because they are being attacked, but they are being attacked because they’re being completely preposterous in their behavior. So we don’t feel too bad about that, although I prefer not to attack people. But if they can’t write in a clear and neutral and intelligent manner, then yeah, they probably should leave the project. Sometimes good people leave the project because they end up dealing with idiots until they can’t stand it anymore. And so we always have to balance a lot of different competing concerns within the community. We hate losing good people because we’ve been too slow in blocking a troll or a vandal who was messing up their good work. But on the other hand, we don’t want to be too quick to ban people if it’s just some ordinary editing dispute. And so finding the middle ground is an ongoing process. It’s messy and human and will never be perfect.
Enforcement of Wikipedia Community Standards
Wales describes the enforcement of community standards:
Well, I think a lot of it is just the most important and active members of the community setting the right tone. We have a lot of internal rules having to do with behavior. No personal attacks. If somebody makes a personal attack on the Web site, it can just be removed. If somebody does it repeatedly or too often, they can actually be blocked from editing. So it’s a lot of little subtle things more than anything else. It’s basically an attitude of intolerance for bad behavior.
Anyone logged in can put an article on a watch list. When someone changes the article, a note pops up on the watch list, allowing the community to monitor and correct malicious and nonmalicious changes.
But when things do get out of hand:
Normally if somebody comes in and they start doing some vandalism, they’ll get one warning, but then they’ll just be blocked from editing. We block based on IP number, which is imperfect. People can get a different IP number. But it seems to do a reasonably good job of it. I guess the main thing is that there’s an escalation process. So once somebody is a community member, you’re not just a random person who shows up and starts vandalizing pages; you’re a community member doing things that are not socially acceptable — you’re making bad edits or you’re picking fights with people. Then in the English Wikipedia anyway, there’s the arbitration committee, which hears disputes among users and can ultimately block people from editing for short periods of time or longer periods, up to a year.
As far as the Seigenthaler article is concerned:
Well, the first thing to realize is that the number of articles isn’t really the right measure for how hard it is to patrol, because a lot of the articles just sit there. They’re not really edited; so it’s no problem to patrol them because nothing’s happening to them. What really matters is the flow of new edits and the ratio between the flow of new edits and the number of active, experienced contributors keeping an eye on things. That ratio seems to be just fine. Everything seems more or less normal in that regard. In this particular case, what happened was that there was a new article created by an anonymous user. It was not well-linked from elsewhere on the site and therefore it slipped by the new pages patrol, who are constantly looking at things and deleting things. From there, it never showed up in the view of editors who are very experienced in that area, the Kennedy era politics and things like that. So what we’re doing to try to fix that problem is basically turning off the ability for unregistered users to create new articles in an attempt to slow down the flow of new articles to a pace where the people who are monitoring new articles make sure to not let things like that slip through. There’s a cost of doing that though, because the vast majority of people who are doing work, even while not registered, do good work. We want to maintain the ability for people to edit without having to log in. It’s a tough trade-off to figure out exactly the right way to improve the situation.
Sometimes, the editors will end up locking pages for a while. Wales explains:
Basically, what happens sometimes is we’ll have a very high-profile page. The example I like to give is when the new pope was announced. That page was extremely high profile. It was linked to from major news sources, it got tons and tons of traffic, but it was tons of traffic from people outside the community. And, as a result, that page was getting vandalized. Our response to vandalism is to protect a page, to lock it so that no one can edit it. Well, it’s really not good to have such an important page locked. We don’t like it when we do that. So we’re looking for a softer tool to deal with that situation. The softer tool is, instead of protecting the page, which is our traditional method, to put the page into a state of time delay, so that when people come in and vandalize, we have 10 minutes to catch it before it goes live on the site. From looking at our statistics, we think that would stop 99 percent of the type of vandalism from ever being seen by the average user.
In the case of nonmalicious contributors who just make inaccurate entries:
Well, there are different kinds of cases. In one case somebody who’s normally a good user just makes a mistake. They are reading a source and working on an article and they’ve misread the source or misunderstood it and gotten something wrong. That’s no problem really. That’s part of the process of writing. The other case would be somebody who’s just persistently putting in bad information over a long period of time. That person would ultimately be invited to leave the project.
Co-founder Larry Sanger, who left the project and has just co-founded a $10 million venture-funded expert-reviewed free online encyclopedia called Digital Universe, wrote a controversial article published Dec. 31, 2004 [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2004/12/30/142458/25], in which he says Wikipedia suffers from two problems: lack of public perception of credibility and the dominance of difficult people, such as trolls and their enablers. Sanger argues that despite Wikipedia’s popularity, even those who use it don’t necessarily trust it. For the public to truly embrace Wikipedia as an authoritative source, it needs the support of academia and of teachers, schools, and libraries.
In addition, Sanger argues, Wikipedia has a particular problem with very specialized subjects. Since you really need in-depth specialized knowledge to contribute authoritatively to these topics, knowledge few people have, these articles suffer from uneven quality.
And then there are the trolls. The community gives them far too much respect, says Sanger. These people, purposeful provocateurs, back more honorable members into corners. As in other Internet venues like discussion lists and Usenet groups:
… if you react strongly to trolling, that reflects poorly on you, not (necessarily) on the troll. If you attempt to take trolls to task or demand that something be done about constant disruption by trollish behavior, the other listmembers will cry "censorship," attack you, and even come to the defense of the troll.
Wikipedia has dealt with this problem through its arbitration committee, which can oust the worst offenders. Nevertheless, Sanger says that the community tolerates some pretty bad behavior, which ends up driving away some good people. In fact, Sanger says, this is the reason for his departure.
As Sanger sees it, the root problem is anti-elitism, a lack of respect for expertise. Not only does the Wikipedia community as a whole not respect expertise, but it actively disrespects it and tolerates that disrespect. Sanger sees this sorry turn of events as a personal failure. During the first year, he tried to institute a policy of respecting and politely deferring to experts. He accuses fellow founder Jimmy Wales, who hired him and now manages both Wikipedia and Wikimedia (the parent foundation), of being anti-elitist himself.
What happens to experts, Sanger says, is that they not only have to defend themselves against non-experts, but if they complain, they get shouted down or "politely asked to ‘work with’ persons who have proven themselves to be unreasonable (at best)." And this is a primary reason for lack of support and participation among experts, he says.
Lots of people argue Sanger’s points pro and con. Here is a sampling of their remarks:
- The community doesn’t respect experts because the title of "expert" means nothing. He/she judges people by their actions, not their titles.
- It is more important to participants to be a member of the Wikipedia community than to be an expert, so "outsiders" are treated with suspicion. It is kids, students, the unemployed, etc., who have the time to participate, so what do you expect?
- There is room for many different encyclopedias. One of Wikipedia’s assets is that it allows many points of view to be expressed (as opposed to academia, where ideas go in and out of fashion).
- Academics are just as prone to troll behavior as everyone else.
- Wikipedia isn’t supposed to be the same thing as an encyclopedia: it’s an experiment to see if accuracy can be arrived at through consensus. If there were an editing or oversight process, the experiment would be pointless.
- So what if you can’t trust Wikipedia? What can you trust? And anyway, Wikipedia has disclaimers about the content.
- You don’t need experts; you need footnotes and references. There is such a project at Wikipedia at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fact_and_Reference_Check, WikiProject Fact and Reference Check.
- Experts are "hoity-toity."
- Wikipedia’s predecessor, Nupedia, featured a peer-review process and produced almost nothing.
- The experts-only encyclopedia has been tried and didn’t work.
Many observers have suggested that instituting quality control through ranking contributors, but others say that knowledge is fundamentally elitist and most people don’t have enough expertise to rate the contributor.
Other cited problems include plaigiarism (including cases in which correct attribution has been deleted), self-promotion and advertising that goes unrecognized and uncorrected, and poor readability.
In his article "The Great Failure of Wikipedia," dated Nov. 19, 2004 [http://ascii.textfiles.com/archives/000060.html], Jason Scott states "a low barrier to entry and an easy access to an audience tends to lead to problems." Later in the article he says that the failure of Wikipedia is "that there’s a small set of content generators, a massive amount of wonks and twiddlers, and then a heaping amount of proceduralwhackjobs. And the mass of twiddlers and procedural whackjobs means that the content generators stop being so and have to become content defenders. The difference between this and the open source software model, he says, is that there is a small number of people who maintain the code based on suggestions from the community. "Maintainers make incremental improvements, not radical changes."
But the good/better/best argument that some people make is worth considering. For many subjects, Wikipedia is good enough. One commenter explains that it helped him learn to make better coffee with his new equipment.
The Britannica Process
Britannica adheres to a traditional publishing process. It has about 4,800 contributors and advisors and about 100 editors in-house as compared with Wikipedia’s couple of thousand core community members. These people are selected in the classic manner: They are carefully vetted and chosen based on their qualifications for the job. Articles are developed for publication and put through editorial review. Lead times vary, but can amount to a number of months for large articles.
Britannica has always issued yearbooks to make corrections and bring new findings to light. Now that its encyclopedia is online, changes and additions can be posted more quickly.
Panelas says of the revision process:
It varies by subject. High technology articles have to be revised more often than, say, medieval history, though the latter subject will need revising as new scholarship is produced. I should say, though, that this business about how often things are revised, which everyone asks all the time, tends to miss important things about the craft of encyclopedia making. Encyclopedias are not newspapers and should not be newspapers. To the extent that they try to be they become derelict in their main purpose, which is to produce a useful, reliable, and well-integrated summary of human knowledge. Part of being reliable means that you don’t go chasing every intellectual fad, every passing thought and idea that anyone has. Encyclopedia articles should reflect considered scholarship, which sometimes means we do a disservice to a subject if you revise too quickly.
There are people who will tell you otherwise, but many of them, frankly, don’t know what they’re talking about. They’re new to this enterprise, they haven’t bothered to learn much about it and don’t see much reason to learn about it because they believe they are in the midst of "reinventing" it. I’ll leave it to you to judge whether one can reinvent an endeavor about which one knows nothing.
As it is difficult to hit a moving target, so is evaluating Wikipedia’s authority. One minute an article may be flawed; another, it may be capable of satisfying most experts. Users who rely on Wikipedia as a sole source are playing roulette, even if they check and recheck entries.
