text string | id string | dump string | url string | file_path string | language string | language_score float64 | token_count int64 | score float64 | int_score int64 | embedding list | count int64 | Content string | Tokens int64 | Top_Lang string | Top_Conf float64 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Introduction to Psychology
November 19, 2013
Hindsight Bias Demonstrated in the Prediction of a Sporting Event
This study was conducted in classrooms with students that were currently enrolled in psychology classes that had previously analyzed hindsight bias. This study was conducted to examine hindsight bias in the context of a sporting event (Super Bowl XXXIII) with individuals who had previous knowledge of the hindsight bias. They were trying to answer the question of whether or not hindsight bias exists or if it does not exist.
The participants were 42 participants who are currently enrolled in psychology classes that had previously analyzed hindsight bias. The participants were 13 men and 29 women and the mean age of all participants were 19 years old. Before Super Bowl week in 1999, they asked the participants to predict who they thought would win the Super Bowl.
This was a case study that used an experiment and survey method to see if participants were surprised by the outcome of the game. The participants were asked to indicate how often they watched football either, “all of the time,” “some of the time,” or “never.” They then gave other information such as age or gender. The Monday that followed the game all of the participants were surveyed to indicate who they thought would win and whether or not they were surprised by the outcome of the game.
There were no differences between how often the participants watched football and whom they predicted to win. Those that chose Denver to win, 2 reported to watching football all of the time, 14 reported to watching football some of the time, and 11 reported to watching football… | <urn:uuid:9df71cda-0cd6-4a34-9e37-4e760f1019a6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Psychology-Scientific-Method-And-Kyli-Jones-596020.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00088.warc.gz | en | 0.988019 | 323 | 3.5 | 4 | [
0.28402283787727356,
0.6012460589408875,
-0.2192268967628479,
-0.38188692927360535,
0.4233318567276001,
1.0178396701812744,
0.20321287214756012,
0.30095142126083374,
0.417166531085968,
-0.055251263082027435,
0.07986246794462204,
-0.08868774771690369,
0.20275771617889404,
-0.021616771817207... | 1 | Introduction to Psychology
November 19, 2013
Hindsight Bias Demonstrated in the Prediction of a Sporting Event
This study was conducted in classrooms with students that were currently enrolled in psychology classes that had previously analyzed hindsight bias. This study was conducted to examine hindsight bias in the context of a sporting event (Super Bowl XXXIII) with individuals who had previous knowledge of the hindsight bias. They were trying to answer the question of whether or not hindsight bias exists or if it does not exist.
The participants were 42 participants who are currently enrolled in psychology classes that had previously analyzed hindsight bias. The participants were 13 men and 29 women and the mean age of all participants were 19 years old. Before Super Bowl week in 1999, they asked the participants to predict who they thought would win the Super Bowl.
This was a case study that used an experiment and survey method to see if participants were surprised by the outcome of the game. The participants were asked to indicate how often they watched football either, “all of the time,” “some of the time,” or “never.” They then gave other information such as age or gender. The Monday that followed the game all of the participants were surveyed to indicate who they thought would win and whether or not they were surprised by the outcome of the game.
There were no differences between how often the participants watched football and whom they predicted to win. Those that chose Denver to win, 2 reported to watching football all of the time, 14 reported to watching football some of the time, and 11 reported to watching football… | 331 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tacuinum Sanitatis, Lombardy,
late 14th century (Biblioteca Casanatense, Rome)
Alexandra Sapoznik has recently published an article in the Economic History Review entitled ‘Bees in the medieval economy: Religious observance and the production, trade, and consumption of wax in England, c.1300–1555’. [EcHR November 2019] As Sapoznik notes, in addition to lighting candles to mark each stage of the church’s year, and in particular during the celebrations of Christmas, the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary (2 February) and Easter, candles were used to mark every stage of life. ‘Candles were placed in infants’ hands when they were baptised, held by women when they were churched and when they married, carried before the Host when it was taken to visit the sick, placed around the body after death, taken with the body as it was carried to the grave.’ This made me think about one particular aspect of the Milles wills: many testators made bequests of lights (candles) in their parish church, or for torches or wax to ‘burn about their corpse’ at their funeral and subsequent commemorative services. The candles would not burn down completely during these services and so what was left was often bequeathed for other purposes.
The more expensive candles, tapers or torches were made of beeswax but torches in particular were often made of a cheaper mixture of tallow, wax and resin; however, some testators specified wax to be used. For example, Isabel Stephens of the parish of St Michael Queenhithe (London) asked her executors purchase four new torches of wax to burn around her coffin during her funeral services; afterwards one torch was to placed on the high altar of St Michael’s church to burn at the elevation of the blessed Sacrament (that is, at the high point of the mass), two more on the altars of Jesus and of Our Lady in the same church, and the fourth was to go to the parish church of St Dunstan, Cheam (Surrey) where she was born.
Sometimes the testator asked that the funeral torches or tapers were held by poor men, who were usually given some clothing, money or food in return. John Mountfort, a priest in the Hereford area, was very specific: six tapers, each of 5 lbs of wax, and six torches, priced 6s each, were to be held by poor men. The six poor men holding the torches were to each have a black gown and hood and each of the poor men were to have 4d.
Medieval churches had numerous statues of saints. Some testators might simply bequeath wax for various candles (lights) in their parish church. Margaret Brown of Stamford bequeathed 20 lbs of wax for the two lights in the choir, two lights in the chapel, one before the statue of St Anne, one before St Margaret and one before St Erasmus.
Sometimes burning candles were requested for a number of years, so they would need renewing. Seeing the candles burning would remind parishioners to pray for the soul of the person who had originally provided them. Usually executors were expected to pay for the candles out of the estate of the deceased; occasionally the source of funding was clearly stated. Robert Hervy of Colchester bequeathed a light made of a pound of wax to burn before the image of Jesus in St Peter’s church, Colchester, for 7 years during divine service; furthermore four times a year the candle was to be made back up to one pound in weight. The money for the wax was to be taken out of the rent paid for the house in North Street, inside the North Gate of Colchester, in which Thomas Slatoure was living, which Hervy had bought from John Clerke, the weaver.
Interestingly there was also an element of recycling. New wax was often added to ‘old’ wax reused from candle ends held over from the churches’ own stock, or purchased from wax chandlers who were paid by the pound to make candles. One Milles will sheds light on this. John Meryk of Southwark had requested twelve torches to be used during his funeral and commemorations; afterwards six were to be used in the parish church of St Thomas; the other six were to be taken back to to the wax-chandler they were bought from, and he would pay for the waste a sum agreed between himself and Meryk’s executors. | <urn:uuid:f5d11b8b-4a82-4001-a662-ea4f2e6665b9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://riiiresearch.blogspot.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00028.warc.gz | en | 0.98647 | 959 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
0.17291057109832764,
0.5025860071182251,
0.28675103187561035,
-0.09596321731805801,
0.2526435852050781,
0.012074706144630909,
-0.0861993134021759,
0.2965289354324341,
0.0814860612154007,
0.17323541641235352,
-0.3161888122558594,
-0.22478902339935303,
-0.3190576434135437,
0.1818011999130249... | 11 | Tacuinum Sanitatis, Lombardy,
late 14th century (Biblioteca Casanatense, Rome)
Alexandra Sapoznik has recently published an article in the Economic History Review entitled ‘Bees in the medieval economy: Religious observance and the production, trade, and consumption of wax in England, c.1300–1555’. [EcHR November 2019] As Sapoznik notes, in addition to lighting candles to mark each stage of the church’s year, and in particular during the celebrations of Christmas, the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary (2 February) and Easter, candles were used to mark every stage of life. ‘Candles were placed in infants’ hands when they were baptised, held by women when they were churched and when they married, carried before the Host when it was taken to visit the sick, placed around the body after death, taken with the body as it was carried to the grave.’ This made me think about one particular aspect of the Milles wills: many testators made bequests of lights (candles) in their parish church, or for torches or wax to ‘burn about their corpse’ at their funeral and subsequent commemorative services. The candles would not burn down completely during these services and so what was left was often bequeathed for other purposes.
The more expensive candles, tapers or torches were made of beeswax but torches in particular were often made of a cheaper mixture of tallow, wax and resin; however, some testators specified wax to be used. For example, Isabel Stephens of the parish of St Michael Queenhithe (London) asked her executors purchase four new torches of wax to burn around her coffin during her funeral services; afterwards one torch was to placed on the high altar of St Michael’s church to burn at the elevation of the blessed Sacrament (that is, at the high point of the mass), two more on the altars of Jesus and of Our Lady in the same church, and the fourth was to go to the parish church of St Dunstan, Cheam (Surrey) where she was born.
Sometimes the testator asked that the funeral torches or tapers were held by poor men, who were usually given some clothing, money or food in return. John Mountfort, a priest in the Hereford area, was very specific: six tapers, each of 5 lbs of wax, and six torches, priced 6s each, were to be held by poor men. The six poor men holding the torches were to each have a black gown and hood and each of the poor men were to have 4d.
Medieval churches had numerous statues of saints. Some testators might simply bequeath wax for various candles (lights) in their parish church. Margaret Brown of Stamford bequeathed 20 lbs of wax for the two lights in the choir, two lights in the chapel, one before the statue of St Anne, one before St Margaret and one before St Erasmus.
Sometimes burning candles were requested for a number of years, so they would need renewing. Seeing the candles burning would remind parishioners to pray for the soul of the person who had originally provided them. Usually executors were expected to pay for the candles out of the estate of the deceased; occasionally the source of funding was clearly stated. Robert Hervy of Colchester bequeathed a light made of a pound of wax to burn before the image of Jesus in St Peter’s church, Colchester, for 7 years during divine service; furthermore four times a year the candle was to be made back up to one pound in weight. The money for the wax was to be taken out of the rent paid for the house in North Street, inside the North Gate of Colchester, in which Thomas Slatoure was living, which Hervy had bought from John Clerke, the weaver.
Interestingly there was also an element of recycling. New wax was often added to ‘old’ wax reused from candle ends held over from the churches’ own stock, or purchased from wax chandlers who were paid by the pound to make candles. One Milles will sheds light on this. John Meryk of Southwark had requested twelve torches to be used during his funeral and commemorations; afterwards six were to be used in the parish church of St Thomas; the other six were to be taken back to to the wax-chandler they were bought from, and he would pay for the waste a sum agreed between himself and Meryk’s executors. | 950 | ENGLISH | 1 |
THIS IS OUR CHALLENGE
Some simply had no nearby relatives to bury them — perhaps because they were too far away.
Their family may not have realised that to be buried in a war grave they would have to apply for one. Many widows, in heart-rending circumstances, were preoccupied with clothing and feeding their children.
Whatever the reason, we are dedicated to finding these veterans' resting places. When we find them, we commemorate them with a simple pedestal headstone and a bronze plaque that attests their service.
We are South Australians who research, discover and commemorate WW1 veterans in unmarked graves, their service forgotten.
Most people can't believe that thousands of veterans who returned to Australia lie in unmarked graves with nothing to attest their service.
Why were they overlooked? The post-war years were hard times. The health of many soldiers was ruined, physically and mentally, often leading to alcoholism and family estrangement.
Public domain image (Australia). | <urn:uuid:ef2f7132-67ce-4e5c-9e05-6b0c5c30b3c0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theheadstoneproject-sa.org.au/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.987396 | 202 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
-0.11826285719871521,
0.5551754832267761,
0.34262630343437195,
-0.03202103450894356,
-0.006692611612379551,
0.2783486843109131,
0.20975998044013977,
0.3058623969554901,
-0.1631031036376953,
-0.15333259105682373,
0.5496980547904968,
-0.5311965346336365,
-0.1328134983778,
0.5065757036209106,... | 6 | THIS IS OUR CHALLENGE
Some simply had no nearby relatives to bury them — perhaps because they were too far away.
Their family may not have realised that to be buried in a war grave they would have to apply for one. Many widows, in heart-rending circumstances, were preoccupied with clothing and feeding their children.
Whatever the reason, we are dedicated to finding these veterans' resting places. When we find them, we commemorate them with a simple pedestal headstone and a bronze plaque that attests their service.
We are South Australians who research, discover and commemorate WW1 veterans in unmarked graves, their service forgotten.
Most people can't believe that thousands of veterans who returned to Australia lie in unmarked graves with nothing to attest their service.
Why were they overlooked? The post-war years were hard times. The health of many soldiers was ruined, physically and mentally, often leading to alcoholism and family estrangement.
Public domain image (Australia). | 195 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Anthropology of music is concerned with the methodologies, concepts and its concerns which are largely drawn from the ideational and social processes as well as structures which form the human transformation. Generally, anthropology of music is therefore largely involved with musical organization and its contribution to the cultural and social concepts of human lifestyle. Therefore anthropology of music studies music as an influence of culture and social life as opposed to music in culture. The study of Suya’ sing analyzes the anthropology of music because of the social and cultural ties the community has on music in performances and ceremonial arts.
Anthony Seeger approached this issue from the integrated point of view examining both theoretical and empirical approaches and mediation regarding the reasons why Suya’ sing including reasons for traditional ethnomusicology. Seeger is an anthropologist, record producer as well as ethnomusicologist archivist. In consideration of why Suya’ sing, Anthony Seeger considered and emphasized on the importance speech making, initiation ceremonies, myth telling as well as singing to understand the anthropology of music. The conclusions from the research are based on thorough field research extending for duration of twenty four years and practical procedures of musical exchange. In his analyzes, Seeger concentrated on every detail involved in musical performances and verbal arts of various types. He noticed the formation of an adults who is fully socialized from a small boy, how a village is formed from a well organized collection of households as well as Suya’ singings which with time creates a state of euphoria from its silence which in collectivity adds up to a pool of ideas regarding time, social identity and space.
Seeger went further to analyze his research from a musical performance perspective rather than concentrating on the application of anthropological concerns and methods to music. In his study and research, Seeger distinguished anthropology of music and musical anthropology. He organized is anthropology of music with perspective of music and society and their components. He organized his research of anthropology based on the concepts, concerns and methods of anthropology. Their importance in ideational and social structures of a society was largely emphasized in their roles to transformation of human groupings and societies. His emphasis was based on which distinct areas does anthropology shared with other social sciences in areas of economic and social formations as opposed to music and other forms of arts. The analysis as well focused largely on how anthropology of music is incorporated in the social and cultural life. His analysis also touched on musical anthropology where music was part of social and cultural life. The research carried by Seeger concentrated in Suya Indians which formed a community in Northern State Mato Grosso in Brazil.
The natural formation of Suya’ was described intensely in the research due to its performance depicting social and cultural importance. Departing from earlier works, Seeger’s research was carried out to study creation, maintenance, re-establishment and alteration of processes and structures within the community set up. Therefore the research was solely conducted from grassroots since it was part of life of these communities that shaped not only their socio-economic ways of life but also cultural transformations and processes. This approach and methodology for the research was adopted due to the Suya’ settings where they lived in isolated parts of south America and used native language possessing nether industry nor social classes, so their study was simple as well demanding due to their lifestyle. The research also composed of audio and tape recordings that were made as early as 1963 then a comparison was done with other performances in recent and previous years to identify their values and importance in social and cultural processes.
The organization of this anthropology was based on several factors and categories due to diversity of Suya’ sing as identified by Seeger. Performance style and features were categorized separately. Anthropology was also grouped according to age, the tune and nature of the song was also used to group them, lastly they were organized according to processes and values of composition and articulation. Organization was also based on the origin of the music, he ceremony during which music was performed and the role music played in strengthening the social and cultural values in the society. The research was sub divided to include nature involved in the field research in consideration to personal, ethical and social facets, importance of considering music as an integral body of aesthetic components, fundamentals of understanding native musicology to give an insight of what is contained in a music genre, the role played by music in social formations and processes through use of its creative and constitutive roles. In addition, the organization was also based on the importance of employing musical performances as a tool for political struggle. Lastly ethnographic present was largely employed to explain past events in present times for relevancy and easy understanding.
There were very important underlying issues that were considered in carrying out the original field research which are considered paramount. First there was a consideration that music was an integral part of many lives of South American Indians. Music was also considered as a valued social activity and was practiced frequently among these communities. It was further hypothesized that, every song among these communities was seasonally for a specific reason and at a specified time. In addition, consideration that songs were a form of creating a social order in the society was also given a great emphasis in this research. Lastly, music was also considered to contain social identity and material production as well which guided the preliminary stages of this research as well as its findings, conclusions and recommendations. | <urn:uuid:b7a5ac6e-b157-4c55-bde1-5a61aa715bcc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://primeessays.com/samples/art/why-suya-sing.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00309.warc.gz | en | 0.984094 | 1,084 | 3.375 | 3 | [
0.3034507632255554,
-0.03524969518184662,
0.28373342752456665,
-0.2672888934612274,
0.30612310767173767,
0.30790799856185913,
0.014692447148263454,
-0.06300469487905502,
0.03484975919127464,
-0.141042098402977,
0.2501203715801239,
-0.07544872164726257,
0.22508740425109863,
0.13062800467014... | 1 | Anthropology of music is concerned with the methodologies, concepts and its concerns which are largely drawn from the ideational and social processes as well as structures which form the human transformation. Generally, anthropology of music is therefore largely involved with musical organization and its contribution to the cultural and social concepts of human lifestyle. Therefore anthropology of music studies music as an influence of culture and social life as opposed to music in culture. The study of Suya’ sing analyzes the anthropology of music because of the social and cultural ties the community has on music in performances and ceremonial arts.
Anthony Seeger approached this issue from the integrated point of view examining both theoretical and empirical approaches and mediation regarding the reasons why Suya’ sing including reasons for traditional ethnomusicology. Seeger is an anthropologist, record producer as well as ethnomusicologist archivist. In consideration of why Suya’ sing, Anthony Seeger considered and emphasized on the importance speech making, initiation ceremonies, myth telling as well as singing to understand the anthropology of music. The conclusions from the research are based on thorough field research extending for duration of twenty four years and practical procedures of musical exchange. In his analyzes, Seeger concentrated on every detail involved in musical performances and verbal arts of various types. He noticed the formation of an adults who is fully socialized from a small boy, how a village is formed from a well organized collection of households as well as Suya’ singings which with time creates a state of euphoria from its silence which in collectivity adds up to a pool of ideas regarding time, social identity and space.
Seeger went further to analyze his research from a musical performance perspective rather than concentrating on the application of anthropological concerns and methods to music. In his study and research, Seeger distinguished anthropology of music and musical anthropology. He organized is anthropology of music with perspective of music and society and their components. He organized his research of anthropology based on the concepts, concerns and methods of anthropology. Their importance in ideational and social structures of a society was largely emphasized in their roles to transformation of human groupings and societies. His emphasis was based on which distinct areas does anthropology shared with other social sciences in areas of economic and social formations as opposed to music and other forms of arts. The analysis as well focused largely on how anthropology of music is incorporated in the social and cultural life. His analysis also touched on musical anthropology where music was part of social and cultural life. The research carried by Seeger concentrated in Suya Indians which formed a community in Northern State Mato Grosso in Brazil.
The natural formation of Suya’ was described intensely in the research due to its performance depicting social and cultural importance. Departing from earlier works, Seeger’s research was carried out to study creation, maintenance, re-establishment and alteration of processes and structures within the community set up. Therefore the research was solely conducted from grassroots since it was part of life of these communities that shaped not only their socio-economic ways of life but also cultural transformations and processes. This approach and methodology for the research was adopted due to the Suya’ settings where they lived in isolated parts of south America and used native language possessing nether industry nor social classes, so their study was simple as well demanding due to their lifestyle. The research also composed of audio and tape recordings that were made as early as 1963 then a comparison was done with other performances in recent and previous years to identify their values and importance in social and cultural processes.
The organization of this anthropology was based on several factors and categories due to diversity of Suya’ sing as identified by Seeger. Performance style and features were categorized separately. Anthropology was also grouped according to age, the tune and nature of the song was also used to group them, lastly they were organized according to processes and values of composition and articulation. Organization was also based on the origin of the music, he ceremony during which music was performed and the role music played in strengthening the social and cultural values in the society. The research was sub divided to include nature involved in the field research in consideration to personal, ethical and social facets, importance of considering music as an integral body of aesthetic components, fundamentals of understanding native musicology to give an insight of what is contained in a music genre, the role played by music in social formations and processes through use of its creative and constitutive roles. In addition, the organization was also based on the importance of employing musical performances as a tool for political struggle. Lastly ethnographic present was largely employed to explain past events in present times for relevancy and easy understanding.
There were very important underlying issues that were considered in carrying out the original field research which are considered paramount. First there was a consideration that music was an integral part of many lives of South American Indians. Music was also considered as a valued social activity and was practiced frequently among these communities. It was further hypothesized that, every song among these communities was seasonally for a specific reason and at a specified time. In addition, consideration that songs were a form of creating a social order in the society was also given a great emphasis in this research. Lastly, music was also considered to contain social identity and material production as well which guided the preliminary stages of this research as well as its findings, conclusions and recommendations. | 1,068 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A team of scientists from Duke University Health Center have found that the human body has the ability to repair joint cartilage, which causes osteoarthritis. This is an ability previously thought restricted to animals such as the salamander and zebra fish. The study was published in Science Advances in October 2019. The article is currently available to read in full online on the journal’s website.
The scientists explained that animals such as zebrafish and axolotl were able to regenerate lost limbs by using a circuit of microRNA which were conserved across species. Humans are not able to regenerate a lost limb, but the fact that it was believed that they were unable to heal fully from the damage of repetitive joint use or from a single substantial injury, often sports-related which can lead to osteoarthritis was called into question.
The scientists extracted cartilage from the ankle, the knee and the hip and checked it for the amount of microRNA it contained. They used proteomic tools to check the proteins present in the samples. They also assessed the extent to which cartilage proteins reflected the amount of microRNA. This helped they to assess the regenerative qualities of the human joints, based on the age of the cartilage it contained. The tissues were obtained via waste surgical specimens from patients who had received total arthroplasty surgery. Healthy cartilage was collected during surgery for acute trauma to the joint. The surgeon noted whether or not osteoarthritis was present.
The scientists found that young cartilage could be found in ankles, and these joints were usually able to heal quickly from injury. They found that cartilage in the knees was the next young and that cartilage in the hips was the oldest type of cartilage which made it more difficult to heal. These findings were linked with the way that limb repair took place within the animals that had that ability: often they were able regenerate the tip of a tail or the end of a leg very easily. Injuries to human hips or knees can take a lot longer to heal.
The scientists found that humans also had microRNA which helped them to repair joint tissue. The molecules were found at a higher concentration in the ankle, then the knee then the hip and concentrations were at their highest in the top layer of cartilage as opposed to the deeper layers. The slower healing process meant that osteoarthritis was more likely to develop in the joint.
The scientists suggested that the microRNA molecules could be used to develop treatments which could help fully regenerate the joint cartilage of a joint that has turned arthritic. Understanding what is missing when comparing the human molecules to the salamander’s could help scientists learn how to regenerate a part or whole of an injured limb. The ability to repair could also be transferred to tissue other than cartilage.
Limitations of the study included the way the scientists chose to extract the molecules dictated the type of molecules they extracted. Not all of the molecules were extracted and tested. This meant that only some of them were accounted for. The structure of the molecules also made it more difficult for this study to work with them and meant that scientists probably underestimated their number. The scientists suggested areas for further study to help enhance their knowledge and to help develop an injection-based treatment to help repair and limit degeneration of joint tissues due to osteoarthritis.
Hsueh, M-F., et al., Analysis of “old” proteins unmasks dynamic gradient of cartilage turnover in human limbs, Science Advances, October 2019, Vo 5(10) | <urn:uuid:52bf0754-218d-4864-b289-514e752483be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.anatomystuff.co.uk/news/human-body-is-able-to-repair-joint-cartilage-causing-osteoarthritis-claims-study/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.985281 | 728 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
-0.4675140082836151,
-0.20552684366703033,
0.3759651780128479,
-0.06131293624639511,
-0.41763198375701904,
0.2172127664089203,
0.2130592316389084,
0.5905219316482544,
-0.20998947322368622,
0.21260467171669006,
-0.005929070990532637,
-0.4376850724220276,
0.1750740259885788,
0.30866134166717... | 2 | A team of scientists from Duke University Health Center have found that the human body has the ability to repair joint cartilage, which causes osteoarthritis. This is an ability previously thought restricted to animals such as the salamander and zebra fish. The study was published in Science Advances in October 2019. The article is currently available to read in full online on the journal’s website.
The scientists explained that animals such as zebrafish and axolotl were able to regenerate lost limbs by using a circuit of microRNA which were conserved across species. Humans are not able to regenerate a lost limb, but the fact that it was believed that they were unable to heal fully from the damage of repetitive joint use or from a single substantial injury, often sports-related which can lead to osteoarthritis was called into question.
The scientists extracted cartilage from the ankle, the knee and the hip and checked it for the amount of microRNA it contained. They used proteomic tools to check the proteins present in the samples. They also assessed the extent to which cartilage proteins reflected the amount of microRNA. This helped they to assess the regenerative qualities of the human joints, based on the age of the cartilage it contained. The tissues were obtained via waste surgical specimens from patients who had received total arthroplasty surgery. Healthy cartilage was collected during surgery for acute trauma to the joint. The surgeon noted whether or not osteoarthritis was present.
The scientists found that young cartilage could be found in ankles, and these joints were usually able to heal quickly from injury. They found that cartilage in the knees was the next young and that cartilage in the hips was the oldest type of cartilage which made it more difficult to heal. These findings were linked with the way that limb repair took place within the animals that had that ability: often they were able regenerate the tip of a tail or the end of a leg very easily. Injuries to human hips or knees can take a lot longer to heal.
The scientists found that humans also had microRNA which helped them to repair joint tissue. The molecules were found at a higher concentration in the ankle, then the knee then the hip and concentrations were at their highest in the top layer of cartilage as opposed to the deeper layers. The slower healing process meant that osteoarthritis was more likely to develop in the joint.
The scientists suggested that the microRNA molecules could be used to develop treatments which could help fully regenerate the joint cartilage of a joint that has turned arthritic. Understanding what is missing when comparing the human molecules to the salamander’s could help scientists learn how to regenerate a part or whole of an injured limb. The ability to repair could also be transferred to tissue other than cartilage.
Limitations of the study included the way the scientists chose to extract the molecules dictated the type of molecules they extracted. Not all of the molecules were extracted and tested. This meant that only some of them were accounted for. The structure of the molecules also made it more difficult for this study to work with them and meant that scientists probably underestimated their number. The scientists suggested areas for further study to help enhance their knowledge and to help develop an injection-based treatment to help repair and limit degeneration of joint tissues due to osteoarthritis.
Hsueh, M-F., et al., Analysis of “old” proteins unmasks dynamic gradient of cartilage turnover in human limbs, Science Advances, October 2019, Vo 5(10) | 720 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The correct answer is Raphael
The Renaissance was a historical period from the 14th to the 17th century during which the main focus was the values and features of the Classical period which refers to Ancient Greece and Rome, this new paradigm affected the European society in different ways including music, literature, and art. In the case of art, new styles, models and artists emerged, the most prominent artist also called the "Big Three" were Leonardo da Vinci, Michaelangelo, and Raphael, all of this artists focused on religion including madonna paintings which were the paintings that represented Mary, the mother of Jesus. However, in the case of Raphael, his work was especially admired due to its composition and even when he was the youngest of the Big Three and eid when he was only 37 he left multiple works including famous portraits such as the "Portrait of Pope Julius" and famous painting including "The School of Athens". Thus, the artist described in the paragraph of the question is the Italian artists Raphael. | <urn:uuid:63116e0f-7eae-4dc8-8e26-5576184cccf9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://assignmentgrade.com/the-earliest-humans-migrated-to-all-areas-of-the-world-using-land-bridges-that-were-in-existence-during-the-last-ice-age-according-to-most-historians-391217/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00074.warc.gz | en | 0.989374 | 202 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
0.24803408980369568,
0.16941066086292267,
0.0657435953617096,
-0.3179200291633606,
-0.5064331889152527,
0.31866806745529175,
-0.39530450105667114,
0.47982311248779297,
0.21154138445854187,
-0.040366899222135544,
-0.3354000151157379,
-0.36859115958213806,
-0.24076561629772186,
0.09837146848... | 1 | The correct answer is Raphael
The Renaissance was a historical period from the 14th to the 17th century during which the main focus was the values and features of the Classical period which refers to Ancient Greece and Rome, this new paradigm affected the European society in different ways including music, literature, and art. In the case of art, new styles, models and artists emerged, the most prominent artist also called the "Big Three" were Leonardo da Vinci, Michaelangelo, and Raphael, all of this artists focused on religion including madonna paintings which were the paintings that represented Mary, the mother of Jesus. However, in the case of Raphael, his work was especially admired due to its composition and even when he was the youngest of the Big Three and eid when he was only 37 he left multiple works including famous portraits such as the "Portrait of Pope Julius" and famous painting including "The School of Athens". Thus, the artist described in the paragraph of the question is the Italian artists Raphael. | 205 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Break, Break, Break Summary
The speaker is looking at the ocean and wishing he knew how to express his grief. He sees a fisherman's kid hanging out with his sister, and he hears a sailor singing, but they don't cheer him up – they just remind him of the "voice that is still," or the voice of his dead friend that he can't talk to anymore. The ocean waves keep breaking on the beach, and time keeps marching on, but the speaker can't go back in time to when his friend was still alive.
Break, break, break,
On thy cold gray stones, O Sea!
And I would that my tongue could utter
The thoughts that arise in me.
- The speaker addresses the ocean directly, telling the waves to "break, break, break" onto the stony shore.
- After telling the sea to keep doing its thing, the speaker regrets that he can't express his thoughts.
- He doesn't come out and say, "I can't utter/ the thoughts," he says that his "tongue" can't "utter" them. This makes him seem kind of passive – he's not speaking, his "tongue" is doing it.
- He's not really thinking, either – the thoughts "arise in" him almost spontaneously, without effort.
O, well for the fisherman's boy,
That he shouts with his sister at play!
O, well for the sailor lad,
That he sings in his boat on the bay!
- The speaker thinks it's all well and good that the fisherman's kid is "shout[ing]" and "play[ing]" with his sister.
- Repeating the same sentence structure, the speaker says it's great for the sailor who is "sing[ing]" in his boat.
- The repetition makes it sound like maybe the speaker doesn't really think it's all well and good for these people to be cheerful. Is he jealous, perhaps, of their happiness? Or of their ability to communicate it, since he admitted back in Stanza 1 that his "tongue" can't "utter/ the thoughts that arise"?
And the stately ships go on
To their haven under the hill;
But O for the touch of a vanish'd hand,
And the sound of a voice that is still!
- The fancy, "stately ships" pass by the speaker and head to their "haven," or protected port.
- The port is "under the hill," so there must be a big hill overlooking it.
- The speaker isn't distracted by the ships, though. Sure, he notices them, but his mind is elsewhere.
- He's just wishing he could "touch" the "vanish'd hand" and hear "the voice that is still." This is the first explanation of why the speaker is so sad. He's grieving for someone he loved who is now dead.
- He doesn't come out and describe the dead friend, though – he just lists a series of missing things: the "hand" and the "voice." The lost friend is described as a series of absent parts.
Break, break, break
At the foot of thy crags, O Sea!
But the tender grace of a day that is dead
Will never come back to me.
- The speaker repeats the first line again, telling the waves to "break, break, break" again.
- But it's repetition with a difference: in the first stanza, he tells the waves to break "on thy cold gray stones," and in the last stanza, he tells the waves to break "at the foot of thy crags."
- It's not exactly the same – time has gone by, and even the breaking of the waves has changed slightly. Maybe it's the tide coming in.
- The waves have changed slightly, and we see that time is passing, despite the tragedy that the speaker has suffered. Mournfully he says that the happy old days when his friend was alive will never return. | <urn:uuid:a1af9f9b-a3c1-43d3-bc5f-38614b6d3655> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.shmoop.com/study-guides/poetry/break-break-break/summary | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00103.warc.gz | en | 0.985193 | 842 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
-0.48785045742988586,
-0.10697066783905029,
0.21689599752426147,
-0.5029611587524414,
0.040167488157749176,
-0.37644001841545105,
0.5490690469741821,
-0.2238834798336029,
-0.08558300137519836,
-0.41692978143692017,
0.22786512970924377,
-0.25378188490867615,
0.3463219106197357,
0.4618180096... | 1 | Break, Break, Break Summary
The speaker is looking at the ocean and wishing he knew how to express his grief. He sees a fisherman's kid hanging out with his sister, and he hears a sailor singing, but they don't cheer him up – they just remind him of the "voice that is still," or the voice of his dead friend that he can't talk to anymore. The ocean waves keep breaking on the beach, and time keeps marching on, but the speaker can't go back in time to when his friend was still alive.
Break, break, break,
On thy cold gray stones, O Sea!
And I would that my tongue could utter
The thoughts that arise in me.
- The speaker addresses the ocean directly, telling the waves to "break, break, break" onto the stony shore.
- After telling the sea to keep doing its thing, the speaker regrets that he can't express his thoughts.
- He doesn't come out and say, "I can't utter/ the thoughts," he says that his "tongue" can't "utter" them. This makes him seem kind of passive – he's not speaking, his "tongue" is doing it.
- He's not really thinking, either – the thoughts "arise in" him almost spontaneously, without effort.
O, well for the fisherman's boy,
That he shouts with his sister at play!
O, well for the sailor lad,
That he sings in his boat on the bay!
- The speaker thinks it's all well and good that the fisherman's kid is "shout[ing]" and "play[ing]" with his sister.
- Repeating the same sentence structure, the speaker says it's great for the sailor who is "sing[ing]" in his boat.
- The repetition makes it sound like maybe the speaker doesn't really think it's all well and good for these people to be cheerful. Is he jealous, perhaps, of their happiness? Or of their ability to communicate it, since he admitted back in Stanza 1 that his "tongue" can't "utter/ the thoughts that arise"?
And the stately ships go on
To their haven under the hill;
But O for the touch of a vanish'd hand,
And the sound of a voice that is still!
- The fancy, "stately ships" pass by the speaker and head to their "haven," or protected port.
- The port is "under the hill," so there must be a big hill overlooking it.
- The speaker isn't distracted by the ships, though. Sure, he notices them, but his mind is elsewhere.
- He's just wishing he could "touch" the "vanish'd hand" and hear "the voice that is still." This is the first explanation of why the speaker is so sad. He's grieving for someone he loved who is now dead.
- He doesn't come out and describe the dead friend, though – he just lists a series of missing things: the "hand" and the "voice." The lost friend is described as a series of absent parts.
Break, break, break
At the foot of thy crags, O Sea!
But the tender grace of a day that is dead
Will never come back to me.
- The speaker repeats the first line again, telling the waves to "break, break, break" again.
- But it's repetition with a difference: in the first stanza, he tells the waves to break "on thy cold gray stones," and in the last stanza, he tells the waves to break "at the foot of thy crags."
- It's not exactly the same – time has gone by, and even the breaking of the waves has changed slightly. Maybe it's the tide coming in.
- The waves have changed slightly, and we see that time is passing, despite the tragedy that the speaker has suffered. Mournfully he says that the happy old days when his friend was alive will never return. | 817 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Milton S. Hershey
On March 2, 1903, he began construction on what was to become the world’s largest chocolate manufacturing company, only he didn't know that it would become a large company. In 1935, Hershey established the M.S. Hershey Foundation, a private charitable foundation that provides educational and cultural opportunities for Hershey residents.
Hershey was married to Catherine Sweeney from 1898 until her death in 1915. In 1912 Hershey was supposed to go on the RMS Titanic, but business concerns forced him to take an earlier ship from Europe to the United States. Sweeney died three years later.
Hershey died on October 13, 1945 from natural causes in Hershey, Pennsylvania, a town named after him, aged 88 years old.
Hershey started a school for orphaned children. He gave the Hershey Trust to that school. He made a town for his workers. Unlike other worker towns, it was comfortable and not expensive. Among many of the places he built for his workers to go to in their free time, Hershey built the Hershey Park, now a popular amusement park. Hershey was among the first to use the idea of Taylorism, after Frederick Winslow Taylor. Taylorism is the idea that workers who do more should earn more.Milton Hershey is the inventor of chocolate.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Milton S. Hershey.| | <urn:uuid:ed22ebdd-78e8-475a-ac1f-4dead24c320d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milton_S._Hershey | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.982046 | 292 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
0.12009653449058533,
-0.27395445108413696,
0.4468708634376526,
-0.3613920211791992,
-0.34125176072120667,
-0.05461150035262108,
0.1853877604007721,
0.35028183460235596,
-0.4874404966831207,
-0.1646580845117569,
-0.14359132945537567,
-0.2496732622385025,
0.07317459583282471,
-0.080183349549... | 1 | Milton S. Hershey
On March 2, 1903, he began construction on what was to become the world’s largest chocolate manufacturing company, only he didn't know that it would become a large company. In 1935, Hershey established the M.S. Hershey Foundation, a private charitable foundation that provides educational and cultural opportunities for Hershey residents.
Hershey was married to Catherine Sweeney from 1898 until her death in 1915. In 1912 Hershey was supposed to go on the RMS Titanic, but business concerns forced him to take an earlier ship from Europe to the United States. Sweeney died three years later.
Hershey died on October 13, 1945 from natural causes in Hershey, Pennsylvania, a town named after him, aged 88 years old.
Hershey started a school for orphaned children. He gave the Hershey Trust to that school. He made a town for his workers. Unlike other worker towns, it was comfortable and not expensive. Among many of the places he built for his workers to go to in their free time, Hershey built the Hershey Park, now a popular amusement park. Hershey was among the first to use the idea of Taylorism, after Frederick Winslow Taylor. Taylorism is the idea that workers who do more should earn more.Milton Hershey is the inventor of chocolate.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Milton S. Hershey.| | 313 | ENGLISH | 1 |
National Hot Chocolate Day
annually on January 31st
National Hot Chocolate Day fittingly takes place in winter, as the drink is often associated with cold weather. Although the names "hot chocolate" and "hot cocoa" are often used interchangeably, there technically is a difference between the two. This difference is not legal, however, and the two are often mislabeled at stores, most often with hot cocoa being labeled as hot chocolate. The difference lies in that hot chocolate contains cocoa butter, and hot cocoa does not. Hot cocoa uses cocoa powder that is made by removing cocoa butter from ground cocoa beans. Hot chocolate is made from bar chocolate, which has cocoa powder, sugar, and cocoa butter in it. These differences give both their distinct flavor and texture. Hot cocoa is thinner and more chocolatey but is less rich. The richness in hot chocolate comes from the higher fat content, which comes from the cocoa butter.
The first chocolate beverage is thought to have been created by the Mayans around 500 BCE, although some believe chocolate drinks predate them. The Mayans ground cocoa seeds into a paste and mixed it with ingredients such as water, chili peppers, and cornmeal; this was drunk cold. By 1,400 CE, a cocoa beverage called xocōlātl was important to the Aztecs. It was seen as having an acquired taste because sugar had not yet been introduced to the Americas. Nonetheless, in the following century, the recently arrived Spaniards began drinking it. It was also served cold and was flavored with vanilla and spices. Xocōlātl became popular in Europe after being introduced there; Hernán Cortés brought cocoa beans and chocolate drink making equipment back with him to Spain in 1528. In Europe, it became an expensive drink of the upper class, as cocoa beans still only grew in the Americas.
It's not exactly known when cocoa first began being served hot, but there is a reference to it first being done so by at least the late sixteenth century. In 1828, the first cocoa powder producing machine was made. It separated cocoa butter from cocoa seeds, leaving purer chocolate powder behind. This made the powder easier to stir into milk and water, giving it a consistency similar to the instant cocoa powder of today. It was also at this time that the discovery of solid chocolate was made, when low amounts of cocoa powder were mixed with cocoa butter. This led to the creation of hot chocolate.
Today there are many variations of hot chocolate around the world, such as chocolate para mesa, a spicy hot chocolate popular in Latin America, and thicker hot chocolates such as cioccolata calda of Italy and chocolate a la taza of Spain. In America, the thinner hot cocoa is much more prevalent. Hot chocolate is often topped with marshmallows, whipped cream, or a piece of chocolate. There may be some health benefits to drinking it, but some forms are filled with sugar, hydrogenated oils, and fats, which can have adverse effects on health.
How to Observe
Celebrate the day by making some homemade hot chocolate. Most store-bought hot chocolates are actually hot cocoas, so make sure that cocoa butter is an ingredient. One company that makes real hot chocolate is Williams-Sonoma. Top your drink with marshmallows, whipped cream, or anything else you would like. You could also spend the day educating others on the difference between hot cocoa and hot chocolate. | <urn:uuid:d24b3132-06c2-4ddb-aba2-cf6af209fe15> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.checkiday.com/0bd24261347b4785cab884f589993736/national-hot-chocolate-day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00139.warc.gz | en | 0.980342 | 712 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
0.0002685782965272665,
0.020687546581029892,
0.31234973669052124,
0.07330040633678436,
0.1497068852186203,
-0.14193010330200195,
0.536807656288147,
-0.0852782279253006,
-0.30781063437461853,
-0.07937708497047424,
-0.12257726490497589,
-0.4593347907066345,
0.19627973437309265,
0.09581833332... | 4 | National Hot Chocolate Day
annually on January 31st
National Hot Chocolate Day fittingly takes place in winter, as the drink is often associated with cold weather. Although the names "hot chocolate" and "hot cocoa" are often used interchangeably, there technically is a difference between the two. This difference is not legal, however, and the two are often mislabeled at stores, most often with hot cocoa being labeled as hot chocolate. The difference lies in that hot chocolate contains cocoa butter, and hot cocoa does not. Hot cocoa uses cocoa powder that is made by removing cocoa butter from ground cocoa beans. Hot chocolate is made from bar chocolate, which has cocoa powder, sugar, and cocoa butter in it. These differences give both their distinct flavor and texture. Hot cocoa is thinner and more chocolatey but is less rich. The richness in hot chocolate comes from the higher fat content, which comes from the cocoa butter.
The first chocolate beverage is thought to have been created by the Mayans around 500 BCE, although some believe chocolate drinks predate them. The Mayans ground cocoa seeds into a paste and mixed it with ingredients such as water, chili peppers, and cornmeal; this was drunk cold. By 1,400 CE, a cocoa beverage called xocōlātl was important to the Aztecs. It was seen as having an acquired taste because sugar had not yet been introduced to the Americas. Nonetheless, in the following century, the recently arrived Spaniards began drinking it. It was also served cold and was flavored with vanilla and spices. Xocōlātl became popular in Europe after being introduced there; Hernán Cortés brought cocoa beans and chocolate drink making equipment back with him to Spain in 1528. In Europe, it became an expensive drink of the upper class, as cocoa beans still only grew in the Americas.
It's not exactly known when cocoa first began being served hot, but there is a reference to it first being done so by at least the late sixteenth century. In 1828, the first cocoa powder producing machine was made. It separated cocoa butter from cocoa seeds, leaving purer chocolate powder behind. This made the powder easier to stir into milk and water, giving it a consistency similar to the instant cocoa powder of today. It was also at this time that the discovery of solid chocolate was made, when low amounts of cocoa powder were mixed with cocoa butter. This led to the creation of hot chocolate.
Today there are many variations of hot chocolate around the world, such as chocolate para mesa, a spicy hot chocolate popular in Latin America, and thicker hot chocolates such as cioccolata calda of Italy and chocolate a la taza of Spain. In America, the thinner hot cocoa is much more prevalent. Hot chocolate is often topped with marshmallows, whipped cream, or a piece of chocolate. There may be some health benefits to drinking it, but some forms are filled with sugar, hydrogenated oils, and fats, which can have adverse effects on health.
How to Observe
Celebrate the day by making some homemade hot chocolate. Most store-bought hot chocolates are actually hot cocoas, so make sure that cocoa butter is an ingredient. One company that makes real hot chocolate is Williams-Sonoma. Top your drink with marshmallows, whipped cream, or anything else you would like. You could also spend the day educating others on the difference between hot cocoa and hot chocolate. | 712 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How the United States came together to fight polio
At the start of the twentieth century, a polio epidemic began to spread across the United States of America.
Although multiple polio outbreaks had been recorded in the US in the 1800s, by 1916 the situation had become more precarious. That year, approximately 27,000 cases were recorded, resulting in over 6,000 fatalities – 2,000 of which were recorded in New York City. Each following summer, there were localized outbreaks in at least one part of the country and, given the highly contagious nature of the disease, this caused widespread panic and concern amongst the American public.
It was amidst this panic that US President Franklin D Roosevelt set up the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (polio) in 1938, declaring the Foundation’s goal to be to "lead, direct and unify the fight on every phase of this sickness”. Roosevelt himself had contracted polio in 1921, and had been paralysed from the waist down. Beginning in 1934, annual Birthday Balls had been held throughout the US in honour of Roosevelt’s birthday (January 30), and these became vital fundraisers for the Foundation’s work, providing care for children with polio and funding efforts to find a vaccine.
However, it was not until popular performer Eddie Cantor became involved that fundraising activities really took off. It was Cantor who first called the campaign the ‘March of Dimes’, the term being a play on the name of the popular March of Time newsreels during that era.
The result of the campaign was staggering. Within the first week after the radio appeal, ordinary Americans had mailed 268,000 dimes to the White House. By the end of the first campaign, the March of Dimes had successfully raised US$1.8 million.
The proceeds fuelled intense competition among medical scientists. Jonas Salk got there first, developing the inactivated polio vaccine in 1955. When asked who owned the patent for the vaccine, Salk famously replied “the people I would say, there is no patent, could you patent the sun?”
Salk’s discovery was followed by the development of the oral polio vaccine by Albert Sabin in 1962. The introduction of these vaccines halted the epidemic of polio in the United States, and they are still used today, in improved form, to protect children all over the world from this debilitating disease.
The March of Dimes campaign proved what was possible when ordinary citizens get behind a cause. By coming together to fight polio in their own country, Americans created the vaccines that could wipe out polio from the entire globe.
We won’t ask you to send a dime to the White House, but we want to make sure that your voice is heard. Call on world leaders to do all they can to end polio by signing this petition. | <urn:uuid:14adcd44-ee94-4099-9ebd-b85f6092af38> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/how-the-united-states-came-together-to-fight-polio/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00164.warc.gz | en | 0.980643 | 581 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
-0.5034074783325195,
0.12255887687206268,
0.08829449117183685,
-0.44507572054862976,
-0.06250004470348358,
0.45928797125816345,
0.08552075922489166,
0.46693238615989685,
-0.09663949906826019,
-0.14608582854270935,
0.14951187372207642,
0.07140940427780151,
0.2211613655090332,
0.249592348933... | 2 | How the United States came together to fight polio
At the start of the twentieth century, a polio epidemic began to spread across the United States of America.
Although multiple polio outbreaks had been recorded in the US in the 1800s, by 1916 the situation had become more precarious. That year, approximately 27,000 cases were recorded, resulting in over 6,000 fatalities – 2,000 of which were recorded in New York City. Each following summer, there were localized outbreaks in at least one part of the country and, given the highly contagious nature of the disease, this caused widespread panic and concern amongst the American public.
It was amidst this panic that US President Franklin D Roosevelt set up the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (polio) in 1938, declaring the Foundation’s goal to be to "lead, direct and unify the fight on every phase of this sickness”. Roosevelt himself had contracted polio in 1921, and had been paralysed from the waist down. Beginning in 1934, annual Birthday Balls had been held throughout the US in honour of Roosevelt’s birthday (January 30), and these became vital fundraisers for the Foundation’s work, providing care for children with polio and funding efforts to find a vaccine.
However, it was not until popular performer Eddie Cantor became involved that fundraising activities really took off. It was Cantor who first called the campaign the ‘March of Dimes’, the term being a play on the name of the popular March of Time newsreels during that era.
The result of the campaign was staggering. Within the first week after the radio appeal, ordinary Americans had mailed 268,000 dimes to the White House. By the end of the first campaign, the March of Dimes had successfully raised US$1.8 million.
The proceeds fuelled intense competition among medical scientists. Jonas Salk got there first, developing the inactivated polio vaccine in 1955. When asked who owned the patent for the vaccine, Salk famously replied “the people I would say, there is no patent, could you patent the sun?”
Salk’s discovery was followed by the development of the oral polio vaccine by Albert Sabin in 1962. The introduction of these vaccines halted the epidemic of polio in the United States, and they are still used today, in improved form, to protect children all over the world from this debilitating disease.
The March of Dimes campaign proved what was possible when ordinary citizens get behind a cause. By coming together to fight polio in their own country, Americans created the vaccines that could wipe out polio from the entire globe.
We won’t ask you to send a dime to the White House, but we want to make sure that your voice is heard. Call on world leaders to do all they can to end polio by signing this petition. | 615 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One thing that most visitors find about Singapore is that it looks like a place that has never seen war. However, it is only because of such an impression because of how the country has undergone great changes under a very powerful leader. These days, Singapore is one of the most peaceful and livable countries in the world. However, one must not forget the history that Singapore took a part of. Singapore was also dragged into the World War II, and you will learn more about what their role was if you visit Fort Siloso. Here is some insight from our crew.
This place is the only coastal gun battery that was restored from 12 batteries that completed the “Fortress Singapore” during the breakout of World War II. The fort can be found in Sentosa, which was known before as Pulau Blakang Mati, which is an island located south of mainland Singapore. Today, the fort is turned into a military museum made open for the public to visit. One of the areas of this place that just got its fresh renovation recently is the Surrender Chambers, which is a must-see for history lovers that want to witness what it was like in the war before.
Siloso is a derivation from the Malayan word that means “rock.” That time when the fort was under construction, there was a very big rock right at the mouth of the harbor of Singapore, which was considered before as very dangerous for shipping. When trade flourished quite well in Singapore because of the opening of Suez Canal back in 1869, the people back then realized that it was necessary to protect the port of Singapore. As one that has finished reading a report made by Major Edward Lake from the Madras Engineers, the fort was then completed in 1874 in the very same place mentioned. The top of Mount Siloso has blown apart as part of the place’s fortification. It was to flatten the surface of the gun platform to get installed. In the 1880s, the gun batteries were then mounted in Mount Serapong and Mount Siloso on today’s Sentosa.
This fort was built to defend Singapore against foreign invasion by the sea. However, in February 1942, the time that the Battle of Singapore took place, the guns in this fort were turned at 180 degrees, thus facing inland as a means to fire at the Japanese troops and positions that were already making its way into the city area coming from Tengah Airfield. The local and British troops from the Pasir Laba Battery retreated and then were heading back to the British lines through the sea. However, they were mistaken for the Japanese troops. Thus they were fired at.
The building being described here is now the famous Surrender Chambers and comes with an excellent portrayal of the Japanese and British surrenders. There is even an actual footage of what took place in that chambers during that time.
Learn more Garden by The Bay here. | <urn:uuid:2fe7c79e-d098-4982-b9db-17d60cdbd454> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.billyaircon.com.sg/fort-siloso-singapore-youll-find/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00390.warc.gz | en | 0.989887 | 597 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
-0.04138816148042679,
0.4910205900669098,
0.5440644025802612,
-0.4829276204109192,
0.5398526191711426,
-0.03453405201435089,
0.3350117802619934,
-0.18377748131752014,
-0.4744862914085388,
0.194929838180542,
0.30507323145866394,
-0.36351555585861206,
0.3448009192943573,
0.8714826703071594,
... | 3 | One thing that most visitors find about Singapore is that it looks like a place that has never seen war. However, it is only because of such an impression because of how the country has undergone great changes under a very powerful leader. These days, Singapore is one of the most peaceful and livable countries in the world. However, one must not forget the history that Singapore took a part of. Singapore was also dragged into the World War II, and you will learn more about what their role was if you visit Fort Siloso. Here is some insight from our crew.
This place is the only coastal gun battery that was restored from 12 batteries that completed the “Fortress Singapore” during the breakout of World War II. The fort can be found in Sentosa, which was known before as Pulau Blakang Mati, which is an island located south of mainland Singapore. Today, the fort is turned into a military museum made open for the public to visit. One of the areas of this place that just got its fresh renovation recently is the Surrender Chambers, which is a must-see for history lovers that want to witness what it was like in the war before.
Siloso is a derivation from the Malayan word that means “rock.” That time when the fort was under construction, there was a very big rock right at the mouth of the harbor of Singapore, which was considered before as very dangerous for shipping. When trade flourished quite well in Singapore because of the opening of Suez Canal back in 1869, the people back then realized that it was necessary to protect the port of Singapore. As one that has finished reading a report made by Major Edward Lake from the Madras Engineers, the fort was then completed in 1874 in the very same place mentioned. The top of Mount Siloso has blown apart as part of the place’s fortification. It was to flatten the surface of the gun platform to get installed. In the 1880s, the gun batteries were then mounted in Mount Serapong and Mount Siloso on today’s Sentosa.
This fort was built to defend Singapore against foreign invasion by the sea. However, in February 1942, the time that the Battle of Singapore took place, the guns in this fort were turned at 180 degrees, thus facing inland as a means to fire at the Japanese troops and positions that were already making its way into the city area coming from Tengah Airfield. The local and British troops from the Pasir Laba Battery retreated and then were heading back to the British lines through the sea. However, they were mistaken for the Japanese troops. Thus they were fired at.
The building being described here is now the famous Surrender Chambers and comes with an excellent portrayal of the Japanese and British surrenders. There is even an actual footage of what took place in that chambers during that time.
Learn more Garden by The Bay here. | 601 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you.
Any subject. Any type of essay.
We’ll even meet a 3-hour deadline.Get your price
121 writers online
Gender inequality is not only the matter of a special country or place instead it has always been a global issue for people. Men and women are almost equal in the total universe but still women are not given equal status with men and this unequal gender role in nationalization process operates in every country. Since the beginning women have faced disrespect, domestic cruelty, sense of deficiency, are subjugate to behave like a servant etc. Time is passing but in all the ages women are assumed to face some issues because it has become the universal notion that they are supposed to serve men. Though our religious beliefs make women a goddess but we fail to distinguish her as a human being first, we worship goddesses but we exploit girls. Ideally it is being said that they achieve equal position like men in our society but it is sad to say that still they are facing though several types of differentiation in domestic and professional lives. Like men-folk, women must have equal roles to perform for the development of the society.
Gender inequality is a situation in which women and men are not equal. Gender inequality refers to health, education, economic and political inequalities between men and women in India. Gender inequalities, and its social causes, affect the sex ratio of India, life of women’s health and including also their educational avail and economic status. Gender inequality in India is a multifaceted issue that concerns men and women alike. Although the constitution of India has granted men and women equal rights, but gender distinction still remains. There is specific research on gender differentiation mostly in favour of men over women. The gender inequality and status of women in India has been going through many changes in the past few millenniums. Gender Inequality has been seen in India from the very beginning. There were women of most affected in India and many changes were seen in their status. It is also very difficult to know exactly the status or position of women in different period of times but researchers and grammarians, like katayana and patanjali, have thrown some lights on it from the old scriptures and from other sources. The gender inequalities and status of women and their activities can be divided into three main historical period, the ancient, the medieval and the modern.
In Ancient period- During the Vedic period and according to the Hindu scriptures, in the ancient time women were given a reputable position. They were considered half part of men or it can be said that men were recognized to be incomplete without them. Men were couldn’t punish their wives and they were called as “Ardhangini”(Half Body) of men. In the early Vedic periods there was no gender differentiation. There is sufficient proof that in the society the women had equal rights with men during the ‘Rig-Vedic’ periods (1500-1000 BC). The Rig Vedic women in India enjoyed high status in society. Their condition was good. There were many women Rishis during this period. Through monogamy was mostly common, the richer section of the society were satisfied in polygamy. There were no Sati system or early marriage. In the “Rig Vedic” verses we also find that women married at the mature age and could choice their husbands. Both boys and girls had “initiation” (Upnayana). Very few girls continued their studies because of hard lives and different penance had to be taken at different stages of their student-lives. Some women argued their hard life and considered themselves worthy of living at home. They activated themselves in cultivating arts and craft and became good housewives. They were known as “Sadyovadhus”.
But among the girls who were studying “God-realization” seriously, some of them were very good in learning methods. They were known as “Brahmavadinis”. In the Vedic literature 27 such “Brahmavadinis” were mentioned, e.g. Gargi, Maitreyi, Visvanara, Lopamudra, Apala, Saswati, etc. women started being discriminated against since the Later Vedic period in education and other rights and facilities. Child marriage, widow burning, the veil system and polygamy further worsened the women’s position.
In medieval period- During the medieval period, gender inequality was on high level and woman was given a position subordinate to man. Law and religion did not recognize the equality and equal rights of man and woman. The women’s place was largely presumed as being in the home. In short, the role of women was considered to be one of subservience to her husband, the master and ruler of her family. Child marriage, practices of sati, prohibition of widow marriage were considered in a ritualistic way among the Hindus. The situation of Muslim women among the Muslims was not good either. tradition of veil system among the women started at this period. Among the Rajput women in Rajasthan the “Jauhar’ was practiced to save the respect of women. Among the Hindus polygamy was a part of the lives and among the Muslims polygamy was accepted in the name of religion. In some parts of the country the system of “Devdashi” or “Temple Women” was operated and both the rich people and the “Temple Priests” sexually exploited them. This continued for many decades till the rise of the “Vakti Cult” movement. One of the women leaders of “Vakti Cult” movement was “Mirabai” she was a saint, a poet and a singer. At that time women felt some heave of relief in the orthodox society. In this time “Guru Nanak” tried to spread the messages of equality among men and women of the society. This had a very effective influence on the societies in some parts of India.
To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below:
Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you.
Your essay sample has been sent.
Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now
Are you interested in getting a customized paper?Check it out! | <urn:uuid:a88da2ff-54ff-45ac-b4a8-654e521dba8d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gradesfixer.com/free-essay-examples/history-of-gender-inequality/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.982287 | 1,356 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
0.11371821165084839,
0.1016194224357605,
-0.25373002886772156,
-0.26601502299308777,
-0.42831727862358093,
0.4945148229598999,
0.060452304780483246,
0.19258356094360352,
0.11665654927492142,
0.14311599731445312,
-0.06105012074112892,
-0.24648360908031464,
0.46734505891799927,
0.35874909162... | 1 | Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you.
Any subject. Any type of essay.
We’ll even meet a 3-hour deadline.Get your price
121 writers online
Gender inequality is not only the matter of a special country or place instead it has always been a global issue for people. Men and women are almost equal in the total universe but still women are not given equal status with men and this unequal gender role in nationalization process operates in every country. Since the beginning women have faced disrespect, domestic cruelty, sense of deficiency, are subjugate to behave like a servant etc. Time is passing but in all the ages women are assumed to face some issues because it has become the universal notion that they are supposed to serve men. Though our religious beliefs make women a goddess but we fail to distinguish her as a human being first, we worship goddesses but we exploit girls. Ideally it is being said that they achieve equal position like men in our society but it is sad to say that still they are facing though several types of differentiation in domestic and professional lives. Like men-folk, women must have equal roles to perform for the development of the society.
Gender inequality is a situation in which women and men are not equal. Gender inequality refers to health, education, economic and political inequalities between men and women in India. Gender inequalities, and its social causes, affect the sex ratio of India, life of women’s health and including also their educational avail and economic status. Gender inequality in India is a multifaceted issue that concerns men and women alike. Although the constitution of India has granted men and women equal rights, but gender distinction still remains. There is specific research on gender differentiation mostly in favour of men over women. The gender inequality and status of women in India has been going through many changes in the past few millenniums. Gender Inequality has been seen in India from the very beginning. There were women of most affected in India and many changes were seen in their status. It is also very difficult to know exactly the status or position of women in different period of times but researchers and grammarians, like katayana and patanjali, have thrown some lights on it from the old scriptures and from other sources. The gender inequalities and status of women and their activities can be divided into three main historical period, the ancient, the medieval and the modern.
In Ancient period- During the Vedic period and according to the Hindu scriptures, in the ancient time women were given a reputable position. They were considered half part of men or it can be said that men were recognized to be incomplete without them. Men were couldn’t punish their wives and they were called as “Ardhangini”(Half Body) of men. In the early Vedic periods there was no gender differentiation. There is sufficient proof that in the society the women had equal rights with men during the ‘Rig-Vedic’ periods (1500-1000 BC). The Rig Vedic women in India enjoyed high status in society. Their condition was good. There were many women Rishis during this period. Through monogamy was mostly common, the richer section of the society were satisfied in polygamy. There were no Sati system or early marriage. In the “Rig Vedic” verses we also find that women married at the mature age and could choice their husbands. Both boys and girls had “initiation” (Upnayana). Very few girls continued their studies because of hard lives and different penance had to be taken at different stages of their student-lives. Some women argued their hard life and considered themselves worthy of living at home. They activated themselves in cultivating arts and craft and became good housewives. They were known as “Sadyovadhus”.
But among the girls who were studying “God-realization” seriously, some of them were very good in learning methods. They were known as “Brahmavadinis”. In the Vedic literature 27 such “Brahmavadinis” were mentioned, e.g. Gargi, Maitreyi, Visvanara, Lopamudra, Apala, Saswati, etc. women started being discriminated against since the Later Vedic period in education and other rights and facilities. Child marriage, widow burning, the veil system and polygamy further worsened the women’s position.
In medieval period- During the medieval period, gender inequality was on high level and woman was given a position subordinate to man. Law and religion did not recognize the equality and equal rights of man and woman. The women’s place was largely presumed as being in the home. In short, the role of women was considered to be one of subservience to her husband, the master and ruler of her family. Child marriage, practices of sati, prohibition of widow marriage were considered in a ritualistic way among the Hindus. The situation of Muslim women among the Muslims was not good either. tradition of veil system among the women started at this period. Among the Rajput women in Rajasthan the “Jauhar’ was practiced to save the respect of women. Among the Hindus polygamy was a part of the lives and among the Muslims polygamy was accepted in the name of religion. In some parts of the country the system of “Devdashi” or “Temple Women” was operated and both the rich people and the “Temple Priests” sexually exploited them. This continued for many decades till the rise of the “Vakti Cult” movement. One of the women leaders of “Vakti Cult” movement was “Mirabai” she was a saint, a poet and a singer. At that time women felt some heave of relief in the orthodox society. In this time “Guru Nanak” tried to spread the messages of equality among men and women of the society. This had a very effective influence on the societies in some parts of India.
To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below:
Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you.
Your essay sample has been sent.
Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now
Are you interested in getting a customized paper?Check it out! | 1,313 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How can we engage students instead of boring them? How do we elicit what they already know while challenging them to understand new concepts? At The Sycamore School, we start by asking two simple questions, “What do you notice? What do you wonder?”
This year, the fifth grade class explored systems for our Theme unit. We took a deeper look at the ocean as a system in order to understand that systems are made of parts, those parts interact and affect one another, and that each part plays a vital role in helping the system function as it should. To examine what happens when those parts change or can no longer do their job, we took a look at two large interrelated problems affecting the ocean: global warming and climate change. After taking a deep dive into the ocean as a system, students were asked to think about other systems they know of and want to know a bit more about. For exhibition, they were asked to create concept maps to explain their understanding of the system of their choice. In order to do this, we needed to know, “What are concept maps?”
Instead of the traditional, “Today we are going to learn about concept maps,” students were provided with four examples of concept maps and asked those two powerful questions. Why are these questions powerful? Because every student can engage when they are asked to simply make observations and ask thoughtful questions. Students worked in partners to do just that. After, we came together as a class to compile our ideas. Here is what they came up with for each concept map example.
Finally, students were prompted to think about what all concept maps need based on the observations they made. Then, we took it one step further and added what would make them “good and engaging.” Here is what they decided.
It was incredible for students to explore for themselves what a concept map is, what they are used for, and how to create one all by considering two questions. An incredible way for them to feel empowered to explore new ideas and make sense of concepts without being talked at by an educator. In the end, students created their own concept maps and displayed them at exhibition. Here are some of their maps of systems they chose! | <urn:uuid:11aea028-72a8-45a6-8b87-37166a05a6ca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sycamore-school.org/single-post/2020/01/15/The-Power-of-%E2%80%9CWhat-do-you-notice-What-do-you-wonder%E2%80%9D | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.984824 | 455 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
-0.24922405183315277,
-0.18070539832115173,
0.35136666893959045,
-0.4160899519920349,
-0.2951531410217285,
0.06100105121731758,
0.4035037159919739,
0.10766316950321198,
0.08310278505086899,
0.1216045469045639,
0.20223774015903473,
0.11206234991550446,
0.19496366381645203,
0.361861884593963... | 4 | How can we engage students instead of boring them? How do we elicit what they already know while challenging them to understand new concepts? At The Sycamore School, we start by asking two simple questions, “What do you notice? What do you wonder?”
This year, the fifth grade class explored systems for our Theme unit. We took a deeper look at the ocean as a system in order to understand that systems are made of parts, those parts interact and affect one another, and that each part plays a vital role in helping the system function as it should. To examine what happens when those parts change or can no longer do their job, we took a look at two large interrelated problems affecting the ocean: global warming and climate change. After taking a deep dive into the ocean as a system, students were asked to think about other systems they know of and want to know a bit more about. For exhibition, they were asked to create concept maps to explain their understanding of the system of their choice. In order to do this, we needed to know, “What are concept maps?”
Instead of the traditional, “Today we are going to learn about concept maps,” students were provided with four examples of concept maps and asked those two powerful questions. Why are these questions powerful? Because every student can engage when they are asked to simply make observations and ask thoughtful questions. Students worked in partners to do just that. After, we came together as a class to compile our ideas. Here is what they came up with for each concept map example.
Finally, students were prompted to think about what all concept maps need based on the observations they made. Then, we took it one step further and added what would make them “good and engaging.” Here is what they decided.
It was incredible for students to explore for themselves what a concept map is, what they are used for, and how to create one all by considering two questions. An incredible way for them to feel empowered to explore new ideas and make sense of concepts without being talked at by an educator. In the end, students created their own concept maps and displayed them at exhibition. Here are some of their maps of systems they chose! | 443 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Battle of Montes Claros was fought on 17 June 1665, near Vila Viçosa, between Spanish and Portuguese as the last major battle in the Portuguese Restoration War. It was a great Portuguese victory and is considered as one of the most important battles in the country's history.
By 1665, the Portuguese Restoration War had been raging for 25 years. Despite numerous setbacks, King Philip IV of Spain was determined to crush the Portuguese insurrection. After a disastrous campaign in Southern Portugal culminated in the 1662 Battle of Ameixial, the Spanish court re-evaluated the performance of the Spanish Army and came to the conclusion that the war could only be ended by decisive action. The court believed that the Portuguese insurrection could only be ended by the capture of a major Portuguese city or by the complete destruction of the Portuguese Army. Luis de Benavides Carrillo, Marquis of Caracena, a veteran of campaigns in Italy and the Netherlands, was appointed to lead the new invasion of Portugal. Carrillo had served as a field commander and as a military governor, and his organizational skills were lauded. Carrillo planned to end the war by capturing the Portuguese capital of Lisbon. To reach the city, he planned first to take Vila Viçosa, followed by Setúbal.
Once he was in command, Carrillo wanted to gather his army's strength to ensue that he outnumbered whatever Portuguese army chose to engage him. However, the worsening illness of King Philip caused the court to order him to proceed with the invasion, as they feared that the death of Philip would strengthen foreign support for the Portuguese. The Spanish crown was also facing financial difficulties, and there was a legitimate fear that the army would have to be disbanded for lack of funds if the war continued.
The Portuguese were prepared and had foreseen such an attack. 3,500 men were moved from Trás-os-Montes in the north to Alentejo in the south. A further 7,800 men came from Lisbon, under command of António Luís de Meneses, who had defeated the Spanish in the Battle of the Lines of Elvas six years earlier. They were reinforced by a veteran English contingent of 2,000 men under the command of the Duke of Schomberg.
A veteran commander who had been defending the Portuguese border with Spain for over 20 years, Meneses was aware that there were any number of ways for Carrillo to invade the country. As such, he reinforced the border garrisons of Elvas and Campo Maior, hoping to harden the frontier defenses and in doing so influence the route Carrillo would take. Having been present during the Portuguese victory at Ameixial, Meneses was well aware that the Spanish faced logistical challenges when invading Portugal, and as such he planned to keep Carrillo's army trapped in the border hinterlands as long as possible to wear down their numbers. The Portuguese were also conscious of the failing health of the Spanish king, and Meneses suspected that this would force them to attack.
Carrillo's army moved into Portugal on 25 May. He first took Borba without resistance after it was abandoned by the Portuguese garrison. He then laid siege to Vila Viçosa, which was better defended and offered a stiff resistance to the Spanish attackers.
The Portuguese decided to exchange land for time, as it was hoped that the rough terrain of the hinterlands would degrade Carrillo's army. Despite this strategy, Meneses was determined to engage the Spanish army on a battlefield of his choosing. The main body of the Portuguese army set itself in motion towards the Spanish force surrounding Vila Viçosa, but it stopped in Montes Claros, halfway between Vila Viçosa and Estremoz.
Carrillo, who was at that time furthering the siege of Vila Vicosa, was fast losing men to attrition. By June, attacks by Portuguese militias were taking a heavy toll on his lines of supply, Vila Vicosa continued to put up an unexpectedly fierce defense, and the Spanish court was demanding action. In spite of these setbacks, Carrillo continued to rely on his previous plans for the capture of Lisbon. However, when informed that Meneses's numerically inferior force was advancing on him from Estremoz, Carrillo decided to engage the Portuguese.
Meneses deployed his army in a defensive formation adjacent to and at the southern end of a long ridge. A dense forest and hills lay further to the south of the Portuguese positions. By defending the space between these two terrain features, Meneses planned to limit the number of Portuguese and Spanish soldiers fighting at any one time and as such counter the superior Spanish numbers. He positioned his heaviest infantry, composed of seasoned veterans, foreign volunteers, and mercenaries under the command of Frederic Schomberg in two lines in this gap and positioned his artillery to support them. The rest of the Portuguese army was held in reserve and ordered to prevent the Spanish from scaling the ridge line. Carrillo was well aware of the Portuguese defenses and massed his cavalry and artillery for an all out attack on the gap between the ridge and the forest.
The battle opened with the Spanish artillery firing into the Portuguese positions, opening gaps in the first line of infantry. The Spanish cavalry then charged the Portuguese lines and overran several units. The Portuguese infantry organized themselves into squares to fend off the cavalry, but this left them vulnerable to the Spanish artillery. The Duke of Schomberg's men gathered around some buildings on the left flank of the Portuguese army, using the structures and a vineyard wall to break up the advancing mass of Spanish cavalry.The Portuguese cannon fired repeatedly into the ranks of Spanish cavalry, inflicting many casualties. As the first Spanish charge retreated, Meneses ordered his first line back and consolidated it into the second line. When a Spanish cannonball killed Sir Francisco da Silva Moura, the commander of the Portuguese contingent of the second line, Meneses took command in person.
A second Spanish cavalry attack and barrage again caused many casualties in the Portuguese infantry lines, but was forced to withdraw due to the Portuguese artillery.
Carrillo then ordered a massive third charge, incorporating both cavalry and infantry, into the Portuguese defenses. The battle raged on and the fighting was extremely intense. The Duke of Schomberg had his horse shot from underneath him and was almost captured by the Spanish. The Portuguese artillery in particular was devastating as shot after shot was fired into the advancing mass of Spaniards, while the Spanish cannon were soon forced to cease in their firing for fear of hitting their own men. The assault collapsed, and Spanish infantry and cavalrymen were soon pressed tightly together, becoming easy targets for the Portuguese. The Spanish cavalry alone suffered over 1,200 casualties in the third charge against the Portuguese line.
The Portuguese forces remained mostly intact, while the already diminished Spanish army - who had placed all their hopes on the cavalry charges - started to lose hope.Having failed to breach Meneses's defenses, Carrillo began to slowly withdraw to the north.
Then, After 7 hours of ferocious fighting, the Portuguese launched a counterattack. The Portuguese cavalry led by D. Luis Melo e Castro, which had until this point played a limited role in the battle, charged and overcame the weakened left flank of the Spanish army. The Spanish army started to fall apart and fled in disorder towards Juromenha, leaving behind all their artillery and many dead and wounded. Thousands of Spanish soldiers were captured and made prisoners, with eight Spanish generals being among the captured.
Almost all of the 1,500 Spanish fugitives who had taken refuge in the many woods around Vila Viçosas for fear of being killed if they surrendered eventually died as a result of their wounds and hunger in the weeks following the battle.A great many arms and armaments were captured by the Portuguese. The total Spanish casualties in this campaign to conquer Portugal amounted to 4,000 killed in the battlefield, 1,200 to 1,500 killed during the siege of Vila Viçosa (before the battle), almost 1,500 fugitives who died in the immediate weeks after the battle and eventually 6,000 prisoners and 4,000 wounded. The Portuguese suffered some 700 killed and more than 2,000 wounded.
The Battle of Montes Claros effectively ended major combat operations during the Restoration War and definitively secured Portuguese independence from Spain. The Spanish did not attempt another invasion; instead the defeat led to a treaty being signed between England and Spain at Madrid in 1667. As a result of this England mediated the Treaty of Lisbon which was signed by Portugal and Spain a year later. Portugal's new ruling dynasty, the House of Braganza was recognized.
Friedrich Hermann von Schönberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg, 1st Count of Mertola, was a Marshal of France and a General in the English and Portuguese Army. He was killed at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.
Vila Viçosa is a municipality in the District of Évora in Portugal. The population in 2011 was 8,319, in an area of 194.86 km².
The Portuguese Army is the land component of the Armed Forces of Portugal and is also its largest branch. It is charged with the defence of Portugal, in co-operation with other branches of the Armed Forces. With its origins going back to the 12th century, it can be considered as one of the oldest armies in the world.
The Battle of Montijo was fought on 26 May 1644, in Montijo, Spain, between Portuguese and Spanish forces. Although the battle ended with a Portuguese victory, the Spanish saw it as a strategic success as they claimed to have prevented Matias de Albuquerque from capturing Badajoz, despite Albuquerque having no intention of attacking the city. Due to the chaotic nature of the battle, casualty figures vary.
The Battle of the Lines of Elvas, was fought on 14 January 1659, in Elvas, between Portugal and Spain during the Portuguese Restoration War. It ended in a decisive Portuguese victory.
Luis Francisco de Benavides Carrillo de Toledo, Marquis of Caracena, Marquis of Fromista was a Spanish general and political figure. He served as Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands between 1659 and 1664.
The Portuguese Restoration War was the name given by nineteenth-century Romantic historians to the war between Portugal and Spain that began with the Portuguese revolution of 1640 and ended with the Treaty of Lisbon in 1668, bringing a formal end to the Iberian Union. The period from 1640 to 1668 was marked by periodic skirmishes between Portugal and Spain, as well as short episodes of more serious warfare, much of it occasioned by Spanish and Portuguese entanglements with non-Iberian powers. Spain was involved in the Thirty Years' War until 1648 and the Franco–Spanish War until 1659, while Portugal was involved in the Dutch–Portuguese War until 1663.
António Luís de Meneses, 1st Marquis of Marialva and 3rd Count of Cantanhede was a member of the Forty Conspirators and a Portuguese general who fought in the Portuguese Restoration War, that ended the Iberian Union between Portugal and Spain.
The Treaty of Lisbon of 1668 was a peace treaty between Portugal and Spain, concluded at Lisbon on 13 February 1668, through the mediation of England, in which Spain recognized the sovereignty of Portugal's new ruling dynasty, the House of Braganza.
The Battle of Ameixial, was fought on 8 June 1663, near the village of Santa Vitória do Ameixial, some 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) north-west of Estremoz, between Spanish and Portuguese as part of the Portuguese Restoration War. In Spain, the battle is better known as the Battle of Estremoz.
The title duke of Terceira, de juro e herdade was created by decree of King Pedro IV of Portugal, on 8 November 1832. António José de Souza Manoel de Menezes Severim de Noronha, 7th Count of Vila Flor, de juro e herdade, and 1st Marquis of Vila Flor, was the first holder of the title.
The Mapuche were a bellic culture, and their history has been plagued by wars and conflicts since they began to settle in the Araucanía, they believed that history was created through warfare, and thus engaged in many military conflicts.
Estremoz is a municipality in Portugal. The population in 2011 was 14,318, in an area of 513.80 km². The city Estremoz itself had a population of 7,682 in 2001. It is located in the Alentejo region.
The Battle of Vilanova took place on 17 September 1658 during the Portuguese Restoration War near the Fort of São Luis de Gonzaga, located south of Tui in the southern bank of the Minho River. A Spanish army commanded by the Governor of Galicia, Rodrigo Pimentel, Marquis of Viana, entered Portuguese territory and confronted a Portuguese army led by João Rodrigues de Vasconcelos e Sousa, 2nd Count of Castelo Melhor. The Spanish were victorious and proceeded over the following months to capture Monção, Salvaterra de Miño and other Portuguese strongholds.
The 4th Siege of Badajoz took place from July to October 1658 during the Portuguese Restoration War. It was an attempt by a huge Portuguese army under the command of Joanne Mendes de Vasconcelos, governor of Alentejo, to capture the Spanish city of Badajoz, which was the headquarters of the Spanish Army of Extremadura. The fortifications of Badajoz were essentially medieval and considered vulnerable by the Portuguese, and had already been attacked by them three times during this war.
The Battle of Vila Velha or Battle of Vila Velha de Ródão took place in October 1762 when a British-Portuguese force led by John Burgoyne and Charles Lee surprised and recaptured the town of Vila Velha de Ródão from Spanish invaders during the Seven Years' War as part of the Spanish invasion of Portugal. Burgoyne, who took the Spanish base at Valencia de Alcántara two months earlier then marched against forces preparing to cross the River Tagus into Alentejo.
The Monument to the Restorers is a monument located in Restauradores Square in Lisbon, Portugal. The monument memorializes the victory of the Portuguese Restoration War. The war, which saw the end of the House of Habsburg and the rise of the House of Braganza, lasted from 1640 to 1668. The monument was designed by António Tomás da Fonseca and erected in 1886.
D. Luís de Meneses, 3rd Count of Ericeira was a Portuguese nobleman and military man.
The English expedition to Portugal also known as the British Brigade in Portugal was a brigade raised during the reign of King Charles II for service in Portugal during the ongoing Portuguese Restoration War against Spain in August 1662. The brigade, many of which were veterans of the English Civil Wars and the Dutch Revolt, then fought in all the major battles and skirmishes under the command of Frederick Schomberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg and remained in Portugal until the end of the war being subsequently disbanded by mid 1668. The brigade under Schomberg's leadership, proved a decisive factor in winning back Portugal's independence.
André de Albuquerque Ribafria was a 17th century Portuguese nobleman and military leader. Orphaned at a young age, Ribafria won fame as a commander during the Portuguese Restoration War, fighting in several notable battles before being killed in action. | <urn:uuid:3bc11ebe-e9b6-4dce-9854-06ec93fe00e2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wikimili.com/en/Battle_of_Montes_Claros | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00531.warc.gz | en | 0.981416 | 3,266 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
-0.18569901585578918,
0.5514277815818787,
0.1812984049320221,
0.1116737574338913,
-0.498185396194458,
-0.25922322273254395,
-0.2546004056930542,
0.19937682151794434,
0.07692619413137436,
-0.018103448674082756,
-0.1248847246170044,
-0.6160703301429749,
-0.16510316729545593,
0.47086805105209... | 1 | The Battle of Montes Claros was fought on 17 June 1665, near Vila Viçosa, between Spanish and Portuguese as the last major battle in the Portuguese Restoration War. It was a great Portuguese victory and is considered as one of the most important battles in the country's history.
By 1665, the Portuguese Restoration War had been raging for 25 years. Despite numerous setbacks, King Philip IV of Spain was determined to crush the Portuguese insurrection. After a disastrous campaign in Southern Portugal culminated in the 1662 Battle of Ameixial, the Spanish court re-evaluated the performance of the Spanish Army and came to the conclusion that the war could only be ended by decisive action. The court believed that the Portuguese insurrection could only be ended by the capture of a major Portuguese city or by the complete destruction of the Portuguese Army. Luis de Benavides Carrillo, Marquis of Caracena, a veteran of campaigns in Italy and the Netherlands, was appointed to lead the new invasion of Portugal. Carrillo had served as a field commander and as a military governor, and his organizational skills were lauded. Carrillo planned to end the war by capturing the Portuguese capital of Lisbon. To reach the city, he planned first to take Vila Viçosa, followed by Setúbal.
Once he was in command, Carrillo wanted to gather his army's strength to ensue that he outnumbered whatever Portuguese army chose to engage him. However, the worsening illness of King Philip caused the court to order him to proceed with the invasion, as they feared that the death of Philip would strengthen foreign support for the Portuguese. The Spanish crown was also facing financial difficulties, and there was a legitimate fear that the army would have to be disbanded for lack of funds if the war continued.
The Portuguese were prepared and had foreseen such an attack. 3,500 men were moved from Trás-os-Montes in the north to Alentejo in the south. A further 7,800 men came from Lisbon, under command of António Luís de Meneses, who had defeated the Spanish in the Battle of the Lines of Elvas six years earlier. They were reinforced by a veteran English contingent of 2,000 men under the command of the Duke of Schomberg.
A veteran commander who had been defending the Portuguese border with Spain for over 20 years, Meneses was aware that there were any number of ways for Carrillo to invade the country. As such, he reinforced the border garrisons of Elvas and Campo Maior, hoping to harden the frontier defenses and in doing so influence the route Carrillo would take. Having been present during the Portuguese victory at Ameixial, Meneses was well aware that the Spanish faced logistical challenges when invading Portugal, and as such he planned to keep Carrillo's army trapped in the border hinterlands as long as possible to wear down their numbers. The Portuguese were also conscious of the failing health of the Spanish king, and Meneses suspected that this would force them to attack.
Carrillo's army moved into Portugal on 25 May. He first took Borba without resistance after it was abandoned by the Portuguese garrison. He then laid siege to Vila Viçosa, which was better defended and offered a stiff resistance to the Spanish attackers.
The Portuguese decided to exchange land for time, as it was hoped that the rough terrain of the hinterlands would degrade Carrillo's army. Despite this strategy, Meneses was determined to engage the Spanish army on a battlefield of his choosing. The main body of the Portuguese army set itself in motion towards the Spanish force surrounding Vila Viçosa, but it stopped in Montes Claros, halfway between Vila Viçosa and Estremoz.
Carrillo, who was at that time furthering the siege of Vila Vicosa, was fast losing men to attrition. By June, attacks by Portuguese militias were taking a heavy toll on his lines of supply, Vila Vicosa continued to put up an unexpectedly fierce defense, and the Spanish court was demanding action. In spite of these setbacks, Carrillo continued to rely on his previous plans for the capture of Lisbon. However, when informed that Meneses's numerically inferior force was advancing on him from Estremoz, Carrillo decided to engage the Portuguese.
Meneses deployed his army in a defensive formation adjacent to and at the southern end of a long ridge. A dense forest and hills lay further to the south of the Portuguese positions. By defending the space between these two terrain features, Meneses planned to limit the number of Portuguese and Spanish soldiers fighting at any one time and as such counter the superior Spanish numbers. He positioned his heaviest infantry, composed of seasoned veterans, foreign volunteers, and mercenaries under the command of Frederic Schomberg in two lines in this gap and positioned his artillery to support them. The rest of the Portuguese army was held in reserve and ordered to prevent the Spanish from scaling the ridge line. Carrillo was well aware of the Portuguese defenses and massed his cavalry and artillery for an all out attack on the gap between the ridge and the forest.
The battle opened with the Spanish artillery firing into the Portuguese positions, opening gaps in the first line of infantry. The Spanish cavalry then charged the Portuguese lines and overran several units. The Portuguese infantry organized themselves into squares to fend off the cavalry, but this left them vulnerable to the Spanish artillery. The Duke of Schomberg's men gathered around some buildings on the left flank of the Portuguese army, using the structures and a vineyard wall to break up the advancing mass of Spanish cavalry.The Portuguese cannon fired repeatedly into the ranks of Spanish cavalry, inflicting many casualties. As the first Spanish charge retreated, Meneses ordered his first line back and consolidated it into the second line. When a Spanish cannonball killed Sir Francisco da Silva Moura, the commander of the Portuguese contingent of the second line, Meneses took command in person.
A second Spanish cavalry attack and barrage again caused many casualties in the Portuguese infantry lines, but was forced to withdraw due to the Portuguese artillery.
Carrillo then ordered a massive third charge, incorporating both cavalry and infantry, into the Portuguese defenses. The battle raged on and the fighting was extremely intense. The Duke of Schomberg had his horse shot from underneath him and was almost captured by the Spanish. The Portuguese artillery in particular was devastating as shot after shot was fired into the advancing mass of Spaniards, while the Spanish cannon were soon forced to cease in their firing for fear of hitting their own men. The assault collapsed, and Spanish infantry and cavalrymen were soon pressed tightly together, becoming easy targets for the Portuguese. The Spanish cavalry alone suffered over 1,200 casualties in the third charge against the Portuguese line.
