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Dobra publiczne Po przeczytaniu tego podrozdziału będziesz w stanie: Zidentyfikować dobra publiczne w oparciu o brak możliwości wykluczenia z ich konsumpcji i jej nierywalizacyjny charakter Wyjaśnić „problem gapowicza” Wskazać na źródła finansowania produkcji dóbr publicznych Chociaż nowe technologie tworzą pozytywne e... | Dobra publiczne | Mikroekonomia – Podstawy | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/mikroekonomia-podstawy |
Fuzje przedsiębiorstw Po przeczytaniu tego podrozdziału będziesz w stanie: Obliczać współczynniki koncentracji Policzyć Indeks Herfindahla-Hirschmana (HHI) Ocenić skuteczność regulacji antymonopolowych W poprzednich rozdziałach dotyczących teorii przedsiębiorstwa doszliśmy do trzech ważnych wniosków. Po pierwsze – konk... | Fuzje przedsiębiorstw | Mikroekonomia – Podstawy | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/mikroekonomia-podstawy |
Regulacje monopolu naturalnego Po przeczytaniu tego podrozdziału będziesz w stanie: Wskazać właściwe strategie regulacyjne monopoli naturalnych Zinterpretować wykres prezentujący możliwe sposoby regulacji monopolu naturalnego Porównać regulacje cen oparte na poziomie kosztów i te wykorzystujące ceny maksymalne Obecnie ... | Regulacje monopolu naturalnego | Mikroekonomia – Podstawy | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/mikroekonomia-podstawy |
Problem niedoskonałej informacji i asymetrii informacji Po przeczytaniu tego podrozdziału będziesz w stanie: Przeanalizować wpływ niedoskonałej informacji i asymetrii informacji na równowagę rynkową Ocenić rolę kampanii marketingowych w kreowaniu zjawiska asymetrii informacji Zidentyfikować sposoby służące ograniczaniu... | Problem niedoskonałej informacji i asymetrii informacji | Mikroekonomia – Podstawy | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/mikroekonomia-podstawy |
Wprowadzenie do rozdziału Palący problem Pożar buszu w Australii na przełomie 2019 i 2020 r. (Źródło: Pixabay) Uwaga, pożar! We wrześniu 2019 r. australijskie Biuro Meteorologiczne wydało ostrzeżenie o radykalnym wzroście zagrożenia pożarowego w Nowej Południowej Walii oraz Queenslandzie, gdzie już w latach 2017–2018 p... | Wprowadzenie do rozdziału | Mikroekonomia – Podstawy | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/mikroekonomia-podstawy |
Zmiany klimatu i ich negatywne konsekwencje Po przeczytaniu tego podrozdziału będziesz w stanie: Wskazać na najważniejsze czynniki determinujące obecne zmiany klimatu na Ziemi Objaśnić, jakie są społeczne i gospodarcze skutki zmian klimatycznych Zrozumieć, w jaki sposób zmiany klimatu zagrażają dotychczasowej działalno... | Zmiany klimatu i ich negatywne konsekwencje | Mikroekonomia – Podstawy | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/mikroekonomia-podstawy |
Sposoby reakcji na zagrożenia związane z ryzykiem klimatycznym Po przeczytaniu tego podrozdziału będziesz w stanie: Wyjaśnić, na czym polega adaptacja przedsiębiorstw do ryzyk klimatycznych Wskazać, jaki jest cel szacowania śladu węglowego w przedsiębiorstwach W poprzednim podrozdziale zostały zidentyfikowane ryzyka kl... | Sposoby reakcji na zagrożenia związane z ryzykiem klimatycznym | Mikroekonomia – Podstawy | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/mikroekonomia-podstawy |
Zrównoważony ład korporacyjny i ESG Po przeczytaniu tego podrozdziału będziesz w stanie: Scharakteryzować kryteria ESG Objaśnić, czym są z zrównoważone instrumenty finansowe (obligacje, pożyczki oraz aktywa finansowe) Wraz z wprowadzaniem na poziomie krajowym rekomendacji wynikających z porozumienia paryskiego coraz po... | Zrównoważony ład korporacyjny i ESG | Mikroekonomia – Podstawy | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/mikroekonomia-podstawy |
Matematyka zastosowana w tym podręczniku Istnieją niematematyczne sposoby przedstawiania modeli ekonomicznych, np. w formie tekstu. Ale po co walić pięścią w gwóźdź, skoro masz młotek? Matematyka ma pewną przewagę nad tekstem. Gdy redukujesz model do równań algebraicznych, systematyzujesz myślenie i unikasz niejasności... | Matematyka zastosowana w tym podręczniku | Mikroekonomia – Podstawy | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/mikroekonomia-podstawy |
Krzywe obojętności Ekonomiści używają pojęć związanych z maksymalizacją użyteczności do opisu preferencji ludzi. W poziom użyteczności (ang. utility ) uzyskiwany przez daną osobę jest wyrażany w kategoriach liczbowych. Niniejszy załącznik przedstawia alternatywne podejście do opisu osobistych preferencji, czyli krzywe ... | Krzywe obojętności | Mikroekonomia – Podstawy | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/mikroekonomia-podstawy |
Wartość zaktualizowana W zostało wyjaśnione, że ceny akcji (ang. stocks ) i obligacji (ang. bonds ) zależą od przyszłych wydarzeń. Cena obligacji zależy od przyszłych płatności, których oczekuje się z tytułu tych obligacji, w tym zarówno płatności odsetek, jak i spłaty wartości nominalnej. Cena akcji zależy od oczekiwa... | Wartość zaktualizowana | Mikroekonomia – Podstawy | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/mikroekonomia-podstawy |