In November 2005, the Mail & Guardian in Johannesburg, South Africa, published an article called "Can You Trust Wikipedia?" The article offered expert assessments of seven South African topics appearing in Wikipedia. On a scale of 1 to 10, only one article got a 10. One got a 2. The others fell roughly into the 6 to 8 range.
In December of the same year, Nature published a study using peer review to compare the treatment of science by the two sources. The conclusion: Wikipedia is about as good a source of accurate information as Britannica.
Nancy O’Neill, principal librarian for Reference Services at the Santa Monica Public Library System, says that there is a good deal of skepticism about Wikipedia in the library community. She also admits cheerfully that Wikipedia makes a good starting place for a search. You get terminology, names, and a feel for the subject.
Wales agrees. He says:
I guess the main thing is people need to understand that Wikipedia is very much a work in progress. That it is in many places very high quality, but because it is an open-ended work in progress, there can be mistakes and errors that haven’t been caught yet. I would treat it as an excellent starting point to get some basic background information before doing further research.
But as information architecture expert Peter Morville reminds us in his Oct. 17, 2005, piece "How Findability Determines Authority Online: The Wikipedia Phenomenon" [http://www.masternewmedia.org/news/2005/10/17/
how_findability_determines_authority_online.htm], "Authority derives from the information architecture, visual design, governance, and brand of the Wikipedia, and from widespread faith in intellectual honesty and the power of collective intelligence." He feels that Wikipedia does a great job in these areas and that it beats Britannica because, in the spirit of Google, it’s "more findable"; that its "multi-algorithmic," Google-derived approach, which includes full-text searching, internal link structures, metadata, and free tagging, is the point.
This is interesting stuff. Today’s developers and avid Web users are thinking in ways that are as different to some of us as Western and Eastern cultures are to each other. Morville indicts the authority of traditional sources as much as that of Wikipedia. "… even the revered Encyclopaedia Britannica is riddled with errors, not to mention the subtle yet pervasive biases of individual subjectivity and corporate correctness." And therein lies the rub: There is no one perfect way. Britannica seems to claim that there is. Wikipedia acknowledges there’s no such thing.
Librarians and information professionals have always known this. That’s why we always consult multiple sources and counsel our users to do the same. If we adhere to that practice, what are we worrying about?
Panelas describes Britannica’s attitude toward objectivity and authority this way:
Well, I’ll simply say that we try very hard to be as balanced as we can, and we work very hard at it. There’s no other way to do it, and there’s no formula. You have to know a great deal about a subject, the major controversies in it, and the weasel words and rhetorical devices someone might use to mask an agenda. You have to discuss an article with a number of advisors to get different opinions and a complete picture. You have to select contributors in part on the basis of what you judge to be their ability and willingness to provide a complete picture of a topic, and you have to be prepared to edit and revise a draft of an article if some aspect of it is missing. You have to do all of these things, and frankly you have to do them with a kind of dogged seriousness that few people can imagine. Some subjects are of course harder to cover in a balanced way than others, and for the harder ones you have to work even harder to get it right.
It’s not for the faint of heart. Part of it is having good editors and training them well. A good editor has strong habits of mind, such as skepticism and curiosity that at times border on obsessiveness. These habits of mind do not occur naturally in the population, even among well-educated people. It takes years of training to acquire them, which is why there’s a rigorous laying on of hands between our senior editors and the junior ones. By the time you get any serious responsibility at Britannica, you have typically worked at this under experienced people for years.
Apples and Oranges
Wikipedia embodies a collaboration frenzy as hot as tech startups in 1999, but let’s not forget that there are two schools of thought on collaboration. One says the more minds, the more refinement, nuance, and innovation achievable. The other quotes the old "a camel is a horse designed by a committee" saw. The problem with both approaches is that the search for truth is an ongoing process. An encyclopedia entry can be accurate as far as it goes, but rarely complete. It may represent a temporary consensus, where "temporary" could mean a few minutes or a few decades.
The inconvenient reality is that people and their products are messy, whether produced in a top-down or bottom-up manner. Almost every source includes errors, probably including this article. Many nonfiction books are produced via an appallingly sloppy process. Budgets for mainstream and smaller publishers alike rarely allow for careful-enough quality control.
In this author’s opinion, the flap over Wikipedia was significantly overblown, but contained a silver lining: People are becoming more aware of the perils of accepting information at face value. They have learned not to consult just one source. They know that authors and editors may be biased and/or harbor hidden agendas. And, because of Wikipedia’s known methodology and vulnerabilities, it provides opportunities to teach (and learn) critical thinking.
I believe Wikpedia is self-cleaning and evolving and that Wales and his community will sort out their problems. Look how fast the Adam Curry changes came to light, for example. (Former MTV Veejay Adam Curry, who has been instrumental in the founding of podcasting, allegedly altered Wikipedia’s podcasting entry to maximize his contribution and minimize those of others.) After I interviewed Wales, he announced that eventually, Wikipedia will consist of a "stable" version of pages vetted for accuracy before being seen by the public. Can the same self-healing qualities be attributed to other reference sources?
As far as accountability is concerned, let’s set some consistent standards and stop worrying about ridiculous lawsuits like the class action suit some nut job is attempting to put together [http://www.wikipediaclassaction.org/]. Every source has errors that propagate every time someone reads, hears, or watches them.
Let’s act like careful, reasonable people. Wikipedia is a great starting point. It’s a lesson in research methodology, a fun way to share expertise, and a groundbreaking new way of working. Its consensus model represents a shift in management styles and away from hierarchical organization. You might say that Wikipedia is Zen-like. Its ever-changing nature means that when you read it, you are completely in the moment. And its collective brain is like a conscious universe in which we are all one.
Britannica is a different animal. Flawed, yes. Behind the times with regard to non-Western and minority leadership, sure. Indispensable? You betcha.
|Edits >=||Wikipedians||Edits total|
Paula Berinstein’s original interview with Jimmy Wales can be heard on her podcast, The Writing Show, at http://www.writingshow.com. The author can be reached at email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:42a759b4-d9d1-41d5-93a3-f1147c2f1776> | CC-MAIN-2014-49 | http://www.infotoday.com/searcher/mar06/berinstein.shtml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-49/segments/1416400380948.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20141119123300-00149-ip-10-235-23-156.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.950028 | 8,836 | 2.671875 | 3 |
tabularcalc – Calculate formulas in a tabular environment
Given a list of numbers and one (or more) formulas, the package offers an easy syntax to build a table of values, i.e., a tabular in which the first row contains the list of numbers, and the other rows contain the calculated values of the formulas for each number of the list.
The table may be built either horizontally or vertically and is fully customizable.
|License||The LaTeX Project Public License|
|Contained in||TeX Live as tabularcalc|
|MiKTeX as tabularcalc|
Download the contents of this package in one zip archive (814.9k).
Maybe you are interested in the following packages as well.
- xtab: Break tables across pages
- cellwise: Building tables one cell at a time
- mdwtab: A reimplementation of tabular and array environments
- polytable: Tabular-like environments with named columns | <urn:uuid:5f214306-4267-4014-9b5c-eb1fff0c1a7e> | CC-MAIN-2017-13 | http://ctan.org/pkg/tabularcalc | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-13/segments/1490218189771.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20170322212949-00555-ip-10-233-31-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.752394 | 207 | 2.625 | 3 |
Dr. Larkin's research focuses on the molecular and chemical ecology of native plant species, in particular their interaction with their environment and response to habitat fragmentation. It includes both specific events, such as the effect of temperature on the expression of allelic variants of a single enzyme (Granule Bound Starch Synthase) and broader events, such as the genetic relationships among populations in fragmented habitats. Some of the plant species studied include rice (Oryza sativa L.), shoalgrass (Halodule beaudettei), turtlegrass (Thalassia testudinum) bundleflower (Desmanthus virgatus) and Kleberg's bluestem (Dichanthium annulatum). His research involves characterization of genomic and organellar DNA variation and expression through DNA sequencing, Amplified restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP), Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA (RAPD), and Microsatellite (STR) analysis. Field, molecular and environmental data are used to examine how plants respond and, eventually, adapt to their environments. | <urn:uuid:2c2fc3ed-a7b1-4283-94e2-d813fc2c45ef> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | https://sci.tamucc.edu/member.php?who=plarkin&program=pens | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247506094.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20190221172909-20190221194909-00515.warc.gz | en | 0.909015 | 223 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Wednesday, August 7, 2013 - At a commercial piggery in the US, 168 just-weaned pigs were split into two groups: One group was fed a typical soy and corn diet and the other group received a diet composed of widely-used varieties of GM soy and GM corn. Both groups were slaughtered after about 23 weeks. Blood samples for standard biochemistry tests were taken before slaughter and autopsies were done by qualified veterinarians who didn’t know if a given pig was fed the GM diet or not, so their observations were completely unbiased.
The GM diet contained three GM genes and therefore three GM proteins. One protein made the plant resistant to a herbicide, and two proteins were insecticides. Pigs were chosen as test animals because they have a similar digestive system to humans, and because some of the investigators had been observing reproductive and digestive problems in swine-fed GM crops.
On average, the weight of the uterus of pigs fed the GM diet, as a proportion of the weight of the pig, was 25% higher than the control pigs. This is biologically significant finding was also statistically significant.
The level of severe inflammation in stomachs was markedly higher in pigs fed the GM diet. Pigs on the GM diet were 2.6 times more likely to get severe stomach inflammation than control pigs. Males were more strongly affected. While female pigs were 2.2 times more likely to get severe stomach inflammation when on the GM diet, males were 4 times more likely. These findings are both biologically significant and statistically significant.
It was found that that these key findings were not reflected in the standard biochemistry tests that are done in GM feeding studies, probably because standard biochemistry tests provide a poor measure of inflammation and matters associated with uterus size. However, a marginally significant change on a measure of liver health in the blood of GM-fed pigs was found.