The Portuguese forces remained mostly intact, while the already diminished Spanish army - who had placed all their hopes on the cavalry charges - started to lose hope.Having failed to breach Meneses's defenses, Carrillo began to slowly withdraw to the north.
Then, After 7 hours of ferocious fighting, the Portuguese launched a counterattack. The Portuguese cavalry led by D. Luis Melo e Castro, which had until this point played a limited role in the battle, charged and overcame the weakened left flank of the Spanish army. The Spanish army started to fall apart and fled in disorder towards Juromenha, leaving behind all their artillery and many dead and wounded. Thousands of Spanish soldiers were captured and made prisoners, with eight Spanish generals being among the captured.
Almost all of the 1,500 Spanish fugitives who had taken refuge in the many woods around Vila Viçosas for fear of being killed if they surrendered eventually died as a result of their wounds and hunger in the weeks following the battle.A great many arms and armaments were captured by the Portuguese. The total Spanish casualties in this campaign to conquer Portugal amounted to 4,000 killed in the battlefield, 1,200 to 1,500 killed during the siege of Vila Viçosa (before the battle), almost 1,500 fugitives who died in the immediate weeks after the battle and eventually 6,000 prisoners and 4,000 wounded. The Portuguese suffered some 700 killed and more than 2,000 wounded.
The Battle of Montes Claros effectively ended major combat operations during the Restoration War and definitively secured Portuguese independence from Spain. The Spanish did not attempt another invasion; instead the defeat led to a treaty being signed between England and Spain at Madrid in 1667. As a result of this England mediated the Treaty of Lisbon which was signed by Portugal and Spain a year later. Portugal's new ruling dynasty, the House of Braganza was recognized.
Friedrich Hermann von Schönberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg, 1st Count of Mertola, was a Marshal of France and a General in the English and Portuguese Army. He was killed at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.
Vila Viçosa is a municipality in the District of Évora in Portugal. The population in 2011 was 8,319, in an area of 194.86 km².
The Portuguese Army is the land component of the Armed Forces of Portugal and is also its largest branch. It is charged with the defence of Portugal, in co-operation with other branches of the Armed Forces. With its origins going back to the 12th century, it can be considered as one of the oldest armies in the world.
The Battle of Montijo was fought on 26 May 1644, in Montijo, Spain, between Portuguese and Spanish forces. Although the battle ended with a Portuguese victory, the Spanish saw it as a strategic success as they claimed to have prevented Matias de Albuquerque from capturing Badajoz, despite Albuquerque having no intention of attacking the city. Due to the chaotic nature of the battle, casualty figures vary.
The Battle of the Lines of Elvas, was fought on 14 January 1659, in Elvas, between Portugal and Spain during the Portuguese Restoration War. It ended in a decisive Portuguese victory.
Luis Francisco de Benavides Carrillo de Toledo, Marquis of Caracena, Marquis of Fromista was a Spanish general and political figure. He served as Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands between 1659 and 1664.
The Portuguese Restoration War was the name given by nineteenth-century Romantic historians to the war between Portugal and Spain that began with the Portuguese revolution of 1640 and ended with the Treaty of Lisbon in 1668, bringing a formal end to the Iberian Union. The period from 1640 to 1668 was marked by periodic skirmishes between Portugal and Spain, as well as short episodes of more serious warfare, much of it occasioned by Spanish and Portuguese entanglements with non-Iberian powers. Spain was involved in the Thirty Years' War until 1648 and the Franco–Spanish War until 1659, while Portugal was involved in the Dutch–Portuguese War until 1663.
António Luís de Meneses, 1st Marquis of Marialva and 3rd Count of Cantanhede was a member of the Forty Conspirators and a Portuguese general who fought in the Portuguese Restoration War, that ended the Iberian Union between Portugal and Spain.
The Treaty of Lisbon of 1668 was a peace treaty between Portugal and Spain, concluded at Lisbon on 13 February 1668, through the mediation of England, in which Spain recognized the sovereignty of Portugal's new ruling dynasty, the House of Braganza.
The Battle of Ameixial, was fought on 8 June 1663, near the village of Santa Vitória do Ameixial, some 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) north-west of Estremoz, between Spanish and Portuguese as part of the Portuguese Restoration War. In Spain, the battle is better known as the Battle of Estremoz.
The title duke of Terceira, de juro e herdade was created by decree of King Pedro IV of Portugal, on 8 November 1832. António José de Souza Manoel de Menezes Severim de Noronha, 7th Count of Vila Flor, de juro e herdade, and 1st Marquis of Vila Flor, was the first holder of the title.
The Mapuche were a bellic culture, and their history has been plagued by wars and conflicts since they began to settle in the Araucanía, they believed that history was created through warfare, and thus engaged in many military conflicts.
Estremoz is a municipality in Portugal. The population in 2011 was 14,318, in an area of 513.80 km². The city Estremoz itself had a population of 7,682 in 2001. It is located in the Alentejo region.
The Battle of Vilanova took place on 17 September 1658 during the Portuguese Restoration War near the Fort of São Luis de Gonzaga, located south of Tui in the southern bank of the Minho River. A Spanish army commanded by the Governor of Galicia, Rodrigo Pimentel, Marquis of Viana, entered Portuguese territory and confronted a Portuguese army led by João Rodrigues de Vasconcelos e Sousa, 2nd Count of Castelo Melhor. The Spanish were victorious and proceeded over the following months to capture Monção, Salvaterra de Miño and other Portuguese strongholds.
The 4th Siege of Badajoz took place from July to October 1658 during the Portuguese Restoration War. It was an attempt by a huge Portuguese army under the command of Joanne Mendes de Vasconcelos, governor of Alentejo, to capture the Spanish city of Badajoz, which was the headquarters of the Spanish Army of Extremadura. The fortifications of Badajoz were essentially medieval and considered vulnerable by the Portuguese, and had already been attacked by them three times during this war.
The Battle of Vila Velha or Battle of Vila Velha de Ródão took place in October 1762 when a British-Portuguese force led by John Burgoyne and Charles Lee surprised and recaptured the town of Vila Velha de Ródão from Spanish invaders during the Seven Years' War as part of the Spanish invasion of Portugal. Burgoyne, who took the Spanish base at Valencia de Alcántara two months earlier then marched against forces preparing to cross the River Tagus into Alentejo.
The Monument to the Restorers is a monument located in Restauradores Square in Lisbon, Portugal. The monument memorializes the victory of the Portuguese Restoration War. The war, which saw the end of the House of Habsburg and the rise of the House of Braganza, lasted from 1640 to 1668. The monument was designed by António Tomás da Fonseca and erected in 1886.
D. Luís de Meneses, 3rd Count of Ericeira was a Portuguese nobleman and military man.
The English expedition to Portugal also known as the British Brigade in Portugal was a brigade raised during the reign of King Charles II for service in Portugal during the ongoing Portuguese Restoration War against Spain in August 1662. The brigade, many of which were veterans of the English Civil Wars and the Dutch Revolt, then fought in all the major battles and skirmishes under the command of Frederick Schomberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg and remained in Portugal until the end of the war being subsequently disbanded by mid 1668. The brigade under Schomberg's leadership, proved a decisive factor in winning back Portugal's independence.
André de Albuquerque Ribafria was a 17th century Portuguese nobleman and military leader. Orphaned at a young age, Ribafria won fame as a commander during the Portuguese Restoration War, fighting in several notable battles before being killed in action. | 3,403 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who were the Rephaim?
Question: "Who were the Rephaim?"
Answer: There are several passages in the Old Testament that speak of the Rephaim (or Rephaites), and the context describes them as giants. The name of these people literally means “terrible ones.”
The Hebrew word Rephaim has two distinct meanings: first, in poetic literature it refers to departed spirits whose dwelling place was Sheol. It is a figurative description of the dead, similar to our concept of a ghost. The second meaning of Rephaim is “a mighty people with tall stature who lived in Canaan.” The word doesn’t seem to be ethno-centric like “Jew” or “Egyptian” but is more of a descriptive term. This second meaning will be the focus of this article.
The first reference to the Rephaim is Genesis 14:5, when the Rephaim, Zuzim and Emim people were defeated in a battle with Kedorlaomer and his allies. When the Israelites first approached the Promised Land after the Exodus from Egypt, they were afraid to enter the land because it was filled with “giants” (the word used in Numbers 13:33 is Nephilim), the sons of Anak. Giants were widely scattered through Canaan, but were known by different local names, including Rephaim, Zuzim, Emim, and Anakim. Deuteronomy 2:20–21 says the Rephaim were strong and tall, like the Anakites. Og, king of Bashan, was described as the last of the Rephaim in his land (Deuteronomy 3:11), and his bed was thirteen feet long and six feet wide.
Is it possible that the Rephaim were literal giants? The Septuagint uses the Greek words gigas and titanes (the source of the English titan) to translate these and other verses, so the ancient Jews certainly considered them to be giants. They are described generally as being between 7 and 10 feet tall and are called “mighty men.” The Egyptians wrote about giants who lived in the land of Canaan, and the folklore of other nations is full of such references. The people of the ancient world accepted the presence of giants as a fact of history, and the Bible presents them as enemies who were destroyed either by the judgment of God or in battle with men.
So where did these giants come from? One theory, based on Genesis 6:1–4, is that fallen angels (the sons of God) had sexual relations with women, resulting in the birth of giants. This is remarkably similar to Greek and Roman myths about demi-gods, but the theory has some theological and biological obstacles. Another theory, also based on Genesis 6, is that the fallen angels, having knowledge of human genetics, indwelt certain men and women who would have the right traits to produce a race of giants and induced them to cohabit with each other. A third theory is that the giants were simply the result of normal genetic variability within a society. Whatever the origin of the Rephaim, it is certain that a race of “giants”—strong, tall people—did exist at one time, and many cultures had dealings with them. Even today, there are people who grow to extreme sizes, whether through genetic disorders like gigantism or through normal heredity.
Recommended Resource: Angels: Elect & Evil by C. Fred Dickason
More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free!
Who were the sons of God and daughters of men in Genesis 6:1-4?
Who / what were the Nephilim?
Are the demons the disembodied spirits of the Nephilim?
Are the Anunnaki in the Epic of Gilgamesh the Nephilim mentioned in the Bible?
Who were the Anakim?
Questions about Angels and Demons
Who were the Rephaim? | <urn:uuid:d41de2de-9c6d-4cde-813a-7072d40e4978> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gotquestions.org/Rephaim.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00416.warc.gz | en | 0.980833 | 842 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
-0.12418974190950394,
0.4671650826931,
0.23806273937225342,
0.18521787226200104,
-0.42167502641677856,
-0.4385626018047333,
0.6857903599739075,
-0.21398575603961945,
-0.27744296193122864,
0.16036397218704224,
-0.07852744311094284,
-0.48098087310791016,
0.17174191772937775,
0.17713195085525... | 1 | Who were the Rephaim?
Question: "Who were the Rephaim?"
Answer: There are several passages in the Old Testament that speak of the Rephaim (or Rephaites), and the context describes them as giants. The name of these people literally means “terrible ones.”
The Hebrew word Rephaim has two distinct meanings: first, in poetic literature it refers to departed spirits whose dwelling place was Sheol. It is a figurative description of the dead, similar to our concept of a ghost. The second meaning of Rephaim is “a mighty people with tall stature who lived in Canaan.” The word doesn’t seem to be ethno-centric like “Jew” or “Egyptian” but is more of a descriptive term. This second meaning will be the focus of this article.
The first reference to the Rephaim is Genesis 14:5, when the Rephaim, Zuzim and Emim people were defeated in a battle with Kedorlaomer and his allies. When the Israelites first approached the Promised Land after the Exodus from Egypt, they were afraid to enter the land because it was filled with “giants” (the word used in Numbers 13:33 is Nephilim), the sons of Anak. Giants were widely scattered through Canaan, but were known by different local names, including Rephaim, Zuzim, Emim, and Anakim. Deuteronomy 2:20–21 says the Rephaim were strong and tall, like the Anakites. Og, king of Bashan, was described as the last of the Rephaim in his land (Deuteronomy 3:11), and his bed was thirteen feet long and six feet wide.
Is it possible that the Rephaim were literal giants? The Septuagint uses the Greek words gigas and titanes (the source of the English titan) to translate these and other verses, so the ancient Jews certainly considered them to be giants. They are described generally as being between 7 and 10 feet tall and are called “mighty men.” The Egyptians wrote about giants who lived in the land of Canaan, and the folklore of other nations is full of such references. The people of the ancient world accepted the presence of giants as a fact of history, and the Bible presents them as enemies who were destroyed either by the judgment of God or in battle with men.
So where did these giants come from? One theory, based on Genesis 6:1–4, is that fallen angels (the sons of God) had sexual relations with women, resulting in the birth of giants. This is remarkably similar to Greek and Roman myths about demi-gods, but the theory has some theological and biological obstacles. Another theory, also based on Genesis 6, is that the fallen angels, having knowledge of human genetics, indwelt certain men and women who would have the right traits to produce a race of giants and induced them to cohabit with each other. A third theory is that the giants were simply the result of normal genetic variability within a society. Whatever the origin of the Rephaim, it is certain that a race of “giants”—strong, tall people—did exist at one time, and many cultures had dealings with them. Even today, there are people who grow to extreme sizes, whether through genetic disorders like gigantism or through normal heredity.
Recommended Resource: Angels: Elect & Evil by C. Fred Dickason
More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free!
Who were the sons of God and daughters of men in Genesis 6:1-4?
Who / what were the Nephilim?
Are the demons the disembodied spirits of the Nephilim?
Are the Anunnaki in the Epic of Gilgamesh the Nephilim mentioned in the Bible?
Who were the Anakim?
Questions about Angels and Demons
Who were the Rephaim? | 828 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Homework is school work that are given at school to do at home. Homework is usually given to students by the teachers. It is a practice work which helps students revise on what they've learned that day. Homework also helps students to remember what they learned. Many students will get more homework and some will get less. This depends on how old they are, what grade they are in and how smart they are. This could determine what level they are in. Most students say that homework is a waste of time and that they do enough work at school; however, it is also believed that homework is very important for a student as it can help in their exams and education. Other students say other homework is helpful. It helps parents to get to know about their children progress in studies. It can also teach a child to be responsible. | <urn:uuid:9973697c-14d7-448b-ba2a-6fc407027d57> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homework | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00449.warc.gz | en | 0.993585 | 169 | 3.375 | 3 | [
-0.11183124035596848,
-0.22014033794403076,
0.471639484167099,
-0.44698721170425415,
-0.3597351312637329,
-0.33311325311660767,
0.3223797380924225,
0.2102745920419693,
0.10637256503105164,
-0.1362723410129547,
0.11624409258365631,
0.04317886754870415,
0.02866988815367222,
0.540011942386627... | 1 | Homework is school work that are given at school to do at home. Homework is usually given to students by the teachers. It is a practice work which helps students revise on what they've learned that day. Homework also helps students to remember what they learned. Many students will get more homework and some will get less. This depends on how old they are, what grade they are in and how smart they are. This could determine what level they are in. Most students say that homework is a waste of time and that they do enough work at school; however, it is also believed that homework is very important for a student as it can help in their exams and education. Other students say other homework is helpful. It helps parents to get to know about their children progress in studies. It can also teach a child to be responsible. | 167 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Helen Keller wrote her memoir while enrolled at the prestigious Radcliffe College—an incredible achievement for anyone, let alone for a deaf and blind woman at that time. Nevertheless, the autobiography is largely critical of traditional education. Keller recounts the story of her very nontraditional education, which was presided over chiefly by Miss Anne Sullivan. Sullivan was a teacher of the deaf and blind who, upon arriving at the Keller household, gave Keller the tools to communicate through sign language, lip reading, and eventually regular speech, achieving this through great effort and sometimes unorthodox methodology. Miss Sullivan emphasized the importance of learning not for learning’s sake, but as a tool for enriching the mind and the soul alike. As Keller speaks lovingly of Sullivan and her offbeat but empathetic and holistic teaching style, she suggests that rote learning, repetition, and book smarts should not be confused with intelligence. One can gain a deeper understanding of the world by studying nature, literature, science, mathematics, and art, if one approaches one’s education with an open mind and heart. There is more to the world than can be taught in a book, Keller argues, and a person’s intelligence cannot be measured by the sum of the facts they accrue in a classroom.
Before her education began, Keller writes, she was like a ship “at sea in a dense fog.” With the arrival of Anne Sullivan, however, young Helen soon found herself a compass and a safe harbor. Miss Sullivan’s arrival helped Helen to understand that “knowledge is love and light and vision.” Helen also compares herself, when speaking of Miss Sullivan’s arrival, to Moses standing at the foot of mount Sinai, waiting to receive the Commandments from the Lord. As Miss Sullivan began teaching Helen sign language, Helen experienced a major breakthrough: she finally understood that everything in the world had a name, including feelings and emotions. With the tools to finally express herself and begin to learn about the world around her, the young Helen became overjoyed. After her first day with Miss Sullivan, Helen found herself longing for “a new day to come” for the first time in her life. She was enlivened and excited by the possibilities of language and learning, and described a “sudden awakening” of her soul as a result of her education.
Helen describes the early days of her education as “more like play than work.” Anne Sullivan taught Helen through stories, poems, and exercises in which Helen would pin notecards with words written on them in braille to household objects and members of her family. Most of Helen’s lessons took place in the woods rather than inside, and Miss Sullivan used this unique “classroom” environment to teach Helen the names of as many different types of flowers, trees, and animals as she could. Helen describes her first few years with Miss Sullivan as “beautiful,” and credits Miss Sullivan as instilling in her a sense of “delight in all beautiful things.” The early years of Helen’s education were as much about learning as they were about coming to understand—and fall in love with—the world around her. It was only once Helen’s education in words, feelings, and sensations was complete that she was taken to study at the Perkins Institution for the Blind for a summer, and then began lessons with a woman named Sarah Fuller who began teaching Helen to communicate by speaking.
Helen slowly began taking on more and more challenging material and adventures. She took lessons in Latin, German, and French, as well as classes at the Wright-Humason School for the Deaf in New York and the Cambridge School for Young Ladies in Massachusetts. Along the way, she found that while learning did not grow any more difficult, the obstacles and lack of accommodations she faced impeded her ability to learn with the same carefree, omnivorous attitude she had had in the past. She had difficulty acquiring books in braille, and found that in her algebra and geometry classes there was little her instructors could do for her to help her understand shapes and equations. Miss Sullivan was barred from sitting with Helen during her Harvard entrance exams; Helen was instead given the help of proctor with whom she was much less familiar, and who was of course unfamiliar with Helen’s specific needs. Reflecting on the later years of her education, Keller writes that “every one who wishes to gain true knowledge must climb the Hill Difficulty alone, and since there is no royal road to the summit, I must zigzag it in my own way. […] Every struggle is a victory.” Helen felt herself bogged down by the education in many ways, but still did not let the institutional struggles she faced diminish her love of learning. She threw herself into novels and plays in English, German, and Greek, attended plays and received private visitations with famous actors, and continued her exploration of the natural world through taking up rowing, canoeing, and sailing. Despite all her academic success, Keller always felt that human connection and communion with the natural world was the most important thing of all. In this way, the things she learned in her adolescence—about herself, about the history of the world, and about the possibilities for her own place in it—were far more valuable than the rote exercises and drudgery of her formal education.
Helen Keller benefited from a rigorous but unusual education. Because she had to learn about the world from the ground up, and did not have the benefit of sight or hearing to help her move smoothly through a traditional education system, she learned about history, literature, and language in a very different way than most people. Though Keller became an accomplished academic and an extremely well-read woman, she argues that the most valuable education originates in a “potent” desire to understand the world and a recognition that much of what is important in life cannot be learned in a book.
Education Quotes in The Story of My Life
It is with a kind of fear that I begin to write the history of my life. I have, as it were, a superstitious hesitation in lifting the veil that clings about my childhood like a golden mist. The task of writing an autobiography is a difficult one. When I try to classify my earliest impressions, I find that fact and fancy look alike across the years that link the past with the present. The woman paints the child’s experiences in her own fantasy. A few impressions stand out vividly from the first years of my life; but “the shadows of the prison-house are on the rest.” Besides, many of the joys and sorrows of childhood have lost their poignancy; and many incidents of vital importance in my early education have been forgotten in the excitement of great discoveries. In order, therefore, not to be tedious I shall try to present in a series of sketches only the episodes that seem to me to be the most interesting and important.
One of my Swiss ancestors was the first teacher of the deaf in Zurich and wrote a book on the subject of their education—rather a singular coincidence; though it is true that there is no king who has not had a slave among his ancestors, and no slave who has not had a king among his.
Have you ever been at sea in a dense fog, when it seemed as if a tangible white darkness shut you in, and the great ship, tense and anxious, groped her way toward the shore with plummet and sounding-line, and you waited with beating heart for something to happen? I was like that ship before my education began, only I was without compass or sounding-line, and had no way of knowing how near the harbor was. “Light! Give me light!” was the wordless cry of my soul, and the light of love shone on me in that very hour.
We read and studied out of doors, preferring the sunlit woods to the house. All my early lessons have in them the breath of the woods—the fine, resinous odour of pine needles, blended with the perfume of wild grapes. Seated in the gracious shade of a wild tulip tree, I learned to think that everything has a lesson and a suggestion. “The loveliness of things taught me all their use.” Indeed, everything that could hum, or buzz, or sing, or bloom, had a part in my education—noisy-throated frogs, katydids and crickets held in my hand until, forgetting their embarrassment, they trilled their reedy note, little downy chickens and wildflowers, the dogwood blossoms, meadow-violets and budding fruit trees.
My teacher is so near to me that I scarcely think of myself apart from her. How much of my delight in all beautiful things is innate, and how much is due to her influence, I can never tell. I feel that her being is inseparable from my own, and that the footsteps of my life are in hers. All the best of me belongs to her—there is not a talent, or an inspiration or a joy in me that has not awakened by her loving touch.
I would not rest satisfied until my teacher took me, for advice and assistance, to Miss Sarah Fuller, principal of the Horace Mann School. This lovely, sweet-natured lady offered to teach me herself, and we began the twenty-sixth of March, 1890. Miss Fuller’s method was this: she passed my hand lightly over her face, and let me feel the position of her tongue and lips when she made a sound. I was eager to imitate every motion and in an hour had learned six elements of speech. Miss Fuller gave me eleven lessons in all. I shall never forget the surprise and delight I felt when I uttered my first connected sentence, “It is warm.” True, they were broken and stammering syllables, but they were human speech. My soul, conscious of new strength, came out of bondage, and was reaching through those broken symbols of speech to all knowledge and face. […] As I talked, happy thoughts fluttered up out of my words that might perhaps have struggled in vain to escape my fingers.
My work was practice, practice, practice. Discouragement and weariness cast me down frequently; but the next moment the thought that I should soon be at home and show my loved ones what I had accomplished spurred me on, and I eagerly looked forward to their pleasure in my achievement.
“My little sister will understand me now,” was a thought stronger than all obstacles. I used to repeat ecstatically, “I am not dumb now.” I could not be despondent while I anticipated the delight of talking to my mother and reading her responses from her lips.
The stories [from “Birdie and His Friends”] had little or no meaning for me then, but the mere spelling of the strange words was sufficient to amuse a little who could who could do almost nothing to amuse herself; and although I do not recall a single circumstance connected with the reading of the stories, yet I cannot help thinking that I made a great effort to remember the words.… One thing is certain, the language was ineffaceably stamped upon my brain, though for a long time no one knew it, least of all myself.
Miss Canby [the author of “The Frost Fairies”] herself wrote kindly, “Some day you will write a great story out of your own head, that will be a comfort and help to many.” But this kind prophecy has never been fulfilled. I have never played with words again for the mere pleasure of the game. Indeed, I have ever since been tortured by the fear that what I write is not my own. For a long time, when I wrote a letter, even to my mother, I was seized with a sudden feeling of terror, and I would spell the sentences over and over, to make sure that I had not read them in a book. Had it not been for the persistent encouragement of Miss Sullivan, I think I should have given up trying to write altogether.
I was learning, as all young and inexperienced persons learn, by assimilation and imitation, to put ideas into words. Everything I found in books that pleased me I retained in my memory, consciously or unconsciously, and adapted it. The young writer, as Stevenson has said, instinctively tries to copy whatever seems most admirable, and he shifts his admiration with astonishing versatility. It is only after years of this sort of practice that even great men have learned to marshal the legion of words which come thronging through every byway of the mind. I am afraid I have not yet completed this process. It is certain that I cannot always distinguish my own thoughts from those I read, because what I read becomes the very substance and texture of my mind. […] But we keep on trying because we know that others have succeeded, and we are not willing to acknowledge defeat.
I do not blame any one. The administrative board of Radcliffe did not realize how difficult they were making my examinations, nor did they understand the peculiar difficulties I had to surmount. But if they unintentionally placed obstacles in my way, I have the consolation of knowing that I overcame them all.
I remember my first day at Radcliffe. It was a day full of interest for me. I had looked forward to it for years. A potent force within me, stronger than the persuasion of my friends, stronger even than the pleadings of my heart, had impelled me to try my strength by the standards of those who see and hear. I knew that there were many obstacles in the way; but I was eager to overcome them. I had taken to heart the words of the wise Roman who said, “To be banished from Rome is but to live outside of Rome.” Debarred from the great highways of knowledge, I was compelled to make the journey across by unfrequented roads—that was all; and I knew that in college there were many bypaths where I could touch hands with girls who were thinking, loving and struggling like me.
I need more time to prepare my lessons than other girls…I have perplexities which they have not. There are days when the close attention I must give to details chafes my spirit, and the thought that I must spend hours reading a few chapters, while in the world without other girls are laughing and singing and dancing, makes me rebellious; but soon I recover my buoyancy and laugh the discontent out of my heart. For, after all, every one who wishes to gain true knowledge must climb the Hill Difficulty alone, and since there is no royal road to the summit, I must zigzag it in my own way. I slip back many times, I fall, I stand still, I run against the edge of hidden obstacles, I lose my temper and find it again and keep it better. I trudge on, I gain a little, I feel encouraged, I get more eager and climb higher and begin to see the widening horizon. Every struggle is a victory.
While my days at Radcliffe were still in the future, they were encircled with a halo of romance, which they have lost; but in the transition from romantic to actual I have learned many things I should never have known had I not tried the experiment. One of them is the precious science of patience, which teaches us that we should take our education as we would take a walk in the country, leisurely, our minds hospitably open to impressions of every sort. Such knowledge floods the soul unseen with a soundless tidal wave of deepening thought. “Knowledge is power.” Rather, knowledge is happiness, because to have knowledge—broad, deep knowledge—is to know true ends from false, and lofty things from low. To know the thoughts and deeds that have marked man’s progress is to feel the great heart-throbs of humanity through the centuries; and if one does not feel in these pulsations a heavenward striving, one must indeed be deaf to the harmonies of life.
I read [books] in the intervals between study and play with an ever-deepening sense of pleasure. I did not study nor analyze them—I did not know whether they were well written or not; I never thought about style or authorship. They laid their treasures at my feet, and I accepted them as we accept the sunshine and the love of our friends. I loved Little Women because it gave me a sense of kinship with girls and boys who could see and hear. Circumscribed as my life was in so many ways, I had to look between the covers of books for news of the world that lay outside my own.
In a word, literature is my Utopia. Here I am not disenfranchised. No barrier of the senses shuts me out from the sweet, gracious discourse of my book-friends. They talk to me without embarrassment or awkwardness. The things I have learned and the things I have been taught seem of ridiculously little importance compared with their “large loves and heavenly charities.”
Is it no true, then, that my life with all its limitations touches at many points the life of the World Beautiful? Everything has its wonders, even darkness and silence, and I learn, whatever state I may be in, therein to be content. Sometimes, it is true, a sense of isolation enfolds me like a cold mist as I sit alone and wait at life’s shut gate. Beyond there is light, and music, and sweet companionship; but I may not enter. Fate, silent, pitiless, bars the way. Fain would I question his imperious decree; for my heart is still undisciplined and passionate; but my tongue will not utter the bitter, futile words that rise to my lips, and they fall back into my heart like unshed tears. Silence sits immense upon my soul. Then comes hope with a smile and whispers, “There is joy in self-forgetfulness.” So I try to make the light in others’ eyes my sun, the music in others’ ears my symphony, the smile on others’ lips my happiness. | <urn:uuid:74ed6efc-fd61-40c8-93d3-a30f62ba178b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.litcharts.com/lit/the-story-of-my-life/themes/education | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00392.warc.gz | en | 0.98078 | 3,781 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
-0.13105204701423645,
0.16282987594604492,
0.4259050190448761,
0.1571931689977646,
-0.784091591835022,
0.22457440197467804,
0.07757817208766937,
-0.09185932576656342,
-0.22996079921722412,
-0.1454412043094635,
0.37248221039772034,
-0.4815939664840698,
0.2629827857017517,
0.0471894890069961... | 2 | Helen Keller wrote her memoir while enrolled at the prestigious Radcliffe College—an incredible achievement for anyone, let alone for a deaf and blind woman at that time. Nevertheless, the autobiography is largely critical of traditional education. Keller recounts the story of her very nontraditional education, which was presided over chiefly by Miss Anne Sullivan. Sullivan was a teacher of the deaf and blind who, upon arriving at the Keller household, gave Keller the tools to communicate through sign language, lip reading, and eventually regular speech, achieving this through great effort and sometimes unorthodox methodology. Miss Sullivan emphasized the importance of learning not for learning’s sake, but as a tool for enriching the mind and the soul alike. As Keller speaks lovingly of Sullivan and her offbeat but empathetic and holistic teaching style, she suggests that rote learning, repetition, and book smarts should not be confused with intelligence. One can gain a deeper understanding of the world by studying nature, literature, science, mathematics, and art, if one approaches one’s education with an open mind and heart. There is more to the world than can be taught in a book, Keller argues, and a person’s intelligence cannot be measured by the sum of the facts they accrue in a classroom.
Before her education began, Keller writes, she was like a ship “at sea in a dense fog.” With the arrival of Anne Sullivan, however, young Helen soon found herself a compass and a safe harbor. Miss Sullivan’s arrival helped Helen to understand that “knowledge is love and light and vision.” Helen also compares herself, when speaking of Miss Sullivan’s arrival, to Moses standing at the foot of mount Sinai, waiting to receive the Commandments from the Lord. As Miss Sullivan began teaching Helen sign language, Helen experienced a major breakthrough: she finally understood that everything in the world had a name, including feelings and emotions. With the tools to finally express herself and begin to learn about the world around her, the young Helen became overjoyed. After her first day with Miss Sullivan, Helen found herself longing for “a new day to come” for the first time in her life. She was enlivened and excited by the possibilities of language and learning, and described a “sudden awakening” of her soul as a result of her education.
Helen describes the early days of her education as “more like play than work.” Anne Sullivan taught Helen through stories, poems, and exercises in which Helen would pin notecards with words written on them in braille to household objects and members of her family. Most of Helen’s lessons took place in the woods rather than inside, and Miss Sullivan used this unique “classroom” environment to teach Helen the names of as many different types of flowers, trees, and animals as she could. Helen describes her first few years with Miss Sullivan as “beautiful,” and credits Miss Sullivan as instilling in her a sense of “delight in all beautiful things.” The early years of Helen’s education were as much about learning as they were about coming to understand—and fall in love with—the world around her. It was only once Helen’s education in words, feelings, and sensations was complete that she was taken to study at the Perkins Institution for the Blind for a summer, and then began lessons with a woman named Sarah Fuller who began teaching Helen to communicate by speaking.
Helen slowly began taking on more and more challenging material and adventures. She took lessons in Latin, German, and French, as well as classes at the Wright-Humason School for the Deaf in New York and the Cambridge School for Young Ladies in Massachusetts. Along the way, she found that while learning did not grow any more difficult, the obstacles and lack of accommodations she faced impeded her ability to learn with the same carefree, omnivorous attitude she had had in the past. She had difficulty acquiring books in braille, and found that in her algebra and geometry classes there was little her instructors could do for her to help her understand shapes and equations. Miss Sullivan was barred from sitting with Helen during her Harvard entrance exams; Helen was instead given the help of proctor with whom she was much less familiar, and who was of course unfamiliar with Helen’s specific needs. Reflecting on the later years of her education, Keller writes that “every one who wishes to gain true knowledge must climb the Hill Difficulty alone, and since there is no royal road to the summit, I must zigzag it in my own way. […] Every struggle is a victory.” Helen felt herself bogged down by the education in many ways, but still did not let the institutional struggles she faced diminish her love of learning. She threw herself into novels and plays in English, German, and Greek, attended plays and received private visitations with famous actors, and continued her exploration of the natural world through taking up rowing, canoeing, and sailing. Despite all her academic success, Keller always felt that human connection and communion with the natural world was the most important thing of all. In this way, the things she learned in her adolescence—about herself, about the history of the world, and about the possibilities for her own place in it—were far more valuable than the rote exercises and drudgery of her formal education.
Helen Keller benefited from a rigorous but unusual education. Because she had to learn about the world from the ground up, and did not have the benefit of sight or hearing to help her move smoothly through a traditional education system, she learned about history, literature, and language in a very different way than most people. Though Keller became an accomplished academic and an extremely well-read woman, she argues that the most valuable education originates in a “potent” desire to understand the world and a recognition that much of what is important in life cannot be learned in a book.
Education Quotes in The Story of My Life
It is with a kind of fear that I begin to write the history of my life. I have, as it were, a superstitious hesitation in lifting the veil that clings about my childhood like a golden mist. The task of writing an autobiography is a difficult one. When I try to classify my earliest impressions, I find that fact and fancy look alike across the years that link the past with the present. The woman paints the child’s experiences in her own fantasy. A few impressions stand out vividly from the first years of my life; but “the shadows of the prison-house are on the rest.” Besides, many of the joys and sorrows of childhood have lost their poignancy; and many incidents of vital importance in my early education have been forgotten in the excitement of great discoveries. In order, therefore, not to be tedious I shall try to present in a series of sketches only the episodes that seem to me to be the most interesting and important.
One of my Swiss ancestors was the first teacher of the deaf in Zurich and wrote a book on the subject of their education—rather a singular coincidence; though it is true that there is no king who has not had a slave among his ancestors, and no slave who has not had a king among his.
Have you ever been at sea in a dense fog, when it seemed as if a tangible white darkness shut you in, and the great ship, tense and anxious, groped her way toward the shore with plummet and sounding-line, and you waited with beating heart for something to happen? I was like that ship before my education began, only I was without compass or sounding-line, and had no way of knowing how near the harbor was. “Light! Give me light!” was the wordless cry of my soul, and the light of love shone on me in that very hour.
We read and studied out of doors, preferring the sunlit woods to the house. All my early lessons have in them the breath of the woods—the fine, resinous odour of pine needles, blended with the perfume of wild grapes. Seated in the gracious shade of a wild tulip tree, I learned to think that everything has a lesson and a suggestion. “The loveliness of things taught me all their use.” Indeed, everything that could hum, or buzz, or sing, or bloom, had a part in my education—noisy-throated frogs, katydids and crickets held in my hand until, forgetting their embarrassment, they trilled their reedy note, little downy chickens and wildflowers, the dogwood blossoms, meadow-violets and budding fruit trees.
My teacher is so near to me that I scarcely think of myself apart from her. How much of my delight in all beautiful things is innate, and how much is due to her influence, I can never tell. I feel that her being is inseparable from my own, and that the footsteps of my life are in hers. All the best of me belongs to her—there is not a talent, or an inspiration or a joy in me that has not awakened by her loving touch.
I would not rest satisfied until my teacher took me, for advice and assistance, to Miss Sarah Fuller, principal of the Horace Mann School. This lovely, sweet-natured lady offered to teach me herself, and we began the twenty-sixth of March, 1890. Miss Fuller’s method was this: she passed my hand lightly over her face, and let me feel the position of her tongue and lips when she made a sound. I was eager to imitate every motion and in an hour had learned six elements of speech. Miss Fuller gave me eleven lessons in all. I shall never forget the surprise and delight I felt when I uttered my first connected sentence, “It is warm.” True, they were broken and stammering syllables, but they were human speech. My soul, conscious of new strength, came out of bondage, and was reaching through those broken symbols of speech to all knowledge and face. […] As I talked, happy thoughts fluttered up out of my words that might perhaps have struggled in vain to escape my fingers.
My work was practice, practice, practice. Discouragement and weariness cast me down frequently; but the next moment the thought that I should soon be at home and show my loved ones what I had accomplished spurred me on, and I eagerly looked forward to their pleasure in my achievement.
“My little sister will understand me now,” was a thought stronger than all obstacles. I used to repeat ecstatically, “I am not dumb now.” I could not be despondent while I anticipated the delight of talking to my mother and reading her responses from her lips.
The stories [from “Birdie and His Friends”] had little or no meaning for me then, but the mere spelling of the strange words was sufficient to amuse a little who could who could do almost nothing to amuse herself; and although I do not recall a single circumstance connected with the reading of the stories, yet I cannot help thinking that I made a great effort to remember the words.… One thing is certain, the language was ineffaceably stamped upon my brain, though for a long time no one knew it, least of all myself.
Miss Canby [the author of “The Frost Fairies”] herself wrote kindly, “Some day you will write a great story out of your own head, that will be a comfort and help to many.” But this kind prophecy has never been fulfilled. I have never played with words again for the mere pleasure of the game. Indeed, I have ever since been tortured by the fear that what I write is not my own. For a long time, when I wrote a letter, even to my mother, I was seized with a sudden feeling of terror, and I would spell the sentences over and over, to make sure that I had not read them in a book. Had it not been for the persistent encouragement of Miss Sullivan, I think I should have given up trying to write altogether.
I was learning, as all young and inexperienced persons learn, by assimilation and imitation, to put ideas into words. Everything I found in books that pleased me I retained in my memory, consciously or unconsciously, and adapted it. The young writer, as Stevenson has said, instinctively tries to copy whatever seems most admirable, and he shifts his admiration with astonishing versatility. It is only after years of this sort of practice that even great men have learned to marshal the legion of words which come thronging through every byway of the mind. I am afraid I have not yet completed this process. It is certain that I cannot always distinguish my own thoughts from those I read, because what I read becomes the very substance and texture of my mind. […] But we keep on trying because we know that others have succeeded, and we are not willing to acknowledge defeat.
I do not blame any one. The administrative board of Radcliffe did not realize how difficult they were making my examinations, nor did they understand the peculiar difficulties I had to surmount. But if they unintentionally placed obstacles in my way, I have the consolation of knowing that I overcame them all.
I remember my first day at Radcliffe. It was a day full of interest for me. I had looked forward to it for years. A potent force within me, stronger than the persuasion of my friends, stronger even than the pleadings of my heart, had impelled me to try my strength by the standards of those who see and hear. I knew that there were many obstacles in the way; but I was eager to overcome them. I had taken to heart the words of the wise Roman who said, “To be banished from Rome is but to live outside of Rome.” Debarred from the great highways of knowledge, I was compelled to make the journey across by unfrequented roads—that was all; and I knew that in college there were many bypaths where I could touch hands with girls who were thinking, loving and struggling like me.
I need more time to prepare my lessons than other girls…I have perplexities which they have not. There are days when the close attention I must give to details chafes my spirit, and the thought that I must spend hours reading a few chapters, while in the world without other girls are laughing and singing and dancing, makes me rebellious; but soon I recover my buoyancy and laugh the discontent out of my heart. For, after all, every one who wishes to gain true knowledge must climb the Hill Difficulty alone, and since there is no royal road to the summit, I must zigzag it in my own way. I slip back many times, I fall, I stand still, I run against the edge of hidden obstacles, I lose my temper and find it again and keep it better. I trudge on, I gain a little, I feel encouraged, I get more eager and climb higher and begin to see the widening horizon. Every struggle is a victory.
While my days at Radcliffe were still in the future, they were encircled with a halo of romance, which they have lost; but in the transition from romantic to actual I have learned many things I should never have known had I not tried the experiment. One of them is the precious science of patience, which teaches us that we should take our education as we would take a walk in the country, leisurely, our minds hospitably open to impressions of every sort. Such knowledge floods the soul unseen with a soundless tidal wave of deepening thought. “Knowledge is power.” Rather, knowledge is happiness, because to have knowledge—broad, deep knowledge—is to know true ends from false, and lofty things from low. To know the thoughts and deeds that have marked man’s progress is to feel the great heart-throbs of humanity through the centuries; and if one does not feel in these pulsations a heavenward striving, one must indeed be deaf to the harmonies of life.
I read [books] in the intervals between study and play with an ever-deepening sense of pleasure. I did not study nor analyze them—I did not know whether they were well written or not; I never thought about style or authorship. They laid their treasures at my feet, and I accepted them as we accept the sunshine and the love of our friends. I loved Little Women because it gave me a sense of kinship with girls and boys who could see and hear. Circumscribed as my life was in so many ways, I had to look between the covers of books for news of the world that lay outside my own.
In a word, literature is my Utopia. Here I am not disenfranchised. No barrier of the senses shuts me out from the sweet, gracious discourse of my book-friends. They talk to me without embarrassment or awkwardness. The things I have learned and the things I have been taught seem of ridiculously little importance compared with their “large loves and heavenly charities.”
Is it no true, then, that my life with all its limitations touches at many points the life of the World Beautiful? Everything has its wonders, even darkness and silence, and I learn, whatever state I may be in, therein to be content. Sometimes, it is true, a sense of isolation enfolds me like a cold mist as I sit alone and wait at life’s shut gate. Beyond there is light, and music, and sweet companionship; but I may not enter. Fate, silent, pitiless, bars the way. Fain would I question his imperious decree; for my heart is still undisciplined and passionate; but my tongue will not utter the bitter, futile words that rise to my lips, and they fall back into my heart like unshed tears. Silence sits immense upon my soul. Then comes hope with a smile and whispers, “There is joy in self-forgetfulness.” So I try to make the light in others’ eyes my sun, the music in others’ ears my symphony, the smile on others’ lips my happiness. | 3,658 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Tragedy of Suicide
In Hamlet, by William Shakespeare, suicide is a continuous and important theme throughout the play. The ideas and opinions of this time period are well expressed through Shakespeare’s play, which is a well-known tragedy because it is about the suffering of the main character who is seen as the “hero”. In the play, the tragic Hamlet, is visited by the ghost of his father, whom had died a month before. He tells Hamlet that his uncle, Claudius, the man who just married his mother, was the one responsible for his father’s death and he tells Hamlet to kill him. Throughout the play, Hamlet contemplates the thought of suicide since his father’s death because he is so unhappy and devastated. He thinks of the advantages of killing himself and leaving his painful life with the uncertainty of the after-life. He eventually decides against killing himself because he believes it is a mortal sin against God and would not be noble of him. He thinks that many people would commit suicide to take the easy way out but do not go through with it because they are afraid and uncertain of what will happen afterwards if they do.
Hamlet is very troubled by how quickly his mother remarried after his father’s death and that it is to Claudius and becomes even more distraught. He calls Claudius names and shows his hatred towards him while praising his father by saying how great of a king he was. In one of the final lines of the soliloquy Hamlet comments on how the marriage is bad for Denmark, “It is not, nor it cannot come to good,” (I. ii. 163). Hamlet saying this shows us one of the reasons for
Hamlet being so unhappy with his life at the moment. Later in the play Hamlet is being spied on by Claudius and Polonius, and he returns to the idea of suicide in a troubled, painful world and the moral aspects of it. He opens his soliloquy with asking a simple question, “To be, or not to be: that is the question:” (III. i. 58), meaning should he live or die. He then wonders if he should suffer the pain of his life, “slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,” (III. i. 66), or take his own life and end his own suffering.
Suicide is brought up again in the play with the character Ophelia, who is driven crazy after a few tragic events. When Ophelia drowns everyone is suspicious and believes that she committed suicide because she fell into the water and did not try to get up, therefore she committed suicide. In the beginning of act five two men digging her grave are arguing over the fact that she had drowned and shouldn’t be allowed consecrated ground, as stated by Christian Law, due to the fact that her death was uncertain. They continue talking and say that she gets away with it because she is of a higher status. Her funeral was short and simple, and the priest says that her death was suspicious and without her ties to the royal family she would have been buried in an unsanctified ground. In this scene Shakespeare shows the people’s views of suicide during this time period. They believe suicide is a sad, selfish, tragic unjustifiable way to die. Throughout the play Shakespeare says multiple things on the topic of suicide in a negative connotation. Hamlet and other characters contemplate the act, but Hamlet is the one who gives the idea the most thought, while Ophelia basically kills herself. Hamlet considers it twice in the play but realizes he would accomplish nothing and would not be able to avenge his father’s death. He wants to escape his painful emotions but understands he has to live in order to carry out his goals and to be more noble.
Suicide is a reoccurring theme in the play. Not only do the characters think about the idea of killing one’s self, there is an event that is questioned to be an act of suicide. While other characters in the play discuss the consequences and moral sin suicide causes to a person’s soul and the religious believes they have on the act itself. The fact that Hamlet decides to live to carry out his revenge for his father shows nobility and moral character. Ophelia was not so lucky. She was overcome and stricken with grief which lead to her tragic death. Hamlet realized that suicide was a horrible and immoral way to die and he rather die with purpose after accomplishing his goals. In the end of the play Hamlet eventually dies along with the rest of the royals but dies avenging his father while in a dual and after killing his uncle who just poisoned Hamlets mother.
In the play Shakespeare talks about many tragic events and the ideas and opinions many of the people had on them from their time period. Suicide was and still is seen as the easiest way out but can cause pain and destruction to the people around you, just like any death or horrible event would. It provides a solution to temporary issues and will in fact not fix your problems. Hamlet realized this and decided to live while Ophelia took the easy way out and killed herself leaving behind a great deal of pain for her family and friends.
Puchner, Martin. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. W.W. Norton ; Company, 2012. | <urn:uuid:6219eb0c-f66c-40af-a967-667ec76c6a42> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://poetrycontests.biz/the-tragedy-of-suicide-in-hamlet/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00284.warc.gz | en | 0.984655 | 1,121 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
-0.18173043429851532,
-0.025638531893491745,
0.42489898204803467,
-0.1543026864528656,
-0.19232019782066345,
0.21397599577903748,
0.6677999496459961,
0.734054446220398,
0.10624445974826813,
-0.3706662952899933,
0.1908610761165619,
-0.2696802020072937,
-0.24750646948814392,
0.63386529684066... | 3 | The Tragedy of Suicide
In Hamlet, by William Shakespeare, suicide is a continuous and important theme throughout the play. The ideas and opinions of this time period are well expressed through Shakespeare’s play, which is a well-known tragedy because it is about the suffering of the main character who is seen as the “hero”. In the play, the tragic Hamlet, is visited by the ghost of his father, whom had died a month before. He tells Hamlet that his uncle, Claudius, the man who just married his mother, was the one responsible for his father’s death and he tells Hamlet to kill him. Throughout the play, Hamlet contemplates the thought of suicide since his father’s death because he is so unhappy and devastated. He thinks of the advantages of killing himself and leaving his painful life with the uncertainty of the after-life. He eventually decides against killing himself because he believes it is a mortal sin against God and would not be noble of him. He thinks that many people would commit suicide to take the easy way out but do not go through with it because they are afraid and uncertain of what will happen afterwards if they do.
Hamlet is very troubled by how quickly his mother remarried after his father’s death and that it is to Claudius and becomes even more distraught. He calls Claudius names and shows his hatred towards him while praising his father by saying how great of a king he was. In one of the final lines of the soliloquy Hamlet comments on how the marriage is bad for Denmark, “It is not, nor it cannot come to good,” (I. ii. 163). Hamlet saying this shows us one of the reasons for
Hamlet being so unhappy with his life at the moment. Later in the play Hamlet is being spied on by Claudius and Polonius, and he returns to the idea of suicide in a troubled, painful world and the moral aspects of it. He opens his soliloquy with asking a simple question, “To be, or not to be: that is the question:” (III. i. 58), meaning should he live or die. He then wonders if he should suffer the pain of his life, “slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,” (III. i. 66), or take his own life and end his own suffering.
Suicide is brought up again in the play with the character Ophelia, who is driven crazy after a few tragic events. When Ophelia drowns everyone is suspicious and believes that she committed suicide because she fell into the water and did not try to get up, therefore she committed suicide. In the beginning of act five two men digging her grave are arguing over the fact that she had drowned and shouldn’t be allowed consecrated ground, as stated by Christian Law, due to the fact that her death was uncertain. They continue talking and say that she gets away with it because she is of a higher status. Her funeral was short and simple, and the priest says that her death was suspicious and without her ties to the royal family she would have been buried in an unsanctified ground. In this scene Shakespeare shows the people’s views of suicide during this time period. They believe suicide is a sad, selfish, tragic unjustifiable way to die. Throughout the play Shakespeare says multiple things on the topic of suicide in a negative connotation. Hamlet and other characters contemplate the act, but Hamlet is the one who gives the idea the most thought, while Ophelia basically kills herself. Hamlet considers it twice in the play but realizes he would accomplish nothing and would not be able to avenge his father’s death. He wants to escape his painful emotions but understands he has to live in order to carry out his goals and to be more noble.
Suicide is a reoccurring theme in the play. Not only do the characters think about the idea of killing one’s self, there is an event that is questioned to be an act of suicide. While other characters in the play discuss the consequences and moral sin suicide causes to a person’s soul and the religious believes they have on the act itself. The fact that Hamlet decides to live to carry out his revenge for his father shows nobility and moral character. Ophelia was not so lucky. She was overcome and stricken with grief which lead to her tragic death. Hamlet realized that suicide was a horrible and immoral way to die and he rather die with purpose after accomplishing his goals. In the end of the play Hamlet eventually dies along with the rest of the royals but dies avenging his father while in a dual and after killing his uncle who just poisoned Hamlets mother.
In the play Shakespeare talks about many tragic events and the ideas and opinions many of the people had on them from their time period. Suicide was and still is seen as the easiest way out but can cause pain and destruction to the people around you, just like any death or horrible event would. It provides a solution to temporary issues and will in fact not fix your problems. Hamlet realized this and decided to live while Ophelia took the easy way out and killed herself leaving behind a great deal of pain for her family and friends.
Puchner, Martin. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. W.W. Norton ; Company, 2012. | 1,099 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Battle of Fulford was fought on the outskirts of the village of Fulfordnear York in England, on 20 September 1066, when King Harald III of Norway, also known as Harald Hardrada ("harðráði" in Old Norse, meaning "hard ruler"), and Tostig Godwinson, his English ally, fought and defeated the Northern Earls Edwin and Morcar.
Tostig was Harold Godwinson's banished brother. He had allied with King Harald of Norway and possibly Duke William of Normandy but there is no record of the reasoning behind his invasions. The battle was a victory for the Viking army. The earls of York could have hidden behind the walls of their city but instead they met the Viking army across a river. All day the English desperately tried to break the Viking shield wall but to no avail.
Tostig was opposed by Earl Morcar who had displaced him as Earl of Northumbria.
The Anglo-Saxon king Edward the Confessor died on 5 January 1066 without an heir.The only surviving member of the royal family was Edgar, the young son of Edward Ætheling. On the day of King Edward's funeral, 6 January, Harold Godwinson, the Earl of Wessex, rushed to London, where he was crowned king in the Abbey of Saint Peter of Westminster, by Ealdred, Archbishop of York. Harold Godwinson was elected as King by the Witen, who had gathered in Westminster to celebrate the feast of Epiphany. However, two powerful earls, brothers Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria, challenged his authority. Sources indicate that Harold moved north to confront them; however, in the end he secured their loyalty by marrying their sister, Edith, the widow of Griffith of Wales. By securing the loyalty of Edwin and Morcar, Godwinson increased his strength in the north. These men were, in fact, the first barrier between Harold Godwinson and Harald Hardrada.
Tostig, the exiled brother of Godwinson, also felt he had a claim to the English throne. During his exile, he lived in Flanders, whence, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , he invaded in May 1066 against his brother.At Sandwich Tostig is said to have enlisted and impressed sailors. He then sailed north, where he battled Edwin, the Earl of Mercia. After a quick defeat at the mouth of the Humber, he arrived in Scotland under the protection of King Malcolm of Scotland. Later he met and made a pact with Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, whereby he agreed to support Hardrada in his invasion of England. The medieval historian Orderic Vitalis has a different version of this story; he says that Tostig travelled to Normandy to enlist the help of William, Duke of Normandy. Then, as William was not ready to get involved at that stage, Tostig sailed from the Cotentin Peninsula, but because of storms ended up in Norway, and made his pact with Harald Hardrada there. Whether in Norway or Scotland, it is certain that Tostig allied himself with Hardrada, where they fought side by side at the Battle of Fulford. Tostig was a useful ally for Hardrada not only because he was the brother of his adversary but also because he knew the terrain.
Hardrada, like Tostig, William of Normandy, and King Harold Godwinson, was another claimant to the throne. Hardrada set sail for England in September 1066, picking up supplies in Orkney and was reinforced by Tostig, who brought soldiers and ships. They sailed together along the River Ouse towards the city of York.In Orderic Vitalis' version it says that in the month of August Hardrada and Tostig set sail across the wide sea with a favourable wind and landed in Yorkshire. They arrived at the mouth of the Humber on 18 September. Having disembarked from their ships, their armies quickly moved towards York. On 20 September 1066, they were confronted by Godwinson's earls, Edwin and Morcar.
Edwin had brought some soldiers to the east to prepare for an invasion by the Norwegians. The battle started with the English spreading their forces out to secure their flanks. On their right flank was the River Ouse, and on the left was the Fordland, a swampy area. The disadvantage to the position was that it gave Harald higher ground, which was perfect for seeing the battle from a distance. Another disadvantage was that if one flank were to give way, the other one would be in trouble.If the Anglo-Saxon army had to retreat, it would not be able to because of the marshlands. They would have to hold off the Norwegians as long as possible.
Harald's army approached from three routes to the south. Harald lined his army up to oppose the Anglo-Saxons, but he knew it would take hours for all of his troops to arrive. His least experienced troops were sent to the right and his best troops on the riverbank.
The English struck first, advancing on the Norwegian army before it could fully deploy. Morcar's troops pushed Harald's back into the marshlands, making progress against the weaker section of the Norwegian line. However, this initial success proved insufficient for victory to the English army, as the Norwegians brought their better troops to bear upon them, still fresh against the weakened Anglo-Saxons.
Harald brought more of his troops from the right flank to attack the centre, and sent more men to the river. The invaders were outnumbered, but they kept pushing and shoving the defenders back. The Anglo-Saxons were forced to give ground. Edwin's soldiers who were defending the bank now were cut off from the rest of the army by the marsh, so they headed back to the city to make a final stand. Within another hour, the men on the beck were forced off by the Norwegians. Other invading Norwegians, who were still arriving, found a way to get around the thick fighting and opened a third front against the Anglo-Saxons. Outnumbered and outmaneuvered, the defenders were defeated. Edwin and Morcar however, managed to survive the fight.
York surrendered to the Norwegians under the promise that the victors would not force entry to their city, perhaps because Tostig would not want his capital looted. 7 miles (11 km) east of York, to await their arrival.It was arranged that the various hostages should be brought in and the Norwegian army retired to Stamford Bridge,
It has been estimated that at Fulford the Norwegians had about 10,000 troops of which 6,000 were deployed in the battle, and the defenders 5,000.During the battle, casualties were heavy on both sides. Some estimates claim 15% dead giving a total of 1650 (based on 11,000 troops being deployed in the battle). From all accounts, it is clear that the mobilised power of Mercia and Northumbria was cut to pieces at Fulford.
Because of the defeat at Fulford Gate, King Harold Godwinson had to force march his troops 190 miles (310 km), from London to York. He did this within a week of Fulford and managed to surprise the Viking army and defeat them at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. In the meantime William, Duke of Normandy, had landed his army in Sussex on the south coast. Harold marched his army back down to the south coast where he met William's army, at a place now called Battle just outside Hastings. It is probable that Harold's intention was to repeat his success at Stamford Bridge by catching Duke William unawares. The Anglo-Norman chronicler Florence of Worcester commented that although the king [Harold] was aware that some of the bravest men in England had fallen in two recent battles and that half of his troops were not assembled, he did not hesitate to meet the enemy in Sussex. It is likely that the engagements at Fulford Gate and at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, fought within a week of each other, seriously affected Harold's strength at the Battle of Hastings some three weeks later. There is no doubt that if Harold had not been diverted by the battles in the north, then he would have been better prepared to fight William at Hastings and the result might have been different.
William I, usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. He was a descendant of Rollo and was Duke of Normandy from 1035 onward. His hold was secure on Normandy by 1060, following a long struggle to establish his throne, and he launched the Norman conquest of England six years later. The rest of his life was marked by struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands and by difficulties with his eldest son, Robert Curthose.
1066 (MLXVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.
Harold Godwinson, often called Harold II, was the last crowned Anglo-Saxon king of England. Harold reigned from 6 January 1066 until his death at the Battle of Hastings, fighting the Norman invaders led by William the Conqueror during the Norman conquest of England. His death marked the end of Anglo-Saxon rule over England.
Godwin of Wessex became one of the most powerful earls in England under the Danish king Cnut the Great and his successors. Cnut made Godwin the first Earl of Wessex. Godwin was the father of King Harold Godwinson and of Edith of Wessex, who married in 1045 King Edward the Confessor.
The Battle of Hastings was fought on 14 October 1066 between the Norman-French army of William, the Duke of Normandy, and an English army under the Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson, beginning the Norman conquest of England. It took place approximately 7 miles northwest of Hastings, close to the present-day town of Battle, East Sussex, and was a decisive Norman victory.
The Battle of Stamford Bridge took place at the village of Stamford Bridge, East Riding of Yorkshire, in England on 25 September 1066, between an English army under King Harold Godwinson and an invading Norwegian force led by King Harald Hardrada and the English king's brother Tostig Godwinson. After a bloody battle, both Hardrada and Tostig along with most of the Norwegians were killed. Although Harold Godwinson repelled the Norwegian invaders, his army was defeated by the Normans at Hastings less than three weeks later. The battle has traditionally been presented as symbolising the end of the Viking Age, although major Scandinavian campaigns in Britain and Ireland occurred in the following decades, such as those of King Sweyn Estrithson of Denmark in 1069–1070 and King Magnus Barefoot of Norway in 1098 and 1102–1103.
The Norman conquest of England was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England by an army of Norman, Breton, Flemish, and French soldiers led by the Duke of Normandy, later styled William the Conqueror.
Tostig Godwinson was an Anglo-Saxon Earl of Northumbria and brother of King Harold Godwinson. After being exiled by his brother, Tostig supported the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada's invasion of England, and was killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066.
Gytha Thorkelsdóttir, also called Githa, was a Danish noblewoman. She was the mother of King Harold Godwinson and of Edith of Wessex, queen consort of King Edward the Confessor of England.
Edith of Wessex was a Queen of England. Her husband was Edward the Confessor, whom she married on 23 January 1045. Unlike most English queens in the 10th and 11th centuries, she was crowned. The principal source on her life is a work she herself commissioned, the Vita Ædwardi Regis or the Life of King Edward who rests at Westminster, which is inevitably biased.
Morcar was the son of Ælfgār and brother of Ēadwine. He was the earl of Northumbria from 1065 to 1066, when he was replaced by William the Conqueror with Copsi.
Edwin was the elder brother of Morcar, Earl of Northumbria, son of Ælfgār, Earl of Mercia and grandson of Leofric, Earl of Mercia. He succeeded to his father's title and responsibilities on Ælfgār's death in 1062. He appears as Earl Edwin in the Domesday Book.
Anglo-Saxon England was early medieval England, existing from the 5th to the 11th centuries from the end of Roman Britain until the Norman conquest in 1066. It consisted of various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms until 927 when it was united as the Kingdom of England by King Æthelstan. It became part of the short-lived North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway in the 11th century.
Gyrth Godwinson was the fourth son of Earl Godwin, and thus a younger brother of Harold Godwinson. He went with his eldest brother Sweyn into exile to Flanders in 1051, but unlike Swegen he was able to return with the rest of the clan the following year. Along with his brothers Harold and Tostig, Gyrth was present at his father's death-bed.
Events from the 1060s in England.
William I of England has been depicted in a number of modern works.
The House of Godwin was an Anglo-Saxon family, one of the leading noble families in England during the last 50 years before the Norman Conquest. Its most famous member was Harold Godwinson, king of England for nine months in 1066.
Ulf or Wulf was a son of Harold Godwinson, King of England. He was captured during the course of the Norman conquest of England, and imprisoned in Normandy, being released only at the death of William the Conqueror.
Harold was a son of Harold Godwinson, King of England. He was driven into exile by the Norman conquest of England, and found refuge at the court of the king of Norway.
The Burning of Southwark was a battle fought in Southwark during the Norman Conquest of England in October 1066. | <urn:uuid:6723454b-899f-4794-8f4e-937fbc52a9fe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wikimili.com/en/Battle_of_Fulford | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.984992 | 3,034 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
-0.11487174034118652,
0.39865291118621826,
-0.04212344437837601,
0.06712756305932999,
0.005277760326862335,
-0.06536437571048737,
0.06976861506700516,
0.4642561674118042,
-0.23800009489059448,
-0.3545631766319275,
-0.08079785853624344,
-0.6803831458091736,
0.09638284146785736,
0.2183797210... | 1 | The Battle of Fulford was fought on the outskirts of the village of Fulfordnear York in England, on 20 September 1066, when King Harald III of Norway, also known as Harald Hardrada ("harðráði" in Old Norse, meaning "hard ruler"), and Tostig Godwinson, his English ally, fought and defeated the Northern Earls Edwin and Morcar.
Tostig was Harold Godwinson's banished brother. He had allied with King Harald of Norway and possibly Duke William of Normandy but there is no record of the reasoning behind his invasions. The battle was a victory for the Viking army. The earls of York could have hidden behind the walls of their city but instead they met the Viking army across a river. All day the English desperately tried to break the Viking shield wall but to no avail.
Tostig was opposed by Earl Morcar who had displaced him as Earl of Northumbria.
The Anglo-Saxon king Edward the Confessor died on 5 January 1066 without an heir.The only surviving member of the royal family was Edgar, the young son of Edward Ætheling. On the day of King Edward's funeral, 6 January, Harold Godwinson, the Earl of Wessex, rushed to London, where he was crowned king in the Abbey of Saint Peter of Westminster, by Ealdred, Archbishop of York. Harold Godwinson was elected as King by the Witen, who had gathered in Westminster to celebrate the feast of Epiphany. However, two powerful earls, brothers Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria, challenged his authority. Sources indicate that Harold moved north to confront them; however, in the end he secured their loyalty by marrying their sister, Edith, the widow of Griffith of Wales. By securing the loyalty of Edwin and Morcar, Godwinson increased his strength in the north. These men were, in fact, the first barrier between Harold Godwinson and Harald Hardrada.
Tostig, the exiled brother of Godwinson, also felt he had a claim to the English throne. During his exile, he lived in Flanders, whence, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , he invaded in May 1066 against his brother.At Sandwich Tostig is said to have enlisted and impressed sailors. He then sailed north, where he battled Edwin, the Earl of Mercia. After a quick defeat at the mouth of the Humber, he arrived in Scotland under the protection of King Malcolm of Scotland. Later he met and made a pact with Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, whereby he agreed to support Hardrada in his invasion of England. The medieval historian Orderic Vitalis has a different version of this story; he says that Tostig travelled to Normandy to enlist the help of William, Duke of Normandy. Then, as William was not ready to get involved at that stage, Tostig sailed from the Cotentin Peninsula, but because of storms ended up in Norway, and made his pact with Harald Hardrada there. Whether in Norway or Scotland, it is certain that Tostig allied himself with Hardrada, where they fought side by side at the Battle of Fulford. Tostig was a useful ally for Hardrada not only because he was the brother of his adversary but also because he knew the terrain.
Hardrada, like Tostig, William of Normandy, and King Harold Godwinson, was another claimant to the throne. Hardrada set sail for England in September 1066, picking up supplies in Orkney and was reinforced by Tostig, who brought soldiers and ships. They sailed together along the River Ouse towards the city of York.In Orderic Vitalis' version it says that in the month of August Hardrada and Tostig set sail across the wide sea with a favourable wind and landed in Yorkshire. They arrived at the mouth of the Humber on 18 September. Having disembarked from their ships, their armies quickly moved towards York. On 20 September 1066, they were confronted by Godwinson's earls, Edwin and Morcar.
Edwin had brought some soldiers to the east to prepare for an invasion by the Norwegians. The battle started with the English spreading their forces out to secure their flanks. On their right flank was the River Ouse, and on the left was the Fordland, a swampy area. The disadvantage to the position was that it gave Harald higher ground, which was perfect for seeing the battle from a distance. Another disadvantage was that if one flank were to give way, the other one would be in trouble.If the Anglo-Saxon army had to retreat, it would not be able to because of the marshlands. They would have to hold off the Norwegians as long as possible.
Harald's army approached from three routes to the south. Harald lined his army up to oppose the Anglo-Saxons, but he knew it would take hours for all of his troops to arrive. His least experienced troops were sent to the right and his best troops on the riverbank.
The English struck first, advancing on the Norwegian army before it could fully deploy. Morcar's troops pushed Harald's back into the marshlands, making progress against the weaker section of the Norwegian line. However, this initial success proved insufficient for victory to the English army, as the Norwegians brought their better troops to bear upon them, still fresh against the weakened Anglo-Saxons.
Harald brought more of his troops from the right flank to attack the centre, and sent more men to the river. The invaders were outnumbered, but they kept pushing and shoving the defenders back. The Anglo-Saxons were forced to give ground. Edwin's soldiers who were defending the bank now were cut off from the rest of the army by the marsh, so they headed back to the city to make a final stand. Within another hour, the men on the beck were forced off by the Norwegians. Other invading Norwegians, who were still arriving, found a way to get around the thick fighting and opened a third front against the Anglo-Saxons. Outnumbered and outmaneuvered, the defenders were defeated. Edwin and Morcar however, managed to survive the fight.
York surrendered to the Norwegians under the promise that the victors would not force entry to their city, perhaps because Tostig would not want his capital looted. 7 miles (11 km) east of York, to await their arrival.It was arranged that the various hostages should be brought in and the Norwegian army retired to Stamford Bridge,
It has been estimated that at Fulford the Norwegians had about 10,000 troops of which 6,000 were deployed in the battle, and the defenders 5,000.During the battle, casualties were heavy on both sides. Some estimates claim 15% dead giving a total of 1650 (based on 11,000 troops being deployed in the battle). From all accounts, it is clear that the mobilised power of Mercia and Northumbria was cut to pieces at Fulford.
Because of the defeat at Fulford Gate, King Harold Godwinson had to force march his troops 190 miles (310 km), from London to York. He did this within a week of Fulford and managed to surprise the Viking army and defeat them at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. In the meantime William, Duke of Normandy, had landed his army in Sussex on the south coast. Harold marched his army back down to the south coast where he met William's army, at a place now called Battle just outside Hastings. It is probable that Harold's intention was to repeat his success at Stamford Bridge by catching Duke William unawares. The Anglo-Norman chronicler Florence of Worcester commented that although the king [Harold] was aware that some of the bravest men in England had fallen in two recent battles and that half of his troops were not assembled, he did not hesitate to meet the enemy in Sussex. It is likely that the engagements at Fulford Gate and at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, fought within a week of each other, seriously affected Harold's strength at the Battle of Hastings some three weeks later. There is no doubt that if Harold had not been diverted by the battles in the north, then he would have been better prepared to fight William at Hastings and the result might have been different.
William I, usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. He was a descendant of Rollo and was Duke of Normandy from 1035 onward. His hold was secure on Normandy by 1060, following a long struggle to establish his throne, and he launched the Norman conquest of England six years later. The rest of his life was marked by struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands and by difficulties with his eldest son, Robert Curthose.
1066 (MLXVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.
Harold Godwinson, often called Harold II, was the last crowned Anglo-Saxon king of England. Harold reigned from 6 January 1066 until his death at the Battle of Hastings, fighting the Norman invaders led by William the Conqueror during the Norman conquest of England. His death marked the end of Anglo-Saxon rule over England.
Godwin of Wessex became one of the most powerful earls in England under the Danish king Cnut the Great and his successors. Cnut made Godwin the first Earl of Wessex. Godwin was the father of King Harold Godwinson and of Edith of Wessex, who married in 1045 King Edward the Confessor.
The Battle of Hastings was fought on 14 October 1066 between the Norman-French army of William, the Duke of Normandy, and an English army under the Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson, beginning the Norman conquest of England. It took place approximately 7 miles northwest of Hastings, close to the present-day town of Battle, East Sussex, and was a decisive Norman victory.
The Battle of Stamford Bridge took place at the village of Stamford Bridge, East Riding of Yorkshire, in England on 25 September 1066, between an English army under King Harold Godwinson and an invading Norwegian force led by King Harald Hardrada and the English king's brother Tostig Godwinson. After a bloody battle, both Hardrada and Tostig along with most of the Norwegians were killed. Although Harold Godwinson repelled the Norwegian invaders, his army was defeated by the Normans at Hastings less than three weeks later. The battle has traditionally been presented as symbolising the end of the Viking Age, although major Scandinavian campaigns in Britain and Ireland occurred in the following decades, such as those of King Sweyn Estrithson of Denmark in 1069–1070 and King Magnus Barefoot of Norway in 1098 and 1102–1103.
The Norman conquest of England was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England by an army of Norman, Breton, Flemish, and French soldiers led by the Duke of Normandy, later styled William the Conqueror.
Tostig Godwinson was an Anglo-Saxon Earl of Northumbria and brother of King Harold Godwinson. After being exiled by his brother, Tostig supported the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada's invasion of England, and was killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066.
Gytha Thorkelsdóttir, also called Githa, was a Danish noblewoman. She was the mother of King Harold Godwinson and of Edith of Wessex, queen consort of King Edward the Confessor of England.
Edith of Wessex was a Queen of England. Her husband was Edward the Confessor, whom she married on 23 January 1045. Unlike most English queens in the 10th and 11th centuries, she was crowned. The principal source on her life is a work she herself commissioned, the Vita Ædwardi Regis or the Life of King Edward who rests at Westminster, which is inevitably biased.
Morcar was the son of Ælfgār and brother of Ēadwine. He was the earl of Northumbria from 1065 to 1066, when he was replaced by William the Conqueror with Copsi.
Edwin was the elder brother of Morcar, Earl of Northumbria, son of Ælfgār, Earl of Mercia and grandson of Leofric, Earl of Mercia. He succeeded to his father's title and responsibilities on Ælfgār's death in 1062. He appears as Earl Edwin in the Domesday Book.
Anglo-Saxon England was early medieval England, existing from the 5th to the 11th centuries from the end of Roman Britain until the Norman conquest in 1066. It consisted of various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms until 927 when it was united as the Kingdom of England by King Æthelstan. It became part of the short-lived North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway in the 11th century.
Gyrth Godwinson was the fourth son of Earl Godwin, and thus a younger brother of Harold Godwinson. He went with his eldest brother Sweyn into exile to Flanders in 1051, but unlike Swegen he was able to return with the rest of the clan the following year. Along with his brothers Harold and Tostig, Gyrth was present at his father's death-bed.
Events from the 1060s in England.
William I of England has been depicted in a number of modern works.
The House of Godwin was an Anglo-Saxon family, one of the leading noble families in England during the last 50 years before the Norman Conquest. Its most famous member was Harold Godwinson, king of England for nine months in 1066.
Ulf or Wulf was a son of Harold Godwinson, King of England. He was captured during the course of the Norman conquest of England, and imprisoned in Normandy, being released only at the death of William the Conqueror.
Harold was a son of Harold Godwinson, King of England. He was driven into exile by the Norman conquest of England, and found refuge at the court of the king of Norway.
The Burning of Southwark was a battle fought in Southwark during the Norman Conquest of England in October 1066. | 3,141 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mohandas Gandhi’s 24-day March to the Sea, from March 12 to April 5, 1930, was a pivotal moment in India’s quest to become an independent country no longer ruled by Great Britain. With over 70 marchers, Gandhi walked from his hometown near Ahmedabab to the sea coast by the village of Dandi. The march was a non-violent means to protest the taxes that Great Britain had imposed on salt — not the salt that the Indians could get from the sea, but the salt that Great Britain forced them to buy. Gandhi believed that peaceful protests were an effective way to challenge British law, and his peaceful but ultimately successful movement became known as Satyagraha.
Alice B. McGinty is the award-winning author of over 40 fiction and nonfiction books for children. She considers herself to be a story detective, and loves finding stories, whether they be true biographical stories or ones that she makes up herself, based on the seeds she finds in her life experiences. Nothing is more fun than finding a good story and making it come to life! | <urn:uuid:8b6e334f-931d-4ca5-ac43-5ca2682581fa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bookroo.com/books/gandhi | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00297.warc.gz | en | 0.985784 | 224 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
-0.04772346839308739,
0.26124581694602966,
-0.0666424110531807,
0.1841980516910553,
-0.5843405723571777,
-0.012507318519055843,
0.18509021401405334,
-0.18302913010120392,
-0.11141617596149445,
0.3253670334815979,
-0.09223464876413345,
-0.1444627344608307,
0.028431611135601997,
0.4377907514... | 1 | Mohandas Gandhi’s 24-day March to the Sea, from March 12 to April 5, 1930, was a pivotal moment in India’s quest to become an independent country no longer ruled by Great Britain. With over 70 marchers, Gandhi walked from his hometown near Ahmedabab to the sea coast by the village of Dandi. The march was a non-violent means to protest the taxes that Great Britain had imposed on salt — not the salt that the Indians could get from the sea, but the salt that Great Britain forced them to buy. Gandhi believed that peaceful protests were an effective way to challenge British law, and his peaceful but ultimately successful movement became known as Satyagraha.
Alice B. McGinty is the award-winning author of over 40 fiction and nonfiction books for children. She considers herself to be a story detective, and loves finding stories, whether they be true biographical stories or ones that she makes up herself, based on the seeds she finds in her life experiences. Nothing is more fun than finding a good story and making it come to life! | 229 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The executive branch is the administrative arm of government and is therefore, also considered to be the administration or administrative branch; it is the power with the largest number of employees as it operates, implements, and enforces all laws created by the Legislative branch, and as interpreted from time to time by the judiciary.
The executive branch is always led by a president, a head of government or a prime minister who has the power to elect his ministers and secretaries, who are responsible for the economy, health, tourism and so on. He or she is responsible for the decision-making and administration of the government, administers the country and takes decisions on the various issues that concern the society, he or she is responsible for governing.
The main characteristics of the executive branch are the following:
They must strengthen and enforce the laws so that, they are always enforced and thus maintain order within the State. They must perform administrative and financial functions to promote the development of the country’s economy, and they do this by preparing annual budgets, administering wealth, promoting new taxes and selecting the best ways for the country to have an economic income. It formulates the necessary aspects for foreign policy and establishes the interests and priorities of the nation. It is in charge of developing and signing treaties between countries and negotiating within the framework of the law.
It is also in charge of regulating internal politics, developing policies in matters of health, education, culture, protection of nature and the creation of national parks. One of its basic functions is to provide protection and defend peace, as well as to delegate functions through the different organs of the State.
The main and highest representative of the executive branch is the president of a country. This representative also has the collaboration of the vice-president, the members of the cabinet and the ministers who are appointed by him.
The executive branch has the following powers or attributions:
The duration of the executive branch in office will be the same as the duration of the president of the nation and this is established in the Political Constitution of each country.
In ancient times it was represented by monarchs, princes, governors and other existing forms of rulers. In ancient Rome, citizens voted to elect their magistrates and these assemblies were known as elections. In the case of the monarchies, they handled the monarchic absolutism and the king was the only one who commanded and placed restrictions under his own will.
In Athens, the authority was the assembly or ecclesia which was formed by Athenian citizens and they were the ones who made the laws, sometime later a body was created composed of older people to oversee the ecclesia, which was known by the name of Senate or Bule, and all laws had to go through them first before being approved.
In primitive states, Greece and Rome, the monarchs exercised all powers of government. Over time the powers were ceded to magistrates, but the monarchs always kept the power. When ceding the powers, the monarchs were left with a power that they did not cede by multiple and complex, which is what from the times of Montesquieu, is known with the name of executive branch.
The importance of the executive branch lies in the fact that it is the entity in charge of executing the correct fulfillment of the laws, through the figure that it has as Head of State or President, being elected by means of the popular vote. It is responsible for directing the functions that govern a country, promote and manage the proper application of laws and enforce or invalidate them if necessary. | <urn:uuid:5e2a4c16-ba25-447f-b69a-25ecaf5c73b6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.euston96.com/en/executive-branch/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00234.warc.gz | en | 0.981688 | 723 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
-0.5127208232879639,
0.13903291523456573,
0.5205363035202026,
-0.5761568546295166,
0.02994280494749546,
-0.013114221394062042,
0.7155998945236206,
0.014654694125056267,
0.0920601487159729,
0.5998649001121521,
-0.28717371821403503,
0.11330346763134003,
0.09296876192092896,
0.149498507380485... | 2 | The executive branch is the administrative arm of government and is therefore, also considered to be the administration or administrative branch; it is the power with the largest number of employees as it operates, implements, and enforces all laws created by the Legislative branch, and as interpreted from time to time by the judiciary.
The executive branch is always led by a president, a head of government or a prime minister who has the power to elect his ministers and secretaries, who are responsible for the economy, health, tourism and so on. He or she is responsible for the decision-making and administration of the government, administers the country and takes decisions on the various issues that concern the society, he or she is responsible for governing.
The main characteristics of the executive branch are the following:
They must strengthen and enforce the laws so that, they are always enforced and thus maintain order within the State. They must perform administrative and financial functions to promote the development of the country’s economy, and they do this by preparing annual budgets, administering wealth, promoting new taxes and selecting the best ways for the country to have an economic income. It formulates the necessary aspects for foreign policy and establishes the interests and priorities of the nation. It is in charge of developing and signing treaties between countries and negotiating within the framework of the law.
It is also in charge of regulating internal politics, developing policies in matters of health, education, culture, protection of nature and the creation of national parks. One of its basic functions is to provide protection and defend peace, as well as to delegate functions through the different organs of the State.
The main and highest representative of the executive branch is the president of a country. This representative also has the collaboration of the vice-president, the members of the cabinet and the ministers who are appointed by him.
The executive branch has the following powers or attributions:
The duration of the executive branch in office will be the same as the duration of the president of the nation and this is established in the Political Constitution of each country.
In ancient times it was represented by monarchs, princes, governors and other existing forms of rulers. In ancient Rome, citizens voted to elect their magistrates and these assemblies were known as elections. In the case of the monarchies, they handled the monarchic absolutism and the king was the only one who commanded and placed restrictions under his own will.
In Athens, the authority was the assembly or ecclesia which was formed by Athenian citizens and they were the ones who made the laws, sometime later a body was created composed of older people to oversee the ecclesia, which was known by the name of Senate or Bule, and all laws had to go through them first before being approved.
In primitive states, Greece and Rome, the monarchs exercised all powers of government. Over time the powers were ceded to magistrates, but the monarchs always kept the power. When ceding the powers, the monarchs were left with a power that they did not cede by multiple and complex, which is what from the times of Montesquieu, is known with the name of executive branch.
The importance of the executive branch lies in the fact that it is the entity in charge of executing the correct fulfillment of the laws, through the figure that it has as Head of State or President, being elected by means of the popular vote. It is responsible for directing the functions that govern a country, promote and manage the proper application of laws and enforce or invalidate them if necessary. | 704 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rudolph and the Gift of Empathy
The sweet story of a unique and bullied reindeer-turned-hero is beloved by generations. With its rich history, “Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer” provides a well-known context for exploring the roles of bullying—its causes and perhaps, proactive solutions—with many social and emotional learning gifts for us to unwrap.
“Called him names,” the situation and roles of bullying
At the start of the story of Rudolph, we all know the other reindeer “used to laugh and call him names.” Name-calling is known as social aggression, which is any negative behavior designed to embarrass and/or affect another’s social network. In addition to name-calling, the other reindeer were also “excluding” Rudolph as they would not let Rudolph join in any reindeer games. Being excluded is another common and hurtful form of bullying. These are classic types of bullying and for very classic reasons: for being different (Rudolph’s red nose).
It is helpful to understand the common roles involved in bullying in order to address it. They are target, aggressor, bystander, and hopefully, an ally or allies. In the story of Rudolph, because he was the one being called names, he would be the “target” of the bullying. The “aggressor” is the person or persons doing the bullying, which in this case, sadly, would be “all of the other reindeer.”
Unanimous bullying is rough and definitely the stuff of legend. Reindeer apparently are prone to a herd mentality. A bystander is someone who notices the bullying but does not encourage or discourage it, a kind of neutral bullying role, like “Switzerland.” We can only assume with all the name-calling and excluding going on at the North Pole, someone would have noticed, most likely the elves. You might make the excuse that the elves were very busy making toys, but since they are Santa’s reindeer caretakers and are known for their keen sense of hearing, they must have known. So, for our story, the elves were the “bystanders.” However, do not get too upset about the elves, they clearly did not join in on the bullying as there is no mention of them also calling Rudolph names or excluding him. Many people are bystanders and perhaps they did not know what to do to help Rudolph, which is the whole point of this article.
A surprisingly cold overall reindeer climate at the North Pole
Another worrisome part of the story is that Rudolph did not seem to know what to do to advocate for himself. The North Pole at the time definitely needed to put both proactive and reactive systems in place. A reactive system would be if all reindeer and reindeer supervisors were educated about the roles involved and what to do after the bullying had started. A proactive anti-bullying system would be something that may have prevented the bullying altogether, such as teaching the reindeer skills for responding to others, taking someone else’s perspective, showing empathy, and advocating for others.
If a strong system was in place perhaps the elves would have acted as allies, and they could have done a lot of things to help instead of being bystanders.
There are common ways to be allies. They could have been “confronters” and stood up for Rudolph; even something small, like saying, “that is not a jolly thing to do,” may have stopped the bullying. They could have been “supporters” by comforting him after the bullying and helping him work through the problem. The elves could have been “distractors” by distracting the reindeer when bullying, by changing the topic or telling a holiday joke. Some things they might have said to distract would be, “I hear there is a snowstorm coming in. Do you think we will be able to do the delivery run?” or “Have you heard the joke about why Santa is so jolly?”
Rudolph also might have known some tips for a target. He could have stood up for himself by stating in a strong but non-threatening way, “I feel hurt when someone bullies me, so stop it!” Rudolph could have spoken to a friend, parent, or leader about the problem. Rudolph, however, was a wonderful role model as he did not let others’ negativity prevent him from being himself and shining his light.
Santa, the ultimate ally
Rudolph is eventually saved in the story by perhaps the ultimate ally, Santa. It is very possible Santa knew about the bullying and looked for a reason to give Rudolph a leadership role. The fog was possibly just the opportunity he was hoping for in order to turn things around for Rudolph. Perhaps there was an elf or a reindeer that did notice the bullying and reported it to Santa. Regardless, Santa is the perfect ally as a respected leader of the reindeer who had the vision to see what made Rudolph different as a strength rather than a weakness. This is a powerful way to turn around bullying and a wonderful way to see a difference. What if we asked ourselves when we notice someone is different, how that difference is a strength? Better yet, what if we all tried to help them make that difference a strength?
“Poor Rudolph,” empathy the antidote
The author invokes a critical bullying antidote with the passage, “They would not let poor Rudolph join in any reindeer games.” By saying “poor Rudolph,” the author was trying to get the reader to feel some empathy. In fact, he was also doing it by just telling Rudolph’s story, as it helps us enact two key parts of empathy, (1) noticing how another is feeling and then (2) seeing it from their perspective. The third part of empathy is feeling with someone or feeling at least a little bit of what they are feeling. This would be different for every reader, but the emotional side of the story from poor Rudolph to going down in history surely evokes empathy in us all.
Without this appeal to our empathy, a reader might have thought all of this bullying behavior could be warranted for flaunting his red nose, a kind of, “Who does he think he is walking around with his red nose all stuck up in the air?” This is exactly why empathy is so important. When we recognize how others are feeling, see things from their perspective, and feel a little of what they are feeling, we are putting ourselves in the position of another. Doing this is putting ourselves in another’s shoes or in this case, horseshoes, and if we were in those shoes, we would not want to be called names or excluded.