Preface Welcome to Introductory Business Statistics 2e , an OpenStax resource. This textbook was written to increase student access to high-quality learning materials, maintaining highest standards of academic rigor at little to no cost. About OpenStax OpenStax is part of Rice University, which is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit... | Preface | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Introduction We encounter statistics in our daily lives more often than we probably realize and from many different sources, like the news. (credit: modification of work “New office” by Phil Whitehouse/ Flickr, CC BY 2.0) You are probably asking yourself the question, "When and where will I use statistics?" If you read... | Introduction | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Definitions of Statistics, Probability, and Key Terms The science of statistics deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data . We see and use data in our everyday lives. In this course, you will learn how to organize and summarize data. Organizing and summarizing data is called descript... | Definitions of Statistics, Probability, and Key Terms | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling Data may come from a population or from a sample. Lowercase letters like x or y generally are used to represent data values. Most data can be put into the following categories: Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative data are the result of categorizing or describing attri... | Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Levels of Measurement Once you have a set of data, you will need to organize it so that you can analyze how frequently each datum occurs in the set. However, when calculating the frequency, you may need to round your answers so that they are as precise as possible. Levels of Measurement The way a set of data is measure... | Levels of Measurement | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Experimental Design and Ethics Does aspirin reduce the risk of heart attacks? Is one brand of fertilizer more effective at growing roses than another? Is fatigue as dangerous to a driver as the influence of alcohol? Questions like these are answered using randomized experiments. In this module, you will learn important... | Experimental Design and Ethics | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Introduction When you have large amounts of data, you will need to organize it in a way that makes sense. These ballots from an election are rolled together with similar ballots to keep them organized. (credit: modification of work “HELMAND PROVINCE, Afghanistan (Aug. 21, 2009) Voting ballots organized and arranged for... | Introduction | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Display Data Stem-and-Leaf Graphs (Stemplots), Line Graphs, and Bar Graphs One simple graph, the stem-and-leaf graph or stemplot , comes from the field of exploratory data analysis. It is a good choice when the data sets are small. To create the plot, divide each observation of data into a stem and a leaf. The leaf con... | Display Data | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Measures of the Location of the Data The common measures of location are quartiles and percentiles . Quartiles divide an ordered data set into four equal parts. The three quartiles of a data set are labeled as Q1, Q2, and Q3. About one-fourth of the data falls on or below the first quartile Q1. About one-half of the da... | Measures of the Location of the Data | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Measures of the Center of the Data The "center" of a data set is also a way of describing location. The two most widely used measures of the "center" of the data are the mean (average) and the median . To calculate the mean weight of 50 people, add the 50 weights together and divide by 50. Technically this is the arith... | Measures of the Center of the Data | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Sigma Notation and Calculating the Arithmetic Mean Formula for Population Mean μ = 1 N ∑ i = 1 N x i Formula for Sample Mean x – = 1 n ∑ i = 1 n x i This unit is here to remind you of material that you once studied and said at the time “I am sure that I will never need this!” Here are the formulas for a population mean... | Sigma Notation and Calculating the Arithmetic Mean | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Geometric Mean The mean (Arithmetic), median and mode are all measures of the “center” of the data, the “average”. They are all in their own way trying to measure the “common” point within the data, that which is “normal”. In the case of the arithmetic mean this is solved by finding the value from which all points are ... | Geometric Mean | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Skewness and the Mean, Median, and Mode Consider the following data set. 4; 5; 6; 6; 6; 7; 7; 7; 7; 7; 7; 8; 8; 8; 9; 10 This data set can be represented by following histogram. Each interval has width one, and each value is located in the middle of an interval. The histogram in displays a symmetrical distribution of d... | Skewness and the Mean, Median, and Mode | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Measures of the Spread of the Data An important characteristic of any set of data is the variation in the data. In some data sets, the data values are concentrated closely near the mean; in other data sets, the data values are more widely spread