Learn more at these links: | <urn:uuid:f0ac54bf-f2d0-457c-a89b-368d6074ec53> | CC-MAIN-2017-34 | http://www.abcplus.biz/Categories.aspx?Id=GMO_8-7-13_Toxicology_Study_Pigs_GMO | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-34/segments/1502886110774.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20170822123737-20170822143737-00660.warc.gz | en | 0.986065 | 386 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Click on a thumbnail to go to Google Books.
Look, Write & Remember Letter Formation Practice Pages: 52 Reproducible,…
No current Talk conversations about this book.
References to this work on external resources.
Wikipedia in English
Amazon.com Product Description (ISBN 043926586X, Paperback)
Help children recognize and write each letter all by themselves! Simple images help kids remember each letter’s shape, while big write-on lines help children practice their upper- and lowercase letters. Visual mnemonics are great for visual learners, physical learners will benefit from finger-tracing the large letters found on each page, and auditory learners will enjoy the target-letter song on each page. Includes a big, colorful easy-to-read poster that displays letters by similarity of formation! For use with Grades PreK-1.
(retrieved from Amazon Thu, 12 Mar 2015 18:11:41 -0400)
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Become a LibraryThing Author. | <urn:uuid:13c81e9a-309d-493a-82b5-d0b60b097bb9> | CC-MAIN-2018-26 | http://www.librarything.com/work/1204690 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-26/segments/1529267862929.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20180619115101-20180619135101-00555.warc.gz | en | 0.799748 | 225 | 3.90625 | 4 |
Stress Affects Men's Health More
Major Traumas Could be Hazardous to Men's Health
Sept. 25, 2002 -- When it comes to handling life's blows, women may be stronger and better equipped to handle stress than men. New research suggests that stressful events have a bigger impact on men's health than women's.
The study found men who suffered a stressful life event were more likely than women to miss work due to illness in the following months. The researchers say the findings add to a growing body of research that shows stress can have a big impact on later health problems.
Researchers followed nearly 3,000 full-time, healthy municipal employees in Finland and asked them whether or not they had experienced one of the following major life events in the preceding 12 months:
- Death or serious illness of a family member.
- Being a victim of physical, sexual or psychological violence.
- Severe interpersonal conflict, such as divorce.
- Severe financial difficulties caused by job loss or other causes.
They also asked them questions about their mental health and health behaviors, then tracked the number of sick days the workers took in the year that followed to gauge changes in health.
For men, all of the stressful events except interpersonal conflict were significantly associated with an increase in sick days.
Interpersonal problems, financial difficulties, and violence among men were linked to psychological problems, such as anxiety, mental distress, and lack of coherence. Finanacial diificulties and violence were also associated with heightened use of cigarettes and alcohol, which was thought to lead to sick days.
For women, none of these events increased the likelihood of a sick leave. But all events caused increased psychological problems for women. Interpersonal conflicts and financial difficulties also were associated with alcohol abuse among women.
Researcher Mika Kivimaki, PhD, of the department of psychology at the University of Helsinki in Finland, and colleagues say men who reported a stressful event tended to have smaller support networks than women, which might provide a partial explanation for their higher vulnerability.
The study appears in the September/October issue of Psychosomatic Medicine. | <urn:uuid:df950d6e-1d03-4217-9e9c-7efb35469a56> | CC-MAIN-2014-10 | http://www.webmd.com/men/news/20020925/stress-affects-mens-health-more | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-10/segments/1394010567051/warc/CC-MAIN-20140305090927-00021-ip-10-183-142-35.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.971489 | 435 | 2.578125 | 3 |
"In this book," wrote the late Quincy Wright, "Richard Barringer has made a contribution to the study of international conflict by devising a new method of classifying empirical data to characterize conflict and its stages of development, with results of considerable predictive value."
Historians have long applied experienced judgment to distill the most significant factors in the development of large-scale conflict, and modern social scientists have attempted to reduce its acknowledged multidimensionality to manageable proportions by the application of correlation-based factorial techniques. The present study represents a new departure in this oldest and most persistent of civilized man's intellectual preoccupations. It establishes the beginnings of an objective, systematic, and automated program of research into the origins, development, and termination of war, and into the means of its control.
An eclectic theory of conflict, a descriptive model of its significant stages, a novel technique of data collection, and an original method of data manipulation, analysis, and presentation are developed. A conflict codebook of 300 social, political, economic, and military indicators is presented as a comprehensive system within which all conflicts develop. Agreement analysis—a noncorrelational technique for determining the dominant empirical patterns in a data base—is developed in its complete form.
Application of the method to eighteen wars of the twentieth century reveals the various combinations of factors that precipitate each significant stage of conflict. Finally, the contribution of this method to policy making, through computer simulation of conflict and early detection of conflict potential, is illustrated by example of the war in Vietnam.
About the Author
Richard E. Barringer is a Lecturer on Public Policy in the Kennedy School of Government and Research Associate in the Institute of Politics, Harvard University. | <urn:uuid:b1689d19-8441-45d9-8c9f-3574f6c3208b> | CC-MAIN-2016-07 | https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/war | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-07/segments/1454701157212.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160205193917-00126-ip-10-236-182-209.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938033 | 349 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) are an ecologically, economically, and socially important species across much of the western United States. As such, populations and habitat are intensely managed by state game agencies. However, populations have been declining in recent decades and several factors have been implicated (e.g., climate, predation, competition, and habitat availability). Population dynamics of mule deer are driven by a combination of survival of adults and juveniles and reproductive rates. While adult female mule deer typically have consistently high annual survival rates (85% annually), juveniles are more easily affected by stressors (biotic and abiotic conditions) and therefore their annual survival rates are generally low and highly variable. In an effort to better understand the effects of management on—and the habitat needs for—reproduction and recruitment, we examined the potential effects of male-biased harvest on recruitment in populations of mule deer and the selection of sites for parturition by mule deer females. Changes in buck:doe ratio due to male-biased harvest may alter rates of pregnancy, timing of parturition, and synchrony of parturition if inadequate numbers of males are present to fertilize females during their first estrous cycle. If rates of pregnancy or timing of parturition are influenced by decreased buck:doe ratios, recruitment may be reduced. This results from fewer births, later parturition (resulting in lower survival of fawns), and a less synchronous parturition period (increasing the proportion of neonates exposed to predation). Our objectives were to compare rates of pregnancy, timing of parturition, and synchrony of parturition between exploited populations of mule deer with relatively high (Piceance Basin) and relatively low (Monroe Mountain) buck:doe ratios. We determined rates of pregnancy via ultrasonography and timing of parturition via expulsion of vaginal implant transmitters. We found no differences in rates of pregnancy, timing of parturition, or synchrony of parturition between Monroe Mountain and Piceance Basin. This suggests that the relatively low buck:doe ratios typical of heavily harvested populations do not have unintended or indirect impacts on population dynamics because recruitment remains unaffected. Because neonate ungulates are most vulnerable to predation during parturition and shortly thereafter, selecting sites for parturition can have direct fitness consequences. We investigated the selection of sites for parturition by mule deer. We utilized vaginal implant transmitters to identify sites of parturition. We then obtained and compared macro- and micro-habitat features between sites of parturition and associated random sites. Parturitient females selected sites based on topography, habitat-type, and obscurity. Enhanced understanding of habitat variables that are selected for parturition provides insight into the life history or behavior of a species and allows managers to ensure that suitable habitat is available for this stage of life-cycles.
College and Department
Life Sciences; Plant and Wildlife Sciences
BYU ScholarsArchive Citation
Freeman, Eric D., "Parturition of Mule Deer in Southern Utah: Management Implications and Habitat Selection" (2014). All Theses and Dissertations. 4383.
t selection, parturition, pregnancy, sex ratio, synchrony, ungulate management | <urn:uuid:86d2a987-994e-439a-adcc-87667a9404b6> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/etd/4383/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247490806.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20190219162843-20190219184843-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.919954 | 681 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Rocky Mountain Research Station Publications
RMRS Online Publication
RMRS-GTR-42, vol. 5: Wildland fire in ecosystems: effects of fire on air
Sandberg, David V.; Ottmar, Roger D.; Peterson, Janice L.; Core, John. 2002. Wildland fire on ecosystems: effects of fire on air. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 5. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 79 p.
This state-of-knowledge review about the effects of fire on air quality can assist land, fire, and air resource managers with fire and smoke planning, and their efforts to explain to others the science behind fire-related program policies and practices to improve air quality. Chapter topics include air quality regulations and fire; characterization of emissions from fire; the transport, dispersion, and modeling of fire emissions; atmospheric and plume chemistry; air quality impacts of fire; social consequences of air quality impacts; and recommendations for future research.
Keywords: smoke, air quality, fire effects, smoke management, prescribed fire, wildland fire, wildfire, biomass emissions, smoke dispersion
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vol. 5: Wildland fire on ecosystems: effects of fire on air
Publish Date: February 18, 2003
Last Update: February 22, 2006
RMRS Publications | Order a publication | Contact Us | <urn:uuid:a70838d9-fd39-4eb7-bc8e-126ffff6116b> | CC-MAIN-2014-10 | http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr042_5.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-10/segments/1394010484313/warc/CC-MAIN-20140305090804-00011-ip-10-183-142-35.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.82714 | 365 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Nine native Andean root and tuber crops hold economic and nutritional importance for subsistence farmers in the Andes.
They grow at high altitudes under extremely difficult conditions of drought, freezing temperatures, and UV exposure.
These lesser-known roots and tubers offer high vitamin, micronutrient, and starch content; good yields, and various medicinal properties. As a result, they also hold potential for further research, adaptation and use in other regions of the world, and exportation.
The crops are known by their Quechua Indian names: achira, ahipa, arracacha, maca, mashua, mauka, oca, ulluco, and yacon.
The International Potato Center protects and maintains the remarkable genetic diversity of wild and domestic Andean root and tuber crops threatened by extinction or genetic weakening. The genebank contains some 1,500 accessions collected from seven countries.
Achira (Canna edulis)
The perennial achira is from the same family that produces the exuberant, showy canna lilies found in florist shops and gardens worldwide. Also known as edible canna or Queensland arrowroot, it was a staple food for ancient Peruvians.