Rudolph for grown-ups: “Going down in history”
Empathy is at the core of our humanity and relates directly to the golden rule: “Do unto others as you would have done to you.” Without a perspective of empathy, we are prone to “other” or to distance ourselves from another person or group of people; to make them different from “us.” This psychological distance allows us to be callous or unfeeling towards them. Bullying and exclusion starts with othering someone for their difference. The small comments grow into a rationale for exclusion or social aggression, “Othering” taken to broad extremes has allowed horrors such as native American removal, slavery, the Holocaust, and many more throughout time. In fact, Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer was written by Robert May, who was inspired by his own painful childhood experiences as a Jewish boy targeted by bullying. The story was created during a time of great personal sadness for May, during a global background of the horrors of the Holocaust.
Smothering othering with empathy using Rudolph
Empathy is really seeing ourselves in another, and it breaks down “othering” as it forces us to think about how we would feel and how we would want to be treated. Empathy can change bullies to bystanders and bystanders to allies. This is why the work of teaching empathy is so critical to creating safe inclusive communities and a better world. So, this holiday season as you share the story of “Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer,” talk about the gift of empathy within the story. For younger children ask them what they think Rudolph might be feeling at each stage of the story. Talk about bullying and how to be an ally. For older children consider adding the deeper history of the story. But most of all, use the story to remind all to see what others are feeling, put themselves in their shoes, and act from a place of compassion.
Perhaps the lesson of Rudolph can help make us all go down in a more empathetic, peaceful, and inclusive history.
This essay was featured in the December 22nd edition of The Sunday Paper. The Sunday Paper inspires hearts and minds to rise above the noise. To get The Sunday Paper delivered to your inbox each Sunday morning for free, click here to subscribe. | <urn:uuid:81398514-d840-4386-bbac-285c39844b05> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mariashriver.com/rudolph-and-the-gift-of-empathy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00064.warc.gz | en | 0.980931 | 1,924 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
0.26834636926651,
0.21323710680007935,
-0.0010802869219332933,
0.11604481935501099,
-0.18217632174491882,
-0.17423056066036224,
0.5170443058013916,
0.12774980068206787,
0.004362639971077442,
-0.020454799756407738,
0.10762833058834076,
0.23991674184799194,
0.35917505621910095,
0.05472543835... | 2 | Rudolph and the Gift of Empathy
The sweet story of a unique and bullied reindeer-turned-hero is beloved by generations. With its rich history, “Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer” provides a well-known context for exploring the roles of bullying—its causes and perhaps, proactive solutions—with many social and emotional learning gifts for us to unwrap.
“Called him names,” the situation and roles of bullying
At the start of the story of Rudolph, we all know the other reindeer “used to laugh and call him names.” Name-calling is known as social aggression, which is any negative behavior designed to embarrass and/or affect another’s social network. In addition to name-calling, the other reindeer were also “excluding” Rudolph as they would not let Rudolph join in any reindeer games. Being excluded is another common and hurtful form of bullying. These are classic types of bullying and for very classic reasons: for being different (Rudolph’s red nose).
It is helpful to understand the common roles involved in bullying in order to address it. They are target, aggressor, bystander, and hopefully, an ally or allies. In the story of Rudolph, because he was the one being called names, he would be the “target” of the bullying. The “aggressor” is the person or persons doing the bullying, which in this case, sadly, would be “all of the other reindeer.”
Unanimous bullying is rough and definitely the stuff of legend. Reindeer apparently are prone to a herd mentality. A bystander is someone who notices the bullying but does not encourage or discourage it, a kind of neutral bullying role, like “Switzerland.” We can only assume with all the name-calling and excluding going on at the North Pole, someone would have noticed, most likely the elves. You might make the excuse that the elves were very busy making toys, but since they are Santa’s reindeer caretakers and are known for their keen sense of hearing, they must have known. So, for our story, the elves were the “bystanders.” However, do not get too upset about the elves, they clearly did not join in on the bullying as there is no mention of them also calling Rudolph names or excluding him. Many people are bystanders and perhaps they did not know what to do to help Rudolph, which is the whole point of this article.
A surprisingly cold overall reindeer climate at the North Pole
Another worrisome part of the story is that Rudolph did not seem to know what to do to advocate for himself. The North Pole at the time definitely needed to put both proactive and reactive systems in place. A reactive system would be if all reindeer and reindeer supervisors were educated about the roles involved and what to do after the bullying had started. A proactive anti-bullying system would be something that may have prevented the bullying altogether, such as teaching the reindeer skills for responding to others, taking someone else’s perspective, showing empathy, and advocating for others.
If a strong system was in place perhaps the elves would have acted as allies, and they could have done a lot of things to help instead of being bystanders.
There are common ways to be allies. They could have been “confronters” and stood up for Rudolph; even something small, like saying, “that is not a jolly thing to do,” may have stopped the bullying. They could have been “supporters” by comforting him after the bullying and helping him work through the problem. The elves could have been “distractors” by distracting the reindeer when bullying, by changing the topic or telling a holiday joke. Some things they might have said to distract would be, “I hear there is a snowstorm coming in. Do you think we will be able to do the delivery run?” or “Have you heard the joke about why Santa is so jolly?”
Rudolph also might have known some tips for a target. He could have stood up for himself by stating in a strong but non-threatening way, “I feel hurt when someone bullies me, so stop it!” Rudolph could have spoken to a friend, parent, or leader about the problem. Rudolph, however, was a wonderful role model as he did not let others’ negativity prevent him from being himself and shining his light.
Santa, the ultimate ally
Rudolph is eventually saved in the story by perhaps the ultimate ally, Santa. It is very possible Santa knew about the bullying and looked for a reason to give Rudolph a leadership role. The fog was possibly just the opportunity he was hoping for in order to turn things around for Rudolph. Perhaps there was an elf or a reindeer that did notice the bullying and reported it to Santa. Regardless, Santa is the perfect ally as a respected leader of the reindeer who had the vision to see what made Rudolph different as a strength rather than a weakness. This is a powerful way to turn around bullying and a wonderful way to see a difference. What if we asked ourselves when we notice someone is different, how that difference is a strength? Better yet, what if we all tried to help them make that difference a strength?
“Poor Rudolph,” empathy the antidote
The author invokes a critical bullying antidote with the passage, “They would not let poor Rudolph join in any reindeer games.” By saying “poor Rudolph,” the author was trying to get the reader to feel some empathy. In fact, he was also doing it by just telling Rudolph’s story, as it helps us enact two key parts of empathy, (1) noticing how another is feeling and then (2) seeing it from their perspective. The third part of empathy is feeling with someone or feeling at least a little bit of what they are feeling. This would be different for every reader, but the emotional side of the story from poor Rudolph to going down in history surely evokes empathy in us all.
Without this appeal to our empathy, a reader might have thought all of this bullying behavior could be warranted for flaunting his red nose, a kind of, “Who does he think he is walking around with his red nose all stuck up in the air?” This is exactly why empathy is so important. When we recognize how others are feeling, see things from their perspective, and feel a little of what they are feeling, we are putting ourselves in the position of another. Doing this is putting ourselves in another’s shoes or in this case, horseshoes, and if we were in those shoes, we would not want to be called names or excluded.
Rudolph for grown-ups: “Going down in history”
Empathy is at the core of our humanity and relates directly to the golden rule: “Do unto others as you would have done to you.” Without a perspective of empathy, we are prone to “other” or to distance ourselves from another person or group of people; to make them different from “us.” This psychological distance allows us to be callous or unfeeling towards them. Bullying and exclusion starts with othering someone for their difference. The small comments grow into a rationale for exclusion or social aggression, “Othering” taken to broad extremes has allowed horrors such as native American removal, slavery, the Holocaust, and many more throughout time. In fact, Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer was written by Robert May, who was inspired by his own painful childhood experiences as a Jewish boy targeted by bullying. The story was created during a time of great personal sadness for May, during a global background of the horrors of the Holocaust.
Smothering othering with empathy using Rudolph
Empathy is really seeing ourselves in another, and it breaks down “othering” as it forces us to think about how we would feel and how we would want to be treated. Empathy can change bullies to bystanders and bystanders to allies. This is why the work of teaching empathy is so critical to creating safe inclusive communities and a better world. So, this holiday season as you share the story of “Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer,” talk about the gift of empathy within the story. For younger children ask them what they think Rudolph might be feeling at each stage of the story. Talk about bullying and how to be an ally. For older children consider adding the deeper history of the story. But most of all, use the story to remind all to see what others are feeling, put themselves in their shoes, and act from a place of compassion.
Perhaps the lesson of Rudolph can help make us all go down in a more empathetic, peaceful, and inclusive history.
This essay was featured in the December 22nd edition of The Sunday Paper. The Sunday Paper inspires hearts and minds to rise above the noise. To get The Sunday Paper delivered to your inbox each Sunday morning for free, click here to subscribe. | 1,831 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dante Gabriel Rossetti is most famous as the founding member of the Pre-Raphaelite art movement in England. His magnificently rich paintings capture the prevailing mood of the Victorian era, while in his poetry, Rossetti seamlessly interweaves nature and emotion.
Like any artist, he was shaped by his environment and experiences. Read on to discover exactly how Dante Gabriel Rossetti became one of the most important figures in nineteenth century British art.
10. Although born in London, Rossetti came from an Italian family.
By virtue of their aristocratic lineage, Rossetti’s father, Gabriele, was a statesman, as well as a poet. His revolutionary activities and nationalist beliefs forced him to withdraw into political exile in 1821. He subsequently moved to London, where his four children were later born.
His Italian catholic heritage had a profound effect on the young Dante Gabriel Rossetti, who fiercely defended his roots among his peers. Although he was christened with Dante as a middle name, he used it as his preferred name in honor of the iconic Italian poet.
9. From early on, he was just as interested in literature as in the visual arts.
Along with his three siblings, who all went on to become prominent artistic and literary figures, Rossetti received a superb education, studying at the King’s College School, followed by Henry Sass’ Drawing Academy. After leaving the Academy, he joined the Antique School at the Royal Academy for three years, and then studied under Ford Madox Brown.
This training equipped Rossetti with the tools he would require in his career as an artist, and as a poet. He had inherited his father’s love of verse, and produced translations of Dante’s La Vita Nuova at a young age. He also revived medieval poetry, such as Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur, and found in William Blake a kindred spirit. Inspired by both his paintings and his writing, Rossetti even considered the fact that he might be the reincarnation of Blake, who had died exactly 9 months before his own birth.
8. Although he covered a range of subjects, Rossetti’s artwork all share characteristic features and a recognizable style.
At the beginning and end of his career, Rossetti painted mainly with oil, but the greatest chunk of his work is watercolor. Although his catholic background meant that he preferred religious subject-matter, Rossetti also depicted scenes from literature, nature and most famously, portraits.
Despite these varieties in material and substance, Rossetti’s work is typically characterized by his use of dense color and his efforts to capture reality. Inspired by the richness of Medieval religious painting, but also the work of Italian Renaissance artists, he filled his pieces with symbolic objects while simultaneously ensuring that the people he portrayed looked natural and life-like.
7. His exposure to older art and poetry inspired him to found the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.
As a student of Ford Madox Brown, Rossetti had been introduced to the German “Pre-Raphaelites,” whose aim was to re-purify German art. He considered these an appealing alternative to the faddish and self-parodying style that he saw around him. His familiarity with Romantic and Medieval poetry also gave him an appreciation for reverence and gravitas, in both visual and literary art.
Therefore, along with his friends William Holman Hunt and John Millais, he founded his own movement called the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, with similar aims. The group of seven artists agreed that their work should attempt to replicate nature in a sincere way. Even if their work was not always religious, it should always be imbued with a sense of morality.
The movement expanded across the remainder of the nineteenth century, and had a great impact on Victorian art.
6. His early work did not receive universal praise.
Two years after founding the Brotherhood, Rossetti exhibited his ‘Ecce Ancilla Domina’ in 1850. The piece received severe criticism, which the artist found so vexing that he stopped presenting his paintings publicly.
It was then that he started to use watercolors, as a cheaper and more disposable alternative to oils. The critical reaction also prompted Rossetti to explore more non-Biblical themes, and his next few years were spent depicting famous scenes from Shakespeare, Dante and Sir Thomas Malory.
5. Rossetti married one of the Brotherhood’s most important models.
One thing that is immediately noticeable about Pre-Raphaelite paintings, and especially Rossetti’s own, is that the same faces recur again and again. Perhaps the most prominent of these is that of Elizabeth Siddal, who was introduced to the Brotherhood as a model, but later became Rossetti’s wife and personal muse. Siddal’s long, elegant face and figure glow white against the fiery brightness of her red hair, and her expression is often one of contemplation.
Rossetti’s marriage ended after only two years, when Siddal died from an overdose of laudanum, an opioid that unfortunately became a popular sleeping-draught during the Victorian era. Rossetti was so heart-broken that he buried his wife with the only complete manuscript of his poetry.
4. Rossetti inspired a number of younger artists who would go on to become incredibly important figures in British art.
Counted among the early members of the Brotherhood were young artists such as William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones. Under Rossetti’s leadership, they embarked on a new wave of pre-Raphaelitism which embraced more grandeur and attempted to expand the movement to include crafts as well as painting. Over the following years, they produced epic murals of the Arthurian legends, as well as Morris’ famous textile patterns.
3. One of his most successful associates was, in fact, his sister, Christina Rossetti.
Along with pre-Raphaelite brothers, Rossetti also had a very important sister, but in this case the relationship was biological. His younger sister Christina wrote both romantic and religious poetry for adults and children.
In addition to her most scandalously famous piece, ‘Goblin Market’, Christina penned the lyrics to two well-known Christmas carols, which were later set to the music of equally famous composers.
2. Despite the success and popularity Rossetti achieved during his life, he met with an unhappy end.
Several years after the death of his wife, Rossetti himself began to use a sleeping-draught to cure his insomnia. Unsurprisingly the mix of chloral and whiskey did little to help him, and he fell into a deep depression, which was accentuated by a fiercely critical essay published about him in 1871. The next year he went through a mental breakdown, and although he continued to paint, his condition deteriorated, and he eventually died of kidney failure in 1882.
1. Rossetti’s work has been attractive to collectors ever since the Victorian period.
While much of Rossetti’s art is held by British institutions, such as the Tate Britain in London, his pieces have always been popular with private collectors too. For example, the collection of the artist L.S. Lowry was primarily built around Rossetti’s paintings and sketches.
The most prized piece it contained was his ‘Proserpine’, which later sold at auction in 2013 for the huge sum of £3,274,500. It is now rare for original Rossetti paintings to appear on the market, making them an extremely valuable piece of British art history. | <urn:uuid:83992afd-027c-4917-9750-1da33cb5495b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thecollector.com/10-things-you-didnt-know-about-dante-gabriel-rosetti/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=10-things-you-didnt-know-about-dante-gabriel-rosetti | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00326.warc.gz | en | 0.988219 | 1,581 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
-0.15978273749351501,
-0.17482030391693115,
0.5938442945480347,
-0.1537991613149643,
-0.15752246975898743,
-0.035900067538022995,
0.23683740198612213,
-0.30377790331840515,
0.08909823000431061,
-0.46108824014663696,
-0.2788921892642975,
-0.0786224976181984,
-0.024357499554753304,
0.4389813... | 6 | Dante Gabriel Rossetti is most famous as the founding member of the Pre-Raphaelite art movement in England. His magnificently rich paintings capture the prevailing mood of the Victorian era, while in his poetry, Rossetti seamlessly interweaves nature and emotion.
Like any artist, he was shaped by his environment and experiences. Read on to discover exactly how Dante Gabriel Rossetti became one of the most important figures in nineteenth century British art.
10. Although born in London, Rossetti came from an Italian family.
By virtue of their aristocratic lineage, Rossetti’s father, Gabriele, was a statesman, as well as a poet. His revolutionary activities and nationalist beliefs forced him to withdraw into political exile in 1821. He subsequently moved to London, where his four children were later born.
His Italian catholic heritage had a profound effect on the young Dante Gabriel Rossetti, who fiercely defended his roots among his peers. Although he was christened with Dante as a middle name, he used it as his preferred name in honor of the iconic Italian poet.
9. From early on, he was just as interested in literature as in the visual arts.
Along with his three siblings, who all went on to become prominent artistic and literary figures, Rossetti received a superb education, studying at the King’s College School, followed by Henry Sass’ Drawing Academy. After leaving the Academy, he joined the Antique School at the Royal Academy for three years, and then studied under Ford Madox Brown.
This training equipped Rossetti with the tools he would require in his career as an artist, and as a poet. He had inherited his father’s love of verse, and produced translations of Dante’s La Vita Nuova at a young age. He also revived medieval poetry, such as Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur, and found in William Blake a kindred spirit. Inspired by both his paintings and his writing, Rossetti even considered the fact that he might be the reincarnation of Blake, who had died exactly 9 months before his own birth.
8. Although he covered a range of subjects, Rossetti’s artwork all share characteristic features and a recognizable style.
At the beginning and end of his career, Rossetti painted mainly with oil, but the greatest chunk of his work is watercolor. Although his catholic background meant that he preferred religious subject-matter, Rossetti also depicted scenes from literature, nature and most famously, portraits.
Despite these varieties in material and substance, Rossetti’s work is typically characterized by his use of dense color and his efforts to capture reality. Inspired by the richness of Medieval religious painting, but also the work of Italian Renaissance artists, he filled his pieces with symbolic objects while simultaneously ensuring that the people he portrayed looked natural and life-like.
7. His exposure to older art and poetry inspired him to found the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.
As a student of Ford Madox Brown, Rossetti had been introduced to the German “Pre-Raphaelites,” whose aim was to re-purify German art. He considered these an appealing alternative to the faddish and self-parodying style that he saw around him. His familiarity with Romantic and Medieval poetry also gave him an appreciation for reverence and gravitas, in both visual and literary art.
Therefore, along with his friends William Holman Hunt and John Millais, he founded his own movement called the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, with similar aims. The group of seven artists agreed that their work should attempt to replicate nature in a sincere way. Even if their work was not always religious, it should always be imbued with a sense of morality.
The movement expanded across the remainder of the nineteenth century, and had a great impact on Victorian art.
6. His early work did not receive universal praise.
Two years after founding the Brotherhood, Rossetti exhibited his ‘Ecce Ancilla Domina’ in 1850. The piece received severe criticism, which the artist found so vexing that he stopped presenting his paintings publicly.
It was then that he started to use watercolors, as a cheaper and more disposable alternative to oils. The critical reaction also prompted Rossetti to explore more non-Biblical themes, and his next few years were spent depicting famous scenes from Shakespeare, Dante and Sir Thomas Malory.
5. Rossetti married one of the Brotherhood’s most important models.
One thing that is immediately noticeable about Pre-Raphaelite paintings, and especially Rossetti’s own, is that the same faces recur again and again. Perhaps the most prominent of these is that of Elizabeth Siddal, who was introduced to the Brotherhood as a model, but later became Rossetti’s wife and personal muse. Siddal’s long, elegant face and figure glow white against the fiery brightness of her red hair, and her expression is often one of contemplation.
Rossetti’s marriage ended after only two years, when Siddal died from an overdose of laudanum, an opioid that unfortunately became a popular sleeping-draught during the Victorian era. Rossetti was so heart-broken that he buried his wife with the only complete manuscript of his poetry.
4. Rossetti inspired a number of younger artists who would go on to become incredibly important figures in British art.
Counted among the early members of the Brotherhood were young artists such as William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones. Under Rossetti’s leadership, they embarked on a new wave of pre-Raphaelitism which embraced more grandeur and attempted to expand the movement to include crafts as well as painting. Over the following years, they produced epic murals of the Arthurian legends, as well as Morris’ famous textile patterns.
3. One of his most successful associates was, in fact, his sister, Christina Rossetti.
Along with pre-Raphaelite brothers, Rossetti also had a very important sister, but in this case the relationship was biological. His younger sister Christina wrote both romantic and religious poetry for adults and children.
In addition to her most scandalously famous piece, ‘Goblin Market’, Christina penned the lyrics to two well-known Christmas carols, which were later set to the music of equally famous composers.
2. Despite the success and popularity Rossetti achieved during his life, he met with an unhappy end.
Several years after the death of his wife, Rossetti himself began to use a sleeping-draught to cure his insomnia. Unsurprisingly the mix of chloral and whiskey did little to help him, and he fell into a deep depression, which was accentuated by a fiercely critical essay published about him in 1871. The next year he went through a mental breakdown, and although he continued to paint, his condition deteriorated, and he eventually died of kidney failure in 1882.
1. Rossetti’s work has been attractive to collectors ever since the Victorian period.
While much of Rossetti’s art is held by British institutions, such as the Tate Britain in London, his pieces have always been popular with private collectors too. For example, the collection of the artist L.S. Lowry was primarily built around Rossetti’s paintings and sketches.
The most prized piece it contained was his ‘Proserpine’, which later sold at auction in 2013 for the huge sum of £3,274,500. It is now rare for original Rossetti paintings to appear on the market, making them an extremely valuable piece of British art history. | 1,546 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Crime and punishment in the colonial era
What happened to bad people in the good old days?
They were shot by firing squad, hanged, burned at the stake so their souls would perish and they couldn’t rest in peace, sent to row ships, flogged in public, were paraded through the streets chained by the neck for public humiliation, sent to coastal areas like Moín or Puntarenas to die of malaria or yellow fever, were banished from the country or were sent to the “interior.”
Crimes included murder, theft and treason but also heresy, crimes against nature and even sexual incontinence, in Mexico. In the colonial era, all over New Spain, punishments were severe. The condemned had no rights, and punishments, including executions, were swiftly carried out. In some cases, the guilty person was apprehended and executed by hanging or firing squad the same day. The highest crimes were murder and treason, both of which merited death by firing squad or public hanging.
Murders there were. Even in a population of under 1 million, there were crimes of passion. In 1861, Manuel Angulo killed José Navarra over the affections of Chica Pancha and was executed within a month. The same year, Antonio Valverde and his lover, Simona León, were both sentenced to death for the murder of León’s husband. While Valverde was executed immediately, León’s sentence was delayed because of pregnancy; two years later, her public execution drew a crowd of 500.
In 1868, several executions by firing squad took place, conveniently, in the cemetery of San José. Women in billowing skirts were executed. Seven women are listed among the executed, including the luckless León. Uprisings and revolutions accounted for many executions, and 20 filibusteros of William Walker’s mercenary army met the firing squad, including North Americans and Europeans.
A brief civil war broke out between San José and Alajuela-Heredia in 1835. Among the losers, 10 were sentenced to death and 10 were expelled from the country for 10 years while others were expelled for less time, with “all possessions confiscated by the government.” Even the country’s leaders were not spared harsh punishments; President Juan Rafael Mora and Gen. José María Cañas were both sentenced to death by firing squad for “sedition.” They were later reinstated among the honored with schools and roads named after them, as was Pablo Presbere, the indigenous leader who revolted against colonial Spain and was tortured and executed in 1710.
In the 1840s, at least three lepers were executed by firing squad for escaping from the leprosy hospital. They claimed they wanted to take a cure bathing in the ocean. At the time, leprosy was thought to be highly contagious and a public risk, and flight was a punishable crime.
The death penalty was abolished in 1877 by strongman President Tomás Guardia, but the idea had hatched long before; President José María Castro Madriz commuted all death sentences during his two terms (1847-49, 1866-68).
A more common punishment in the colonial and postcolonial era was banishment. In larger countries like Colombia (Nueva Granada), this was quite uncomfortable because the interior of the country was largely uninhabited. In Costa Rica, prisoners were sent to presidiums in Puntarenas or Limón and left to their fate, which included malaria and yellow fever.
Political prisoners were forced to leave the country for a number of years or permanently, or they were sent to the interior, supposedly to suffer. This wasn’t always bad because the exiles were usually well educated and believers in progress.
In Costa Rica, San Ramón became a place for exiles. It was almost a wilderness with a small but hearty population of farmers and miners. From the 1840s on came men like Julio Volio, Máximo Acosta, Rafael Iglesias and others banished from the arenas of power. The City of Poets began as the City of Subversives but gave impetus to education and culture. San Ramón had a college and a library before it became a city and is still considered a center for cultural activity and political action.n
Sources for this article include historian Paul Brenes and Carmen Lila Gómez’s book, “La Pena de Muerte en Costa Rica Durante El Siglo XI.”
You may be interested
Swimming, squeaking and more: 5 sloth facts explained!Sam Trull / The Sloth Institute - January 26, 2020
In honor of Slothy Sunday, Sam Trull of The Sloth Institute shares five sloth fun facts. 1. All sloths are…
USA picks new faces to take on Costa Rica after training camp shift from DohaAFP and The Tico Times - January 26, 2020
US national team coach Gregg Berhalter announced a 22-man squad Saturday for next weekend's friendly against Costa Rica that features…
U.S. donates $16,000 to help Costa Rica improve environmental reportingThe Tico Times - January 25, 2020
A donation from the U.S. Department of the Interior will help Costa Rica's Environment Ministry (MINAE) receive and track environmental… | <urn:uuid:82855d90-544d-477a-a532-1c4518d2b91d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ticotimes.net/2011/09/21/crime-and-punishment-in-the-colonial-era | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00103.warc.gz | en | 0.983093 | 1,118 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
-0.30018189549446106,
0.21496494114398956,
0.3605876564979553,
-0.03134578466415405,
0.3600262403488159,
-0.08544456213712692,
0.4417148232460022,
-0.12313105165958405,
0.19287043809890747,
0.18043117225170135,
0.4410385489463806,
0.2574959397315979,
-0.15475040674209595,
0.428552925586700... | 1 | Crime and punishment in the colonial era
What happened to bad people in the good old days?
They were shot by firing squad, hanged, burned at the stake so their souls would perish and they couldn’t rest in peace, sent to row ships, flogged in public, were paraded through the streets chained by the neck for public humiliation, sent to coastal areas like Moín or Puntarenas to die of malaria or yellow fever, were banished from the country or were sent to the “interior.”
Crimes included murder, theft and treason but also heresy, crimes against nature and even sexual incontinence, in Mexico. In the colonial era, all over New Spain, punishments were severe. The condemned had no rights, and punishments, including executions, were swiftly carried out. In some cases, the guilty person was apprehended and executed by hanging or firing squad the same day. The highest crimes were murder and treason, both of which merited death by firing squad or public hanging.
Murders there were. Even in a population of under 1 million, there were crimes of passion. In 1861, Manuel Angulo killed José Navarra over the affections of Chica Pancha and was executed within a month. The same year, Antonio Valverde and his lover, Simona León, were both sentenced to death for the murder of León’s husband. While Valverde was executed immediately, León’s sentence was delayed because of pregnancy; two years later, her public execution drew a crowd of 500.
In 1868, several executions by firing squad took place, conveniently, in the cemetery of San José. Women in billowing skirts were executed. Seven women are listed among the executed, including the luckless León. Uprisings and revolutions accounted for many executions, and 20 filibusteros of William Walker’s mercenary army met the firing squad, including North Americans and Europeans.
A brief civil war broke out between San José and Alajuela-Heredia in 1835. Among the losers, 10 were sentenced to death and 10 were expelled from the country for 10 years while others were expelled for less time, with “all possessions confiscated by the government.” Even the country’s leaders were not spared harsh punishments; President Juan Rafael Mora and Gen. José María Cañas were both sentenced to death by firing squad for “sedition.” They were later reinstated among the honored with schools and roads named after them, as was Pablo Presbere, the indigenous leader who revolted against colonial Spain and was tortured and executed in 1710.
In the 1840s, at least three lepers were executed by firing squad for escaping from the leprosy hospital. They claimed they wanted to take a cure bathing in the ocean. At the time, leprosy was thought to be highly contagious and a public risk, and flight was a punishable crime.
The death penalty was abolished in 1877 by strongman President Tomás Guardia, but the idea had hatched long before; President José María Castro Madriz commuted all death sentences during his two terms (1847-49, 1866-68).
A more common punishment in the colonial and postcolonial era was banishment. In larger countries like Colombia (Nueva Granada), this was quite uncomfortable because the interior of the country was largely uninhabited. In Costa Rica, prisoners were sent to presidiums in Puntarenas or Limón and left to their fate, which included malaria and yellow fever.
Political prisoners were forced to leave the country for a number of years or permanently, or they were sent to the interior, supposedly to suffer. This wasn’t always bad because the exiles were usually well educated and believers in progress.
In Costa Rica, San Ramón became a place for exiles. It was almost a wilderness with a small but hearty population of farmers and miners. From the 1840s on came men like Julio Volio, Máximo Acosta, Rafael Iglesias and others banished from the arenas of power. The City of Poets began as the City of Subversives but gave impetus to education and culture. San Ramón had a college and a library before it became a city and is still considered a center for cultural activity and political action.n
Sources for this article include historian Paul Brenes and Carmen Lila Gómez’s book, “La Pena de Muerte en Costa Rica Durante El Siglo XI.”
You may be interested
Swimming, squeaking and more: 5 sloth facts explained!Sam Trull / The Sloth Institute - January 26, 2020
In honor of Slothy Sunday, Sam Trull of The Sloth Institute shares five sloth fun facts. 1. All sloths are…
USA picks new faces to take on Costa Rica after training camp shift from DohaAFP and The Tico Times - January 26, 2020
US national team coach Gregg Berhalter announced a 22-man squad Saturday for next weekend's friendly against Costa Rica that features…
U.S. donates $16,000 to help Costa Rica improve environmental reportingThe Tico Times - January 25, 2020
A donation from the U.S. Department of the Interior will help Costa Rica's Environment Ministry (MINAE) receive and track environmental… | 1,142 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In his second inaugural address in March 1865, Abraham Lincoln looked back at the beginning of the Civil War four years earlier. All knew, he said, that slavery was somehow the cause of the war (Brinkley, 372). Barely any historians question the fundamental actuality of Lincoln’s announcement, however they have differed strongly about whether slavery, was the main, or even the key, reason for the civil war to take place.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "An Irrepressible American Civil War" essay for youCreate order
The debate on whether the civil war would be repressible or irrepressible had started long ago before the war actually took place. On one side were individuals who trusted the sectional threatening vibe to be unintentional, superfluous, and crafted by compulsive protestors. However, on the other hand, there were people who opposed this idea. Instead, they thought that there must be an irrepressible clash among restricting and persevering energies.
Although new comprehension has been picked up, to some degree the old contentions still hold on. The question was whether was the war unavoidable, also known as irrepressible according to William Seward, or would it rather be considered as a result of mishap, the consequence of a progression of “unforeseen” incidences or happenings that may naturally not have occurred and without which the result would probably have been rather unique? These two concepts are usually what the Americans have been expressing differed opinions for ages. In reality, the disagreements somehow always seem to return to the same question about the Civil War, whether it was repressible or irrepressible. However, it has been proven for the American Civil War to be irrepressible due to slavery, economical, and political reasons, and this is why it occurred in the first place.
To begin with, the ?irreplaceable conflict argument dominated historical division of the war from the 1860s to the 1920s. Because the North and the South had reached positions on the issue of slavery that were both irreconcilable and seemingly unalterable, some historians claimed the conflict had become ?inevitable (Brinkley, 372). With that in mind, the North was always against the concept of suppression from the earliest time of the 1800s. Moreover, this was also depicted in the arrangement of the Republican and Free-Soil parties, who basically demonstrated the political sentiments of the North over suppression. On the other hand, was the South, who constantly required the presence of slavery over the years.
Although this might sound incorrect, they still had strong reasoning behind their belief of maintaining slavery. According to them, slavery served to be their foundation for the agricultural business in that area, and in addition to that, they also believed that this concept was permissible by God, the One who provided them with the privilege to possess slaves. According to the tariff called the Calhouns Exposition of 1828, the Southerners had already demonstrated their opinions way in advance – when the Civil War was not even announced yet. The South decided to withdraw as their supposition was that the states had much more powerful rights in comparison to the people, incorporating the concept of possessing slaves. Another form of literary works that depicted the northerners view on the concept of slavery included Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852): the opponents were against suppression since they thought of it just like an unethical organization. The agreements that were exchanged during 1830 – 1860 constantly focused on the issues related to suppression, but however, the problem was extremely controversial to be proven wrong and stayed uncertain until 1860. Later on, The South cut off ties from the North and prepared themselves to face the Civil War. In this way, the Civil War was irrepressible and occurred due to the constant argumentation over suppression, and due to the distinction maintained by the North following the Revolution era.
Another reason that highlights why the American Civil War was irreplaceable was the fact that, although the greatest emphasis during that time was on the moral conflict over slavery, the struggle also reflected fundamental differences between the Northern and Southern economic systems. According to James Rhodes, in his seven-volume History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850, he stated that no one could have imagined that economic conditions were destined to prevail that would bring to naught the moral and humane expectations of the wisest statesmen of the time (Rhodes, 26). This statement clearly proves that there were major economic distinctions in the regions that grew drastically over the 1800’s. Some of the instances that portray the truth behind this statement involve the construction of two diverse economies, industrialist-based system in the north, whereas farming and agricultural-related system in the south. This proves that the southern economy consisted of slavery, whereas the northern economy consisted of free labor and industrial authority. Therefore, the stations of the two areas were entirely distinctive from each other. This led numerous southerners to believe that the treatment provided to industry laborers, who were barely paid, was awful compared to a slave in the South. The southerners started to fear the northerners, due to the abolitionist movement, which was directed by them. As each day passed, the movement against slavery grew stronger and one day, the northerners eventually had the ability and the courage to end slavery.
In this way, the downfall of the southern economic system made them financially weak, thereby ending the lives of each one of them. All of these evidences have been proved through the authors notes of The Rise of American Civilization, which depict that the American Civil War was irrepressible not only due to moral reasons, but also because the entire economic system was in the hands of the northerners (Charles and Mary, 431).
Finally, the third and the last reason that proved why the American Civil War was not irrepressible, is due to the ?regionalization of political parties. As stated previously, with all the ongoing separations between the North and South areas due to economic issues, there is still one primary piece tying the both regions together in the mid 1800’s, which were the two political groups. The Whigs and the Democrats are separated from one another due to constant argumentation over problems, such as the debate between taxes vs. the national bank, rather than profound argumentation over the issue of suppression.
In any case, with the advancement of the Republican party, excluding the Whigs part, and the Democrats turned into a southern gathering, it is thereby available to complete the separation of the areas. This tension between the two (North and South) regions is displayed in the example followed. When Lincoln, while representing the Republican Party, won during the presidential elections, he defeated three other candidates. However, none of the southerners participated in the election because they did not vote for him. With this being said, his victory in the elections was therefore viewed as a contribution from only the northern citizens. The reason behind this reaction from the southerners was because those whose actions contribute to the outbreak of war between North and South, again with Lincoln at their head, are roundly criticized, while those who seek compromise are praised (Cooper, xvi, 342).
Although Lincoln specified and pictured during his speech, addressed in 1858, that a house divided against itself cannot stand and that this government cant endure, permanently, half-slave and half-free (House Divided Speech), he still contradicted his own statement when he stood for ?antislavery and went against the southerners, knowing that it was dividing the nation into two parts. With that said, the previous example obviously demonstrated that Lincoln was only an ?average individual, who didnt know how to keep his word or carry-out reasonable duties as a president, such as having the potential and courage to stop the protestor when he noticed them as a danger to other individuals. These are some of the opinions that the southerners formed about Lincoln and his work as a president.
This is because the southerners had deeply disliked and doubted him most of the time. Instead of providing him with a fair chance of helping out, the southerners took a drastic step instead: Almost eleven southern states withdrew from the union and formed a separate country called the Confederate States of America, and appointed Jefferson Davis as its president, which was later considered by the U.S. overseers as a demonstration of conspiring and being treacherous. However, When the American government found that the crisis was real, many of them sought to persuade the seceding states to return to the Union, which clearly displayed that Washingtons sociability, therefore, defined both the successes and the failures of federal policy making (Shelden, xiv, 296). In this way, the complete separation of the north and south regions for even a short time period, due to political pressures, proves that the American Civil War was definitely irrepressible.
In conclusion, the American Civil War was definitely the biggest clash that ever happened throughout the history. All the battles and conflicts were resolved on this soil. Although it took for almost four long years for the issues to be resolved, it is still recalled today as the most life-threatening and apparently the most critical occasion in the country’s history. With that being said, the American Civil War was definitely irrepressible because there were factors like slavery, economic, and political reasons that caused disturbances between the northern and southern states, eventually being the primary reason to instigate the civil war.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | <urn:uuid:ff10648f-a7fa-48db-86c0-65fdec4cf166> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studydriver.com/an-irrepressible-american-civil-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00325.warc.gz | en | 0.982276 | 1,990 | 3.75 | 4 | [
-0.4253430962562561,
0.4093020260334015,
0.060106970369815826,
0.36711692810058594,
-0.28244537115097046,
0.31495147943496704,
-0.16919639706611633,
0.0979367196559906,
-0.11704598367214203,
-0.1585705280303955,
0.15530352294445038,
0.14174005389213562,
-0.218608558177948,
0.37682899832725... | 2 | In his second inaugural address in March 1865, Abraham Lincoln looked back at the beginning of the Civil War four years earlier. All knew, he said, that slavery was somehow the cause of the war (Brinkley, 372). Barely any historians question the fundamental actuality of Lincoln’s announcement, however they have differed strongly about whether slavery, was the main, or even the key, reason for the civil war to take place.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "An Irrepressible American Civil War" essay for youCreate order
The debate on whether the civil war would be repressible or irrepressible had started long ago before the war actually took place. On one side were individuals who trusted the sectional threatening vibe to be unintentional, superfluous, and crafted by compulsive protestors. However, on the other hand, there were people who opposed this idea. Instead, they thought that there must be an irrepressible clash among restricting and persevering energies.
Although new comprehension has been picked up, to some degree the old contentions still hold on. The question was whether was the war unavoidable, also known as irrepressible according to William Seward, or would it rather be considered as a result of mishap, the consequence of a progression of “unforeseen” incidences or happenings that may naturally not have occurred and without which the result would probably have been rather unique? These two concepts are usually what the Americans have been expressing differed opinions for ages. In reality, the disagreements somehow always seem to return to the same question about the Civil War, whether it was repressible or irrepressible. However, it has been proven for the American Civil War to be irrepressible due to slavery, economical, and political reasons, and this is why it occurred in the first place.
To begin with, the ?irreplaceable conflict argument dominated historical division of the war from the 1860s to the 1920s. Because the North and the South had reached positions on the issue of slavery that were both irreconcilable and seemingly unalterable, some historians claimed the conflict had become ?inevitable (Brinkley, 372). With that in mind, the North was always against the concept of suppression from the earliest time of the 1800s. Moreover, this was also depicted in the arrangement of the Republican and Free-Soil parties, who basically demonstrated the political sentiments of the North over suppression. On the other hand, was the South, who constantly required the presence of slavery over the years.
Although this might sound incorrect, they still had strong reasoning behind their belief of maintaining slavery. According to them, slavery served to be their foundation for the agricultural business in that area, and in addition to that, they also believed that this concept was permissible by God, the One who provided them with the privilege to possess slaves. According to the tariff called the Calhouns Exposition of 1828, the Southerners had already demonstrated their opinions way in advance – when the Civil War was not even announced yet. The South decided to withdraw as their supposition was that the states had much more powerful rights in comparison to the people, incorporating the concept of possessing slaves. Another form of literary works that depicted the northerners view on the concept of slavery included Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852): the opponents were against suppression since they thought of it just like an unethical organization. The agreements that were exchanged during 1830 – 1860 constantly focused on the issues related to suppression, but however, the problem was extremely controversial to be proven wrong and stayed uncertain until 1860. Later on, The South cut off ties from the North and prepared themselves to face the Civil War. In this way, the Civil War was irrepressible and occurred due to the constant argumentation over suppression, and due to the distinction maintained by the North following the Revolution era.
Another reason that highlights why the American Civil War was irreplaceable was the fact that, although the greatest emphasis during that time was on the moral conflict over slavery, the struggle also reflected fundamental differences between the Northern and Southern economic systems. According to James Rhodes, in his seven-volume History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850, he stated that no one could have imagined that economic conditions were destined to prevail that would bring to naught the moral and humane expectations of the wisest statesmen of the time (Rhodes, 26). This statement clearly proves that there were major economic distinctions in the regions that grew drastically over the 1800’s. Some of the instances that portray the truth behind this statement involve the construction of two diverse economies, industrialist-based system in the north, whereas farming and agricultural-related system in the south. This proves that the southern economy consisted of slavery, whereas the northern economy consisted of free labor and industrial authority. Therefore, the stations of the two areas were entirely distinctive from each other. This led numerous southerners to believe that the treatment provided to industry laborers, who were barely paid, was awful compared to a slave in the South. The southerners started to fear the northerners, due to the abolitionist movement, which was directed by them. As each day passed, the movement against slavery grew stronger and one day, the northerners eventually had the ability and the courage to end slavery.
In this way, the downfall of the southern economic system made them financially weak, thereby ending the lives of each one of them. All of these evidences have been proved through the authors notes of The Rise of American Civilization, which depict that the American Civil War was irrepressible not only due to moral reasons, but also because the entire economic system was in the hands of the northerners (Charles and Mary, 431).
Finally, the third and the last reason that proved why the American Civil War was not irrepressible, is due to the ?regionalization of political parties. As stated previously, with all the ongoing separations between the North and South areas due to economic issues, there is still one primary piece tying the both regions together in the mid 1800’s, which were the two political groups. The Whigs and the Democrats are separated from one another due to constant argumentation over problems, such as the debate between taxes vs. the national bank, rather than profound argumentation over the issue of suppression.
In any case, with the advancement of the Republican party, excluding the Whigs part, and the Democrats turned into a southern gathering, it is thereby available to complete the separation of the areas. This tension between the two (North and South) regions is displayed in the example followed. When Lincoln, while representing the Republican Party, won during the presidential elections, he defeated three other candidates. However, none of the southerners participated in the election because they did not vote for him. With this being said, his victory in the elections was therefore viewed as a contribution from only the northern citizens. The reason behind this reaction from the southerners was because those whose actions contribute to the outbreak of war between North and South, again with Lincoln at their head, are roundly criticized, while those who seek compromise are praised (Cooper, xvi, 342).
Although Lincoln specified and pictured during his speech, addressed in 1858, that a house divided against itself cannot stand and that this government cant endure, permanently, half-slave and half-free (House Divided Speech), he still contradicted his own statement when he stood for ?antislavery and went against the southerners, knowing that it was dividing the nation into two parts. With that said, the previous example obviously demonstrated that Lincoln was only an ?average individual, who didnt know how to keep his word or carry-out reasonable duties as a president, such as having the potential and courage to stop the protestor when he noticed them as a danger to other individuals. These are some of the opinions that the southerners formed about Lincoln and his work as a president.
This is because the southerners had deeply disliked and doubted him most of the time. Instead of providing him with a fair chance of helping out, the southerners took a drastic step instead: Almost eleven southern states withdrew from the union and formed a separate country called the Confederate States of America, and appointed Jefferson Davis as its president, which was later considered by the U.S. overseers as a demonstration of conspiring and being treacherous. However, When the American government found that the crisis was real, many of them sought to persuade the seceding states to return to the Union, which clearly displayed that Washingtons sociability, therefore, defined both the successes and the failures of federal policy making (Shelden, xiv, 296). In this way, the complete separation of the north and south regions for even a short time period, due to political pressures, proves that the American Civil War was definitely irrepressible.
In conclusion, the American Civil War was definitely the biggest clash that ever happened throughout the history. All the battles and conflicts were resolved on this soil. Although it took for almost four long years for the issues to be resolved, it is still recalled today as the most life-threatening and apparently the most critical occasion in the country’s history. With that being said, the American Civil War was definitely irrepressible because there were factors like slavery, economic, and political reasons that caused disturbances between the northern and southern states, eventually being the primary reason to instigate the civil war.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | 2,013 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The curse of Ham
Judaism has always advocated equality as all people were created in "the image of G-d."
In Genesis 9:20-27, we are told that Noah plants a vineyard and became drunk. After some certain events unfold, Noah cursed his grandson Canaan. But Canaan wasn't alive during the flood.
Noah curses his grandson Canaan to be a slave. This is the lowest level. Why does Noah make this curse? In any event, the tale seems to justify the conquest of Canaan. Slaves own nothing. So, the Israelites could take what they please and do with them as they want.1 Thus, the servility of the curse that Noah pronounces to Ham (through Canaan) is that all of his descendants will become slaves. But aren’t curses merely words? Do curses work? Words do not have mystical powers. Nevertheless, racists have used Genesis 9:25–26 to support their claim to white supremacy. Tradition says that Cush, the son of Ham (Genesis 10:6), is the father of the African race. They use this as proof to sanctify the institution of slavery.
Actually, the curse of Ham does not and cannot refer to the Africans nor the Canaanites as can be seen in this answer. It is a later Christian invention to justify the institution of the slave trade. Abarbanel merely followed that wrong teaching, being a product of his time. Additionally, many rabbis took part in the black civil rights movement. And when Rabbi Nathan Drazin was told to abandon his synagogue congregation of 5,000 people in Baltimore, Maryland due to black migration, he chose to stay and teach a small black community the love of Torah. As with the slave trade, it was also a Christian, William Wilberforce, who brought about the abolition of the slave trade in a debate in parliament in London, 1833.
1 This is the idea from great biblical scholar and rabbi, Arnold Ehrlich
Although Wilberforce tried to convert as many Jews as he could to Christianity | <urn:uuid:c4ac0ca5-c785-4755-ae2f-288df50a07ca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://judaism.stackexchange.com/questions/83478/exactly-how-much-of-the-curse-of-ham-concept-is-jewish-idea | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00477.warc.gz | en | 0.980344 | 423 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
-0.21932001411914825,
0.6935645341873169,
-0.5027120113372803,
-0.16821026802062988,
-0.47972041368484497,
0.47375890612602234,
0.22666101157665253,
-0.0282936729490757,
-0.02661299705505371,
0.39183396100997925,
-0.01276558730751276,
-0.14139136672019958,
-0.05483882501721382,
0.265936285... | 8 | The curse of Ham
Judaism has always advocated equality as all people were created in "the image of G-d."
In Genesis 9:20-27, we are told that Noah plants a vineyard and became drunk. After some certain events unfold, Noah cursed his grandson Canaan. But Canaan wasn't alive during the flood.
Noah curses his grandson Canaan to be a slave. This is the lowest level. Why does Noah make this curse? In any event, the tale seems to justify the conquest of Canaan. Slaves own nothing. So, the Israelites could take what they please and do with them as they want.1 Thus, the servility of the curse that Noah pronounces to Ham (through Canaan) is that all of his descendants will become slaves. But aren’t curses merely words? Do curses work? Words do not have mystical powers. Nevertheless, racists have used Genesis 9:25–26 to support their claim to white supremacy. Tradition says that Cush, the son of Ham (Genesis 10:6), is the father of the African race. They use this as proof to sanctify the institution of slavery.
Actually, the curse of Ham does not and cannot refer to the Africans nor the Canaanites as can be seen in this answer. It is a later Christian invention to justify the institution of the slave trade. Abarbanel merely followed that wrong teaching, being a product of his time. Additionally, many rabbis took part in the black civil rights movement. And when Rabbi Nathan Drazin was told to abandon his synagogue congregation of 5,000 people in Baltimore, Maryland due to black migration, he chose to stay and teach a small black community the love of Torah. As with the slave trade, it was also a Christian, William Wilberforce, who brought about the abolition of the slave trade in a debate in parliament in London, 1833.
1 This is the idea from great biblical scholar and rabbi, Arnold Ehrlich
Although Wilberforce tried to convert as many Jews as he could to Christianity | 437 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The following excerpt on the relative weakness of slavery and demographic change in Missouri on the eve of the War Between the States comes from William E. Parrish’s book A History of Missouri: Volume III, 1860 to 1875:
“For all their concern with the protection of slavery property and the preservation of the rights of Southerners, the Jackson men had failed to adequately take into account the changing conditions in Missouri. The state’s overall population had climbed nearly 75 percent during the previous decade to 1,182,012, of whom 114,931 (1 in 9) were slaves. This was a vastly different ration from the 1 to 4 1/2 of thirty years earlier. Most of these Negroes lived in counties with borders that lay within fifty miles of Missouri’s two great rivers. With only 59 of the state’s 24,320 slaveholders owning more than 40 chattels, it can readily be seen that Missouri was not a land of large plantations. Twenty-five percent of these owned only one slave while more than 70 percent had less than five, which would indicate that most Missouri slaves were either household servants or worked as farm laborers in small groups.
By contrast with this decline of slavery in both percentage of population and economic importance, the state’s white population had nearly doubled in the 1850s – much of this due to immigration, which in increasing numbers came from the Northern states and abroad. Indeed, while the percentage of native Missourians had remained relatively stable at 44 percent and that of Southern-born had increased 44 percent, the population of those of Northern birth had jumped 180 percent while that of foreign birth rose 110 percent. By 1860 Northern- and foreign-born outnumbered the Southern born within the state’s population for the first time. Those emigrants from the North tended to settle in the southwest prairies and the more fertile of the Ozark regions, the upper tier of counties beyond the recently completed Hannibal and St. Joseph Railroad, and in and around St. Louis. The foreign-born concentrated almost entirely near St. Louis, although they spread out along the Missouri River as far west as Cole County. Marion County in the northeast, Buchanan and Lafayette counties in west-central Missouri had also absorbed a considerable influx of foreign-born settlers. The majority of these were German and Irish, with the former outnumbering the latter two to one. Both of these ethnic groups were antislavery and to a considerable extent anti-Negro. These newcomers had not yet emerged to a dominant position politically as illustrated by the makeup of the new convention, in which all but 17 of 99 members had Southern origins. Still, they had to be reckoned with. Another five years and a new convention would present a different story.”
Missouri was a slave state.
It was a “child of Kentucky” that had been settled by people from the Upper South who moved west like the pioneer Daniel Boone who died in St. Charles County. Boone’s Farm is still there today. These Kentuckians created hemp plantations along the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers.
Slavery in Missouri and Kentucky was a weak thing. The Border States were barely enslaved compared to the Deep South. They weren’t a part of the Cotton Kingdom. 70 percent of slaveowners in Missouri owned less than five slaves and 25 percent of slaveowners only owned one slave.
Henry Clay was right that slavery was rapidly becoming less and less important in Kentucky and Missouri because the White population was soaring, the railroads were integrating these states into the Northern regional economy and they were becoming more industrialized. By 1861, Southerners had even become a demographic minority in Missouri, which is why they lost control of the state.
In 1860, Missouri voted for the Little Giant Stephen A. Douglas (58,801) in a tight race with Constitutional Unionist candidate John Bell who got nearly as many votes (58,372). Abraham Lincoln came in a distant fourth place with 17,028 votes. Lincoln’s voters were also overwhelmingly recent German immigrants in St. Louis who were anti-slavery. He only won a plurality of the national popular vote.
If Douglas had won the election in 1860 and existing trends had continued, slavery would have faded in Missouri and Kentucky. The slaves would have been sold down the river to the Southwest. This is how the Northern states divested themselves of slavery in the antebellum era. Also, slavery was rapidly exhausting the soil in the eastern South, which is why so many slaveowners were perpetually moving south and west. The boll weevil would have eventually destroyed the Cotton Kingdom anyway.
What if there hadn’t been a devastating civil war no one wanted in Missouri, Oklahoma, Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia? What if those states had either been allowed to secede in peace or allowed to stay within the Union? Those states would unquestionably be far wealthier and less black today. The War Between the States took a horrendous toll on the Upper South while it developed the North. | <urn:uuid:9c7185cf-51b9-48e7-acb2-8183ddc6407e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.occidentaldissent.com/2019/06/20/southern-history-series-slavery-in-missouri/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00280.warc.gz | en | 0.983233 | 1,029 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
0.09623923897743225,
0.30655819177627563,
0.36778056621551514,
-0.27050647139549255,
0.14358624815940857,
-0.06407555192708969,
-0.37587350606918335,
-0.20637810230255127,
-0.5351217985153198,
-0.013385044410824776,
0.22235819697380066,
-0.1977097988128662,
-0.01883281022310257,
0.05458461... | 10 | The following excerpt on the relative weakness of slavery and demographic change in Missouri on the eve of the War Between the States comes from William E. Parrish’s book A History of Missouri: Volume III, 1860 to 1875:
“For all their concern with the protection of slavery property and the preservation of the rights of Southerners, the Jackson men had failed to adequately take into account the changing conditions in Missouri. The state’s overall population had climbed nearly 75 percent during the previous decade to 1,182,012, of whom 114,931 (1 in 9) were slaves. This was a vastly different ration from the 1 to 4 1/2 of thirty years earlier. Most of these Negroes lived in counties with borders that lay within fifty miles of Missouri’s two great rivers. With only 59 of the state’s 24,320 slaveholders owning more than 40 chattels, it can readily be seen that Missouri was not a land of large plantations. Twenty-five percent of these owned only one slave while more than 70 percent had less than five, which would indicate that most Missouri slaves were either household servants or worked as farm laborers in small groups.
By contrast with this decline of slavery in both percentage of population and economic importance, the state’s white population had nearly doubled in the 1850s – much of this due to immigration, which in increasing numbers came from the Northern states and abroad. Indeed, while the percentage of native Missourians had remained relatively stable at 44 percent and that of Southern-born had increased 44 percent, the population of those of Northern birth had jumped 180 percent while that of foreign birth rose 110 percent. By 1860 Northern- and foreign-born outnumbered the Southern born within the state’s population for the first time. Those emigrants from the North tended to settle in the southwest prairies and the more fertile of the Ozark regions, the upper tier of counties beyond the recently completed Hannibal and St. Joseph Railroad, and in and around St. Louis. The foreign-born concentrated almost entirely near St. Louis, although they spread out along the Missouri River as far west as Cole County. Marion County in the northeast, Buchanan and Lafayette counties in west-central Missouri had also absorbed a considerable influx of foreign-born settlers. The majority of these were German and Irish, with the former outnumbering the latter two to one. Both of these ethnic groups were antislavery and to a considerable extent anti-Negro. These newcomers had not yet emerged to a dominant position politically as illustrated by the makeup of the new convention, in which all but 17 of 99 members had Southern origins. Still, they had to be reckoned with. Another five years and a new convention would present a different story.”
Missouri was a slave state.
It was a “child of Kentucky” that had been settled by people from the Upper South who moved west like the pioneer Daniel Boone who died in St. Charles County. Boone’s Farm is still there today. These Kentuckians created hemp plantations along the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers.
Slavery in Missouri and Kentucky was a weak thing. The Border States were barely enslaved compared to the Deep South. They weren’t a part of the Cotton Kingdom. 70 percent of slaveowners in Missouri owned less than five slaves and 25 percent of slaveowners only owned one slave.
Henry Clay was right that slavery was rapidly becoming less and less important in Kentucky and Missouri because the White population was soaring, the railroads were integrating these states into the Northern regional economy and they were becoming more industrialized. By 1861, Southerners had even become a demographic minority in Missouri, which is why they lost control of the state.
In 1860, Missouri voted for the Little Giant Stephen A. Douglas (58,801) in a tight race with Constitutional Unionist candidate John Bell who got nearly as many votes (58,372). Abraham Lincoln came in a distant fourth place with 17,028 votes. Lincoln’s voters were also overwhelmingly recent German immigrants in St. Louis who were anti-slavery. He only won a plurality of the national popular vote.
If Douglas had won the election in 1860 and existing trends had continued, slavery would have faded in Missouri and Kentucky. The slaves would have been sold down the river to the Southwest. This is how the Northern states divested themselves of slavery in the antebellum era. Also, slavery was rapidly exhausting the soil in the eastern South, which is why so many slaveowners were perpetually moving south and west. The boll weevil would have eventually destroyed the Cotton Kingdom anyway.
What if there hadn’t been a devastating civil war no one wanted in Missouri, Oklahoma, Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia? What if those states had either been allowed to secede in peace or allowed to stay within the Union? Those states would unquestionably be far wealthier and less black today. The War Between the States took a horrendous toll on the Upper South while it developed the North. | 1,075 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Benito Pablo Juarez Garcia
by Bekah from Spokane
Benito Juarez began his life as an underdog. He was born on March 21, 1806 in a small village called San Pablo Guelatao in the southern state of Oaxaca, Mexico. His parents were indigenous peasants, full-blooded Zapotec Indians, and very hard workers. He was orphaned before his fourth birthday when his father died from overexertion and his mother died during childbirth. During his childhood Juarez lived with various family members while working as a shepherd. At age 12, he moved to the city to pursue an education. In addition to not speaking Spanish, Juarez was illiterate and spoke only Zapotec. After moving to the city, he worked as a servant for a Don Antonio Salanuevo who later became his godfather, helped him enroll into schools, and offered support to Juarez while he became educated, literate, and bilingual. Juarez continued his education by attending Seminary of Santa Cruz. Soon after deciding that he did not want to become a priest, he attended the Oaxaca Institute of Arts and Sciences to study law.
He graduated from law school in 1834, which was only the beginning of his political career. Juarez was joined in matrimony in 1841 with Margarita Mazza, who was the daughter of a wealthy Oaxacan family. In 1842 he was appointed a position as a judge. Due to his involvement in the Liberal reformation Juarez was temporarily exiled and spent time in New Orleans. When he returned to Mexico, Juarez reintegrated himself into political scene, and began reforms that shortly led to a Civil War, which was interrupted by French invaders. Because Juarez was so successful at fighting off the French he was soon after elected President.
Juarez was the governor of Oaxaca from 1847-1853. In 1854, he helped to establish the Plan of Ayutla. Juarez developed the Law of Juarez in 1955, which eliminated special privileges for military, reorganized the judicial system, and helped Mexico reach greater levels of equality by declaring all citizens equal by law. Juarez was elected the head of Mexico’s Supreme Court in 1857. The following year, Juarez was elected President of Mexico.
Juarez helped to better Mexico by building roads, railroads, schools, and public buildings. He reorganized the National Guard and the national treasury, taking it from tremendous debt to surplus during the years of his presidency. In addition, Juarez was an advocate for the poor and indigenous, creating equal rights for them. He also helped to develop a middle class. A large part of the changes that Juarez made consisted of separating the Catholic Church and its powers in the government with policy and property. Under Juarez’s presidency, Mexico had its first efficient government according the Constitution of 1857 that included implementation of freedom of speech, freedom of press, and right of assembly.
He died July 17, 1872 from a heart attack and his birth date is now a Mexican national holiday. Though he may have begun his life as an underdog, he ended his life having helped and changed his country. Juarez overcame adversity and prejudice and became quite successful by way of positively changing the lives of millions of people. He was a presidential hero and Liberal reform leader that impacted and changed Mexico. His effort to overcome and advance reforms continues to improve the quality of life of the Mexican people.
Page created on 10/13/2007 12:00:00 AM
Last edited 1/23/2020 5:03:52 AM
The beliefs, viewpoints and opinions expressed in this hero submission on the website are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the beliefs, viewpoints and opinions of The MY HERO Project and its staff. | <urn:uuid:302572d3-c9f8-4ccc-9c71-bb26d3c399de> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://myhero.com/benito_juarez_whitworth_07 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.990514 | 782 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
-0.06181776151061058,
0.5720843076705933,
0.15810434520244598,
0.21035641431808472,
-0.23028403520584106,
-0.4906871020793915,
0.15802323818206787,
-0.0632382333278656,
-0.2504919171333313,
-0.06859362125396729,
0.32333895564079285,
-0.22548501193523407,
0.16257968544960022,
0.070344790816... | 2 | Benito Pablo Juarez Garcia
by Bekah from Spokane
Benito Juarez began his life as an underdog. He was born on March 21, 1806 in a small village called San Pablo Guelatao in the southern state of Oaxaca, Mexico. His parents were indigenous peasants, full-blooded Zapotec Indians, and very hard workers. He was orphaned before his fourth birthday when his father died from overexertion and his mother died during childbirth. During his childhood Juarez lived with various family members while working as a shepherd. At age 12, he moved to the city to pursue an education. In addition to not speaking Spanish, Juarez was illiterate and spoke only Zapotec. After moving to the city, he worked as a servant for a Don Antonio Salanuevo who later became his godfather, helped him enroll into schools, and offered support to Juarez while he became educated, literate, and bilingual. Juarez continued his education by attending Seminary of Santa Cruz. Soon after deciding that he did not want to become a priest, he attended the Oaxaca Institute of Arts and Sciences to study law.
He graduated from law school in 1834, which was only the beginning of his political career. Juarez was joined in matrimony in 1841 with Margarita Mazza, who was the daughter of a wealthy Oaxacan family. In 1842 he was appointed a position as a judge. Due to his involvement in the Liberal reformation Juarez was temporarily exiled and spent time in New Orleans. When he returned to Mexico, Juarez reintegrated himself into political scene, and began reforms that shortly led to a Civil War, which was interrupted by French invaders. Because Juarez was so successful at fighting off the French he was soon after elected President.
Juarez was the governor of Oaxaca from 1847-1853. In 1854, he helped to establish the Plan of Ayutla. Juarez developed the Law of Juarez in 1955, which eliminated special privileges for military, reorganized the judicial system, and helped Mexico reach greater levels of equality by declaring all citizens equal by law. Juarez was elected the head of Mexico’s Supreme Court in 1857. The following year, Juarez was elected President of Mexico.
Juarez helped to better Mexico by building roads, railroads, schools, and public buildings. He reorganized the National Guard and the national treasury, taking it from tremendous debt to surplus during the years of his presidency. In addition, Juarez was an advocate for the poor and indigenous, creating equal rights for them. He also helped to develop a middle class. A large part of the changes that Juarez made consisted of separating the Catholic Church and its powers in the government with policy and property. Under Juarez’s presidency, Mexico had its first efficient government according the Constitution of 1857 that included implementation of freedom of speech, freedom of press, and right of assembly.
He died July 17, 1872 from a heart attack and his birth date is now a Mexican national holiday. Though he may have begun his life as an underdog, he ended his life having helped and changed his country. Juarez overcame adversity and prejudice and became quite successful by way of positively changing the lives of millions of people. He was a presidential hero and Liberal reform leader that impacted and changed Mexico. His effort to overcome and advance reforms continues to improve the quality of life of the Mexican people.
Page created on 10/13/2007 12:00:00 AM
Last edited 1/23/2020 5:03:52 AM
The beliefs, viewpoints and opinions expressed in this hero submission on the website are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the beliefs, viewpoints and opinions of The MY HERO Project and its staff. | 830 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the 1980s and early 1990s, a revolutionary wave broke out in Central and Eastern Europe, resulting in the end of the Communist rule. This period is also known as the Fall of Nations. One of the revolutions that formed part of the revolutionary wave was the Revolution of 1989 which began in Poland in 1989 and continued in Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and Romania. In Romania, this period of civil unrest took place in December 1989 and was known as the Romanian Revolution. The revolution began in the city Timisoara and spread throughout the country, culminating in an end of Communist rule in Romania and a show of trial and persecution of the party leader Nicolae Ceausescu.
Background Of The Revolution
In 1981, Nicolae Ceausescu, the general secretary of the Communist Party, initiated austerity programs that would enable the country to liquidate its entire national debt of $10 billion. To achieve this, essential commodities such as food were rationed, drastically reducing the standard of living and increasing malnutrition. The presence of secret police almost everywhere in the country made Romania a police state. The public could not state opinions that undermined the Communist Party, and free speech was limited. This austerity program and the widespread poverty made the Communist regime very unpopular.
In March 1989, Ceausescu’s economic policies came under fire by some of the leaders of the Romania Communist Party, but the country was able to pay its debt of about $11 billion months before the expected time. However, the austerity program and food shortage remained unchanged. In November of 1989, Ceausescu was re-elected as the General Secretary of the Communist Party for another five-year term and was expected to survive the revolutionary wave that was sweeping across Eastern Europe. Several students who had demonstrated against the government on November 11th were arrested and only released on December 22nd.
On December 16th, 1989, the Hungarians living in Timisoara held a public protest in an attempt to reject the government’s eviction of Laszlo Tokes, a pastor of the Hungarian Reformed Church. In July the same year, Laszlo had criticized the government in an interview with the Hungarian television. The protestors gathered around the pastor’s home to protect him from harassment and soon spread over the city. The following day, demonstrators broke into the district commissioner’s building and destroyed the party’s symbols and documents. By December 18th, several workers had joined the protest which was slowly overwhelming the state police. On December 21st, Ceausescu addressed a crowd of about 100,000 people to condemn the events of Timisoara. As he was speaking, a section of the crowd began jeering and booing at him. The crowd then took to the street, shouting anti-Ceausescu slogans. However, they were attacked and shot at by the soldier, killing and wounding many. On December 22nd, several military officers defected and refused to carry the president’s order following the mysterious death of the military minister Vasile Milea. Later that day Ceausescu and his wife were arrested and were tried and executed three days later.
An estimated 1,104 people died in the Romanian Revolution of which 162 died in the protest between December 16th and 19th while the rest lost their lives after the seizure of power by the new political outfit. About 3,352 people were injured, many of whom were civilians.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:2f07d608-b868-4390-921d-770f629adcc7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-romanian-revolution.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00302.warc.gz | en | 0.983692 | 773 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
-0.4937613010406494,
0.410003662109375,
-0.1470043957233429,
0.2809128165245056,
-0.026650886982679367,
0.29955804347991943,
-0.4685455560684204,
0.3501737713813782,
-0.37777236104011536,
0.12677150964736938,
0.05786897987127304,
0.22802695631980896,
0.030132973566651344,
0.053886339068412... | 2 | In the 1980s and early 1990s, a revolutionary wave broke out in Central and Eastern Europe, resulting in the end of the Communist rule. This period is also known as the Fall of Nations. One of the revolutions that formed part of the revolutionary wave was the Revolution of 1989 which began in Poland in 1989 and continued in Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and Romania. In Romania, this period of civil unrest took place in December 1989 and was known as the Romanian Revolution. The revolution began in the city Timisoara and spread throughout the country, culminating in an end of Communist rule in Romania and a show of trial and persecution of the party leader Nicolae Ceausescu.
Background Of The Revolution
In 1981, Nicolae Ceausescu, the general secretary of the Communist Party, initiated austerity programs that would enable the country to liquidate its entire national debt of $10 billion. To achieve this, essential commodities such as food were rationed, drastically reducing the standard of living and increasing malnutrition. The presence of secret police almost everywhere in the country made Romania a police state. The public could not state opinions that undermined the Communist Party, and free speech was limited. This austerity program and the widespread poverty made the Communist regime very unpopular.
In March 1989, Ceausescu’s economic policies came under fire by some of the leaders of the Romania Communist Party, but the country was able to pay its debt of about $11 billion months before the expected time. However, the austerity program and food shortage remained unchanged. In November of 1989, Ceausescu was re-elected as the General Secretary of the Communist Party for another five-year term and was expected to survive the revolutionary wave that was sweeping across Eastern Europe. Several students who had demonstrated against the government on November 11th were arrested and only released on December 22nd.
On December 16th, 1989, the Hungarians living in Timisoara held a public protest in an attempt to reject the government’s eviction of Laszlo Tokes, a pastor of the Hungarian Reformed Church. In July the same year, Laszlo had criticized the government in an interview with the Hungarian television. The protestors gathered around the pastor’s home to protect him from harassment and soon spread over the city. The following day, demonstrators broke into the district commissioner’s building and destroyed the party’s symbols and documents. By December 18th, several workers had joined the protest which was slowly overwhelming the state police. On December 21st, Ceausescu addressed a crowd of about 100,000 people to condemn the events of Timisoara. As he was speaking, a section of the crowd began jeering and booing at him. The crowd then took to the street, shouting anti-Ceausescu slogans. However, they were attacked and shot at by the soldier, killing and wounding many. On December 22nd, several military officers defected and refused to carry the president’s order following the mysterious death of the military minister Vasile Milea. Later that day Ceausescu and his wife were arrested and were tried and executed three days later.
An estimated 1,104 people died in the Romanian Revolution of which 162 died in the protest between December 16th and 19th while the rest lost their lives after the seizure of power by the new political outfit. About 3,352 people were injured, many of whom were civilians.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 824 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Year 5 have been learning about forces and studied two scientists who have theories about the speed at which things fall. Aristotle says that the heavier things are, the quicker they will fall, whereas Galileo felt that the mass of an object made no difference to the speed at which it fell.
Year 5 experimented to find out who was right by dropping things of the same weight but different shape and the same shape by different weights. They concluded that Aristotle was correct and it is the force of gravity that makes this happen. However, Year 5 also found out, from watching a clip on the moon, that when you take gravity out of the situation Galileo’s theory is correct and both a hammer and a feather fell at the same speed. So they are both correct! Year 5 learnt a lot during this experiment! | <urn:uuid:2575779e-00e1-43a0-9b76-9ab623f6f787> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.normanhurstsch.co.uk/2019/12/20/aristotle-vs-galileo/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00049.warc.gz | en | 0.98345 | 162 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
-0.33353522419929504,
0.1149970144033432,
0.1473921537399292,
-0.07220190018415451,
-0.6215924620628357,
0.0013390566455200315,
0.15677262842655182,
0.27668118476867676,
0.4072280824184418,
-0.2303185611963272,
-0.0995732992887497,
-0.3722781240940094,
-0.07963485270738602,
0.2348102927207... | 3 | Year 5 have been learning about forces and studied two scientists who have theories about the speed at which things fall. Aristotle says that the heavier things are, the quicker they will fall, whereas Galileo felt that the mass of an object made no difference to the speed at which it fell.
Year 5 experimented to find out who was right by dropping things of the same weight but different shape and the same shape by different weights. They concluded that Aristotle was correct and it is the force of gravity that makes this happen. However, Year 5 also found out, from watching a clip on the moon, that when you take gravity out of the situation Galileo’s theory is correct and both a hammer and a feather fell at the same speed. So they are both correct! Year 5 learnt a lot during this experiment! | 165 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The story ‘Young Goodman Brown’ by Nathaniel Hawthorne shows the struggle of the internal conflict faced by one man in choosing between good and evil. The man believes in good but the whole community is surrounded by evil doings. Mr. Goodman Brown embarks on a trip deep into the dark forest. He does this so as to justify his faith in being a Puritan. He leaves his wife, Faith behind and as he walks in the forest’s depth, he encounters the devil that convinces him to walk the crooked path with him. Brown struggles to fight back the evil that is inside him. He tries to convince himself to go back to his faith, but the devil works so hard in trying to make him lose this faith. Brown’s faith in doing good was strong but is shaken when he sees his childhood catechism teacher and gets to know that she has also turned to the evil. This deters his confidence in faith completely and it gets worse when he gets to the middle of the forest and sees the whole community engaged in satanic acts. This stirs up the conflict within him on whether to stick to doing good or join the majority in the evil ways. This is a similar conflict to the ‘Rocking-horse Winner’ where the family is torn between believing the truth that they do not have money, or keep thinking of themselves as rich (Hawthorne, 2005 pg 13).
Buy ‘The Young Goodman Brown’, ‘The Rocking-Horse Winner’ essay paper online
In the ‘Rocking-house Winner’ by D.H. Lawrence, there is the conflict of the family living in luxury. Despite the father of this family not being lucky to have money, the family still believes that they do have a lot of money. Paul is the boy in this family and he realises there is a conflict when it comes to money and the family needs more of it. The mother says she became unlucky after getting married because she had money before that (Lawrence, 1966 pg 7). The conflict develops when the boy, Paul, gets to know that he has a lucky hand in betting. He bets on horses and wins himself a lot of money which he gives to his mother. His mother however does not know the source of that money.
The characters in both of these books play a major similar role which is developing the themes and morals of stories. This can be drawn from the qualities that they possess and the roles that they play in developing the story. In the ‘Young Goodman Brown’, Mr. Brown is a man who portrays the importance of faith and doing good. He tries to fight back all the temptations within him to join in the satanic nature that his community has indulged in. The devil plays a role of being the evil enforcer. He helps develop theme of evil in the story as he lures Mr. Brown into the forest and tries to convince him to turn away from doing good. To do this, he uses Mr. Brown’s former teacher Mrs. Goody Cloyse to shake up his confidence, as Mrs. Cloyse is already part of the satanic acts and is even attending a Witch’s meeting. Mr. Browns’ wife, Faith, plays a big role in keeping up his faith in believing in the good. Mr. Brown is resistant in giving in to the devils wishes as he knows he has left his wife behind and this keeps the faith in him strong. His wife helps build on the theme of doing good and believing in ones’ faith in goodness (Lawrence, 1966 pg5).
In the ‘Rocking-horse Winner’, the characters also play a major role in building up the story and the themes in it. The boy in the family, Paul, helps portray the theme of unselfishness and generosity when he goes out to seek wealth for his family through gambling and he willingly gives it to his mother. His mother is important in developing the theme on materialism as she comes out in the story complaining about how she used to have money before she got married. She also shows greed as she is not content with what she has but wants to have more of it. She wants to live above her income. This greed causes her unhappiness and in the end, the death of her son too. The theme about the destructive power of materialism is reinforced by Paul’s uncle who in the end ironically states that Paul was mad and he was now better of dead as he was free from agony of satisfying his mother (Hawthorne, 2005 pg 9).
Both the setting of these two stories played the role of creating the suspense and making the narration of the story more realistic to the situations. In the ‘Young Goodman Brown’, the story is set deep in the forest. This is significant because the forest gives a perfect setting for evil spirits and evil practises to take place. The devil appears to Mr. Brown in the forest and begins to lead him deep into it. This creates the suspense about the evil nature of a dark forest and it keeps the readers guessing on what might be coming next. In the story ‘The Rocking-horse Winner’, the setting also plays an important role in developing the themes in the story. The story revolves in the family’s household. The house they live in is nice and big and it is fully equipped. It has got a lot of staff who include gardeners and housekeepers giving a sense of wealthy living. However, much as they are comfortable in this house, the family has got money problems. This has stressed the members in the family but no one utters a word. This setting is significant to the story in bringing out the money problems and the theme on materialism.
The themes in these two stories are both significant in the morals about the doing good in the society while considering how what we do affect others and not just ourselves. In the ‘Rocking-horse Winner’, the author brings out the theme on materialism and greed. Paul’s mother is so materialistic and she lives beyond her means. She keeps on complaining that the money is not enough and wants to have more of it. Her greed for more money makes her son, Paul to engage himself in gambling at the horse tracks just so he could make money to satisfy his mother. However, the mother’s greed for wealth is too much and eventually leads to him stretching his limits to satisfy her and in the process he meets his death. His mother was acting only on her own personal interests without thinking of what might happen to her son. In the story ‘Young Goodman Brown’ however, the writer portrays the theme of evil and good and how good can overcome evil. When Mr. Brown is confronted by the devil, the devil tries to convince him join the evil ways. Despite being in the forest, Mr. Brown however still believes in doing good and acts in the best interest of his wife Faith and his community. He is not selfish to give into the devils lures. He refuses to lose his faith and engage in evil. In this story, the theme about faith is portrayed through Mr. Brown’s Strong stand in what he believes in.
Related Free Compare and Contrast Essays
- Yemen and the USA in 2010
- Public vs Private School Education
- Comparison of Two Short Stories and One Poem
- Types of Organisations
- Avatar and Colonialism
- Durkheim and Marx
- Comparing and Evaluating Al Gore’s Film
- Comparison of Love Ideals
- The Line between Tyranny and Strong Leadership
- Compare and Contrast School Teachers and Parents
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:8f724219-9ebc-415e-abb3-2c8d943f7d3d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/compare-and-contrast/the-young-goodman-brown-the-rocking-horse-winner.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.981798 | 1,585 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
-0.08280764520168304,
-0.04912491887807846,
-0.15745460987091064,
-0.2315186858177185,
0.043881915509700775,
0.09541216492652893,
-0.16103869676589966,
-0.3116866946220398,
-0.253711998462677,
0.18709580600261688,
-0.04821145534515381,
-0.12154871970415115,
-0.05041799694299698,
0.21970796... | 1 | The story ‘Young Goodman Brown’ by Nathaniel Hawthorne shows the struggle of the internal conflict faced by one man in choosing between good and evil. The man believes in good but the whole community is surrounded by evil doings. Mr. Goodman Brown embarks on a trip deep into the dark forest. He does this so as to justify his faith in being a Puritan. He leaves his wife, Faith behind and as he walks in the forest’s depth, he encounters the devil that convinces him to walk the crooked path with him. Brown struggles to fight back the evil that is inside him. He tries to convince himself to go back to his faith, but the devil works so hard in trying to make him lose this faith. Brown’s faith in doing good was strong but is shaken when he sees his childhood catechism teacher and gets to know that she has also turned to the evil. This deters his confidence in faith completely and it gets worse when he gets to the middle of the forest and sees the whole community engaged in satanic acts. This stirs up the conflict within him on whether to stick to doing good or join the majority in the evil ways. This is a similar conflict to the ‘Rocking-horse Winner’ where the family is torn between believing the truth that they do not have money, or keep thinking of themselves as rich (Hawthorne, 2005 pg 13).
Buy ‘The Young Goodman Brown’, ‘The Rocking-Horse Winner’ essay paper online
In the ‘Rocking-house Winner’ by D.H. Lawrence, there is the conflict of the family living in luxury. Despite the father of this family not being lucky to have money, the family still believes that they do have a lot of money. Paul is the boy in this family and he realises there is a conflict when it comes to money and the family needs more of it. The mother says she became unlucky after getting married because she had money before that (Lawrence, 1966 pg 7). The conflict develops when the boy, Paul, gets to know that he has a lucky hand in betting. He bets on horses and wins himself a lot of money which he gives to his mother. His mother however does not know the source of that money.
The characters in both of these books play a major similar role which is developing the themes and morals of stories. This can be drawn from the qualities that they possess and the roles that they play in developing the story. In the ‘Young Goodman Brown’, Mr. Brown is a man who portrays the importance of faith and doing good. He tries to fight back all the temptations within him to join in the satanic nature that his community has indulged in. The devil plays a role of being the evil enforcer. He helps develop theme of evil in the story as he lures Mr. Brown into the forest and tries to convince him to turn away from doing good. To do this, he uses Mr. Brown’s former teacher Mrs. Goody Cloyse to shake up his confidence, as Mrs. Cloyse is already part of the satanic acts and is even attending a Witch’s meeting. Mr. Browns’ wife, Faith, plays a big role in keeping up his faith in believing in the good. Mr. Brown is resistant in giving in to the devils wishes as he knows he has left his wife behind and this keeps the faith in him strong. His wife helps build on the theme of doing good and believing in ones’ faith in goodness (Lawrence, 1966 pg5).
In the ‘Rocking-horse Winner’, the characters also play a major role in building up the story and the themes in it. The boy in the family, Paul, helps portray the theme of unselfishness and generosity when he goes out to seek wealth for his family through gambling and he willingly gives it to his mother. His mother is important in developing the theme on materialism as she comes out in the story complaining about how she used to have money before she got married. She also shows greed as she is not content with what she has but wants to have more of it. She wants to live above her income. This greed causes her unhappiness and in the end, the death of her son too. The theme about the destructive power of materialism is reinforced by Paul’s uncle who in the end ironically states that Paul was mad and he was now better of dead as he was free from agony of satisfying his mother (Hawthorne, 2005 pg 9).
Both the setting of these two stories played the role of creating the suspense and making the narration of the story more realistic to the situations. In the ‘Young Goodman Brown’, the story is set deep in the forest. This is significant because the forest gives a perfect setting for evil spirits and evil practises to take place. The devil appears to Mr. Brown in the forest and begins to lead him deep into it. This creates the suspense about the evil nature of a dark forest and it keeps the readers guessing on what might be coming next. In the story ‘The Rocking-horse Winner’, the setting also plays an important role in developing the themes in the story. The story revolves in the family’s household. The house they live in is nice and big and it is fully equipped. It has got a lot of staff who include gardeners and housekeepers giving a sense of wealthy living. However, much as they are comfortable in this house, the family has got money problems. This has stressed the members in the family but no one utters a word. This setting is significant to the story in bringing out the money problems and the theme on materialism.
The themes in these two stories are both significant in the morals about the doing good in the society while considering how what we do affect others and not just ourselves. In the ‘Rocking-horse Winner’, the author brings out the theme on materialism and greed. Paul’s mother is so materialistic and she lives beyond her means. She keeps on complaining that the money is not enough and wants to have more of it. Her greed for more money makes her son, Paul to engage himself in gambling at the horse tracks just so he could make money to satisfy his mother. However, the mother’s greed for wealth is too much and eventually leads to him stretching his limits to satisfy her and in the process he meets his death. His mother was acting only on her own personal interests without thinking of what might happen to her son. In the story ‘Young Goodman Brown’ however, the writer portrays the theme of evil and good and how good can overcome evil. When Mr. Brown is confronted by the devil, the devil tries to convince him join the evil ways. Despite being in the forest, Mr. Brown however still believes in doing good and acts in the best interest of his wife Faith and his community. He is not selfish to give into the devils lures. He refuses to lose his faith and engage in evil. In this story, the theme about faith is portrayed through Mr. Brown’s Strong stand in what he believes in.
Related Free Compare and Contrast Essays
- Yemen and the USA in 2010
- Public vs Private School Education
- Comparison of Two Short Stories and One Poem
- Types of Organisations
- Avatar and Colonialism
- Durkheim and Marx
- Comparing and Evaluating Al Gore’s Film
- Comparison of Love Ideals
- The Line between Tyranny and Strong Leadership
- Compare and Contrast School Teachers and Parents
Most popular orders | 1,555 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He also sold tickets by the seat, so he could control all the trains. The rise of the railways in the United States was an important factor in the development of mass tourism. After the Civil War, the railroads gained some of their prominence as a business. In 1873, the Pennsylvania Railroad Company developed the first passenger train from Pittsburgh to Washington, DC.
The New York Central Railroad Company, which had a monopoly over passenger rail traffic in New York City, started operations in 1875. By 1891, the railroads controlled over 70 percent of all railroad traffic in the United States. The growing popularity of transportation in the 1890s was reflected in the popularity of the various travel agencies and hotels. Tourism in the United States had a major impact on the growth of the railroad industry. The railroads made over $13 billion in profits in the 1890s alone. They also made significant profits in the 1890s on the sale of tickets to tourists. He used a technique called "virtual-tourism" to sell tickets to people who otherwise would not have gone to a destination. In the early 1900s, the agreement between the railroad and Cook was a monopoly, meaning that the railroad could not pass on the cost of the tickets.
Cook's system worked well. But, in the 1930s the railroad ceased to be a major purchaser of Cook's tickets and Cook was forced to compete directly with the railroads. In the early 1960s, Cook began to become less important to the railroads, and he was forced to concede to other travel companies, who had profits to spare. In the 1970s, a new company, American Eagle, started competing directly with Cook. Their system was based on an old technology, the telephone, and they designed tickets for the telephone, which was much more efficient. The main advantage of American Eagle's system is that it can be easily adapted to the new technology.
Thomas Cook & Son has been the largest operator of transportation services in the United Kingdom. In addition to its railroad services, it operates ferry services, and offers a hotel service. The company operates over 45 hotels in the United Kingdom. The company's shares are traded on the British stock exchange.The company has over 6,000 employees. Thomas Cook & Son is a privately held company. | <urn:uuid:e7d76ca5-c3e5-456c-9d2f-da6abd9d7634> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://worldwide-tourism.com/niche_tourism_mass_tourism | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.981915 | 463 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
0.2593190371990204,
-0.04436352103948593,
0.37365150451660156,
0.05985887721180916,
-0.3208816349506378,
0.002377426018938422,
0.0774669498205185,
0.22862885892391205,
-0.2442386895418167,
-0.13304689526557922,
-0.19825254380702972,
0.3581949770450592,
-0.13271835446357727,
0.0354398190975... | 1 | He also sold tickets by the seat, so he could control all the trains. The rise of the railways in the United States was an important factor in the development of mass tourism. After the Civil War, the railroads gained some of their prominence as a business. In 1873, the Pennsylvania Railroad Company developed the first passenger train from Pittsburgh to Washington, DC.
The New York Central Railroad Company, which had a monopoly over passenger rail traffic in New York City, started operations in 1875. By 1891, the railroads controlled over 70 percent of all railroad traffic in the United States. The growing popularity of transportation in the 1890s was reflected in the popularity of the various travel agencies and hotels. Tourism in the United States had a major impact on the growth of the railroad industry. The railroads made over $13 billion in profits in the 1890s alone. They also made significant profits in the 1890s on the sale of tickets to tourists. He used a technique called "virtual-tourism" to sell tickets to people who otherwise would not have gone to a destination. In the early 1900s, the agreement between the railroad and Cook was a monopoly, meaning that the railroad could not pass on the cost of the tickets.
Cook's system worked well. But, in the 1930s the railroad ceased to be a major purchaser of Cook's tickets and Cook was forced to compete directly with the railroads. In the early 1960s, Cook began to become less important to the railroads, and he was forced to concede to other travel companies, who had profits to spare. In the 1970s, a new company, American Eagle, started competing directly with Cook. Their system was based on an old technology, the telephone, and they designed tickets for the telephone, which was much more efficient. The main advantage of American Eagle's system is that it can be easily adapted to the new technology.