out from the mean. The most common measure of variation, or spread, is the... | Measures of the Spread of the Data | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Introduction Meteor showers are rare, but the probability of them occurring can be calculated. (credit: modification of work “A meteor during the peak of the 2009 Leonid Meteor Shower” by Navicore/ Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 3.0) It is often necessary to "guess" about the outcome of an event in order to make a decision. ... | Introduction | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Terminology Probability is a measure that is associated with how certain we are of outcomes of a particular experiment or activity. An experiment is a planned operation carried out under controlled conditions. If the result is not predetermined, then the experiment is said to be a chance experiment. Flipping one fair c... | Terminology | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Independent and Mutually Exclusive Events Independent and mutually exclusive do not mean the same thing. Independent Events Two events are independent if one of the following are true: P ( A | B ) = P ( A ) P ( B | A ) = P ( B ) P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A ) P ( B ) Two events A and B are independent if the knowledge that one ... | Independent and Mutually Exclusive Events | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Two Basic Rules of Probability When calculating probability, there are two rules to consider when determining if two events are independent or dependent and if they are mutually exclusive or not. The Multiplication Rule If A and B are two events defined on a sample space , then: P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( B ) P ( A | B ) . We c... | Two Basic Rules of Probability | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Contingency Tables and Probability Trees Contingency Tables A contingency table provides a way of portraying data that can facilitate calculating probabilities. The table helps in determining conditional probabilities quite easily. The table displays sample values in relation to two different variables that may be depe... | Contingency Tables and Probability Trees | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Venn Diagrams A Venn diagram is a picture that represents the outcomes of an experiment. It generally consists of a box that represents the sample space S together with circles or ovals. The circles or ovals represent events. Venn diagrams also help us to convert common English words into mathematical terms that help a... | Venn Diagrams | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Introduction You can use probability and discrete random variables to calculate the likelihood of lightning striking the ground five times during a half-hour thunderstorm. (credit: modification of work “CG lightning strike” by Axel Rouvin/ Flickr, CC BY 2.0) A student takes a ten-question, true-false quiz. Because the ... | Introduction | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Hypergeometric Distribution The simplest probability density function is the hypergeometric. This is the most basic one because it is created by combining our knowledge of probabilities from Venn diagrams, the addition and multiplication rules, and the combinatorial counting formula. To find the number of ways to get 2... | Hypergeometric Distribution | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Binomial Distribution A more valuable probability density function with many applications is the binomial distribution. This distribution will compute probabilities for any binomial process. A binomial process, often called a Bernoulli process after the first person to fully develop its properties, is any case where th... | Binomial Distribution | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Geometric Distribution There are four main characteristics of a geometric experiment. A trial is repeated until a success occurs. Think of this as one or more Bernoulli trials with all failures except the last one, which is a success. In other words, you keep repeating what you are doing until the first success. Then y... | Geometric Distribution | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Poisson Distribution Another useful probability distribution is the Poisson distribution, or waiting time distribution. This distribution is used to determine how many checkout clerks are needed to keep the waiting time in line to specified levels, how may telephone lines are needed to keep the system from overloading,... | Poisson Distribution | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Introduction The heights of these radish plants are continuous random variables. (credit: modification of work “Radish (Raphanus sativus): White rust caused by Albugo candida” by Scot Nelson/ Flickr, Public Domain) Continuous random variables have many applications. Baseball batting averages, IQ scores, the length of t... | Introduction | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Properties of Continuous Probability Density Functions The graph of a continuous probability distribution is a curve. Probability is represented by area under the curve. We have already met this concept when we developed relative frequencies with histograms in Descriptive Statistics . The relative area for a range of v... | Properties of Continuous Probability Density Functions | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