Flowers range in color from red to yellowish orange. There are 30–60 species in America and Asia, most of which produce fleshy, starchy rhizomes but with variable success. The seeds need scarification (softening the seed coat either physically or by chemical means) so that they absorb water more easily to germinate.
The fleshy rhizomes are traditionally baked in earthen ovens, and also used to produce a starchy flour for cooking breads and biscuits, and thickening drinks and soups.
Achira root has the largest starch granules ever determined in a vegetable; visible to the naked eye. The particular composition of this high-value starch enables it to be extracted easily and economically using homemade equipment. It is this industrial starch that provides an important source of income for Andean communities, where in some villages it is the main cash crop.
Achira is gaining wide popularity in Colombia, where there is growing demand for biscuits made from the root. In Vietnam, about 30,000 hectares are planted for prize gourmet noodles.
Mauka (Mirabilis expansa)
Scientists had thought that this colorful root had all but disappeared. Although the species has been described since 1794, it remained in obscurity until 1965, when it was rediscovered in a remote rural community in Bolivia.
Few fields remain and virtually no scientific studies have been carried out on the crop, which reproduces easily through seeds and is amenable to classical plant breeding.
High in protein, calcium, and phosphorous, mauka provides an abundance of succulent, edible stems. The roots are preferably cooked and eaten after several days of exposure to sunlight, a treatment that lessens the slightly bitter taste they have when freshly harvested. Harvested roots are also sometimes placed in the ground for a week to concentrate their sugar content.
Material for this page has been source from the Andean roots and tubers page on the International Potato Center website | <urn:uuid:61e5b0ad-eb57-485a-83e3-a22d7ff35175> | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | https://www.genebanks.org/resources/crops/andean-roots-tuber-crops/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057615.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20210925082018-20210925112018-00693.warc.gz | en | 0.934284 | 661 | 3.71875 | 4 |
An omnivorous species, the side-striped jackal often consumes fruit and carrion, but the main component of its diet tends to be small mammals. It almost exclusively hunts at night, pursuing small prey alone or in pairs, and medium-sized prey in pairs or small groups. Individuals do not always actively hunt and often prefer food sources which are readily available and easy to obtain. The side-striped jackal is an opportunistic forager and adjusts its diet throughout the year, usually feeding on invertebrates during the wet season, hunting small mammals in the dry season, and eating seasonally available fruits (6).
During the breeding season, the side-striped jackal becomes more territorial and shows an increased use of vocalisation. This species forms monogamous, long-term pairs, and in southern Africa mating usually occurs during winter, between June and August. There are normally four to six pups in each litter, and it is thought that both adults care for the young (6). Non-breeding side-striped jackals have also been found to care for unrelated offspring (6) (8). The pups emerge from the den around December, but it is estimated that only two pups normally survive past the age of six months (6). | <urn:uuid:f0e8fce2-3b0d-491e-bd63-ce6ef81ea4a2> | CC-MAIN-2017-39 | http://www.arkive.org/side-striped-jackal/canis-adustus/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-39/segments/1505818693940.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20170926013935-20170926033935-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.960352 | 260 | 3.78125 | 4 |
Tire marks left on the pavement at a collision scene tell the investigator many things about the events involved in a motor vehicle collision. One common example involves using the length of the mark to calculate pre-collision speed. It was often an interesting exercise that could either verify or call into question information given by witnesses and drivers.
Following my training course the first opportunity that I had to try this out involved an intersection collision. A driver had turned left in front of a taxi. The taxi driver had slammed on the brakes but was unable to avoid hitting the left turning vehicle.
The taxi driver assured me that he had been traveling at the speed limit pre-crash.
I got out my calculator and measuring tape. The calculated speed was over the speed limit and as there was a crash, some of the speed of the taxi did not contribute to the length of the skidmarks.
When I told the taxi driver what I had just done and asked again how fast he was going, he hung his head and said that it was a bit over the limit.
Even more interesting was the opportunity to teach it to a class of physics students at a Qualicum Beach high school.
My supervisor and I started the class by deriving the slide to stop formula from the basic equations the students were learning. Simply put, the speed of the vehicle is equal to 15.9 times the square root of the skid distance multiplied by the coefficient of friction for the road surface. This applies to a level surface and will work for both ABS and non-ABS braking systems.
Next we went to the parking lot where I readied the shot marker on my police vehicle and had one student sit in the passenger seat to verify the speed by watching the radar display. After reaching 50 km/h I braked to create the skid and the shot marker fired a piece of blackboard chalk onto the ground when the brakes were applied. By measuring the distance from the chalk mark to the shot marker at the other end, the exact skid distance was known.
The shot marker is important for accurate distance measurement as the tires take a bit of time to generate enough heat between themselves and the pavement to leave a mark. Some braking is actually done before the beginning of the visible skidmark, so these speed calculations always underestimate the initial speed slightly.
My supervisor led the others through the use of a drag sled, which is essentially a section of tire weighted with lead or concrete inside. Weighing it and then measuring the force required to slide it over the pavement allowed the students to calculate the co-efficient of friction for the road surface.
Back in the classroom we used the formula, the skid distance and the co-efficient of friction to calculate the police vehicle’s initial speed when the brakes were applied. The answer was exactly the speed shown on the radar! While real world collisions are often much more complicated, this was a great opportunity to show the students an application of what they were studying in a manner that they had not considered.
This is the process that was used to teach that section of my collision investigation course and one that is repeated time and again with varying circumstances on testing days. Testing days allow the investigator to gain experience with known data and satisfy the courts of the accuracy of speed calculations undertaken. | <urn:uuid:9dce076d-9b37-4be2-badd-ec0f27377156> | CC-MAIN-2021-25 | https://www.lakecowichangazette.com/opinion/drivesmart-column-calculating-speed-from-skidmarks/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623488517048.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20210622093910-20210622123910-00535.warc.gz | en | 0.976068 | 671 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Guest Editor (s): Damir Huremović
Intermittent outbreaks of infectious diseases have had profound and lasting effects on societies throughout history. Those events have powerfully shaped the economic, political, and social aspects of human civilization, with their effects often lasting for centuries. Epidemic outbreaks have defined some of the basic tenets of modern medicine, pushing the scientific community to develop principles of epidemiology, prevention, immunization, and antimicrobial treatments. This chapter outlines some of the most notable outbreaks that took place in human history and are relevant for a better understanding of the rest of the material. Starting with religious texts, which heavily reference plagues, this chapter establishes the fundamentals for our understanding of the scope, social, medical, and psychological impact that some pandemics effected on civilization, including the Black Death (a plague outbreak from the fourteenth century), the Spanish Flu of 1918, and the more recent outbreaks in the twenty-first century, including SARS, Ebola, and Zika.
Keywords: Pandemic outbreaks, History of pandemics, Plague, Spanish influenza, SARS, Ebola, Zika, Disease X
Very few phenomena throughout human history have shaped our societies and cultures the way outbreaks of infectious diseases have; yet, remarkably little attention has been given to these phenomena in behavioural social science and in branches of medicine that are, at least in part, founded in social studies (e.g., psychiatry).
This lack of attention is intriguing, as one of the greatest catastrophes ever, if not the greatest one in the entire history of humankind, was an outbreak of a pandemic . In a long succession throughout history, pandemic outbreaks have decimated societies, determined outcomes of wars, wiped out entire populations, but also, paradoxically, cleared the way for innovations and advances in sciences (including medicine and public health), economy, and political systems . Pandemic outbreaks, or plagues, as they are often referred to, have been closely examined through the lens of humanities in the realm of history, including the history of medicine . In the era of modern humanities, however, fairly little attention has been given to ways plagues affected the individual and group psychology of afflicted societies. This includes the unexamined ways pandemic outbreaks might have shaped the specialty of psychiatry; psychoanalysis was gaining recognition as an established treatment within medical community at the time the last great pandemic was making global rounds a century ago.
There is a single word that can serve as a fitting point of departure for our brief journey through the history of pandemics – that word is the plague. Stemming from Doric Greek word plaga (strike, blow), the word plague is a polyseme, used interchangeably to describe a particular, virulent contagious febrile disease caused by Yersinia pestis, as a general term for any epidemic disease causing a high rate of mortality, or more widely, as a metaphor for any sudden outbreak of a disastrous evil or affliction . This term in Greek can refer to any kind of sickness; in Latin, the terms are plaga and pestis (Fig. 2.1).
Plagues of Egypt depicted in Sarajevo Haggadah, Spain, cca. 1350, on display at National Museum of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Sarajevo
Perhaps the best-known examples of plagues ever recorded are those referred to in the religious scriptures that serve as foundations to Abrahamic religions, starting with the Old Testament. Book of Exodus, Chapters 7 through 11, mentions a series of ten plagues to strike the Egyptians before the Israelites, held in captivity by the Pharaoh, the ruler of Egypt, are finally released. Some of those loosely defined plagues are likely occurrences of elements, but at least a few of them are clearly of infectious nature. Lice, diseased livestock, boils, and possible deaths of firstborn likely describe a variety of infectious diseases, zoonoses, and parasitosis . Similar plagues were described and referred to in Islamic tradition in Chapter 7 of the Qur’an (Surat Al-A’raf, v. 133) .
Throughout the Biblical context, pandemic outbreaks are the bookends of human existence, considered both a part of nascent human societies, and a part of the very ending of humanity. In the Apocalypse or The Book of Revelation, Chapter 16, seven bowls of God’s wrath will be poured on the Earth by angels, again some of the bowls containing plagues likely infectious in nature: “So the first angel went and poured out his bowl on the earth, and harmful and painful sores came upon the people who bore the mark of the beast” (Revelation 16:2).
Those events, regardless of factual evidence, deeply shaped human history, and continue to be commemorated in religious practices throughout the world. As we will see, the beliefs associated with those fundamental accounts have been rooted in societal responses to pandemics in Western societies and continue to shape public sentiment and perception of current and future outbreaks. Examined through the lens of Abrahamic spiritual context, serious infectious outbreaks can often be interpreted as a “Divine punishment for sins” (of the entire society or its outcast segments) or, in its eschatological iteration, as events heralding the “End of Days” (i.e., the end of the world).