Thomas Cook & Son has been the largest operator of transportation services in the United Kingdom. In addition to its railroad services, it operates ferry services, and offers a hotel service. The company operates over 45 hotels in the United Kingdom. The company's shares are traded on the British stock exchange.The company has over 6,000 employees. Thomas Cook & Son is a privately held company. | 503 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George Armstrong Custer was born in New Rumley, Ohio on December 5, 1839. For his entire life he would be called "Autie" by his loved ones, stemming from his own mispronunciation of his middle name. As a boy, he was always distracted by other pursuits and rarely, if ever, established himself from the pack as a student. In 1855 he attended a Normal School and by the following year had his teaching certificate to instruct grammar school. It was not long before he grew tired of his profession and soon applied to attend West Point, the U.S. Military Academy. It was not long before Custer's appointment was secured.
Custer entered the academy in the fall of 1857. He graduated last in a class of 34 in June of 1861. As the Civil War broke out, Custer emerged from the academy. He chose the Cavalry as his branch of service. Initially Custer was assigned staff duty with the Army of the Potomac. He soon distinguished himself as a man quick to volunteer and easily relied upon.
In November of 1862, Custer was introduced to a sought-after young woman Elizabeth "Libbie" the daughter of a judge. Initially Libbie fended off the confident young officer's advances, but soon the two soon became sweethearts. Libbie's father, Judge Daniel Bacon, did not approve of his daughter courting someone beneath her station. Nevertheless, the two soon began to court writing letters to one another frequently.
In the two years since the war had broken out, he had been promoted several times all the way to the rank of Brigadier General of Volunteers, commanding the Michigan Cavalry Brigade. Now a General, Libbie's father began to cool his objections to the young couple. In February 1864, the two were married in Monroe. After the honeymoon, Custer again returned to his obligations as an officer, but the two corresponded incessantly and spent time together whenever the opportunity presented itself.
Through the rest of the war he steadily advanced in responsibility and rank. By war's end in 1865, Custer commanded an entire Cavalry Division, holding the rank of Major General. In many cases, Generals led their troops on the battlefield by commanding movements from the rear. Custer, however, distinguished himself as a leader who commanded his troops from the front. Often times in a charge he was the very first soldier to engage the enemy. In one instance, he extended so far ahead of his own men that the enemy cut him off from the rest of his command. Men found in Custer a gallant leader worthy of following into battle. In the majority of the battles where he fought against Confederate forces he was victorious. On many occasions, he narrowly escaped harm in battle having 11 horses shot from under him. He incured only one wound from a Confederate artillery shell during the Battle of Culpepper Courthouse. As a result he became known for his legendary "Custer Luck." After the Civil War ended on April 9, 1865, the huge Volunteer Army was demobilized and Custer assumed his regular army rank as Captain.
In 1866, when the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment was created at Fort Riley Kansas, Custer was promoted to the position of Lt. Colonel of the regiment. The first Colonel of the 7th was Col. Andrew Smith, (1866-1869) and the second Colonel was Col. Samuel Sturgis (1869-1886). Col. Smith and Col. Sturgis were usually on detached service, which placed Custer in command of the Regiment until his death on June 25th, 1876.
In 1867, serving under General Winfield Hancock, Custer would see his first real experience in the west. Ostensibly, the campaign was to enter into peace negotiations with the Southern Cheyennes and Kiowas along the Arkansas River. Hancock's men and Custer set out "to confer with them to ascertain if they want to fight, in which case he [Hancock] will indulge them." While he scarcely saw combat during his Kansas/Colorado campaign, school was in session, and Custer had begun to learn the nuances of Indian fighting.
At the end of the campaign, he was promptly placed under arrest and charged with: absence without leave from his command, conduct to the prejudice of good order and military discipline, as well as for ordering deserters shot without trial and refusing them medical attention. The court-martial found him guilty of all charges and he was sentenced to one year of suspension from rank without pay. A dishonored Custer was now plagued with a very different reputation from the venerable one he enjoyed during the Civil War.
In 1868, conflict between Cheyennes and homesteaders raged. The U.S. Army dispatched a winter campaign in response to Indian raids along the Arkansas valley. Custer, now reinstated, was to command the 7th for the campaign which culminated with the Battle of the Washita on November 27th, 1868. At dawn, Custer's 7th attacked an unsuspecting village of Southern Cheyennes led by Chief Black Kettle. Killing all warriors, as per his orders, Custer's men spared women and children whenever possible.
In 1873, the 7th would be called into action again. This time, they were charged with protecting the Northern Pacific Railroad Survey as it moved along the Yellowstone investigating sites to lay rail. The Lakota, among other tribes, took particular issue with the construction of the railroad. Soon, the Lakotas were attacking survey sites regularly. While neither party realized it at the time, this would be the first contact between Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, Gall and other notable Lakota figures and their famous opponent; Custer.
The following summer of 1874, the 7th was sent to survey the Lakota's Black Hills. In a time of economic depression, rumors had begun circulating that the Black Hills were ripe with gold. Opportunistic men began to enter the hills in search of riches. Meanwhile, homesteaders had been frequently raided by Lakota war-parties. The army sought to establish a fort in the Black Hills to deter mining invasions and protect Lakota land, as well as have a site within the Sioux lands for the purposes of preventing further raiding. The 7th was charged with finding a proper site for a fort to be built. Along for the expedition, at the behest of General Custer, were two professional miners. During the summer expedition, gold was discovered and accompanying journalists quickly sent word back east of pay dirt. The rumors of gold in the Black Hills that had been circulating for over fifty years had now been confirmed, and a new gold rush was on.
By late 1875, information had become public that high ranking officials in Washington were involved in a scandal that involved the selling of exclusive trading rights at forts and posts along the upper Missouri region. The licenses needed to trade at military forts were issued by the Secretary of War, William Belknap. In March and April of 1876, Custer testified before a congressional committee that Secretary Belknap was involved in the graft. In addition, Custer's testimony attached President Grant's own brother Orville to the corruption. This put Custer in a precarious situation with the Commander and Chief, who was presently overseeing the final planning stages of an offensive on non-treaty Lakotas and Cheyennes for the upcoming spring.
Custer was eventually allowed to command his 7th Cavalry for the upcoming campaign. In the spring of 1876, the U.S. Army dispatched 3 massive columns comprising multiple regiments of Cavalry, Infantry, and Artillery. Their objective was to clear the area of the Lakota and Cheyenne and force them onto the Great Sioux Reservation. Custer's regiment was part of the largest column, coming from Fort Abraham Lincoln. General Alfred Terry commanded the campaign, and Custer was Terry's subordinate. On June 22nd, under orders from Terry, Custer's 7th was sent ahead of the rest of the column in hopes that they could be the striking force for what was most assuredly a large collection of Lakotas not far ahead of them.
On the morning of June 25th, based on intelligence suggesting that the Lakotas and Cheyennes were about to flee, Custer ordered his 7th Cavalry to attack. By the end of the day, 263 soldiers and approximately 80 Lakotas and Cheyennes lay dead. Custer was among them. Less than two weeks later on July 4th, Philadelphia was bursting at the seams with pride and nationalism. On the 100th birthday of the United States people had come from all over the world to share in the theme of "100 Years of Progress." On that day, they would receive word that their famous Civil War hero had been killed along a narrow stream in the Montana Territory. Americans were confounded in shock and stricken with grief.
Americans were devastated, but none more than Libbie, the wife of the fallen General. Libbie lived another 57 years after her beloved husband's death. For the rest of her days, she tirelessly lobbied public opinion portraying her husband as a brave, gallant, and noble figure struck down before his time. In spite of his early death, Custer's name would continue to live on in dime novels, art, music and film. Thanks in large part to Libbie, her husband achieved in death the infamy he sought in life. Since the day of his death in 1876, Custer has and will forever remain a lightning-rod of controversy. Regardless of his merit, Custer has been and will forever remain at the forefront of American historical discourse.
Last updated: January 7, 2020 | <urn:uuid:bdcff16b-9a4f-4800-ab6e-9ea69b3bb87d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nps.gov/libi/learn/historyculture/lt-col-george-armstrong-custer.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00029.warc.gz | en | 0.987881 | 2,002 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
-0.2623360753059387,
0.4813035726547241,
0.3761202096939087,
-0.23478791117668152,
-0.615401566028595,
-0.1934109777212143,
0.020495720207691193,
0.016449501737952232,
-0.2571240961551666,
-0.1412014216184616,
0.4335018992424011,
0.08729451894760132,
0.23014280200004578,
0.3278377056121826... | 12 | George Armstrong Custer was born in New Rumley, Ohio on December 5, 1839. For his entire life he would be called "Autie" by his loved ones, stemming from his own mispronunciation of his middle name. As a boy, he was always distracted by other pursuits and rarely, if ever, established himself from the pack as a student. In 1855 he attended a Normal School and by the following year had his teaching certificate to instruct grammar school. It was not long before he grew tired of his profession and soon applied to attend West Point, the U.S. Military Academy. It was not long before Custer's appointment was secured.
Custer entered the academy in the fall of 1857. He graduated last in a class of 34 in June of 1861. As the Civil War broke out, Custer emerged from the academy. He chose the Cavalry as his branch of service. Initially Custer was assigned staff duty with the Army of the Potomac. He soon distinguished himself as a man quick to volunteer and easily relied upon.
In November of 1862, Custer was introduced to a sought-after young woman Elizabeth "Libbie" the daughter of a judge. Initially Libbie fended off the confident young officer's advances, but soon the two soon became sweethearts. Libbie's father, Judge Daniel Bacon, did not approve of his daughter courting someone beneath her station. Nevertheless, the two soon began to court writing letters to one another frequently.
In the two years since the war had broken out, he had been promoted several times all the way to the rank of Brigadier General of Volunteers, commanding the Michigan Cavalry Brigade. Now a General, Libbie's father began to cool his objections to the young couple. In February 1864, the two were married in Monroe. After the honeymoon, Custer again returned to his obligations as an officer, but the two corresponded incessantly and spent time together whenever the opportunity presented itself.
Through the rest of the war he steadily advanced in responsibility and rank. By war's end in 1865, Custer commanded an entire Cavalry Division, holding the rank of Major General. In many cases, Generals led their troops on the battlefield by commanding movements from the rear. Custer, however, distinguished himself as a leader who commanded his troops from the front. Often times in a charge he was the very first soldier to engage the enemy. In one instance, he extended so far ahead of his own men that the enemy cut him off from the rest of his command. Men found in Custer a gallant leader worthy of following into battle. In the majority of the battles where he fought against Confederate forces he was victorious. On many occasions, he narrowly escaped harm in battle having 11 horses shot from under him. He incured only one wound from a Confederate artillery shell during the Battle of Culpepper Courthouse. As a result he became known for his legendary "Custer Luck." After the Civil War ended on April 9, 1865, the huge Volunteer Army was demobilized and Custer assumed his regular army rank as Captain.
In 1866, when the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment was created at Fort Riley Kansas, Custer was promoted to the position of Lt. Colonel of the regiment. The first Colonel of the 7th was Col. Andrew Smith, (1866-1869) and the second Colonel was Col. Samuel Sturgis (1869-1886). Col. Smith and Col. Sturgis were usually on detached service, which placed Custer in command of the Regiment until his death on June 25th, 1876.
In 1867, serving under General Winfield Hancock, Custer would see his first real experience in the west. Ostensibly, the campaign was to enter into peace negotiations with the Southern Cheyennes and Kiowas along the Arkansas River. Hancock's men and Custer set out "to confer with them to ascertain if they want to fight, in which case he [Hancock] will indulge them." While he scarcely saw combat during his Kansas/Colorado campaign, school was in session, and Custer had begun to learn the nuances of Indian fighting.
At the end of the campaign, he was promptly placed under arrest and charged with: absence without leave from his command, conduct to the prejudice of good order and military discipline, as well as for ordering deserters shot without trial and refusing them medical attention. The court-martial found him guilty of all charges and he was sentenced to one year of suspension from rank without pay. A dishonored Custer was now plagued with a very different reputation from the venerable one he enjoyed during the Civil War.
In 1868, conflict between Cheyennes and homesteaders raged. The U.S. Army dispatched a winter campaign in response to Indian raids along the Arkansas valley. Custer, now reinstated, was to command the 7th for the campaign which culminated with the Battle of the Washita on November 27th, 1868. At dawn, Custer's 7th attacked an unsuspecting village of Southern Cheyennes led by Chief Black Kettle. Killing all warriors, as per his orders, Custer's men spared women and children whenever possible.
In 1873, the 7th would be called into action again. This time, they were charged with protecting the Northern Pacific Railroad Survey as it moved along the Yellowstone investigating sites to lay rail. The Lakota, among other tribes, took particular issue with the construction of the railroad. Soon, the Lakotas were attacking survey sites regularly. While neither party realized it at the time, this would be the first contact between Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, Gall and other notable Lakota figures and their famous opponent; Custer.
The following summer of 1874, the 7th was sent to survey the Lakota's Black Hills. In a time of economic depression, rumors had begun circulating that the Black Hills were ripe with gold. Opportunistic men began to enter the hills in search of riches. Meanwhile, homesteaders had been frequently raided by Lakota war-parties. The army sought to establish a fort in the Black Hills to deter mining invasions and protect Lakota land, as well as have a site within the Sioux lands for the purposes of preventing further raiding. The 7th was charged with finding a proper site for a fort to be built. Along for the expedition, at the behest of General Custer, were two professional miners. During the summer expedition, gold was discovered and accompanying journalists quickly sent word back east of pay dirt. The rumors of gold in the Black Hills that had been circulating for over fifty years had now been confirmed, and a new gold rush was on.
By late 1875, information had become public that high ranking officials in Washington were involved in a scandal that involved the selling of exclusive trading rights at forts and posts along the upper Missouri region. The licenses needed to trade at military forts were issued by the Secretary of War, William Belknap. In March and April of 1876, Custer testified before a congressional committee that Secretary Belknap was involved in the graft. In addition, Custer's testimony attached President Grant's own brother Orville to the corruption. This put Custer in a precarious situation with the Commander and Chief, who was presently overseeing the final planning stages of an offensive on non-treaty Lakotas and Cheyennes for the upcoming spring.
Custer was eventually allowed to command his 7th Cavalry for the upcoming campaign. In the spring of 1876, the U.S. Army dispatched 3 massive columns comprising multiple regiments of Cavalry, Infantry, and Artillery. Their objective was to clear the area of the Lakota and Cheyenne and force them onto the Great Sioux Reservation. Custer's regiment was part of the largest column, coming from Fort Abraham Lincoln. General Alfred Terry commanded the campaign, and Custer was Terry's subordinate. On June 22nd, under orders from Terry, Custer's 7th was sent ahead of the rest of the column in hopes that they could be the striking force for what was most assuredly a large collection of Lakotas not far ahead of them.
On the morning of June 25th, based on intelligence suggesting that the Lakotas and Cheyennes were about to flee, Custer ordered his 7th Cavalry to attack. By the end of the day, 263 soldiers and approximately 80 Lakotas and Cheyennes lay dead. Custer was among them. Less than two weeks later on July 4th, Philadelphia was bursting at the seams with pride and nationalism. On the 100th birthday of the United States people had come from all over the world to share in the theme of "100 Years of Progress." On that day, they would receive word that their famous Civil War hero had been killed along a narrow stream in the Montana Territory. Americans were confounded in shock and stricken with grief.
Americans were devastated, but none more than Libbie, the wife of the fallen General. Libbie lived another 57 years after her beloved husband's death. For the rest of her days, she tirelessly lobbied public opinion portraying her husband as a brave, gallant, and noble figure struck down before his time. In spite of his early death, Custer's name would continue to live on in dime novels, art, music and film. Thanks in large part to Libbie, her husband achieved in death the infamy he sought in life. Since the day of his death in 1876, Custer has and will forever remain a lightning-rod of controversy. Regardless of his merit, Custer has been and will forever remain at the forefront of American historical discourse.
Last updated: January 7, 2020 | 2,093 | ENGLISH | 1 |
15 facts about the Victorians!
Head back in time to when Britain became the most powerful empire in world history…
Let’s learn more about this fascinating period of history in our Victorian facts…
1) The Victorians were the people who lived during the reign of Queen Victoria, from the 20 June 1837 until the date of her death on the 22 January 1901. It is remembered as a time of exciting discoveries, inventions and exploration following the Industrial Revolution.
2) During the Victorian era, Britain expanded its territory throughout the world and became the largest, richest and most powerful empire in world history! A quarter of the world’s population lived in the empire. Queen Victoria was even crowned Empress of India! Today, we look back at empire differently to how it was viewed at the time. Native people were often treated unfairly by the invading British and tensions ran high. Over time, the empire broke down and gradually, countries gained independence.
3) New inventions, like the telephone, motorcar, typewriter, bicycle and moving film totally changed the way that people lived, worked and travelled. In 1856, an engineer named Henry Bessemer invented a new method for turning iron into steel making it possible to build ships, bridges and other structures on a scale like never before!
4) Expansion of the railways meant that people could travel faster and further than ever before. All of Britain’s major cities, like London, Glasgow and Manchester, were now connected. Before trains, the fastest mode of transport was horses. All aboard!
5) The boom in industry saw lots of people moving to cities to find work. For the first time in world history, more people lived in cities than in the countryside, making city centres very cramped! Poor people lived in crowded slums — houses which were overcrowded, smelly and in bad repair.
6) Despite Britain’s political power, many ordinary people lead hard lives. As technology advanced, new machines left lots of people without jobs. Many resorted to workhouses, which provided basic poor relief like food, medical care and shelter in exchange for labour. Conditions were poor and sadly, families were often separated.
7) Many charities for the poor, like the Salvation Army and Barnardo’s, were established during the Victorian era. They fed the hungry in soup kitchens, and looked after the poorest children in orphanages.
8) Victorian children were expected to work long hours and for less money than adults. Seems unfair, right?! To make matters worse, the jobs were often dangerous and conditions were hard. Children were favoured because they could fit into tight spaces that adults couldn’t. Therefore, many children worked in factories, coal mines and as chimney sweeps.
9) Before the Victorian era, most of Britain’s population couldn’t read or write and had limited access to education. Queen Victoria believed that education should be for all, and by the end of her reign, going to school became compulsory for all children, rich or poor.
10) Improvements in education meant that more people could enjoy reading. Children’s books were no longer just for learning, they were fun! New titles such as Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, Treasure Island and The Jungle Book became hugely popular. Victorian children loved an adventure story!
11) This period was a great time for the arts, too! Some of Britain’s best-known poets, thinkers and authors flourished in the Victorian era, like poet Elizabeth Browning, playwright Oscar Wilde and authors Emily Brontë and Charles Dickens. Dickens’ novels – such as Oliver Twist – often focused on poor people, and his stories helped to highlight their plight.
12) The Bank Holidays Act of 1871 introduced extra days off throughout the year. Banks and offices would close and people could take time off work. The first travel agent, a businessman named Thomas Cook, ran trips to the seaside, which were very popular amongst Victorian families — those who could afford it, that is!
13) Organised sport became popular in the Victorian era. In 1871, the first Rugby Football Union was set up. It is believed that the sport was invented when William Webb Ellis, a pupil at Rugby School in England, picked up the ball during a game of football and ran with it!
14) Believe it or not, television didn’t exist in Victorian times! Therefore, Victorians entertained themselves by going to the theatre or watching live music. Visiting the music hall was a popular British pastime for poorer people. For a penny, customers were treated to a variety show, showcasing musicians, comedians and plays.
15) Healthcare saw huge improvements under the Victorians. Medical pioneers like Florence Nightingale worked with the government to improve hospital cleanliness — which hadn’t been considered as important before! | <urn:uuid:520fffba-5221-46da-a8a1-920f39a830ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.natgeokids.com/uk/discover/history/general-history/victorian-facts/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.980239 | 996 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
-0.13732314109802246,
-0.03309149295091629,
0.851372480392456,
0.0649164468050003,
0.03765372186899185,
-0.008933395147323608,
0.12499406933784485,
-0.057289473712444305,
0.07958585023880005,
0.18305090069770813,
0.2799791991710663,
-0.5599497556686401,
-0.36267775297164917,
-0.03320509940... | 4 | 15 facts about the Victorians!
Head back in time to when Britain became the most powerful empire in world history…
Let’s learn more about this fascinating period of history in our Victorian facts…
1) The Victorians were the people who lived during the reign of Queen Victoria, from the 20 June 1837 until the date of her death on the 22 January 1901. It is remembered as a time of exciting discoveries, inventions and exploration following the Industrial Revolution.
2) During the Victorian era, Britain expanded its territory throughout the world and became the largest, richest and most powerful empire in world history! A quarter of the world’s population lived in the empire. Queen Victoria was even crowned Empress of India! Today, we look back at empire differently to how it was viewed at the time. Native people were often treated unfairly by the invading British and tensions ran high. Over time, the empire broke down and gradually, countries gained independence.
3) New inventions, like the telephone, motorcar, typewriter, bicycle and moving film totally changed the way that people lived, worked and travelled. In 1856, an engineer named Henry Bessemer invented a new method for turning iron into steel making it possible to build ships, bridges and other structures on a scale like never before!
4) Expansion of the railways meant that people could travel faster and further than ever before. All of Britain’s major cities, like London, Glasgow and Manchester, were now connected. Before trains, the fastest mode of transport was horses. All aboard!
5) The boom in industry saw lots of people moving to cities to find work. For the first time in world history, more people lived in cities than in the countryside, making city centres very cramped! Poor people lived in crowded slums — houses which were overcrowded, smelly and in bad repair.
6) Despite Britain’s political power, many ordinary people lead hard lives. As technology advanced, new machines left lots of people without jobs. Many resorted to workhouses, which provided basic poor relief like food, medical care and shelter in exchange for labour. Conditions were poor and sadly, families were often separated.
7) Many charities for the poor, like the Salvation Army and Barnardo’s, were established during the Victorian era. They fed the hungry in soup kitchens, and looked after the poorest children in orphanages.
8) Victorian children were expected to work long hours and for less money than adults. Seems unfair, right?! To make matters worse, the jobs were often dangerous and conditions were hard. Children were favoured because they could fit into tight spaces that adults couldn’t. Therefore, many children worked in factories, coal mines and as chimney sweeps.
9) Before the Victorian era, most of Britain’s population couldn’t read or write and had limited access to education. Queen Victoria believed that education should be for all, and by the end of her reign, going to school became compulsory for all children, rich or poor.
10) Improvements in education meant that more people could enjoy reading. Children’s books were no longer just for learning, they were fun! New titles such as Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, Treasure Island and The Jungle Book became hugely popular. Victorian children loved an adventure story!
11) This period was a great time for the arts, too! Some of Britain’s best-known poets, thinkers and authors flourished in the Victorian era, like poet Elizabeth Browning, playwright Oscar Wilde and authors Emily Brontë and Charles Dickens. Dickens’ novels – such as Oliver Twist – often focused on poor people, and his stories helped to highlight their plight.
12) The Bank Holidays Act of 1871 introduced extra days off throughout the year. Banks and offices would close and people could take time off work. The first travel agent, a businessman named Thomas Cook, ran trips to the seaside, which were very popular amongst Victorian families — those who could afford it, that is!
13) Organised sport became popular in the Victorian era. In 1871, the first Rugby Football Union was set up. It is believed that the sport was invented when William Webb Ellis, a pupil at Rugby School in England, picked up the ball during a game of football and ran with it!
14) Believe it or not, television didn’t exist in Victorian times! Therefore, Victorians entertained themselves by going to the theatre or watching live music. Visiting the music hall was a popular British pastime for poorer people. For a penny, customers were treated to a variety show, showcasing musicians, comedians and plays.
15) Healthcare saw huge improvements under the Victorians. Medical pioneers like Florence Nightingale worked with the government to improve hospital cleanliness — which hadn’t been considered as important before! | 978 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Yukata is an unlined, casual summer kimono made of cotton. It is quite different from silk kimono which is for formal wear. The origine of yukata is said to be the Heian period (784-1185) when a pure linen kimono known as yukatabira was worn by noble people while taking a bath. By the Edo period (1600-1868), yukatabira had transformed into yukata which was worn after bathing, and it became everyday clothing and was also worn for outings among ordinary people in the summer. People came to enjoy wearing yukata when going out for summer events such as Bon dancing and firework display. Nowadays yukata, with modern designs and colorful patterns, is widely loved as casual wear to enjoy the summer mood.
July 5th, 2019
Edited by: Meguro International Friendship Association(MIFA) | <urn:uuid:f917f074-f67f-45ba-9632-1fe552c2ca9d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mifa.jp/for-internationals/english-newsletter/vol-013-july-kaleidoscope-meguro/what-is-yukata/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.982001 | 190 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
-0.6357219815254211,
0.47861728072166443,
0.692741334438324,
0.12921129167079926,
0.17892643809318542,
0.33964619040489197,
0.47676897048950195,
0.0669439509510994,
-0.2682139575481415,
-0.30586302280426025,
-0.08327288180589676,
-0.45973601937294006,
0.1300450563430786,
0.5380762219429016... | 1 | Yukata is an unlined, casual summer kimono made of cotton. It is quite different from silk kimono which is for formal wear. The origine of yukata is said to be the Heian period (784-1185) when a pure linen kimono known as yukatabira was worn by noble people while taking a bath. By the Edo period (1600-1868), yukatabira had transformed into yukata which was worn after bathing, and it became everyday clothing and was also worn for outings among ordinary people in the summer. People came to enjoy wearing yukata when going out for summer events such as Bon dancing and firework display. Nowadays yukata, with modern designs and colorful patterns, is widely loved as casual wear to enjoy the summer mood.
July 5th, 2019
Edited by: Meguro International Friendship Association(MIFA) | 190 | ENGLISH | 1 |
t was 1866, and the United States was recovering from the long and bloody Civil War between the North (Union) and the South (Confederate). Surviving soldiers came home, some with missing limbs, and all with stories to tell. Henry Welles, a drugstore owner in Waterloo, New York, heard the stories and had an idea. He suggested that all the shops in town close for one day to honor the soldiers who were buried in the Waterloo cemetery. On the morning of May 5, the townspeople placed flowers, wreaths, and crosses on the graves of the northern soldiers in the cemetery.
In the South, women’s organizations were also honoring the war dead, decorating the graves of southern soldiers who had died in the war. In many towns and cities there was a growing movement to honor the war dead with a special day. So in 1868, General Jonathan Logan, commander of the Grand Army of the Republic, established May 30 as the official day of observance to honor all those who had given their lives in service of their country. The day was called Decoration Day.
In General Logan’s proclamation of Decoration Day, he declared:
The 30th of May, 1868, is designated for the purpose of strewing with flowers, or otherwise decorating the graves
of comrades who died in defense of their country and during the late rebellion, and whose bodies now lie in almost every city, village and hamlet churchyard in the land. In this observance no form of ceremony is prescribed, but posts and comrades will in their own way arrange such fitting services and testimonials of respect as circumstances may permit.
The day was to be a memorial, and was intended also to be a day of reconciliation, as flowers were placed on the graves of both Union and Confederate soldiers in Arlington Cemetery.
In a typical Decoration Day ceremony in the North, veterans would march through the town to the cemetery to decorate their comrades’ graves with flags. They took photographs of soldiers next to American flags. Rifles were shot in the air as a salute to the northern soldiers who had given their lives to keep the United States together. Children read poems and sang civil war songs and hymns. Veterans came to the schools wearing their medals and uniforms to tell students about the Civil War.
In 1882, the name was changed from Decoration Day to Memorial Day, to honor soldiers who had died in all previous wars—not only the Civil War. In the northern States, it was designated a legal holiday. The southern states honored their
war dead on other days until the end of World War I.
After World War I, Memorial Day was also called Poppy Day because of Moina Michael’s idea to wear red poppies on the day, in honor of those who had died in the war. She was inspired by John McCrae’s poem, “In Flanders Fields,” which speaks of the bright red poppies that grow among the graves on former battlefields in Belgium. Her sale of poppies on Memorial Day benefited military men in need. The tradition eventually spread to other countries, where real or artificial poppies were sold to benefit war orphans.
Since 1922, the VFW (Veterans of Foreign Wars) organization in the United States has sold paper poppies, made by disabled veterans, on Memorial Day.
In 1966, President Lyndon Johnson proclaimed Waterloo, New York the birthplace of Memorial Day. In 1971, President Richard Nixon declared Memorial Day a national holiday, to be observed on the last Monday in May. Cities all around the United States hold their own ceremonies on this day to pay respect to the men and women who have died in wars or in the service of their country.
Today, Memorial Day is also a day for personal remembrance. Families and individuals honor the memory of their loved ones who have died. Church services, visits to the cemetery, flowers on graves, or even silent tributes mark the day with dignity and solemnity. It is a day of reflection. Memorial Day often coincides with the end of the school year, so to many Americans the day also signals the beginning of summer—with a three- day weekend to spend at the beach, in the mountains, or at home relaxing. | <urn:uuid:5132ef8f-cf07-466c-831c-100c14ee0c69> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://devlaamsekust.info/?p=668 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00337.warc.gz | en | 0.982653 | 885 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
-0.35330986976623535,
0.474573016166687,
0.6307194232940674,
0.27679216861724854,
-0.25799286365509033,
-0.09074914455413818,
0.20856250822544098,
0.013732762075960636,
-0.2863456904888153,
0.002217195462435484,
0.16875454783439636,
0.36451607942581177,
0.009376238100230694,
0.534069299697... | 4 | t was 1866, and the United States was recovering from the long and bloody Civil War between the North (Union) and the South (Confederate). Surviving soldiers came home, some with missing limbs, and all with stories to tell. Henry Welles, a drugstore owner in Waterloo, New York, heard the stories and had an idea. He suggested that all the shops in town close for one day to honor the soldiers who were buried in the Waterloo cemetery. On the morning of May 5, the townspeople placed flowers, wreaths, and crosses on the graves of the northern soldiers in the cemetery.
In the South, women’s organizations were also honoring the war dead, decorating the graves of southern soldiers who had died in the war. In many towns and cities there was a growing movement to honor the war dead with a special day. So in 1868, General Jonathan Logan, commander of the Grand Army of the Republic, established May 30 as the official day of observance to honor all those who had given their lives in service of their country. The day was called Decoration Day.
In General Logan’s proclamation of Decoration Day, he declared:
The 30th of May, 1868, is designated for the purpose of strewing with flowers, or otherwise decorating the graves
of comrades who died in defense of their country and during the late rebellion, and whose bodies now lie in almost every city, village and hamlet churchyard in the land. In this observance no form of ceremony is prescribed, but posts and comrades will in their own way arrange such fitting services and testimonials of respect as circumstances may permit.
The day was to be a memorial, and was intended also to be a day of reconciliation, as flowers were placed on the graves of both Union and Confederate soldiers in Arlington Cemetery.
In a typical Decoration Day ceremony in the North, veterans would march through the town to the cemetery to decorate their comrades’ graves with flags. They took photographs of soldiers next to American flags. Rifles were shot in the air as a salute to the northern soldiers who had given their lives to keep the United States together. Children read poems and sang civil war songs and hymns. Veterans came to the schools wearing their medals and uniforms to tell students about the Civil War.
In 1882, the name was changed from Decoration Day to Memorial Day, to honor soldiers who had died in all previous wars—not only the Civil War. In the northern States, it was designated a legal holiday. The southern states honored their
war dead on other days until the end of World War I.
After World War I, Memorial Day was also called Poppy Day because of Moina Michael’s idea to wear red poppies on the day, in honor of those who had died in the war. She was inspired by John McCrae’s poem, “In Flanders Fields,” which speaks of the bright red poppies that grow among the graves on former battlefields in Belgium. Her sale of poppies on Memorial Day benefited military men in need. The tradition eventually spread to other countries, where real or artificial poppies were sold to benefit war orphans.
Since 1922, the VFW (Veterans of Foreign Wars) organization in the United States has sold paper poppies, made by disabled veterans, on Memorial Day.
In 1966, President Lyndon Johnson proclaimed Waterloo, New York the birthplace of Memorial Day. In 1971, President Richard Nixon declared Memorial Day a national holiday, to be observed on the last Monday in May. Cities all around the United States hold their own ceremonies on this day to pay respect to the men and women who have died in wars or in the service of their country.
Today, Memorial Day is also a day for personal remembrance. Families and individuals honor the memory of their loved ones who have died. Church services, visits to the cemetery, flowers on graves, or even silent tributes mark the day with dignity and solemnity. It is a day of reflection. Memorial Day often coincides with the end of the school year, so to many Americans the day also signals the beginning of summer—with a three- day weekend to spend at the beach, in the mountains, or at home relaxing. | 879 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Once upon a time, during a famine our ancestor Jacob and his family fled to Egypt where food was plentiful. His son Joseph had risen to high position in Pharaoh’s court, and our people were well-respected and well-regarded, secure in the power structure of the time.
Generations passed and our people remained in Egypt. In time, a new Pharaoh ascended to the throne. He found our difference threatening, and ordered our people enslaved. In fear of rebellion, Pharaoh decreed that all Hebrew baby boys be killed. Two midwives named Shifrah and Puah defied his orders. Through their courage, a boy survived; midrash tells us he was radiant with light. Fearing for his safety, his family placed him in a basket and he floated down the Nile. He was found, and adopted, by Pharaoh’s daughter, who named him Moses because she drew him forth from the water. Thanks to Moses' sister Miriam, Pharaoh's daughter hired their mother, Yocheved, as his wet-nurse. Thus he survived to adulthood, and was raised as Prince of Egypt.
Although a child of privilege, as he grew he became aware of the slaves who worked in the brickyards of his father. When he saw an overseer mistreat a slave, Moses struck the overseer and killed him. Fearing retribution, he set out across the Sinai alone. God spoke to him from a burning bush, which though it flamed was not consumed. The Voice called him to lead the Hebrew people to freedom. Moses argued with God, pleading inadequacy, but God disagreed. Sometimes our responsibilities choose us.
Moses returned to Egypt and went to Pharaoh to argue the injustice of slavery. He gave Pharaoh a mandate which resounds through history: Let my people go. Pharaoh refused, and Moses warned him that Mighty God would strike the Egyptian people. These threats were not idle; ten terrible plagues were unleashed upon the Egyptians. Only when his nation lay in ruins did Pharaoh agree to our liberation.
Fearful that Pharaoh would change his mind, our people fled, not waiting for their bread dough to rise. Our people did not leave Egypt alone; a “mixed multitude” went with them to the land of Canaan. From this we learn that liberation is not for us alone, but for all the nations of the earth. Even Pharaoh’s daughter came with us.
Pharaoh’s army followed us to the Sea of Reeds. We plunged into the waters. Only when we had gone as far as we could did the waters part for us. We mourn, even now, that Pharaoh’s army drowned: our liberation is bittersweet because people died in our pursuit. To this day we relive our liberation, that we may not become complacent, that we may always rejoice in our freedom.
Haggadot.com is a project of Custom & Craft Jewish Rituals, Inc (EIN: 82-4765805), a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt California public benefit corporation. Your gift is tax deductible to the extent allowed by law.
Anyone you invite to collaborate with you will see everything posted to this haggadah and will have full access to edit clips. | <urn:uuid:44e889a0-f3ee-4e8b-965e-3887647c174e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.haggadot.com/clip/exodus-story-104 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00145.warc.gz | en | 0.984785 | 668 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
-0.3346342444419861,
0.8940327763557434,
0.21089771389961243,
-0.10861238837242126,
-0.3446362614631653,
-0.17678236961364746,
0.38780781626701355,
-0.1667703539133072,
0.011226283386349678,
0.057649336755275726,
-0.007730471435934305,
-0.36371666193008423,
0.21650773286819458,
-0.09189011... | 1 | Once upon a time, during a famine our ancestor Jacob and his family fled to Egypt where food was plentiful. His son Joseph had risen to high position in Pharaoh’s court, and our people were well-respected and well-regarded, secure in the power structure of the time.
Generations passed and our people remained in Egypt. In time, a new Pharaoh ascended to the throne. He found our difference threatening, and ordered our people enslaved. In fear of rebellion, Pharaoh decreed that all Hebrew baby boys be killed. Two midwives named Shifrah and Puah defied his orders. Through their courage, a boy survived; midrash tells us he was radiant with light. Fearing for his safety, his family placed him in a basket and he floated down the Nile. He was found, and adopted, by Pharaoh’s daughter, who named him Moses because she drew him forth from the water. Thanks to Moses' sister Miriam, Pharaoh's daughter hired their mother, Yocheved, as his wet-nurse. Thus he survived to adulthood, and was raised as Prince of Egypt.
Although a child of privilege, as he grew he became aware of the slaves who worked in the brickyards of his father. When he saw an overseer mistreat a slave, Moses struck the overseer and killed him. Fearing retribution, he set out across the Sinai alone. God spoke to him from a burning bush, which though it flamed was not consumed. The Voice called him to lead the Hebrew people to freedom. Moses argued with God, pleading inadequacy, but God disagreed. Sometimes our responsibilities choose us.
Moses returned to Egypt and went to Pharaoh to argue the injustice of slavery. He gave Pharaoh a mandate which resounds through history: Let my people go. Pharaoh refused, and Moses warned him that Mighty God would strike the Egyptian people. These threats were not idle; ten terrible plagues were unleashed upon the Egyptians. Only when his nation lay in ruins did Pharaoh agree to our liberation.
Fearful that Pharaoh would change his mind, our people fled, not waiting for their bread dough to rise. Our people did not leave Egypt alone; a “mixed multitude” went with them to the land of Canaan. From this we learn that liberation is not for us alone, but for all the nations of the earth. Even Pharaoh’s daughter came with us.
Pharaoh’s army followed us to the Sea of Reeds. We plunged into the waters. Only when we had gone as far as we could did the waters part for us. We mourn, even now, that Pharaoh’s army drowned: our liberation is bittersweet because people died in our pursuit. To this day we relive our liberation, that we may not become complacent, that we may always rejoice in our freedom.
Haggadot.com is a project of Custom & Craft Jewish Rituals, Inc (EIN: 82-4765805), a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt California public benefit corporation. Your gift is tax deductible to the extent allowed by law.
Anyone you invite to collaborate with you will see everything posted to this haggadah and will have full access to edit clips. | 672 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There was a time when Connecticut extended all the way to the Pacific Ocean.
Imagine a narrow strip of land the width of Connecticut, beginning at the New York border and extending west all the way to the California shoreline.
When Connecticut was granted its charter in 1662 by King Charles II, it included the land all the way “to the South Sea on the West Part.”
That land, which was for a time actually part of Connecticut, encompassed what is now Detroit Akron, Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha, Salt Lake City and more.
“The ‘South Sea’ was the Pacific Ocean, although they didn’t know it,” said Connecticut State Historian Walt Woodward. “They did not have any real idea. No one would have believed that the continent of America was as broad as it was.”
“To say the least, they were geographically challenged at the time,” Woodward said.
It’s not that Connecticut residents in the 1600s didn’t have any idea about geography. “They knew from the voyages of Francis Drake and others that there was a Pacific coast,” Woodward said, but they did not understand the scale.
It wasn't until Meriwether Lewis and William Clark led the Corps of Discovery Expedition across the entirety of the continent in the early 1800s that the dimensions of America were truly understood.
“No one really expected the great midwest to be as great as it was,” Woodward said.
The Connecticut charter of 1662 did not just set the boundaries of the colony, but decide on a system of government. Charles II, who had only recently become king, granted Connecticut what was considered an unprecedented amount of autonomy.
Connecticut used that charter to hold on to both its extensive land claims and autonomy for more than a century. Of course, it wasn’t that simple.
“When they issued charters they often issued them with overlapping claims, conflicting boundaries,” Woodward said.
Two years after the charter was signed, King Charles II granted his brother James, the duke of York, land extending all the way to the Connecticut River.
That decree was “disputed immediately and vociferously between Connecticut and New York,” Woodward said. Long Island, part of Connecticut until then, was ceded to New York when that dispute was resolved.
When James succeeded his brother he was unhappy with the autonomy that had been granted Connecticut. He sent Edmund Andros to merge all the colonies from Maine to Delaware, but Connecticut was reluctant to fall in line.
As the story goes, as Andros debated the charter in Hartford, the lights suddenly and mysteriously went out.
“Magically, the charter had disappeared,” Woodward said. “It had been spirited away and hidden in an oak tree,” which is the origin of the legend of Connecticut’s Charter Oak.
Oak tree or no oak tree, King James II put Andros in charge of what he called the Dominion of New England, though he was overthrown in the so-called “Glorious Revolution” of 1688 leaving Connecticut to enforce the charter originally granted by Charles II in 1662.
Connecticut was enforcing those land claims during the American Revolution, during a series of armed conflicts between Connecticut and Pennsylvania called the Pennamite-Yankee War.
Ohio, too, had some disagreements with the Nutmeg State, when Connecticut — claiming two large tracts in Ohio as per the 1662 charter, resettled refugees whose homes had been burned by the British to what was called the “fire lands,” and the Western Reserve.
It wasn’t until the new nation was formed that Connecticut — along with every other state — gave up its land to the west.
“As part of joining the new government, all of the new states gave up their western land claims,” Woodward said. | <urn:uuid:97dd73ee-2a88-4d63-a6c2-b75bd3f8eebe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ctinsider.com/local/thehour/article/How-Connecticut-lost-Cleveland-14973341.php?src=nwkhppromo | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.980219 | 821 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
-0.04297156631946564,
0.11963094025850296,
0.33739173412323,
-0.3043314218521118,
-0.4621087908744812,
0.05755927786231041,
-0.1449337899684906,
-0.022989947348833084,
-0.2343532145023346,
0.04356100410223007,
0.14478296041488647,
-0.07772372663021088,
0.17830488085746765,
0.39750862121582... | 5 | There was a time when Connecticut extended all the way to the Pacific Ocean.
Imagine a narrow strip of land the width of Connecticut, beginning at the New York border and extending west all the way to the California shoreline.
When Connecticut was granted its charter in 1662 by King Charles II, it included the land all the way “to the South Sea on the West Part.”
That land, which was for a time actually part of Connecticut, encompassed what is now Detroit Akron, Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha, Salt Lake City and more.
“The ‘South Sea’ was the Pacific Ocean, although they didn’t know it,” said Connecticut State Historian Walt Woodward. “They did not have any real idea. No one would have believed that the continent of America was as broad as it was.”
“To say the least, they were geographically challenged at the time,” Woodward said.
It’s not that Connecticut residents in the 1600s didn’t have any idea about geography. “They knew from the voyages of Francis Drake and others that there was a Pacific coast,” Woodward said, but they did not understand the scale.
It wasn't until Meriwether Lewis and William Clark led the Corps of Discovery Expedition across the entirety of the continent in the early 1800s that the dimensions of America were truly understood.
“No one really expected the great midwest to be as great as it was,” Woodward said.
The Connecticut charter of 1662 did not just set the boundaries of the colony, but decide on a system of government. Charles II, who had only recently become king, granted Connecticut what was considered an unprecedented amount of autonomy.
Connecticut used that charter to hold on to both its extensive land claims and autonomy for more than a century. Of course, it wasn’t that simple.
“When they issued charters they often issued them with overlapping claims, conflicting boundaries,” Woodward said.
Two years after the charter was signed, King Charles II granted his brother James, the duke of York, land extending all the way to the Connecticut River.
That decree was “disputed immediately and vociferously between Connecticut and New York,” Woodward said. Long Island, part of Connecticut until then, was ceded to New York when that dispute was resolved.
When James succeeded his brother he was unhappy with the autonomy that had been granted Connecticut. He sent Edmund Andros to merge all the colonies from Maine to Delaware, but Connecticut was reluctant to fall in line.
As the story goes, as Andros debated the charter in Hartford, the lights suddenly and mysteriously went out.
“Magically, the charter had disappeared,” Woodward said. “It had been spirited away and hidden in an oak tree,” which is the origin of the legend of Connecticut’s Charter Oak.
Oak tree or no oak tree, King James II put Andros in charge of what he called the Dominion of New England, though he was overthrown in the so-called “Glorious Revolution” of 1688 leaving Connecticut to enforce the charter originally granted by Charles II in 1662.
Connecticut was enforcing those land claims during the American Revolution, during a series of armed conflicts between Connecticut and Pennsylvania called the Pennamite-Yankee War.
Ohio, too, had some disagreements with the Nutmeg State, when Connecticut — claiming two large tracts in Ohio as per the 1662 charter, resettled refugees whose homes had been burned by the British to what was called the “fire lands,” and the Western Reserve.
It wasn’t until the new nation was formed that Connecticut — along with every other state — gave up its land to the west.
“As part of joining the new government, all of the new states gave up their western land claims,” Woodward said. | 765 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the 1700s, there were too many men and not enough women in France's Louisiana territory. So King Louis XIV devised a "solution."
During the 18th century, the Casket Girls were sent thousands of miles away from their homes in France and transplanted to colonial America. They were saddled with husbands and tasked with the impossible: Settle this land, and tame these men.
To put it simply, the Casket Girls did not have it easy. At the time of colonization, the French Empire stretched across North America, from the colonies in the Caribbean to the wintry fur outposts of Quebec.
Between these extremes was Louisiana, hewn from the bayous and fields of the Gulf Coast — today known as Alabama, Mississippi, and the state of Louisiana, which echoes the name of the colony from the past.
French colonizers considered this territory just as “wild” as the regions in the north and south. It was exotic and untamed, by French standards, which was a problem should Nouvelle-France blossom into future generations. Enter the Casket Girls, also known as the Pelican Girls or filles à la cassette.
These French girls, often sourced from France’s orphanages, schools, and convents (and sometimes prisons and brothels) were sent to settle in Louisiana and domesticate this wild land — and its wild settlers.
In many ways, the Casket Girls went on to shape the very fabric of New French society in America.
The Climate Of France
At the beginning of the 1700s, European colonization was in full swing. Searching for land, resources, and power, Europe’s monarchs carved up the Americas, sending settlers to solidify their reach.
However, it was clear that these early colonies might become something of a sausage-fest — and a pagan one at that.
The governors of the region became concerned that the coureurs des bois (French woodsmen dealing in furs in North America) were becoming too familiar with the Native tribes that populated the land, chasing after the Native women, and losing their Christian faith all the while.
Louis XIV and his colonial representatives came up with a plan to save the soul of New France. King Louis XIV’s letter to the colonists read:
“His majesty sends by that ship 20 girls to be married to the Canadians and others who have begun habitations at Mobile in order that this colony can firmly establish itself. Each of these girls was raised in virtue and piety and know how to work, which will render them useful in the colony by showing the Indian girls what they can do, for this there being no point in sending other than of virtue known and without reproach.”
The Early Casket Girls, Aka The Pelican Girls
Casket Girls came from many different backgrounds — and came in many different waves. One of the earliest cases was a group of girls who arrived in the Mobile outpost of Louisiana on the ship Le Pelican in 1704.
Because of the name of the boat, the new female colonists would later be known as the Pelican Girls.
Today, the Pelican Girls are commonly grouped into the same category as Casket Girls. While the latter name may sound a bit morbid, it actually had nothing to do with death — it was a reference to the trunks these girls carried on their journey, which held all of their earthly belongings.
These 23 girls and women were intended as good Christian lures away from the influence of the Native women, and they were expected to be married off to the colonists as soon as possible.
The Pelican Girls were said to have chosen their husbands, not been assigned them. But although the odds were good, the goods were odd for them. Whatever lifestyle they had been used to in France, their new lives in Louisiana proved shocking to them.
The houses had dirt floors and animal pelts stretched across the open windows. The male colonists were said to still enjoy the company of Native women, and neglected the Pelican Girls to the extent that they were forced to survive on acorns.
So many of the Pelicans Girls denied their husbands “bed and board” until they shaped up, cultivated gardens, and built more acceptable homes.
The “Petticoat Rebellion,” as it was called, proved somewhat effective, though the girls were saddled with the reputation of agitators by the male colonists.
Many proved adaptable to the circumstances. Marie Gabrielle Savary, one of the Pelican Girls, held out to marry Jean-Baptiste Saucier of Quebec, considered one of the best catches among the colonists.
Jean-Baptiste died in 1716, and Marie Gabrielle married twice more, eventually making her way to New Orleans where she died in 1735. Her grave is below the streets of the city today.
Not all the female colonists had Marie Gabrielle’s luck, however, as a yellow fever outbreak soon swept through the settlement. The French government soon needed another influx of female colonists.
The government turned to criminals as well as volunteers to populate the colony. In the period between 1717 to 1721, more than half of the women who arrived in Louisiana were sex workers, branded by the fleur-de-lys.
Another Wave Of Casket Girls
After the Pelican Girls, another wave of 88 female colonists arrived around 1728, again toting their things in trunks that vaguely resembled caskets.
The French word for one of these suitcases was cassette. However, the term morphed into casquette — translating to casket — over time, solidifying the colonists’ nickname as the Casket Girls.
While most of these trunks were actually pretty small, legend has stretched the size of them — literally — in depictions that suggest they were large enough to hypothetically carry a body.
Shortly after their arrival, the girls were taken to a school to attend until they got married. A few years later, some attended the Ursuline Convent.
Built in 1734 and replaced by the existing structure in 1751, the old Ursuline Convent is one of the oldest structures in New Orleans, and a witness to this transitional time from frontier to colony.
Like many old buildings in New Orleans, the Convent has a strange legend: a “vampire floor.”
As the story goes, the third floor was mysteriously sealed off, with the windows permanently shuttered. Some even claim that the shutters were secured with nails that were blessed by a pope, even though no pontiff visited New Orleans until Pope John Paul II in 1987.
Some speculate that the nails were shipped to Rome specifically for a pope’s blessing — and then sent right back to the convent to keep vampires in (or out).
The reconstructed convent stands today, having survived fires, nasty weather, and rebranding as the bishop’s residence. It is forever associated as one of the first harbors of Casket Girls.
The Legacy Of The Casket Girls
Despite a rocky start, the colony of Louisiana was indelibly shaped by these first female colonists, in the same way that other fascinating women have made their mark in the region over the years.
When given no other option in life, these women ushered in the era of colonialism in New France. In doing so, they also helped build a society distinct from the Native people who occupied the land — but also different from the Old World society in France.
Furthermore, they truly helped reshape the “New World.”
Next, read about the lost America colony of Roanoke Island — and its 177 inhabitants who mysteriously vanished. Then learn about the true horrors of the Native American genocide and how its legacy of oppression lives on. | <urn:uuid:39a01250-4dbd-477d-b9d3-1cf2662daae2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://allthatsinteresting.com/casket-girls | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00014.warc.gz | en | 0.980122 | 1,612 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
-0.0898052304983139,
0.5080280900001526,
0.28522709012031555,
-0.33247438073158264,
-0.026203539222478867,
-0.15393602848052979,
-0.4060526490211487,
0.12565000355243683,
0.03889487683773041,
0.03121124766767025,
0.3794899582862854,
0.026958581060171127,
0.126338928937912,
0.07188390940427... | 13 | In the 1700s, there were too many men and not enough women in France's Louisiana territory. So King Louis XIV devised a "solution."
During the 18th century, the Casket Girls were sent thousands of miles away from their homes in France and transplanted to colonial America. They were saddled with husbands and tasked with the impossible: Settle this land, and tame these men.
To put it simply, the Casket Girls did not have it easy. At the time of colonization, the French Empire stretched across North America, from the colonies in the Caribbean to the wintry fur outposts of Quebec.
Between these extremes was Louisiana, hewn from the bayous and fields of the Gulf Coast — today known as Alabama, Mississippi, and the state of Louisiana, which echoes the name of the colony from the past.
French colonizers considered this territory just as “wild” as the regions in the north and south. It was exotic and untamed, by French standards, which was a problem should Nouvelle-France blossom into future generations. Enter the Casket Girls, also known as the Pelican Girls or filles à la cassette.
These French girls, often sourced from France’s orphanages, schools, and convents (and sometimes prisons and brothels) were sent to settle in Louisiana and domesticate this wild land — and its wild settlers.
In many ways, the Casket Girls went on to shape the very fabric of New French society in America.
The Climate Of France
At the beginning of the 1700s, European colonization was in full swing. Searching for land, resources, and power, Europe’s monarchs carved up the Americas, sending settlers to solidify their reach.
However, it was clear that these early colonies might become something of a sausage-fest — and a pagan one at that.
The governors of the region became concerned that the coureurs des bois (French woodsmen dealing in furs in North America) were becoming too familiar with the Native tribes that populated the land, chasing after the Native women, and losing their Christian faith all the while.
Louis XIV and his colonial representatives came up with a plan to save the soul of New France. King Louis XIV’s letter to the colonists read:
“His majesty sends by that ship 20 girls to be married to the Canadians and others who have begun habitations at Mobile in order that this colony can firmly establish itself. Each of these girls was raised in virtue and piety and know how to work, which will render them useful in the colony by showing the Indian girls what they can do, for this there being no point in sending other than of virtue known and without reproach.”
The Early Casket Girls, Aka The Pelican Girls
Casket Girls came from many different backgrounds — and came in many different waves. One of the earliest cases was a group of girls who arrived in the Mobile outpost of Louisiana on the ship Le Pelican in 1704.
Because of the name of the boat, the new female colonists would later be known as the Pelican Girls.
Today, the Pelican Girls are commonly grouped into the same category as Casket Girls. While the latter name may sound a bit morbid, it actually had nothing to do with death — it was a reference to the trunks these girls carried on their journey, which held all of their earthly belongings.
These 23 girls and women were intended as good Christian lures away from the influence of the Native women, and they were expected to be married off to the colonists as soon as possible.
The Pelican Girls were said to have chosen their husbands, not been assigned them. But although the odds were good, the goods were odd for them. Whatever lifestyle they had been used to in France, their new lives in Louisiana proved shocking to them.
The houses had dirt floors and animal pelts stretched across the open windows. The male colonists were said to still enjoy the company of Native women, and neglected the Pelican Girls to the extent that they were forced to survive on acorns.
So many of the Pelicans Girls denied their husbands “bed and board” until they shaped up, cultivated gardens, and built more acceptable homes.
The “Petticoat Rebellion,” as it was called, proved somewhat effective, though the girls were saddled with the reputation of agitators by the male colonists.
Many proved adaptable to the circumstances. Marie Gabrielle Savary, one of the Pelican Girls, held out to marry Jean-Baptiste Saucier of Quebec, considered one of the best catches among the colonists.
Jean-Baptiste died in 1716, and Marie Gabrielle married twice more, eventually making her way to New Orleans where she died in 1735. Her grave is below the streets of the city today.
Not all the female colonists had Marie Gabrielle’s luck, however, as a yellow fever outbreak soon swept through the settlement. The French government soon needed another influx of female colonists.
The government turned to criminals as well as volunteers to populate the colony. In the period between 1717 to 1721, more than half of the women who arrived in Louisiana were sex workers, branded by the fleur-de-lys.
Another Wave Of Casket Girls
After the Pelican Girls, another wave of 88 female colonists arrived around 1728, again toting their things in trunks that vaguely resembled caskets.
The French word for one of these suitcases was cassette. However, the term morphed into casquette — translating to casket — over time, solidifying the colonists’ nickname as the Casket Girls.
While most of these trunks were actually pretty small, legend has stretched the size of them — literally — in depictions that suggest they were large enough to hypothetically carry a body.
Shortly after their arrival, the girls were taken to a school to attend until they got married. A few years later, some attended the Ursuline Convent.
Built in 1734 and replaced by the existing structure in 1751, the old Ursuline Convent is one of the oldest structures in New Orleans, and a witness to this transitional time from frontier to colony.
Like many old buildings in New Orleans, the Convent has a strange legend: a “vampire floor.”
As the story goes, the third floor was mysteriously sealed off, with the windows permanently shuttered. Some even claim that the shutters were secured with nails that were blessed by a pope, even though no pontiff visited New Orleans until Pope John Paul II in 1987.
Some speculate that the nails were shipped to Rome specifically for a pope’s blessing — and then sent right back to the convent to keep vampires in (or out).
The reconstructed convent stands today, having survived fires, nasty weather, and rebranding as the bishop’s residence. It is forever associated as one of the first harbors of Casket Girls.
The Legacy Of The Casket Girls
Despite a rocky start, the colony of Louisiana was indelibly shaped by these first female colonists, in the same way that other fascinating women have made their mark in the region over the years.
When given no other option in life, these women ushered in the era of colonialism in New France. In doing so, they also helped build a society distinct from the Native people who occupied the land — but also different from the Old World society in France.
Furthermore, they truly helped reshape the “New World.”
Next, read about the lost America colony of Roanoke Island — and its 177 inhabitants who mysteriously vanished. Then learn about the true horrors of the Native American genocide and how its legacy of oppression lives on. | 1,602 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It’s been more than a decade since renowned NBC newsman Tom Brokaw published The Greatest Generation, his tribute to the generation of Americans who grew up during the Great Depression and carried the nation through World War II.
Inspired by the veterans he met June 6, 1994, at the 50th anniversary celebration of D-Day, he interviewed dozens of them all across the country. The more he talked with them, the more convinced he became that they possessed qualities of character seldom seen in any other generation of Americans.
During the Depression, an era largely devoid of today’s social service network, Americans knew that to survive they had to depend on their families.
Not many of them are left. The youngest are in their mid-80s, and they are dying at the rate of more than 8,000 per week. Most now live in nursing homes or with their children. Their voices are nearly stilled, but the lessons of their lives shine as beacons for today’s generations that often find their values odd or old-fashioned.
To say these men and women were remarkable is to put it lightly. By the time they became young children, the prosperity and optimism that prevailed at the end of World War I, when they were born, was gone, replaced by the harsh economic realities of the Great Depression.
As they were becoming young men and women, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor ensured America’s entry into World War II. In defense of freedom and democracy, that war would demand the best the young men and women of this generation had to offer. When the nation needed commitment, honor, sacrifice and courage, they responded in the millions. And when the war was over, they used those same character traits to build postwar America into the world’s greatest national power.
What traits made them “the greatest generation”? Let’s examine a few.
A sense of responsibility
Childhood should be a time of fun and learning, free from the responsibilities of adulthood. But for millions of them, as children of the Great Depression, life was difficult. Adult responsibilities came early. By age 14 or 15, many young men were working to help support families that might include eight to 10 siblings.
As Brokaw points out, it bred into the men and women of that generation a sense of responsibility that served them well a few years later when the war broke out. They were of course appalled later on when long-held values changed, when they would look on their children and grandchildren and see a totally different attitude.
Wesley Ko epitomized that sense of responsibility. A gifted young Chinese-American who grew up in Philadelphia, Ko’s preacher father could not afford to send his son to college. While still a teen, Ko went to work in a local printing shop where, after Pearl Harbor, his boss appreciated his work so much that he offered to get him a draft deferment.
But young Ko had a sense of patriotism and enlisted in the Army instead. He was sent to officer candidate school at Ft. Benning, Georgia, becoming a second lieutenant. Then came three years of almost continuous combat in North Africa, then Sicily, then Italy, followed by D-Day and the Battle of the Bulge before the war in Europe ended in May 1945.
After the war Ko returned to Philadelphia to start his own printing business with his brother and a friend. He married and raised a family. Life was good until 1985, when a series of government actions and some bad business decisions caused his printing business to fail.
At age 70, well past retirement age for most, Ko found himself almost a million dollars in debt. He could have declared bankruptcy but chose not to. “I just didn’t feel comfortable with declaring bankruptcy,” he said. “I just didn’t think it was the honorable thing to do, even though it would have been easier.”
In our day and age, when many Americans declare bankruptcy at the drop of a hat, we should be inspired by such an example.
World War II took a terrible toll in lives. Some 294,000 young Americans never came back from far-flung battlefields. It also left in its wake some 1.7 million U.S. soldiers who came back with every imaginable disability.
Tom Broderick was one of them. Part of the Army’s famed 82nd Airborne division, September 1944 found Broderick in combat in the Netherlands. One day he made the mistake of standing too high in a foxhole. From several hundred yards away, a German marksman sent a bullet through Broderick’s temple. Though he recovered, the damage to his brain left him blind.
Gripped by self-pity, he lost the will to move on with his life. Why had God let this happen to him, he wondered. But then he prayed for a miracle. “If I can’t have my eyesight back,” he asked God, “could you find a girl for me to marry?” God did not answer immediately, but several years later he met and married a wonderful woman who would be his partner for life.
Tom got hold of himself, learned Braille and studied the insurance field. He learned he had a head for business, and by the early 1950s established his own insurance agency. Over the years the agency grew. Tom and his wife Eileen became prosperous. Their family grew to seven children, and Tom became a respected member of his community.
Broderick did not blame the world for the loss of his eyesight. He knew it was his fault for standing too high in the foxhole. He took responsibility for his actions and for his life. He realized he made a life-changing mistake, but nevertheless he could move on from that mistake.
Many observers of contemporary America have observed our lack of personal responsibility. Our culture often says, “It’s not my fault.” It’s all too easy to blame others when life’s train gets derailed.
Some members of the legal profession thrive on this. Brokaw relates the true story of a father whose son was accidentally killed while at a friend’s house. It seems his son’s friend found a gun and, not knowing it was loaded, pointed it at him and pulled the trigger. The father sued the gun manufacturer. But whose responsibility was it that a boy was dead? The answer should be obvious.
Commitment to marriage and family
Historians, sociologists and other observers have long recognized that strong families are the basis of strong societies. Decades ago, famed historian Edward Gibbon wrote that a major cause of the demise of the Roman Empire was the breakdown of the family. No one had to teach this to the greatest generation; they knew it intuitively. The 1920s and 30s were a time of large families, strong families by today’s standards.
These families stayed together. Of course, they had to during the Depression. In an era largely devoid of today’s extensive social service network, Americans knew that to survive they had to depend on their families.
Lloyd Kilmer remembered the early 1930s growing up on a farm in Minnesota. When his father lost his farm in bankruptcy, the family moved to the nearby town of Stewartville. Everyone in the family went to work wherever they could. Lloyd sold newspapers and sacked groceries to help out with the family finances. He avoided wearing shoes in the summer so he could have a pair in the winter.
In millions of cases, when a young married man went off to war, his bride moved in with her parents or his parents. Grandparents helped raise the children, providing love, training and discipline. And should that dreaded knock at the door come, telling a young wife that her husband had been killed in action, she was still truly part of a larger family.
Such was the case of Jeanette Gagne. Her husband Camille, a native of Quebec, was killed during the Battle of the Bulge. That Western Union telegram shattered her whole existence. For several years, until she remarried, it was her family that provided emotional support and helped her raise her infant son Robert.
To the greatest generation, divorce was a serious matter, almost scandalous. Unlike today, marriage was not a “trial run” to see if it might work out. Brokaw writes of Scottie Lingelbach, whose husband Dale died of melanoma at an early age. She never remarried but laments the divorce of her daughter: “Never did I realize it would happen in my family. Divorce was so uncommon.”
She voiced concerns about the downward drift of families: “What concerns me most about the future is the breakdown of the family. We were willing to make sacrifices so that I could stay home with the children. Now couples both work so they can be more affluent. We would rather delay gratification to ensure that our children had a nice home environment.”
Typical of that generation were John and Peggy Assenzio. They married a month after Pearl Harbor, but had known each other as children growing up in Brooklyn. Trained as a medic, he was assigned to the 118th Combat Engineers and sent to the Pacific Theater to become part of General Douglas MacArthur’s island-hopping push towards Japan.
John saw combat up close—saw men get blown up, arms and legs fly through the air, and often had to wipe the blood from his face. It was a horrifying experience, and it stayed with him for life.
After the war, John went back to Brooklyn and picked up where life left off for him and Peggy in 1942. They wanted a family, and they had two sons. John went back to his old job as a salesman for an import-export firm. But he would often have terrible nightmares; he would thrash around in his sleep, knocking over lamps and shouting. Always Peggy would be there, offering comfort and peace. Despite frequent disagreements, their marriage grew stronger with the passing years.
They, too, bemoan the fact that divorce has become commonplace. Couples these days “don’t fight long enough,” says Peggy. “It’s too easy to get a divorce. We’ve had our arguments, but we don’t give up. When my friends ask whether I ever considered divorce I remind them of the old saying ‘We’ve thought about killing each other, but divorce? Never.’”
A strong work ethic
As Brokaw points out, Americans of that generation knew what it was like to work hard. Although the industrial revolution was far advanced by the early 1930s, America at that time was still much more of an agrarian nation than it is today. Millions lived on farms, and were used to work that went from dawn to dusk, work that was very physical and mostly outdoors. The callused hand was a badge of honor, the proud mark of a hard-working man or woman.
But most Americans toiled in factories, mills and mines at work that could be just as physically demanding. Hardly the clean, highly automated environments of today, Depression-era factories were often noisy, dirty and hot. Steel mill temperatures could easily reach 135 degrees in the summer.
In an era before today’s safety regulations, factory work could be dangerous, with unique ways to suffer serious injury or death. A drop of 2,000-degree molten steel could burn right through a hand. Dozens could be killed at once if methane gas exploded in a coal mine.
After Pearl Harbor, the nation mobilized for an all-out effort. It was perhaps the proudest time of American history. The ramp-up to war energized an economy that, more than a decade after the stock market crash of October 1929, had still not fully recovered from the Depression.
With the return of industrial jobs that paid good wages, working men by the thousands streamed into the factories of America. Those good wages were welcome, but there was something else to work for— victory. Victory over one power that had blindsided the United States, and another whose evil ideology sought to enslave the world. Every tank, gun and airplane that rolled off the assembly line was another nail in the coffin of totalitarian tyranny.
Charles Briscoe grew up the son of an itinerant farmer who moved from place to place across the Great Plains. He remembered the Dust Bowl years, when dust storms would blow up quickly, reducing visibility to a few yards while forcing people to breath through handkerchiefs. As he grew, Briscoe discovered he had a knack for mechanical work. Asked by a neighbor to help repair a John Deere tractor, he got the parts and rebuilt the engine—never having worked on one before.
After completing high school, Charles enrolled in a school for sheet-metal work, a relatively new trade at the time. In 1940 he moved to Wichita, Kansas, to work for the Stearman Division of Boeing. He did not know it at the time, but he would be in the right place at the right time to help with development of the B-29 Superfortress, America’s first truly long range bomber—the bomber that could reach Japan.
The mission was urgent. Years later he recalled, “We worked seven days a week, often twelve to fourteen hours a day.” Boeing, it was said, tried to find farm boys like Charles, who were used to working long hours, and who also were inventive and resourceful.
And then there was “Rosie the Riveter.” With millions of men in uniform and America needing vast industrial output, there was only one solution. By the hundreds of thousands, the women of America put on coveralls, picked up the hammers and wrenches the men had left when they enlisted, and learned to perform the industrial jobs they never dreamed they could do. By 1943, it was largely through their efforts that America became “the Arsenal of Democracy.”
By the time Dorothy Haener graduated from high school in Michigan in 1942, the Ford Motor Company plant in nearby Willow Run had converted from making cars to making B-24 bombers. She got a job as a parts inspector, working nine hours a day, six days a week.
“I had always expected to get married and raise a family … that’s the way I was raised,” she said. She learned she could be independent; she was proud of her work. Like so many women in those circumstances, work gave her a sense of empowerment. She later became active in the United Auto Workers, where she held several leadership roles.
Faith in God and the future
Current polls show a continuing decline in church membership and religious observance. According to recent public opinion polls, less than half of Americans today register any serious religious belief. It seems God is increasingly out of the picture for many.
America of the 1930s and 1940s was a much more religious nation. A belief in God helped get many struggling people through the Great Depression. That same belief sustained soldiers fighting on far-off battlefields. When Army chaplains held religious services, they were normally well attended.
On the home front, millions of prayers went up as wives, sweethearts, fathers, mothers, brothers and sisters prayed for the safe return of their loved ones in uniform. And if they did not return, families relied on God and their faith for the strength to bear the grief and continue on in life.
Such was the case for Helen Van Gorder. Her husband Charles, an Army surgeon with the rank of captain, had volunteered for a special D-Day assignment. He would be part of a two-man surgical team attached to the 101st Airborne Division. They would set up medical/surgical units right in the middle of the fighting instead of behind Allied lines.
They were in the thick of fighting right through the Battle of the Bulge. It was during that epic battle that Charles and another doctor were taken prisoner. In all, through his harrowing experiences as a POW doctor and in escaping from a POW camp on the Russian-Polish border, Charles Van Gorder was gone for 30 straight months.
Back home Helen gave birth to their first son, Rod, who died shortly after birth. She continued to work as a nurse. Her two brothers joined the army and were both killed in action. It was about this time that she learned Charles had been taken prisoner. It would seem Helen’s world was coming apart, yet her faith saw her through. “Since I was a little girl I’ve had trust in the Lord,” she said. “I had faith it would all work out.”
Hebrews 11:1 Hebrews 11:1Now faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen.
American King James Version×tells us that “faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of thing not seen.” Helen Van Gorder believed that God was ultimately in charge of all human events and that regardless of the losses she endured there was a purpose to it all. Faith was the guiding principle of her life, as it must be for all of us.
The greatest generation wasn’t perfect. It produced its share of criminals and societal misfits. Yet the hardships, the trials of this tumultuous time in history, instilled in millions the character traits that helped produce some of the finest men and women in the nation’s history. But by and large, they were a generation that launched America’s modern greatness. We can learn so much from the character traits that made them this way! | <urn:uuid:96b8a863-ce99-4dd2-9439-25fd07ac02c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ucg.org/the-good-news/character-lessons-from-the-greatest-generation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00034.warc.gz | en | 0.986104 | 3,691 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
-0.25289595127105713,
0.7832639217376709,
0.13674938678741455,
-0.4886704087257385,
-0.020809536799788475,
0.47425246238708496,
-0.3875606060028076,
0.3665091395378113,
-0.330796480178833,
-0.03538951650261879,
0.2785751223564148,
0.4557158350944519,
0.2807982563972473,
0.3184109926223755,... | 1 | It’s been more than a decade since renowned NBC newsman Tom Brokaw published The Greatest Generation, his tribute to the generation of Americans who grew up during the Great Depression and carried the nation through World War II.
Inspired by the veterans he met June 6, 1994, at the 50th anniversary celebration of D-Day, he interviewed dozens of them all across the country. The more he talked with them, the more convinced he became that they possessed qualities of character seldom seen in any other generation of Americans.
During the Depression, an era largely devoid of today’s social service network, Americans knew that to survive they had to depend on their families.
Not many of them are left. The youngest are in their mid-80s, and they are dying at the rate of more than 8,000 per week. Most now live in nursing homes or with their children. Their voices are nearly stilled, but the lessons of their lives shine as beacons for today’s generations that often find their values odd or old-fashioned.
To say these men and women were remarkable is to put it lightly. By the time they became young children, the prosperity and optimism that prevailed at the end of World War I, when they were born, was gone, replaced by the harsh economic realities of the Great Depression.
As they were becoming young men and women, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor ensured America’s entry into World War II. In defense of freedom and democracy, that war would demand the best the young men and women of this generation had to offer. When the nation needed commitment, honor, sacrifice and courage, they responded in the millions. And when the war was over, they used those same character traits to build postwar America into the world’s greatest national power.
What traits made them “the greatest generation”? Let’s examine a few.
A sense of responsibility
Childhood should be a time of fun and learning, free from the responsibilities of adulthood. But for millions of them, as children of the Great Depression, life was difficult. Adult responsibilities came early. By age 14 or 15, many young men were working to help support families that might include eight to 10 siblings.
As Brokaw points out, it bred into the men and women of that generation a sense of responsibility that served them well a few years later when the war broke out. They were of course appalled later on when long-held values changed, when they would look on their children and grandchildren and see a totally different attitude.
Wesley Ko epitomized that sense of responsibility. A gifted young Chinese-American who grew up in Philadelphia, Ko’s preacher father could not afford to send his son to college. While still a teen, Ko went to work in a local printing shop where, after Pearl Harbor, his boss appreciated his work so much that he offered to get him a draft deferment.
But young Ko had a sense of patriotism and enlisted in the Army instead. He was sent to officer candidate school at Ft. Benning, Georgia, becoming a second lieutenant. Then came three years of almost continuous combat in North Africa, then Sicily, then Italy, followed by D-Day and the Battle of the Bulge before the war in Europe ended in May 1945.
After the war Ko returned to Philadelphia to start his own printing business with his brother and a friend. He married and raised a family. Life was good until 1985, when a series of government actions and some bad business decisions caused his printing business to fail.
At age 70, well past retirement age for most, Ko found himself almost a million dollars in debt. He could have declared bankruptcy but chose not to. “I just didn’t feel comfortable with declaring bankruptcy,” he said. “I just didn’t think it was the honorable thing to do, even though it would have been easier.”
In our day and age, when many Americans declare bankruptcy at the drop of a hat, we should be inspired by such an example.
World War II took a terrible toll in lives. Some 294,000 young Americans never came back from far-flung battlefields. It also left in its wake some 1.7 million U.S. soldiers who came back with every imaginable disability.
Tom Broderick was one of them. Part of the Army’s famed 82nd Airborne division, September 1944 found Broderick in combat in the Netherlands. One day he made the mistake of standing too high in a foxhole. From several hundred yards away, a German marksman sent a bullet through Broderick’s temple. Though he recovered, the damage to his brain left him blind.
Gripped by self-pity, he lost the will to move on with his life. Why had God let this happen to him, he wondered. But then he prayed for a miracle. “If I can’t have my eyesight back,” he asked God, “could you find a girl for me to marry?” God did not answer immediately, but several years later he met and married a wonderful woman who would be his partner for life.
Tom got hold of himself, learned Braille and studied the insurance field. He learned he had a head for business, and by the early 1950s established his own insurance agency. Over the years the agency grew. Tom and his wife Eileen became prosperous. Their family grew to seven children, and Tom became a respected member of his community.
Broderick did not blame the world for the loss of his eyesight. He knew it was his fault for standing too high in the foxhole. He took responsibility for his actions and for his life. He realized he made a life-changing mistake, but nevertheless he could move on from that mistake.
Many observers of contemporary America have observed our lack of personal responsibility. Our culture often says, “It’s not my fault.” It’s all too easy to blame others when life’s train gets derailed.
Some members of the legal profession thrive on this. Brokaw relates the true story of a father whose son was accidentally killed while at a friend’s house. It seems his son’s friend found a gun and, not knowing it was loaded, pointed it at him and pulled the trigger. The father sued the gun manufacturer. But whose responsibility was it that a boy was dead? The answer should be obvious.
Commitment to marriage and family
Historians, sociologists and other observers have long recognized that strong families are the basis of strong societies. Decades ago, famed historian Edward Gibbon wrote that a major cause of the demise of the Roman Empire was the breakdown of the family. No one had to teach this to the greatest generation; they knew it intuitively. The 1920s and 30s were a time of large families, strong families by today’s standards.
These families stayed together. Of course, they had to during the Depression. In an era largely devoid of today’s extensive social service network, Americans knew that to survive they had to depend on their families.
Lloyd Kilmer remembered the early 1930s growing up on a farm in Minnesota. When his father lost his farm in bankruptcy, the family moved to the nearby town of Stewartville. Everyone in the family went to work wherever they could. Lloyd sold newspapers and sacked groceries to help out with the family finances. He avoided wearing shoes in the summer so he could have a pair in the winter.
In millions of cases, when a young married man went off to war, his bride moved in with her parents or his parents. Grandparents helped raise the children, providing love, training and discipline. And should that dreaded knock at the door come, telling a young wife that her husband had been killed in action, she was still truly part of a larger family.
Such was the case of Jeanette Gagne. Her husband Camille, a native of Quebec, was killed during the Battle of the Bulge. That Western Union telegram shattered her whole existence. For several years, until she remarried, it was her family that provided emotional support and helped her raise her infant son Robert.
To the greatest generation, divorce was a serious matter, almost scandalous. Unlike today, marriage was not a “trial run” to see if it might work out. Brokaw writes of Scottie Lingelbach, whose husband Dale died of melanoma at an early age. She never remarried but laments the divorce of her daughter: “Never did I realize it would happen in my family. Divorce was so uncommon.”
She voiced concerns about the downward drift of families: “What concerns me most about the future is the breakdown of the family. We were willing to make sacrifices so that I could stay home with the children. Now couples both work so they can be more affluent. We would rather delay gratification to ensure that our children had a nice home environment.”
Typical of that generation were John and Peggy Assenzio. They married a month after Pearl Harbor, but had known each other as children growing up in Brooklyn. Trained as a medic, he was assigned to the 118th Combat Engineers and sent to the Pacific Theater to become part of General Douglas MacArthur’s island-hopping push towards Japan.
John saw combat up close—saw men get blown up, arms and legs fly through the air, and often had to wipe the blood from his face. It was a horrifying experience, and it stayed with him for life.
After the war, John went back to Brooklyn and picked up where life left off for him and Peggy in 1942. They wanted a family, and they had two sons. John went back to his old job as a salesman for an import-export firm. But he would often have terrible nightmares; he would thrash around in his sleep, knocking over lamps and shouting. Always Peggy would be there, offering comfort and peace. Despite frequent disagreements, their marriage grew stronger with the passing years.
They, too, bemoan the fact that divorce has become commonplace. Couples these days “don’t fight long enough,” says Peggy. “It’s too easy to get a divorce. We’ve had our arguments, but we don’t give up. When my friends ask whether I ever considered divorce I remind them of the old saying ‘We’ve thought about killing each other, but divorce? Never.’”
A strong work ethic
As Brokaw points out, Americans of that generation knew what it was like to work hard. Although the industrial revolution was far advanced by the early 1930s, America at that time was still much more of an agrarian nation than it is today. Millions lived on farms, and were used to work that went from dawn to dusk, work that was very physical and mostly outdoors. The callused hand was a badge of honor, the proud mark of a hard-working man or woman.
But most Americans toiled in factories, mills and mines at work that could be just as physically demanding. Hardly the clean, highly automated environments of today, Depression-era factories were often noisy, dirty and hot. Steel mill temperatures could easily reach 135 degrees in the summer.
In an era before today’s safety regulations, factory work could be dangerous, with unique ways to suffer serious injury or death. A drop of 2,000-degree molten steel could burn right through a hand. Dozens could be killed at once if methane gas exploded in a coal mine.
After Pearl Harbor, the nation mobilized for an all-out effort. It was perhaps the proudest time of American history. The ramp-up to war energized an economy that, more than a decade after the stock market crash of October 1929, had still not fully recovered from the Depression.
With the return of industrial jobs that paid good wages, working men by the thousands streamed into the factories of America. Those good wages were welcome, but there was something else to work for— victory. Victory over one power that had blindsided the United States, and another whose evil ideology sought to enslave the world. Every tank, gun and airplane that rolled off the assembly line was another nail in the coffin of totalitarian tyranny.
Charles Briscoe grew up the son of an itinerant farmer who moved from place to place across the Great Plains. He remembered the Dust Bowl years, when dust storms would blow up quickly, reducing visibility to a few yards while forcing people to breath through handkerchiefs. As he grew, Briscoe discovered he had a knack for mechanical work. Asked by a neighbor to help repair a John Deere tractor, he got the parts and rebuilt the engine—never having worked on one before.
After completing high school, Charles enrolled in a school for sheet-metal work, a relatively new trade at the time. In 1940 he moved to Wichita, Kansas, to work for the Stearman Division of Boeing. He did not know it at the time, but he would be in the right place at the right time to help with development of the B-29 Superfortress, America’s first truly long range bomber—the bomber that could reach Japan.
The mission was urgent. Years later he recalled, “We worked seven days a week, often twelve to fourteen hours a day.” Boeing, it was said, tried to find farm boys like Charles, who were used to working long hours, and who also were inventive and resourceful.
And then there was “Rosie the Riveter.” With millions of men in uniform and America needing vast industrial output, there was only one solution. By the hundreds of thousands, the women of America put on coveralls, picked up the hammers and wrenches the men had left when they enlisted, and learned to perform the industrial jobs they never dreamed they could do. By 1943, it was largely through their efforts that America became “the Arsenal of Democracy.”
By the time Dorothy Haener graduated from high school in Michigan in 1942, the Ford Motor Company plant in nearby Willow Run had converted from making cars to making B-24 bombers. She got a job as a parts inspector, working nine hours a day, six days a week.
“I had always expected to get married and raise a family … that’s the way I was raised,” she said. She learned she could be independent; she was proud of her work. Like so many women in those circumstances, work gave her a sense of empowerment. She later became active in the United Auto Workers, where she held several leadership roles.
Faith in God and the future
Current polls show a continuing decline in church membership and religious observance. According to recent public opinion polls, less than half of Americans today register any serious religious belief. It seems God is increasingly out of the picture for many.
America of the 1930s and 1940s was a much more religious nation. A belief in God helped get many struggling people through the Great Depression. That same belief sustained soldiers fighting on far-off battlefields. When Army chaplains held religious services, they were normally well attended.
On the home front, millions of prayers went up as wives, sweethearts, fathers, mothers, brothers and sisters prayed for the safe return of their loved ones in uniform. And if they did not return, families relied on God and their faith for the strength to bear the grief and continue on in life.
Such was the case for Helen Van Gorder. Her husband Charles, an Army surgeon with the rank of captain, had volunteered for a special D-Day assignment. He would be part of a two-man surgical team attached to the 101st Airborne Division. They would set up medical/surgical units right in the middle of the fighting instead of behind Allied lines.
They were in the thick of fighting right through the Battle of the Bulge. It was during that epic battle that Charles and another doctor were taken prisoner. In all, through his harrowing experiences as a POW doctor and in escaping from a POW camp on the Russian-Polish border, Charles Van Gorder was gone for 30 straight months.
Back home Helen gave birth to their first son, Rod, who died shortly after birth. She continued to work as a nurse. Her two brothers joined the army and were both killed in action. It was about this time that she learned Charles had been taken prisoner. It would seem Helen’s world was coming apart, yet her faith saw her through. “Since I was a little girl I’ve had trust in the Lord,” she said. “I had faith it would all work out.”
Hebrews 11:1 Hebrews 11:1Now faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen.
American King James Version×tells us that “faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of thing not seen.” Helen Van Gorder believed that God was ultimately in charge of all human events and that regardless of the losses she endured there was a purpose to it all. Faith was the guiding principle of her life, as it must be for all of us.
The greatest generation wasn’t perfect. It produced its share of criminals and societal misfits. Yet the hardships, the trials of this tumultuous time in history, instilled in millions the character traits that helped produce some of the finest men and women in the nation’s history. But by and large, they were a generation that launched America’s modern greatness. We can learn so much from the character traits that made them this way! | 3,609 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Often times, you will hear people refer to ferrets as "biters" or "vicious". People who say these things usually have never been around ferrets or have had a past negative experience with a poorly socialized ferret. Ferrets use their teeth to communicate. Since they can't speak and don't have hands, they use their mouth to explore the world and communicate with other ferrets, animals, and humans. Baby ferrets will go through a "nippy" stage as do most baby animals. The nipping will start to diminish at around 6 months of age or older. Not with all ferrets though. Some have to be taught not to play like that. If you've ever watched two ferrets playing together, it looks pretty rough. They look like they are really hurting one another, though they aren't. They will wrestle and bite each other, provoking play.
Ferrets have a rather thick, leather-like skin, so another ferret biting them doesn't hurt. However, a nip or bite of the same magnitude on a human's skin definitely hurts. They don't realize our skin is not as tough as theirs, and they play with us as they would another ferret. So we, as their owners, have to teach them what is acceptable play behavior and what isn't. Because ferrets can be rather stubborn, any behavioral training should be very consistent. You should reprimand them IMMEDIATELY after they've bitten. If you wait too long, they won't have any idea what they did wrong. This way, they connect biting with something negative. You can also encourage positive behavior, such as playing gently and not nipping, using treats and praise as rewards. A certain amount of "mouthing" during play is ok, as long as they aren't hurting you.
There are several different techniques that can be used to train a ferret not to nip or bite. First it's good to know the difference between a "nip" and a "bite". A "nip" is basically the ferret "mouthing" you; putting it's teeth on your for brief moments with some pressure, occasionally pinching your skin. A "bite" however, is usually a lot harder. And depending on how hard the ferret is biting, skin may get broken and blood drawn. Even if the skin isn't broken, a "bite" will still leave marks. Some ferrets who bite will grab on with their teeth and not let go. This can become a long term problem if not corrected when they are fairly young. A signal that a ferret is going to bite you is when it brings it's whiskers forward.
Not every technique will work on all ferrets. You have to find the one which gets the point across best to your ferret. One method is to scruff your ferret immediately after he/she bites you and yell "NO!!". Unfortunately this doesn't work on ALL ferrets as most of them have no idea what the word no means. For some just yelling the word no or "ouch" is enough to stop them. Another idea is to put your hand over the ferret's face and say no loudly as they are going to bite you. Gently pushing the ferret's mouth away from you while saying no can work as well. Be careful with this last one, though. Pushing the ferret away may make him think you are playing and may only encourage the biting more.