The Uniform Distribution The uniform distribution is a continuous probability distribution and is concerned with events that are equally likely to occur. When working out problems that have a uniform distribution, be careful to note if the data is inclusive or exclusive of endpoints. The mathematical statement of the u... | The Uniform Distribution | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
The Exponential Distribution The exponential probability density function is built upon the general exponential function where the variable is an exponent: f ( x ) = a ( b ) x . This equation can be converted to a natural system of logarithms with a base e that has an approximate value of 2.71828. The exponential proba... | The Exponential Distribution | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Introduction If you ask enough people about their shoe size, you will find that your graphed data is shaped like a bell curve and can be described as normally distributed. (credit: modification of work “Shoe shop” by Lo/ Flickr, Public Domain) The normal probability density function, a continuous distribution, is the m... | Introduction | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
The Standard Normal Distribution The standard normal distribution is a normal distribution of standardized values called z -scores . A z -score is measured in units of the standard deviation. The mean for the standard normal distribution is zero, and the standard deviation is one. What this does is dramatically simplif... | The Standard Normal Distribution | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Using the Normal Distribution The shaded area in the following graph indicates the area to the right of x . This area is represented by the probability P ( X > x ). Normal tables provide the probability between the mean, zero for the standard normal distribution, and a specific value such as x 1 . This is the unshaded ... | Using the Normal Distribution | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Estimating the Binomial with the Normal Distribution We found earlier that various probability density functions are the limiting distributions of others; thus, we can estimate one with another under certain circumstances. We will find here that the normal distribution can be used to estimate a binomial process. The Po... | Estimating the Binomial with the Normal Distribution | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Introduction If you want to figure out the distribution of the change people carry in their pockets, using the Central Limit Theorem and assuming your sample is large enough, you will find that the distribution is the normal probability density function. (credit: modification of work “american coins” by Paula R. Lively... | Introduction | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
The Central Limit Theorem for Sample Means The sampling distribution is a theoretical distribution. It is created by taking many samples of size n from a population. Each sample mean is then treated like a single observation of this new distribution, the sampling distribution. The genius of thinking this way is that it... | The Central Limit Theorem for Sample Means | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Using the Central Limit Theorem The Law of Large Numbers , along with the Central Limit Theorem, provides another critical piece of information to allow us to engage in inferential statistics. In short, the Law of Large Numbers proves that the expected value of the sampling distribution of the sample mean is the popula... | Using the Central Limit Theorem | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
The Central Limit Theorem for Proportions The Central Limit Theorem tells us that the point estimate for the sample mean, x ¯ , comes from a normal distribution of x ¯ 's. This theoretical distribution is called the sampling distribution of x ¯ 's. We now investigate the sampling distribution for another important para... | The Central Limit Theorem for Proportions | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Finite Population Correction Factor We saw that the sample size has an important effect on the variance and thus the standard deviation of the sampling distribution. Also of interest is the proportion of the total population that has been sampled. We have assumed that the population is extremely large and that we have ... | Finite Population Correction Factor | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Introduction Have you ever wondered what the average number of M&Ms in a bag at the grocery store is? You can use confidence intervals to answer this question. (credit: modification of work “sweet, orange, food, green, red, color, brown, blue, colorful, yellow, chocolate, snack, dessert, toy, plain, candy, sweetness, t... | Introduction | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