Throughout known, predominantly Western history, there have been recorded processions of pandemics that each shaped our history and our society, inclusive of shaping the very basic principles of modern health sciences. What follows is an outline of major pandemic outbreaks throughout recorded history extending into the twenty-first century.
The Athenian Plague of 430 B.C.
The Athenian plague is a historically documented event that occurred in 430–26 B.C. during the Peloponnesian War, fought between city-states of Athens and Sparta. The historic account of the Athenian plague is provided by Thucydides, who survived the plague himself and described it in his History of the Peloponnesian War . The Athenian plague originated in Ethiopia, and from there, it spread throughout Egypt and Greece. Initial symptoms of the plague included headaches, conjunctivitis, a rash covering the body, and fever. The victims would then cough up blood, and suffer from extremely painful stomach cramping, followed by vomiting and attacks of “ineffectual retching” . Infected individuals would generally die by the seventh or eighth day. Those who survived this stage might suffer from partial paralysis, amnesia, or blindness for the rest of their lives. Doctors and other caregivers frequently caught the disease, and died with those whom they had been attempting to heal. The despair caused by the plague within the city led the people to be indifferent to the laws of men and gods, and many cast themselves into self-indulgence . Because of wartime overcrowding in the city of Athens, the plague spread quickly, killing tens of thousands, including Pericles, Athens’ beloved leader. With the fall of civic duty and religion, superstition reigned, especially in the recollection of old oracles .
The plague of Athens affected a majority of the inhabitants of the overcrowded city-state and claimed lives of more than 25% of the population . The cause of the Athenian plague of 430 B.C. has not been clearly determined, but many diseases, including bubonic plague, have been ruled out as possibilities . While typhoid fever figures prominently as a probable culprit, a recent theory, postulated by Olson and some other epidemiologists and classicists, considers the cause of the Athenian plague to be Ebola virus haemorrhagic fever .
The Antonine Plague
While Hippocrates is thought to have been a contemporary of the plague of Athens, even possibly treating the afflicted as a young physician, he had not left known accounts of the outbreak . It was another outbreak that occurred a couple of centuries later that was documented and recorded by contemporary physicians of the time. The outbreak was known as the Antonine Plague of 165–180 AD and the physician documenting it was Galen; this outbreak is also known as the Plague of Galen .
The Antonine plague occurred in the Roman Empire during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161–180 A.D.) and its cause is thought to be smallpox . It was brought into the Empire by soldiers returning from Seleucia, and before it abated, it had affected Asia Minor, Egypt, Greece, and Italy. Unlike the plague of Athens, which affected a geographically limited region, the Antonine plague spread across the vast territory of the entire Roman Empire, because the Empire was an economically and politically integrated, cohesive society occupying wide swaths of the territory . The plague destroyed as much as one-third of the population in some areas, and decimated the Roman army, claiming the life of Marcus Aurelius himself .
The impact of the plague on the Roman Empire was severe, weakening its military and economic supremacy. The Antonine plague affected ancient Roman traditions, leading to a renewal of spirituality and religiousness, creating the conditions for spreading of new religions, including Christianity. The Antonine Plague may well have created the conditions for the decline of the Roman Empire and, afterwards, for its fall in the West in the fifth century AD .
The Justinian Plague
The Justinian plague was a “real plague” pandemic (i.e., caused by Yersinia Pestis) that originated in mid-sixth century AD either in Ethiopia, moving through Egypt, or in the Central Asian steppes, where it then travelled along the caravan trading routes. From one of these two locations, the pestilence quickly spread throughout the Roman world and beyond. Like most pandemics, the Justinian plague generally followed trading routes providing an “exchange of infections as well as of goods,” and therefore, was especially brutal to coastal cities. Military movement at the time also contributed to spreading the disease from Asia Minor to Africa and Italy, and further to Western Europe. Described in detail by Procopius, John of Ephesus, and Evagrius, the Justinian epidemic is the earliest clearly documented example of the actual (bubonic) plague outbreak .
During the plague, many victims experienced hallucinations prior to the outbreak of illness. The first symptoms of the plague followed closely behind; they included fever and fatigue. Soon afterwards, buboes appeared in the groin area or armpits, or occasionally beside the ears. From this point, the disease progressed rapidly; infected individuals usually died within days. Infected individuals would enter a delirious, lethargic state, and would not wish to eat or drink. Following this stage, the victims would be “seized by madness,” causing great difficulties to those who attempted to care for them . Many people died painfully when their buboes gangrened; others died vomiting blood. There were also cases, however, in which the buboes grew to great size, and then ruptured and suppurated. In such cases, the patient would usually recover, having to live with withered thighs and tongues, classic aftereffects of the plague. Doctors, noticing this trend and not knowing how else to fight the disease, sometimes lanced the buboes of those infected to discover that carbuncles had formed. Those individuals who did survive infection usually had to live with ‘‘withered thighs and tongues’’, the stigmata of survivors. Emperor Justinian contracted the plague himself, but did not succumb .
Within a short time, all gravesites were beyond capacity, and the living resorted to throwing the bodies of victims out into the streets or piling them along the seashore to rot. The empire addressed this problem by digging huge pits and collecting the corpses there. Although those pits reportedly held 70,000 corpses each, they soon overflowed . Bodies were then placed inside the towers in the walls, causing a stench pervading the entire city.
Streets were deserted, and all trade was abandoned. Staple foods became scarce and people died of starvation as well as of the disease itself . The Byzantine Empire was a sophisticated society in its time and many of the advanced public policies and institutions that existed at that time were also greatly affected. As the tax base shrank and the economic output decreased, the Empire forced the survivors to shoulder the tax burden . Byzantine army suffered in particular, being unable to fill its ranks and carry out military campaigns, and ultimately failing to retake Rome for the Empire. After the initial outbreak in 541, repetitions of the plague established permanent cycles of infection. By 600, it is possible that the population of the Empire had been reduced by 40%. In the city of Constantinople itself, it is possible that this figure exceeded 50 % .
At this point in history, Christian tradition enters the realm of interpreting and understanding the events of this nature . Drawing on the eschatological narrative of the Book of Revelations, plague and other misfortunes are seen and explained as a “punishment for sins,” or retribution for the induction of “God’s wrath” . This interpretation of the plague will reappear during the Black Death and play a much more central role throughout affected societies in Europe. Meanwhile, as the well-established Byzantine Empire experienced major challenges and weakening of its physical, economic, and cultural infrastructure during this outbreak, the nomadic Arab tribes, moving through sparsely populated areas and practicing a form of protective isolation, were setting a stage for the rapid expansion of Islam .
The Black Death
“The Plague” was a global outbreak of bubonic plague that originated in China in 1334, arrived in Europe in 1347, following the Silk Road. Within 50 years of its reign, by 1400, it reduced the global population from 450 million to below 350 million, possibly below 300 million, with the pandemic killing as many as 150 million. Some estimates claim that the Black Death claimed up to 60% of lives in Europe at that time .
Starting in China, it spread through central Asia and northern India following the established trading route known as the Silk Road. The plague reached Europe in Sicily in 1347. Within 5 years, it had spread to the virtually entire continent, moving onto Russia and the Middle East. In its first wave, it claimed 25 million lives .
The course and symptoms of the bubonic plague were dramatic and terrifying. Boccaccio, one of the many artistic contemporaries of the plague, described it as follows:
In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg…From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous. As the gavocciolo had been and still was an infallible token of approaching death, such also were these spots on whomsoever they showed themselves .
Indeed, the mortality of untreated bubonic plague is close to 70%, usually within 8 days, while the mortality of untreated pneumonic plague approaches 95%. Treated with antibiotics, mortality drops to around 11% .
At the time, scientific authorities were at a loss regarding the cause of the affliction. The first official report blamed an alignment of three planets from 1345 for causing a “great pestilence in the air” . It was followed by a more generally accepted miasma theory, an interpretation that blamed bad air. It was not until the late XIX century that the Black Death was understood for what it was – a massive Yersinia Pestis pandemic .
This strain of Yersinia tends to infect and overflow the guts of oriental rat fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis) forcing them to regurgitate concentrated bacteria into the host while feeding. Such infected hosts then transmit the disease further and can infect humans – bubonic plague . Humans can transmit the disease by droplets, leading to pneumonic plague.
The mortality of the Black Death varied between regions, sometimes skipping sparsely populated rural areas, but then exacting its toll from the densely populated urban areas, where population perished in excess of 50, sometimes 60% .
In the vacuum of a reasonable explanation for a catastrophe of such proportions, people turned to religion, invoking patron saints, the Virgin Mary, or joining the processions of flagellants whipping themselves with nail embedded scourges and incanting hymns and prayers as they passed from town to town . The general interpretation in predominantly Catholic Europe, as in the case of Justinian plague, centered on the divine “punishment for sins.” It then sought to identify those individuals and groups who were the “gravest sinners against God,” frequently singling out minorities or women. Jews in Europe were commonly targeted, accused of “poisoning the wells” and entire communities persecuted and killed. Non-Catholic Christians (e.g., Cathars) were also blamed as “heretics” and experienced a similar fate . In other, non-Christian parts of the world affected by the plague, a similar sentiment prevailed. In Cairo, the sultan put in place a law prohibiting women from making public appearances as they may tempt men into sin .
For bewildered and terrified societies, the only remedies were inhalation of aromatic vapours from flowers or camphor. Soon, there was a shortage of doctors which led to a proliferation of quacks selling useless cures and amulets and other adornments that claimed to offer magical protection .
Entire neighbourhoods, sometimes entire towns, were wiped out or settlements abandoned. Crops could not be harvested, traveling and trade became curtailed, and food and manufactured goods became short. The plague broke down the normal divisions between the upper and lower classes and led to the emergence of a new middle class. The shortage of labour in the long run encouraged innovation of labour-saving technologies, leading to higher productivity .
The effects of such a large-scale shared experience on the population of Europe influenced all forms of art throughout the period, as evidenced by works by renowned artists, such as Chaucer, Boccaccio, or Petrarch. The deep, lingering wake of the plague is evidenced in the rise of Danse Macabre (Dance of the death) in visual arts and religious scripts , its horrors perhaps most chillingly depicted by paintings titled the Triumph of Death (Fig. 2.2) .