Another method to try is to scruff the ferret, then drag it back and forth across the floor (while saying no loudly). This is the way mother ferrets discipline their young. Be careful though, when doing this, you don't want to hurt the ferret. Time-outs is another tactic. This is where the ferret has his play time cut short and is put somewhere away from his play area, such as a cage, pet carrier or other area, by himself. Similar to when your parents sent you to your room when you were bad. Though this can be an effective method, there can be some drawbacks. If you are using their cage or pet carrier as their "time out" area, they will constantly think they are being punished every time they are put in them; even when they aren't actually being punished. So if you are going to use this method, choose a neutral area--maybe a cage that is only specifically for time outs, or maybe your bathroom (with nothing on the floor with him to play with, of course).
You can also bend your finger and shove your knuckle to the back of the ferret's mouth and say no loudly. This makes him uncomfortable and may make him think twice about biting again. Another option is to put a handful of coins in a coffee can. Whenever your ferret goes to bite you, shake the can quickly. This will probably startle him, but will make him think twice about biting you again. One method I have used with a great deal of success is with a product called Bitter Apple Furniture Cream. It is non-toxic and gives the ferret a bad taste in it's mouth. It's mostly used to keep pets from chewing on furniture, wires, etc. Many people use the Bitter Apple Spray. They spray it on their hands so that when the ferret is playing and bites them, they get a bad taste in their mouth. Unfortunately, the spray tends to disipate quickly and you have to keep re-applying it. This for some reason, conditions the ferret to the odor of the spray. I've had some who would wait until the smell disipated, then bite me; when my hands smelled of it, they wouldn't bite me. One ferret in particular would pull his tongue back when he went to bite me so he'd never actually taste the bitter apple on my hands. When I use the bitter apple cream, however, I don't put it all over my hands. What I do is when a ferret bites me, I immediately scruff them, put the dispenser tip of the bottle in the corner of their mouth, and pump one drop in their mouth. I do this consistently, each and every time they bite me.
Though it doesn't happen often, some ferrets may bite and not let go. There are several ways to make them release their jaw from you. One thing is to take your index finger and thumb and place one on each side of the ferret's jaw. Place the fingers on the joints of the jaw and apply pressure (by gently squeezing). Another thing to do for this type of bite is to block the ferret's nostrils with two fingers (one over each). Since ferrets always breathe through their nose and not their mouths, this will make him/her open it's mouth to breathe, thus releasing the bite. You can also run the ferret's head under faucet water--it'll startle them and release the bite. Even though this type of bite does not occur often, it's still a good thing to know how to resolve the problem just in case it does occur.
The key element to training your ferret not to bite is consistency. Stick with only one method at a time. If you use a different method every time you discipline them, you'll only confuse them. Use one method for a week or so. If it isn't working, then try another until you find one that works. You'll know you're getting through to your ferret when he puts his ears back and squints his eyes. Another important thing to remember is never hit or kick your ferret to discipline it. Not only will you hurt it, but you will also alienate it and possibly make him start biting out of fear.
These are just a few of the methods that have worked for people trying to break their ferret of the biting habit.
- Real Estate | <urn:uuid:5a38de77-8ab7-4aad-8e36-4257db72bd6f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.longisland.com/articles/02-10-01/nip-training.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00010.warc.gz | en | 0.983284 | 1,624 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
-0.187554731965065,
-0.24178925156593323,
0.2241601198911667,
0.11673878133296967,
-0.07299552857875824,
0.08752672374248505,
0.8611938953399658,
0.05204961821436882,
0.02222382090985775,
-0.17224474251270294,
0.16591458022594452,
-0.3555415868759155,
0.0234579686075449,
0.355375736951828,... | 1 | Often times, you will hear people refer to ferrets as "biters" or "vicious". People who say these things usually have never been around ferrets or have had a past negative experience with a poorly socialized ferret. Ferrets use their teeth to communicate. Since they can't speak and don't have hands, they use their mouth to explore the world and communicate with other ferrets, animals, and humans. Baby ferrets will go through a "nippy" stage as do most baby animals. The nipping will start to diminish at around 6 months of age or older. Not with all ferrets though. Some have to be taught not to play like that. If you've ever watched two ferrets playing together, it looks pretty rough. They look like they are really hurting one another, though they aren't. They will wrestle and bite each other, provoking play.
Ferrets have a rather thick, leather-like skin, so another ferret biting them doesn't hurt. However, a nip or bite of the same magnitude on a human's skin definitely hurts. They don't realize our skin is not as tough as theirs, and they play with us as they would another ferret. So we, as their owners, have to teach them what is acceptable play behavior and what isn't. Because ferrets can be rather stubborn, any behavioral training should be very consistent. You should reprimand them IMMEDIATELY after they've bitten. If you wait too long, they won't have any idea what they did wrong. This way, they connect biting with something negative. You can also encourage positive behavior, such as playing gently and not nipping, using treats and praise as rewards. A certain amount of "mouthing" during play is ok, as long as they aren't hurting you.
There are several different techniques that can be used to train a ferret not to nip or bite. First it's good to know the difference between a "nip" and a "bite". A "nip" is basically the ferret "mouthing" you; putting it's teeth on your for brief moments with some pressure, occasionally pinching your skin. A "bite" however, is usually a lot harder. And depending on how hard the ferret is biting, skin may get broken and blood drawn. Even if the skin isn't broken, a "bite" will still leave marks. Some ferrets who bite will grab on with their teeth and not let go. This can become a long term problem if not corrected when they are fairly young. A signal that a ferret is going to bite you is when it brings it's whiskers forward.
Not every technique will work on all ferrets. You have to find the one which gets the point across best to your ferret. One method is to scruff your ferret immediately after he/she bites you and yell "NO!!". Unfortunately this doesn't work on ALL ferrets as most of them have no idea what the word no means. For some just yelling the word no or "ouch" is enough to stop them. Another idea is to put your hand over the ferret's face and say no loudly as they are going to bite you. Gently pushing the ferret's mouth away from you while saying no can work as well. Be careful with this last one, though. Pushing the ferret away may make him think you are playing and may only encourage the biting more.
Another method to try is to scruff the ferret, then drag it back and forth across the floor (while saying no loudly). This is the way mother ferrets discipline their young. Be careful though, when doing this, you don't want to hurt the ferret. Time-outs is another tactic. This is where the ferret has his play time cut short and is put somewhere away from his play area, such as a cage, pet carrier or other area, by himself. Similar to when your parents sent you to your room when you were bad. Though this can be an effective method, there can be some drawbacks. If you are using their cage or pet carrier as their "time out" area, they will constantly think they are being punished every time they are put in them; even when they aren't actually being punished. So if you are going to use this method, choose a neutral area--maybe a cage that is only specifically for time outs, or maybe your bathroom (with nothing on the floor with him to play with, of course).
You can also bend your finger and shove your knuckle to the back of the ferret's mouth and say no loudly. This makes him uncomfortable and may make him think twice about biting again. Another option is to put a handful of coins in a coffee can. Whenever your ferret goes to bite you, shake the can quickly. This will probably startle him, but will make him think twice about biting you again. One method I have used with a great deal of success is with a product called Bitter Apple Furniture Cream. It is non-toxic and gives the ferret a bad taste in it's mouth. It's mostly used to keep pets from chewing on furniture, wires, etc. Many people use the Bitter Apple Spray. They spray it on their hands so that when the ferret is playing and bites them, they get a bad taste in their mouth. Unfortunately, the spray tends to disipate quickly and you have to keep re-applying it. This for some reason, conditions the ferret to the odor of the spray. I've had some who would wait until the smell disipated, then bite me; when my hands smelled of it, they wouldn't bite me. One ferret in particular would pull his tongue back when he went to bite me so he'd never actually taste the bitter apple on my hands. When I use the bitter apple cream, however, I don't put it all over my hands. What I do is when a ferret bites me, I immediately scruff them, put the dispenser tip of the bottle in the corner of their mouth, and pump one drop in their mouth. I do this consistently, each and every time they bite me.
Though it doesn't happen often, some ferrets may bite and not let go. There are several ways to make them release their jaw from you. One thing is to take your index finger and thumb and place one on each side of the ferret's jaw. Place the fingers on the joints of the jaw and apply pressure (by gently squeezing). Another thing to do for this type of bite is to block the ferret's nostrils with two fingers (one over each). Since ferrets always breathe through their nose and not their mouths, this will make him/her open it's mouth to breathe, thus releasing the bite. You can also run the ferret's head under faucet water--it'll startle them and release the bite. Even though this type of bite does not occur often, it's still a good thing to know how to resolve the problem just in case it does occur.
The key element to training your ferret not to bite is consistency. Stick with only one method at a time. If you use a different method every time you discipline them, you'll only confuse them. Use one method for a week or so. If it isn't working, then try another until you find one that works. You'll know you're getting through to your ferret when he puts his ears back and squints his eyes. Another important thing to remember is never hit or kick your ferret to discipline it. Not only will you hurt it, but you will also alienate it and possibly make him start biting out of fear.
These are just a few of the methods that have worked for people trying to break their ferret of the biting habit.
- Real Estate | 1,603 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today Franciscans keep a Feast in honor of St. Louis IX, king of France, the only French king to be recognized by the Church as a canonized saint. He is one of the patrons of the Third Order of St. Francis along with St. Elizabeth of Hungary, daughter of King Andrew II. These two members of European royalty were chosen as patron and patroness of the Third Order because they exemplified the Franciscan charism in their secular lives.
St. Louis IX is remembered as a reformer. Some of his accomplishments include developing French royal justice, in which the king is the supreme judge to whom anyone is able to appeal to seek the amendment of a judgment. He banned trials by ordeal, tried to prevent the private wars that were plaguing the country and introduced the presumption of innocence in criminal procedure. To enforce the correct application of this new legal system, Louis IX created provosts and bailiffs.
On 27 May 1234, Louis married Margaret of Provence whose sister Eleanor later became the wife of Henry III of England. The new queen's religious devotion made her a well suited partner for the king. He enjoyed her company, and was pleased to show her the many public works he was making in Paris, both for its defense and for its health. They enjoyed riding together, reading, and listening to music. Together they had eleven children, nine of whom lived to adulthood. St. Louis died of dysentery during one of the Crusades.
Pope Boniface VIII proclaimed the canonization of Louis in 1297; he is the only French monarch to be declared a saint. Louis IX is often considered the model of the ideal Christian monarch. He is honored as co-patron of the Third Order of St. Francis, which claims him as a member of the Order. Even in childhood, his compassion for the poor and suffering people had been obvious to all who knew him and when he became king, over a hundred poor people ate in his house on ordinary days. Often the king served these guests himself. Such acts of charity, coupled with Louis' devout religious practices, gave rise to the legend that he joined the Third Order of St. Francis. Though it is unlikely that Louis did join the order, his life and actions proclaimed him one of them in spirit.
In addition to St. Louis, Missouri, the cities of San Luis Potosí in Mexico; St. Louis Park, Minnesota; St. Louis, Michigan; San Luis, Arizona; San Luis, Colorado; Saint-Louis du Sénégal; Saint-Louis in Alsace; as well as Lake Saint-Louis in Quebec, the Mission San Luis Rey de Francia in California and São Luís, Maranhão in Brazil are among the many places named after the French king and saint. The Cathedral Saint-Louis in Versailles; the Basilica of St. Louis, King of France and the Cathedral Basilica of St. Louis, both in St. Louis, Missouri; and the St. Louis Cathedral, New Orleans were also named for the king.
As we keep his feast today, let us include in our prayers those who seek public office in this election year that we might be blessed by men and women in government who, like Louis IX, have a special concern for the poor.
Fr. Lawrence Jagdfeld, O.F.M., Administrator | <urn:uuid:6d94b508-1bda-4c6a-9f57-19c0c7203857> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cusan.org/CUSA-Blogs/Administrators-Blog/ArtMID/446/ArticleID/1276/St-Louis-IX-King-of-France | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00409.warc.gz | en | 0.981124 | 692 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
-0.014350879937410355,
0.509399950504303,
-0.02872231975197792,
-0.465997576713562,
0.03054058738052845,
-0.3162178695201874,
-0.15546369552612305,
0.017379408702254295,
0.6426994204521179,
0.1828768253326416,
-0.009880353696644306,
-0.008192935027182102,
0.1398405134677887,
-0.18309733271... | 2 | Today Franciscans keep a Feast in honor of St. Louis IX, king of France, the only French king to be recognized by the Church as a canonized saint. He is one of the patrons of the Third Order of St. Francis along with St. Elizabeth of Hungary, daughter of King Andrew II. These two members of European royalty were chosen as patron and patroness of the Third Order because they exemplified the Franciscan charism in their secular lives.
St. Louis IX is remembered as a reformer. Some of his accomplishments include developing French royal justice, in which the king is the supreme judge to whom anyone is able to appeal to seek the amendment of a judgment. He banned trials by ordeal, tried to prevent the private wars that were plaguing the country and introduced the presumption of innocence in criminal procedure. To enforce the correct application of this new legal system, Louis IX created provosts and bailiffs.
On 27 May 1234, Louis married Margaret of Provence whose sister Eleanor later became the wife of Henry III of England. The new queen's religious devotion made her a well suited partner for the king. He enjoyed her company, and was pleased to show her the many public works he was making in Paris, both for its defense and for its health. They enjoyed riding together, reading, and listening to music. Together they had eleven children, nine of whom lived to adulthood. St. Louis died of dysentery during one of the Crusades.
Pope Boniface VIII proclaimed the canonization of Louis in 1297; he is the only French monarch to be declared a saint. Louis IX is often considered the model of the ideal Christian monarch. He is honored as co-patron of the Third Order of St. Francis, which claims him as a member of the Order. Even in childhood, his compassion for the poor and suffering people had been obvious to all who knew him and when he became king, over a hundred poor people ate in his house on ordinary days. Often the king served these guests himself. Such acts of charity, coupled with Louis' devout religious practices, gave rise to the legend that he joined the Third Order of St. Francis. Though it is unlikely that Louis did join the order, his life and actions proclaimed him one of them in spirit.
In addition to St. Louis, Missouri, the cities of San Luis Potosí in Mexico; St. Louis Park, Minnesota; St. Louis, Michigan; San Luis, Arizona; San Luis, Colorado; Saint-Louis du Sénégal; Saint-Louis in Alsace; as well as Lake Saint-Louis in Quebec, the Mission San Luis Rey de Francia in California and São Luís, Maranhão in Brazil are among the many places named after the French king and saint. The Cathedral Saint-Louis in Versailles; the Basilica of St. Louis, King of France and the Cathedral Basilica of St. Louis, both in St. Louis, Missouri; and the St. Louis Cathedral, New Orleans were also named for the king.
As we keep his feast today, let us include in our prayers those who seek public office in this election year that we might be blessed by men and women in government who, like Louis IX, have a special concern for the poor.
Fr. Lawrence Jagdfeld, O.F.M., Administrator | 686 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How Did Saint Patrick's Day Develop?
Saint Patrick's day is celebrate as an important Catholic feast day in Ireland. It also has important religious significance in other places that recognize the importance of Saint Patrick in bringing Christianity to Ireland. While the story of Saint Patrick does relate to the bringing of Christianity to Ireland, many of the stories and celebrations have other influences and reasons that have shaped the celebratory day.
Saint Patrick's day only became a recognized feast day in the early 17th century. However, it's development and traditions took various forms of influence. Outside of knowledge of Saint Patrick as being perhaps the most important person in bringing Christianity to Ireland, little else is known. He probably was a British-Roman missionary who migrated from Britain in the 5th century CE, perhaps in the 430s when Rome's grip on Britain had faded. The work, Declaration , dated to this period, may have been written by him and provides the most detail on his life. It is not even clear if Patrick was his name, as other possibilities have been suggested such as Magnus. There is also the tradition of Palladius being the first bishop of Ireland, recorded to be around 431. He may have been a figure conflated with Patrick in later traditions, where Palladius and Patrick were combined into one figure.
Tradition holds he was taken captive as a teenager by Irish pirates from his native Britain. He eventually escaped but after some time he saw a vision and came back to Ireland to be a missionary. When he came back, he became active in baptizing and spreading Christianity. Interestingly, an early 7th century letter written by Columbanus, an Irish missionary, states that Christianity came to Ireland via Palladius. Works by Tírechán, writing later in the 7th century, then begin to attribute Christianity brought to Ireland via Patrick. The writer refers to Book of Ultán, which could be a missing or lost source regarding Patrick, as this work no longer survives. Many of the conversion stories mimic other conversion stories found in the late Roman Empire, suggesting that many of the stories were borrowed and attributed to Patrick or even that the stories were combined in relation to Patrick. It may have not been until the 7th century, long after Patrick, that churches and monasteries began to spread across Ireland.
The main tradition that continues to have connection to Saint Patrick is the use of the shamrock to teach about the Holy Trinity. However, that tradition was only written down in the 1700s, far later than any of the early Medieval writings about Saint Patrick. Nevertheless, the story could be much older and may reflect at least Medieval beliefs. Other stories, such as snakes being banished from Ireland by Patrick, reflect the fact that there have not been snakes in Ireland since the last ice age. The selection of March 17th as Saint Patrick's day relates to the purported date of Patrick, but there is no certainty of that from sources.
In the 9th and 10th centuries, Saint Patrick's day was being celebrated widely throughout Ireland. By the Medieval period, Patrick became the undisputed Patron Saint of Ireland. By the 17th century, green had increasingly been associated with Ireland. As the color became associated with the country and people, naturally Saint Patrick, the patron saint, began to also be associated with this color, leading to this color being the primary color worn on the feast day. In the 17th century, Luke Wadding, an important Franciscan friar from Ireland, placed Saint Patrick as part of the official important feast days in the Catholic calendar.
Even after the conversion and migration of English to Ireland in the 1600s, the Anglican calendar has retained Saint Patrick as part of their celebrations. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Saint Patrick's day began to take a nationalistic characteristic against Protestant and British forces in Ireland. In 1903, Saint Patrick's day in Ireland held its first parade in Waterford, which was the home of the bishop who had created Saint Patrick's day as an official feast day. In 1916, large-scale Saint Patrick's day marches and parades were held in Ireland, where the Irish Volunteers sponsored these marches and parades. Some accounts suggest many or even most of the participants may have been armed, signifying the troubled period during British occupation throughout Ireland. With the partition of Ireland after the creation of the Irish Free State, celebrations in Northern Ireland began to reflect Protestant and Catholic divisions. The Unionists of Northern Ireland, although recognizing Saint Patrick's day as a holiday, did not hold any official celebrations, while the Catholics used the day as a way to protest against the Unionists.
In the United States, widespread migration in the 19th century led to celebrations of Saint Patrick's day already in the mid-19th century. However, it has been claimed that already by 1762 celebrations of Saint Patrick's day, and even the first official parade, had taken place. It is then possible or even likely that the first Saint Patrick's parade took place in New York. In the mid-19th century, widespread celebrations and parades were held in places such as New York and Boston. US traditions, in may respects, in the 20th century influence the global spread and influence of Saint Patrick's day. | <urn:uuid:3da8ac62-94db-4ff5-b802-f465dad17ad0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_Did_Saint_Patrick%27s_Day_Develop%3F&oldid=10374 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00421.warc.gz | en | 0.983955 | 1,068 | 3.625 | 4 | [
0.16031822562217712,
0.120244599878788,
0.13106517493724823,
-0.3586156964302063,
-0.24894165992736816,
-0.24462905526161194,
0.028347129002213478,
-0.11181522160768509,
0.09084281325340271,
-0.04611955210566521,
-0.2561401128768921,
-0.1522420346736908,
0.21849533915519714,
0.194344267249... | 1 | How Did Saint Patrick's Day Develop?
Saint Patrick's day is celebrate as an important Catholic feast day in Ireland. It also has important religious significance in other places that recognize the importance of Saint Patrick in bringing Christianity to Ireland. While the story of Saint Patrick does relate to the bringing of Christianity to Ireland, many of the stories and celebrations have other influences and reasons that have shaped the celebratory day.
Saint Patrick's day only became a recognized feast day in the early 17th century. However, it's development and traditions took various forms of influence. Outside of knowledge of Saint Patrick as being perhaps the most important person in bringing Christianity to Ireland, little else is known. He probably was a British-Roman missionary who migrated from Britain in the 5th century CE, perhaps in the 430s when Rome's grip on Britain had faded. The work, Declaration , dated to this period, may have been written by him and provides the most detail on his life. It is not even clear if Patrick was his name, as other possibilities have been suggested such as Magnus. There is also the tradition of Palladius being the first bishop of Ireland, recorded to be around 431. He may have been a figure conflated with Patrick in later traditions, where Palladius and Patrick were combined into one figure.
Tradition holds he was taken captive as a teenager by Irish pirates from his native Britain. He eventually escaped but after some time he saw a vision and came back to Ireland to be a missionary. When he came back, he became active in baptizing and spreading Christianity. Interestingly, an early 7th century letter written by Columbanus, an Irish missionary, states that Christianity came to Ireland via Palladius. Works by Tírechán, writing later in the 7th century, then begin to attribute Christianity brought to Ireland via Patrick. The writer refers to Book of Ultán, which could be a missing or lost source regarding Patrick, as this work no longer survives. Many of the conversion stories mimic other conversion stories found in the late Roman Empire, suggesting that many of the stories were borrowed and attributed to Patrick or even that the stories were combined in relation to Patrick. It may have not been until the 7th century, long after Patrick, that churches and monasteries began to spread across Ireland.
The main tradition that continues to have connection to Saint Patrick is the use of the shamrock to teach about the Holy Trinity. However, that tradition was only written down in the 1700s, far later than any of the early Medieval writings about Saint Patrick. Nevertheless, the story could be much older and may reflect at least Medieval beliefs. Other stories, such as snakes being banished from Ireland by Patrick, reflect the fact that there have not been snakes in Ireland since the last ice age. The selection of March 17th as Saint Patrick's day relates to the purported date of Patrick, but there is no certainty of that from sources.
In the 9th and 10th centuries, Saint Patrick's day was being celebrated widely throughout Ireland. By the Medieval period, Patrick became the undisputed Patron Saint of Ireland. By the 17th century, green had increasingly been associated with Ireland. As the color became associated with the country and people, naturally Saint Patrick, the patron saint, began to also be associated with this color, leading to this color being the primary color worn on the feast day. In the 17th century, Luke Wadding, an important Franciscan friar from Ireland, placed Saint Patrick as part of the official important feast days in the Catholic calendar.
Even after the conversion and migration of English to Ireland in the 1600s, the Anglican calendar has retained Saint Patrick as part of their celebrations. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Saint Patrick's day began to take a nationalistic characteristic against Protestant and British forces in Ireland. In 1903, Saint Patrick's day in Ireland held its first parade in Waterford, which was the home of the bishop who had created Saint Patrick's day as an official feast day. In 1916, large-scale Saint Patrick's day marches and parades were held in Ireland, where the Irish Volunteers sponsored these marches and parades. Some accounts suggest many or even most of the participants may have been armed, signifying the troubled period during British occupation throughout Ireland. With the partition of Ireland after the creation of the Irish Free State, celebrations in Northern Ireland began to reflect Protestant and Catholic divisions. The Unionists of Northern Ireland, although recognizing Saint Patrick's day as a holiday, did not hold any official celebrations, while the Catholics used the day as a way to protest against the Unionists.
In the United States, widespread migration in the 19th century led to celebrations of Saint Patrick's day already in the mid-19th century. However, it has been claimed that already by 1762 celebrations of Saint Patrick's day, and even the first official parade, had taken place. It is then possible or even likely that the first Saint Patrick's parade took place in New York. In the mid-19th century, widespread celebrations and parades were held in places such as New York and Boston. US traditions, in may respects, in the 20th century influence the global spread and influence of Saint Patrick's day. | 1,107 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What it involves to maintain a healthy diet is tasking for almost everyone. This means that some measures have to be put in place. Such measures usually come with no pleasure, but they are for the best in the long run.
One of the major causes of extra weight in children is excessive eating, and this happens as a result of food addiction.
Food addiction in children is a condition whereby they eat obsessively and compulsively even though they are not feeling hungry.
One of the ways to preventing food addiction in children, is encouraging them to eat when it is time to eat. They should not just eat when they see a nice looking food.
During eating, they should also ensure that they do not eat in front of the Television, or while they are undergoing other activities. It takes their mind of the food, and they can easily lose focus of what is entering their mouth.
In addition to this, parents need to ensure that they do not use food as a reward. Some parents are fond of doing this.
For instance, they can promise their children that, once they score high in a test, they would get their favorite snacks for them.
With time, this becomes a continuum, as those children would do the bidding of their parents simply because they want their favorite food.
For parents whose children are already use to overeating, you can regulate this by including lots of veggies in their diet. This would ensure that they have a balanced diet, and it would make up for the supposed detrimental effects of their overeating.
Also, make sure they do not take sweet drinks. It is important for you to ensure they cut down on the intake of sweet drinks, they do not come with any form of nutrition.
Their dental health is also at risk when they take too much sugary drinks. It is better to encourage them to take more water and milk which is devoid of fat alongside with healthy meals.
After dinner, instead of taking snacks which have high fat and sugar content, it is best to take healthy snacks, to prevent them from being overweight. | <urn:uuid:4ef02837-0a7e-46c5-ad24-906a9cde355f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://eglobalnews.net/index.php/2019/11/12/preventing-food-addiction-in-children/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00273.warc.gz | en | 0.986259 | 422 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
-0.05231789872050285,
-0.1726105809211731,
0.34097355604171753,
-0.24177920818328857,
-0.27422812581062317,
0.1254354566335678,
0.08871880173683167,
0.016208907589316368,
-0.32714638113975525,
0.02608443796634674,
0.15886829793453217,
-0.45696380734443665,
0.30647993087768555,
0.3687976896... | 9 | What it involves to maintain a healthy diet is tasking for almost everyone. This means that some measures have to be put in place. Such measures usually come with no pleasure, but they are for the best in the long run.
One of the major causes of extra weight in children is excessive eating, and this happens as a result of food addiction.
Food addiction in children is a condition whereby they eat obsessively and compulsively even though they are not feeling hungry.
One of the ways to preventing food addiction in children, is encouraging them to eat when it is time to eat. They should not just eat when they see a nice looking food.
During eating, they should also ensure that they do not eat in front of the Television, or while they are undergoing other activities. It takes their mind of the food, and they can easily lose focus of what is entering their mouth.
In addition to this, parents need to ensure that they do not use food as a reward. Some parents are fond of doing this.
For instance, they can promise their children that, once they score high in a test, they would get their favorite snacks for them.
With time, this becomes a continuum, as those children would do the bidding of their parents simply because they want their favorite food.
For parents whose children are already use to overeating, you can regulate this by including lots of veggies in their diet. This would ensure that they have a balanced diet, and it would make up for the supposed detrimental effects of their overeating.
Also, make sure they do not take sweet drinks. It is important for you to ensure they cut down on the intake of sweet drinks, they do not come with any form of nutrition.
Their dental health is also at risk when they take too much sugary drinks. It is better to encourage them to take more water and milk which is devoid of fat alongside with healthy meals.
After dinner, instead of taking snacks which have high fat and sugar content, it is best to take healthy snacks, to prevent them from being overweight. | 411 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After the collapse of the old imperial order, many Chinese not only rejected the old political institutions, ideology and culture, but many traditional forms of behaviour and further aspects of traditional Chinese culture as well. Nearly everything that was old was suddenly seen as problematic, holding China back from the necessary modernization and reform efforts.
Japan had invaded and occupied Manchuria in the Northeast of China in 1931 and later founded the supposedly independent state of Manchukuo with the last emperor Puyi as its puppet ruler. The Japanese troops subsequently invaded China from two sides, southwards from their Northern puppet state of Manzhougou to Beijing and along the railway lines towards China's center as well as westwards from Shanghai. The 2nd Shanghai front started in autumn of 1937, when Japanese troops that were based there started to attack the western part of the city. Their original plan to quickly move west along the course of the Yangtze River in Blitzkrieg fashion was rendered impossible by the fierce resistance of the Chinese. | <urn:uuid:797db091-01f1-4655-9371-4a996a5f6e26> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.chinaexpeditiontours.com/china-guide/republic-of-china | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.983143 | 201 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
-0.3476202189922333,
0.2970668077468872,
0.29767149686813354,
-0.19163112342357635,
0.08718262612819672,
0.48604515194892883,
-0.19293077290058136,
-0.11227832734584808,
-0.384508341550827,
-0.254922479391098,
0.26513591408729553,
-0.12776634097099304,
0.3947109878063202,
0.362627714872360... | 13 | After the collapse of the old imperial order, many Chinese not only rejected the old political institutions, ideology and culture, but many traditional forms of behaviour and further aspects of traditional Chinese culture as well. Nearly everything that was old was suddenly seen as problematic, holding China back from the necessary modernization and reform efforts.
Japan had invaded and occupied Manchuria in the Northeast of China in 1931 and later founded the supposedly independent state of Manchukuo with the last emperor Puyi as its puppet ruler. The Japanese troops subsequently invaded China from two sides, southwards from their Northern puppet state of Manzhougou to Beijing and along the railway lines towards China's center as well as westwards from Shanghai. The 2nd Shanghai front started in autumn of 1937, when Japanese troops that were based there started to attack the western part of the city. Their original plan to quickly move west along the course of the Yangtze River in Blitzkrieg fashion was rendered impossible by the fierce resistance of the Chinese. | 211 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women were considered as a minority for a very long time: they were seen as second-class citizens and had no right to vote until the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920. Betty Friedan was one of the major figures of the “second wave” of American feminism: she founded the National Organization for Women (NOW), the National Abortion Rights Action League (an organization that supports a woman’s right to end a pregnancy), and the National Women’s Political Caucus.
Born in 1921, Betty Friedan studied psychology as a graduate student at the University of California at Berkeley. She was also a journalist and continued to write articles while she was raising her three children. However, she realized that she felt unfulfilled by her role as a mother and a wife. That is why, fifteen years after graduation, she wrote to her classmates to ask them a series of question. She discovered that she was not the only woman who felt unhappy. She then decided to write an article based on her findings but the magazines with which she decided to work refused to publish it. Rather than abandoning her project, she became more motivated than ever and she decided to write a whole book on this subject, The Feminine Mystique.
Her book describes what she called “the problem that has no name.” She encouraged women to find other meaningful activities, defying the idea that “biology is destiny,”, according to which women should abandon other occupations and devote their lives to being a mother and a wife. She received responses from many grateful housewives experiencing this problem. The book also argued that women are as capable as men to do any type of work, contrary to what educators, psychologists and the mass media considered as the fulfillment of every woman’s dream. The book had a great influence on many women who began to campaign against social views that restricted women. It also encouraged them to push for reforms.
There have been some controversy and debates on Friedan’s work, and she was accused of being involved in radical politics in her youth. Others said she was only focused on the plight of middle-class white women, not giving enough attention to women in less stable economic situations, or women of other races. Besides, she has been criticized for prejudice against homosexuality. However, she also received letters from many housewives, who wanted to thank her.
In 1966, Friedan cofounded the National Organization for Women and became its first president. The aim of this successful organization was to secure legal equality for women. For instance, they campaigned for Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which prevented employers from discriminating against workers on the basis of sex. They also spoke in favor of abortion, which was finally legalized in 1973 by the Supreme Court. In 1970, Friedan organized the national Women’s Strike for Equality, and led a march in New York City.
Betty Friedan also became involved in politics. She founded the National Women’s Political Caucus, and in 1972, she ran as a delegate to the 1972 Democratic National Convention in support of Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm, the first black woman elected to Congress. She also continued writing, teaching, and speaking throughout these years. Her second book, It Changed My Life (1976) is an account of her campaigns of the 1960s and early 70s. It is mainly composed of speeches, interviews and essays.
Betty Friedan was a very influential figure of the feminist movement. The Feminine Mystique is said to be one of the cornerstones of American feminism. Her work influenced many women who felt incomplete and lonely, and she set up several feminist movements that are still active today. The fight for equality is not completely over: women are still under-represented in the highest levels of politics and business management. But, despite the problems she encountered, Betty Friedan inspired women and pushed them to take action to achieve full equality.
American Civilization: An Introduction, by David Mauk and John Oakland
Britannica Encyclopedia, 15th edition
From the early 1960s to the early 1990s | <urn:uuid:43b69d6b-51e6-49f0-931c-d7df98a3b1d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://americancivilizationclaire.wordpress.com/2011/11/16/betty-friedan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00397.warc.gz | en | 0.987202 | 835 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
-0.27993154525756836,
0.2952442467212677,
-0.3021705150604248,
0.04643318057060242,
-0.4984152317047119,
0.4249799847602844,
-0.31981512904167175,
0.4666169285774231,
0.008048295974731445,
-0.08335021138191223,
-0.013812800869345665,
0.21135205030441284,
0.0403088703751564,
0.1374185681343... | 2 | Women were considered as a minority for a very long time: they were seen as second-class citizens and had no right to vote until the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920. Betty Friedan was one of the major figures of the “second wave” of American feminism: she founded the National Organization for Women (NOW), the National Abortion Rights Action League (an organization that supports a woman’s right to end a pregnancy), and the National Women’s Political Caucus.
Born in 1921, Betty Friedan studied psychology as a graduate student at the University of California at Berkeley. She was also a journalist and continued to write articles while she was raising her three children. However, she realized that she felt unfulfilled by her role as a mother and a wife. That is why, fifteen years after graduation, she wrote to her classmates to ask them a series of question. She discovered that she was not the only woman who felt unhappy. She then decided to write an article based on her findings but the magazines with which she decided to work refused to publish it. Rather than abandoning her project, she became more motivated than ever and she decided to write a whole book on this subject, The Feminine Mystique.
Her book describes what she called “the problem that has no name.” She encouraged women to find other meaningful activities, defying the idea that “biology is destiny,”, according to which women should abandon other occupations and devote their lives to being a mother and a wife. She received responses from many grateful housewives experiencing this problem. The book also argued that women are as capable as men to do any type of work, contrary to what educators, psychologists and the mass media considered as the fulfillment of every woman’s dream. The book had a great influence on many women who began to campaign against social views that restricted women. It also encouraged them to push for reforms.
There have been some controversy and debates on Friedan’s work, and she was accused of being involved in radical politics in her youth. Others said she was only focused on the plight of middle-class white women, not giving enough attention to women in less stable economic situations, or women of other races. Besides, she has been criticized for prejudice against homosexuality. However, she also received letters from many housewives, who wanted to thank her.
In 1966, Friedan cofounded the National Organization for Women and became its first president. The aim of this successful organization was to secure legal equality for women. For instance, they campaigned for Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which prevented employers from discriminating against workers on the basis of sex. They also spoke in favor of abortion, which was finally legalized in 1973 by the Supreme Court. In 1970, Friedan organized the national Women’s Strike for Equality, and led a march in New York City.
Betty Friedan also became involved in politics. She founded the National Women’s Political Caucus, and in 1972, she ran as a delegate to the 1972 Democratic National Convention in support of Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm, the first black woman elected to Congress. She also continued writing, teaching, and speaking throughout these years. Her second book, It Changed My Life (1976) is an account of her campaigns of the 1960s and early 70s. It is mainly composed of speeches, interviews and essays.
Betty Friedan was a very influential figure of the feminist movement. The Feminine Mystique is said to be one of the cornerstones of American feminism. Her work influenced many women who felt incomplete and lonely, and she set up several feminist movements that are still active today. The fight for equality is not completely over: women are still under-represented in the highest levels of politics and business management. But, despite the problems she encountered, Betty Friedan inspired women and pushed them to take action to achieve full equality.
American Civilization: An Introduction, by David Mauk and John Oakland
Britannica Encyclopedia, 15th edition
From the early 1960s to the early 1990s | 863 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kin Groups and Descent. Every Marubo is member of a section. Each section has a name. A person never marries a member of his or her own section or his or her mother's section and always belongs to the same section as his or her mother's mother. Thus, it is possible to suppose the existence of matrilineal units, each formed by two sections. As of late 1990, there are twelve such units (there were more in the past), but two of them will become extinct because they do not have women.
Kinship Terminology. Generally, each kinship term or one of its variants is applied to people of alternate generations; there are some distinctions between the term a person applies to members of his or her own matrilineal unit and the others. The crossing of these two sets leads to four clusters of kinship terms. The Marubo are reticent in declaring their personal names; these are transmitted, like section membership and the distribution of kinship terms, through alternate generations. | <urn:uuid:7d329485-3fa1-4a6e-b76b-9c106ad24776> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.everyculture.com/South-America/Marubo-Kinship.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00531.warc.gz | en | 0.985053 | 210 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
-0.13500966131687164,
0.08244530111551285,
-0.11978310346603394,
0.1822410374879837,
-0.32292094826698303,
-0.1831035166978836,
0.22447572648525238,
-0.18025006353855133,
0.12031810730695724,
-0.29559215903282166,
0.11211306601762772,
-0.5704478025436401,
0.3801860511302948,
0.147206425666... | 2 | Kin Groups and Descent. Every Marubo is member of a section. Each section has a name. A person never marries a member of his or her own section or his or her mother's section and always belongs to the same section as his or her mother's mother. Thus, it is possible to suppose the existence of matrilineal units, each formed by two sections. As of late 1990, there are twelve such units (there were more in the past), but two of them will become extinct because they do not have women.
Kinship Terminology. Generally, each kinship term or one of its variants is applied to people of alternate generations; there are some distinctions between the term a person applies to members of his or her own matrilineal unit and the others. The crossing of these two sets leads to four clusters of kinship terms. The Marubo are reticent in declaring their personal names; these are transmitted, like section membership and the distribution of kinship terms, through alternate generations. | 211 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What happens when you have a good idea, but it relies on other good ideas which haven’t been invented yet? You work around with the tech you do have. That’s what happened with the steam locomotive.
The steam locomotive first appears around 1802 or 1804 depending on your sources. It’s not too important which year is absolutely correct in the context of this topic. But what happened when it was test run is. Trevithick’s locomotive, although absolutely tiny by locomotive standards proved too heavy for the cast iron rails then in use. It crushed them under its wheels as it moved along. It couldn’t be made lighter, because then it wouldn’t be heavy enough to haul wagons behind it. It couldn’t be put on springs because there was no way to build springs strong enough for the weight of such a locomotive yet.
So engineers waited for improvements in iron and steel production, to make stronger wrought iron rails, and sturdy steel springs, and the concept of a locomotive was filed away for a couple of decades. Except that’s not what happened at all.
While the idea was shelved for a few years after Trevithick’s attempt, the Napoleonic wars raised the prices of horses and feed to the point that developing some sort of mechanical alternative became economically feasible. Blenkinsop came up with a solution for building a workable locomotive without the rails and springs that were needed to support the weight of a machine like Trevithick’s (or those of the 1820's and beyond). The locomotive had to be light weight so as not to break the cast iron rails. But it still had to pull tons of wagons, and lacked the necessary adhesion to do so now that it wasn’t as heavy. The solution was obvious to Blenkinsop: equip the rails with a rack, and the locomotive with a drive cog. The cog engaged the rack and pulled the train along the tracks. The wheels of the locomotive only had to provide support, not drive, so the machine could be much lighter. It was built into a substantial wooden frame that added some shock absorption without the use of springs.
To save construction costs, the rack was cast directly into the side of the rails, and surprisingly enough some rails and a set of wheels from one of these earliest successful locomotives still exist.
There are obvious mechanical issues with this set up, but some of the engines worked for over a decade, and there were even attempts to build systems of this nature outside of England (although I don’t think any of them ran successfully, as building a locomotive in 1812 required machining precision that was difficult if not impossible to obtain outside of England at the time).
It was only a year or too later that another, a more obvious idea was tried: just add more axles to lower the axle loads:
This locomotive, the Puffing Billy was built with eight wheels to spread the weight of the locomotive over more sections of rail. It worked. But as soon as the railway it ran on was relaid with wrought iron rails, it was rebuilt on four wheels. It still exists, and is the oldest complete locomotive preserved today.
So there you have it. The steam locomotive was invented before spring and rail technology was there to (literally) support it. But there were clever workarounds. | <urn:uuid:226ba23b-06b6-4650-a0c0-66d3048f991e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://oppositelock.kinja.com/when-an-invention-is-ahead-of-its-time-1840939170 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00053.warc.gz | en | 0.984149 | 718 | 3.5 | 4 | [
-0.38848087191581726,
0.09148526191711426,
0.5048177242279053,
-0.036171190440654755,
-0.5754795670509338,
-0.17389759421348572,
-0.41423168778419495,
0.17378002405166626,
-0.3451725244522095,
-0.12278573960065842,
0.11731144785881042,
0.044392429292201996,
0.10122744739055634,
0.051810082... | 3 | What happens when you have a good idea, but it relies on other good ideas which haven’t been invented yet? You work around with the tech you do have. That’s what happened with the steam locomotive.
The steam locomotive first appears around 1802 or 1804 depending on your sources. It’s not too important which year is absolutely correct in the context of this topic. But what happened when it was test run is. Trevithick’s locomotive, although absolutely tiny by locomotive standards proved too heavy for the cast iron rails then in use. It crushed them under its wheels as it moved along. It couldn’t be made lighter, because then it wouldn’t be heavy enough to haul wagons behind it. It couldn’t be put on springs because there was no way to build springs strong enough for the weight of such a locomotive yet.
So engineers waited for improvements in iron and steel production, to make stronger wrought iron rails, and sturdy steel springs, and the concept of a locomotive was filed away for a couple of decades. Except that’s not what happened at all.
While the idea was shelved for a few years after Trevithick’s attempt, the Napoleonic wars raised the prices of horses and feed to the point that developing some sort of mechanical alternative became economically feasible. Blenkinsop came up with a solution for building a workable locomotive without the rails and springs that were needed to support the weight of a machine like Trevithick’s (or those of the 1820's and beyond). The locomotive had to be light weight so as not to break the cast iron rails. But it still had to pull tons of wagons, and lacked the necessary adhesion to do so now that it wasn’t as heavy. The solution was obvious to Blenkinsop: equip the rails with a rack, and the locomotive with a drive cog. The cog engaged the rack and pulled the train along the tracks. The wheels of the locomotive only had to provide support, not drive, so the machine could be much lighter. It was built into a substantial wooden frame that added some shock absorption without the use of springs.
To save construction costs, the rack was cast directly into the side of the rails, and surprisingly enough some rails and a set of wheels from one of these earliest successful locomotives still exist.
There are obvious mechanical issues with this set up, but some of the engines worked for over a decade, and there were even attempts to build systems of this nature outside of England (although I don’t think any of them ran successfully, as building a locomotive in 1812 required machining precision that was difficult if not impossible to obtain outside of England at the time).
It was only a year or too later that another, a more obvious idea was tried: just add more axles to lower the axle loads:
This locomotive, the Puffing Billy was built with eight wheels to spread the weight of the locomotive over more sections of rail. It worked. But as soon as the railway it ran on was relaid with wrought iron rails, it was rebuilt on four wheels. It still exists, and is the oldest complete locomotive preserved today.
So there you have it. The steam locomotive was invented before spring and rail technology was there to (literally) support it. But there were clever workarounds. | 693 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Henry VIII was King of England from 1509 until his death in 1547. He was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII. Henry is best known for his six marriages, in particular his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. His disagreement with the Pope on the question of such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation, separating the Church of England from papal authority. Take a look below for 30 more fascinating and interesting facts about Henry VIII.
1. He appointed himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England and dissolved convents and monasteries.
2. Despite his resulting excommunication, Henry remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings.
3. Domestically, Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering into England the theory of the divine right of kings.
4. Besides asserts the sovereign’s supremacy over the Church of England, he greatly expanded royal power during his reign.
5. Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quell dissent, and those accused were often executed without a formal trial, by means of bills of attainder.
6. Henry achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favor.
7. He was an extravagant spender and used the proceeds from the Dissolution of the Monasteries and acts of the Reformation Parliament to convert into royal revenue the money that was formerly paid to Rome.
8. Despite the influx of money from different sources, Henry was continually on the verge of financial ruin due to his personal extravagance as well as his numerous costly continental wars, particularly with Francis I of France and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, as he sought to enforce his claim to the Kingdom of France.
9. At home, Henry oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 and following the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, he was the first English monarch to rule as King of Ireland.
10. His contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive, educated and accomplished king.
11. He has been described as, “one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne.”
12. He was an author and composer.
13. As he got older, Henry became severely obese and his health suffered, contributing to his death in 1547.
14. He is frequently characterized in his later life as a lustful, egotistical, harsh and insecure king.
15. Henry is said to have referred to his fourth wife, Anne of Cleves, as “A Flanders Mare.”
16. Henry’s shortest marriage was to Anne of Cleves, lasting only 6 months and 3 days before it was annulled.
17. His longest marriage was to Catherine of Arahttgon, lasting about 24 years. This is longer than all five of his other marriages combined.
18. Henry executed two of his wives. Kathryn Howard was executed for adultery, and Anne Boleyn was accused of adultery, incest and plotting to murder the King. Despite denying the charges, she was still executed. Five men, including the Queen’s brother, were also executed for treasonous adultery and having a sexual relationship with the Queen. The evidence for all the crimes weren’t presented and nobody really knows if the Queens were guilty.
19. Henry may have written a theological treatise called Defense of the Seven Sacraments. This was written as a reply to Martin Luther‘s criticism of the Catholic Church, and particularly to Luther’s theological treatise Prelude on the Babylonian Captivity of the Church that criticized some or all of the Catholic sacraments and attacked the papacy.
20. Pope Leo X declared Henry the Defender of the Faith in 1521 for his Defense of the Seven Sacraments.
21. Henry authorized the Great Bible, which is the first authorized edition of the Bible in English, to be read aloud in church. It was completed in 1539, and went through revisions between 1540 and 1541.
22. Henry hung 2,000 tapestries in his palaces whereas James V of Scotland only hung 200 in his palaces.
23. He was an excellent hunter and jouster. He was also a very good lute player.
24. Henry could read and write in three languages: English, French and Latin.
25. He could read and play a piece of music he had not seen before or at least that he had not prepared for.
26. He introduced a tax on beards, which varied with the beard wearer’s social status.
27. He wrote a number of songs, with his most well-known song being “Pastime With Good Company.” He also wrote “En vray amoure” and “Helas Madam.”
28. Henry made boiling a legal form of capital punishment.
29. He improved the navy, partly by investing in large cannons to replace smaller serpentines in warships. He was also responsible for creating a permanent navy.
30. Henry founded the Anglican Church by breaking away from the Catholic Church mainly because the Pope refused to grant Henry an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. | <urn:uuid:6802062e-1de0-4f54-8473-671d613dda2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tonsoffacts.com/30-fascinating-and-interesting-facts-about-henry-viii/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00405.warc.gz | en | 0.987613 | 1,119 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
-0.1595495194196701,
0.40056532621383667,
0.14204107224941254,
-0.29687225818634033,
-0.40788188576698303,
-0.25611254572868347,
0.4216490387916565,
0.025691814720630646,
0.31782570481300354,
-0.10928074270486832,
-0.4505418539047241,
-0.49266916513442993,
0.03627663850784302,
0.3603990375... | 6 | Henry VIII was King of England from 1509 until his death in 1547. He was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII. Henry is best known for his six marriages, in particular his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. His disagreement with the Pope on the question of such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation, separating the Church of England from papal authority. Take a look below for 30 more fascinating and interesting facts about Henry VIII.
1. He appointed himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England and dissolved convents and monasteries.
2. Despite his resulting excommunication, Henry remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings.
3. Domestically, Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering into England the theory of the divine right of kings.
4. Besides asserts the sovereign’s supremacy over the Church of England, he greatly expanded royal power during his reign.
5. Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quell dissent, and those accused were often executed without a formal trial, by means of bills of attainder.
6. Henry achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favor.
7. He was an extravagant spender and used the proceeds from the Dissolution of the Monasteries and acts of the Reformation Parliament to convert into royal revenue the money that was formerly paid to Rome.
8. Despite the influx of money from different sources, Henry was continually on the verge of financial ruin due to his personal extravagance as well as his numerous costly continental wars, particularly with Francis I of France and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, as he sought to enforce his claim to the Kingdom of France.
9. At home, Henry oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 and following the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, he was the first English monarch to rule as King of Ireland.
10. His contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive, educated and accomplished king.
11. He has been described as, “one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne.”
12. He was an author and composer.
13. As he got older, Henry became severely obese and his health suffered, contributing to his death in 1547.
14. He is frequently characterized in his later life as a lustful, egotistical, harsh and insecure king.
15. Henry is said to have referred to his fourth wife, Anne of Cleves, as “A Flanders Mare.”
16. Henry’s shortest marriage was to Anne of Cleves, lasting only 6 months and 3 days before it was annulled.
17. His longest marriage was to Catherine of Arahttgon, lasting about 24 years. This is longer than all five of his other marriages combined.
18. Henry executed two of his wives. Kathryn Howard was executed for adultery, and Anne Boleyn was accused of adultery, incest and plotting to murder the King. Despite denying the charges, she was still executed. Five men, including the Queen’s brother, were also executed for treasonous adultery and having a sexual relationship with the Queen. The evidence for all the crimes weren’t presented and nobody really knows if the Queens were guilty.
19. Henry may have written a theological treatise called Defense of the Seven Sacraments. This was written as a reply to Martin Luther‘s criticism of the Catholic Church, and particularly to Luther’s theological treatise Prelude on the Babylonian Captivity of the Church that criticized some or all of the Catholic sacraments and attacked the papacy.
20. Pope Leo X declared Henry the Defender of the Faith in 1521 for his Defense of the Seven Sacraments.
21. Henry authorized the Great Bible, which is the first authorized edition of the Bible in English, to be read aloud in church. It was completed in 1539, and went through revisions between 1540 and 1541.
22. Henry hung 2,000 tapestries in his palaces whereas James V of Scotland only hung 200 in his palaces.
23. He was an excellent hunter and jouster. He was also a very good lute player.
24. Henry could read and write in three languages: English, French and Latin.
25. He could read and play a piece of music he had not seen before or at least that he had not prepared for.
26. He introduced a tax on beards, which varied with the beard wearer’s social status.
27. He wrote a number of songs, with his most well-known song being “Pastime With Good Company.” He also wrote “En vray amoure” and “Helas Madam.”
28. Henry made boiling a legal form of capital punishment.
29. He improved the navy, partly by investing in large cannons to replace smaller serpentines in warships. He was also responsible for creating a permanent navy.
30. Henry founded the Anglican Church by breaking away from the Catholic Church mainly because the Pope refused to grant Henry an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. | 1,122 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Asteroids are rocky objects in the Solar System that are much smaller than planets. Most of them are gathered in a belt that lies a third the way between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Largest amongst them is Ceres, which is today classified as a dwarf planet.
It used to be thought that the countless asteroids were fragments of a former planet that broke up. However, today it is accepted that they are debris left over from the formation of the Solar System. They were prevented from collecting together to form a planet by the powerful disruptive pull of mighty Jupiter.
Mystery of the missing planet
Before any asteroids were known, astronomers had measured the distances of the planets, and found a puzzlingly larger gap between Mars and Jupiter. Some in the 18th century became convinced that an as yet undiscovered planet must be lying in the region.
Hungarian nobleman Baron Franz von Zach organised a hunt for it in 1800, allocating different observers a region of sky to search. They became known as the Celestial Police.
On New Year’s Eve, 1800, a previously unrecorded object was identified in the constellation of Taurus, though not by one of the Baron’s team. A Sicilian monk, Giuseppe Piazzi, spotted it from Palermo Observatory and followed its movement for several weeks. He had discovered Ceres.
If Ceres was the missing planet, however, it was not alone. In 1802, Heinrich Olbers, of the Celestial Police, located a second object which was named Pallas. Karl Harding found a third, Juno, in 1804, and Olbers discovered his second, Vesta, in 1807. Ceres and Vesta were both orbited and studied in great detail in recent years by NASA’s Dawn space probe.
The asteroids were called planets at the time they were discovered, but, it became clear that they must be a lot smaller than traditional planets. So instead, leading astronomer of the time William Herschel came up with the term asteroid, meaning starlike, to describe them. They are also often referred to as minor planets.
More than 500,000 asteroids have been detected since those first discoveries, with 200 or so bigger than 100 km across and 750,000 bigger than 1 km. Though the vast majority are Main Belt asteroids between Mars and Jupiter, some are grouped together and locked in locations relative to the orbits of various planets.
Others have been steered into orbits that bring them across the orbit of Earth, and they are known as Near Earth Asteroids, or Potentially Hazardous Objects because of the low risk that one could collide.
Asteroids come in three main types – carbonaceous (rocky clay), silicaceous (a stony-iron mix), and metallic. A number have been found to have smaller asteroids orbiting around them, and one even has its own set of rings. If you added all the asteroids together, you still wouldn’t have enough material to make an object the size of our Moon. | <urn:uuid:7b91fdde-1ba8-4606-8d6b-f59918fe1bff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.skymania.com/wp/asteroids-leftover-debris-in-the-solar-system/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00535.warc.gz | en | 0.982348 | 617 | 4.25 | 4 | [
0.044283147901296616,
-0.09613131731748581,
0.015325600281357765,
-0.35063377022743225,
-0.04271574690937996,
-0.30286848545074463,
0.008695771917700768,
0.2488257884979248,
0.25264954566955566,
0.1831437349319458,
0.15841636061668396,
-0.21646547317504883,
0.14016811549663544,
0.277332305... | 1 | Asteroids are rocky objects in the Solar System that are much smaller than planets. Most of them are gathered in a belt that lies a third the way between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Largest amongst them is Ceres, which is today classified as a dwarf planet.
It used to be thought that the countless asteroids were fragments of a former planet that broke up. However, today it is accepted that they are debris left over from the formation of the Solar System. They were prevented from collecting together to form a planet by the powerful disruptive pull of mighty Jupiter.
Mystery of the missing planet
Before any asteroids were known, astronomers had measured the distances of the planets, and found a puzzlingly larger gap between Mars and Jupiter. Some in the 18th century became convinced that an as yet undiscovered planet must be lying in the region.
Hungarian nobleman Baron Franz von Zach organised a hunt for it in 1800, allocating different observers a region of sky to search. They became known as the Celestial Police.
On New Year’s Eve, 1800, a previously unrecorded object was identified in the constellation of Taurus, though not by one of the Baron’s team. A Sicilian monk, Giuseppe Piazzi, spotted it from Palermo Observatory and followed its movement for several weeks. He had discovered Ceres.
If Ceres was the missing planet, however, it was not alone. In 1802, Heinrich Olbers, of the Celestial Police, located a second object which was named Pallas. Karl Harding found a third, Juno, in 1804, and Olbers discovered his second, Vesta, in 1807. Ceres and Vesta were both orbited and studied in great detail in recent years by NASA’s Dawn space probe.
The asteroids were called planets at the time they were discovered, but, it became clear that they must be a lot smaller than traditional planets. So instead, leading astronomer of the time William Herschel came up with the term asteroid, meaning starlike, to describe them. They are also often referred to as minor planets.
More than 500,000 asteroids have been detected since those first discoveries, with 200 or so bigger than 100 km across and 750,000 bigger than 1 km. Though the vast majority are Main Belt asteroids between Mars and Jupiter, some are grouped together and locked in locations relative to the orbits of various planets.
Others have been steered into orbits that bring them across the orbit of Earth, and they are known as Near Earth Asteroids, or Potentially Hazardous Objects because of the low risk that one could collide.
Asteroids come in three main types – carbonaceous (rocky clay), silicaceous (a stony-iron mix), and metallic. A number have been found to have smaller asteroids orbiting around them, and one even has its own set of rings. If you added all the asteroids together, you still wouldn’t have enough material to make an object the size of our Moon. | 644 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first four caliphs of the Islamic empire – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali are referred to as Rashidun (rightly guided) Caliphs (632-661 CE) by mainstream Sunni Muslims. Their tenure started with the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, when Abu Bakr took the title of Caliph – the successor of the Prophet, although not a continuation of prophethood itself (according to the Muslims, it had ended with Muhammad), and ended with the assassination of Caliph Ali in 661 CE.
During their reign, the armies of Islam united the Arabian Peninsula under the banner of their faith and then conquered parts of the Byzantine Empire (330-1453 CE) and the whole of the Sassanian Empire (224-651 CE) These swift and permanent conquests were halted during the reign of the last of these Rashidun Caliphs – Ali, who spent most of his reign in civil war, and whom Shia Muslims consider the only legitimate heir to Muhammad. The Rashidun Caliphs introduced an innovative administrative system, and although they failed to gain supreme authority, their system would be carried on and molded to suit the needs of time by subsequent rulers up to 1922 CE.
Caliph Abu Bakr (r. 632-634 CE)
The death of Prophet Muhammad, in 632 CE, was a tragic loss for his followers, many even refused to accept that he was gone. Since Muhammad had claimed to have received divine revelations, his followers were now worried that they would no longer be guided by the divine force. More practical issues also surfaced since Muhammad had not appointed an heir to his position, nor did he have a natural heir of his own. Soon after Muhammad’s death, many of the Arabian tribes declared that their pact with Muhammad was of personal nature and that they felt no obligation towards Islam (this is referred to as Ridda – apostasy in Arabic). To make matters worse, many other people had started claiming the title of prophet. However, during his lifetime, Muhammad had made it very clear to his followers that he was the last prophet of God and so these people were imposters in the eyes of the Muslims.
Abu Bakr (l. 573-634 CE), a close confidant of Muhammad and the first male convert (which earned him the nickname of Siddique – meaning trustworthy), rallied the support of the majority of the Muslim Ummah (the Sunni Muslims) and took the title of Khalifa (Caliph) – meaning successor of the Prophet. His claim was not uncontested, as a group of Muslims called Shia’t Ali (party of Ali) pushed for Ali as the only legitimate candidate for the caliphate, but Abu Bakr’s authority prevailed.
The apostates and false prophets posed an imminent threat to the very existence of Islam, most notable and the strongest of them was Musaylimah (d. 633 CE), “the Arch Liar” as he is referred to by the Muslims. The Arabian Peninsula had fragmented once again, and if these parties were to join hands against a common enemy – Medina and Mecca, the empire of Islam would have been crushed in its cradle.
Abu Bakr showed his ability as a natural leader; he called all able-bodied faithful men to arms for Jihad (holy war – contextually). He knew that though his enemies were numerically superior, they were disunited, and he used this opportunity to its fullest. He divided the Muslim army into multiple corps and sent each to subjugate a particular part of the Arabian Peninsula – these wars became known as the Ridda Wars (632-633 CE). The most notable general of these wars was Khalid ibn al Walid (l. 585-642 CE), who defeated Musaylimah’s forces, despite being heavily outnumbered, in the battle of Yamama (633 CE), where Musaylimah was killed as well.
By the end of the Ridda Wars, the whole of the Arabian Peninsula was united under the banner of Islam, and for this, Abu Bakr is referred to as the “second founder of Islam” (according to historian John Joseph Saunders). Knowing that Arabs lived by the rule of retribution and that the tribes that were subjugated by force would want revenge, Abu Bakr decided to direct their energies elsewhere. He knew exactly where to go next: the neighboring lands of Syria and Iraq – which were under Byzantine and Sassanian rule respectively. Since both of these empires had exhausted themselves entirely with their constant warring, now was the perfect time to strike – Abu Bakr was in luck (although he may not have known it himself).
He sent armies to both of these provinces to extend his dominion over the Arabian tribes inhabiting them (and who had been resentful of their rulers due to high tax rates, to fund the never-ending wars between the two superpowers). Historian J. J. Saunders reports in A History of Medieval Islam how Abu Bakr instructed his corps:
In his speech to the eager volunteers who answered it, he told them (if he be truly reported) to do no harm to women, children and old people, to refrain from pillage and the destruction of crops, fruit trees, flocks and herds, and to leave in peace such Christians monks and anchorites as might be found in their cells. (43-44)
Khalid was sent to Iraq, where he was very successful, although he did kill captive soldiers – rather brutally. In the meanwhile, the campaigns in Syria were also bearing fruit. The Byzantine emperor – Heraclius (r. 610-641 CE) realized that these attacks were not mere raids and prepared for an effective counterattack (under his brother Theodore because he was himself ill). Sensing this, Abu Bakr ordered Khalid to leave Iraq and move to Syria.
Khalid then showed his military genius, he handpicked his best men and had some camels forcefully drink copious amounts of water, he then traveled all the way to Syria, through the barren, trackless, and waterless desert – he slaughtered one camel each day to quench the thirst of his men during their journey. When he entered Syria, he began raiding Byzantine territories and then used a joint Muslim force to defeat the Byzantines in the battle of Ajnadayn (634 CE) – which further strengthened their position in the region. Abu Bakr did not live long enough to enjoy these successes though, for he died of natural causes soon afterwards.
Caliph Umar (r. 634-644 CE)
Abu Bakr had received the support of many influential men; one of such men was Umar ibn Khattab (l. 584-644 CE), a senior companion of Muhammad, known for his fiery temper and his unwavering stance on justice. Abu Bakr had preferred him as his successor, and it was natural that after his death, Umar became the next caliph, he added the phrase “commander of the faithful” after his title.
Umar continued Abu Bakr’s campaigns, and the year 636 CE brought two major victories for the Caliphate. The Muslim army, under Sa’ad ibn abi Waqas (l. 595-674 CE), defeated a major Sassanian counterattack in the battle of Al Qaddissiya; as an immediate result, this battle brought whole Iraq under Muslim control (while the rest of the Sassanian Empire was conquered later on). Khalid ibn al Walid’s forces crushed the Byzantines at the battle of Yarmouk – technically the army was under the command of a senior man named Abu Ubaidah (l. 583-639 CE), but Khalid’s expertise saved the day; the Levant was now under Rashidun control.
The city of Jerusalem was peacefully and bloodlessly surrendered to Umar, personally (he had to come to the Levant and Syria to manage domestic affairs), in 638 CE. Umar also demoted Khalid from his generalship at the morrow of his greatest achievement, and this move has been highly debated upon. Some say that Umar had personal problems with Khalid, while others press that Khalid was overly cruel (as there were many controversies against him) and Umar, being inflexible in his parameters of justice, was not ready to compromise. If the latter was the reason, Umar might have hesitated in having the rogue general executed (as he naturally would have under normal circumstances), owing to his recent achievements on the battlefield. Nevertheless, it was clear that Umar preferred Abu Ubaidah as his potential heir, but the latter died in 639 CE due to the plague that devastated Syria and the Levant.
In his ten-year reign, Umar maintained a tight grip over his empire. To this day, he is remembered as perhaps the most famous of the Rashidun Caliphs, and historian J. J. Sauders refers to him as the “real founder of the Arab empire”. He introduced the diwan – a primitive bureaucracy, which was responsible for paying soldiers their salaries and pensions. Umar also safeguarded newly conquered locals from looting by his armies by keeping armed forces separate from the rest of the population in garrison cities such as Fustat in Egypt; and Kufa and Basra in Iraq. He introduced many reforms and institutions of which the Arabs had no prior exposure to, such as the police, courts, and parliaments, he even introduced the Islamic calendar, which started from the year of the hegira – 0 AH / Zero “After Hegira”, the Prophet’s migration from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE.
But of all the qualities he had, none are as praised as much as his piety and his love for justice, which earned him the title of Farooq (the one who distinguishes between right and wrong). A common story often associated with him dictates that one of his sons is said to have been accused of adultery; the witness was a woman who claimed to be the one with whom he had done so. Umar ordered his own son to be flogged, but the poor lad could not take it and died. Later on the accusation was proven wrong, Umar was crushed with grief but did not enact vengeance for his beloved son.
After Abu Ubaidah’s death, he appointed Muawiya (l. 602-680 CE) as the new governor of Syria in 639 CE, the latter would in turn elevate his clan – Umayya, to the status of caliphate in 661 CE. Umar was assassinated, as an act of vengeance, by a Persian slave named Lu’lu in 634 CE, who was humiliated by the defeat of the Persians.
Caliph Uthman (r. 644-656 CE)
In his last breaths, Umar appointed a committee of six members (shura – in Arabic) to choose his successor; they narrowed the options down to two people: Uthman ibn Affan (l. 579-656 CE) and Ali ibn Abi Talib (l. 601-661 CE). Eventually, Uthman was chosen as his successor. He was from the wealthy clan of Umayya and a close friend of Muhammad (he was married to two of the Prophet’s daughters), and he was also honored with the title of Ghani, "the generous", for his charitable acts.
Uthman’s tenure was not devoid of military success: the whole of Egypt was consolidated, additional territories of Persia were gained, and Byzantine attempts of retaking lost territory were beaten back, ironically with the help of local populations (mostly Monophysites) who preferred being under Muslim rule as they had been severely oppressed by their former masters.
Despite all of his successes, Uthman was not as popular among the people as his predecessors had been. As the cost of constant war overwhelmed the Arabs, prices were rising and other socio-economic issues emerged (which had been kept in check by Umar), and this angered the general population. Moreover, Uthman was blamed for promoting his own kinsmen (from the Umayya clan) to important positions, and he was also charged with blasphemy (an accusation which was proven false after his demise). His declining population, and his refusal to use military might to crush those who started to rebel against him (which he could have easily done) on the pretext that he would not shed Muslim blood, ultimately led to his death.
The Caliph was murdered in his own house, in 656 CE, by rebel soldiers from the garrison city of Fustat (Egypt). He was reading the Quran when his assailants struck him. His wife Naila tried to save him but could not do so (she attempted to deflect the killer’s sword with her bare hands and got her fingers cut). He was politically weak, but an honest and gentle man. His cousin Muawiya had offered him complete protection in Syria, but Uthman refused to leave the city of Medina where his Prophet had walked and lived.
Caliph Ali (r. 656-661 CE)
Ali, who had remained under the shadows of his seniors up to that point (advising them in the matters of the state), finally became the next caliph, but the unity of the Muslims had died with Uthman. Muawiya, now the head of the Umayyad clan, yearned for revenge, but Ali failed to provide justice to his dead predecessor, owing to increasing unrest and destabilization (Ali wished to restore order first). Not content with anything less than justice, Muawiyya alongside many other prominent Muslims declared open rebellion; the first civil war of the Islamic empire – the First Fitna (656-661 CE) thus commenced.
In 656 CE, Ali faced an army led by Aisha, the youngest wife of Prophet Muhammad, at Basra (in Iraq). Although he emerged victorious in what was later coined as the “battle of Camel” and there was little else that he could have done in that situation, his reputation was heavily stained as he was now blamed for having shed Muslim blood, something that Uthman had refused to do.
He then marched to Syria, where, in the following year, he faced Muawiya in the battle of Siffin, which ended as a stalemate, the latter continued to defy the former’s authority – he had the full support of Syria, Levant, and Egypt. Ali also made the controversial move of shifting the capital from Medina to Kufa, a garrison city in modern-day Iraq. Ali was failing as a ruler; the expansion of the empire had halted and the Muslims were now at each other’s throats. Though he would gain unprecedented posthumous fame due to his involvement in Shia Islamic ideology, his reputation at that point was at its lowest amongst his subjects, many of whom started to desert him.
While Ali was still ruling from Kufa, Muawiya had himself declared caliph in Jerusalem. The Islamic Empire had two caliphs at once. This changed when Ali was murdered by an extremist group called the Kharjites. The Kharjites were initially his allies, but his ultimate decision to reach a compromise with Muawiya enraged them. Ali punished the Kharjites' betrayal by attacking them with full military might, and now this extremist group was vying for vengeance. They assassinated the Caliph while he was offering prayer in congregation in 661 CE. He had not achieved much as a ruler, but both Sunni and Shia Muslims unanimously agree that Ali was a good person and a true Muslim at heart. He did make errors in judgment during his tenure which cost him a great deal, but to this day, he is venerated for his unaffected piety, proverbial wisdom, and bravery on the battlefield, and he earned the nickname of Asad Allah, "the lion of God".
The Kharjites had also attempted to kill Muawiya, but he survived with only a minor injury and then established the Umayyad Dynasty (661-750 CE). The instability of the empire under the Rashidun Caliphs was to be reversed, the Umayyads ruled with a stern hand: uprisings were crushed with brute force and rebellious provinces were kept in check by a series of ruthless but loyal governors. The Umayyads also introduced the dynastic system of rule to the Arabs and it was also under their reign that the empire reached its maximum extent.
Despite being overshadowed in political and military achievements by their successors, the Rashidun Caliphs are stilled honored as the best of the caliphs by present-day Muslims for their piety. Though their system was unstable, they laid the foundation of the Islamic Caliphates which would survive for centuries after their deaths. | <urn:uuid:dced2153-c5df-4a43-a3a2-92dc681b8160> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ancient.eu/Rashidun_Caliphate/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00021.warc.gz | en | 0.990655 | 3,482 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
-0.29660505056381226,
0.3758501708507538,
-0.10984724760055542,
-0.14330440759658813,
-0.3910024166107178,
-0.11888755112886429,
0.24377378821372986,
-0.0026588691398501396,
0.2639751732349396,
0.1032947525382042,
0.030597204342484474,
-0.1542961150407791,
0.03920365124940872,
0.0346918590... | 1 | The first four caliphs of the Islamic empire – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali are referred to as Rashidun (rightly guided) Caliphs (632-661 CE) by mainstream Sunni Muslims. Their tenure started with the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, when Abu Bakr took the title of Caliph – the successor of the Prophet, although not a continuation of prophethood itself (according to the Muslims, it had ended with Muhammad), and ended with the assassination of Caliph Ali in 661 CE.
During their reign, the armies of Islam united the Arabian Peninsula under the banner of their faith and then conquered parts of the Byzantine Empire (330-1453 CE) and the whole of the Sassanian Empire (224-651 CE) These swift and permanent conquests were halted during the reign of the last of these Rashidun Caliphs – Ali, who spent most of his reign in civil war, and whom Shia Muslims consider the only legitimate heir to Muhammad. The Rashidun Caliphs introduced an innovative administrative system, and although they failed to gain supreme authority, their system would be carried on and molded to suit the needs of time by subsequent rulers up to 1922 CE.
Caliph Abu Bakr (r. 632-634 CE)
The death of Prophet Muhammad, in 632 CE, was a tragic loss for his followers, many even refused to accept that he was gone. Since Muhammad had claimed to have received divine revelations, his followers were now worried that they would no longer be guided by the divine force. More practical issues also surfaced since Muhammad had not appointed an heir to his position, nor did he have a natural heir of his own. Soon after Muhammad’s death, many of the Arabian tribes declared that their pact with Muhammad was of personal nature and that they felt no obligation towards Islam (this is referred to as Ridda – apostasy in Arabic). To make matters worse, many other people had started claiming the title of prophet. However, during his lifetime, Muhammad had made it very clear to his followers that he was the last prophet of God and so these people were imposters in the eyes of the Muslims.
Abu Bakr (l. 573-634 CE), a close confidant of Muhammad and the first male convert (which earned him the nickname of Siddique – meaning trustworthy), rallied the support of the majority of the Muslim Ummah (the Sunni Muslims) and took the title of Khalifa (Caliph) – meaning successor of the Prophet. His claim was not uncontested, as a group of Muslims called Shia’t Ali (party of Ali) pushed for Ali as the only legitimate candidate for the caliphate, but Abu Bakr’s authority prevailed.
The apostates and false prophets posed an imminent threat to the very existence of Islam, most notable and the strongest of them was Musaylimah (d. 633 CE), “the Arch Liar” as he is referred to by the Muslims. The Arabian Peninsula had fragmented once again, and if these parties were to join hands against a common enemy – Medina and Mecca, the empire of Islam would have been crushed in its cradle.
Abu Bakr showed his ability as a natural leader; he called all able-bodied faithful men to arms for Jihad (holy war – contextually). He knew that though his enemies were numerically superior, they were disunited, and he used this opportunity to its fullest. He divided the Muslim army into multiple corps and sent each to subjugate a particular part of the Arabian Peninsula – these wars became known as the Ridda Wars (632-633 CE). The most notable general of these wars was Khalid ibn al Walid (l. 585-642 CE), who defeated Musaylimah’s forces, despite being heavily outnumbered, in the battle of Yamama (633 CE), where Musaylimah was killed as well.
By the end of the Ridda Wars, the whole of the Arabian Peninsula was united under the banner of Islam, and for this, Abu Bakr is referred to as the “second founder of Islam” (according to historian John Joseph Saunders). Knowing that Arabs lived by the rule of retribution and that the tribes that were subjugated by force would want revenge, Abu Bakr decided to direct their energies elsewhere. He knew exactly where to go next: the neighboring lands of Syria and Iraq – which were under Byzantine and Sassanian rule respectively. Since both of these empires had exhausted themselves entirely with their constant warring, now was the perfect time to strike – Abu Bakr was in luck (although he may not have known it himself).
He sent armies to both of these provinces to extend his dominion over the Arabian tribes inhabiting them (and who had been resentful of their rulers due to high tax rates, to fund the never-ending wars between the two superpowers). Historian J. J. Saunders reports in A History of Medieval Islam how Abu Bakr instructed his corps:
In his speech to the eager volunteers who answered it, he told them (if he be truly reported) to do no harm to women, children and old people, to refrain from pillage and the destruction of crops, fruit trees, flocks and herds, and to leave in peace such Christians monks and anchorites as might be found in their cells. (43-44)
Khalid was sent to Iraq, where he was very successful, although he did kill captive soldiers – rather brutally. In the meanwhile, the campaigns in Syria were also bearing fruit. The Byzantine emperor – Heraclius (r. 610-641 CE) realized that these attacks were not mere raids and prepared for an effective counterattack (under his brother Theodore because he was himself ill). Sensing this, Abu Bakr ordered Khalid to leave Iraq and move to Syria.
Khalid then showed his military genius, he handpicked his best men and had some camels forcefully drink copious amounts of water, he then traveled all the way to Syria, through the barren, trackless, and waterless desert – he slaughtered one camel each day to quench the thirst of his men during their journey. When he entered Syria, he began raiding Byzantine territories and then used a joint Muslim force to defeat the Byzantines in the battle of Ajnadayn (634 CE) – which further strengthened their position in the region. Abu Bakr did not live long enough to enjoy these successes though, for he died of natural causes soon afterwards.
Caliph Umar (r. 634-644 CE)
Abu Bakr had received the support of many influential men; one of such men was Umar ibn Khattab (l. 584-644 CE), a senior companion of Muhammad, known for his fiery temper and his unwavering stance on justice. Abu Bakr had preferred him as his successor, and it was natural that after his death, Umar became the next caliph, he added the phrase “commander of the faithful” after his title.
Umar continued Abu Bakr’s campaigns, and the year 636 CE brought two major victories for the Caliphate. The Muslim army, under Sa’ad ibn abi Waqas (l. 595-674 CE), defeated a major Sassanian counterattack in the battle of Al Qaddissiya; as an immediate result, this battle brought whole Iraq under Muslim control (while the rest of the Sassanian Empire was conquered later on). Khalid ibn al Walid’s forces crushed the Byzantines at the battle of Yarmouk – technically the army was under the command of a senior man named Abu Ubaidah (l. 583-639 CE), but Khalid’s expertise saved the day; the Levant was now under Rashidun control.
The city of Jerusalem was peacefully and bloodlessly surrendered to Umar, personally (he had to come to the Levant and Syria to manage domestic affairs), in 638 CE. Umar also demoted Khalid from his generalship at the morrow of his greatest achievement, and this move has been highly debated upon. Some say that Umar had personal problems with Khalid, while others press that Khalid was overly cruel (as there were many controversies against him) and Umar, being inflexible in his parameters of justice, was not ready to compromise. If the latter was the reason, Umar might have hesitated in having the rogue general executed (as he naturally would have under normal circumstances), owing to his recent achievements on the battlefield. Nevertheless, it was clear that Umar preferred Abu Ubaidah as his potential heir, but the latter died in 639 CE due to the plague that devastated Syria and the Levant.
In his ten-year reign, Umar maintained a tight grip over his empire. To this day, he is remembered as perhaps the most famous of the Rashidun Caliphs, and historian J. J. Sauders refers to him as the “real founder of the Arab empire”. He introduced the diwan – a primitive bureaucracy, which was responsible for paying soldiers their salaries and pensions. Umar also safeguarded newly conquered locals from looting by his armies by keeping armed forces separate from the rest of the population in garrison cities such as Fustat in Egypt; and Kufa and Basra in Iraq. He introduced many reforms and institutions of which the Arabs had no prior exposure to, such as the police, courts, and parliaments, he even introduced the Islamic calendar, which started from the year of the hegira – 0 AH / Zero “After Hegira”, the Prophet’s migration from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE.
But of all the qualities he had, none are as praised as much as his piety and his love for justice, which earned him the title of Farooq (the one who distinguishes between right and wrong). A common story often associated with him dictates that one of his sons is said to have been accused of adultery; the witness was a woman who claimed to be the one with whom he had done so. Umar ordered his own son to be flogged, but the poor lad could not take it and died. Later on the accusation was proven wrong, Umar was crushed with grief but did not enact vengeance for his beloved son.
After Abu Ubaidah’s death, he appointed Muawiya (l. 602-680 CE) as the new governor of Syria in 639 CE, the latter would in turn elevate his clan – Umayya, to the status of caliphate in 661 CE. Umar was assassinated, as an act of vengeance, by a Persian slave named Lu’lu in 634 CE, who was humiliated by the defeat of the Persians.
Caliph Uthman (r. 644-656 CE)
In his last breaths, Umar appointed a committee of six members (shura – in Arabic) to choose his successor; they narrowed the options down to two people: Uthman ibn Affan (l. 579-656 CE) and Ali ibn Abi Talib (l. 601-661 CE). Eventually, Uthman was chosen as his successor. He was from the wealthy clan of Umayya and a close friend of Muhammad (he was married to two of the Prophet’s daughters), and he was also honored with the title of Ghani, "the generous", for his charitable acts.
Uthman’s tenure was not devoid of military success: the whole of Egypt was consolidated, additional territories of Persia were gained, and Byzantine attempts of retaking lost territory were beaten back, ironically with the help of local populations (mostly Monophysites) who preferred being under Muslim rule as they had been severely oppressed by their former masters.
Despite all of his successes, Uthman was not as popular among the people as his predecessors had been. As the cost of constant war overwhelmed the Arabs, prices were rising and other socio-economic issues emerged (which had been kept in check by Umar), and this angered the general population. Moreover, Uthman was blamed for promoting his own kinsmen (from the Umayya clan) to important positions, and he was also charged with blasphemy (an accusation which was proven false after his demise). His declining population, and his refusal to use military might to crush those who started to rebel against him (which he could have easily done) on the pretext that he would not shed Muslim blood, ultimately led to his death.
The Caliph was murdered in his own house, in 656 CE, by rebel soldiers from the garrison city of Fustat (Egypt). He was reading the Quran when his assailants struck him. His wife Naila tried to save him but could not do so (she attempted to deflect the killer’s sword with her bare hands and got her fingers cut). He was politically weak, but an honest and gentle man. His cousin Muawiya had offered him complete protection in Syria, but Uthman refused to leave the city of Medina where his Prophet had walked and lived.
Caliph Ali (r. 656-661 CE)
Ali, who had remained under the shadows of his seniors up to that point (advising them in the matters of the state), finally became the next caliph, but the unity of the Muslims had died with Uthman. Muawiya, now the head of the Umayyad clan, yearned for revenge, but Ali failed to provide justice to his dead predecessor, owing to increasing unrest and destabilization (Ali wished to restore order first). Not content with anything less than justice, Muawiyya alongside many other prominent Muslims declared open rebellion; the first civil war of the Islamic empire – the First Fitna (656-661 CE) thus commenced.
In 656 CE, Ali faced an army led by Aisha, the youngest wife of Prophet Muhammad, at Basra (in Iraq). Although he emerged victorious in what was later coined as the “battle of Camel” and there was little else that he could have done in that situation, his reputation was heavily stained as he was now blamed for having shed Muslim blood, something that Uthman had refused to do.
He then marched to Syria, where, in the following year, he faced Muawiya in the battle of Siffin, which ended as a stalemate, the latter continued to defy the former’s authority – he had the full support of Syria, Levant, and Egypt. Ali also made the controversial move of shifting the capital from Medina to Kufa, a garrison city in modern-day Iraq. Ali was failing as a ruler; the expansion of the empire had halted and the Muslims were now at each other’s throats. Though he would gain unprecedented posthumous fame due to his involvement in Shia Islamic ideology, his reputation at that point was at its lowest amongst his subjects, many of whom started to desert him.
While Ali was still ruling from Kufa, Muawiya had himself declared caliph in Jerusalem. The Islamic Empire had two caliphs at once. This changed when Ali was murdered by an extremist group called the Kharjites. The Kharjites were initially his allies, but his ultimate decision to reach a compromise with Muawiya enraged them. Ali punished the Kharjites' betrayal by attacking them with full military might, and now this extremist group was vying for vengeance. They assassinated the Caliph while he was offering prayer in congregation in 661 CE. He had not achieved much as a ruler, but both Sunni and Shia Muslims unanimously agree that Ali was a good person and a true Muslim at heart. He did make errors in judgment during his tenure which cost him a great deal, but to this day, he is venerated for his unaffected piety, proverbial wisdom, and bravery on the battlefield, and he earned the nickname of Asad Allah, "the lion of God".
The Kharjites had also attempted to kill Muawiya, but he survived with only a minor injury and then established the Umayyad Dynasty (661-750 CE). The instability of the empire under the Rashidun Caliphs was to be reversed, the Umayyads ruled with a stern hand: uprisings were crushed with brute force and rebellious provinces were kept in check by a series of ruthless but loyal governors. The Umayyads also introduced the dynastic system of rule to the Arabs and it was also under their reign that the empire reached its maximum extent.
Despite being overshadowed in political and military achievements by their successors, the Rashidun Caliphs are stilled honored as the best of the caliphs by present-day Muslims for their piety. Though their system was unstable, they laid the foundation of the Islamic Caliphates which would survive for centuries after their deaths. | 3,590 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The King’s Evil. Not a value judgement, but an unpleasant and unsightly disease which, it was believed, could be cured by a monarch’s hands. Charles II ritually touched about 100,000 people over his 25-year reign, but, as Andrew Taylor tells Historia, this was a matter of faith – and politics – as well as of healing.
In the 17th century, the King’s Evil was a commonly-used term for the disease of scrofula. But it was much more than a disease: it was where orthodox medicine collided with a form of magic, and where political expedience ran side by side with religious belief.
Scrofula is “a constitutional disease characterized mainly by chronic enlargement and degeneration of the lymphatic glands” (OED). It particularly affects the lymph nodes of the neck and is associated with parasitical bacilli that may be tuberculous or non-tuberculous. It’s often transmitted through unpasteurised milk.
Googling images of its victims gives an uncomfortably vivid glimpse of how disfiguring the condition can be. In the past, scrofula was sometimes fatal as well. It could also lead to blindness. Nowadays, depending on its type, it can be treated, usually successfully, either with a tuberculosis treatment and antibiotics or by surgery.
During the reign of Charles II, scrofula reached epidemic proportions. The most effective treatment was considered to be the Royal Touch, a survival from the Middle Ages. In the King’s 25-year reign, he laid hands on about 100,000 of his English subjects in the course of elaborate healing ceremonies. Given that England’s population was about five million people at the time, that equates to two per cent of the population. Sufferers came from as far afield as the New World and Russia.
Though cures were rarely instantaneous, there’s very little evidence of anyone complaining afterwards that the treatment had no effect at all. From our 21st-century perspective, we can speculate that perhaps the disease happened to go into remission of its own accord, or a psychosomatic process was responsible. In Stuart England, however, the King’s miraculous powers, which in this period were solely used for the treatment of scrofula, were taken for granted as a fact of life.
In England, the first convincing evidence of royal thaumaturgy is during the reign of Edward I in the late 13th century. The French monarchy had a similar tradition.
Over the centuries, and particularly after the Reformation, its nature evolved. Curiously enough, its heyday was in the later 17th century, at a time when the Royal Society was founded, and when people like Newton, Harvey and Hooke were laying the foundations of empirical science.
The ceremonies were religious in nature – indeed, the order of service was printed in the Book of Common Prayer. The King might touch as many as two or three hundred sufferers on a single day. In London, the Banqueting House at Whitehall was a frequently-used venue.
One by one, patients were brought to kneel before the King. He touched
– often stroked – their necks while a chaplain read out Christ’s words to his disciples after the Resurrection: “They shall lay their hands on the sick and they shall recover” (Mark xvi.14). This central act was surrounded by a religious ritual of prayers and readings. Patients were given a touch-piece, a specially minted gold medal (originally a gold coin, the angel), which was often worn around the neck to ward off disease.
These occasions can’t have been pleasant. Even in an age with different standards of hygiene from our own, the Gentleman Ushers were obliged to provide ‘Odorofferous parcells‘ in the hope of masking the smell of the poor and the sick, and the King washed his hands in rosewater after the application of his touch.