A Confidence Interval When the Population Standard Deviation Is Known or Large Sample Size A confidence interval for a population mean, when the population standard deviation is known based on the conclusion of the Central Limit Theorem that the sampling distribution of the sample means follow an approximately normal d... | A Confidence Interval When the Population Standard Deviation Is Known or Large Sample Size | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
A Confidence Interval When the Population Standard Deviation Is Unknown and Small Sample Case In practice, we rarely know the population standard deviation . In the past, when the sample size was large, this did not present a problem to statisticians. They used the sample standard deviation s as an estimate for σ and p... | A Confidence Interval When the Population Standard Deviation Is Unknown and Small Sample Case | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
A Confidence Interval for A Population Proportion During an election year, we see articles in the newspaper that state confidence intervals in terms of proportions or percentages. For example, a poll for a particular candidate running for president might show that the candidate has 40% of the vote within three percenta... | A Confidence Interval for A Population Proportion | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Calculating the Sample Size n: Continuous and Binary Random Variables Continuous Random Variables Usually we have no control over the sample size of a data set. However, if we are able to set the sample size, as in cases where we are taking a survey, it is very helpful to know just how large it should be to provide the... | Calculating the Sample Size n: Continuous and Binary Random Variables | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Introduction You can use a hypothesis test to decide if a dog breeder’s claim that every Dalmatian has 35 spots is statistically sound. (credit: modification of work “black and white, view, dog, animal, fur, mammal, garden, head, vertebrate, beautiful, elegant, rush, attention, dalmatian, dog breed, dog head, noble, st... | Introduction | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Null and Alternative Hypotheses The actual test begins by considering two hypotheses . They are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis . These hypotheses contain opposing viewpoints. H 0 : The null hypothesis: It is a statement of no difference between the variables–they are not related. This can oft... | Null and Alternative Hypotheses | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Outcomes and the Type I and Type II Errors When you perform a hypothesis test, there are four possible outcomes depending on the actual truth (or falseness) of the null hypothesis H 0 and the decision to reject or not. The outcomes are summarized in the following table: Statistical Decision H 0 is actually... True Fals... | Outcomes and the Type I and Type II Errors | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Probability Distribution Needed for Hypothesis Testing Earlier in the course, we discussed sampling distributions. Particular distributions are associated with various types of hypothesis testing. The following table summarizes various hypothesis tests and corresponding probability distributions that will be used to co... | Probability Distribution Needed for Hypothesis Testing | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Full Hypothesis Test Examples Tests on Means Jeffrey, as an eight-year old, established a mean time of 16.43 seconds for swimming the 25-yard freestyle, with a standard deviation of 0.8 seconds . His dad, Frank, thought that Jeffrey could swim the 25-yard freestyle faster using goggles. Frank bought Jeffrey a new pair ... | Full Hypothesis Test Examples | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Introduction If you want to test a claim that involves two groups (the types of breakfasts eaten east and west of the Mississippi River) you can use a slightly different technique when conducting a hypothesis test. (credit: modification of work “scrambled egg, toast and home-made berry jam (no added sugar) for breakfas... | Introduction | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Comparing Two Independent Population Means The comparison of two independent population means is very common and provides a way to test the hypothesis that the two groups differ from each other. Is the night shift less productive than the day shift, are the rates of return from fixed asset investments different from th... | Comparing Two Independent Population Means | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Cohen's Standards for Small, Medium, and Large Effect Sizes Cohen's d is a measure of "effect size" based on the differences between two means. Cohen’s d , named for United States statistician Jacob Cohen, measures the relative strength of the differences between the means of two populations based on sample data. The c... | Cohen's Standards for Small, Medium, and Large Effect Sizes | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Test for Differences in Means: Assuming Equal Population Variances Typically we can never expect to know any of the population parameters, mean, proportion, or standard deviation. When testing hypotheses concerning differences in means we are faced with the difficulty of two unknown variances that play a critical role ... | Test for Differences in Means: Assuming Equal Population Variances | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Comparing