The Triumph of Death (Trionfo Della Morte), fresco, author unknown, cca. 1446, on display at Palazzo Abatellis, Palermo, Italy
The plague made several encore rounds through Europe in the following centuries, occasionally decimating towns and entire societies, but never with the same intensity as the Black Death .
The Plague Doctor
With the breakdown of societal structure and its infrastructures, many professions, notably that of medical doctors, were severely affected. Many towns throughout Europe lost their providers to plague or to fear thereof. In order to address this shortage in times of austere need, many municipalities contracted young doctors from whatever ranks were available to perform the duty of the plague doctor (medico della peste) . Venice was among the first city-states to establish dedicated practitioners to deal with the issue of plague in 1348. Their principal task, besides taking care of people with the plague, was to record in public records the deaths due to the plague . In certain European cities like Florence and Perugia, plague doctors were the only ones allowed to perform autopsies to help determine the cause of death and managed to learn a lot about human anatomy. Among the most notable plague doctors of their time were Nostradamus, Paracelsus, and Ambrois Pare . The character of the plague doctor was immortalized by a later invention (from the seventeenth century) of a plague doctor costume by Charles De l’Orme (Fig. 2.3) .
Doctor Beak (Doctor Schnabel), copper engraving by Paulus Fürst, cca. 1656, from Die Karikatur und Satire in der Medizin: Medico-Kunsthistorische Studie von Professor Dr. Eugen Holländer, 2nd edn (Stuttgart:Ferdinand Enke, 1921), fig. 79 (p. 171)
Drawing from experiences from ancient cultures that had dealt with contagious diseases, medieval societies observed the connection between the passage of time and the eruption of symptoms, noting that, after a period of observation, individuals who had not developed symptoms of the illness would likely not be affected and, more importantly, would not spread the disease upon entering the city. To that end, they started instituting mandatory isolation. The first known quarantine was enacted in Ragusa (City-state of Dubrovnik) in 1377, where all arrivals had to spend 30 days on a nearby island of Lokrum before entering the city. This period of 30 days (trentine) was later extended to 40 days (quarenta giorni or quarantine) . The institution of quarantine was one of the rarely effective measures that took place during the Black Death and its use quickly spread throughout Europe. Quarantine remains in effect in the present time as a highly regulated, nationally and internationally governed public health measure available to combat contagions .
“Spanish Flu” Pandemic 1918–1920
The Spanish flu pandemic in the first decades of the twentieth century was the first true global pandemic and the first one that occurred in the setting of modern medicine, with specialties such as infectious diseases and epidemiology studying the nature of the illness and the course of the pandemic as it unfolded. It is also, as of this time, the last true global pandemic with devastating consequences for societies across the globe . It was caused by the H1N1 strain of the influenza virus, a strain that had an encore outbreak in the early years of the twenty-first century.
Despite advances in epidemiology and public health, both at the time and in subsequent decades, the true origin of Spanish flu remains unknown, despite its name. As possible sources of origin, cited are the USA, China, Spain, France, or Austria. These uncertainties are perpetuated by the circumstances of the Spanish flu – it took place in the middle of World War I, with significant censorships in place, and with fairly advanced modes of transportation, including intercontinental travel .
Within months, the deadly H1N1 strain of influenza virus had spread to every corner of the world. In addition to Europe, where massive military movements and overcrowding contributed to massive spread, this virus devastated the USA, Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Islands. The mortality rate of Spanish flu ranged between 10% and 20%. With over a quarter of the global population contracting that flu at some point, the death toll was immense – well over 50 million, possibly 100 million dead. It killed more individuals in a year than the Black Death had killed in a century .
This pandemic, unusually, tended to mortally affect mostly young and previously healthy individuals. This is likely due to its triggering a cytokine storm, which overwhelms and demolishes the immune system. By August of 1918, the virus had mutated to a much more virulent and deadlier form, returning to kill many of those who avoided it during the first wave .
Spanish flu had an immense influence on our civilization. Some authors (Price) even point out that it may have tipped the outcome of World War I, as it affected armies of Germany and the Austrian–Hungarian Empire earlier and more virulently than their Allied opponents (Fig. 2.4) .
American Expeditionary Force, victims of Spanish flu in France, 1918. Uncredited U.S. Army photographer – U.S. Army Medical Corps photo via National Museum of Health & Medicine website at U.S. Army Camp Hospital No. 45, Aix-Les-Bains, France, Influenza Ward No. 1
Many notable politicians, artists, and scientists were either affected by the flu or succumbed to it. Many survived and went on to have distinguished careers in arts and politics (e.g., Walt Disney, Greta Garbo, Raymond Chandler, Franz Kafka, Edward Munch, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and Woodrow Wilson). Many did not; this pandemic counted as its victims, among others, outstanding painters like Gustav Klimt and Egon Schiele , and acclaimed poets like Guillaume Apollinaire. It also claimed the life of Sigmund Freud’s fifth child – Sophie Halberstadt-Freud.
This pandemic was also the first one where the long-lingering effects could be observed and quantified. A study of US census data from 1960 to 1980 found that the children born to women exposed to the pandemic had more physical ailments and a lower lifetime income than those born a few months earlier or later. A 2006 study in the Journal of Political Economy found that “cohorts in utero during the pandemic displayed reduced educational attainment, increased rates of physical disability, lower income, lower socioeconomic status, and higher transfer payments compared with other birth cohorts” .
Despite its immense effect on the global civilization, Spanish flu started to fade quickly from the public and scientific attention, establishing a precedent for the future pandemics, and leading some historians (Crosby) to call it the “forgotten pandemic” . One of the explanations for this treatment of the pandemic may lie in the fact that it peaked and waned rapidly, over a period of 9 months before it even could get adequate media coverage. Another reason may be in the fact that the pandemic was overshadowed by more significant historical events, such as the culmination and the ending of World War I. A third explanation may be that this is how societies deal with such rapidly spreading pandemics – at first with great interest, horror, and panic, and then, as soon as they start to subside, with dispassionate disinterest.
HIV/AIDS is a slowly progressing global pandemic cascading through decades of time, different continents, and different populations, bringing new challenges with every new iteration and for every new group it affected. It started in the early 1980s in the USA, causing significant public concern as HIV at the time inevitably progressed to AIDS and ultimately, to death. The initial expansion of HIV was marked by its spread predominantly among the gay population and by high mortality, leading to marked social isolation and stigma.
HIV affects about 40 million people globally (prevalence rate: 0.79%) and has killed almost the same number of people since 1981 . It causes about one million deaths a year worldwide (down from nearly two million in 2005) . While it represents a global public health phenomenon, the HIV epidemic is particularly alarming in some Sub-Saharan African countries (Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland), where the prevalence tops 25% . In the USA, about 1.2 million people live with HIV and about 12,000 die every year (down from over 40,000 per year in the late 1990s). HIV in the USA disproportionately affects gay population, transgendered women, and African-Americans .
Being a fairly slowly spreading pandemic, HIV has received formidable public health attention, both by national and by international administrations and pharmaceuticals. Advances in treatment (protease inhibitors and anti-retrovirals) have turned HIV into a chronic condition that can be managed by medications. It is a rare infectious disease that has managed to attract the focus of mental health which, in turn, resulted in a solid volume of works on mental health and HIV . By studying the mental health of HIV, we can begin to understand some of the challenges generally associated with infectious diseases. We know, for example, that the lifetime prevalence rate for depression in HIV individuals is, at 22%, more than twice the prevalence rate in general population .
We understand how depression in HIV individuals shows association with substance abuse and that issues of stigma, guilt, and shame affect the outlook for HIV patients, including their own adherence to life-saving treatments . We know about medical treatments of depression in HIV and we have studies in psychotherapy for patients with HIV. Some of those approaches can be very useful in treating patients in the context of a pandemic. Given the contrast between the chronicity of the HIV and the acuity of a potential pandemic, most of those approaches cannot be simply translated from mental health approach to HIV and used for patients in a rapidly advancing outbreak or a pandemic.
Smallpox Outbreak in Former Yugoslavia (1972)
Smallpox was a highly contagious disease for which Edward Jenner developed the world’s first vaccine in 1798. Caused by the Variola virus, it was a highly contagious disease with prominent skin eruptions (pustules) and mortality of about 30%. It may have been responsible for hundreds of millions of fatalities in the twentieth century alone. Due to the well-coordinated global effort starting in 1967 under the leadership of Donald Henderson, smallpox was eradicated within a decade of undertaking the eradication on a global scale .
The smallpox outbreak in the former Yugoslavia in 1972 was a far cry from even an epidemic, let alone a pandemic, but it illustrated the challenges associated with a rapidly spreading, highly contagious illness in a modern world. It started with a pilgrim returning from the Middle East, who developed fever and skin eruptions. Since a case of smallpox had not been seen in the region for over 30 years, physicians failed to correctly diagnose the illness and nine healthcare providers ended among 38 cases infected by the index case and first fatality .
Socialist Yugoslavia at the time declared martial law and introduced mandatory revaccination. Entire villages and neighbourhoods were cordoned off (cordon sanitaire is a measure of putting entire geographic regions in quarantine). About 10,000 individuals who may have come into contact with the infected were placed in an actual quarantine. Borders were closed, and all non-essential travel was suspended. Within 2 weeks, the entire population of Yugoslavia was revaccinated (about 18 million people at the time). During the outbreak, 175 cases were identified, with 35 fatalities. Due to prompt and massive response, however, the disease was eradicated and the society returned to normal within 2 months . This event has proven to be a useful model for working out scenarios (“Dark Winter”) for responses to an outbreak of a highly contagious disease, both as a natural occurrence and as an act of bioterrorism .
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) was the first outbreak in the twenty-first century that managed to get public attention. Caused by the SARS Corona virus (SARS-CoV), it started in China and affected fewer than 10,000 individuals, mainly in China and Hong Kong, but also in other countries, including 251 cases in Canada (Toronto) .