The ceremonies were not only tedious and time-consuming, they were expensive and administratively complicated. Charles II was a physically restless man, easily bored and perennially short of money. He was notoriously reluctant to apply himself to business for any length of time. Yet throughout his reign he sat on his chair of state for hour after hour, listening gravely to the mumbling of his chaplains’ prayers and stroking the necks of the subjects who knelt before him.
Why did Charles II place so much importance on the ritual healing of the sick?
During his years in the wilderness, the ceremonies were one of his few means of asserting his unique royal status. In the 1650s enterprising English merchants acted as travel agents, assembling parties of patients and bringing them over to the King in exile. Another reason – perhaps the main one – was simply that there was a huge demand for it.
Ritual healing was a way of shoring up the quasi-sacred status of the monarchy. The King was God’s anointed, and therefore he enjoyed a special relationship with the deity. What better way to show that God was on his side than by performing miraculous cures? Christ himself had performed such thaumaturgy. It was something that neither a parliament nor a Cromwellian protector could do.
There was a wider, theological underpinning to the popularity of the Royal Touch. Most people in the late 17th century believed in an active, personal God who was all too ready to punish sinners. Disease was often seen as punishment for sin – not necessarily the patients’ own, but that of the society as a whole. God, through the King, was absolving sin as well as curing a disease. Fortunately Charles’s lax morals in his private life were no bar to this: there was a distinction between the monarch and the man.
Perhaps Charles II carried out ritual healing because his subjects expected it of him. Or as a royal marketing exercise, a conscious strategy for reinforcing the Stuart brand, whose authority had been severely damaged by the execution of Charles I. Or, as king, he truly believed that God had bestowed on him and his forefathers both the ability and the obligation to heal his subjects. Or perhaps it was an unthinking combination of all three.
Charles’s niece, Queen Anne, was the last English sovereign to use the ceremony. In 1711, the infant Samuel Johnson was taken to London to be touched for the King’s Evil. But, as Boswell later recorded, the treatment failed to work.
Andrew Taylor has published more than 45 books, mainly crime and historical novels.
He’s won many awards, including the CWA’s Diamond Dagger for lifetime achievement in the genre and, on three separate occasions, the Historical Dagger. His latest novel, the third in his Marwood-Lovett series, is The King’s Evil (HarperCollins), published on 4 April, 2019.
Young man with scrofula: via Wikimedia
Gold touch-piece of Charles II: via Wikimedia
The King’s Evil by Raymond Crauwfurd: via Wikimedia
Charles II touching for the King’s Evil by R White: via Wikimedia | <urn:uuid:df4b9304-4922-4b4f-b10c-35489bf7a9b3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.historiamag.com/monarch-with-magic-touch/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00398.warc.gz | en | 0.983643 | 1,510 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
-0.031750574707984924,
0.21068599820137024,
0.5133203268051147,
-0.05750102549791336,
-0.0675325095653534,
-0.21937963366508484,
0.4872593283653259,
0.14214514195919037,
0.04123927652835846,
0.03899262845516205,
-0.1309567391872406,
-0.008473881520330906,
0.11865676939487457,
-0.0230068713... | 12 | The King’s Evil. Not a value judgement, but an unpleasant and unsightly disease which, it was believed, could be cured by a monarch’s hands. Charles II ritually touched about 100,000 people over his 25-year reign, but, as Andrew Taylor tells Historia, this was a matter of faith – and politics – as well as of healing.
In the 17th century, the King’s Evil was a commonly-used term for the disease of scrofula. But it was much more than a disease: it was where orthodox medicine collided with a form of magic, and where political expedience ran side by side with religious belief.
Scrofula is “a constitutional disease characterized mainly by chronic enlargement and degeneration of the lymphatic glands” (OED). It particularly affects the lymph nodes of the neck and is associated with parasitical bacilli that may be tuberculous or non-tuberculous. It’s often transmitted through unpasteurised milk.
Googling images of its victims gives an uncomfortably vivid glimpse of how disfiguring the condition can be. In the past, scrofula was sometimes fatal as well. It could also lead to blindness. Nowadays, depending on its type, it can be treated, usually successfully, either with a tuberculosis treatment and antibiotics or by surgery.
During the reign of Charles II, scrofula reached epidemic proportions. The most effective treatment was considered to be the Royal Touch, a survival from the Middle Ages. In the King’s 25-year reign, he laid hands on about 100,000 of his English subjects in the course of elaborate healing ceremonies. Given that England’s population was about five million people at the time, that equates to two per cent of the population. Sufferers came from as far afield as the New World and Russia.
Though cures were rarely instantaneous, there’s very little evidence of anyone complaining afterwards that the treatment had no effect at all. From our 21st-century perspective, we can speculate that perhaps the disease happened to go into remission of its own accord, or a psychosomatic process was responsible. In Stuart England, however, the King’s miraculous powers, which in this period were solely used for the treatment of scrofula, were taken for granted as a fact of life.
In England, the first convincing evidence of royal thaumaturgy is during the reign of Edward I in the late 13th century. The French monarchy had a similar tradition.
Over the centuries, and particularly after the Reformation, its nature evolved. Curiously enough, its heyday was in the later 17th century, at a time when the Royal Society was founded, and when people like Newton, Harvey and Hooke were laying the foundations of empirical science.
The ceremonies were religious in nature – indeed, the order of service was printed in the Book of Common Prayer. The King might touch as many as two or three hundred sufferers on a single day. In London, the Banqueting House at Whitehall was a frequently-used venue.
One by one, patients were brought to kneel before the King. He touched
– often stroked – their necks while a chaplain read out Christ’s words to his disciples after the Resurrection: “They shall lay their hands on the sick and they shall recover” (Mark xvi.14). This central act was surrounded by a religious ritual of prayers and readings. Patients were given a touch-piece, a specially minted gold medal (originally a gold coin, the angel), which was often worn around the neck to ward off disease.
These occasions can’t have been pleasant. Even in an age with different standards of hygiene from our own, the Gentleman Ushers were obliged to provide ‘Odorofferous parcells‘ in the hope of masking the smell of the poor and the sick, and the King washed his hands in rosewater after the application of his touch.
The ceremonies were not only tedious and time-consuming, they were expensive and administratively complicated. Charles II was a physically restless man, easily bored and perennially short of money. He was notoriously reluctant to apply himself to business for any length of time. Yet throughout his reign he sat on his chair of state for hour after hour, listening gravely to the mumbling of his chaplains’ prayers and stroking the necks of the subjects who knelt before him.
Why did Charles II place so much importance on the ritual healing of the sick?
During his years in the wilderness, the ceremonies were one of his few means of asserting his unique royal status. In the 1650s enterprising English merchants acted as travel agents, assembling parties of patients and bringing them over to the King in exile. Another reason – perhaps the main one – was simply that there was a huge demand for it.
Ritual healing was a way of shoring up the quasi-sacred status of the monarchy. The King was God’s anointed, and therefore he enjoyed a special relationship with the deity. What better way to show that God was on his side than by performing miraculous cures? Christ himself had performed such thaumaturgy. It was something that neither a parliament nor a Cromwellian protector could do.
There was a wider, theological underpinning to the popularity of the Royal Touch. Most people in the late 17th century believed in an active, personal God who was all too ready to punish sinners. Disease was often seen as punishment for sin – not necessarily the patients’ own, but that of the society as a whole. God, through the King, was absolving sin as well as curing a disease. Fortunately Charles’s lax morals in his private life were no bar to this: there was a distinction between the monarch and the man.
Perhaps Charles II carried out ritual healing because his subjects expected it of him. Or as a royal marketing exercise, a conscious strategy for reinforcing the Stuart brand, whose authority had been severely damaged by the execution of Charles I. Or, as king, he truly believed that God had bestowed on him and his forefathers both the ability and the obligation to heal his subjects. Or perhaps it was an unthinking combination of all three.
Charles’s niece, Queen Anne, was the last English sovereign to use the ceremony. In 1711, the infant Samuel Johnson was taken to London to be touched for the King’s Evil. But, as Boswell later recorded, the treatment failed to work.
Andrew Taylor has published more than 45 books, mainly crime and historical novels.
He’s won many awards, including the CWA’s Diamond Dagger for lifetime achievement in the genre and, on three separate occasions, the Historical Dagger. His latest novel, the third in his Marwood-Lovett series, is The King’s Evil (HarperCollins), published on 4 April, 2019.
Young man with scrofula: via Wikimedia
Gold touch-piece of Charles II: via Wikimedia
The King’s Evil by Raymond Crauwfurd: via Wikimedia
Charles II touching for the King’s Evil by R White: via Wikimedia | 1,476 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Morals are not only a value of great importance in today’s age, but they were also a value of great importance during the early eleventh century Vikings Age. What are morals? The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines morals as something that is “considered right and good by most people : agreeing with a standard of right behavior.” The importance of morals in the Viking Age is shown in The Vinland Sagas. The Vinland Sagas is a book that has two sagas inside it called The Saga of the Greenlanders and Eirik the Red. Both sagas inform us of the Norse travels and attempt to colonize North America. They also tell stories of the different events that occurred during these travels. In The Vinland Sagas, translated by Keneva Kunz, the women were shown as individuals that have powerful religious, character, and family morals.
Morals were important and followed by the women in The Vinland Sagas. The first moral is to follow their religion. The Vinland Sagas talk about two religions: paganism and Christianity. The first religion talked about is paganism. In paganism, there are “Nine Noble Virtues” stated by the Patheos Library. One of these nine noble virtues is “Hospitality – kindness to strangers, travelers, and those who are in need” (Patheos Library). Gudrid follows this noble virtue in The Saga of the Greenlanders. Kunz translated, “A shadow fell across the doorway and a women entered, … Gudrid, Karlesefni’s wife, then motioned to her with her hand to sit down besides her …” (16). Even though Gudrid did not know this lady, she was still kind and welcomed her into her home, following the hospitality virtue of paganism.
The next religion that is talked about is Christianity. Throughout the saga, many people convert from paganism to Christianity. The women, especially Gudrid, found it easier to convert than most, if not all, men. In addition to following her pagan morals, Gudrid was also able to follow her Christian morals. In Eirik the Red, Gudrid is asked to participate in a pagan ceremony. However, she refuses because she now practices a new religion, Christianity: “These are the sort of actions in which I intend to take no part, because I am a Christian woman” (Kunz 32). Since Gudrid converted to Christianity, she does not want to be associated with paganism anymore, which is why she says that she wishes to not be a part of the ceremony.
Not only does Gudrid stick to her religious moral in Eirik the Red, Thjodhild does as well. Thjodhild builds a Christian church so that she is able to pray: “ … Thjodhild was quick to convert and had a church built … It was called Thjodhild’s church and there she prayed, along with those other people who converted to Christianity …” (Kunz 35). Since she was now a devoted Christian, she and other Christians needed a place to pray and that is why she built the church. Not only did she have a church built, but she also refused to sleep with her husband, Eirik the Red. Kunz renders, “After her conversion, Thjodhild refused to sleep with Eirik, much to his displeasure” (35). Since Eirik the Red was, as reworded by Kunz, “reluctant to give up his faith” (35), Thjodhild was reluctant to sleep with someone who was not Christian. Eirik the Red also did not agree with her conversion, so she did not agree to sleep with him. Therefore, Gudrid and Thjodhild both follow their religious morals, no matter what religion they were.
The next moral followed by the women in The Vinland Sagas is a character moral. I found this character moral to be loyalty. The women were or remained loyal to either their husband or boyfriend at that time. Gudrid’s husband, Thorstein, became very ill and died; however she did not leave his side. In The Saga of the Greenlanders, Kunz translates, “Gudrid had been sitting on a stool in front of the bench where her husband, Thorstein, had lain” (13). While Thorstein was sick, Gudrid could have easily left his side and not stayed with him, however… | <urn:uuid:dbc5cdb6-aaca-44f4-b332-fd0a93402761> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Humanities-1-531026.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00317.warc.gz | en | 0.98157 | 961 | 4 | 4 | [
0.2618710696697235,
0.30922430753707886,
-0.4091207981109619,
-0.5725637674331665,
0.03156387805938721,
0.04257246106863022,
-0.08316463232040405,
0.47587478160858154,
0.0006416982505470514,
0.471170037984848,
-0.20039381086826324,
-0.23437875509262085,
0.11264820396900177,
0.3345591425895... | 1 | Morals are not only a value of great importance in today’s age, but they were also a value of great importance during the early eleventh century Vikings Age. What are morals? The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines morals as something that is “considered right and good by most people : agreeing with a standard of right behavior.” The importance of morals in the Viking Age is shown in The Vinland Sagas. The Vinland Sagas is a book that has two sagas inside it called The Saga of the Greenlanders and Eirik the Red. Both sagas inform us of the Norse travels and attempt to colonize North America. They also tell stories of the different events that occurred during these travels. In The Vinland Sagas, translated by Keneva Kunz, the women were shown as individuals that have powerful religious, character, and family morals.
Morals were important and followed by the women in The Vinland Sagas. The first moral is to follow their religion. The Vinland Sagas talk about two religions: paganism and Christianity. The first religion talked about is paganism. In paganism, there are “Nine Noble Virtues” stated by the Patheos Library. One of these nine noble virtues is “Hospitality – kindness to strangers, travelers, and those who are in need” (Patheos Library). Gudrid follows this noble virtue in The Saga of the Greenlanders. Kunz translated, “A shadow fell across the doorway and a women entered, … Gudrid, Karlesefni’s wife, then motioned to her with her hand to sit down besides her …” (16). Even though Gudrid did not know this lady, she was still kind and welcomed her into her home, following the hospitality virtue of paganism.
The next religion that is talked about is Christianity. Throughout the saga, many people convert from paganism to Christianity. The women, especially Gudrid, found it easier to convert than most, if not all, men. In addition to following her pagan morals, Gudrid was also able to follow her Christian morals. In Eirik the Red, Gudrid is asked to participate in a pagan ceremony. However, she refuses because she now practices a new religion, Christianity: “These are the sort of actions in which I intend to take no part, because I am a Christian woman” (Kunz 32). Since Gudrid converted to Christianity, she does not want to be associated with paganism anymore, which is why she says that she wishes to not be a part of the ceremony.
Not only does Gudrid stick to her religious moral in Eirik the Red, Thjodhild does as well. Thjodhild builds a Christian church so that she is able to pray: “ … Thjodhild was quick to convert and had a church built … It was called Thjodhild’s church and there she prayed, along with those other people who converted to Christianity …” (Kunz 35). Since she was now a devoted Christian, she and other Christians needed a place to pray and that is why she built the church. Not only did she have a church built, but she also refused to sleep with her husband, Eirik the Red. Kunz renders, “After her conversion, Thjodhild refused to sleep with Eirik, much to his displeasure” (35). Since Eirik the Red was, as reworded by Kunz, “reluctant to give up his faith” (35), Thjodhild was reluctant to sleep with someone who was not Christian. Eirik the Red also did not agree with her conversion, so she did not agree to sleep with him. Therefore, Gudrid and Thjodhild both follow their religious morals, no matter what religion they were.
The next moral followed by the women in The Vinland Sagas is a character moral. I found this character moral to be loyalty. The women were or remained loyal to either their husband or boyfriend at that time. Gudrid’s husband, Thorstein, became very ill and died; however she did not leave his side. In The Saga of the Greenlanders, Kunz translates, “Gudrid had been sitting on a stool in front of the bench where her husband, Thorstein, had lain” (13). While Thorstein was sick, Gudrid could have easily left his side and not stayed with him, however… | 937 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the first decades of European settlement in America, the physical labor of establishing homes, agriculture, and commerce was carried out by "bound" laborers—that is unpaid workers who were owned by ("bound" to) a "master" who controlled not only their labor, but also all other aspects of their lives. These workers were "indentured servants" from Europe, who were freed after some years of service, or indigenous native Americans (who often knew how to escape into areas where European "masters" could not find them), or by laborers bought in Africa and stranded in America, unable to return to their homes, and easily identifiable by their dark skins. Sometimes African workers were treated like indentured servants, and freed after some years of service. But after 1690, the status of slavery hardened: bound labor, based on race, became a lifetime sentence, inherited from generation to generation.
What was it like to live in bondage? The experiences of enslaved people varied somewhat, depending upon region and the local economy. Sometimes, the type of life an enslaved person could expect depended on whether they lived on farms or in towns—and on the temperament or mood of their masters.
Often, the first image that comes to mind when considering slavery is the image of the large plantation, where the cultivation of the planter's crop was the first priority. Beyond these duties, enslaved people's skills might be used to clear land, design and construct houses or fences, to breed and tend livestock, to create and tend gardens, craft medicines from local plants, or other jobs as particular circumstances might dictate. White overseers might be assigned to monitor the work. Overseers had less economic investment in the slave, and the enslaved people often bore the brunt of an overseer's resentment of the master's wealth, power, and privilege. Sometimes an enslaved person, called a "driver," would be enticed into holding this position. Not surprisingly, both overseers and drivers were often disliked by the people they controlled. On large plantations, enslaved people's living quarters were often set at some distance from the master's house. These "slave quarters" as they were called, were small and spartan, and—unless the residents kept their own gardens or made their own clothing—food and clothing were often sparse and of low quality.
Large plantations might also have a few enslaved people living and/or working inside the masters' houses. These domestic servants might prepare the master's meals, repair or tend the house, make or repair clothing, prepare for guests, and often care for the masters' children. Though in some cases these "house slaves" were considered part of the extended family, they could not forget that they were property, with no protection from being mistreated, beaten, or sold.
However, at the height of the slave era (1830–1860), only a few thousand masters owned as many as 300 people. Most rural enslaved people were owned by masters who had 10–20 enslaved people, who often were housed in closer proximity to masters, perhaps sharing housing, and perhaps having access to closer relations with their masters than plantation slaves had. Sometimes—but not always—this housing arrangement could lead to kinder treatment. Sometimes, too, this closeness could open opportunities for black laborers to purchase their own freedom, or the freedom of their wives—a great advantage, since a child born to a free mother was automatically free.
Some urban merchants and artisans employed slave labor in their shops. This enabled enslaved people to ply the craft skills they brought with them, as well as to acquire skills that were marketable in their new environment. In that setting, however, enslaved workers sometimes encountered the resentment of white craftsmen who felt displaced. Generally, enslaved people who lived in towns had greater freedom than those who lived on farms. They could become more aware of opportunities for escape, and they could form a more diverse community with other people of African descent who were enslaved or who were free. Daring (or desperate) individuals—in both rural and urban settings—sometimes used such connections to seize the opportunity for escape. | <urn:uuid:6d1d943e-2746-4e9a-a12e-4db1a01e4cf3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ushistory.org/us/6d.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00549.warc.gz | en | 0.9869 | 833 | 4.40625 | 4 | [
-0.16849511861801147,
0.399368017911911,
0.380245566368103,
-0.053374581038951874,
0.018436584621667862,
-0.23339036107063293,
0.12926432490348816,
-0.6137022972106934,
0.0342225655913353,
0.27750325202941895,
0.14079347252845764,
0.06747931987047195,
-0.40690234303474426,
0.26295924186706... | 6 | In the first decades of European settlement in America, the physical labor of establishing homes, agriculture, and commerce was carried out by "bound" laborers—that is unpaid workers who were owned by ("bound" to) a "master" who controlled not only their labor, but also all other aspects of their lives. These workers were "indentured servants" from Europe, who were freed after some years of service, or indigenous native Americans (who often knew how to escape into areas where European "masters" could not find them), or by laborers bought in Africa and stranded in America, unable to return to their homes, and easily identifiable by their dark skins. Sometimes African workers were treated like indentured servants, and freed after some years of service. But after 1690, the status of slavery hardened: bound labor, based on race, became a lifetime sentence, inherited from generation to generation.
What was it like to live in bondage? The experiences of enslaved people varied somewhat, depending upon region and the local economy. Sometimes, the type of life an enslaved person could expect depended on whether they lived on farms or in towns—and on the temperament or mood of their masters.
Often, the first image that comes to mind when considering slavery is the image of the large plantation, where the cultivation of the planter's crop was the first priority. Beyond these duties, enslaved people's skills might be used to clear land, design and construct houses or fences, to breed and tend livestock, to create and tend gardens, craft medicines from local plants, or other jobs as particular circumstances might dictate. White overseers might be assigned to monitor the work. Overseers had less economic investment in the slave, and the enslaved people often bore the brunt of an overseer's resentment of the master's wealth, power, and privilege. Sometimes an enslaved person, called a "driver," would be enticed into holding this position. Not surprisingly, both overseers and drivers were often disliked by the people they controlled. On large plantations, enslaved people's living quarters were often set at some distance from the master's house. These "slave quarters" as they were called, were small and spartan, and—unless the residents kept their own gardens or made their own clothing—food and clothing were often sparse and of low quality.
Large plantations might also have a few enslaved people living and/or working inside the masters' houses. These domestic servants might prepare the master's meals, repair or tend the house, make or repair clothing, prepare for guests, and often care for the masters' children. Though in some cases these "house slaves" were considered part of the extended family, they could not forget that they were property, with no protection from being mistreated, beaten, or sold.
However, at the height of the slave era (1830–1860), only a few thousand masters owned as many as 300 people. Most rural enslaved people were owned by masters who had 10–20 enslaved people, who often were housed in closer proximity to masters, perhaps sharing housing, and perhaps having access to closer relations with their masters than plantation slaves had. Sometimes—but not always—this housing arrangement could lead to kinder treatment. Sometimes, too, this closeness could open opportunities for black laborers to purchase their own freedom, or the freedom of their wives—a great advantage, since a child born to a free mother was automatically free.
Some urban merchants and artisans employed slave labor in their shops. This enabled enslaved people to ply the craft skills they brought with them, as well as to acquire skills that were marketable in their new environment. In that setting, however, enslaved workers sometimes encountered the resentment of white craftsmen who felt displaced. Generally, enslaved people who lived in towns had greater freedom than those who lived on farms. They could become more aware of opportunities for escape, and they could form a more diverse community with other people of African descent who were enslaved or who were free. Daring (or desperate) individuals—in both rural and urban settings—sometimes used such connections to seize the opportunity for escape. | 839 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Rankin House served as a station on the Underground Railroad. While some sources estimate that over 1000 fugitives took shelter at this home on their way to freedom, these estimates are difficult to substantiate although it is clear that the home and its inhabitants worked with local African American abolitionists who helped many enslaved people escape into central Ohio while others made it all the way to Canada where they were finally safe from slave catchers that operated throughout the region. The house was built in 1828 along the banks of the Ohio River overlooking the town of Ripley. Today, the house is a National Landmark and contains many of the original restored furnishings and artifacts that were owned by Reverend John Rankin, the house’s original owner. From the house, visitors can also see the 30-foot-tall pole tipped with candles in town that may have served as a beacon for those escaping slavery on some occasions. It is important to remember that while this home and its people assisted many enslaved persons, their actions were usually more clandestine than placing a lantern on a pole as a beacon that would have soon attracted slave catchers. Assisting slaves was against the law, abolitionists that were active such as the Rankin family risked imprisonment and even death at the hands of armed slave catchers that had legal authority to detain any person of color they suspected of being a runaway according to the 1850 Fugitive Slave Act.
Reverend John Rankin was born in Tennessee in 1793. He grew up to be a
Presbyterian minister and abolitionist in Carlisle, Kentucky, where he created
an anti-slavery group. Because Kentucky was a slave state, he faced a great
deal of opposition and threats there. He then decided to move across the river
to Ohio, a free state, where his views received more support and he could do
more to help enslaved African-Americans.
Rankin used his house in Ripley, Ohio as a station on the Underground Railroad.
The house was linked with a network of other stops in southern Ohio and
northern Kentucky. Oftentimes, it was free African-Americans or those still in
slavery who helped escapees make it to Rankin’s home. From there, fugitive
slaves tried to make their way to Canada where they could not be recaptured and
sent back to their “owners.”
other claims to fame include the nearby Ripley College, which fell apart when a
large number of his white students (mainly from Kentucky) left the institution
after he admitted a black student. Rankin also established the Free
Presbyterian Church of America, which did not allow slave owners to join. He
would go on to help create anti-slavery societies in New York and the Ohio
Anti-Slavery Society in 1835.
In her book, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Harriet Beecher Stowe praised the
Reverend’s efforts to bring freedom to the enslaved. Unfortunately,
opposition to Rankin’s views remained strong. He died in Ironton, Ohio in 1886 as
a result of injuries sustained in an act of mob-violence by men who opposed his actions and views. | <urn:uuid:c4a9a674-cd75-44d0-a59a-afb992399408> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/7091 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00193.warc.gz | en | 0.982523 | 663 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
-0.22734518349170685,
0.24600818753242493,
0.26415082812309265,
-0.15951356291770935,
0.06351803988218307,
-0.229312926530838,
0.18255405128002167,
-0.5333549976348877,
-0.1267835795879364,
0.41653257608413696,
0.5155627727508545,
0.06262275576591492,
-0.0088367760181427,
-0.25351250171661... | 2 | The Rankin House served as a station on the Underground Railroad. While some sources estimate that over 1000 fugitives took shelter at this home on their way to freedom, these estimates are difficult to substantiate although it is clear that the home and its inhabitants worked with local African American abolitionists who helped many enslaved people escape into central Ohio while others made it all the way to Canada where they were finally safe from slave catchers that operated throughout the region. The house was built in 1828 along the banks of the Ohio River overlooking the town of Ripley. Today, the house is a National Landmark and contains many of the original restored furnishings and artifacts that were owned by Reverend John Rankin, the house’s original owner. From the house, visitors can also see the 30-foot-tall pole tipped with candles in town that may have served as a beacon for those escaping slavery on some occasions. It is important to remember that while this home and its people assisted many enslaved persons, their actions were usually more clandestine than placing a lantern on a pole as a beacon that would have soon attracted slave catchers. Assisting slaves was against the law, abolitionists that were active such as the Rankin family risked imprisonment and even death at the hands of armed slave catchers that had legal authority to detain any person of color they suspected of being a runaway according to the 1850 Fugitive Slave Act.
Reverend John Rankin was born in Tennessee in 1793. He grew up to be a
Presbyterian minister and abolitionist in Carlisle, Kentucky, where he created
an anti-slavery group. Because Kentucky was a slave state, he faced a great
deal of opposition and threats there. He then decided to move across the river
to Ohio, a free state, where his views received more support and he could do
more to help enslaved African-Americans.
Rankin used his house in Ripley, Ohio as a station on the Underground Railroad.
The house was linked with a network of other stops in southern Ohio and
northern Kentucky. Oftentimes, it was free African-Americans or those still in
slavery who helped escapees make it to Rankin’s home. From there, fugitive
slaves tried to make their way to Canada where they could not be recaptured and
sent back to their “owners.”
other claims to fame include the nearby Ripley College, which fell apart when a
large number of his white students (mainly from Kentucky) left the institution
after he admitted a black student. Rankin also established the Free
Presbyterian Church of America, which did not allow slave owners to join. He
would go on to help create anti-slavery societies in New York and the Ohio
Anti-Slavery Society in 1835.
In her book, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Harriet Beecher Stowe praised the
Reverend’s efforts to bring freedom to the enslaved. Unfortunately,
opposition to Rankin’s views remained strong. He died in Ironton, Ohio in 1886 as
a result of injuries sustained in an act of mob-violence by men who opposed his actions and views. | 662 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 6th graders enjoyed a Bubble Gum Lab in Mrs. Godwin’s Math class while expanding their knowledge of ratios into unit rate. To further their understanding of unit rate, each student was given a piece of bubble gum to chew in timed increments. Students were then able to compare the unit rates between their small, large, and comfortable chomps during 15, 30, and 60 second increments. After recording their data on each table, students were able to identify their chewing speed based on their chomps per second. While the unit rates were not proportional in this environment, students were able to see patterns within their tables and were able to understand how to obtain their unit rates for each of the differing scenarios. Furthermore, students were able to create a proportion based on their findings to predict how many individual times they would chomp their gum per hour. | <urn:uuid:dc9561f8-9916-47dd-8a6c-b3a641bb781e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.websterbobcats.org/?L=0&LMID=333180&PN=Blog&DivisionID=&DepartmentID=&SubDepartmentID=&Blog=Permalink&id=10628 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00235.warc.gz | en | 0.99121 | 174 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
-0.3967512845993042,
0.044648442417383194,
0.194966122508049,
-0.23240509629249573,
-0.2902577519416809,
-0.25437265634536743,
0.18833424150943756,
0.03132312744855881,
0.42196062207221985,
0.11442354321479797,
0.03271033614873886,
-0.4632950723171234,
0.2139061689376831,
0.194484770298004... | 2 | The 6th graders enjoyed a Bubble Gum Lab in Mrs. Godwin’s Math class while expanding their knowledge of ratios into unit rate. To further their understanding of unit rate, each student was given a piece of bubble gum to chew in timed increments. Students were then able to compare the unit rates between their small, large, and comfortable chomps during 15, 30, and 60 second increments. After recording their data on each table, students were able to identify their chewing speed based on their chomps per second. While the unit rates were not proportional in this environment, students were able to see patterns within their tables and were able to understand how to obtain their unit rates for each of the differing scenarios. Furthermore, students were able to create a proportion based on their findings to predict how many individual times they would chomp their gum per hour. | 179 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lord Byron ( 1788-1824)
George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron FRS , known as Lord Byron, was an English nobleman, writer, poet, liberal activist in the cause of Greek independence and leading figure in the Romantic movement. He is considered as one of the greatest British poets and was hugely influential in his time, not least due to his scandalous and indulgent private life. Out of a total of 34 major works his best-known are the lengthy narrative poems ‘Don Juan’ and ‘Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage’ as well as the short lyric poem ‘She Walks in Beauty’.
Byron is considered to be the first modern-style celebrity. He lived and created the image of the Byronic hero which fascinated the public and was even entitled ‘Byromania’.
Often described as the most flamboyant and notorious of the major ‘Romantics’, he instructed his portrait painters to paint him as a man of action. Byron was both celebrated and castigated in his life for his aristocratic excesses, including huge debts, numerous love affairs with both men and women, as well as rumours of a scandalous liaison with his half-sister.
George Gordon Byron was born on 22 January 1788, in London, the son of the fortune seeking Captain John “Mad Jack” Byron and his second wife, the former Catherine Gordon heiress of the Gight estate in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, where Byron spent his childhood. His father soon left home but continued to squander the family money until died in 1791 in France.
From birth, Byron suffered from a deformity of his right foot. Whatever the cause, he was afflicted with a limp that caused him lifelong psychological and physical misery.
Byron received his early formal education at Aberdeen Grammar School and developed a love for reading history , the Bible and a fascination with the Calvinist doctrines of innate evil and predestined salvation.
When Byron’s great-uncle, the ‘wicked’ Lord Byron, died in 1798, the 10-year-old boy became the 6th Baron Byron of Rochdale and inherited the ancestral home, Newstead Abbey, in Nottinghamshire.
Byron’s relationship with his mother was very ambivalent. She was described as ‘a woman without judgment or self-command’ and either spoiled and indulged him or vexed him with her capricious stubbornness. However, at heart, she was a staunch supporter of her son and sacrificed her own precarious finances to keep him in luxury at Harrow and Cambridge.
While not at school or college, Byron lived with his mother in Southwell, Nottinghamshire, where he wrote his first volumes of poetry.
In 1799 Byron joined the school of Dr. William Glennie, in Dulwich. He was encouraged to exercise in moderation, but could not restrain himself from ‘violent’ bouts in an attempt to overcompensate for his deformed foot.
In 1801, he was sent to Harrow School where Byron fell in love with Mary Chaworth, as well as forming a circle of emotional involvements with other Harrow boys.
1806 he went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he met and formed another close friendship with the younger John Edleston.
Byron spent three years at Trinity College, engaging in sexual escapades, boxing, horse riding and gambling as well as forming lifelong friendships with men such as John Cam Hobhouse, who initiated him into the liberal Cambridge Whig Club.
In March 1809, two months after attaining his majority, he took his seat in the House of Lords attending seven sessions of Parliament.
In 1808 , his first published work ‘Hours of Idleness’, which collected many of his previous poems, along with more recent compositions, was savaged by anonymous criticism and prompted his first major satire, ‘English Bards and Scotch Reviewers’ in response.
From 1809 to1811, Byron went on the Grand Tour, then customary for a young nobleman, but also to escape a love affair and his creditors. He travelled with his friend John Hobhouse, but the Napoleonic Wars forced them to avoid most of Europe and begin in Portugal then travelling through to Malta and arriving in Athens in 1810.
Once in Greece, Byron and Hobhouse travelled by boat and horseback into unexplored Albania where Byron bought several magnificent native costumes, in one of which Thomas Phillips painted him in 1814 . Anxious to record the extraordinary experiences of the trip, Byron began an autobiographical poem which eventually resulted in ‘Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage’ and eventually they returned to Athens on Christmas night 1809.
Before returning home he famously swam the Hellespont, a feat which Byron commemorated in the second canto of ‘Don Juan’.
Byron had criticised Lord Elgin for ‘rescuing’ many of the abandoned classical marbles of ancient Greece and he was increasingly filled with sorrow over the despoilation of the country’s treasures and the enslavement of Greece by the Turks
In 1812, after his return from his two years of travels, he published the first two cantos of his poem ‘Childe Harold’sPilgrimage’ which were received with acclaim. In his own words, “I awoke one morning and found myself famous.” He followed up his success with the poem’s last two cantos, as well as four equally celebrated oriental tales, ‘The Giaour’, ‘The Bride of Abydos’, ‘The Corsair ‘and ‘Lara’.
Byron now rapidly became the most brilliant star in the dazzling world of Regency London, sought after at every society venue, but his private life was reckless. He became involved in an affair with Lady Caroline Lamb (who called him “mad, bad and dangerous to know”) and with other lovers. In 1813 he met for the first time in four years, his half-sister, Augusta Leigh. Rumours of incest very soon surrounded the pair.
During this period in England he produced many new works including ‘Parisina’ and ‘The Siege of Corinth’.
To escape from growing debts and scandalous rumours, in 1815 Byron married Annabella Millbanke, a beautiful and rich heiress. Their daughter, Ada, was born in December of that year. However Byron’s continuing obsession with Augusta and his continuing sexual escapades with actresses and others made their marital life a misery and forced a separation. The resulting scandal, the rumours about Augusta and ever-increasing debts forced Byron to leave England in April 1816, never to return.
In the summer of 1816 he settled by Lake Geneva, Switzerland. There Byron befriended the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley and Shelley’s future wife Mary who produced what would become ‘Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus’.
Byron wintered in Venice and had affairs with two married women as well as studying the history of Armenia and learning the language. He also wrote the fourth canto of ‘Childe Harold’, published ‘Manfred’, ‘Cain’ and ‘The Deformed Transformed’ and fell madly in love with the 18 year old, married, Countess Guiccioli and asked her to elope with him.
Byron’s magnum opus, ‘Don Juan’, a poem spanning 17 cantos, ranks as one of the most important long poems published in England . Often called the epic of its time, Byron published the first two cantos in 1819, anonymously due to the ‘shocking nature’ of the poetry. By this time, he had been famous for seven years, but subsequent volumes created public outrage because of its biting satire in which it depicts all levels of the contemporary world, social, political, literary and ideological.
Byron lived in Ravenna between 1819 and 1821 with his mistress CountessTeresa Guiccioli, entertaining guests and continuing to write ‘Don Juan ‘ as well as the ‘Ravenna Diary’ and ‘My Dictionary and Recollections’.
In 1823, Byron was living in Genoa when, growing bored with his life there, he decided to actively support the movement for Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire. In July, Byron arrived at Kefalonia in the Ionian Islands , which was under British rule where as a rich, English Mi’lord he was besieged by rival Greek factions, all of whom wanted to recruit Byron to their own cause. Byron then spent £4,000 of his own money to refit the Greek fleet.
Journeying on to the Greek mainland, Byron reached Missolonghi on 5 January 1824, but he found that he was unable to reconcile the deep divisions between the different Greek factions and their endless demands for money dismayed him.
To help raise more money, Byron sold his estate in Scotland, but he was still besieged by Greeks and foreigners demanding more money. By the end of March 1824, the so-called “Byron brigade” of 30 philhellene officers and about 200 men had been formed, paid for entirely by Byron.
During this time Byron fell madly in love again – but with his Greek page. His affections went unrequited despite his spoiling the boy outrageously.
Byron had planned to attack the Turkish-held fortress of Lepanto and took part of the rebel army under his own command, despite his lack of military experience. Before the expedition could sail, on 15 February 1824, he fell ill, made a partial recovery and then caught a violent cold, which some inept therapeutic bleeding, aggravated. He developed sepsis, followed by a violent fever and died in Missolonghi on 19 April 1824.
When word was received of Byron’s death in Britain, the public reacted with complete shock and despite their internal divisions, the Greeks mourned Lord Byron deeply and he became a national hero.
Byron’s body was embalmed, but the Greeks wanted some part of their hero to stay with them so according to some sources, his heart remained at Missolonghi. His other remains were refused burial in Westminster Abbey for reason of his ‘questionable morality’, but huge crowds viewed his coffin as he lay in state for two days in London. He is buried at the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, Nottinghamshire. A marble slab given by the King of Greece is laid directly above Byron’s grave. His daughter, Ada Lovelace, was later buried beside him.
In 1969, 145 years after Byron’s death, a memorial to him was finally placed in Westminster Abbey.
Byron’s adult height was 5 feet 8.5 inches (1.74 m), his weight fluctuating between 9.5 stone (133 lb; 60 kg) and 14 stone (200 lb; 89 kg). He was renowned for his personal beauty, which he enhanced by wearing curling-papers in his hair at night. He was athletic, being a competent boxer and horse-rider and an excellent swimmer.
Byron had a great love of animals, most notably for a Newfoundland dog named Boatswain who has impressive marble funerary monument at Newstead Abbey. During his lifetime, in addition to numerous cats, dogs, and horses, Byron kept a fox, monkeys, an eagle, a crow, a falcon, peacocks, guinea hens, an Egyptian crane, a badger, geese, a heron, and a goat. Except for the horses, they all resided indoors at his homes in England, Switzerland, Italy, and Greece.
In 1832 Byron’s publisher released his complete works in 14 duodecimo volumes.
The Manfred Symphony in B minor, Op. 58, is a programmatic symphony composed by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky in1885. It is based on the poem ‘Manfred’ written by Lord Byron in 1817. | <urn:uuid:8b4ba9cb-ac2f-4482-aeae-ee8b48e59d06> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://worldwitandwisdom.com/author/lord-byron/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00285.warc.gz | en | 0.983629 | 2,573 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
0.04636241868138313,
-0.11827540397644043,
0.4328632652759552,
-0.27297794818878174,
0.035276591777801514,
-0.349825382232666,
0.45923519134521484,
-0.2403148114681244,
-0.18824470043182373,
-0.24436509609222412,
0.349547415971756,
0.12742778658866882,
0.32796597480773926,
0.09074846655130... | 5 | Lord Byron ( 1788-1824)
George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron FRS , known as Lord Byron, was an English nobleman, writer, poet, liberal activist in the cause of Greek independence and leading figure in the Romantic movement. He is considered as one of the greatest British poets and was hugely influential in his time, not least due to his scandalous and indulgent private life. Out of a total of 34 major works his best-known are the lengthy narrative poems ‘Don Juan’ and ‘Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage’ as well as the short lyric poem ‘She Walks in Beauty’.
Byron is considered to be the first modern-style celebrity. He lived and created the image of the Byronic hero which fascinated the public and was even entitled ‘Byromania’.
Often described as the most flamboyant and notorious of the major ‘Romantics’, he instructed his portrait painters to paint him as a man of action. Byron was both celebrated and castigated in his life for his aristocratic excesses, including huge debts, numerous love affairs with both men and women, as well as rumours of a scandalous liaison with his half-sister.
George Gordon Byron was born on 22 January 1788, in London, the son of the fortune seeking Captain John “Mad Jack” Byron and his second wife, the former Catherine Gordon heiress of the Gight estate in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, where Byron spent his childhood. His father soon left home but continued to squander the family money until died in 1791 in France.
From birth, Byron suffered from a deformity of his right foot. Whatever the cause, he was afflicted with a limp that caused him lifelong psychological and physical misery.
Byron received his early formal education at Aberdeen Grammar School and developed a love for reading history , the Bible and a fascination with the Calvinist doctrines of innate evil and predestined salvation.
When Byron’s great-uncle, the ‘wicked’ Lord Byron, died in 1798, the 10-year-old boy became the 6th Baron Byron of Rochdale and inherited the ancestral home, Newstead Abbey, in Nottinghamshire.
Byron’s relationship with his mother was very ambivalent. She was described as ‘a woman without judgment or self-command’ and either spoiled and indulged him or vexed him with her capricious stubbornness. However, at heart, she was a staunch supporter of her son and sacrificed her own precarious finances to keep him in luxury at Harrow and Cambridge.
While not at school or college, Byron lived with his mother in Southwell, Nottinghamshire, where he wrote his first volumes of poetry.
In 1799 Byron joined the school of Dr. William Glennie, in Dulwich. He was encouraged to exercise in moderation, but could not restrain himself from ‘violent’ bouts in an attempt to overcompensate for his deformed foot.
In 1801, he was sent to Harrow School where Byron fell in love with Mary Chaworth, as well as forming a circle of emotional involvements with other Harrow boys.
1806 he went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he met and formed another close friendship with the younger John Edleston.
Byron spent three years at Trinity College, engaging in sexual escapades, boxing, horse riding and gambling as well as forming lifelong friendships with men such as John Cam Hobhouse, who initiated him into the liberal Cambridge Whig Club.
In March 1809, two months after attaining his majority, he took his seat in the House of Lords attending seven sessions of Parliament.
In 1808 , his first published work ‘Hours of Idleness’, which collected many of his previous poems, along with more recent compositions, was savaged by anonymous criticism and prompted his first major satire, ‘English Bards and Scotch Reviewers’ in response.
From 1809 to1811, Byron went on the Grand Tour, then customary for a young nobleman, but also to escape a love affair and his creditors. He travelled with his friend John Hobhouse, but the Napoleonic Wars forced them to avoid most of Europe and begin in Portugal then travelling through to Malta and arriving in Athens in 1810.
Once in Greece, Byron and Hobhouse travelled by boat and horseback into unexplored Albania where Byron bought several magnificent native costumes, in one of which Thomas Phillips painted him in 1814 . Anxious to record the extraordinary experiences of the trip, Byron began an autobiographical poem which eventually resulted in ‘Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage’ and eventually they returned to Athens on Christmas night 1809.
Before returning home he famously swam the Hellespont, a feat which Byron commemorated in the second canto of ‘Don Juan’.
Byron had criticised Lord Elgin for ‘rescuing’ many of the abandoned classical marbles of ancient Greece and he was increasingly filled with sorrow over the despoilation of the country’s treasures and the enslavement of Greece by the Turks
In 1812, after his return from his two years of travels, he published the first two cantos of his poem ‘Childe Harold’sPilgrimage’ which were received with acclaim. In his own words, “I awoke one morning and found myself famous.” He followed up his success with the poem’s last two cantos, as well as four equally celebrated oriental tales, ‘The Giaour’, ‘The Bride of Abydos’, ‘The Corsair ‘and ‘Lara’.
Byron now rapidly became the most brilliant star in the dazzling world of Regency London, sought after at every society venue, but his private life was reckless. He became involved in an affair with Lady Caroline Lamb (who called him “mad, bad and dangerous to know”) and with other lovers. In 1813 he met for the first time in four years, his half-sister, Augusta Leigh. Rumours of incest very soon surrounded the pair.
During this period in England he produced many new works including ‘Parisina’ and ‘The Siege of Corinth’.
To escape from growing debts and scandalous rumours, in 1815 Byron married Annabella Millbanke, a beautiful and rich heiress. Their daughter, Ada, was born in December of that year. However Byron’s continuing obsession with Augusta and his continuing sexual escapades with actresses and others made their marital life a misery and forced a separation. The resulting scandal, the rumours about Augusta and ever-increasing debts forced Byron to leave England in April 1816, never to return.
In the summer of 1816 he settled by Lake Geneva, Switzerland. There Byron befriended the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley and Shelley’s future wife Mary who produced what would become ‘Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus’.
Byron wintered in Venice and had affairs with two married women as well as studying the history of Armenia and learning the language. He also wrote the fourth canto of ‘Childe Harold’, published ‘Manfred’, ‘Cain’ and ‘The Deformed Transformed’ and fell madly in love with the 18 year old, married, Countess Guiccioli and asked her to elope with him.
Byron’s magnum opus, ‘Don Juan’, a poem spanning 17 cantos, ranks as one of the most important long poems published in England . Often called the epic of its time, Byron published the first two cantos in 1819, anonymously due to the ‘shocking nature’ of the poetry. By this time, he had been famous for seven years, but subsequent volumes created public outrage because of its biting satire in which it depicts all levels of the contemporary world, social, political, literary and ideological.
Byron lived in Ravenna between 1819 and 1821 with his mistress CountessTeresa Guiccioli, entertaining guests and continuing to write ‘Don Juan ‘ as well as the ‘Ravenna Diary’ and ‘My Dictionary and Recollections’.
In 1823, Byron was living in Genoa when, growing bored with his life there, he decided to actively support the movement for Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire. In July, Byron arrived at Kefalonia in the Ionian Islands , which was under British rule where as a rich, English Mi’lord he was besieged by rival Greek factions, all of whom wanted to recruit Byron to their own cause. Byron then spent £4,000 of his own money to refit the Greek fleet.
Journeying on to the Greek mainland, Byron reached Missolonghi on 5 January 1824, but he found that he was unable to reconcile the deep divisions between the different Greek factions and their endless demands for money dismayed him.
To help raise more money, Byron sold his estate in Scotland, but he was still besieged by Greeks and foreigners demanding more money. By the end of March 1824, the so-called “Byron brigade” of 30 philhellene officers and about 200 men had been formed, paid for entirely by Byron.
During this time Byron fell madly in love again – but with his Greek page. His affections went unrequited despite his spoiling the boy outrageously.
Byron had planned to attack the Turkish-held fortress of Lepanto and took part of the rebel army under his own command, despite his lack of military experience. Before the expedition could sail, on 15 February 1824, he fell ill, made a partial recovery and then caught a violent cold, which some inept therapeutic bleeding, aggravated. He developed sepsis, followed by a violent fever and died in Missolonghi on 19 April 1824.
When word was received of Byron’s death in Britain, the public reacted with complete shock and despite their internal divisions, the Greeks mourned Lord Byron deeply and he became a national hero.
Byron’s body was embalmed, but the Greeks wanted some part of their hero to stay with them so according to some sources, his heart remained at Missolonghi. His other remains were refused burial in Westminster Abbey for reason of his ‘questionable morality’, but huge crowds viewed his coffin as he lay in state for two days in London. He is buried at the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, Nottinghamshire. A marble slab given by the King of Greece is laid directly above Byron’s grave. His daughter, Ada Lovelace, was later buried beside him.
In 1969, 145 years after Byron’s death, a memorial to him was finally placed in Westminster Abbey.
Byron’s adult height was 5 feet 8.5 inches (1.74 m), his weight fluctuating between 9.5 stone (133 lb; 60 kg) and 14 stone (200 lb; 89 kg). He was renowned for his personal beauty, which he enhanced by wearing curling-papers in his hair at night. He was athletic, being a competent boxer and horse-rider and an excellent swimmer.
Byron had a great love of animals, most notably for a Newfoundland dog named Boatswain who has impressive marble funerary monument at Newstead Abbey. During his lifetime, in addition to numerous cats, dogs, and horses, Byron kept a fox, monkeys, an eagle, a crow, a falcon, peacocks, guinea hens, an Egyptian crane, a badger, geese, a heron, and a goat. Except for the horses, they all resided indoors at his homes in England, Switzerland, Italy, and Greece.
In 1832 Byron’s publisher released his complete works in 14 duodecimo volumes.
The Manfred Symphony in B minor, Op. 58, is a programmatic symphony composed by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky in1885. It is based on the poem ‘Manfred’ written by Lord Byron in 1817. | 2,552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If you have not heard about the story of Ota Benga, we are telling it today. We are not telling Benga’s story to spark hatred. We are only reminding ourselves of some of the horrible things that have happened in the past, so that we will all join hands and say “Never Again,” should these things be repeated.
Benga was born around 1883 in the then Congo Free State, Africa. The Congo Free State is the modern day Democratic Republic of the Congo. The so-called Free State was ruled by the brutal Belgian leader, King Leopold II.
Leopold had annexed the Congo as his private property, plundering the resources of the region with impunity. Besides looting resources, he instituted the Force Publique, a brutal forced labor system. The Force Publique forced the locals to produce rubber for Leopold. Many atrocities were committed during this time. It is estimated that more than 12 million people lost their lives through King Leopold’s hard labor policy.
Benga was a member of the Mbuti people. He and his people lived in the equatorial forests near the Kasai River. One day, when Benga had returned from a hunting expedition, he was faced with a terrifying scene. All his people, including his wife, parents and children had been massacred by the militia enforcing the Force Publique. Benga was lucky to survive; if he had been present when the militia attacked his village, he would have shared the same fate.
With this devastating blow, Benga decided to roam the forest alone. However, he was soon captured by slave hunters. The American businessman and explorer, Samuel Phillips Verner will later buy Benga from his captives with a pound of salt and a bolt of cloth. Verner had traveled to the Congo under contract from the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (St. Louis World Fair) to bring back an assortment of pygmies for an exhibition. A pygmy is a member of any human group whose average height is very short.
Therefore, when Verner saw Benga, he marked him as the perfect addition to the exhibition. Having bought Benga with those ridiculous items, Verner continued his search for more pygmies.
After getting the number he wanted, Verner shipped them back home. Verner took a special interest in Benga, due to his unique physical characteristics. Benga was considered more unique than the others because his teeth were sharp, which is said to be a tradition of his tribe. It was custom for the young men of the tribe to have sharp and pointed teeth.
With a height of four feet, eleven inches, and weighing just 103 pounds, Benga was ready to begin a very sad journey. Benga, together with others, was put on display. The exhibition showed real humans from a number of “exotic” ethnicities dressed in their native gear on a staged reproduction of their homes.
#OtaBenga #CongoAfrican #MM = #MelaninMonday ————————————————– In 1904, Ota Benga was kidnapped from Congo and taken to the US, where he was exhibited with monkeys. His appalling story reveals the roots of a racial prejudice that still haunts us… ————————————————– ?#Ota #Benga (second from left) and fellow countrymen at the St Louis World’s Fair, 1904 Photograph: University of South Carolina.. ❤️??Loading...
Remove all ads by clicking here
After the exhibition, Verner became even closer to Benga. Verner traveled with Benga to Africa, where he allowed him to marry for the second time. However, when Benga’s wife died of a snake bite, Verner took him back to America.
Verner got him a place to live at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, where he was “free to roam” until he threw a chair at Florence Guggenheim. He was then relocated to the Bronx Zoo as a punishment.
In 1906, 40 years after the abolishment of slavery, Benga was billed as the “missing link,” on display in the Bronx Zoo cage alongside a monkey. Crowds flocked to see Benga. While some of the visitors were entertained by the display, black activists became so infuriated they called for Benga to be released.
Benga was constantly put on display alongside the monkey. Soon, Benga became the most popular exhibit in the Zoo.
A disappointed and disgusted reader of The New York Globe wrote: “I lived in the south several years, and consequently am not overfond of the negro, but believe him human. I think it a shame that the authorities of this great city should allow such a sight as that witnessed at the Bronx Park — a negro boy on exhibition in a monkey cage.”
After receiving backlash in the media, the authorities were forced to free Benga. The Colored Baptist Ministers Conference protested and played a key role in Benga’s freedom.
Some black activists helped him move to Lynchburg, Virginia, where his teeth were capped and his name was changed to Otto Bingo. Benga was then made to attend school for a short time, until he felt his English was sufficient. Thereafter, he found employment at a tobacco factory.
As he began to live out his new life, he expressed his desire to return to Africa. However, due to the outbreak of World War I, this was not possible. The war prevented passenger ships from travelling.
Depression took over his life. Although he was free, he was still being sought after by those who wanted to catch a glimpse of him. He gave up all hope.
On March 20, 1916, Benga removed the caps from his teeth, built a ceremonial fire, and with a stolen gun, shot himself. He was buried in an unmarked grave in Lynchburg.
That is how our brother’s life ended. He had seen and experienced so many terrible things during his time on earth. Even as he sleeps soundly in his unmarked grave, the legacy he left behind still echoes in eternity. | <urn:uuid:7fea7203-5a98-45d3-9238-cbf18983ea51> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://anonhq.com/black-man-ota-benga-held-bronx-zoo-exhibit-ended-life-100-years-ago-images/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00388.warc.gz | en | 0.989082 | 1,278 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
-0.5841736197471619,
0.414676308631897,
0.05202721431851387,
0.15295597910881042,
-0.16474731266498566,
-0.13367268443107605,
0.56086665391922,
0.20256677269935608,
-0.19889986515045166,
-0.17727994918823242,
0.4910307228565216,
-0.5899617671966553,
-0.11757775396108627,
-0.067055180668830... | 1 | If you have not heard about the story of Ota Benga, we are telling it today. We are not telling Benga’s story to spark hatred. We are only reminding ourselves of some of the horrible things that have happened in the past, so that we will all join hands and say “Never Again,” should these things be repeated.
Benga was born around 1883 in the then Congo Free State, Africa. The Congo Free State is the modern day Democratic Republic of the Congo. The so-called Free State was ruled by the brutal Belgian leader, King Leopold II.
Leopold had annexed the Congo as his private property, plundering the resources of the region with impunity. Besides looting resources, he instituted the Force Publique, a brutal forced labor system. The Force Publique forced the locals to produce rubber for Leopold. Many atrocities were committed during this time. It is estimated that more than 12 million people lost their lives through King Leopold’s hard labor policy.
Benga was a member of the Mbuti people. He and his people lived in the equatorial forests near the Kasai River. One day, when Benga had returned from a hunting expedition, he was faced with a terrifying scene. All his people, including his wife, parents and children had been massacred by the militia enforcing the Force Publique. Benga was lucky to survive; if he had been present when the militia attacked his village, he would have shared the same fate.
With this devastating blow, Benga decided to roam the forest alone. However, he was soon captured by slave hunters. The American businessman and explorer, Samuel Phillips Verner will later buy Benga from his captives with a pound of salt and a bolt of cloth. Verner had traveled to the Congo under contract from the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (St. Louis World Fair) to bring back an assortment of pygmies for an exhibition. A pygmy is a member of any human group whose average height is very short.
Therefore, when Verner saw Benga, he marked him as the perfect addition to the exhibition. Having bought Benga with those ridiculous items, Verner continued his search for more pygmies.
After getting the number he wanted, Verner shipped them back home. Verner took a special interest in Benga, due to his unique physical characteristics. Benga was considered more unique than the others because his teeth were sharp, which is said to be a tradition of his tribe. It was custom for the young men of the tribe to have sharp and pointed teeth.
With a height of four feet, eleven inches, and weighing just 103 pounds, Benga was ready to begin a very sad journey. Benga, together with others, was put on display. The exhibition showed real humans from a number of “exotic” ethnicities dressed in their native gear on a staged reproduction of their homes.
#OtaBenga #CongoAfrican #MM = #MelaninMonday ————————————————– In 1904, Ota Benga was kidnapped from Congo and taken to the US, where he was exhibited with monkeys. His appalling story reveals the roots of a racial prejudice that still haunts us… ————————————————– ?#Ota #Benga (second from left) and fellow countrymen at the St Louis World’s Fair, 1904 Photograph: University of South Carolina.. ❤️??Loading...
Remove all ads by clicking here
After the exhibition, Verner became even closer to Benga. Verner traveled with Benga to Africa, where he allowed him to marry for the second time. However, when Benga’s wife died of a snake bite, Verner took him back to America.
Verner got him a place to live at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, where he was “free to roam” until he threw a chair at Florence Guggenheim. He was then relocated to the Bronx Zoo as a punishment.
In 1906, 40 years after the abolishment of slavery, Benga was billed as the “missing link,” on display in the Bronx Zoo cage alongside a monkey. Crowds flocked to see Benga. While some of the visitors were entertained by the display, black activists became so infuriated they called for Benga to be released.
Benga was constantly put on display alongside the monkey. Soon, Benga became the most popular exhibit in the Zoo.
A disappointed and disgusted reader of The New York Globe wrote: “I lived in the south several years, and consequently am not overfond of the negro, but believe him human. I think it a shame that the authorities of this great city should allow such a sight as that witnessed at the Bronx Park — a negro boy on exhibition in a monkey cage.”
After receiving backlash in the media, the authorities were forced to free Benga. The Colored Baptist Ministers Conference protested and played a key role in Benga’s freedom.
Some black activists helped him move to Lynchburg, Virginia, where his teeth were capped and his name was changed to Otto Bingo. Benga was then made to attend school for a short time, until he felt his English was sufficient. Thereafter, he found employment at a tobacco factory.
As he began to live out his new life, he expressed his desire to return to Africa. However, due to the outbreak of World War I, this was not possible. The war prevented passenger ships from travelling.
Depression took over his life. Although he was free, he was still being sought after by those who wanted to catch a glimpse of him. He gave up all hope.
On March 20, 1916, Benga removed the caps from his teeth, built a ceremonial fire, and with a stolen gun, shot himself. He was buried in an unmarked grave in Lynchburg.
That is how our brother’s life ended. He had seen and experienced so many terrible things during his time on earth. Even as he sleeps soundly in his unmarked grave, the legacy he left behind still echoes in eternity. | 1,259 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Every human being values the importance of freedom in his or her life. As a result, different societies across the globe have for many centuries worked on ways and means of ensuring that their freedom is not violated by anything or anybody. Whereas this has been the case, there are many instances that reveal that it is difficult for human beings to attain total freedom, especially with some being mighty and powerful in the society while others are weak and poor. In this line of thought, the mighty and the powerful have formulated strategies that have enabled them to remain in power while the weak and the poor have continued to be suppressed by the societal structures that favor the rich. There are different accounts in the history of mankind that reveals how the society and individual entities in these societies have struggled for many years to attain the sought after freedom. Among these accounts are those of Briton Hammon and Venture.
Buy Defining Freedom essay paper online
The 18th century is one of the periods in the recent history that is characterized by a complete violation of both societal and individual freedom. This period was characterized by slavery, traditional wars, a society guided by male chauvinism and the beginning of a large scale civilization that would later lay down the foundation for globalization. As a result, different societies across the world sought for ways and means of expanding their territories under an iron rule, through which many individual persons were greatly affected. Yet, from all these events of the 18th century, one of the questions that still linger in the mind of mankind is; what is freedom? Freedom can be described as a state whereby one is free to exercise free will or rather a state where a person is not constrained or hindered by anything in the society.
One of the evidence that there is a lack of freedom is suffering. Despite the fact that one may be feeding well, clothed warmly and have a shelter, this does not imply that one has freedom. As it has been argued above, the well being of the lives of human beings does not necessarily mean that these people are free. Freedom, among other things requires that there is a total elimination of suffering of any form. In reference to Smith (1798), freedom in Venture’s home was limited in regard to his parents. The parents of Venture were not able to agree on the issue of his father marrying a third wife. Venture’s mother therefore does not enjoy the freedom of making decision or rather participating in making important decisions in the family. Freedom thus entails not only enjoying the material things that one can access to but also the ability for one to make decisions independently in the society that one is living in. More to this point, the ability of a person to be listened to in the society also defines freedom. For instance, Venture’s mother was not listened to leave alone being consulted as were the traditions in those days by Venture’s father in regard to marrying a third wife.
Freedom of choice among children is also an issue of concern in the society. Whereas children are supposed to obey their parents, there are decisions that are made by their parents that affect their lives in a negative way. Yet children have no freedom in terms of choosing what they require or rather want for their lives. In this regard, Venture is not in a position to choose freely the person whom he would like to stay or rather live with. For example, when disagreements between his parents ensue, his mother flees away with him to a distant land which he did not know. As a young boy, he did not have the freedom of choosing the parent to stay with and is forced to go with his mother. In the same way, when his mother goes back to his father without his knowledge, a man is send to pick him, despite the fact that the man he was staying with treated him well just the way he treated his son. As a matter of fact, the state of being a child has been found to erode away the status of freedom that one is supposed to enjoy.
Following this point, attaining adulthood does not guarantee that one will be in a position of enjoying total freedom. In fact, one’s adulthood can be just another channel or door to lack of freedom in the society. The life of an adult comprises of many issues that greatly contribute to lack of freedom. The life of Venture as an adult is a narration of one incidence to another in regard to lack of freedom. While working as a slave, one loses everything, including the right to one’s own life. In reference to Venture’s life, among the privileges that one lost after being sold as a slave was freedom. This was followed with a sudden change of life, with a person who was independent enough to make decisions on his or her own being forced to rely on the decisions that were made by another person. Thing are made worse when the person who has been subjected to the other is treated in a violent way.
The way to obtaining freedom has in most cases comprised of violence rather than peace. It must be understood that whereas entail enjoying one’s peace, this cannot in any way be attained until one has affirmed his or authority within a particular society. For example, Venture’s father could not rule and lead his people with the freedom he required since he was under a constant attack by the army that came against them. Whereas one may be able to buy freedom, this does not apply in the case of Venture’s further who paid out a lot of cash to the army that was about to attack him, only for this army to attack him again. On the other hand, Briton Hammon is faced by calamity after another as his master worked on ways of getting him to a place where he could be used properly. Yet, there is a lot of resistance that occurs along the way, leading to loss of lives in some cases. While this did not secure freedom for every person, it manages to secure freedom for Hammon from the Red Indians who had attacked and burnt their vessel.
This also raises key questions on the ability of a person to move freely in any part of the world. Whereas all human being are considered to be the same in the society, there are restrictions that have been formulated by the society that restricts the movement of people from one part of the world to another. Similarly, when one is moved from a condition that is considered as a worse or terrible condition, it doesn’t necessarily mean that one has been able to attain his or her freedom. After being released from the dungeon upon the request or rather interventions by Captain of the Ship that was bound to Old Spain, still Hammon did not find freedom. Instead, while under the care of the Captain, he tried many times to escape and find his own freedom.
With this in mind, there are different levels of freedom that are brought out in these two essays. These types of freedom vary due to the fact that the effects of lack of freedom vary from one to another. For instance, there are countless number situations that are mentioned in the two essays that express the minds of the narrators in regard to their perception towards different levels of freedom. When Hammon is confined in a dungeon, he finds it easy or rather generally agrees to go with the Captain who despite treating him more of a slave rather than a human being was less harsh than the dungeon. In the same way, when Venture is handcuffed, he preferred it as compared to working on the farm where he could be allowed to move more freely without restriction. To prove that he was discontented with the conditions under which his master had subjected him, he agreed to be chained even in the feet and was more comfortable in these chains than walk without them and yet be subjected to human cruelty. In fact, he referred to the handcuffs as the gold chains and gave thank to her master for giving them to him.
Thus these characters find themselves seeking for better condition that the ones they were in. These conditions however do not offer total freedom but allowed some form of freedom as compared to the previous conditions. Following this point, it can arguably be said that humanity has pursued freedom for a long time without finding the actual freedom that is sought after. In this regard, people have settled for freedom that is not really what they sought for but that which removes some uncomfortable situations in their lives. This brings this argument to the second issue. Obtaining freedom is a process.
Throughout the two essays, there is no single person who able to obtain his or her freedom at an instant. Instead, all people mentioned by the narrators in these essays mention circumstances and events that they and their accomplices went through as they sought for their freedom. It did not come just at a blink of an eye. Instead, the victims went through circumstances that brought them closer to their freedom. Hammon, in a bid to gain his freedom accepts to accompany the Captain while deep in his heart this was to bear him his freedom. Therefore, while with the Captain he and a few others devise a scheme to escape just to ensure that they are able to break free from the element of slavery in their lives.
There are various issues that are revealed in this essay in regard to freedom. First, endurance as a virtue is of utmost importance for any person to have in order to secure his or her freedom. The narratives by both Hammon and Venture reveal a great deal of endurance as these worked their way through different hardships, some of which threatened their lives just for them to receive their freedom. In his connection, Venture endured different hardship including shying away from luxuries with one goal in mind; buying freedom for his wife and children. Similarly, Hammon suffered greatly as he offered himself to work for different people until he had been able to find his own freedom.
In this connection, freedom, a status of being able to express oneself freely is one of the most sought after issue in the society. It should be noted that freedom in the society is a process and cannot be obtained on a single instance. As a result, there is need for endurance for one to be in a position to obtain true freedom, i.e. where one’s decisions cannot in any way be influenced by the environment around them, both positively or negatively. Instead, it is a situation where one needs to express oneself together with his ideas without any restrictions.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:439540b7-b386-4a69-a8d7-9f17efb09545> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/narrative/defining-freedom.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00554.warc.gz | en | 0.985939 | 2,097 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
0.006341281812638044,
0.4533223509788513,
0.1715058535337448,
-0.21638837456703186,
-0.14464518427848816,
0.1432887464761734,
0.5365712642669678,
0.053780801594257355,
0.35202813148498535,
0.10373636335134506,
0.0760449692606926,
0.22359836101531982,
0.3227956295013428,
0.1424902081489563,... | 1 | Every human being values the importance of freedom in his or her life. As a result, different societies across the globe have for many centuries worked on ways and means of ensuring that their freedom is not violated by anything or anybody. Whereas this has been the case, there are many instances that reveal that it is difficult for human beings to attain total freedom, especially with some being mighty and powerful in the society while others are weak and poor. In this line of thought, the mighty and the powerful have formulated strategies that have enabled them to remain in power while the weak and the poor have continued to be suppressed by the societal structures that favor the rich. There are different accounts in the history of mankind that reveals how the society and individual entities in these societies have struggled for many years to attain the sought after freedom. Among these accounts are those of Briton Hammon and Venture.
Buy Defining Freedom essay paper online
The 18th century is one of the periods in the recent history that is characterized by a complete violation of both societal and individual freedom. This period was characterized by slavery, traditional wars, a society guided by male chauvinism and the beginning of a large scale civilization that would later lay down the foundation for globalization. As a result, different societies across the world sought for ways and means of expanding their territories under an iron rule, through which many individual persons were greatly affected. Yet, from all these events of the 18th century, one of the questions that still linger in the mind of mankind is; what is freedom? Freedom can be described as a state whereby one is free to exercise free will or rather a state where a person is not constrained or hindered by anything in the society.
One of the evidence that there is a lack of freedom is suffering. Despite the fact that one may be feeding well, clothed warmly and have a shelter, this does not imply that one has freedom. As it has been argued above, the well being of the lives of human beings does not necessarily mean that these people are free. Freedom, among other things requires that there is a total elimination of suffering of any form. In reference to Smith (1798), freedom in Venture’s home was limited in regard to his parents. The parents of Venture were not able to agree on the issue of his father marrying a third wife. Venture’s mother therefore does not enjoy the freedom of making decision or rather participating in making important decisions in the family. Freedom thus entails not only enjoying the material things that one can access to but also the ability for one to make decisions independently in the society that one is living in. More to this point, the ability of a person to be listened to in the society also defines freedom. For instance, Venture’s mother was not listened to leave alone being consulted as were the traditions in those days by Venture’s father in regard to marrying a third wife.
Freedom of choice among children is also an issue of concern in the society. Whereas children are supposed to obey their parents, there are decisions that are made by their parents that affect their lives in a negative way. Yet children have no freedom in terms of choosing what they require or rather want for their lives. In this regard, Venture is not in a position to choose freely the person whom he would like to stay or rather live with. For example, when disagreements between his parents ensue, his mother flees away with him to a distant land which he did not know. As a young boy, he did not have the freedom of choosing the parent to stay with and is forced to go with his mother. In the same way, when his mother goes back to his father without his knowledge, a man is send to pick him, despite the fact that the man he was staying with treated him well just the way he treated his son. As a matter of fact, the state of being a child has been found to erode away the status of freedom that one is supposed to enjoy.
Following this point, attaining adulthood does not guarantee that one will be in a position of enjoying total freedom. In fact, one’s adulthood can be just another channel or door to lack of freedom in the society. The life of an adult comprises of many issues that greatly contribute to lack of freedom. The life of Venture as an adult is a narration of one incidence to another in regard to lack of freedom. While working as a slave, one loses everything, including the right to one’s own life. In reference to Venture’s life, among the privileges that one lost after being sold as a slave was freedom. This was followed with a sudden change of life, with a person who was independent enough to make decisions on his or her own being forced to rely on the decisions that were made by another person. Thing are made worse when the person who has been subjected to the other is treated in a violent way.
The way to obtaining freedom has in most cases comprised of violence rather than peace. It must be understood that whereas entail enjoying one’s peace, this cannot in any way be attained until one has affirmed his or authority within a particular society. For example, Venture’s father could not rule and lead his people with the freedom he required since he was under a constant attack by the army that came against them. Whereas one may be able to buy freedom, this does not apply in the case of Venture’s further who paid out a lot of cash to the army that was about to attack him, only for this army to attack him again. On the other hand, Briton Hammon is faced by calamity after another as his master worked on ways of getting him to a place where he could be used properly. Yet, there is a lot of resistance that occurs along the way, leading to loss of lives in some cases. While this did not secure freedom for every person, it manages to secure freedom for Hammon from the Red Indians who had attacked and burnt their vessel.
This also raises key questions on the ability of a person to move freely in any part of the world. Whereas all human being are considered to be the same in the society, there are restrictions that have been formulated by the society that restricts the movement of people from one part of the world to another. Similarly, when one is moved from a condition that is considered as a worse or terrible condition, it doesn’t necessarily mean that one has been able to attain his or her freedom. After being released from the dungeon upon the request or rather interventions by Captain of the Ship that was bound to Old Spain, still Hammon did not find freedom. Instead, while under the care of the Captain, he tried many times to escape and find his own freedom.
With this in mind, there are different levels of freedom that are brought out in these two essays. These types of freedom vary due to the fact that the effects of lack of freedom vary from one to another. For instance, there are countless number situations that are mentioned in the two essays that express the minds of the narrators in regard to their perception towards different levels of freedom. When Hammon is confined in a dungeon, he finds it easy or rather generally agrees to go with the Captain who despite treating him more of a slave rather than a human being was less harsh than the dungeon. In the same way, when Venture is handcuffed, he preferred it as compared to working on the farm where he could be allowed to move more freely without restriction. To prove that he was discontented with the conditions under which his master had subjected him, he agreed to be chained even in the feet and was more comfortable in these chains than walk without them and yet be subjected to human cruelty. In fact, he referred to the handcuffs as the gold chains and gave thank to her master for giving them to him.
Thus these characters find themselves seeking for better condition that the ones they were in. These conditions however do not offer total freedom but allowed some form of freedom as compared to the previous conditions. Following this point, it can arguably be said that humanity has pursued freedom for a long time without finding the actual freedom that is sought after. In this regard, people have settled for freedom that is not really what they sought for but that which removes some uncomfortable situations in their lives. This brings this argument to the second issue. Obtaining freedom is a process.
Throughout the two essays, there is no single person who able to obtain his or her freedom at an instant. Instead, all people mentioned by the narrators in these essays mention circumstances and events that they and their accomplices went through as they sought for their freedom. It did not come just at a blink of an eye. Instead, the victims went through circumstances that brought them closer to their freedom. Hammon, in a bid to gain his freedom accepts to accompany the Captain while deep in his heart this was to bear him his freedom. Therefore, while with the Captain he and a few others devise a scheme to escape just to ensure that they are able to break free from the element of slavery in their lives.
There are various issues that are revealed in this essay in regard to freedom. First, endurance as a virtue is of utmost importance for any person to have in order to secure his or her freedom. The narratives by both Hammon and Venture reveal a great deal of endurance as these worked their way through different hardships, some of which threatened their lives just for them to receive their freedom. In his connection, Venture endured different hardship including shying away from luxuries with one goal in mind; buying freedom for his wife and children. Similarly, Hammon suffered greatly as he offered himself to work for different people until he had been able to find his own freedom.
In this connection, freedom, a status of being able to express oneself freely is one of the most sought after issue in the society. It should be noted that freedom in the society is a process and cannot be obtained on a single instance. As a result, there is need for endurance for one to be in a position to obtain true freedom, i.e. where one’s decisions cannot in any way be influenced by the environment around them, both positively or negatively. Instead, it is a situation where one needs to express oneself together with his ideas without any restrictions.
Most popular orders | 2,071 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why Maslow? How to use his Theory to stay in Power forever by Juan Rodulfo
Who was Abraham Maslow?
Abraham Maslow was a psychologist concerned with the nature of human experience; that is a humanistic psychologist. In 1943 he proposed a theory that described the different needs that all humans have and the hierarchy in which those needs are organized. According to Maslow, the higher level needs cannot be satisfied unless the lower level needs have been met. This hierarchy has had a significant impact on the field of psychology and education as well.
Abraham Harold Maslow was born April 1, 1908 in Brooklyn, New York. He was the first of seven children born to his parents, who themselves were uneducated Jewish immigrants from Russia. His parents, hoping for the best for their children in the new world, pushed him hard for academic success. Not surprisingly, he became very lonely as a boy, and found his refuge in books.
He received his BA in 1930, his MA in 1931, and his PhD in 1934, all in psychology, all from the University of Wisconsin. A year after graduation, he returned to New York to work with E. L. Thorndike at Columbia, where Maslow became interested in research on human sexuality.
He began teaching full time at Brooklyn College. During this period of his life, he came into contact with the many European intellectuals that were immigrating to the US, and Brooklyn in particular, at that time — people like Adler, Fromm, Horney, as well as several Gestalt and Freudian psychologists.
Maslow served as the chair of the psychology department at Brandeis from 1951 to 1969. While there he met Kurt Goldstein, who had originated the idea of self-actualization in his famous book, The Organism (1934). It was also here that he began his crusade for a humanistic psychology — something ultimately much more important to him than his own theorizing.
He spend his final years in semi-retirement in California, until, on June 8 1970, he died of a heart attack after years of ill health.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
One of the many interesting things Maslow noticed while he worked with monkeys early in his career was that some needs take precedence over others. For example, if you are hungry and thirsty, you will tend to try to take care of the thirst first. After all, you can do without food for weeks, but you can only do without water for a couple of days! Thirst is a “stronger” need than hunger. Likewise, if you are very very thirsty, but someone has put a choke hold on you and you can’t breathe, which is more important? The need to breathe, of course. On the other hand, sex is less powerful than any of these. Let’s face it, you won’t die if you don’t get it!
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem and self-actualization.
This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and the top level is known as growth or being needs (B-needs).
Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the motivation to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food, the hungrier they will become.
“Before a student’s cognitive needs can be met, they must first fulfill their basic physiological needs. For example, a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their full potential.”
The Maslow’s Theory political approach
Juan Rodulfo, explores in his Book: Why Maslow, how to use his Theory to stay in Power Forever how the Governments and Corporations deliberately push the Populations around the globe to stay in their primitive stages or the first two stages of the Maslow Hierarchy of Needs’ Theory, the book is available at AMAZON and its own Website: whymaslow.com
Powered by WPeMatico | <urn:uuid:e0aa0fac-cf17-4ba6-a757-503fca30fa5f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.beautyproducts.online/why-maslow-how-to-use-his-theory-to-stay-in-power-forever-book/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00290.warc.gz | en | 0.982024 | 956 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
-0.16449250280857086,
0.7886754274368286,
-0.2336772382259369,
-0.29520609974861145,
-0.6602777242660522,
0.5246685147285461,
0.14222222566604614,
0.2555478811264038,
-0.011128975078463554,
-0.3790261447429657,
0.11788955330848694,
-0.0826934352517128,
-0.10301650315523148,
0.0898768678307... | 17 | Why Maslow? How to use his Theory to stay in Power forever by Juan Rodulfo
Who was Abraham Maslow?
Abraham Maslow was a psychologist concerned with the nature of human experience; that is a humanistic psychologist. In 1943 he proposed a theory that described the different needs that all humans have and the hierarchy in which those needs are organized. According to Maslow, the higher level needs cannot be satisfied unless the lower level needs have been met. This hierarchy has had a significant impact on the field of psychology and education as well.
Abraham Harold Maslow was born April 1, 1908 in Brooklyn, New York. He was the first of seven children born to his parents, who themselves were uneducated Jewish immigrants from Russia. His parents, hoping for the best for their children in the new world, pushed him hard for academic success. Not surprisingly, he became very lonely as a boy, and found his refuge in books.
He received his BA in 1930, his MA in 1931, and his PhD in 1934, all in psychology, all from the University of Wisconsin. A year after graduation, he returned to New York to work with E. L. Thorndike at Columbia, where Maslow became interested in research on human sexuality.
He began teaching full time at Brooklyn College. During this period of his life, he came into contact with the many European intellectuals that were immigrating to the US, and Brooklyn in particular, at that time — people like Adler, Fromm, Horney, as well as several Gestalt and Freudian psychologists.
Maslow served as the chair of the psychology department at Brandeis from 1951 to 1969. While there he met Kurt Goldstein, who had originated the idea of self-actualization in his famous book, The Organism (1934). It was also here that he began his crusade for a humanistic psychology — something ultimately much more important to him than his own theorizing.
He spend his final years in semi-retirement in California, until, on June 8 1970, he died of a heart attack after years of ill health.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
One of the many interesting things Maslow noticed while he worked with monkeys early in his career was that some needs take precedence over others. For example, if you are hungry and thirsty, you will tend to try to take care of the thirst first. After all, you can do without food for weeks, but you can only do without water for a couple of days! Thirst is a “stronger” need than hunger. Likewise, if you are very very thirsty, but someone has put a choke hold on you and you can’t breathe, which is more important? The need to breathe, of course. On the other hand, sex is less powerful than any of these. Let’s face it, you won’t die if you don’t get it!
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem and self-actualization.
This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and the top level is known as growth or being needs (B-needs).
Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the motivation to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food, the hungrier they will become.
“Before a student’s cognitive needs can be met, they must first fulfill their basic physiological needs. For example, a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on learning. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their full potential.”
The Maslow’s Theory political approach
Juan Rodulfo, explores in his Book: Why Maslow, how to use his Theory to stay in Power Forever how the Governments and Corporations deliberately push the Populations around the globe to stay in their primitive stages or the first two stages of the Maslow Hierarchy of Needs’ Theory, the book is available at AMAZON and its own Website: whymaslow.com
Powered by WPeMatico | 950 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born this day January 1 in 1431 - Alexander VI Pope Alexander VI
(1431-1503) born Roderigo Llançol, later Rodrigo Borja (Italian: Borgia) was Pope from 1492 to 1503. He is the most controversial of the secular popes of the Renaissance and one whose surname became a byword for the debased standards of the papacy of that era. He was born at Xativa, Valencia, Spain. His father's surname was Lanzol (Castilian) or Llançol (Catalan). He assumed his mother's family name of Borja
on the elevation of his maternal uncle to the papacy as Calixtus III
in 1455. Pope Alexander VI Education and election
Borgia studied law at Bologna and after his uncle's election as pope, was created successively bishop, cardinal and vice-chancellor of the church. Nepotistic appointments were characteristic of the age. He served in the Curia under five popes (Calixtus III, Pius II, Paul II, Sixtus IV
and Innocent VIII
) and acquired much administrative experience, influence and wealth, though not great power.
On the death of Pope Innocent VIII
(1484–1492), the three likely candidates for the Holy See were cardinals Borgia, Ascanio Sforza
and Giuliano della Rovere
. While there was never substantive proof of simony
, the rumour was that Borgia, by his great wealth, succeeded in buying the largest number of votes, including that of Sforza, whom, popular rumour had it, he bribed with four mule-loads of silver. According to some historians, however, Borgia had no need of such an unsubtle exchange - the benefices and offices granted Sforza for his support would be worth considerably more than four mule-loads of silver. John Burchard
, the conclave's master of ceremonies and a leading figure of the papal household under several popes, recorded in his diary that the 1492 conclave was a particularly expensive campaign. Della Rovere was bankrolled to the cost of 200,000 gold ducats
by the King of France, with another 100,000 supplied by the Republic of Genoa. Borgia was elected on August 11, 1492, assuming the name of Alexander VI. Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici
sharply criticized the election and warned of dire things to come:
Nepotism and opposition
Now we are in the power of a wolf, the most rapacious perhaps that this world has ever seen. And if we do not flee, he will inevitably devour us all.
At first, Alexander's reign was marked by a strict administration of justice and an orderly method of government, in contrast to the mismanagement of the previous pontificate, as well as by great outward splendour. But it was not long before his passion for endowing his relatives at the church's and his neighbours' expense became manifest. To that end he was ready to commit any crime and to plunge all Italy into war. Alexander VI had four children by his mistress (Vannozza dei Cattani
), three sons and a daughter: Giovanni, Cesare, Goffredo
. Vannozza dei Cattani one of the Pope Alexander VI mistresses
Cesare, while a youth of seventeen and a student at Pisa, was made Archbishop of Valencia, and Giovanni received the dukedom of Gandia, the Borgias' ancestral home in Spain. For the Duke of Gandía and for Goffredo the Pope proposed to carve fiefs out of the papal states and the Kingdom of Naples. Among the fiefs destined for the duke of Gandía were Cerveteri
, lately acquired by Virginio Orsini
, head of that powerful house. This policy brought Ferdinand I, King of Naples
, into conflict with Alexander, who was also opposed by Cardinal della Rovere, whose candidature for the papacy had been backed by Ferdinand. Della Rovere fortified himself in his bishopric of Ostia at the Tiber's mouth as Alexander formed a league against Naples (April 25, 1493) and prepared for war. Lucrezia Borgia, the daughter of Pope Alexander VI, was given an opulent wedding at the Vatican Palace. click on image to enlarge.
Ferdinand allied himself with Florence, Milan and Venice. He also appealed to Spain for help. But Spain was anxious to be on good terms with the papacy in order to obtain the title to the newly discovered continent of America. Alexander, in the bull Inter Caetera
, divided the title between Spain and Portugual along a demarcation line. (This and other related bulls are known collectively as the Bulls of Donation
Alexander VI arranged great marriages for his children. Lucrezia had been promised to the Venetian Don Gasparo da Procida, but on her father's elevation to the papacy the engagement was cancelled and in 1493 she married Giovanni Sforza
, lord of Pesaro, the ceremony being celebrated at the Vatican Palace
with unparalleled magnificence.
In spite of the splendours of the Pontifical court, the condition of Rome became every day more deplorable. The city swarmed with Spanish adventurers, assassins, prostitutes and informers; murder and robbery were committed with impunity, and the Pope himself cast aside all show of decorum, living a purely secular life; indulging in the chase, and arranging dancing, stage plays and orgies (culminating in the debaucherous Banquet of Chestnuts
of 1501) within the Vatican itself. One of his close companions was Cem
, the brother of the Sultan Bayazid II
(1481–1512), detained as a hostage. The general outlook in Italy was of the gloomiest and the country was on the eve of foreign invasion. French Involvement
Alexander VI made many alliances to secure his position. He sought help from Charles VIII of France
, who was allied to Ludovico il Moro Sforza, the de facto ruler of Milan who needed French support to legitimise his regime (1483–1498). As King Ferdinand I of Naples was threatening to come to the aid of the rightful duke Gian Galeazzo — the husband of his granddaughter Isabella — Alexander VI encouraged the French king in his scheme for the conquest of Naples. Alexander VI would ally with Charles VIII of France against the King of Naples
But Alexander VI, always ready to seize opportunities to aggrandize his family, then adopted a double policy. Through the intervention of the Spanish ambassador he made peace with Naples in July 1493 and cemented the peace by a marriage between his son Giuffre and Doña Sancha, another granddaughter of Ferdinand I. In order to dominate the College of Cardinals more completely, Alexander, in a move that created much scandal, created twelve new cardinals, among them his own son Cesare, then only eighteen years old, and Alessandro Farnese
(later Pope Paul III), the brother of one of the Pope's mistresses, the beautiful Giulia Farnese
. Giulia Farnese, Raffaello 1505 - another of Pope Alexander VI's mistresses: The affair was widely known among the gossips of the time, and Giulia was referred to as "the Pope's whore" or as "the bride of Christ". Giulia and Lucrezia became close friends. Through her intimacy with the Pope she was able to get her brother Alessandro created Cardinal. This earned him the title of "Cardinal of the skirts" from Pasquino.
When Ferdinand I died in 1494, he was succeeded by his son Alfonso II
(1494–1495). Charles VIII of France
now advanced formal claims on the kingdom, and Alexander VI authorized him to pass through Rome ostensibly on a crusade against the Turks, without mentioning Naples. But when the French invasion became a reality he was alarmed, recognized Alfonso II as King, and concluded an alliance with him in exchange for various fiefs for his sons (July 1494). A military response to the French threat was set in motion. A Neapolitan army was to advance through the Romagna and attack Milan, while the fleet was to seize Genoa. But both expeditions were badly conducted and failed, and on September 8, Charles VIII crossed the Alps and joined Lodovico il Moro at Milan. The papal states were in turmoil, and the powerful Colonna
faction seized Ostia
in the name of France. Charles VIII rapidly advanced southward, and after a short stay in Florence, set out for Rome (November 1494).