Two Independent Population Proportions Proportions have their base in the binomial probability distribution. As a probability distribution, we know the mean and standard deviation of the distribution. As a binary or categorical sample data set, we lose this knowledge from when we knew the population parameter... | Comparing Two Independent Population Proportions | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Two Population Means with Known Standard Deviations Even though this situation is not likely (knowing the population standard deviations is very unlikely), the following example illustrates hypothesis testing for independent means with known population standard deviations. The sampling distribution for the difference b... | Two Population Means with Known Standard Deviations | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Matched or Paired Samples In most cases of economic or business data we have little or no control over the process of how the data are gathered. In this sense the data are not the result of a planned controlled experiment. In some cases, however, we can develop data that are part of a controlled experiment. This situat... | Matched or Paired Samples | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Introduction The chi-square distribution can be used to find relationships between two things, like grocery prices at different stores. (credit: modification of work “The first few times I used my Asda 'bag for life' I left the receipts in the bottom of the bag” by Pete/ Flickr, Public domain) Have you ever wondered if... | Introduction | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Facts About the Chi-Square Distribution The notation for the chi-square distribution is: X ∼ χ d f 2 where df = degrees of freedom which depends on how chi-square is being used. (If you want to practice calculating chi-square probabilities then use df = n - 1. The degrees of freedom for the three major uses are each ca... | Facts About the Chi-Square Distribution | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Test of a Single Variance Thus far our interest has been exclusively on the population parameter μ or it's counterpart in the binomial, p. Surely the mean of a population is the most critical piece of information to have, but in some cases we are interested in the variability of the outcomes of some distribution. In al... | Test of a Single Variance | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Goodness-of-Fit Test In this type of hypothesis test, you determine whether the data "fit" a particular distribution or not. For example, you may suspect your unknown data fit a binomial distribution. You use a chi-square test (meaning the distribution for the hypothesis test is chi-square) to determine if there is a f... | Goodness-of-Fit Test | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Test of Independence Tests of independence involve using a contingency table of observed (data) values. The test statistic for a test of independence is similar to that of a goodness-of-fit test: Σ ( i ⋅ j ) ( O – E ) 2 E where: O = observed values E = expected values i = the number of rows in the table j = the number ... | Test of Independence | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Test for Homogeneity The goodness–of–fit test can be used to decide whether a population fits a given distribution, but it will not suffice to decide whether two populations follow the same unknown distribution. A different test, called the test for homogeneity , can be used to draw a conclusion about whether two popul... | Test for Homogeneity | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Comparison of the Chi-Square Tests Above the χ 2 test statistic was used in three different circumstances. The following bulleted list is a summary of which χ 2 test is the appropriate one to use in different circumstances. Goodness-of-Fit: Use the goodness-of-fit test to decide whether a population with an unknown dis... | Comparison of the Chi-Square Tests | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Introduction One-way ANOVA is used to measure information from several groups. (credit: modification of work “Magazine Stack” by thebittenword.com/ Flickr, CC BY 2.0) Many statistical applications in psychology, social science, business administration, and the natural sciences involve several groups. For example, an en... | Introduction | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Test of Two Variances This chapter introduces a new probability density function, the F distribution. This distribution is used for many applications including ANOVA and for testing equality across multiple means. We begin with the F distribution and the test of hypothesis of differences in variances. It is often desir... | Test of Two Variances | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
One-Way ANOVA The purpose of a one-way ANOVA test is to determine the existence of a statistically significant difference among several group means. The test actually uses variances to help determine if the means are equal or not. In order to perform a one-way ANOVA test, there are five basic assumptions to be fulfille... | One-Way ANOVA | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