The severity of respiratory symptoms and mortality rate of about 10% caused a global public health concern. Due to the vigilance of public health systems worldwide, the outbreak was contained by mid-2003 . This outbreak was among the first acute outbreaks that had mental health aspects studied in the process and in the aftermath, in various part of the world and in different societies, yielding valuable data on effects of an acute infectious outbreak on affected individuals, families, and the entire communities, including the mental health issues facing healthcare providers . Some of the valuable insights into the mental health of patients in isolation, survivors of the severe illness, or psychological sequelae of working with such patients were researched during the SARS outbreak.
“Swine Flu” or H1N1/09 Pandemic
The 2009 H1N1 pandemic was a reprise of the “Spanish flu” pandemic from 1918, but with far less devastating consequences. Suspected as a re-assortment of bird, swine, and human flu viruses, it was colloquially known as the “swine flu” . It started in Mexico in April of 2009 and reached pandemic proportions within weeks . It began to taper off toward the end of the year and by May of 2010, it was declared over.
It infected over 10% of the global population (lower than expected), with a death toll estimated varying from 20,000 to over 500,000 . Although its death rate was ultimately lower than the regular influenza death rates, at the time it was perceived as very threatening because it disproportionately affected previously healthy young adults, often quickly leading to severe respiratory compromise. A possible explanation for this phenomenon (in addition to the “cytokine storm” applicable to the 1918 H1N1 outbreak) is attributed to older adults having immunity due to a similar H1N1 outbreak in the 1970s .
This pandemic also resulted in some valuable data studying and analysing the mental health aspects of the outbreak. It was among the first outbreaks where policy reports included mental health as an aspect of preparedness and mitigation policy efforts. This outbreak of H1N1 was notable for dissonance between the public sentiment about the outbreak and the public health steps recommended and undertaken by WHO and national health institutions. General public sentiment was that of alarm caused by WHO releases and warnings, but it quickly turned to discontent and mistrust when the initial grim outlook of the outbreak failed to materialize . Health agencies were accused of creating panic (“panicdemic”) and peddling unproven vaccines to boost the pharmaceutical companies (in 2009, some extra $1,5 billion worth of H1N1 vaccines were purchased and administered in the USA) .
This outbreak illustrated how difficult it may be to gauge and manage public expectations and public sentiments in the effort to mobilize a response. It also demonstrated how distilling descriptions of the impact of a complex public health threat like a pandemic into a single term like “mild,” “moderate,” or “severe” can potentially be misleading and, ultimately, of little use in public health approach .
Ebola Outbreak (2014–2016)
Ebola virus, endemic to Central and West Africa, with fruit bats serving as a likely reservoir, appeared in an outbreak in a remote village in Guinea in December 2013. Spreading mostly within families, it reached Sierra Leone and Liberia, where it managed to generate considerable outbreaks over the following months, with over 28,000 cases and over 11,000 fatalities. A very small number of cases were registered in Nigeria and Mali, but those outbreaks were quickly contained . Ebola outbreak, which happened to be the largest outbreak of Ebola infection to date, gained global notoriety after a passenger from Liberia fell ill and died in Texas in September of 2014, infecting two nurses caring for him, and leading to a significant public concern over a possible Ebola outbreak in the USA . This led to a significant public health and military effort to address the outbreak and help contain it on site (Operation United Assistance) .
Zika virus was a little known, dormant virus found in rhesus monkeys in Uganda. Prior to 2014, the only known outbreak among humans was recorded in Micronesia in 2007. The virus was then identified in Brazil in 2015, after an outbreak of a mild illness causing a flat pinkish rash, bloodshot eyes, fever, joint pain and headaches, resembling dengue. It is a mosquito-borne disease (Aedes Aegypti), but it can be sexually transmitted. Despite its mild course, which initially made it unremarkable form the public health perspective, infection with Zika can cause Guillain-Barre syndrome in its wake in adults and, more tragically, cause severe microcephalia in unborn children of infected mothers (a risk of about 1%) .
In Brazil, in 2015, for example, there were 2400 birth defects and 29 infant deaths due to suspected Zika infection . Zika outbreak is an illustrative case of the context of global transmission; it was transferred from Micronesia, across the Pacific, to Brazil, whence it continued to spread . It is also a case of a modern media pandemic; it featured prominently in the social media. In early 2016, Zika was being mentioned 50 times a minute in Twitter posts. Social media were used to disseminate information, to educate, or to communicate concerns .
Its presence in social media, perhaps for the first time in history, allowed social researchers to study the public sentiment, also known as the emotional epidemiology (Ofri), in real time . While both public health institutions and the general public voiced their concern with the outbreak, scientists and officials sought to provide educational aspect, while concerned public was trying to have their emotional concerns addressed. It is indicative that 4 out of 5 posts on Zika on social media were accurate; yet, those that were “trending” and gaining popularity were posts with inaccurate content (now colloquially referred to as the “fake news”) . This is a phenomenon that requires significant attention in preparing for future outbreaks because it may hold a key not only to preparedness, but also to execution of public health plans that may involve quarantine and immunization.
Since 2016, Zika has continued to spread throughout South America, Central America, the Caribbean, and several states within the USA. It remains a significant public health concern, as there is no vaccine and the only reliable way to avoid the risk for the offspring is to avoid areas where Zika was identified or to postpone pregnancy should travel to or living in affected areas be unavoidable .
Disease X is not, as of yet, an actual disease caused by a known agent, but a speculated source of the next pandemic that could have devastating effects on humanity. Knowing the scope of deleterious effects a pandemic outbreak can have on humankind, in the wake of the Ebola outbreak, the World Health Organization (WHO) decided to dedicate formidable resources to identifying, studying, and combating possible future outbreaks. It does so in the form of an R&D Blueprint, though devising its global strategy and preparedness plan that allows the rapid activation of R&D activities during epidemics .
R&D Blueprint maintains and updates a list of so-called identified priority diseases. This list is updated at regular intervals and, as of 2018, it includes diseases such as Ebola and Marburg virus diseases, Lassa fever, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Nipah and henipa virus diseases, Zika, and others . For each disease identified, an R&D roadmap is created, followed by target product profiles (i.e., immunizations, treatment, and regulatory framework). Those efforts are important to help us combat a dangerous outbreak of any of the abovementioned diseases, but also to fend off Disease X. Since Disease X is a hypothetical entity, brought by a yet unknown pathogen that could cause a serious international pandemic, the R&D Blueprint explicitly seeks to enable cross-cutting R&D preparedness that is also relevant for both existing culprits and the unknown future “Disease X” as much as possible.
WHO utilizes this R&D Blueprint vehicle to assemble and deploy a broad global coalition of experts who regularly contribute to the Blueprint and who come from several medical, scientific, and regulatory backgrounds. Its advisory group, at the time, does not include mental health specialists .
Timeline of the pandemics described in this paper.
|541–543||Plague of Justinian||Yersinia pestis||Fleas associated to wild rodents|
|1347–1351||Black Death||Yersinia pestis||Fleas associated to wild rodents|
|1817–1824||First cholera pandemic||Vibrio cholerae||Contaminated water|
|1827–1835||Second cholera pandemic||Vibrio cholerae||Contaminated water|
|1839–1856||Third cholera pandemic||Vibrio cholerae||Contaminated water|
|1863–1875||Fourth cholera pandemic||Vibrio cholerae||Contaminated water|
|1881–1886||Fifth cholera pandemic||Vibrio cholerae||Contaminated water|
|1885–ongoing||Third plague||Yersinia pestis||Fleas associated to wild rodents|
|1889–1893||Russian flu||Influenza A/H3N8?||Avian?|
|1899–1923||Sixth cholera pandemic||Vibrio cholerae||Contaminated water|
|1918–1919||Spanish flu||Influenza A/H1N1||Avian|
|1957–1959||Asian flu||Influenza A/H2N2||Avian|
|1961-ongoing||Seventh cholera pandemic||Vibrio cholerae||Contaminated water|
|1968–1970||Hong Kong flu||Influenza A/H3N2||Avian|
|2002–2003||Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)||SARS-CoV||Bats, palm civets|
|2009–2010||Swine flu||Influenza A/H1N1||Pigs|
|2015-ongoing||Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)||MERS-CoV||Bats, dromedary camels| | <urn:uuid:0e1ae783-0ae2-441f-8a5f-c7d7afa4b050> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://gwrehder.wordpress.com/category/disasters/pandemics/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571147.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20220810040253-20220810070253-00510.warc.gz | en | 0.959566 | 8,727 | 3.546875 | 4 |
Palliative care helps relieve the physical and psychological pain of a person with a critical or progressive illness. The psychologist plays an important role in the lives of patients in palliative care and their caregivers. He helps them experience this stage more serenely, by encouraging them to redefine and strengthen their relationships. That is the aim of Jean-Marc Duru when he provides psychological care.
The contribution of the palliative care psychologist in a medical team
Palliative care helps relieve the physical and psychological pain of people with a critical, progressive or terminal illness. This is why psychologists are often part of the care team, just like the doctors and nurses, to name but two examples. For more information on palliative care, you will find a more in-depth article in our Practical Tips section.
It is in this framework that Jean-Marc Duru meets with the person receiving care and their loved ones – especially the caregiver – to guide them in confidence in the care delivered.
Mr. Duru explores the life lived and notable life experiences. This way, he ensures that the relationship he establishes with the patient and their caregiver has meaning in their lives that is not solely defined by the illness.
Care based on acceptance and accomplishment
Jean-Marc Duru guides you in the expression of your difficulties, your helplessness, by offering neutral space to talk about this stage, beyond the care and the urgency. He articulates the psychological care around two values: acceptance of the situation and satisfaction in your actions (accomplishment).
In palliative care especially, the issue of grieving may emerge: that of the special relationship between you and your loved one and that of the loss. In this delicate context, the work is thus to help you accept the situation, so that you can cope with it better. He also strives to find some meaning in what the patient is experiencing and to help them manage a condition with which they are not familiar.
Mr. Duru also guides people toward a form of “letting go”, which they accomplish through positive actions. Without clinging to the past or familiar reflexes, the patient and their loved one are encouraged to build a continuation of their relationship beyond care, based on mutual dialogue and compassion. Mr. Duru encourages patients to define themselves by abilities, not just by symptoms.