Alexander VI appealed to Ascanio Sforza
for help, and even to the Sultan. He tried to collect troops and put Rome in a state of defence, but his position was precarious. When the Orsini offered to admit the French to their castles, Alexander had no choice but to come to terms with Charles, who on December 31 entered Rome with his troops, the cardinals of the French faction, and Giuliano della Rovere. Alexander now feared that the king might depose him for simony
and summon a council, but he won over the bishop of Saint-Malo who had much influence over the king, with a cardinal's hat. Alexander VI agreed to send Cesare, as legate, to Naples with the French army, to deliver Cem to Charles VIII and to give him Civitavecchia
(January 16, 1495). On January 28, Charles VIII departed for Naples with Cem and Cesare, but the latter slipped away to Spoleto. Napolitan resistance collapsed; Alfonso II fled and abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand II
, who also had to escape, abandoned by all, and the kingdom was conquered with surprising ease. The French in retreat Castel Sant'Angelo is where Pope Alexander VI secluded himself after the death of the Duke of Gandia.
A reaction against Charles VIII soon set in, for all the powers were alarmed at his success, and on March 31, 1495 a so-called Holy League
was formed between the pope, the emperor, Venice, Lodovico il Moro and Ferdinand of Spain, ostensibly against the Turks, but in reality to expel the French from Italy. Charles VIII had himself crowned King of Naples May 12 but a few days later began his retreat northward. He encountered the allies at Fornovo and after a drawn battle cut his way through them and was back in France by November.
Ferdinand II was reinstated at Naples soon afterwards, with Spanish help. The expedition, if it produced no material results, demonstrated the foolishness of the so called 'politics of equilibrium' (the Medicean doctrine of preventing one of the Italian principates from overwhelming the rest and uniting them under its hegemony), since it rendered the country unable to defend itself against the powerful nation states, France and Spain, that had forged themselves during the previous century. Alexander VI, following the general tendency of all the princes of the day to crush the great feudatories and establish a centralized despotism, now took advantage of the defeat of the French to break the power of the Orsini and begin building himself an effective power base in the papal states.
Virginio Orsini, who had been captured by the Spaniards, died a prisoner at Naples, and the Pope confiscated his property; but the rest of the clan still held out, defeating the papal troops sent against them under Guidobaldo, Duke of Urbino and Giovanni Borgia, Duke of Gandia, at Soriano (January 1497). Peace was made through Venetian mediation, the Orsini paying 50,000 ducats in exchange for their confiscated lands, while the Duke of Urbino, whom they had captured, was left by the Pope to pay his own ransom. The Orsini remained very powerful, and Alexander VI could count on none but his 3,000 Spaniards. His only success had been the capture of Ostia and the submission of the Francophile cardinals Colonna and Savelli.
Then occurred the first of those ugly domestic tragedies for which the house of Borgia remains notorious. On 14 June the Duke of Gandia, lately created Duke of Benevento
, disappeared: the next day his corpse was found in the Tiber.
Alexander, overwhelmed with grief, shut himself up in Castel Sant'Angelo
and then declared that the reform of the church would be the sole object of his life henceforth – a resolution he did not keep. Every effort was made to discover the assassin, and suspicion fell on various highly placed people. When the rumour spread that Cesare, the Pope's second son, had done the deed, the inquiries ceased. No conclusive evidence ever came to light about the murder, although Cesare remained the most widely suspected. Confiscations and Savonarola
Violent and vengeful, Cesare now became the most powerful man in Rome, and even his father quailed before him. Because Alexander needed funds to carry out his various schemes, he began a series of confiscations, of which one of the victims was his own secretary. The process was a simple one: any cardinal, nobleman or official who was known to be rich would be accused of some offence; imprisonment and perhaps murder followed at once, and then the confiscation of his property. The least opposition to the Borgia was punished with death. Because of his invectives against papal corruption, Girolamo Savonarola was viewed with hostility by Pope Alexander VI. He was eventually arrested and executed on 23 May 1498.
Even in that corrupt age the debased state of the curia was a major scandal. Opponents such as the demagogic monk Girolamo Savonarola
, who appealed for a general council to confront the papal abuses, launched invectives against papal corruption. Alexander VI, unable to get the excommunicated Savonarola into his own hands, browbeat the Florentine government into condemning the reformer to death (May 23, 1498). The houses of Colonna and Orsini, after much fighting between themselves, allied against the Pope, who found himself unable to maintain order in his own dominions.
In these circumstances, Alexander, feeling more than ever that he could only rely on his own kin, turned his thoughts to further family aggrandizement. He had annulled Lucrezia's marriage to Giovanni Sforza
— who had responded to the suggestion that he was impotent with the counter-claim that Alexander and Cesare indulged in incestuous relations with Lucrezia — in 1497, and, unable to arrange a union between Cesare and the daughter of King Frederick IV of Naples
(who had succeeded Ferdinand II the previous year), he induced Frederick by threats to agree to a marriage between the Duke of Bisceglie, a natural son of Alfonso II, and Lucrezia. Cesare, after resigning his cardinalate, was sent on a mission to France at the end of the year, bearing a bull of divorce for the new French king Louis XII
, in exchange for which he obtained the duchy of Valentinois (hence his title of Duca Valentino), a promise of material assistance in his schemes to subjugate the feudal princelings of papal Romagna, and a marriage to a princess of Navarre.
Alexander VI hoped that Louis XII's help would be more profitable to his house than that of Charles VIII had been. In spite of the remonstrances of Spain and of the Sforza, he allied himself with France in January 1499 and was joined by Venice. By the autumn Louis XII was in Italy expelling Lodovico Sforza from Milan. With French success seemingly assured, the Pope determined to deal drastically with the Romagna, which although nominally under papal rule was divided into a number of practically independent lordships on which Venice, Miilan, and Florence cast hungry eyes. Cesare, empowered by the support of the French, proceeded to attack the turbulent cities one by one in his capacity as nominated gonfaloniere
(standard bearer) of the church. But the expulsion of the French from Milan and the return of Lodovico Sforza interrupted his conquests, and he returned to Rome early in 1500. Cesare in the North Cesare Borgia, the son and cardinal-nephew of Alexander VI, became the first person to resign the cardinalate on August 17, 1498.
This year was a jubilee
year, and crowds of pilgrims flocked to the city from all parts of the world bringing money for the purchase of indulgences
, so that Alexander VI was able to furnish Cesare with funds for his enterprise. In the north the pendulum swung back once more in favour of the French, who reoccupied Milan in April, causing the downfall of the Sforza, much to Alexander VI's satisfaction.
In July the Duke of Bisceglie, whose existence was no longer advantageous, was murdered on Cesare's orders, leaving Lucrezia free to contract another marriage. The Pope, ever in need of money, now created twelve new cardinals, from whom he received 120,000 ducats, and fresh conquests for Cesare were considered. A crusade was talked of, but the real object was central Italy; and so in the autumn, Cesare, backed by France and Venice, set forth with 10,000 men to complete his interrupted business in the Romagna.
The local despots of Romagna were duly dispossessed, and an administration was set up, which, if tyrannical and cruel, was at least orderly and strong, and which aroused the admiration of Machiavelli
. On his return to Rome in June 1501 Cesare was created Duke of Romagna. Louis XII, having succeeded in the north, determined to conquer southern Italy as well. He concluded a treaty with Spain for the division of the Neapolitan kingdom, which was ratified by the Pope on 25 June, Frederick being formally deposed. While the French army proceeded to invade Naples, Alexander VI took the opportunity, with the help of the Orsini, to reduce the Colonna to obedience. In his absence on campaign he left Lucrezia as regent, providing the remarkable spectacle of a pope's natural daughter in charge of the Holy See. Shortly afterwards he induced Alfonso d'Este
, son of the Duke of Ferrara
, to marry Lucrezia, thus establishing her as wife of the heir to one of the most important duchies in Italy (January 1502). At about this time a Borgia of doubtful parentage was born — Giovanni, described in some papal documents as Alexander VI's son and in others as Cesare's.
As France and Spain were quarrelling over the division of Naples and the Campagna barons were quiet, Cesare set out once more in search of conquests. In June 1502 he seized Camerino and Urbino, the news of whose capture delighted the Pope; but his attempt to draw Florence into an alliance failed. In July, Louis XII of France again invaded Italy and was at once bombarded with complaints from the Borgias' enemies. Alexander VI's diplomacy, however, turned the tide, and Cesare, in exchange for promising to assist the French in the south, was given a free hand in central Italy. Last years
A danger now arose in the shape of a conspiracy on the part of the deposed despots, the Orsini, and of some of Cesare's own condottieri. At first the papal troops were defeated and things looked black for the house of Borgia. But a promise of French help quickly forced the confederates to come to terms. Cesare, by an act of treachery, then seized the ringleaders at Senigallia and put Oliverotto da Fermo
and Vitellozzo Vitelli
to death (December 31, 1502). As soon as Alexander VI heard the news he lured Cardinal Orsini to the Vatican and cast him into a dungeon, where he died. His goods were confiscated, his aged mother turned into the street and many other members of the clan in Rome were arrested, while Giuffre Borgia led an expedition into the Campagna and seized their castles. Thus the two great houses of Orsini and Colonna, who had long fought for predominance in Rome and often flouted the Pope's authority, were subjugated and the Borgias' power increased. Cesare then returned to Rome, where his father asked him to assist Giuffre in reducing the last Orsini strongholds; this for some reason he was unwilling to do, much to Alexander VI's annoyance; but he eventually marched out, captured Ceri and made peace with Giulio Orsini, who surrendered Bracciano.
Three more high personages fell victim to the Borgias' greed this year: Cardinal Michiel, who was poisoned in April 1503, J. da Santa Croce, who had helped to seize Cardinal Orsini, and Troches or Troccio, Alexander's chamberlain and secretary; all these murders brought immense sums to the Pope. About Cardinal Ferrari's death there is more doubt; he probably died of fever, but Alexander VI immediately confiscated his goods even so. The war between France and Spain for the possession of Naples dragged on, and Alexander VI was forever intriguing, ready to ally himself with whichever power promised the most advantageous terms at any moment. He offered to help Louis XII on condition that Sicily be given to Cesare, and then offered to help Spain in exchange for Siena, Pisa and Bologna.
Although it is doubtless that Alexander VI liked to eliminate any cardinal and immediately confiscate their property, there is no suffice evidence on the murdering methods. It has been suggested that the family used their favorite poison Cantarella
, an arsenic variation, which was offered to their poor victim in a form of drink with an innovative nickname, the 'liquor of succession'. Since raw forms of arsenic, known at that time, were not immediately fatal, Alexander VI must had invented a method for preparation of that substance, for which no information exists. The famous cup of Borgia, a golden cup with a hidden area storing the poison so it could be mixed with the wine, is often mentioned as the family's favorite murdering method, and it has been the base for many legendary and science fiction stories, including Agatha Christie's short story The Apples of Hesperides
published in the 1947 collection The Labours of Hercules
. Death Pope Pius III succeeded Alexander VI upon his death.
Burchard recorded the events that surrounded the death of the Pope. Cesare was preparing for another expedition in August 1503 when, after he and Alexander had dined with Cardinal Adriano da Corneto on August 6th, they were taken ill with fever. Cesare had eventually recovered, but Alexander VI was too old to have any chance. According to Burchard, Alexander VI's stomach became swollen and turned to liquid, while his face became wine-coloured and his skin began to peel off. Finally his stomach and bowels bled profusely. After more than a week of intestinal bleeding and convulsive fevers, and after accepting last rites and making a confession, the despairing Alexander VI expired on August 18, 1503 at the age of 72.
His death was followed by scenes of wild disorder, and Cesare, too ill to attend to the business himself, sent Don Michelotto, his chief bravo
, to seize the Pope's treasures before the death was publicly announced. When the body was exhibited to the people the next day it was in a shocking state of decomposition. Writing in his Liber Notarum, Burchard elaborates: "The face was very dark, the colour of a dirty rag or a mulberry, and was covered all over with bruise-coloured marks. The nose was swollen; the tongue had bent over in the mouth, completely double, and was pushing out the lips which were, themselves, swollen. The mouth was open and so ghastly that people who saw it said they had never seen anything like it before." It has been suggested that, having taken into account the unusual level of decomposition, Alexander VI was accidentally poisoned to death by his son with Cantarella (which was prepared to eliminate Cardinal Adriano), although some commentaries (including the Encyclopædia Britannica
) doubt these stories and attribute Alexander's death to malaria, at that time prevalent in Rome, or to another such pestilence. The ambassador of Ferrara wrote to Duke Ercole that it was no wonder the pope and the duke were sick because nearly everyone in Rome was ill as a consequence of bad air
("per la mala condictione de aere").
Burchard described how the Pope's mouth foamed like a kettle over a fire and how the body began to swell so much that it became as wide as it was long. The Venetian ambassador reported that Alexander VI's body was "the ugliest, most monstrous and horrible dead body that was ever seen, without any form or likeness of humanity". Finally the body began to release sulphurous
gasses from every orifice. Burchard records that he had to jump on the body to jam it into the undersized coffin and covered it with an old carpet, the only surviving furnishing in the room.
Such was Alexander VI's unpopularity that the priests of St. Peter's Basilica refused to accept the body for burial until forced to do so by papal staff. Only four prelates attended the Requiem Mass. Alexander's successor on the Throne of St. Peter, Francesco Todeschini-Piccolomini, who assumed the name of Pope Pius III
(1503), forbade the saying of a Mass for the repose of Alexander VI's soul, saying, "It is blasphemous to pray for the damned". After a short stay, the body was removed from the crypts of St. Peter's and installed in a less well-known church, the Spanish national church of Santa Maria in Monserrato degli Spagnoli. Legacy
Alexander gave away the temporal estates of the papacy
to his children as though they belonged to him. The secularization of the church was carried to a pitch never before dreamed of, and it was clear to all Italy that he regarded the papacy as an instrument of worldly schemes with no thought of its religious aspect. During his pontificate the church was brought to its lowest level of degradation. The condition of his subjects was deplorable, and if Cesare's rule in Romagna was an improvement on that of the local tyrants, the people of Rome have seldom been more oppressed than under the Borgia.
Alexander VI has become almost a mythical character, and countless legends and traditions are attached to his name. Alexander was not the only figure responsible for the general unrest in Italy or for the foreign invasions, but he was ever ready to profit by them. Even if the stories of his murders (including the rumor that his first murder was at the age of 12), poisonings and immoralities are not all true, there is no doubt that his greed for money and his essentially vicious nature led him to commit a great number of crimes. For many of his misdeeds his son Cesare was as guilty as his father as well.
The one pleasing aspect of his life is his patronage of the arts, and in his days a new architectural era was initiated in Rome with the coming of Bramante. Raphael, Michelangelo
all worked for him, and a curious contrast, characteristic of the age, is afforded by the fact that a family so steeped in vice and crime could take pleasure in the most exquisite works of art. | <urn:uuid:33f97c1e-b4fb-4924-9149-b13bcf0bde6f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.circles-wijngaardsinstitute.org/tm.aspx?m=17042 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00210.warc.gz | en | 0.982467 | 5,816 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
-0.1466640830039978,
0.21011844277381897,
-0.05459599941968918,
-0.018834106624126434,
-0.338301420211792,
-0.14715740084648132,
-0.2754446268081665,
0.6247601509094238,
0.36162465810775757,
0.12212781608104706,
-0.11654631793498993,
-0.40720969438552856,
-0.1080731749534607,
0.18558302521... | 2 | Born this day January 1 in 1431 - Alexander VI Pope Alexander VI
(1431-1503) born Roderigo Llançol, later Rodrigo Borja (Italian: Borgia) was Pope from 1492 to 1503. He is the most controversial of the secular popes of the Renaissance and one whose surname became a byword for the debased standards of the papacy of that era. He was born at Xativa, Valencia, Spain. His father's surname was Lanzol (Castilian) or Llançol (Catalan). He assumed his mother's family name of Borja
on the elevation of his maternal uncle to the papacy as Calixtus III
in 1455. Pope Alexander VI Education and election
Borgia studied law at Bologna and after his uncle's election as pope, was created successively bishop, cardinal and vice-chancellor of the church. Nepotistic appointments were characteristic of the age. He served in the Curia under five popes (Calixtus III, Pius II, Paul II, Sixtus IV
and Innocent VIII
) and acquired much administrative experience, influence and wealth, though not great power.
On the death of Pope Innocent VIII
(1484–1492), the three likely candidates for the Holy See were cardinals Borgia, Ascanio Sforza
and Giuliano della Rovere
. While there was never substantive proof of simony
, the rumour was that Borgia, by his great wealth, succeeded in buying the largest number of votes, including that of Sforza, whom, popular rumour had it, he bribed with four mule-loads of silver. According to some historians, however, Borgia had no need of such an unsubtle exchange - the benefices and offices granted Sforza for his support would be worth considerably more than four mule-loads of silver. John Burchard
, the conclave's master of ceremonies and a leading figure of the papal household under several popes, recorded in his diary that the 1492 conclave was a particularly expensive campaign. Della Rovere was bankrolled to the cost of 200,000 gold ducats
by the King of France, with another 100,000 supplied by the Republic of Genoa. Borgia was elected on August 11, 1492, assuming the name of Alexander VI. Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici
sharply criticized the election and warned of dire things to come:
Nepotism and opposition
Now we are in the power of a wolf, the most rapacious perhaps that this world has ever seen. And if we do not flee, he will inevitably devour us all.
At first, Alexander's reign was marked by a strict administration of justice and an orderly method of government, in contrast to the mismanagement of the previous pontificate, as well as by great outward splendour. But it was not long before his passion for endowing his relatives at the church's and his neighbours' expense became manifest. To that end he was ready to commit any crime and to plunge all Italy into war. Alexander VI had four children by his mistress (Vannozza dei Cattani
), three sons and a daughter: Giovanni, Cesare, Goffredo
. Vannozza dei Cattani one of the Pope Alexander VI mistresses
Cesare, while a youth of seventeen and a student at Pisa, was made Archbishop of Valencia, and Giovanni received the dukedom of Gandia, the Borgias' ancestral home in Spain. For the Duke of Gandía and for Goffredo the Pope proposed to carve fiefs out of the papal states and the Kingdom of Naples. Among the fiefs destined for the duke of Gandía were Cerveteri
, lately acquired by Virginio Orsini
, head of that powerful house. This policy brought Ferdinand I, King of Naples
, into conflict with Alexander, who was also opposed by Cardinal della Rovere, whose candidature for the papacy had been backed by Ferdinand. Della Rovere fortified himself in his bishopric of Ostia at the Tiber's mouth as Alexander formed a league against Naples (April 25, 1493) and prepared for war. Lucrezia Borgia, the daughter of Pope Alexander VI, was given an opulent wedding at the Vatican Palace. click on image to enlarge.
Ferdinand allied himself with Florence, Milan and Venice. He also appealed to Spain for help. But Spain was anxious to be on good terms with the papacy in order to obtain the title to the newly discovered continent of America. Alexander, in the bull Inter Caetera
, divided the title between Spain and Portugual along a demarcation line. (This and other related bulls are known collectively as the Bulls of Donation
Alexander VI arranged great marriages for his children. Lucrezia had been promised to the Venetian Don Gasparo da Procida, but on her father's elevation to the papacy the engagement was cancelled and in 1493 she married Giovanni Sforza
, lord of Pesaro, the ceremony being celebrated at the Vatican Palace
with unparalleled magnificence.
In spite of the splendours of the Pontifical court, the condition of Rome became every day more deplorable. The city swarmed with Spanish adventurers, assassins, prostitutes and informers; murder and robbery were committed with impunity, and the Pope himself cast aside all show of decorum, living a purely secular life; indulging in the chase, and arranging dancing, stage plays and orgies (culminating in the debaucherous Banquet of Chestnuts
of 1501) within the Vatican itself. One of his close companions was Cem
, the brother of the Sultan Bayazid II
(1481–1512), detained as a hostage. The general outlook in Italy was of the gloomiest and the country was on the eve of foreign invasion. French Involvement
Alexander VI made many alliances to secure his position. He sought help from Charles VIII of France
, who was allied to Ludovico il Moro Sforza, the de facto ruler of Milan who needed French support to legitimise his regime (1483–1498). As King Ferdinand I of Naples was threatening to come to the aid of the rightful duke Gian Galeazzo — the husband of his granddaughter Isabella — Alexander VI encouraged the French king in his scheme for the conquest of Naples. Alexander VI would ally with Charles VIII of France against the King of Naples
But Alexander VI, always ready to seize opportunities to aggrandize his family, then adopted a double policy. Through the intervention of the Spanish ambassador he made peace with Naples in July 1493 and cemented the peace by a marriage between his son Giuffre and Doña Sancha, another granddaughter of Ferdinand I. In order to dominate the College of Cardinals more completely, Alexander, in a move that created much scandal, created twelve new cardinals, among them his own son Cesare, then only eighteen years old, and Alessandro Farnese
(later Pope Paul III), the brother of one of the Pope's mistresses, the beautiful Giulia Farnese
. Giulia Farnese, Raffaello 1505 - another of Pope Alexander VI's mistresses: The affair was widely known among the gossips of the time, and Giulia was referred to as "the Pope's whore" or as "the bride of Christ". Giulia and Lucrezia became close friends. Through her intimacy with the Pope she was able to get her brother Alessandro created Cardinal. This earned him the title of "Cardinal of the skirts" from Pasquino.
When Ferdinand I died in 1494, he was succeeded by his son Alfonso II
(1494–1495). Charles VIII of France
now advanced formal claims on the kingdom, and Alexander VI authorized him to pass through Rome ostensibly on a crusade against the Turks, without mentioning Naples. But when the French invasion became a reality he was alarmed, recognized Alfonso II as King, and concluded an alliance with him in exchange for various fiefs for his sons (July 1494). A military response to the French threat was set in motion. A Neapolitan army was to advance through the Romagna and attack Milan, while the fleet was to seize Genoa. But both expeditions were badly conducted and failed, and on September 8, Charles VIII crossed the Alps and joined Lodovico il Moro at Milan. The papal states were in turmoil, and the powerful Colonna
faction seized Ostia
in the name of France. Charles VIII rapidly advanced southward, and after a short stay in Florence, set out for Rome (November 1494).
Alexander VI appealed to Ascanio Sforza
for help, and even to the Sultan. He tried to collect troops and put Rome in a state of defence, but his position was precarious. When the Orsini offered to admit the French to their castles, Alexander had no choice but to come to terms with Charles, who on December 31 entered Rome with his troops, the cardinals of the French faction, and Giuliano della Rovere. Alexander now feared that the king might depose him for simony
and summon a council, but he won over the bishop of Saint-Malo who had much influence over the king, with a cardinal's hat. Alexander VI agreed to send Cesare, as legate, to Naples with the French army, to deliver Cem to Charles VIII and to give him Civitavecchia
(January 16, 1495). On January 28, Charles VIII departed for Naples with Cem and Cesare, but the latter slipped away to Spoleto. Napolitan resistance collapsed; Alfonso II fled and abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand II
, who also had to escape, abandoned by all, and the kingdom was conquered with surprising ease. The French in retreat Castel Sant'Angelo is where Pope Alexander VI secluded himself after the death of the Duke of Gandia.
A reaction against Charles VIII soon set in, for all the powers were alarmed at his success, and on March 31, 1495 a so-called Holy League
was formed between the pope, the emperor, Venice, Lodovico il Moro and Ferdinand of Spain, ostensibly against the Turks, but in reality to expel the French from Italy. Charles VIII had himself crowned King of Naples May 12 but a few days later began his retreat northward. He encountered the allies at Fornovo and after a drawn battle cut his way through them and was back in France by November.
Ferdinand II was reinstated at Naples soon afterwards, with Spanish help. The expedition, if it produced no material results, demonstrated the foolishness of the so called 'politics of equilibrium' (the Medicean doctrine of preventing one of the Italian principates from overwhelming the rest and uniting them under its hegemony), since it rendered the country unable to defend itself against the powerful nation states, France and Spain, that had forged themselves during the previous century. Alexander VI, following the general tendency of all the princes of the day to crush the great feudatories and establish a centralized despotism, now took advantage of the defeat of the French to break the power of the Orsini and begin building himself an effective power base in the papal states.
Virginio Orsini, who had been captured by the Spaniards, died a prisoner at Naples, and the Pope confiscated his property; but the rest of the clan still held out, defeating the papal troops sent against them under Guidobaldo, Duke of Urbino and Giovanni Borgia, Duke of Gandia, at Soriano (January 1497). Peace was made through Venetian mediation, the Orsini paying 50,000 ducats in exchange for their confiscated lands, while the Duke of Urbino, whom they had captured, was left by the Pope to pay his own ransom. The Orsini remained very powerful, and Alexander VI could count on none but his 3,000 Spaniards. His only success had been the capture of Ostia and the submission of the Francophile cardinals Colonna and Savelli.
Then occurred the first of those ugly domestic tragedies for which the house of Borgia remains notorious. On 14 June the Duke of Gandia, lately created Duke of Benevento
, disappeared: the next day his corpse was found in the Tiber.
Alexander, overwhelmed with grief, shut himself up in Castel Sant'Angelo
and then declared that the reform of the church would be the sole object of his life henceforth – a resolution he did not keep. Every effort was made to discover the assassin, and suspicion fell on various highly placed people. When the rumour spread that Cesare, the Pope's second son, had done the deed, the inquiries ceased. No conclusive evidence ever came to light about the murder, although Cesare remained the most widely suspected. Confiscations and Savonarola
Violent and vengeful, Cesare now became the most powerful man in Rome, and even his father quailed before him. Because Alexander needed funds to carry out his various schemes, he began a series of confiscations, of which one of the victims was his own secretary. The process was a simple one: any cardinal, nobleman or official who was known to be rich would be accused of some offence; imprisonment and perhaps murder followed at once, and then the confiscation of his property. The least opposition to the Borgia was punished with death. Because of his invectives against papal corruption, Girolamo Savonarola was viewed with hostility by Pope Alexander VI. He was eventually arrested and executed on 23 May 1498.
Even in that corrupt age the debased state of the curia was a major scandal. Opponents such as the demagogic monk Girolamo Savonarola
, who appealed for a general council to confront the papal abuses, launched invectives against papal corruption. Alexander VI, unable to get the excommunicated Savonarola into his own hands, browbeat the Florentine government into condemning the reformer to death (May 23, 1498). The houses of Colonna and Orsini, after much fighting between themselves, allied against the Pope, who found himself unable to maintain order in his own dominions.
In these circumstances, Alexander, feeling more than ever that he could only rely on his own kin, turned his thoughts to further family aggrandizement. He had annulled Lucrezia's marriage to Giovanni Sforza
— who had responded to the suggestion that he was impotent with the counter-claim that Alexander and Cesare indulged in incestuous relations with Lucrezia — in 1497, and, unable to arrange a union between Cesare and the daughter of King Frederick IV of Naples
(who had succeeded Ferdinand II the previous year), he induced Frederick by threats to agree to a marriage between the Duke of Bisceglie, a natural son of Alfonso II, and Lucrezia. Cesare, after resigning his cardinalate, was sent on a mission to France at the end of the year, bearing a bull of divorce for the new French king Louis XII
, in exchange for which he obtained the duchy of Valentinois (hence his title of Duca Valentino), a promise of material assistance in his schemes to subjugate the feudal princelings of papal Romagna, and a marriage to a princess of Navarre.
Alexander VI hoped that Louis XII's help would be more profitable to his house than that of Charles VIII had been. In spite of the remonstrances of Spain and of the Sforza, he allied himself with France in January 1499 and was joined by Venice. By the autumn Louis XII was in Italy expelling Lodovico Sforza from Milan. With French success seemingly assured, the Pope determined to deal drastically with the Romagna, which although nominally under papal rule was divided into a number of practically independent lordships on which Venice, Miilan, and Florence cast hungry eyes. Cesare, empowered by the support of the French, proceeded to attack the turbulent cities one by one in his capacity as nominated gonfaloniere
(standard bearer) of the church. But the expulsion of the French from Milan and the return of Lodovico Sforza interrupted his conquests, and he returned to Rome early in 1500. Cesare in the North Cesare Borgia, the son and cardinal-nephew of Alexander VI, became the first person to resign the cardinalate on August 17, 1498.
This year was a jubilee
year, and crowds of pilgrims flocked to the city from all parts of the world bringing money for the purchase of indulgences
, so that Alexander VI was able to furnish Cesare with funds for his enterprise. In the north the pendulum swung back once more in favour of the French, who reoccupied Milan in April, causing the downfall of the Sforza, much to Alexander VI's satisfaction.
In July the Duke of Bisceglie, whose existence was no longer advantageous, was murdered on Cesare's orders, leaving Lucrezia free to contract another marriage. The Pope, ever in need of money, now created twelve new cardinals, from whom he received 120,000 ducats, and fresh conquests for Cesare were considered. A crusade was talked of, but the real object was central Italy; and so in the autumn, Cesare, backed by France and Venice, set forth with 10,000 men to complete his interrupted business in the Romagna.
The local despots of Romagna were duly dispossessed, and an administration was set up, which, if tyrannical and cruel, was at least orderly and strong, and which aroused the admiration of Machiavelli
. On his return to Rome in June 1501 Cesare was created Duke of Romagna. Louis XII, having succeeded in the north, determined to conquer southern Italy as well. He concluded a treaty with Spain for the division of the Neapolitan kingdom, which was ratified by the Pope on 25 June, Frederick being formally deposed. While the French army proceeded to invade Naples, Alexander VI took the opportunity, with the help of the Orsini, to reduce the Colonna to obedience. In his absence on campaign he left Lucrezia as regent, providing the remarkable spectacle of a pope's natural daughter in charge of the Holy See. Shortly afterwards he induced Alfonso d'Este
, son of the Duke of Ferrara
, to marry Lucrezia, thus establishing her as wife of the heir to one of the most important duchies in Italy (January 1502). At about this time a Borgia of doubtful parentage was born — Giovanni, described in some papal documents as Alexander VI's son and in others as Cesare's.
As France and Spain were quarrelling over the division of Naples and the Campagna barons were quiet, Cesare set out once more in search of conquests. In June 1502 he seized Camerino and Urbino, the news of whose capture delighted the Pope; but his attempt to draw Florence into an alliance failed. In July, Louis XII of France again invaded Italy and was at once bombarded with complaints from the Borgias' enemies. Alexander VI's diplomacy, however, turned the tide, and Cesare, in exchange for promising to assist the French in the south, was given a free hand in central Italy. Last years
A danger now arose in the shape of a conspiracy on the part of the deposed despots, the Orsini, and of some of Cesare's own condottieri. At first the papal troops were defeated and things looked black for the house of Borgia. But a promise of French help quickly forced the confederates to come to terms. Cesare, by an act of treachery, then seized the ringleaders at Senigallia and put Oliverotto da Fermo
and Vitellozzo Vitelli
to death (December 31, 1502). As soon as Alexander VI heard the news he lured Cardinal Orsini to the Vatican and cast him into a dungeon, where he died. His goods were confiscated, his aged mother turned into the street and many other members of the clan in Rome were arrested, while Giuffre Borgia led an expedition into the Campagna and seized their castles. Thus the two great houses of Orsini and Colonna, who had long fought for predominance in Rome and often flouted the Pope's authority, were subjugated and the Borgias' power increased. Cesare then returned to Rome, where his father asked him to assist Giuffre in reducing the last Orsini strongholds; this for some reason he was unwilling to do, much to Alexander VI's annoyance; but he eventually marched out, captured Ceri and made peace with Giulio Orsini, who surrendered Bracciano.
Three more high personages fell victim to the Borgias' greed this year: Cardinal Michiel, who was poisoned in April 1503, J. da Santa Croce, who had helped to seize Cardinal Orsini, and Troches or Troccio, Alexander's chamberlain and secretary; all these murders brought immense sums to the Pope. About Cardinal Ferrari's death there is more doubt; he probably died of fever, but Alexander VI immediately confiscated his goods even so. The war between France and Spain for the possession of Naples dragged on, and Alexander VI was forever intriguing, ready to ally himself with whichever power promised the most advantageous terms at any moment. He offered to help Louis XII on condition that Sicily be given to Cesare, and then offered to help Spain in exchange for Siena, Pisa and Bologna.
Although it is doubtless that Alexander VI liked to eliminate any cardinal and immediately confiscate their property, there is no suffice evidence on the murdering methods. It has been suggested that the family used their favorite poison Cantarella
, an arsenic variation, which was offered to their poor victim in a form of drink with an innovative nickname, the 'liquor of succession'. Since raw forms of arsenic, known at that time, were not immediately fatal, Alexander VI must had invented a method for preparation of that substance, for which no information exists. The famous cup of Borgia, a golden cup with a hidden area storing the poison so it could be mixed with the wine, is often mentioned as the family's favorite murdering method, and it has been the base for many legendary and science fiction stories, including Agatha Christie's short story The Apples of Hesperides
published in the 1947 collection The Labours of Hercules
. Death Pope Pius III succeeded Alexander VI upon his death.
Burchard recorded the events that surrounded the death of the Pope. Cesare was preparing for another expedition in August 1503 when, after he and Alexander had dined with Cardinal Adriano da Corneto on August 6th, they were taken ill with fever. Cesare had eventually recovered, but Alexander VI was too old to have any chance. According to Burchard, Alexander VI's stomach became swollen and turned to liquid, while his face became wine-coloured and his skin began to peel off. Finally his stomach and bowels bled profusely. After more than a week of intestinal bleeding and convulsive fevers, and after accepting last rites and making a confession, the despairing Alexander VI expired on August 18, 1503 at the age of 72.
His death was followed by scenes of wild disorder, and Cesare, too ill to attend to the business himself, sent Don Michelotto, his chief bravo
, to seize the Pope's treasures before the death was publicly announced. When the body was exhibited to the people the next day it was in a shocking state of decomposition. Writing in his Liber Notarum, Burchard elaborates: "The face was very dark, the colour of a dirty rag or a mulberry, and was covered all over with bruise-coloured marks. The nose was swollen; the tongue had bent over in the mouth, completely double, and was pushing out the lips which were, themselves, swollen. The mouth was open and so ghastly that people who saw it said they had never seen anything like it before." It has been suggested that, having taken into account the unusual level of decomposition, Alexander VI was accidentally poisoned to death by his son with Cantarella (which was prepared to eliminate Cardinal Adriano), although some commentaries (including the Encyclopædia Britannica
) doubt these stories and attribute Alexander's death to malaria, at that time prevalent in Rome, or to another such pestilence. The ambassador of Ferrara wrote to Duke Ercole that it was no wonder the pope and the duke were sick because nearly everyone in Rome was ill as a consequence of bad air
("per la mala condictione de aere").
Burchard described how the Pope's mouth foamed like a kettle over a fire and how the body began to swell so much that it became as wide as it was long. The Venetian ambassador reported that Alexander VI's body was "the ugliest, most monstrous and horrible dead body that was ever seen, without any form or likeness of humanity". Finally the body began to release sulphurous
gasses from every orifice. Burchard records that he had to jump on the body to jam it into the undersized coffin and covered it with an old carpet, the only surviving furnishing in the room.
Such was Alexander VI's unpopularity that the priests of St. Peter's Basilica refused to accept the body for burial until forced to do so by papal staff. Only four prelates attended the Requiem Mass. Alexander's successor on the Throne of St. Peter, Francesco Todeschini-Piccolomini, who assumed the name of Pope Pius III
(1503), forbade the saying of a Mass for the repose of Alexander VI's soul, saying, "It is blasphemous to pray for the damned". After a short stay, the body was removed from the crypts of St. Peter's and installed in a less well-known church, the Spanish national church of Santa Maria in Monserrato degli Spagnoli. Legacy
Alexander gave away the temporal estates of the papacy
to his children as though they belonged to him. The secularization of the church was carried to a pitch never before dreamed of, and it was clear to all Italy that he regarded the papacy as an instrument of worldly schemes with no thought of its religious aspect. During his pontificate the church was brought to its lowest level of degradation. The condition of his subjects was deplorable, and if Cesare's rule in Romagna was an improvement on that of the local tyrants, the people of Rome have seldom been more oppressed than under the Borgia.
Alexander VI has become almost a mythical character, and countless legends and traditions are attached to his name. Alexander was not the only figure responsible for the general unrest in Italy or for the foreign invasions, but he was ever ready to profit by them. Even if the stories of his murders (including the rumor that his first murder was at the age of 12), poisonings and immoralities are not all true, there is no doubt that his greed for money and his essentially vicious nature led him to commit a great number of crimes. For many of his misdeeds his son Cesare was as guilty as his father as well.
The one pleasing aspect of his life is his patronage of the arts, and in his days a new architectural era was initiated in Rome with the coming of Bramante. Raphael, Michelangelo
all worked for him, and a curious contrast, characteristic of the age, is afforded by the fact that a family so steeped in vice and crime could take pleasure in the most exquisite works of art. | 5,970 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The President is the political head of the country. He is the person who represents the country globally. He is the first citizen of the country. Dressed with all the powers, the seat of the President should be bestowed up on a deserving candidate who is above the caste, creed, gender, language or party discrimination.
The president is the head of the state and is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of the country. In 2012, all the eyes are on the 14th indirect Presidential Election of India. For the purpose of 2012 indirect Presidential Election, 106 nominations were presented, out of which the former Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee selected two candidates, Pranab Mukherjee from West Bengal and Purno Agitok Sangama who was the Speaker of the Lok Sabha from Meghalaya.
Provisions under the Constitution of India
The Constitution of India bestows many privileges and immunities over the office of the President. The President along with the Counsel of Minister is headed by the Prime Minister according to the provisions of Article 52 to 78 of The Indian Constitution.
Though in theory it might seem that the President is blessed with all the powers on the earth, but in real he is the Constitutional monarch of the Country who is responsible to check the arbitrary actions of the Government, whether central or state. The office of the President is created by Article 52 of the Constitution. The President is not elected directly by the people but by indirect election.
Procedure for Electing the President
Article 56 provides that the President is eligible to hold the office for a period of five year and he will be elected by the method of indirect election by the system of proportionate representation by means of single transferable vote. The entire process for selecting the President is provided under Article 54 of the Indian Constitution.
Powers of the President
The President of India is conferred with wide range of powers which includes executive powers, legislative powers, judicial powers, diplomatic powers, military powers, emergency powers, and financial powers. Therefore, a person with adequate knowledge and integrity shall be appointed to hold the office of President.
As the number of nomination crossed 100, the responsibility was on the government to elect the right person, with all the qualities needed to hold the office of the President of India.
Pranab Kumar Mukherjee
Pranab Mukherjee is an Indian politician. He has successfully served as foreign, defence, commerce and finance minister during the decade of his political career. Being born as a son of the freedom fighter, Shri Kamada Kinkar Mukherjee, he was privileged to spend his childhood and youth watching his father’s role in the Indian Independence movement. His father was a member of the Indian National Congress and following their path; Mukherjee also joined the Indian National Congress and was also the part of the Congress Working Committee for a period of 23 years.
Pranab Mukherjee started his career as a social science teacher at Vidyanagar College in 1963 and has also served as journalist in the Desher Dak. But above all, he has the blood of a freedom fighter in his veins, which made his way towards the Indian National Congress in 1969, when he became the member of the Rajya Sabha.
Indira Gandhi recognized the ability and competency of Pranab Mukherjee and helped him to start his career as a politician. He jumped steeply and became the Deputy Minister of the INC in the Rajya Sabha in 1979 and was appointed as a leader in the House in 1980. He held the office of the Finance Minister for a period of two years between 1982 and 1984. In 1991, he was appointed as deputy chairman of the Planning Commission by P. V. Narasimha Rao.
He added one more feather to his wings when he became the Minister of External Affairs from 1995 to 1996. He became portfolio Minister of Defence from 2004 to 2006 and once again severed as the Minister of External Affairs from 2006 to 2009. With his potential and abilities he became the Finance Minister from 2009 to 2012.
Along with all these achievements he was also the Leader of the Lower House of the Parliament from 2004 to 2012. He even has an amazing diplomatic experience having served on the Board of Governors of the IMF, World Bank, ADB etc. He is also considered as an Economic Reformer. While serving as the Minister of Finance for the first time, he made many economic policies which proved out to be fruitful for the Indian economy.
He was also successful in settling the economic uncertainties to a great extent. He was successful in controlling the GDP growth rate. Pranab Mukherjee also over saw the successful sighing of the nuclear agreement between United Nations of America and India which allowed India to participate in civilian nuclear trade in spite of not having signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
He has also honoured with many awards like in 2008, he was honoured with the Padma Vibhushan which is the second highest civilian award of the country. Not even in India, he was honoured in Bangladesh with the Bangladesh’s second highest award i.e. the Bangladesh Liberation War Honor in 2013.
Amongst his many achievements, the greatest was the one when he was named Finance Minister of the Year for Asia by Emerging Market, the daily newspaper of record for the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Pranab Mukherjee has solved the internal as well as the external problems of India with firm understanding.
He was not only a politician or a minister, but he penned his thoughts in various books. He wrote Midterm Poll in the year 1969, Beyond survival- Emerging Dimensions of Indian Economy in the year 1984, Of the Track in the year 1987 and Challenges before the Nation in the year 1992.
Purno Agitok Sangama
The co-founder of the Nationalist Congress Party and the ex-chief Minister of Meghalaya before stepping into politics had played many roles in the society. He stated his career as a lecturer, lawyer and a journalist. Sangama started his political career from 1973 onward when he became the vice-president of Pradesh Youth Congress in Meghalaya.
In the following year he became the General Secretary and held the office for a period of five year starting from 1975 to 1980. He was elected to the 6th Lok Sabha from Tura Constituency was stayed as a member till the 14th Lok Sabha. Between 1980 and 1988, he even worked for the Union Government of India under various posts.
He was elected as a member of Lok Sabha In the year1991 and in the in 1996 he became the speaker of the Lok Sabha. In 2004 he divided the Nationalist Congress Party of which he was the Co-Founder after he lost the battle over the party election symbol. At this point, he merged with Trinamool Congress and formed the Nationalist Trinamool Congress. In 2005, he resigned from the Lok Sabha seat allotted to him and took part in Meghalaya Legislative Assembly elections.
He has served many positions in politics. He was on the post of the Union Industry Ministry. He worked hard and improved the production capacity of the Cement Industries of the country to the point of self sufficiency. He even sat in the office of the Coal Minister, where he turned the coal production into profit generating enterprise.
He also served as the Commerce Minister and was successful in introducing plantation crops for export in North-east part of India. As a Labor Minister he brought relief to the workers of factory by introducing many pension and wages schemes for worker in unorganised and organised sectors.
He worked and liberalised the usage of airwaves and investment in the electronic media when he became the Minister of Information and Broadcasting. Being the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, he created a group to report on Ethics and Standards in Public life and also guided the Parliamentary Committees efficiently.
Pranab Mukherjee’s contribution is notable and he did a lot to the country without any personal ambitions. On contrary to this Mr. Sangama depicted himself as a tribal leader and wants favour from the government by asking votes on this ground. A President should be above all the discrimination and special favour.
There is no doubt that Mr. Pranab Mukherjee is the most eligible candidate to hold the office of the President of India. Pranab Mukherjee is the oldest member of the Parliament and he holds a strong position in hearts of many. He is holding the position with his potential and hard work.
Not only is this, the congress also is supporting Mr. Pranab Mukherjee over Mr. P. A. Sangama because Mr. Mukherjee is more experienced and loyal. Therefore, we can say that Mr. Pranab Mukherjee deserves to take the seat of the President of India as he filled with all the qualities which the President of India should possess. | <urn:uuid:4f23f29a-bee5-427b-a4f7-16dff49d174f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://upscbuddy.com/pranab-mukherjee-vs-sangama/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00048.warc.gz | en | 0.983398 | 1,817 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
0.026415161788463593,
0.4705963134765625,
0.06223151087760925,
-0.6814100742340088,
-0.41982588171958923,
0.40633389353752136,
0.871315598487854,
-0.12306645512580872,
0.3782136142253876,
0.4784430265426636,
0.3626903295516968,
-0.034544188529253006,
0.30566152930259705,
0.5796568393707275... | 11 | The President is the political head of the country. He is the person who represents the country globally. He is the first citizen of the country. Dressed with all the powers, the seat of the President should be bestowed up on a deserving candidate who is above the caste, creed, gender, language or party discrimination.
The president is the head of the state and is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of the country. In 2012, all the eyes are on the 14th indirect Presidential Election of India. For the purpose of 2012 indirect Presidential Election, 106 nominations were presented, out of which the former Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee selected two candidates, Pranab Mukherjee from West Bengal and Purno Agitok Sangama who was the Speaker of the Lok Sabha from Meghalaya.
Provisions under the Constitution of India
The Constitution of India bestows many privileges and immunities over the office of the President. The President along with the Counsel of Minister is headed by the Prime Minister according to the provisions of Article 52 to 78 of The Indian Constitution.
Though in theory it might seem that the President is blessed with all the powers on the earth, but in real he is the Constitutional monarch of the Country who is responsible to check the arbitrary actions of the Government, whether central or state. The office of the President is created by Article 52 of the Constitution. The President is not elected directly by the people but by indirect election.
Procedure for Electing the President
Article 56 provides that the President is eligible to hold the office for a period of five year and he will be elected by the method of indirect election by the system of proportionate representation by means of single transferable vote. The entire process for selecting the President is provided under Article 54 of the Indian Constitution.
Powers of the President
The President of India is conferred with wide range of powers which includes executive powers, legislative powers, judicial powers, diplomatic powers, military powers, emergency powers, and financial powers. Therefore, a person with adequate knowledge and integrity shall be appointed to hold the office of President.
As the number of nomination crossed 100, the responsibility was on the government to elect the right person, with all the qualities needed to hold the office of the President of India.
Pranab Kumar Mukherjee
Pranab Mukherjee is an Indian politician. He has successfully served as foreign, defence, commerce and finance minister during the decade of his political career. Being born as a son of the freedom fighter, Shri Kamada Kinkar Mukherjee, he was privileged to spend his childhood and youth watching his father’s role in the Indian Independence movement. His father was a member of the Indian National Congress and following their path; Mukherjee also joined the Indian National Congress and was also the part of the Congress Working Committee for a period of 23 years.
Pranab Mukherjee started his career as a social science teacher at Vidyanagar College in 1963 and has also served as journalist in the Desher Dak. But above all, he has the blood of a freedom fighter in his veins, which made his way towards the Indian National Congress in 1969, when he became the member of the Rajya Sabha.
Indira Gandhi recognized the ability and competency of Pranab Mukherjee and helped him to start his career as a politician. He jumped steeply and became the Deputy Minister of the INC in the Rajya Sabha in 1979 and was appointed as a leader in the House in 1980. He held the office of the Finance Minister for a period of two years between 1982 and 1984. In 1991, he was appointed as deputy chairman of the Planning Commission by P. V. Narasimha Rao.
He added one more feather to his wings when he became the Minister of External Affairs from 1995 to 1996. He became portfolio Minister of Defence from 2004 to 2006 and once again severed as the Minister of External Affairs from 2006 to 2009. With his potential and abilities he became the Finance Minister from 2009 to 2012.
Along with all these achievements he was also the Leader of the Lower House of the Parliament from 2004 to 2012. He even has an amazing diplomatic experience having served on the Board of Governors of the IMF, World Bank, ADB etc. He is also considered as an Economic Reformer. While serving as the Minister of Finance for the first time, he made many economic policies which proved out to be fruitful for the Indian economy.
He was also successful in settling the economic uncertainties to a great extent. He was successful in controlling the GDP growth rate. Pranab Mukherjee also over saw the successful sighing of the nuclear agreement between United Nations of America and India which allowed India to participate in civilian nuclear trade in spite of not having signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
He has also honoured with many awards like in 2008, he was honoured with the Padma Vibhushan which is the second highest civilian award of the country. Not even in India, he was honoured in Bangladesh with the Bangladesh’s second highest award i.e. the Bangladesh Liberation War Honor in 2013.
Amongst his many achievements, the greatest was the one when he was named Finance Minister of the Year for Asia by Emerging Market, the daily newspaper of record for the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Pranab Mukherjee has solved the internal as well as the external problems of India with firm understanding.
He was not only a politician or a minister, but he penned his thoughts in various books. He wrote Midterm Poll in the year 1969, Beyond survival- Emerging Dimensions of Indian Economy in the year 1984, Of the Track in the year 1987 and Challenges before the Nation in the year 1992.
Purno Agitok Sangama
The co-founder of the Nationalist Congress Party and the ex-chief Minister of Meghalaya before stepping into politics had played many roles in the society. He stated his career as a lecturer, lawyer and a journalist. Sangama started his political career from 1973 onward when he became the vice-president of Pradesh Youth Congress in Meghalaya.
In the following year he became the General Secretary and held the office for a period of five year starting from 1975 to 1980. He was elected to the 6th Lok Sabha from Tura Constituency was stayed as a member till the 14th Lok Sabha. Between 1980 and 1988, he even worked for the Union Government of India under various posts.
He was elected as a member of Lok Sabha In the year1991 and in the in 1996 he became the speaker of the Lok Sabha. In 2004 he divided the Nationalist Congress Party of which he was the Co-Founder after he lost the battle over the party election symbol. At this point, he merged with Trinamool Congress and formed the Nationalist Trinamool Congress. In 2005, he resigned from the Lok Sabha seat allotted to him and took part in Meghalaya Legislative Assembly elections.
He has served many positions in politics. He was on the post of the Union Industry Ministry. He worked hard and improved the production capacity of the Cement Industries of the country to the point of self sufficiency. He even sat in the office of the Coal Minister, where he turned the coal production into profit generating enterprise.
He also served as the Commerce Minister and was successful in introducing plantation crops for export in North-east part of India. As a Labor Minister he brought relief to the workers of factory by introducing many pension and wages schemes for worker in unorganised and organised sectors.
He worked and liberalised the usage of airwaves and investment in the electronic media when he became the Minister of Information and Broadcasting. Being the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, he created a group to report on Ethics and Standards in Public life and also guided the Parliamentary Committees efficiently.
Pranab Mukherjee’s contribution is notable and he did a lot to the country without any personal ambitions. On contrary to this Mr. Sangama depicted himself as a tribal leader and wants favour from the government by asking votes on this ground. A President should be above all the discrimination and special favour.
There is no doubt that Mr. Pranab Mukherjee is the most eligible candidate to hold the office of the President of India. Pranab Mukherjee is the oldest member of the Parliament and he holds a strong position in hearts of many. He is holding the position with his potential and hard work.
Not only is this, the congress also is supporting Mr. Pranab Mukherjee over Mr. P. A. Sangama because Mr. Mukherjee is more experienced and loyal. Therefore, we can say that Mr. Pranab Mukherjee deserves to take the seat of the President of India as he filled with all the qualities which the President of India should possess. | 1,932 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Charles XII of Sweden
He left the country three years later to embark on a series of campaigns overseas. These battles were part of the Great Northern War, fought against Russia, Saxony and Denmark-Norway, countries that had joined in a coalition to attack Sweden.
Charles XII was a skilled military leader and tactician. However, although he was also skilled as a politician, he was reluctant in making peace. Charles is quoted by Voltaire as saying upon the outbreak of the Great Northern War, "I have resolved never to start an unjust war but never to end a legitimate one except by defeating my enemies." Although Sweden achieved several large scale military successes early on, and won the most battles, the Great Northern War eventually ended in Sweden's defeat and the end of the Swedish Empire.
The fact that Charles was crowned as Charles XII does not mean that he was the 12th king of Sweden by that name. Swedish kings Erik XIV (1560–1568) and Charles IX (1604–1611) gave themselves numerals after studying a mythological history of Sweden. He was actually the 6th King Charles. The non-mathematic numbering tradition continues with the current King of Sweden, Carl XVI Gustaf, being counted as the equivalent of Charles XVI. | <urn:uuid:3392457a-e2c1-4e78-8903-ee83ba9462f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.metapedia.org/wiki/Charles_XII_of_Sweden | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00111.warc.gz | en | 0.984889 | 257 | 3.5 | 4 | [
-0.04351760074496269,
0.7016846537590027,
0.07231633365154266,
-0.15543435513973236,
0.17997612059116364,
-0.324596107006073,
-0.2712124288082123,
0.39149874448776245,
-0.0883905440568924,
-0.023196471855044365,
0.17293740808963776,
-0.19018156826496124,
0.11406239122152328,
0.237816125154... | 2 | Charles XII of Sweden
He left the country three years later to embark on a series of campaigns overseas. These battles were part of the Great Northern War, fought against Russia, Saxony and Denmark-Norway, countries that had joined in a coalition to attack Sweden.
Charles XII was a skilled military leader and tactician. However, although he was also skilled as a politician, he was reluctant in making peace. Charles is quoted by Voltaire as saying upon the outbreak of the Great Northern War, "I have resolved never to start an unjust war but never to end a legitimate one except by defeating my enemies." Although Sweden achieved several large scale military successes early on, and won the most battles, the Great Northern War eventually ended in Sweden's defeat and the end of the Swedish Empire.
The fact that Charles was crowned as Charles XII does not mean that he was the 12th king of Sweden by that name. Swedish kings Erik XIV (1560–1568) and Charles IX (1604–1611) gave themselves numerals after studying a mythological history of Sweden. He was actually the 6th King Charles. The non-mathematic numbering tradition continues with the current King of Sweden, Carl XVI Gustaf, being counted as the equivalent of Charles XVI. | 266 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By November 1929, Igbo women in southeastern Nigeria had had enough. From the perspective of the British colonizers, the women became loud, angry, and disruptive. They marched through cities and towns and demanded political leaders to step down. The women took their British rulers completely by surprise. The British were ignorant of the discontent among women that had been building for years, and that had recently bubbled over the surface. They mistook the women’s organized action for spontaneous, ‘crazy’ outbursts.
In 1914, when the British decided to put in place a new political system in Nigeria, they paid little attention to traditional power distributions. The British decided to institute a form of ‘indirect rule’ in which they would control Nigeria through local representatives of their choosing. The British organized Igboland, the area in southeastern Nigeria that is home to the Igbo people, into Native Court areas. These areas were each governed by a Warrant Chief, an Igbo representative that the British had chosen. This new method of governance was starkly different from the Igbo political system. Traditionally, power was diffuse in Igbo communities, with a large group of elders making most decisions. Also, women had had a significant role in Igbo political life. They participated in village meetings, and had very strong solidarity groups. Through women’s kinship networks and market networks, they often organized to use strikes and boycotts to affect political decisions. They were respected members of society, and elder women especially were included in governance. This changed once the British instituted their new political system. Under the new system, Igbo people could no longer choose their decision makers, and were at the mercy of the Warrant Chiefs. Over the years, Warrant Chiefs became increasingly oppressive, and many Igbo people suffered. Women, though, suffered especially because Warrant Chiefs abused their power by confiscating women’s animals and their profit from market sales. Also, women had always been allowed to deny marriage to suitors; warrant chiefs, however, ignored this rule and chose whichever women they wanted as their wives.
Under British rule, the Igbo’s economy became based on palm oil sales. Most people’s main income was from the sale of palm oil and kernels to overseas countries. In 1925, the British administration conducted a census of all men and their possessions. They denied that the information from the census would then be used for tax purposes, but only a few months later the administration instituted a tax on all men. However, despite being levied on men only, women were affected because the tax was high enough that they had to contribute from their income to help their husbands. Later, in 1929, prices of palm oil products fell because of the economic depression. Yet the British administration did not adjust the tax rates and the tax became a huge burden. In addition, rumors began to spread that the British were going to institute a second tax for women. Anger began to rise among women, but the women’s networks decided to wait until further proof of the tax before organizing a campaign against it.
In late October of 1929, an elderly woman named Nwanyeruwa was approached by a census taker. He demanded that she count her animals and her family members. She responded by saying angrily, “Was your mother counted?” Nwanyeruwa was referring to the fact that women were not required to answer census questions, and were not taxed. She left, and went to retell her story to the women’s network in her city of Oloko. Shocked and angered, the three women leaders of this network—Ikonnia, Mwannedia and Nwugo—decided to organize a campaign to ensure that they would not be taxed. They began by sending out palm leaves to neighboring villages in their district. The palm leaves were a symbol of invitation among women, telling them to come to a protest that was being organized at the district’s administration office in Oloko. Each woman who received a palm leaf was told to pass the leaf on with its message to another woman, forming a chain mail line of communication. In early November, the hugely successful protest took place: over 10,000 women congregated outside the district administration office, and demanded that the Warrant Chief of Oloko give them a written assurance that they would not be taxed.
The women sat outside the district office for several days, when, finally, the British offices above the Warrant Chief ordered him to give the women a written assurance that they were not to be taxed. Whether or not the British had ever been planning on taxing the women is unclear, but that they even responded to the women’s demands was a huge victory for the women. Since the British arrival, women had been ignored and abused.
The massive congregation of women outside the district office had taken the officers by surprise, and they were not sure how to handle the women. The Warrant Chief, however, disliked having to respond to the women’s demands. After handing over the written assurance, he re-asserted his power by taking several women protesters hostage and harassing them. News of the harassment spread, and the protest swelled. The campaigners decided to continue their protest outside the district office, now demanding that the Warrant Chief be removed. After two days, the British again acquiesced. Not only was the Warrant Chief removed, he was sentenced to two years imprisonment. The women could barely believe their success. After years of being ignored, the British had been forced to listen to their demands.
News of both the written tax assurance and the removal of the Warrant Chief spread, and soon, women all across Igboland were organizing to make the same demands. The protest had grown from one women’s network in Oloko demanding to not be taxed, to a protest that spanned across two provinces and over six thousand square miles. The goal had also grown: now, not only did women want written guaranties that they were not to be taxed, they wanted corrupt Warrant Chiefs to be removed.
Across Igboland, the campaign began to take shape. The women called their campaign the ogu umunwanye, or, “the Women’s War.” This referred to the fact that women were ‘making war on the men,’ or sanctioning men who had been disrespectful. This practice, which was also called ‘sitting on a man’, was a traditional form of protest among Igbo women. When a man had done something disrespectful, he would be followed everywhere, forced to reflect on what he had done. Women would also burn his hut as punishment. The women saw their campaign as just a larger sanctioning of the Warrant Chiefs who had mistreated them. And so, in each village and city where women would gather to demand a written no-tax guarantee and the removal of the Warrant Chief, they would follow a similar pattern of behavior. The women would come dressed in traditional warrior clothes: they would wear only loincloths, and have they faces smeared with paint. They would also have their heads wrapped in ferns, which was a war symbol for the women. They would be carrying sticks with leaves of young palms wrapped around them, meant to invoke the power of their ancestors. The women would chant traditional war songs, and participate in dances. They also followed the Warrant Chiefs everywhere, day and night, singing loudly and effectively disrupting their daily routines. The women were forcing the Warrant Chiefs to pay attention to them and to meet their demands. The campaigners also burned down several district offices, as an extension of the practice of burning down a man’s hut.
The British administration, completely unaware of the reasoning behind the women’s behavior, took them to be raucous savages. As the protests grew, British officers became more agitated. By mid-December, police officers and troops were called in to deal with the situation. Although the women had been steadfastly nonviolent, police were ordered to shoot into crowds. Over 50 women were killed, and 50 more were wounded. The British administrators made it clear that they would not hesitate to use more violence if the protests did not disperse. The campaign was forced to come to a halt. Yet the women had still managed to gain significant victories before the British administration turned to violence. During the month long protest, several Warrant Chiefs stepped down or were removed because of the constant pressure and nonviolent harassment they were receiving from the women. Also, most campaigns had managed to receive written assurances that they would not be taxed. Perhaps more importantly, the women had forced the British administration to take them into account for the first time. The women’s war forced the British to reconsider the Warrant Chief system, and in 1933 a new political system was put in place. Under the new system, Warrant Chiefs were replaced by ‘massed benches’, with several judges convening to make decisions. Not only could villages choose how many judges they wanted on their ‘bench’, they were responsible for making the judge selection. The Igbo people had regained some of their power to self-govern. The Women’s War had sparked this change, just as it later inspired many other important protests, like the Tax Protests of 1938, Oil Mill Protests of the 1940s, and the Tax revolt 1956. The Women’s War had convinced Igbo women and men of the power they held to protect their people’s rights. | <urn:uuid:61956174-ea7c-4a45-81df-1e9356f3fd9f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tomov.gr/en/2016/02/28/nwanyeruwa-o-polemos-ton-gynaikon/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00480.warc.gz | en | 0.992419 | 1,944 | 3.875 | 4 | [
-0.07404502481222153,
0.23707987368106842,
0.4827648401260376,
-0.02074657566845417,
-0.015631023794412613,
0.20219676196575165,
0.23588785529136658,
-0.18806517124176025,
0.1541675329208374,
0.19607126712799072,
-0.3328096866607666,
-0.2692648768424988,
0.22900451719760895,
-0.04566174000... | 6 | By November 1929, Igbo women in southeastern Nigeria had had enough. From the perspective of the British colonizers, the women became loud, angry, and disruptive. They marched through cities and towns and demanded political leaders to step down. The women took their British rulers completely by surprise. The British were ignorant of the discontent among women that had been building for years, and that had recently bubbled over the surface. They mistook the women’s organized action for spontaneous, ‘crazy’ outbursts.
In 1914, when the British decided to put in place a new political system in Nigeria, they paid little attention to traditional power distributions. The British decided to institute a form of ‘indirect rule’ in which they would control Nigeria through local representatives of their choosing. The British organized Igboland, the area in southeastern Nigeria that is home to the Igbo people, into Native Court areas. These areas were each governed by a Warrant Chief, an Igbo representative that the British had chosen. This new method of governance was starkly different from the Igbo political system. Traditionally, power was diffuse in Igbo communities, with a large group of elders making most decisions. Also, women had had a significant role in Igbo political life. They participated in village meetings, and had very strong solidarity groups. Through women’s kinship networks and market networks, they often organized to use strikes and boycotts to affect political decisions. They were respected members of society, and elder women especially were included in governance. This changed once the British instituted their new political system. Under the new system, Igbo people could no longer choose their decision makers, and were at the mercy of the Warrant Chiefs. Over the years, Warrant Chiefs became increasingly oppressive, and many Igbo people suffered. Women, though, suffered especially because Warrant Chiefs abused their power by confiscating women’s animals and their profit from market sales. Also, women had always been allowed to deny marriage to suitors; warrant chiefs, however, ignored this rule and chose whichever women they wanted as their wives.
Under British rule, the Igbo’s economy became based on palm oil sales. Most people’s main income was from the sale of palm oil and kernels to overseas countries. In 1925, the British administration conducted a census of all men and their possessions. They denied that the information from the census would then be used for tax purposes, but only a few months later the administration instituted a tax on all men. However, despite being levied on men only, women were affected because the tax was high enough that they had to contribute from their income to help their husbands. Later, in 1929, prices of palm oil products fell because of the economic depression. Yet the British administration did not adjust the tax rates and the tax became a huge burden. In addition, rumors began to spread that the British were going to institute a second tax for women. Anger began to rise among women, but the women’s networks decided to wait until further proof of the tax before organizing a campaign against it.
In late October of 1929, an elderly woman named Nwanyeruwa was approached by a census taker. He demanded that she count her animals and her family members. She responded by saying angrily, “Was your mother counted?” Nwanyeruwa was referring to the fact that women were not required to answer census questions, and were not taxed. She left, and went to retell her story to the women’s network in her city of Oloko. Shocked and angered, the three women leaders of this network—Ikonnia, Mwannedia and Nwugo—decided to organize a campaign to ensure that they would not be taxed. They began by sending out palm leaves to neighboring villages in their district. The palm leaves were a symbol of invitation among women, telling them to come to a protest that was being organized at the district’s administration office in Oloko. Each woman who received a palm leaf was told to pass the leaf on with its message to another woman, forming a chain mail line of communication. In early November, the hugely successful protest took place: over 10,000 women congregated outside the district administration office, and demanded that the Warrant Chief of Oloko give them a written assurance that they would not be taxed.
The women sat outside the district office for several days, when, finally, the British offices above the Warrant Chief ordered him to give the women a written assurance that they were not to be taxed. Whether or not the British had ever been planning on taxing the women is unclear, but that they even responded to the women’s demands was a huge victory for the women. Since the British arrival, women had been ignored and abused.
The massive congregation of women outside the district office had taken the officers by surprise, and they were not sure how to handle the women. The Warrant Chief, however, disliked having to respond to the women’s demands. After handing over the written assurance, he re-asserted his power by taking several women protesters hostage and harassing them. News of the harassment spread, and the protest swelled. The campaigners decided to continue their protest outside the district office, now demanding that the Warrant Chief be removed. After two days, the British again acquiesced. Not only was the Warrant Chief removed, he was sentenced to two years imprisonment. The women could barely believe their success. After years of being ignored, the British had been forced to listen to their demands.
News of both the written tax assurance and the removal of the Warrant Chief spread, and soon, women all across Igboland were organizing to make the same demands. The protest had grown from one women’s network in Oloko demanding to not be taxed, to a protest that spanned across two provinces and over six thousand square miles. The goal had also grown: now, not only did women want written guaranties that they were not to be taxed, they wanted corrupt Warrant Chiefs to be removed.
Across Igboland, the campaign began to take shape. The women called their campaign the ogu umunwanye, or, “the Women’s War.” This referred to the fact that women were ‘making war on the men,’ or sanctioning men who had been disrespectful. This practice, which was also called ‘sitting on a man’, was a traditional form of protest among Igbo women. When a man had done something disrespectful, he would be followed everywhere, forced to reflect on what he had done. Women would also burn his hut as punishment. The women saw their campaign as just a larger sanctioning of the Warrant Chiefs who had mistreated them. And so, in each village and city where women would gather to demand a written no-tax guarantee and the removal of the Warrant Chief, they would follow a similar pattern of behavior. The women would come dressed in traditional warrior clothes: they would wear only loincloths, and have they faces smeared with paint. They would also have their heads wrapped in ferns, which was a war symbol for the women. They would be carrying sticks with leaves of young palms wrapped around them, meant to invoke the power of their ancestors. The women would chant traditional war songs, and participate in dances. They also followed the Warrant Chiefs everywhere, day and night, singing loudly and effectively disrupting their daily routines. The women were forcing the Warrant Chiefs to pay attention to them and to meet their demands. The campaigners also burned down several district offices, as an extension of the practice of burning down a man’s hut.
The British administration, completely unaware of the reasoning behind the women’s behavior, took them to be raucous savages. As the protests grew, British officers became more agitated. By mid-December, police officers and troops were called in to deal with the situation. Although the women had been steadfastly nonviolent, police were ordered to shoot into crowds. Over 50 women were killed, and 50 more were wounded. The British administrators made it clear that they would not hesitate to use more violence if the protests did not disperse. The campaign was forced to come to a halt. Yet the women had still managed to gain significant victories before the British administration turned to violence. During the month long protest, several Warrant Chiefs stepped down or were removed because of the constant pressure and nonviolent harassment they were receiving from the women. Also, most campaigns had managed to receive written assurances that they would not be taxed. Perhaps more importantly, the women had forced the British administration to take them into account for the first time. The women’s war forced the British to reconsider the Warrant Chief system, and in 1933 a new political system was put in place. Under the new system, Warrant Chiefs were replaced by ‘massed benches’, with several judges convening to make decisions. Not only could villages choose how many judges they wanted on their ‘bench’, they were responsible for making the judge selection. The Igbo people had regained some of their power to self-govern. The Women’s War had sparked this change, just as it later inspired many other important protests, like the Tax Protests of 1938, Oil Mill Protests of the 1940s, and the Tax revolt 1956. The Women’s War had convinced Igbo women and men of the power they held to protect their people’s rights. | 1,948 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Week 3: Tuesday, October 20, 2015
Gregory the Great: the Last Roman
Pope Gregory I (540 to 604), commonly known as Saint Gregory the Great, was Pope from September 590 to his death in 604. Gregory is well known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors as pope. He is also known as St. Gregory the Dialogist in Eastern Orthodoxy because of his Dialogues. For this reason, English translations of Orthodox texts will sometimes list him as “Gregory Dialogus”. Throughout the Middle Ages he was known as “the Father of Christian Worship” because of his exceptional efforts in revising the Roman worship of his day ] His contributions to the development of the Divine Liturgy, still in use in the Eastern Orthodox Church, were so significant that he is generally recognized as its de facto author. He was the first of the popes to come from a monastic background. Gregory is a Doctor of the Church and one of the Latin Fathers. He is considered a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion, and some Lutheran churches. Immediately after his death, Gregory was canonized by popular acclaim. The Protestant reformer John Calvin admired Gregory and declared in his Institutes that Gregory was the last good pope. He is the patron saint of musicians, singers, students, and teachers. (from Wikipedia) Photo above: Saint Gregory Dictating the Gregorian Chants, from the Antiphony of Hartker of the monastery of Saint Gall.
PART TWO: Pictures
The Caelian Hill in Rome, Gregory’s home and monastery
The Dialogues of Saint Gregory the Great,
by Edmund G. Gardner,
Christian Roman Empire Series, 2010, | <urn:uuid:5f8cc07f-5f5e-4e67-bd52-3d22c4d262f2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://westernciv.com/syllabus/history-of-medieval-italy/fall/gregory-the-great-the-last-roman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00360.warc.gz | en | 0.981389 | 369 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
-0.21029049158096313,
-0.06999553740024567,
0.2077012062072754,
-0.07359882444143295,
-0.10305865854024887,
-0.6225478649139404,
0.05342609062790871,
0.3052223026752472,
0.08772892504930496,
-0.22746723890304565,
-0.5229455828666687,
-0.08823861181735992,
-0.20914514362812042,
0.4323243796... | 4 | Week 3: Tuesday, October 20, 2015
Gregory the Great: the Last Roman
Pope Gregory I (540 to 604), commonly known as Saint Gregory the Great, was Pope from September 590 to his death in 604. Gregory is well known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors as pope. He is also known as St. Gregory the Dialogist in Eastern Orthodoxy because of his Dialogues. For this reason, English translations of Orthodox texts will sometimes list him as “Gregory Dialogus”. Throughout the Middle Ages he was known as “the Father of Christian Worship” because of his exceptional efforts in revising the Roman worship of his day ] His contributions to the development of the Divine Liturgy, still in use in the Eastern Orthodox Church, were so significant that he is generally recognized as its de facto author. He was the first of the popes to come from a monastic background. Gregory is a Doctor of the Church and one of the Latin Fathers. He is considered a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion, and some Lutheran churches. Immediately after his death, Gregory was canonized by popular acclaim. The Protestant reformer John Calvin admired Gregory and declared in his Institutes that Gregory was the last good pope. He is the patron saint of musicians, singers, students, and teachers. (from Wikipedia) Photo above: Saint Gregory Dictating the Gregorian Chants, from the Antiphony of Hartker of the monastery of Saint Gall.
PART TWO: Pictures
The Caelian Hill in Rome, Gregory’s home and monastery
The Dialogues of Saint Gregory the Great,
by Edmund G. Gardner,
Christian Roman Empire Series, 2010, | 373 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Act 1, scene 1
Timon of Athens begins with a gathering at the wealthy Timon’s house in ancient Athens. Four characters enter: a Poet, a Painter, a Jeweller, and a Merchant. The Jeweler and the Merchant agree on what a fine man Timon is, and the Jeweler mentions that he has a piece of jewelry with him which he hopes to sell to Timon. The Poet is about to have a book published, and the Painter assumes that it must be about or dedicated to Timon. The Painter has with him a flattering portrait of Timon, and the Poet praises it.
Some Senators enter, and the house becomes crowded. The Poet explains to the Painter what his new publication is about. He has depicted a man like Timon, who is rich and is generous to everyone. Everyone seeks out Timon’s company and returns the richer for it. The poet also has described the figure of Fortune sitting on a throne at the summit of a hill. Timon is the recipient of her grace. But Fortune is fickle, and when she turns against Timon, and he falls, none of those who formerly were dependent on his favor offers him any help. The Painter agrees that such turns of fortune are common.
Timon enters and speaks courteously to everyone. A messenger from Ventidius says that Ventidius is in prison for debt, and Timon pays the five talents needed to free him.
An Old Athenian enters, saying that Lucilius, a servant of Timon, has been courting his daughter and wants to marry her. He is opposed to the match because he thinks a servant is an unsuitable match for his daughter. Timon asks some questions of the servant and finds out that he and the girl are in love, and that she has accepted his proposal. Timon then says that he will bestow some money on his servant, equal to the amount of her dowry (whatever wealth she brings to her husband). The Old Athenian is grateful and says he will allow the match.
Timon then turns to the Poet and the Painter. The Painter asks Timon to accept his work, and Timon says he likes it. He tells the Painter to wait until he hears further from him. Timon exchanges some good-natured remarks with the Jeweller, saying that the item the Jeweler has for sale has been so praised by others that it wouldruin his finances to purchase it.
The churlish Athenian Apemantus enters and engages Timon in conversation. Apemantus expresses his negative view of humanity, saying that not a single man is honest. Apemantus and the Painter exchange insults, and then Apemantus calls the Poet a liar, meaning that his poetry does not show the truth. He claims that the Poet’s positive depiction of his subject in his last work (perhaps the work the Poet earlier discussed with Timon) was only a piece of flattery.
The soldier Alcibiades enters. Timon welcomes him and promises to entertain him well. The two men appear to be friends.
Everyone exits except for Apemantus. Two lords enter, and Apemantus manages to annoy them both with his cynical remarks about how all the attendees at Timon’s upcoming feast will be either fools or knaves. Apemantus exits, leaving the two lords to sing Timon’spraises, especially his kindness, generosity, and nobility.
The opening dialogue involving the Poet and the Painter serves to reveal straightaway the sort of values that prevail in the Athens depicted in the play. Flattery and insincerity are the order of the day. Everyone tries to curry favor with the rich Timon.
The description the Poet gives of his latest work serves as a foreshadowing of the plot that will soon unfold: some men are favored by fortune, but fortune is fickle and changes quickly. Then those who were formerly blessed by fortune find themselves on the downward path, but no one who observes this, including those who benefited from his generosity, does anything to help them.
The first scenecharacterizes Timon. His actions show him to be generous and kind. He pays Ventidius’s debt to get him out of prison and bestows wealth upon his loyal servant so he can marry. Everyone speaks well of Timon. This opening scene also shows the contrast between the generosity and grace of Timon and the cynicism of Apemantus, who has an opinion of humanity that is the opposite of Timon’s. Apemantus is not a pleasant character and no one likes him, but as later events will reveal, he does have more of a sense of the true character of these Athenian lords than does Timon.
Act 1, scene 2
At Timon’s banquet, Ventidius says that his father has recently died, leaving him a large inheritance. He praises Timon and gratefully repays the money that Timon had spent in freeing him from prison. Timon says he gave it out of love and does not need it back. Apemantus makes a sour remark but Timon welcomes him anyway. Apemantus says he has no intention of being agreeable, and Timon at first says he should sit on his own somewhere, but then relents and says he can stay as long as he doesn’t speak. Apemantus goes to sit on his own, anyway. Apemantus, in a speech heard only by the audience, not the other characters, comments on how the other lords use Timon, flattering him, and Timon does not even know it. He continues to speak about the treachery of men. He does not trust anyone, and he says that Timon is not well served by the lords who toast his health. It will not go well for Timon, or for Athens, he says.
Timon makes a speech about friendship, in which he expresses his noble ideals. He says that friendship is a blessed thing and that friends will always need each other and be generous with each other when any need arises. “We are born to do benefits,” he says. A couple of lords remark on how they empathize with his thoughts and were moved by them—remarks received with contempt by Apemantus.
Someone dressed as Cupid enters and announces that some Amazon ladies have arrived. The women enter with lutes in their hands, and they dance. The men get up and dance with the women, although not before Apemantus has made some disparaging remarks about dancing and the general depravity of humanity.
After the dancing, Timon thanks the ladies, and they and Cupid exit.
Timon tells Flavius, his steward, to fetch a little casket. In an aside, Flavius indicates that not all is well with Timon’s finances. Flavius returns with the casket, which contains some jewelry. Timon gives it to one of the lords. The lord says he has already received so much from Timon, and other lords agree that they have, too.
Flavius tries to have a word with Timon, but Timon is not interested. A servant announces that Lucius has given four horses with silver harnesses to Timon. Another servant says that Lucullus has sent two brace of greyhounds and a request that Timon join him for the hunt the next day.
In an aside, Flavius provides more details of Timon’s financial affairs. His wealth is exhausted and he is deeply in debt. Flavius is distressed by the situation.
Timon gives a racehorse to another lord, just because the lord expressed a liking for it. He says he could never grow weary of giving to his friends. Two lords express their appreciation of Timon and say they are bound to him.
Everyone except Apemantus and Timon exits. Apemantus makes some cynical remarks about friendship. He asks Timon why he keeps giving all these feasts and banquets. But Timon takes no notice of him.
The evidence of Timon’s generosity continues to build up. He seems to be dispensing gifts and largesse all the time. In his own eyes, he seems to live in a paradise in which wealth is inexhaustible, friends always love one another and willingly meet one another’s every need or whim. There are no dark shadows in Timon’s world, at least none that he perceives. But in this scene the true picture starts to emerge. In addition to the cynicism of Apemantus, which has more than a small amount of truth in it (at least as applied to the lords that Timon values so highly), Flavius the steward reveals that Timon, far from being wealthy, has given away so much that all he has left are debts. Dramatic tension builds as the audience becomes aware that there is a huge discrepancy between the society Timon thinks he lives in and the actual truth about it. The lords flatter him shamelessly as long as there is something in it for them.
Timon has a very lofty view of human nature. He seems to be living in a world he has imagined for himself, in the sense that he believes that every man is as generous and noble as he is. He seems to think that he lives in an ideal society. He does not stop to think that his kindness and fullness of heart may be misplaced because others do not share his vision of mutual love and generosity. Nor does it occur to him for a moment that he is not being responsible with his own wealth by giving away so much so frequently. He seems to think that his wealth is boundless and will continue forever. Obviously, he is not a practical man of affairs. He lives in his idea of the way things are between men, not in the actuality. He is out of touch with reality, both regarding his assessment of human nature and of the men whom he calls his friends, and of his own financial situation. | <urn:uuid:849ff6f9-bae1-4904-9fb0-d1a7e6577470> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.novelguide.com/timon-of-athens/summaries/act1-scene1-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00319.warc.gz | en | 0.984319 | 2,093 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
-0.1828143298625946,
-0.0341167189180851,
0.394163578748703,
-0.4902563691139221,
-0.5436221361160278,
-0.3409980535507202,
0.5311704874038696,
0.10305267572402954,
-0.3890444040298462,
-0.08754154294729233,
-0.09048087894916534,
-0.06615195423364639,
-0.18320190906524658,
0.43918859958648... | 8 | Act 1, scene 1
Timon of Athens begins with a gathering at the wealthy Timon’s house in ancient Athens. Four characters enter: a Poet, a Painter, a Jeweller, and a Merchant. The Jeweler and the Merchant agree on what a fine man Timon is, and the Jeweler mentions that he has a piece of jewelry with him which he hopes to sell to Timon. The Poet is about to have a book published, and the Painter assumes that it must be about or dedicated to Timon. The Painter has with him a flattering portrait of Timon, and the Poet praises it.
Some Senators enter, and the house becomes crowded. The Poet explains to the Painter what his new publication is about. He has depicted a man like Timon, who is rich and is generous to everyone. Everyone seeks out Timon’s company and returns the richer for it. The poet also has described the figure of Fortune sitting on a throne at the summit of a hill. Timon is the recipient of her grace. But Fortune is fickle, and when she turns against Timon, and he falls, none of those who formerly were dependent on his favor offers him any help. The Painter agrees that such turns of fortune are common.
Timon enters and speaks courteously to everyone. A messenger from Ventidius says that Ventidius is in prison for debt, and Timon pays the five talents needed to free him.
An Old Athenian enters, saying that Lucilius, a servant of Timon, has been courting his daughter and wants to marry her. He is opposed to the match because he thinks a servant is an unsuitable match for his daughter. Timon asks some questions of the servant and finds out that he and the girl are in love, and that she has accepted his proposal. Timon then says that he will bestow some money on his servant, equal to the amount of her dowry (whatever wealth she brings to her husband). The Old Athenian is grateful and says he will allow the match.
Timon then turns to the Poet and the Painter. The Painter asks Timon to accept his work, and Timon says he likes it. He tells the Painter to wait until he hears further from him. Timon exchanges some good-natured remarks with the Jeweller, saying that the item the Jeweler has for sale has been so praised by others that it wouldruin his finances to purchase it.
The churlish Athenian Apemantus enters and engages Timon in conversation. Apemantus expresses his negative view of humanity, saying that not a single man is honest. Apemantus and the Painter exchange insults, and then Apemantus calls the Poet a liar, meaning that his poetry does not show the truth. He claims that the Poet’s positive depiction of his subject in his last work (perhaps the work the Poet earlier discussed with Timon) was only a piece of flattery.
The soldier Alcibiades enters. Timon welcomes him and promises to entertain him well. The two men appear to be friends.
Everyone exits except for Apemantus. Two lords enter, and Apemantus manages to annoy them both with his cynical remarks about how all the attendees at Timon’s upcoming feast will be either fools or knaves. Apemantus exits, leaving the two lords to sing Timon’spraises, especially his kindness, generosity, and nobility.
The opening dialogue involving the Poet and the Painter serves to reveal straightaway the sort of values that prevail in the Athens depicted in the play. Flattery and insincerity are the order of the day. Everyone tries to curry favor with the rich Timon.
The description the Poet gives of his latest work serves as a foreshadowing of the plot that will soon unfold: some men are favored by fortune, but fortune is fickle and changes quickly. Then those who were formerly blessed by fortune find themselves on the downward path, but no one who observes this, including those who benefited from his generosity, does anything to help them.
The first scenecharacterizes Timon. His actions show him to be generous and kind. He pays Ventidius’s debt to get him out of prison and bestows wealth upon his loyal servant so he can marry. Everyone speaks well of Timon. This opening scene also shows the contrast between the generosity and grace of Timon and the cynicism of Apemantus, who has an opinion of humanity that is the opposite of Timon’s. Apemantus is not a pleasant character and no one likes him, but as later events will reveal, he does have more of a sense of the true character of these Athenian lords than does Timon.
Act 1, scene 2
At Timon’s banquet, Ventidius says that his father has recently died, leaving him a large inheritance. He praises Timon and gratefully repays the money that Timon had spent in freeing him from prison. Timon says he gave it out of love and does not need it back. Apemantus makes a sour remark but Timon welcomes him anyway. Apemantus says he has no intention of being agreeable, and Timon at first says he should sit on his own somewhere, but then relents and says he can stay as long as he doesn’t speak. Apemantus goes to sit on his own, anyway. Apemantus, in a speech heard only by the audience, not the other characters, comments on how the other lords use Timon, flattering him, and Timon does not even know it. He continues to speak about the treachery of men. He does not trust anyone, and he says that Timon is not well served by the lords who toast his health. It will not go well for Timon, or for Athens, he says.
Timon makes a speech about friendship, in which he expresses his noble ideals. He says that friendship is a blessed thing and that friends will always need each other and be generous with each other when any need arises. “We are born to do benefits,” he says. A couple of lords remark on how they empathize with his thoughts and were moved by them—remarks received with contempt by Apemantus.
Someone dressed as Cupid enters and announces that some Amazon ladies have arrived. The women enter with lutes in their hands, and they dance. The men get up and dance with the women, although not before Apemantus has made some disparaging remarks about dancing and the general depravity of humanity.
After the dancing, Timon thanks the ladies, and they and Cupid exit.
Timon tells Flavius, his steward, to fetch a little casket. In an aside, Flavius indicates that not all is well with Timon’s finances. Flavius returns with the casket, which contains some jewelry. Timon gives it to one of the lords. The lord says he has already received so much from Timon, and other lords agree that they have, too.
Flavius tries to have a word with Timon, but Timon is not interested. A servant announces that Lucius has given four horses with silver harnesses to Timon. Another servant says that Lucullus has sent two brace of greyhounds and a request that Timon join him for the hunt the next day.
In an aside, Flavius provides more details of Timon’s financial affairs. His wealth is exhausted and he is deeply in debt. Flavius is distressed by the situation.
Timon gives a racehorse to another lord, just because the lord expressed a liking for it. He says he could never grow weary of giving to his friends. Two lords express their appreciation of Timon and say they are bound to him.