The F Distribution and the F-Ratio The distribution used for the hypothesis test is a new one. It is called the F distribution , invented by George Snedecor but named in honor of Sir Ronald Fisher, an English statistician. The F statistic is a ratio (a fraction). There are two sets of degrees of freedom; one for the nu... | The F Distribution and the F-Ratio | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Facts About the F Distribution Here are some facts about the F distribution. The curve is not symmetrical but skewed to the right. There is a different curve for each set of degrees of freedom. The F statistic is greater than or equal to zero. As the degrees of freedom for the numerator and for the denominator get larg... | Facts About the F Distribution | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Introduction Linear regression and correlation can help you determine if an auto mechanic’s salary is related to his work experience. (credit: modification of work “USPS commissions local repair-shop for some needed work on its older trucks” by Joshua Rothhaas/ Flickr, CC BY 2.0) Professionals often want to know how tw... | Introduction | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
The Correlation Coefficient r As we begin this section we note that the type of data we will be working with has changed. Perhaps unnoticed, all the data we have been using is for a single variable. It may be from two samples, but it is still a univariate variable. The type of data described in the examples above and f... | The Correlation Coefficient r | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Testing the Significance of the Correlation Coefficient The correlation coefficient, r , tells us about the strength and direction of the linear relationship between X 1 and X 2 . The sample data are used to compute r , the correlation coefficient for the sample. If we had data for the entire population, we could find ... | Testing the Significance of the Correlation Coefficient | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Linear Equations Linear regression for two variables is based on a linear equation with one independent variable. The equation has the form: y = a + bx where a and b are constant numbers. The variable x is the independent variable, and y is the dependent variable. Another way to think about this equation is a statement... | Linear Equations | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
The Regression Equation Regression analysis is a statistical technique that can test the hypothesis that a variable is dependent upon one or more other variables. Further, regression analysis can provide an estimate of the magnitude of the impact of a change in one variable on another. This last feature, of course, is ... | The Regression Equation | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Interpretation of Regression Coefficients: Elasticity and Logarithmic Transformation As we have seen, the coefficient of an equation estimated using OLS regression analysis provides an estimate of the slope of a straight line that is assumed be the relationship between the dependent variable and at least one independen... | Interpretation of Regression Coefficients: Elasticity and Logarithmic Transformation | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Predicting with a Regression Equation One important value of an estimated regression equation is its ability to predict the effects on Y of a change in one or more values of the independent variables. The value of this is obvious. Careful policy cannot be made without estimates of the effects that may result. Indeed, i... | Predicting with a Regression Equation | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
How to Use Microsoft Excel® for Regression Analysis This section of this chapter is here in recognition that what we are now asking requires much more than a quick calculation of a ratio or a square root. Indeed, the use of regression analysis was almost non- existent before the middle of the last century and did not r... | How to Use Microsoft Excel® for Regression Analysis | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Statistical Tables F Distribution Table entry for p is the critical value F* with probability p lying to its right. F critical values Degrees of freedom in the numerator Degrees of freedom in the denominator p 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 .100 39.86 49.50 53.59 55.83 57.24 58.20 58.91 59.44 59.86 .050 161.45 199.50 215.71 224.5... | Statistical Tables | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Mathematical Phrases, Symbols, and Formulas English Phrases Written Mathematically When the English says: Interpret this as: X is at least 4. X ≥ 4 The minimum of X is 4. X ≥ 4 X is no less than 4. X ≥ 4 X is greater than or equal to 4. X ≥ 4 X is at most 4. X ≤ 4 The maximum of X is 4. X ≤ 4 X is no more than 4. X ≤ 4... | Mathematical Phrases, Symbols, and Formulas | Introductory Business Statistics 2e | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/introductory-business-statistics-2e |
Preface Welcome to Organizational Behavior , an OpenStax resource. This textbook was written to increase student access to high-quality learning materials, maintaining the highest standards of academic rigor at little to no cost. About OpenStax OpenStax is part of Rice University, which is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit charita... | Preface | Organizational Behavior | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/organizational-behavior |