The importance of offering emotional support
Mr. Duru is aware that addressing palliative care in a discussion group is difficult. Your journey as a caregiver and that of your loved one is unique. However, in a group, the experiences are different. That said, you might find talking about your situation comforting and it may help you manage your stress and fatigue better.
For Jean-Marc Duru, the important thing is that you and your loved one feel heard and understood. The aspect of spirituality is important to guide you in this care. It is even necessary to anticipate a psychological or spiritual distress that might occur.
Do not hesitate to ask the psychologist questions. Their answers will be able to help you receive the psychological care and emotional support you might need more effectively.
Jean-Marc Duru, palliative care psychologist, has been practising his profession for nine years. Support, care, advice and training are all services he provides to caregivers with respect for their personality and their culture. He practises at the Palliative Home-Care Society of Greater Montreal and at the Clinique de psychologie Villeray-Petite-Patrie psychology clinic. | <urn:uuid:7fd400ab-4c73-4755-b32a-2fa54a84fdeb> | CC-MAIN-2019-22 | https://www.lappui.org/en/News/Newsfeed/2019/Psychological-care-The-ally-of-the-caregiver-and-their-loved-one-in-palliative-care | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-22/segments/1558232256494.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20190521162634-20190521184634-00340.warc.gz | en | 0.958543 | 719 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Prior to World War II the United States had begun to take an isolationist stance towards global politics, which was a response to the loss of life in WWI and the devastating economic disaster known as the Great Depression.
This isolationist stance was bolstered by the fact that many Americans believed the U.S. was going to war solely for the financial benefit of bankers and arms manufacturers.
Nearly a hundred years later the argument for American isolationism has begun again, but what are the pros and cons of the U.S. adopting an isolationist policy?
It's clear that we'd save tons of money on our defense budget, which would give us the chance to handle many domestic issues which we never seem to have the budget for.
But at the same time we'd be more vulnerable to attacks due to a lack of international cooperation, and even though this policy would help us avoid war with China it could also lead to a Russian invasion of the Baltics if the U.S. withdrew from NATO.
There's simply not enough room to discuss this issue in full here, so you'll just have to read 10 Things That Would Happen If The US Became Isolationist at TopTenz and discover more pros and cons of this hot-button issue. | <urn:uuid:4ea99a5f-6e67-44dc-a6de-9c4e7e788619> | CC-MAIN-2021-04 | https://www.neatorama.com/2016/12/31/What-Would-Happen-If-The-US-Embraced-Isolationism/?load_comments=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610704835583.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20210128005448-20210128035448-00169.warc.gz | en | 0.974257 | 256 | 2.734375 | 3 |
The History of Venetian Masks
The use of masks during the life of the Venetian Republic remains one of mankind's notably eccentric practices. Indeed, masks have been worn in cultures throughout the world for thousands of years, but perhaps never with such fervent pageantry as in Venice.
For approximately eight hundred years, the Republic enjoyed a position of unrivaled superiority. Considered a breed apart from its European cousins, Venice was unquestionably the most extravagant, most beautiful state on the Continent. The shipyards were capable of turning out a battleship every thirty days and employed 15,000 men (in a state with a scarce 150,000 people). The routes of trade under the Republic's control extended all the way to Constantinople and beyond in the form of varied and extensive caravans, sultanates, and "friends". The Republic did not hold these routes uncontested for any long stretches of time - it was under constant duress from rival states. But hold them it did. As a result, as Marco Polo said, "All the gold in
Christendom flows through the hands of the Venetians."
Unlike the vast majority of their counterparts in contemporary European nations, each citizen in Venice enjoyed a high standard of living. Everyone was part of the great economic machine that was the Republic. Venice was capitalizing on its position, on its gains, long before its contemporaries had realized the value of a market economy. With a level of social wealth unequaled since, the citizens of Venice developed a unique culture - one in which the concealing of the identity in daily life became paramount to daily activity. Part of the secrecy was pragmatic: there were things to do, people to see, and perhaps you might not want others to know what deals you were cutting. After all, the city is relatively small.
Additionally, the masks served an important social purpose of keeping every citizen on an equal playing field. Masked, a servant could be mistaken for a nobleman - or vice versa. State inquisitors and spies could question citizens without fear of their true identity being discovered (and citizens could answer without fear of retribution). The morale of the people was maintained through the use of masks - for with no faces, everyone had voices.
As a result of the concealment of identity, however, people naturally found themselves taking advantage of the situation. The society grew ever more decadent. The immense amount of travelers coming through the city meant that sexual promiscuity was commonplace and acceptable. Gambling went on all day and night in the streets and houses, even in convents. Women's clothing became more revealing; homosexuality, while publicly condemned, was embraced by the populace. Even the nuns and monks of the clergy, bejeweled and dressed in the latest imported creations, wore masks and engaged in the same acts as the majority of their fellow citizens. Rome turned a blind eye, as long as the Republic continued to make generous donations.
The Republic fell into a state of luxury, indolence, and moral decay. Eventually the wearing of masks in daily life was banned and limited only to certain months of the year. During the last year of the Republic's existence, this period extended for over three months from December 26. It was gradually shortened into the week-long festivities that now comprise Carnevale, elsewhere known as Mardi Gras.
The Republic's long, sinuous spiral into legendary history came slowly. With the advent of new sea routes skating Africa, Venice lost its monopoly on Eastern trade. The Republic had grown somewhat complacent about maintaining its varied Mediterranean colonies - most were overtaken by the Ottoman Empire. The British and Dutch were rising to the challenge of the New World - something which Venice in its protected Sea was unable even to imagine. In response to the paradigm shift, Venice went on a two hundred-fifty-year bender - one that would end with Napoleon sanctimoniously handing over the dissolute Republic to Austria.
For questions about the history of specific masks please contact us at (504) 598-1998. | <urn:uuid:aaaa0fc8-a24f-4c6f-9515-aef17cb056d3> | CC-MAIN-2014-10 | http://www.maskitalia.com/Venetian-Mask-History-s/1994.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-10/segments/1394010554119/warc/CC-MAIN-20140305090914-00057-ip-10-183-142-35.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.973286 | 826 | 3.765625 | 4 |
Aquatic Weeds Programme
Programme Manager: Prof. Julie Coetzee
Historically, biological control efforts against aquatic macrophytes in South Africa have focused on the floating weeds, water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (C.Mart.) Solms (Pontederiacaeae), salvinia, Salvinia molesta D.S.Mitch. (Salviniaceae), water lettuce, Pistia stratiotes L. (Araceae), parrot’s feather, Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc. (Haloragaceae), and red water fern, Azolla filiculoides Lam. (Azollaceae). Post-release evaluations over the last ten years have shown that, with the exception of water hyacinth, all of these problematic aquatic plants have been suppressed effectively using classical biological control. However, in eutrophic water bodies at high elevations that experience cold winters, an integrated approach, that includes herbicide application and augmentive biological control, is required against water hyacinth.
In contrast, there is a dearth of research into the invasion and control of submerged, and emergent aquatic macrophytes. With numerous invasive aquatic species already established in South Africa, thriving horticultural and aquarium industries, nutrient-rich water systems, and a limited knowledge of the drivers of invasions of submerged and emergent macrophytes, South Africa is highly vulnerable to a second phase of aquatic plant problems. Experiences gained in the U.S.A. on biological control against submerged weeds, such as hydrilla, Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle (Hydrocharitaceae) and spiked/Eurasian watermilfoil, Myriophyllum spicatum L. (Haloragaceae), have provided South African researchers with the necessary foundation to initiate programmes against submerged species such as Brazilian water weed, Egeria densa Planch. (Hydrocharitaceae), while collaboration with Australian, US and European colleagues are benefitting programmes against emergent species such as Sagittaria platyphylla (Engelm.) J.G. Sm. (Alismataceae), Nymphaea mexicana Zuch. (Nymphaceae), and Iris pseudacorus L. (Iridaceae).
The main aim of the waterweeds programme is to determine pathways of new invasions, and the invasion ecology and management of emerging aquatic weeds. Competitive interactions between invasive and native species is crucial to understand, as well as modes of spread, phenology, and requirements in these invasives’ new ranges. Initiating and implementing biological control programmes on these species is the ultimate goal of the aquatic weeds programme.
Prof. Julie Coetzee is the Programme Manager and there are a range of students, in Entomology, Botany and Economics, who are doing their research on different aspects of waterweed invasion ecology in this programme.
New Years Dam outside Alicedale, before and after the release of the weevil Neochetina eichhorniae to control water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes
Coetzee, J.A., Bownes, A. & Martin, G.D. 2011. Prospects for the biological control of submerged aquatic macrophytes. African Entomology 19(2): 469–487.
Coetzee, J.A., Hill, M.P., Byrne, M.J. and Bownes, A.B. 2011. A review of the biological control programmes on Eichhornia crassipes (C. Mart.) Solms (Pontederiacaeae), Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitch. (Salviniaceae), Pistia stratiotes L. (Araceae), Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc. (Haloragaceae) and Azolla filiculoides Lam. (Azollaceae) in South Africa since 1999. African Entomology 19(2): 451–468.
Martin, G.D. & Coetzee, J.A. 2011. Fresh water aquatic plant invasion risks posed by the aquarium trade, aquarists and the internet trade in South Africa WaterSA 37: 371-380.
Coetzee, J.A. & Hill, M.P. 2012. The role of eutrophication in the biological control of water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes, in South Africa. BioControl 57:247–261.
Hill, M.P. & Coetzee, J.A. 2017. The biological control of aquatic weeds in South Africa: Current status and future challenges. Bothalia 47(2): 1-12.
Coetzee, J.A., Hill, M.P., Ruiz-Tellez, T., Starfinger, U. and Brunel, S. 2017. Monographs on Invasive Plants in Europe: Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms. Botany Letters 164:4, 303-326.
Last Modified: Fri, 07 Dec 2018 08:35:09 SAST | <urn:uuid:57ee8263-c6aa-4129-ac8f-6b4db651737c> | CC-MAIN-2020-16 | https://www.ru.ac.za/centreforbiologicalcontrol/programmes/aquaticweeds/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-16/segments/1585371604800.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200405115129-20200405145629-00340.warc.gz | en | 0.802264 | 1,081 | 2.703125 | 3 |
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