Introduction Construction workers (leyla.a/ flickr/ Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0)) Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer these questions: What is the meaning of work in a societal context? How do we recognize and meet the challenges facing managers in the new millennium? What ... | Introduction | Organizational Behavior | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/organizational-behavior |
The Nature of Work What is the meaning of work in a societal context? The Meaning of Work What is work, and how do people feel about the work they do? These questions may be answered from several perspectives. Perhaps one of the best ways to understand how people feel about their jobs is simply to ask them. A number of... | The Nature of Work | Organizational Behavior | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/organizational-behavior |
The Changing Workplace How do we recognize and meet the challenges facing managers in the new millennium? It has often been said that the only constant in life is change, and nowhere is this truer than in the workplace. As one recent study concluded, “The United States is a competitive location to the extent that firms... | The Changing Workplace | Organizational Behavior | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/organizational-behavior |
The Nature of Management What is expected of a manager? If organizations are to be successful in meeting these challenges, management must lead the way. With effective management, contemporary companies can accomplish a great deal toward becoming more competitive in the global environment. On the other hand, ineffectiv... | The Nature of Management | Organizational Behavior | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/organizational-behavior |
A Model of Organizational Behavior and Management What is the role of the behavioral sciences in management and organizations? A major responsibility—perhaps the major responsibility—of managers is to make organizations operate effectively. Bringing about effective performance, however, is no easy task. As Nadler and T... | A Model of Organizational Behavior and Management | Organizational Behavior | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/organizational-behavior |
Introduction Cooking (Credit: US Army Africa/ flickr/ Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0)) Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer these questions: How do managers and organizations appropriately select individuals for particular jobs? How do people with different abilities, skills, a... | Introduction | Organizational Behavior | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/organizational-behavior |
Individual and Cultural Factors in Employee Performance How do managers and organizations appropriately select individuals for particular jobs? As we can see in the example of Cathie Mahon, our unique personal characteristics can have a dramatic influence on both individual behavior and the behavior of those around us.... | Individual and Cultural Factors in Employee Performance | Organizational Behavior | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/organizational-behavior |
Employee Abilities and Skills How do people with different abilities, skills, and personalities build effective work teams? We begin with a look at employee abilities and skills . Abilities and skills generally represent those physical and intellectual characteristics that are relatively stable over time and that help ... | Employee Abilities and Skills | Organizational Behavior | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/organizational-behavior |
Personality: An Introduction How do managers and employees deal effectively with individual differences in the workplace? The second individual difference variable deals with the concept of personality. We often hear people use and misuse the term personality . For example, we hear that someone has a “nice” personality... | Personality: An Introduction | Organizational Behavior | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/organizational-behavior |
Personality and Work Behavior How can organizations foster a work environment that allows employees an opportunity to develop and grow? Personality theories that utilize the trait approach have proven popular among investigators of employee behavior in organizations. There are several reasons for this. To begin with, t... | Personality and Work Behavior | Organizational Behavior | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/organizational-behavior |
Personality and Organization: A Basic Conflict? How do managers know how to get the best from each employee? Most theories of personality stress that an individual’s personality becomes complete only when the individual interacts with other people; growth and development do not occur in a vacuum. Human personalities ar... | Personality and Organization: A Basic Conflict? | Organizational Behavior | Business | https://openstax.org/details/books/organizational-behavior |
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