Everyone except Apemantus and Timon exits. Apemantus makes some cynical remarks about friendship. He asks Timon why he keeps giving all these feasts and banquets. But Timon takes no notice of him.
The evidence of Timon’s generosity continues to build up. He seems to be dispensing gifts and largesse all the time. In his own eyes, he seems to live in a paradise in which wealth is inexhaustible, friends always love one another and willingly meet one another’s every need or whim. There are no dark shadows in Timon’s world, at least none that he perceives. But in this scene the true picture starts to emerge. In addition to the cynicism of Apemantus, which has more than a small amount of truth in it (at least as applied to the lords that Timon values so highly), Flavius the steward reveals that Timon, far from being wealthy, has given away so much that all he has left are debts. Dramatic tension builds as the audience becomes aware that there is a huge discrepancy between the society Timon thinks he lives in and the actual truth about it. The lords flatter him shamelessly as long as there is something in it for them.
Timon has a very lofty view of human nature. He seems to be living in a world he has imagined for himself, in the sense that he believes that every man is as generous and noble as he is. He seems to think that he lives in an ideal society. He does not stop to think that his kindness and fullness of heart may be misplaced because others do not share his vision of mutual love and generosity. Nor does it occur to him for a moment that he is not being responsible with his own wealth by giving away so much so frequently. He seems to think that his wealth is boundless and will continue forever. Obviously, he is not a practical man of affairs. He lives in his idea of the way things are between men, not in the actuality. He is out of touch with reality, both regarding his assessment of human nature and of the men whom he calls his friends, and of his own financial situation. | 2,055 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Definition of Mozarabic
At the beginning of the Vlll century the Arabs from the Umayyad Caliphate occupied much of the territory of the Iberian Peninsula, until then dominated by the Visigoth kingdoms. Muslim rule remained until 1492. Throughout this period a new social order was created. At that time, there were Muslims, Christians and Jews, but also other groups, such as the Muladi or the Mozarabic.
The muladí population was formed by those who were originally Christians and eventually converted to Islam and the Mozarabs were the Christians who maintained their faith in Muslim territories.
The Christians of Al-Andalus
In the Iberian Peninsula there were Muslim territories and Christian territories. In the latter a part of the population used the Arabic Analyze that in the Quran it is stated that religion should not be imposed and, for this reason, Christians and Jews were respected. Thus, they could practice their religion as long as they didn't do any proselytizing. We could say that there was a kind of social pact: non-Muslims had freedom of worship and could organize legally, but they had to respect Muslim civil and military authority .
Although non-Muslims had a certain freedom, they had to pay a special tax, yizia (this tax was paid by the so-called "people of the Book", that is, those who do not practice the religion of Islam).
A paradoxical situation
The Mozarabic people of medieval Spain were a curious collective: they were Christians, but at the same time they adopted some customs of Islam (they did not eat pork, practiced circumcision and spoke Arabic). This community was creating its own culture, especially in cities such as Córdoba, Seville, Granada and Toledo.
Fotolia Photos: Kavalenkava / Kapona | <urn:uuid:d60f1bb5-05f8-434e-a698-57e27d243ceb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://1clickanimate.com/2d3f8d16e13ec8d0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.984859 | 383 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
0.08628225326538086,
0.4359542429447174,
-0.006709427572786808,
0.12873880565166473,
-0.08367215096950531,
-0.34391453862190247,
-0.1783261001110077,
-0.08054734766483307,
0.06171075999736786,
0.174205020070076,
0.14177486300468445,
-0.2998044490814209,
-0.11781943589448929,
0.187810435891... | 1 | Definition of Mozarabic
At the beginning of the Vlll century the Arabs from the Umayyad Caliphate occupied much of the territory of the Iberian Peninsula, until then dominated by the Visigoth kingdoms. Muslim rule remained until 1492. Throughout this period a new social order was created. At that time, there were Muslims, Christians and Jews, but also other groups, such as the Muladi or the Mozarabic.
The muladí population was formed by those who were originally Christians and eventually converted to Islam and the Mozarabs were the Christians who maintained their faith in Muslim territories.
The Christians of Al-Andalus
In the Iberian Peninsula there were Muslim territories and Christian territories. In the latter a part of the population used the Arabic Analyze that in the Quran it is stated that religion should not be imposed and, for this reason, Christians and Jews were respected. Thus, they could practice their religion as long as they didn't do any proselytizing. We could say that there was a kind of social pact: non-Muslims had freedom of worship and could organize legally, but they had to respect Muslim civil and military authority .
Although non-Muslims had a certain freedom, they had to pay a special tax, yizia (this tax was paid by the so-called "people of the Book", that is, those who do not practice the religion of Islam).
A paradoxical situation
The Mozarabic people of medieval Spain were a curious collective: they were Christians, but at the same time they adopted some customs of Islam (they did not eat pork, practiced circumcision and spoke Arabic). This community was creating its own culture, especially in cities such as Córdoba, Seville, Granada and Toledo.
Fotolia Photos: Kavalenkava / Kapona | 375 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Refers to the style and period of art and architecture that developed in the 1960s and after, when there was a clear challenge to the dominance of Modernism. Generally speaking, it advocated a pluralistic approach to the arts and it stated that Modernism had failed because of a lack of a coded language of meaning to the viewer. The term was first used by Spanish poet Federico de Onis in 1934 and later by Arnold Toynbee's "A Study of History" in 1938, but it was in the 1970s when it came into wide use in connection with a trend in architecture that employed selective Eclecticism and Historicism. This resulted in structures that displayed a knowledge of Modernism, but also playful, whimsical, applications of Classical elements. In the other arts, such as painting, there was a return to a classical approach to the human figure, style, and composition, often resulting in Old Masters style works, but with updated imagery, such as the inclusion of current celebrities, or artists from the past. In photography, as well as painting, a narrative or story telling approach to work also became popular. By the early 1980s, many work dubbed Postmodern, were purchased by the corporate art market, where large sums were paid for the work of relatively new artists. By the 1990s, Postmodernism showed signs of slowing down in terms of popularity, when more traditional Modernist forms began to re-emerge. | <urn:uuid:01e0d97f-f473-412c-a5c6-fa96f09212b7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sah-archipedia.org/styles/P | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00389.warc.gz | en | 0.984834 | 291 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
0.19950394332408905,
0.3009454607963562,
0.23610670864582062,
0.15302607417106628,
-0.31465816497802734,
0.30448296666145325,
-0.16874484717845917,
0.14353014528751373,
0.08810420334339142,
-0.2807614207267761,
0.20711909234523773,
0.08598437160253525,
-0.1126251071691513,
0.24910607933998... | 10 | Refers to the style and period of art and architecture that developed in the 1960s and after, when there was a clear challenge to the dominance of Modernism. Generally speaking, it advocated a pluralistic approach to the arts and it stated that Modernism had failed because of a lack of a coded language of meaning to the viewer. The term was first used by Spanish poet Federico de Onis in 1934 and later by Arnold Toynbee's "A Study of History" in 1938, but it was in the 1970s when it came into wide use in connection with a trend in architecture that employed selective Eclecticism and Historicism. This resulted in structures that displayed a knowledge of Modernism, but also playful, whimsical, applications of Classical elements. In the other arts, such as painting, there was a return to a classical approach to the human figure, style, and composition, often resulting in Old Masters style works, but with updated imagery, such as the inclusion of current celebrities, or artists from the past. In photography, as well as painting, a narrative or story telling approach to work also became popular. By the early 1980s, many work dubbed Postmodern, were purchased by the corporate art market, where large sums were paid for the work of relatively new artists. By the 1990s, Postmodernism showed signs of slowing down in terms of popularity, when more traditional Modernist forms began to re-emerge. | 314 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(CNN)Girls began queuing at their local school with their friends, waiting for their names to be called. Many were apprehensive. After all, most of them had not had a vaccination since they were babies. It was 2013 and a new vaccine had arrived in Kanyirabanyana, a village in the Gakenke district of Rwanda.
Why Rwanda could be the first country to wipe out cervical cancer
Three years before, Rwanda had decided to make preventing cervical cancer a health priority. The government agreed a partnership with pharmaceutical company Merck to offer Rwandan girls the opportunity to be vaccinated against human papillomavirus (HPV), which causes cervical cancer.
Cervical cancer is the most common cancer in Rwandan women, and there were considerable cultural barriers to the vaccination program -- HPV is a sexually transmitted infection and talking about sex is taboo in Rwanda. Added to this, rumors that the vaccine could cause infertility made some parents reluctant to allow their daughters to be vaccinated.
Rwanda's economy and history also made it seem an improbable candidate for achieving high HPV vaccination coverage.
After the 1994 genocide, it was ranked as one of the poorest countries in the world. High-income countries had only achieved moderate coverage of the HPV vaccine; if the United States and France couldn't achieve high coverage, how could Rwanda?
Worldwide, cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer in women. There were an estimated 570,000 new cases in 2018 -- and over 310,000 deaths, the vast majority in low- and middle-income countries. Sub-Saharan Africa has lagged behind the rest of the world in introducing the HPV vaccine and routine screening, which means the cancer often isn't identified and treated until it has reached an advanced stage. | <urn:uuid:90524904-13d9-4c65-9dae-1f7873e09ee9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cnn.com/2019/05/30/health/rwanda-first-eliminate-cervical-cancer-africa-partner/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00306.warc.gz | en | 0.980933 | 359 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
-0.254571795463562,
0.24615225195884705,
0.2616414427757263,
0.06725111603736877,
0.07436181604862213,
0.1336897760629654,
0.13521268963813782,
0.32083871960639954,
0.04896915704011917,
0.3248904347419739,
0.3130679130554199,
-0.37491196393966675,
0.24893775582313538,
0.09445492178201675,
... | 1 | (CNN)Girls began queuing at their local school with their friends, waiting for their names to be called. Many were apprehensive. After all, most of them had not had a vaccination since they were babies. It was 2013 and a new vaccine had arrived in Kanyirabanyana, a village in the Gakenke district of Rwanda.
Why Rwanda could be the first country to wipe out cervical cancer
Three years before, Rwanda had decided to make preventing cervical cancer a health priority. The government agreed a partnership with pharmaceutical company Merck to offer Rwandan girls the opportunity to be vaccinated against human papillomavirus (HPV), which causes cervical cancer.
Cervical cancer is the most common cancer in Rwandan women, and there were considerable cultural barriers to the vaccination program -- HPV is a sexually transmitted infection and talking about sex is taboo in Rwanda. Added to this, rumors that the vaccine could cause infertility made some parents reluctant to allow their daughters to be vaccinated.
Rwanda's economy and history also made it seem an improbable candidate for achieving high HPV vaccination coverage.
After the 1994 genocide, it was ranked as one of the poorest countries in the world. High-income countries had only achieved moderate coverage of the HPV vaccine; if the United States and France couldn't achieve high coverage, how could Rwanda?
Worldwide, cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer in women. There were an estimated 570,000 new cases in 2018 -- and over 310,000 deaths, the vast majority in low- and middle-income countries. Sub-Saharan Africa has lagged behind the rest of the world in introducing the HPV vaccine and routine screening, which means the cancer often isn't identified and treated until it has reached an advanced stage. | 372 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Block #14: Maple Leaf
Sponsored by: Tuckahoe State Park
Located at Tuckahoe State Park
13070 Crouse Mill Rd, Queen Anne, MD 21657
Painted by Lockerman Middle School Art Students
To Be Announced
To many freedom seekers, Canada represented a new land where African Americans could live without worry. Untold numbers made their way across the waters of the great lakes to seek what was described as the Promised Land. Harriet Tubman herself guided many of her passengers all the way into Canada, including a number of family members. Although slavery was outlawed in Canada, racial tensions were high. As a result many small towns along the border were created as “black only” communities.
Towns like St. Catharines became important places of abolitionist activity. In 1855, the British Methodist Episcopal Church and Salem Chapel were established at the corner of Geneva and North Streets, on land granted to the congregation in the early 1840s. The area became known to escaped African American slaves as a place of “refuge and rest,” and a destination, the final stop on the Underground Railroad. By the mid-1850s the population was about 6000, 800 of whom were “of African descent.” To this day, St. Catharines remains an important site in Black Canadian history. | <urn:uuid:0845aab6-2db7-41f2-877e-e62f6d2cb77d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fiberartscenter.com/quilt-trail/maple-leaf/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00005.warc.gz | en | 0.980132 | 281 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
0.12001148611307144,
0.2554044723510742,
0.31963619589805603,
0.3052586019039154,
0.22768634557724,
0.18753960728645325,
0.1163213700056076,
0.06672433763742447,
-0.3184052109718323,
0.5522102117538452,
0.2180124670267105,
-0.39672601222991943,
-0.3314082622528076,
0.1444593071937561,
0.... | 11 | Block #14: Maple Leaf
Sponsored by: Tuckahoe State Park
Located at Tuckahoe State Park
13070 Crouse Mill Rd, Queen Anne, MD 21657
Painted by Lockerman Middle School Art Students
To Be Announced
To many freedom seekers, Canada represented a new land where African Americans could live without worry. Untold numbers made their way across the waters of the great lakes to seek what was described as the Promised Land. Harriet Tubman herself guided many of her passengers all the way into Canada, including a number of family members. Although slavery was outlawed in Canada, racial tensions were high. As a result many small towns along the border were created as “black only” communities.
Towns like St. Catharines became important places of abolitionist activity. In 1855, the British Methodist Episcopal Church and Salem Chapel were established at the corner of Geneva and North Streets, on land granted to the congregation in the early 1840s. The area became known to escaped African American slaves as a place of “refuge and rest,” and a destination, the final stop on the Underground Railroad. By the mid-1850s the population was about 6000, 800 of whom were “of African descent.” To this day, St. Catharines remains an important site in Black Canadian history. | 299 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For book/ebook authors, publishers, & self-publishers
Frederick Gaertner has not received any gifts yet
Though many slaves had been declared free by President Abraham Lincoln's 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, their post-war status was uncertain. During the war, it applied only to the states that were in active rebellion on January 1, 1863, but did not apply to slave-holding border states or to areas of Confederate states already under Union control at the time. Lincoln and his fellow Republicans knew that the Emancipation Proclamation might be viewed as a temporary war measure and not outlaw…Continue
Posted on November 9, 2015 at 4:49am
So, what changed Abraham Lincoln from an antislavery moderate to the Great Emancipator?
Lincoln was a complicated figure whose views on slavery, race equality, and African American colonization are often intermixed. There is no doubt that he hated the institution of slavery. However, he was no abolitionist. Lincoln initially recognized that slavery was a bad institution but one that was accepted and necessary for the South's economy. Lincoln had campaigned against the expansion of…Continue
Posted on November 1, 2015 at 11:34pm
Though there had been voices clamoring for the rights of African Americans to represent the United States in the Army since the beginning of the Civil War, the door was never really open until Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. Soon, the United States Army began to organize African Americans into regimental units known as the United States Colored Troops (USCT).
Even before the Emancipation Proclamation was issued, the first regiment to become a…Continue
Posted on October 25, 2015 at 8:00am
During the 1860 presidential election, the divisions between the North and the South became fully exposed. Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, won with a plurality of popular votes and a majority of electoral votes. However, he did not appear on the ballots of ten southern states, thus his election necessarily split the nation along sectional lines. http://bit.ly/1RDQVq5
Posted on October 12, 2015 at 11:37pm | <urn:uuid:86ae02f6-3603-45dd-9247-152a12abbdb3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://thebookmarketingnetwork.com/profile/FrederickGaertner | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.98175 | 453 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
-0.279766708612442,
0.4683381915092468,
0.3790830671787262,
0.2970428466796875,
-0.21175286173820496,
-0.012603070586919785,
-0.124848373234272,
-0.11825982481241226,
-0.2610531449317932,
0.21145173907279968,
0.3178391456604004,
0.06621251255273819,
-0.5811207294464111,
0.30190736055374146... | 2 | For book/ebook authors, publishers, & self-publishers
Frederick Gaertner has not received any gifts yet
Though many slaves had been declared free by President Abraham Lincoln's 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, their post-war status was uncertain. During the war, it applied only to the states that were in active rebellion on January 1, 1863, but did not apply to slave-holding border states or to areas of Confederate states already under Union control at the time. Lincoln and his fellow Republicans knew that the Emancipation Proclamation might be viewed as a temporary war measure and not outlaw…Continue
Posted on November 9, 2015 at 4:49am
So, what changed Abraham Lincoln from an antislavery moderate to the Great Emancipator?
Lincoln was a complicated figure whose views on slavery, race equality, and African American colonization are often intermixed. There is no doubt that he hated the institution of slavery. However, he was no abolitionist. Lincoln initially recognized that slavery was a bad institution but one that was accepted and necessary for the South's economy. Lincoln had campaigned against the expansion of…Continue
Posted on November 1, 2015 at 11:34pm
Though there had been voices clamoring for the rights of African Americans to represent the United States in the Army since the beginning of the Civil War, the door was never really open until Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. Soon, the United States Army began to organize African Americans into regimental units known as the United States Colored Troops (USCT).
Even before the Emancipation Proclamation was issued, the first regiment to become a…Continue
Posted on October 25, 2015 at 8:00am
During the 1860 presidential election, the divisions between the North and the South became fully exposed. Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, won with a plurality of popular votes and a majority of electoral votes. However, he did not appear on the ballots of ten southern states, thus his election necessarily split the nation along sectional lines. http://bit.ly/1RDQVq5
Posted on October 12, 2015 at 11:37pm | 491 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Above the steep gorge of Adrianos in the province of Mirabello rises the rocky outcrop of Fortezza. This inhospitable, steep and naturally fortified rock was chosen by the deposed Minoans to form a small town during the so-called Dark Period, that is, after the destruction of the Minoan civilization after the 12th century BC. The reasons that led thousands of the Minoans to the most inaccessible Cretan mountains have not yet been identified, but seem to be linked to the fear against an enemy, probably the Dorians.
To the south of the site there are still the terraces, which restrained the soil from collapsing, for the cultivation of cereals. The same terraces have been used by the residents of Adrianos for many centuries. Water was supplied from the springs of the canyon. The main buildings of the settlement were located on the large plateau near the peak and today few remains are visible.
The hill is protected from all sides by cliffs, except to the south, where the terraces can be seen, from which access was possible. A wall was built to protect the settlement from this side, traces of which can be seen even today.
Traces of a wall of later period prove that Fortetsa functioned as a fortress even later. Because of this wall, the rock was called fortezza, that is a latin word for fortress. | <urn:uuid:20337421-d94c-4fd7-801f-0dc7a220a6dd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cretanbeaches.com/en/history-of-crete/archaeological-sites-in-crete/the-dark-age-dorians-and-eteocretans/post-minoan-settlement-of-fortezza-at-andrianos | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00253.warc.gz | en | 0.983167 | 287 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
-0.06609585881233215,
0.29286566376686096,
0.15380483865737915,
0.34579938650131226,
-0.12996920943260193,
-0.2367759495973587,
-0.2293851226568222,
0.13513103127479553,
-0.3455609083175659,
0.0029334425926208496,
-0.10050036758184433,
-0.7677506804466248,
0.2128726840019226,
0.32040849328... | 11 | Above the steep gorge of Adrianos in the province of Mirabello rises the rocky outcrop of Fortezza. This inhospitable, steep and naturally fortified rock was chosen by the deposed Minoans to form a small town during the so-called Dark Period, that is, after the destruction of the Minoan civilization after the 12th century BC. The reasons that led thousands of the Minoans to the most inaccessible Cretan mountains have not yet been identified, but seem to be linked to the fear against an enemy, probably the Dorians.
To the south of the site there are still the terraces, which restrained the soil from collapsing, for the cultivation of cereals. The same terraces have been used by the residents of Adrianos for many centuries. Water was supplied from the springs of the canyon. The main buildings of the settlement were located on the large plateau near the peak and today few remains are visible.
The hill is protected from all sides by cliffs, except to the south, where the terraces can be seen, from which access was possible. A wall was built to protect the settlement from this side, traces of which can be seen even today.
Traces of a wall of later period prove that Fortetsa functioned as a fortress even later. Because of this wall, the rock was called fortezza, that is a latin word for fortress. | 284 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A monarchy under a feudal system was a political machine from which the element of free choice was as far as possible eliminated. A ruler, whether king or lord, ruled by right of primogeniture, where all authority passed to the eldest son and those subordinate were bound to him and his heirs.
On the other hand, in Celtic law as well as Norse law, the ruler was chosen by election from a number of persons eligible by right of birth, and could be deposed by lawful choice. In the early Celtic period in Ireland, and almost certainly in Man, Kingship was heritable. All the ‘true family’ of the reigning king or ‘jarroo-firrinagh’, as it was spoken in the Manx tongue, became potential heirs to the kingship and capable of succession. When the king died the vacancy was filled by election.
Our Tynwald was not originally a place of legislation; it was a place of promulgation and inauguration of the king or of the ruling chieftains. On the place of the inauguration was the Tanist stone. Tanistry was both the Celtic and the Norse mode of tenure according to which the king or chieftain was chosen from the family. For instance Tullyhogue in Country Tyrone, Ulster, was the place of the inauguration of the O’Neills; and the rock of Donne, in Donegal, the place of the inauguration of the O’Donnells. The rite lapsed in Ireland under James I in the 16th century. The Tanist was always inaugurated during the king’s or chieftain’s lifetime. He was not always the king’s eldest son, but a member of the family within a defined degree. In Queen Elizabeth’s time, when the O’Neill power was suppressed, the English soldiery were ordered to break in pieces the Tanist stone at Tullyhogue.
That our own Tynwald mound was both the place of inauguration of the Kings of Man and that of the Tanist, on which the heir-apparent was inaugurated, may be inferred from two conspicuous incidents in connection with the Scropes and the Stanleys on their becoming Kings of Man. We have a record of a Tynwald held at St. John’s in 1392, the year Sir William Scrope became King of Man by purchase of the regality from William de Montacute, 2nd Earl of Salisbury. On that occasion Sir William Scrope was not only proclaimed and accepted as sovereign but also his younger brother Sir Stephen le Scrope, the heir, was accepted as successor. Again in 1505 when the first Sir John Stanley was proclaimed king, his son, the second Sir John, was acknowledged as heir-apparent by the barons, worthiest men and commons. And the ‘Chronicle’ evidently refers to such an instance in the 12th century:
“Godred during his life had appointed Olaf to succeed to the kingdom for the inheritance belonged to him by right because he was born of lawful wedlock; and he had commanded all the people of Man to appoint Olaf king after his own death and to preserve inviolate their oath and allegiance.” From these instances Tynwald would appear to have been not only a place of Proclamation of the new king but also the place of Inauguration of the Heir-Apparent; and this in its essentials was the Tanist system – surviving in the Isle of Man in the 15th century.
There must have been those in far-off times a customary formal ceremony of initiation or swearing upon a stone, on the part of the Chosen One. It is natural to look to the records of the Outer Isles, so closely associated with Man, for any evidence of this custom there. The Macdonalds of the Isles, claiming to be descended from Somerled, son-in-law of Olaf I, King of Man and the Isles, 1103-1153, clung to the custom of what they termed ‘the inauguration of the Lordship of the Isles.’ The solemn ceremony is described by Martin in his ‘Description of the Western Isles,’ published in 1703. It took place in the islet of Finlaggan, which is in a loch in the isle of Islay. Islay, it will be remembered, was the chief of the Islay group of the South isles, which sent four members to Tynwald. At Finlaggan, says Martin, Macdonald had his Court of Sixteen chieftains, presumably in the open air. “There was a big stone of seven feet square, in which there was a deep impression made to receive the feet of Macdonald; for he was crowned King of the Isles standing in this stone; and swore that he would continue his vassals in the possession of their lands…The Bishop of the Isles and seven priests anointed him king and a white rod was put in his hand.”
Another Macdonald family account says that on the stone was cut ‘the tract of a man’s foot.’ Although the actual Lordship of the Isles had nominally ceased over two hundred years prior to the date at which martin wrote, yet the custom of his day was in all probability modelled upon the time-honoured ceremony of the crowning of the ancient Lords of the Isles at Tynwald.
The custom of crowing the king upon a stone was recognised by the Scandanavians. ‘Near the city of Upsala there is a large stone in a field which they call Morasten. The senators used to meet here to choose and crown the king, who stone on the stone.’ Professor Marstrander states that according to a 10th century manuscript, a certain Prince is recorded to have sworn an oath, having first placed his foot ‘within the accustomed stone.’ The Icelanding Saga of Hen Thorir quotes: ‘Herstein the bridegroom leapt up to where there was a certain stone: then he set his foot upon the stone and spake: This oath I swear hereby that before the Al-thing is over…’ etc.
Discussing the problem of the Conchan Treen ‘Tremott’ (1511) and its modern spelling is Tromode, Marstrander says the name the ‘Treen-mót’, ‘the place where the folk met to discuss their interests.’ The only mound which could by any stretch of the imagination be claimed as a possible moot-hill in that or the adjoining parish is the one marked on the Ordnance Plan of 1867 as ‘Castleward Fort.’ Anciently it was called in Manx ‘Knock-y-Troddan,’ hill of the contest. This place-name is not now used. In the 1511 Manorial Roll the name of the Treen in which it stands was written ‘Castell-ny-Ward.’ The name is from the same root as the Norse ‘mót’, a meeting, which we find in the Treen name Tremott. To talk of a scheme being mooted has the same meaning. The Manx Gaelic translation would be ‘Cashtal-yn-Vód,’ the castle of the assembly place.
The earthwork has never been examined by archaeologists, but it is believed to be, like the hill at St. John’s, of the Bronze Age. There is a story that while Tromode men were once looking for the traditional ‘crock of gold’ a cinerary urn was taken from it. The story was told to the writer in 1895 by the manager of the sailcloth factory nearby. John Kaneen, the owner of the farm, told the writer that in ploughing-time he had found in the field below the mound, what appeared to be stone graves, probably early Christian. Castleward is the most interesting ancient monument in the sheadings of Middle or Garff. As a ‘THING-MOTE’ it is imposing, and far more primitive looking than that at St. John’s. If Marstrander is right in assuming that Tremott Treen got its name from its association with a Mót Hill, Castleward is in all probability its site. The fact that it is in Kirk Braddan and not Conchan parish would make no difference at the period of its use. G.H. Wood, a local poet, wrote in 1827:
“Tis said that native chiefs, in olden time,
Have oft assembled here their chosen hands.”
The absence of any detailed information of the ritual observed locally in the ceremony of the swearing-in of the new king or lord has already been remarked upon. There must, however, have been, on such occasions, a prescribed sacred rite, as we know was the case in the Outer Isles.
The finding of what may reasonably be called in ‘inauguration’ or ‘swearing’ stone’ at Castleward not only adds support to the belief that it was a mót, but also that it was the actual place of the swearing-in of the king or lord. The stone is here illustrated (see photo above). It was found, so John Kaneen, the owner, told the writer, over a hundred years ago by Colonel Mark Wilks of Kirby (former Governor of St. Helena during Napoleon’s captivity), who had been the landlord of the farm from 1828. He had bought the property from Paule Gellen, in whose family it had been for upwards of three centuries. Wilks did not take the stone to his residence at Kirby, but left it on a sod fence close to the site of the keeill, near the farm street. It was for many years used by the Kaneens to give ‘feed’ to the poultry. It was re-discovered by the writer in 1916, and after the founding of the Manx Museum, it was placed there. On examining it for the first time, Director Philip Kermode said: ‘It looks very like a swearing stone,’ and it was so labelled. In his description he recorded it has having been:
‘Patiently hollowed out of a well-chosen boulder of basalt. Its length is 24” x 10” wide and 8” to 9” high. The cavity is carefully carved out, and has all the appearance of having been formed to comfortably take a human foot. The space for the foot is 18” long x 6.5” wide, and is smoothly etched by the carver to a depth of 3.5”.’Its date, according to Kermode, is probably 11th century. More than one British archaeologist of repute has studied and admired the object. One, Professor McAlister of Dublin University, after examining the chiselling said, ‘You have obviously a counterpart of the famous ‘Lia Fail’, or ‘Stone of Destiny,’ on which the ‘Ard Ree’ or ‘High King’ of Ireland stood when he was being crowned. But your example is certainly more fitting and more impressive than the one that came from Scone.’
(source: Island Heritage by William Cubbon (1952)) | <urn:uuid:c78bdb66-4b67-46da-8bbb-2b9154503172> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://asmanxasthehills.com/the-manx-lia-fail-or-stone-of-destiny/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00060.warc.gz | en | 0.981999 | 2,400 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
-0.42652684450149536,
0.6236157417297363,
0.2541719973087311,
-0.2895667552947998,
-0.23134127259254456,
0.005758496467024088,
0.5590951442718506,
-0.27172282338142395,
0.053857944905757904,
0.1258438527584076,
-0.32080212235450745,
0.038328975439071655,
0.2222459763288498,
0.3119589686393... | 1 | A monarchy under a feudal system was a political machine from which the element of free choice was as far as possible eliminated. A ruler, whether king or lord, ruled by right of primogeniture, where all authority passed to the eldest son and those subordinate were bound to him and his heirs.
On the other hand, in Celtic law as well as Norse law, the ruler was chosen by election from a number of persons eligible by right of birth, and could be deposed by lawful choice. In the early Celtic period in Ireland, and almost certainly in Man, Kingship was heritable. All the ‘true family’ of the reigning king or ‘jarroo-firrinagh’, as it was spoken in the Manx tongue, became potential heirs to the kingship and capable of succession. When the king died the vacancy was filled by election.
Our Tynwald was not originally a place of legislation; it was a place of promulgation and inauguration of the king or of the ruling chieftains. On the place of the inauguration was the Tanist stone. Tanistry was both the Celtic and the Norse mode of tenure according to which the king or chieftain was chosen from the family. For instance Tullyhogue in Country Tyrone, Ulster, was the place of the inauguration of the O’Neills; and the rock of Donne, in Donegal, the place of the inauguration of the O’Donnells. The rite lapsed in Ireland under James I in the 16th century. The Tanist was always inaugurated during the king’s or chieftain’s lifetime. He was not always the king’s eldest son, but a member of the family within a defined degree. In Queen Elizabeth’s time, when the O’Neill power was suppressed, the English soldiery were ordered to break in pieces the Tanist stone at Tullyhogue.
That our own Tynwald mound was both the place of inauguration of the Kings of Man and that of the Tanist, on which the heir-apparent was inaugurated, may be inferred from two conspicuous incidents in connection with the Scropes and the Stanleys on their becoming Kings of Man. We have a record of a Tynwald held at St. John’s in 1392, the year Sir William Scrope became King of Man by purchase of the regality from William de Montacute, 2nd Earl of Salisbury. On that occasion Sir William Scrope was not only proclaimed and accepted as sovereign but also his younger brother Sir Stephen le Scrope, the heir, was accepted as successor. Again in 1505 when the first Sir John Stanley was proclaimed king, his son, the second Sir John, was acknowledged as heir-apparent by the barons, worthiest men and commons. And the ‘Chronicle’ evidently refers to such an instance in the 12th century:
“Godred during his life had appointed Olaf to succeed to the kingdom for the inheritance belonged to him by right because he was born of lawful wedlock; and he had commanded all the people of Man to appoint Olaf king after his own death and to preserve inviolate their oath and allegiance.” From these instances Tynwald would appear to have been not only a place of Proclamation of the new king but also the place of Inauguration of the Heir-Apparent; and this in its essentials was the Tanist system – surviving in the Isle of Man in the 15th century.
There must have been those in far-off times a customary formal ceremony of initiation or swearing upon a stone, on the part of the Chosen One. It is natural to look to the records of the Outer Isles, so closely associated with Man, for any evidence of this custom there. The Macdonalds of the Isles, claiming to be descended from Somerled, son-in-law of Olaf I, King of Man and the Isles, 1103-1153, clung to the custom of what they termed ‘the inauguration of the Lordship of the Isles.’ The solemn ceremony is described by Martin in his ‘Description of the Western Isles,’ published in 1703. It took place in the islet of Finlaggan, which is in a loch in the isle of Islay. Islay, it will be remembered, was the chief of the Islay group of the South isles, which sent four members to Tynwald. At Finlaggan, says Martin, Macdonald had his Court of Sixteen chieftains, presumably in the open air. “There was a big stone of seven feet square, in which there was a deep impression made to receive the feet of Macdonald; for he was crowned King of the Isles standing in this stone; and swore that he would continue his vassals in the possession of their lands…The Bishop of the Isles and seven priests anointed him king and a white rod was put in his hand.”
Another Macdonald family account says that on the stone was cut ‘the tract of a man’s foot.’ Although the actual Lordship of the Isles had nominally ceased over two hundred years prior to the date at which martin wrote, yet the custom of his day was in all probability modelled upon the time-honoured ceremony of the crowning of the ancient Lords of the Isles at Tynwald.
The custom of crowing the king upon a stone was recognised by the Scandanavians. ‘Near the city of Upsala there is a large stone in a field which they call Morasten. The senators used to meet here to choose and crown the king, who stone on the stone.’ Professor Marstrander states that according to a 10th century manuscript, a certain Prince is recorded to have sworn an oath, having first placed his foot ‘within the accustomed stone.’ The Icelanding Saga of Hen Thorir quotes: ‘Herstein the bridegroom leapt up to where there was a certain stone: then he set his foot upon the stone and spake: This oath I swear hereby that before the Al-thing is over…’ etc.
Discussing the problem of the Conchan Treen ‘Tremott’ (1511) and its modern spelling is Tromode, Marstrander says the name the ‘Treen-mót’, ‘the place where the folk met to discuss their interests.’ The only mound which could by any stretch of the imagination be claimed as a possible moot-hill in that or the adjoining parish is the one marked on the Ordnance Plan of 1867 as ‘Castleward Fort.’ Anciently it was called in Manx ‘Knock-y-Troddan,’ hill of the contest. This place-name is not now used. In the 1511 Manorial Roll the name of the Treen in which it stands was written ‘Castell-ny-Ward.’ The name is from the same root as the Norse ‘mót’, a meeting, which we find in the Treen name Tremott. To talk of a scheme being mooted has the same meaning. The Manx Gaelic translation would be ‘Cashtal-yn-Vód,’ the castle of the assembly place.
The earthwork has never been examined by archaeologists, but it is believed to be, like the hill at St. John’s, of the Bronze Age. There is a story that while Tromode men were once looking for the traditional ‘crock of gold’ a cinerary urn was taken from it. The story was told to the writer in 1895 by the manager of the sailcloth factory nearby. John Kaneen, the owner of the farm, told the writer that in ploughing-time he had found in the field below the mound, what appeared to be stone graves, probably early Christian. Castleward is the most interesting ancient monument in the sheadings of Middle or Garff. As a ‘THING-MOTE’ it is imposing, and far more primitive looking than that at St. John’s. If Marstrander is right in assuming that Tremott Treen got its name from its association with a Mót Hill, Castleward is in all probability its site. The fact that it is in Kirk Braddan and not Conchan parish would make no difference at the period of its use. G.H. Wood, a local poet, wrote in 1827:
“Tis said that native chiefs, in olden time,
Have oft assembled here their chosen hands.”
The absence of any detailed information of the ritual observed locally in the ceremony of the swearing-in of the new king or lord has already been remarked upon. There must, however, have been, on such occasions, a prescribed sacred rite, as we know was the case in the Outer Isles.
The finding of what may reasonably be called in ‘inauguration’ or ‘swearing’ stone’ at Castleward not only adds support to the belief that it was a mót, but also that it was the actual place of the swearing-in of the king or lord. The stone is here illustrated (see photo above). It was found, so John Kaneen, the owner, told the writer, over a hundred years ago by Colonel Mark Wilks of Kirby (former Governor of St. Helena during Napoleon’s captivity), who had been the landlord of the farm from 1828. He had bought the property from Paule Gellen, in whose family it had been for upwards of three centuries. Wilks did not take the stone to his residence at Kirby, but left it on a sod fence close to the site of the keeill, near the farm street. It was for many years used by the Kaneens to give ‘feed’ to the poultry. It was re-discovered by the writer in 1916, and after the founding of the Manx Museum, it was placed there. On examining it for the first time, Director Philip Kermode said: ‘It looks very like a swearing stone,’ and it was so labelled. In his description he recorded it has having been:
‘Patiently hollowed out of a well-chosen boulder of basalt. Its length is 24” x 10” wide and 8” to 9” high. The cavity is carefully carved out, and has all the appearance of having been formed to comfortably take a human foot. The space for the foot is 18” long x 6.5” wide, and is smoothly etched by the carver to a depth of 3.5”.’Its date, according to Kermode, is probably 11th century. More than one British archaeologist of repute has studied and admired the object. One, Professor McAlister of Dublin University, after examining the chiselling said, ‘You have obviously a counterpart of the famous ‘Lia Fail’, or ‘Stone of Destiny,’ on which the ‘Ard Ree’ or ‘High King’ of Ireland stood when he was being crowned. But your example is certainly more fitting and more impressive than the one that came from Scone.’
(source: Island Heritage by William Cubbon (1952)) | 2,320 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born in Hummelstown, Pennsylvania on September 8, 1815, Alexander was the eldest of five children of Thomas Ramsey and Elizabeth Kelker (also Kölliker or Köllker). His father was a blacksmith who committed suicide at age 42 when he went bankrupt in 1826, after signing for a note of a friend. Alexander lived with his uncle in Harrisburg, after his family split up to live with relatives. His brother was Justus Cornelius Ramsey, who served in the Minnesota Territorial Legislature.
Ramsey first studied carpentry at Lafayette College but left during his third year. He read law with Hamilton Alricks, and attended Reed's law School in Carlisle (now Pennsylvania State University - Dickinson Law) in 1839. He was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar in 1839.
In 1844 Ramsey married Anna Earl Jenks, daughter of Michael Hutchinson Jenks, and they had three children. Only one daughter, Marion, survived past childhood.
Alexander Ramsey was elected from Pennsylvania as a Whig to the U.S. House of Representatives and served in the 28th and 29th congresses from March 4, 1843 to March 3, 1847. He served as the first Territorial Governor of Minnesota from June 1, 1849 to May 15, 1853 as a member of the Whig Party.
Ramsey was of Scottish and German ancestry. In 1855, he became the mayor of St. Paul, Minnesota. Ramsey was elected the second Governor of Minnesota after statehood and served from January 2, 1860 to July 10, 1863. Ramsey is credited with being the first Union governor to commit troops during the American Civil War. He happened to be in Washington, D.C. when fighting broke out. When he heard about the firing on Ft. Sumter he went straight to the White House and offered Minnesota's services to Abraham Lincoln.
He resigned the governorship to become a U.S. Senator, having been elected to that post in 1863 as a Republican. He was re-elected in 1869 and held the office until March 3, 1875, serving in the 38th, 39th, 40th, 41st, 42nd, and 43rd congresses.
Ramsey is also noted for his statements calling for the killing or removal of specific Native Americans, chiefly the Sioux (Dakota) people that lived in the state of Minnesota. These statements came in response to attacks by the Sioux on American settlements, resulting in the death of not less than 800 men, women and children, as mentioned in Abraham Lincoln's Second Annual Message on December 1, 1862. Ramsey declared on September 9, 1862: "The Sioux Indians of Minnesota must be exterminated or driven forever beyond the borders of the state." He went as far as offering money for scalps of Dakotas.
Ramsey served as Secretary of War from 1879 to 1881, under President Rutherford B. Hayes.
The Minnesota Historical Society preserves his home, the Alexander Ramsey House as a museum. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969. Alexander Ramsey Park, located in Redwood Falls, Minnesota, is the largest municipal park in Minnesota. Ramsey County, Minnesota, Ramsey County, North Dakota, the city of Ramsey, Minnesota, the city of Ramsey, Illinois, Ramsey Park in Stillwater, Minnesota, Ramsey Junior High School in Saint Paul, Minnesota, Alexander Ramsey Elementary School in Montevideo, Minnesota and Ramsey Middle School (formerly Ramsey International Fine Arts Center and formerly Alexander Ramsey Junior High School) in Minneapolis, Minnesota, are also named for him. In the 2016-17 school year, a student-initiated effort to rename Ramsey Middle School resulted in renaming the school after Alan Page, the first African-American Minnesota Supreme Court justice. | <urn:uuid:a05792aa-71de-4de1-a4cc-772ef6947e7b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Alexander-Ramsey | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00026.warc.gz | en | 0.980857 | 771 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
-0.2263140082359314,
0.36239349842071533,
0.3515985310077667,
-0.05723103880882263,
-0.17706024646759033,
-0.23037144541740417,
0.05084946006536484,
0.14666223526000977,
-0.2237028032541275,
-0.11186259239912033,
0.3086201548576355,
0.09780146181583405,
0.2004893720149994,
0.06976658850908... | 2 | Born in Hummelstown, Pennsylvania on September 8, 1815, Alexander was the eldest of five children of Thomas Ramsey and Elizabeth Kelker (also Kölliker or Köllker). His father was a blacksmith who committed suicide at age 42 when he went bankrupt in 1826, after signing for a note of a friend. Alexander lived with his uncle in Harrisburg, after his family split up to live with relatives. His brother was Justus Cornelius Ramsey, who served in the Minnesota Territorial Legislature.
Ramsey first studied carpentry at Lafayette College but left during his third year. He read law with Hamilton Alricks, and attended Reed's law School in Carlisle (now Pennsylvania State University - Dickinson Law) in 1839. He was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar in 1839.
In 1844 Ramsey married Anna Earl Jenks, daughter of Michael Hutchinson Jenks, and they had three children. Only one daughter, Marion, survived past childhood.
Alexander Ramsey was elected from Pennsylvania as a Whig to the U.S. House of Representatives and served in the 28th and 29th congresses from March 4, 1843 to March 3, 1847. He served as the first Territorial Governor of Minnesota from June 1, 1849 to May 15, 1853 as a member of the Whig Party.
Ramsey was of Scottish and German ancestry. In 1855, he became the mayor of St. Paul, Minnesota. Ramsey was elected the second Governor of Minnesota after statehood and served from January 2, 1860 to July 10, 1863. Ramsey is credited with being the first Union governor to commit troops during the American Civil War. He happened to be in Washington, D.C. when fighting broke out. When he heard about the firing on Ft. Sumter he went straight to the White House and offered Minnesota's services to Abraham Lincoln.
He resigned the governorship to become a U.S. Senator, having been elected to that post in 1863 as a Republican. He was re-elected in 1869 and held the office until March 3, 1875, serving in the 38th, 39th, 40th, 41st, 42nd, and 43rd congresses.
Ramsey is also noted for his statements calling for the killing or removal of specific Native Americans, chiefly the Sioux (Dakota) people that lived in the state of Minnesota. These statements came in response to attacks by the Sioux on American settlements, resulting in the death of not less than 800 men, women and children, as mentioned in Abraham Lincoln's Second Annual Message on December 1, 1862. Ramsey declared on September 9, 1862: "The Sioux Indians of Minnesota must be exterminated or driven forever beyond the borders of the state." He went as far as offering money for scalps of Dakotas.
Ramsey served as Secretary of War from 1879 to 1881, under President Rutherford B. Hayes.
The Minnesota Historical Society preserves his home, the Alexander Ramsey House as a museum. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969. Alexander Ramsey Park, located in Redwood Falls, Minnesota, is the largest municipal park in Minnesota. Ramsey County, Minnesota, Ramsey County, North Dakota, the city of Ramsey, Minnesota, the city of Ramsey, Illinois, Ramsey Park in Stillwater, Minnesota, Ramsey Junior High School in Saint Paul, Minnesota, Alexander Ramsey Elementary School in Montevideo, Minnesota and Ramsey Middle School (formerly Ramsey International Fine Arts Center and formerly Alexander Ramsey Junior High School) in Minneapolis, Minnesota, are also named for him. In the 2016-17 school year, a student-initiated effort to rename Ramsey Middle School resulted in renaming the school after Alan Page, the first African-American Minnesota Supreme Court justice. | 860 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Previous Challenge Entry (Level 3 - Advanced)
Topic: Era (02/03/11)
- TITLE: THE END OF AN AGE
By Sylvia Hensel
LEAVE COMMENT ON ARTICLE
SEND A PRIVATE COMMENT
ADD TO MY FAVORITES
It was Sunday and the family was on a trip to Canton, Ohio, to visit relatives. The car radio was playing some of the tunes of the day when the program was interrupted with the tragic news that would change our world forever. The date was December, 7, l941. We all remember it as the beginning of WWII, but I don’t think anyone at the time realized it was the ending of an age.
Immediately, men began enlisting in the Armed Forces, or were drafted to fight for the cause of freedom. Out of necessity, women were called into the work force, mostly in defense plants, or to replace jobs previously held by men.
Prior to this, married women were expected to stay home and care for their families. Men took great pride in providing for their families; and it was considered demeaning for a man’s wife to work outside the home.
It didn’t matter how small the paycheck, women were expected to stretch the money to cover everything needed to run the household smoothly. If the women could not do so, they were considered failures in their role as wives. Many an argument ensued if a wife hinted at wanting to get a job outside the home to help make ends meet. It seemed the only thing acceptable was to become a domestic.
Now that America was in war, as part of the war effort, the government rationed foods like sugar, butter, milk, cheese, eggs, coffee, meat and canned goods. The government turned to its citizens and encouraged them to plant “Victory Gardens.” It seemed everyone, the poor and the wealthy, participated in this endeavor. Women and children worked together, along with the few men left, to plant, harvest and can all that which they grew in their backyards, empty lots and even city rooftops. Co-ops were formed, all in the name of patriotism. Women found themselves able to do more than they ever thought possible and it was gratifying.
As the women joined the work force, they began to feel the sense of independence. Money was good, very good. America had just come out of the Great Depression where there were few jobs and little or no money. Women couldn’t work for the reasons already mentioned. Now it had become not only a necessity to work outside the home, but it was considered patriotic.
In August of 1945, the war ended and the men came home. Some women were anxious to return to their former job as homemakers, but not all. There was a great upheaval in many households. Men’s attitudes hadn’t changed. However, women had had a taste of freedom from financial worries and a sense of pride in their abilities to do many other things along with being a wife and mother. Some were able to convince their husbands that with two incomes they could finally get a few of the things they were not previously able to afford; and now there were so many more “things” to be had.
As the “Joneses” began to accumulate a large variety of household items, automobiles, boats, vacations and whatever they seemed to want (they were way past needs by now), neighbors and family members began to see the value of another income in the family.
Everyone wanted their children to have more than they did and the only way to get it was to have more cash flow in the home, so more women joined the work force. And so it is, each generation wanting more than the last, till we have come to a place where nothing satisfies anymore. Too much has become not enough. For the most part, family values have fallen apart as well as families themselves.
There is a lot to be said about “the good old days”, but would we want them back? I really don’t think we would want everything as it was. Medicine and technology have advanced too far to ever go back, but it would be good to recapture the integrity, respect, manners, and the sanctity of marriage, along with an appreciation for the blessings God gives us each day. We need to remember to worship the Giver and not the gift; for without the Giver, there would be no gifts.
The opinions expressed by authors may not necessarily reflect the opinion of FaithWriters.com.
Accept Jesus as Your Lord and Savior Right Now - CLICK HERE
JOIN US at FaithWriters for Free. Grow as a Writer and Spread the Gospel. | <urn:uuid:6484ed2a-ed35-4604-8aa6-c18046e309f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.faithwriters.com/wc-article-level3-previous.php?id=38527 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00164.warc.gz | en | 0.991549 | 984 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
-0.5719311237335205,
0.25535956025123596,
0.12968097627162933,
-0.03504139184951782,
0.027869313955307007,
0.16993987560272217,
-0.0473770797252655,
-0.08002127707004547,
-0.38123735785484314,
-0.1474495828151703,
0.34340015053749084,
0.22015368938446045,
-0.14030101895332336,
0.1613726168... | 1 | Previous Challenge Entry (Level 3 - Advanced)
Topic: Era (02/03/11)
- TITLE: THE END OF AN AGE
By Sylvia Hensel
LEAVE COMMENT ON ARTICLE
SEND A PRIVATE COMMENT
ADD TO MY FAVORITES
It was Sunday and the family was on a trip to Canton, Ohio, to visit relatives. The car radio was playing some of the tunes of the day when the program was interrupted with the tragic news that would change our world forever. The date was December, 7, l941. We all remember it as the beginning of WWII, but I don’t think anyone at the time realized it was the ending of an age.
Immediately, men began enlisting in the Armed Forces, or were drafted to fight for the cause of freedom. Out of necessity, women were called into the work force, mostly in defense plants, or to replace jobs previously held by men.
Prior to this, married women were expected to stay home and care for their families. Men took great pride in providing for their families; and it was considered demeaning for a man’s wife to work outside the home.
It didn’t matter how small the paycheck, women were expected to stretch the money to cover everything needed to run the household smoothly. If the women could not do so, they were considered failures in their role as wives. Many an argument ensued if a wife hinted at wanting to get a job outside the home to help make ends meet. It seemed the only thing acceptable was to become a domestic.
Now that America was in war, as part of the war effort, the government rationed foods like sugar, butter, milk, cheese, eggs, coffee, meat and canned goods. The government turned to its citizens and encouraged them to plant “Victory Gardens.” It seemed everyone, the poor and the wealthy, participated in this endeavor. Women and children worked together, along with the few men left, to plant, harvest and can all that which they grew in their backyards, empty lots and even city rooftops. Co-ops were formed, all in the name of patriotism. Women found themselves able to do more than they ever thought possible and it was gratifying.
As the women joined the work force, they began to feel the sense of independence. Money was good, very good. America had just come out of the Great Depression where there were few jobs and little or no money. Women couldn’t work for the reasons already mentioned. Now it had become not only a necessity to work outside the home, but it was considered patriotic.
In August of 1945, the war ended and the men came home. Some women were anxious to return to their former job as homemakers, but not all. There was a great upheaval in many households. Men’s attitudes hadn’t changed. However, women had had a taste of freedom from financial worries and a sense of pride in their abilities to do many other things along with being a wife and mother. Some were able to convince their husbands that with two incomes they could finally get a few of the things they were not previously able to afford; and now there were so many more “things” to be had.
As the “Joneses” began to accumulate a large variety of household items, automobiles, boats, vacations and whatever they seemed to want (they were way past needs by now), neighbors and family members began to see the value of another income in the family.
Everyone wanted their children to have more than they did and the only way to get it was to have more cash flow in the home, so more women joined the work force. And so it is, each generation wanting more than the last, till we have come to a place where nothing satisfies anymore. Too much has become not enough. For the most part, family values have fallen apart as well as families themselves.
There is a lot to be said about “the good old days”, but would we want them back? I really don’t think we would want everything as it was. Medicine and technology have advanced too far to ever go back, but it would be good to recapture the integrity, respect, manners, and the sanctity of marriage, along with an appreciation for the blessings God gives us each day. We need to remember to worship the Giver and not the gift; for without the Giver, there would be no gifts.
The opinions expressed by authors may not necessarily reflect the opinion of FaithWriters.com.
Accept Jesus as Your Lord and Savior Right Now - CLICK HERE
JOIN US at FaithWriters for Free. Grow as a Writer and Spread the Gospel. | 943 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Главная > Реферат >Остальные работы
Slavery In Us Essay, Research Paper
“Slavery! How much misery is comprehended in that single word…Unless the image of God be obliterated from the soul, all men cherish the love of liberty”(Garnet, Henry). Due to slavery, it has made it hard for blacks to survive economically and to be accepted by society. Yet Negroes, at that time, were considered to be subhuman, therefore having no rights. Today, when African-Americans have been free for over a hundred years, it is obvious that blacks too are people and how immorally they have been treated in the past. In Toni Morrison’s novel “Beloved,” the person who best survives the horror of slavery is Denver. Denver survived slavery, because she was able to break out of her mother’s shadow and establish herself as a contender for the good in life, setting an example for others to follow.
Throughout her life, Denver seems to always be living in the shadow of her mother. Society shunned Sethe because of her actions and that made it impossible for Denver to succeed and fit into society. So because of not being accepted in the community as a result of Sethe’s actions, and because of her fear of her mother killing again, Denver did not leave the confines of her yard for many years. Although Denver had not experienced first hand the brutality and damage inflicted to the soul by slavery. She had grown up listening to people’s life stories and knew well what the concept of slavery meant. In a way it is almost as if she was in bondage in her very own house. She was scared to leave her own yard, for fear that what made her mom kill her older sister would happen again. “Whatever it is, it comes from outside this house, outside the yard, and it can come right on in the yard if it wants to. So I never leave this house and I watch over the yard, so it can’t happen again and my mother won’t have to kill me too.”(Morrison p.205) In the years following Baby Suggs death, Denver did not dare step outside the imaginary line she had created for herself. She knew that the outside world had given her mother a reason to kill before. Therefore she
sheltered herself from something she had absolutely no authority over, and did everything in her power to not expose herself to that world.
It can be said that Denver was a charmed baby from birth. The odds for her survival were slim, yet she overcame these obstacles and survived. Who would have thought that Sethe and the baby would live through that labor in the fields, miles from anyone, how ironic is it that Amy, a white girl nevertheless would help give birth. It was more than just pure luck, Denver was destined to survive and live on to achieve greater things. Sethe herself says, “Don’t worry about her. She’s a charmed child. From the beginning. Nothing bad can happen to her… When I went to jail … Denver was just a baby so she went right along with me. Rats bit everything in there but her.” (Pg. 42) The fact that Denver was chosen to survive was compelling evidence that she was the chosen one she was not meant to suffer the struggle of slavery. Denver was to act as an important symbol of the bright future for slaves. Sethe had been imprisoned by slavery most of her young life whatever hope she had of a better future was transferred into her daughter, Denver. She had always been a bright child, and was happy to go to school. Due to her shy manner, some “people said she was simple, but Lady Jones never believed it. Having taught her, watched her eat up a page, a rule, a figure. She knew better.” (Pg. 247) This demonstrates how eager Denver was to learn, and that she had a future full of promise, within her reach. So different from the opportunities her mother could lay claim on, at the same age only twenty years earlier.
As the time went by and Beloved began her revenge on Sethe, Denver became very protective of her. Soon it was obvious that unless something would drastically change they would all die, due to the lack of supplies, food and money. The basic instinct of survival is what made
Denver step out of that self-inflicted boundary and made her overcome her fears. “So it was she (Denver) who had to step off the edge of the world and die because if she didn’t, they all
would.”(Pg. 239) Only when Denver steps out of the yard she makes a life changing discovery that there is good in all people. “Maybe they (people outside her home) were simply nice people who could hold meanness toward each other for just so long and when trouble rode bareback among them, quickly, easily they did what they could to trip him up. In any case, the personal pride, the arrogant claim staked out at 124 seemed to them to have run its course.” (Pg. 249) After she makes the vital discovery her life abruptly changes and she begins making friends, people begin to help her until she is able to support family, gets a job, and little by little makes a place for herself in the society she once feared. Thus Denver inadvertently broke out of the mold that Sethe had subconsciously set for her, and lives up to her destiny.
Towards the conclusion of the novel, when Beloved’s ghost has been exorcised, Denver once again takes up the study of books from Mrs. Bodwin, another white schoolteacher. Denver’s second bid for an education and Paul D’s concealed impulse to warn her, “watch out. Watch out. Nothing in the world more dangerous than a white schoolteacher”(pg 266), intersect to form a lethal possibility that Morrison subtly invites readers to consider: a white education may represent, for Denver, another form of enslavement to the master culture. While the formal institution of slavery may have become obsolete, the systematic structure of racial oppression and its denial of African culture, identity and history continues in the socially and morally sanctioned institutions of education and language.
The person who best survives the atrocities of slavery is Denver. She overcomes many difficult obstacles and moves on to accomplish bigger and greater things then anyone in her family has ever been able to accomplish. Doors become open to her and she grabs all the opportunities, and begins to make something of her life. In return for her hard work Miss Bodwin not only pays
her money, but also teaches her things. “She says I might go Oberlin.” (Pg. 266) Oberlin, was one
of the first Universities to accept black students. This illustrates how far the U.S. had come in its struggle in a period of a mere twenty years. It is accomplishments like going to college, finding a job, getting married, and making something of herself, that pushed her forward. Denver followed through on her destiny and little by little became a somebody. All of a sudden the girl from 124 grew up, she had responsibilities, which she gladly accepted and made everyone proud. Although Denver was never a slave it can be said she survived slavery throughout the life stories that terrorized her mother and many other black people. Denver broke out of the shadow of her mother, and established herself as her own person; she did everything that contradicted the ideas of slavery.
Denver was more than just a survivor of slavery. She was a hero. This demonstrates her brilliant
future as well as that of other ex-slaves and black people.
- Slavery In US Essay, Research Paper The Slaves? And The Slaveowners? Views Of Slavery ?That face of his ... I chose the topic about slavery for my research paper because I thought it would ...
- Slavery In Us Essay, Research Paper It is my intent ... fuel the controversy of slavery in the United States. Slavery was a practice ... that was favored by the South. In the ... antagonist’s position. No doubt slavery was the most delicate with ...
- ... Parties In Us Essay, Research Paper Political Parties There are numerous political parties in the United ... question about slavery. The Liberty Party made a poor showing in the ... the Thirteenth Amendment, which outlawed slavery and the Fourteenth Amendment, ...
- ... nearly one hundred percent of slavery in the United States. That ... still problems today with slavery in relationships. In some relationships men can ... way to look at slavery today. In Egypt the woman can ... anyone can do about the slavery in the world today. Nobody ...
- U.S Presence In Mexico Essay, Research Paper The American presence ... . John Jacob Aster specialized in Frontier capitalism. The citibank ... was the North?s argument against slavery. Jeremy Bennett said ” ... indictive of the American Attitudes in the 1860?s. The U.S ... | <urn:uuid:4ce21af7-d77d-49dd-b182-20310dc07d07> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://works.doklad.ru/view/HhV6zbXo3Lw.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.981438 | 1,913 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
-0.11121639609336853,
0.34213587641716003,
0.02311423048377037,
0.1503957211971283,
0.031467877328395844,
-0.037257347255945206,
0.05494004860520363,
-0.08858755230903625,
0.1463947892189026,
0.0016075033927336335,
0.058522455394268036,
0.0059517486952245235,
-0.1135188490152359,
0.0878794... | 2 | Главная > Реферат >Остальные работы
Slavery In Us Essay, Research Paper
“Slavery! How much misery is comprehended in that single word…Unless the image of God be obliterated from the soul, all men cherish the love of liberty”(Garnet, Henry). Due to slavery, it has made it hard for blacks to survive economically and to be accepted by society. Yet Negroes, at that time, were considered to be subhuman, therefore having no rights. Today, when African-Americans have been free for over a hundred years, it is obvious that blacks too are people and how immorally they have been treated in the past. In Toni Morrison’s novel “Beloved,” the person who best survives the horror of slavery is Denver. Denver survived slavery, because she was able to break out of her mother’s shadow and establish herself as a contender for the good in life, setting an example for others to follow.
Throughout her life, Denver seems to always be living in the shadow of her mother. Society shunned Sethe because of her actions and that made it impossible for Denver to succeed and fit into society. So because of not being accepted in the community as a result of Sethe’s actions, and because of her fear of her mother killing again, Denver did not leave the confines of her yard for many years. Although Denver had not experienced first hand the brutality and damage inflicted to the soul by slavery. She had grown up listening to people’s life stories and knew well what the concept of slavery meant. In a way it is almost as if she was in bondage in her very own house. She was scared to leave her own yard, for fear that what made her mom kill her older sister would happen again. “Whatever it is, it comes from outside this house, outside the yard, and it can come right on in the yard if it wants to. So I never leave this house and I watch over the yard, so it can’t happen again and my mother won’t have to kill me too.”(Morrison p.205) In the years following Baby Suggs death, Denver did not dare step outside the imaginary line she had created for herself. She knew that the outside world had given her mother a reason to kill before. Therefore she
sheltered herself from something she had absolutely no authority over, and did everything in her power to not expose herself to that world.
It can be said that Denver was a charmed baby from birth. The odds for her survival were slim, yet she overcame these obstacles and survived. Who would have thought that Sethe and the baby would live through that labor in the fields, miles from anyone, how ironic is it that Amy, a white girl nevertheless would help give birth. It was more than just pure luck, Denver was destined to survive and live on to achieve greater things. Sethe herself says, “Don’t worry about her. She’s a charmed child. From the beginning. Nothing bad can happen to her… When I went to jail … Denver was just a baby so she went right along with me. Rats bit everything in there but her.” (Pg. 42) The fact that Denver was chosen to survive was compelling evidence that she was the chosen one she was not meant to suffer the struggle of slavery. Denver was to act as an important symbol of the bright future for slaves. Sethe had been imprisoned by slavery most of her young life whatever hope she had of a better future was transferred into her daughter, Denver. She had always been a bright child, and was happy to go to school. Due to her shy manner, some “people said she was simple, but Lady Jones never believed it. Having taught her, watched her eat up a page, a rule, a figure. She knew better.” (Pg. 247) This demonstrates how eager Denver was to learn, and that she had a future full of promise, within her reach. So different from the opportunities her mother could lay claim on, at the same age only twenty years earlier.
As the time went by and Beloved began her revenge on Sethe, Denver became very protective of her. Soon it was obvious that unless something would drastically change they would all die, due to the lack of supplies, food and money. The basic instinct of survival is what made
Denver step out of that self-inflicted boundary and made her overcome her fears. “So it was she (Denver) who had to step off the edge of the world and die because if she didn’t, they all
would.”(Pg. 239) Only when Denver steps out of the yard she makes a life changing discovery that there is good in all people. “Maybe they (people outside her home) were simply nice people who could hold meanness toward each other for just so long and when trouble rode bareback among them, quickly, easily they did what they could to trip him up. In any case, the personal pride, the arrogant claim staked out at 124 seemed to them to have run its course.” (Pg. 249) After she makes the vital discovery her life abruptly changes and she begins making friends, people begin to help her until she is able to support family, gets a job, and little by little makes a place for herself in the society she once feared. Thus Denver inadvertently broke out of the mold that Sethe had subconsciously set for her, and lives up to her destiny.
Towards the conclusion of the novel, when Beloved’s ghost has been exorcised, Denver once again takes up the study of books from Mrs. Bodwin, another white schoolteacher. Denver’s second bid for an education and Paul D’s concealed impulse to warn her, “watch out. Watch out. Nothing in the world more dangerous than a white schoolteacher”(pg 266), intersect to form a lethal possibility that Morrison subtly invites readers to consider: a white education may represent, for Denver, another form of enslavement to the master culture. While the formal institution of slavery may have become obsolete, the systematic structure of racial oppression and its denial of African culture, identity and history continues in the socially and morally sanctioned institutions of education and language.
The person who best survives the atrocities of slavery is Denver. She overcomes many difficult obstacles and moves on to accomplish bigger and greater things then anyone in her family has ever been able to accomplish. Doors become open to her and she grabs all the opportunities, and begins to make something of her life. In return for her hard work Miss Bodwin not only pays
her money, but also teaches her things. “She says I might go Oberlin.” (Pg. 266) Oberlin, was one
of the first Universities to accept black students. This illustrates how far the U.S. had come in its struggle in a period of a mere twenty years. It is accomplishments like going to college, finding a job, getting married, and making something of herself, that pushed her forward. Denver followed through on her destiny and little by little became a somebody. All of a sudden the girl from 124 grew up, she had responsibilities, which she gladly accepted and made everyone proud. Although Denver was never a slave it can be said she survived slavery throughout the life stories that terrorized her mother and many other black people. Denver broke out of the shadow of her mother, and established herself as her own person; she did everything that contradicted the ideas of slavery.
Denver was more than just a survivor of slavery. She was a hero. This demonstrates her brilliant
future as well as that of other ex-slaves and black people.
- Slavery In US Essay, Research Paper The Slaves? And The Slaveowners? Views Of Slavery ?That face of his ... I chose the topic about slavery for my research paper because I thought it would ...
- Slavery In Us Essay, Research Paper It is my intent ... fuel the controversy of slavery in the United States. Slavery was a practice ... that was favored by the South. In the ... antagonist’s position. No doubt slavery was the most delicate with ...
- ... Parties In Us Essay, Research Paper Political Parties There are numerous political parties in the United ... question about slavery. The Liberty Party made a poor showing in the ... the Thirteenth Amendment, which outlawed slavery and the Fourteenth Amendment, ...
- ... nearly one hundred percent of slavery in the United States. That ... still problems today with slavery in relationships. In some relationships men can ... way to look at slavery today. In Egypt the woman can ... anyone can do about the slavery in the world today. Nobody ...
- U.S Presence In Mexico Essay, Research Paper The American presence ... . John Jacob Aster specialized in Frontier capitalism. The citibank ... was the North?s argument against slavery. Jeremy Bennett said ” ... indictive of the American Attitudes in the 1860?s. The U.S ... | 1,840 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Japan is a nation that loves its gadgets, but prior to the Second World War, the nation could be described more as a "follower" than an "innovator" when it came to military hardware.
While military historians often note that the Imperial Japanese Navy used advanced tactics and came up with innovative techniques whilst waging war, it lagged in other areas. It is notable that the Japanese actually adopted aircraft carrier doctrine in part as a response to the treaties that limited the nation's number of battleships, but when it came to small arms, the country still lagged behind.
When compared to the small arms of the other combatant nations of the Second World War, Japan had some of the most unreliable and antiquated weapons. This didn't factor into how the nation performed in the field, however.
The average Japanese soldier, while at the time portrayed through Allied propaganda with buck teeth and Coke-bottle glasses, actually performed as well as any other soldier. The national loyalty to the Emperor and the strong tie to the Bashido code further enhanced the Japanese fighting spirit. Throughout much of the war, surrender wasn't seen as an option because it would bring so much shame. The same even held true to the concept of retreating! Thus, many a Japanese life was wasted over a matter of honor, even as the situation turned hopeless. Therefore, this isn't meant to be a look at the Japanese fighting man, but rather the equipment he carried into battle.
To this end, some of the greatest misconceptions need to be addressed. It has been said in hindsight that the Japanese soldier fought World War II with World War I small arms. But this is only partially true. While the main small arms consisted of the same basic style of bolt action rifle that had been used a generation earlier, the same held true of the other major powers – including Germany, Italy, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain. The other main point is that Japanese arms were not of inferior quality, at least not until much later in the war, but it is safe to say some were simply bad concepts. Yet the Japanese should be noted too for their innovations.
Here is a closer look at some of the key Japanese small arms of the Second World War:
Arisaka Type 38 and Type 99 rifle
A group of Japanese rifles from the Second World War. These fared as well as those from the Soviet Union or Great Britain, but were clearly showing their age. (Photo: Author's Collection)
The two main rifles used by the Japanese in World War II are both often called the "Arisaka." These were named after Colonel Nariake Ariska, who was responsible for creating the commission to find a new rifle.
The first pattern was known as the Type 30 rifle (the 30 comes from the 1897 A.D., which was the 30th year of the Emperor Meiji), and this was updated following the Russo-Japanese War in 1905. The new model thus became the Type 38. It was chambered in the 6.5x50SR, and more than three million of these were made. The gun clearly was influenced by the German K98 and other Mauser designs.
During the war with China, which began in 1931, it was apparent that a larger cartridge was needed, and the Japanese adopted the 7.7x58mm round, based on the British .303 (7.7x57R). To confuse collectors and military historians for decades, this rifle was designated the Type 99 - which in this case refers to the Japanese year 2099, which was believed to be the date of the creation of the world). Some three and a half million of the Type 99 rifles were made, not counting variations, which include sniper configurations and even take-down models that were reportedly designed for use by paratroopers. Another version of the rifle, the Type 44 Carbine, was designed primarily for use as a cavalry rifle – although this shouldn't be confused with the Type 38 Cavalry rifle, a slightly shorter version of the Type 38.
Type 11 Light Machine Gun
The Type 11 in use by a Japanese border guard in 1933 (Photo: Public Domain)
Since the opening of the west, the Japanese Army followed a French influence. This was certainly the case with the Type 11, which was modeled after the French Hotchkiss air-cooled, gas-operated light machine gun, and designed by Kijiro Nambu. It used the same cartridges as the Type 38 infantry rifle, and used a detachable hopper magazine, which allowed for the gun to be constantly fed with ammunition while firing.
Five-round clips could be stacked laying flat above the receiver, which eased loading – something that probably seemed like an excellent idea in test situations. This proved to be a problem, as dirt and grime could easily jam the weapon. Likewise, while reloading from a fixed position was easy, it was nearly impossible to reload quickly whilst on the move.
Type 92 Heavy Machine Gun
A Type 92 heavy machine gun in use at the Battle of Changsha in 1941. (Photo: Public Domain)
The Type 92 was based on the French Hotchkiss design and fired the rimmed 7.7mm Shiki rounds – and as it fired at about 2,400 feet per second and had a rate of fire of 450 rounds per minute, it earned the nickname the "woodpecker" because of its distinctive clicking sound. The gun had a maximum range of 4,500 meters, but the realistic range was about 800 meters. It took a crew of three to operate this weapon.
The "woodpecker" was further notable for its off-center design and to the right iron sights. The HMG could also be fitted with alternative sights, including periscopic and telescopic, while an anti-aircraft sight was also produced for the Type 92. And while the gun had a rate of fire of 450 rpm, this was seldom the case, as the gun utilized a short clip for loading, which resulted in frequent jamming. As with other gun jams, the typical solution used by the Japanese was to oil the rounds, but this only increased the problem as the oiled cartridges picked up dirt and sand.
Type 96 Light Machine Gun
The Type 96 improved on the Type 11 by offering a removable/top loading magazine. It was the first light machine gun that could be fitted with a bayonet. (Photo: Private Collection/Photo by the Author)
This was essentially an improved version of the Type 11. It featured a folding bipod, and interestingly enough, could even be fitted with a bayonet! The biggest problem with this LMG is that it jammed when fired because cases often became stuck in the chamber. To solve the problem, it was suggested by the gun’s designer Kijiro Nambu that the cartridges should be oiled, which, of course, in combat only made matters worse!
Type 99 Light Machine Gun
Externally similar to the Type 96, the Type 99 also used a top-loading magazine, while early models included a monopod in the stock! (Photo: Private Collection/Photo by the Author)
Building on the features of the Type 96, whilst trying to address the flaws, the Japanese introduced the Type 99 in 1936. The gun is often compared to the British Bren Gun, but this is an unfair comparison, as other than the top-loading curved magazine and basic silhouette, the guns' respective internal workings are quite different.
The Type 99 was actually an upgrade to the Type 96, and early models employed a monopod at the stock as well as a flash suppressor. One feature it did share with the Bren was that the barrel could be rapidly changed to avoid overheating. The distinctive feature, and what makes the comparison to the Bren inevitable, is that aforementioned top-mounted detachable box magazine, which held 30 rounds and solved the loading problems. As with the Type 11 and Type 96, the Type 99 was used throughout World War II.
Type II Submachine Gun
An illustration of the experimental Type II submachine gun. It is unknown how many were produced during the war. (Public Domain)
Ironically, while the German military is remembered as much for its iconic MP-40 submachine gun (SMG), the Japanese are usually thought of as being a nation that didn't actually use an SMG. Blame Hollywood (as the weapons are seldom seen on screen), or simply the fact that few survived, but the truth is that even among collectors, few remember that the Japanese actually produced a rather decent personal machine gun.
The first was the Type II submachine gun, which the Imperial Japanese Navy introduced in time for the invasion of Shanghai. Originally, it was chambered for the 8mm Nambu pistol round, but this had a tendency to jam, so a smaller version of the gun was developed.
The Type II also had the unique distinction of being the first small machine pistol to have the magazine clip extend from the pistol grip. This is clearly a rare example of Japanese innovation during the World War II era in regards to its small arms development. Unfortunately, the gun was produced in small numbers, and very few survived the war.
Type 100 Submachine Gun
An illustration of the Type 100 – a well-designed machine gun used in limited numbers by Japanese NCOs and paratroopers during the war. (Photo: Public Domain)
The more common, but still extremely rare, submachine gun was the Type 100. It was also designed and produced by the Nambu Arms Manufacturing Company and was introduced in 1942. Why the gun took so long to develop is not really known, especially given that the Japanese had looked to make a copy of the German MP18/Swiss SIG Bergman 1920. Regardless of the delay, the gun only entered service after the war had begun, and by war’s end, only 30,000 had been delivered. Compared to the number of MP-40s, British Sten Guns, Soviet PPSh-41s, and of course American Thomas Submachine Guns, this number is relatively small.
It is still – at least for those who recognize it – an iconic-looking firearm. It was simple, and by the standards of the day, an inexpensive to produce weapon. Notably, it was equipped with a bayonet lug – which may seem odd, but in fairness, the British Sten could also be used with a bayonet, too! The Type 100 was an automatic-only, air-cooled, blow back gun that fired from an open bolt. As with the MP18, or the later Sten, it utilized a side-mounted 30-round detachable box magazine, while the gun fired the 8x22mm Nambu cartridge, which some have argued was a little underpowered compared to the other SMGs in use during the war.
The Japanese took the extra step of providing a chrome-plated bore, which was developed for Asian jungle conditions. Some early models also featured a bipod, although how practical this might have been is debatable. A paratrooper model was also fitted with a folding stock. The gun underwent a design change in 1944 to simplify the production. As with other "last ditch" small arms, these are notable for roughly finished stocks, sloppy welds, and other telltale signs that quality wasn't the highest priority.
Peter Suciu is a freelance writer based in Michigan. Contact him at firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:d05ca310-4922-431c-b9dd-48ea73c3bb39> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gunpowdermagazine.com/japanese-small-arms-of-world-war-ii-weapons-from-the-land-of-the-rising-sun/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00242.warc.gz | en | 0.981602 | 2,358 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
-0.4472896456718445,
0.207333505153656,
0.17288081347942352,
-0.4709707498550415,
0.3331156373023987,
0.26934993267059326,
0.19216810166835785,
0.481025367975235,
-0.15423716604709625,
-0.08870930969715118,
0.11225336790084839,
0.012846393510699272,
0.5597851872444153,
0.5568718910217285,
... | 1 | Japan is a nation that loves its gadgets, but prior to the Second World War, the nation could be described more as a "follower" than an "innovator" when it came to military hardware.
While military historians often note that the Imperial Japanese Navy used advanced tactics and came up with innovative techniques whilst waging war, it lagged in other areas. It is notable that the Japanese actually adopted aircraft carrier doctrine in part as a response to the treaties that limited the nation's number of battleships, but when it came to small arms, the country still lagged behind.
When compared to the small arms of the other combatant nations of the Second World War, Japan had some of the most unreliable and antiquated weapons. This didn't factor into how the nation performed in the field, however.
The average Japanese soldier, while at the time portrayed through Allied propaganda with buck teeth and Coke-bottle glasses, actually performed as well as any other soldier. The national loyalty to the Emperor and the strong tie to the Bashido code further enhanced the Japanese fighting spirit. Throughout much of the war, surrender wasn't seen as an option because it would bring so much shame. The same even held true to the concept of retreating! Thus, many a Japanese life was wasted over a matter of honor, even as the situation turned hopeless. Therefore, this isn't meant to be a look at the Japanese fighting man, but rather the equipment he carried into battle.
To this end, some of the greatest misconceptions need to be addressed. It has been said in hindsight that the Japanese soldier fought World War II with World War I small arms. But this is only partially true. While the main small arms consisted of the same basic style of bolt action rifle that had been used a generation earlier, the same held true of the other major powers – including Germany, Italy, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain. The other main point is that Japanese arms were not of inferior quality, at least not until much later in the war, but it is safe to say some were simply bad concepts. Yet the Japanese should be noted too for their innovations.
Here is a closer look at some of the key Japanese small arms of the Second World War:
Arisaka Type 38 and Type 99 rifle
A group of Japanese rifles from the Second World War. These fared as well as those from the Soviet Union or Great Britain, but were clearly showing their age. (Photo: Author's Collection)
The two main rifles used by the Japanese in World War II are both often called the "Arisaka." These were named after Colonel Nariake Ariska, who was responsible for creating the commission to find a new rifle.
The first pattern was known as the Type 30 rifle (the 30 comes from the 1897 A.D., which was the 30th year of the Emperor Meiji), and this was updated following the Russo-Japanese War in 1905. The new model thus became the Type 38. It was chambered in the 6.5x50SR, and more than three million of these were made. The gun clearly was influenced by the German K98 and other Mauser designs.
During the war with China, which began in 1931, it was apparent that a larger cartridge was needed, and the Japanese adopted the 7.7x58mm round, based on the British .303 (7.7x57R). To confuse collectors and military historians for decades, this rifle was designated the Type 99 - which in this case refers to the Japanese year 2099, which was believed to be the date of the creation of the world). Some three and a half million of the Type 99 rifles were made, not counting variations, which include sniper configurations and even take-down models that were reportedly designed for use by paratroopers. Another version of the rifle, the Type 44 Carbine, was designed primarily for use as a cavalry rifle – although this shouldn't be confused with the Type 38 Cavalry rifle, a slightly shorter version of the Type 38.
Type 11 Light Machine Gun
The Type 11 in use by a Japanese border guard in 1933 (Photo: Public Domain)
Since the opening of the west, the Japanese Army followed a French influence. This was certainly the case with the Type 11, which was modeled after the French Hotchkiss air-cooled, gas-operated light machine gun, and designed by Kijiro Nambu. It used the same cartridges as the Type 38 infantry rifle, and used a detachable hopper magazine, which allowed for the gun to be constantly fed with ammunition while firing.
Five-round clips could be stacked laying flat above the receiver, which eased loading – something that probably seemed like an excellent idea in test situations. This proved to be a problem, as dirt and grime could easily jam the weapon. Likewise, while reloading from a fixed position was easy, it was nearly impossible to reload quickly whilst on the move.
Type 92 Heavy Machine Gun
A Type 92 heavy machine gun in use at the Battle of Changsha in 1941. (Photo: Public Domain)
The Type 92 was based on the French Hotchkiss design and fired the rimmed 7.7mm Shiki rounds – and as it fired at about 2,400 feet per second and had a rate of fire of 450 rounds per minute, it earned the nickname the "woodpecker" because of its distinctive clicking sound. The gun had a maximum range of 4,500 meters, but the realistic range was about 800 meters. It took a crew of three to operate this weapon.
The "woodpecker" was further notable for its off-center design and to the right iron sights. The HMG could also be fitted with alternative sights, including periscopic and telescopic, while an anti-aircraft sight was also produced for the Type 92. And while the gun had a rate of fire of 450 rpm, this was seldom the case, as the gun utilized a short clip for loading, which resulted in frequent jamming. As with other gun jams, the typical solution used by the Japanese was to oil the rounds, but this only increased the problem as the oiled cartridges picked up dirt and sand.
Type 96 Light Machine Gun
The Type 96 improved on the Type 11 by offering a removable/top loading magazine. It was the first light machine gun that could be fitted with a bayonet. (Photo: Private Collection/Photo by the Author)
This was essentially an improved version of the Type 11. It featured a folding bipod, and interestingly enough, could even be fitted with a bayonet! The biggest problem with this LMG is that it jammed when fired because cases often became stuck in the chamber. To solve the problem, it was suggested by the gun’s designer Kijiro Nambu that the cartridges should be oiled, which, of course, in combat only made matters worse!
Type 99 Light Machine Gun
Externally similar to the Type 96, the Type 99 also used a top-loading magazine, while early models included a monopod in the stock! (Photo: Private Collection/Photo by the Author)
Building on the features of the Type 96, whilst trying to address the flaws, the Japanese introduced the Type 99 in 1936. The gun is often compared to the British Bren Gun, but this is an unfair comparison, as other than the top-loading curved magazine and basic silhouette, the guns' respective internal workings are quite different.
The Type 99 was actually an upgrade to the Type 96, and early models employed a monopod at the stock as well as a flash suppressor. One feature it did share with the Bren was that the barrel could be rapidly changed to avoid overheating. The distinctive feature, and what makes the comparison to the Bren inevitable, is that aforementioned top-mounted detachable box magazine, which held 30 rounds and solved the loading problems. As with the Type 11 and Type 96, the Type 99 was used throughout World War II.
Type II Submachine Gun
An illustration of the experimental Type II submachine gun. It is unknown how many were produced during the war. (Public Domain)
Ironically, while the German military is remembered as much for its iconic MP-40 submachine gun (SMG), the Japanese are usually thought of as being a nation that didn't actually use an SMG. Blame Hollywood (as the weapons are seldom seen on screen), or simply the fact that few survived, but the truth is that even among collectors, few remember that the Japanese actually produced a rather decent personal machine gun.
The first was the Type II submachine gun, which the Imperial Japanese Navy introduced in time for the invasion of Shanghai. Originally, it was chambered for the 8mm Nambu pistol round, but this had a tendency to jam, so a smaller version of the gun was developed.
The Type II also had the unique distinction of being the first small machine pistol to have the magazine clip extend from the pistol grip. This is clearly a rare example of Japanese innovation during the World War II era in regards to its small arms development. Unfortunately, the gun was produced in small numbers, and very few survived the war.
Type 100 Submachine Gun
An illustration of the Type 100 – a well-designed machine gun used in limited numbers by Japanese NCOs and paratroopers during the war. (Photo: Public Domain)
The more common, but still extremely rare, submachine gun was the Type 100. It was also designed and produced by the Nambu Arms Manufacturing Company and was introduced in 1942. Why the gun took so long to develop is not really known, especially given that the Japanese had looked to make a copy of the German MP18/Swiss SIG Bergman 1920. Regardless of the delay, the gun only entered service after the war had begun, and by war’s end, only 30,000 had been delivered. Compared to the number of MP-40s, British Sten Guns, Soviet PPSh-41s, and of course American Thomas Submachine Guns, this number is relatively small.
It is still – at least for those who recognize it – an iconic-looking firearm. It was simple, and by the standards of the day, an inexpensive to produce weapon. Notably, it was equipped with a bayonet lug – which may seem odd, but in fairness, the British Sten could also be used with a bayonet, too! The Type 100 was an automatic-only, air-cooled, blow back gun that fired from an open bolt. As with the MP18, or the later Sten, it utilized a side-mounted 30-round detachable box magazine, while the gun fired the 8x22mm Nambu cartridge, which some have argued was a little underpowered compared to the other SMGs in use during the war.
The Japanese took the extra step of providing a chrome-plated bore, which was developed for Asian jungle conditions. Some early models also featured a bipod, although how practical this might have been is debatable. A paratrooper model was also fitted with a folding stock. The gun underwent a design change in 1944 to simplify the production. As with other "last ditch" small arms, these are notable for roughly finished stocks, sloppy welds, and other telltale signs that quality wasn't the highest priority.
Peter Suciu is a freelance writer based in Michigan. Contact him at firstname.lastname@example.org. | 2,465 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Although scientific dentistry is a relatively recent innovation, cosmetic dentists developed their art alongside more primitive forms of the art thousands of years ago. One great example is the Maya, who shaped their teeth and inlaid them with jade, pyrite, and other gemstones.
No Anesthesia and No Power Drills
The Maya civilization began about 2000 BCE and flourished through the first millennium. It occupied hundreds of city states throughout southern Mexico and much of Central America. The Maya cosmetic dentist worked without many of the tools and comforts that we consider standard today. With no pneumatic or electric drills, the Maya cosmetic dentist relied on hand power, using a bow drill to create a whole in the front teeth, typically the front 4-6 teeth on the top and bottom, making these inlays somewhat similar to porcelain veneers: not a health-related treatment, but, instead, purely cosmetic.
And without any kind of anesthesia, it was likely quite painful, especially some of the more extreme examples of teeth filing.
Another common cosmetic dentistry procedure among the Maya was the filing of teeth. This was done before the inlays began being used, and often people had both inlays and filing of teeth. Maya had their teeth filed in many different ways. Sometimes the teeth were just notched. Other times, they were squared off on one or both sides. Sometimes the Maya filed teeth down to create small teeth. Possibly this is because people wanted to look old, rather than young, since tooth wear would naturally create small teeth?
Who Had Their Teeth Treated?
Although you might think this practice was reserved for the social elite, it was, like cosmetic dentistry today, accessible to much of the population. Depending on the time and place a survey was taken, the number of people who had their teeth treated ranged from 22% to 65%. It seems that both men and women had their teeth modified, although sometimes women preferred filing to inlays, and sometimes it was the opposite.
What about Reconstructive Dentistry?
Although Maya dentists were obviously skilled at making holes in teeth and filling them, they did not use these skills to remove tooth decay and perform reconstructive dentistry. Some people will tell you that this is because they didn’t have tooth decay, but this is not true.
The Maya had similar amounts of tooth decay as other primitive agricultural societies. In one sample of 20 adult skulls, all showed some degree of tooth wear, often severe. Calculus deposits were present on 19 of the skulls, and 15 of them had cavities. Eleven of the people had lost teeth before dying (although the researchers in this study didn’t rate skeletons by age, life expectancy for this period was 25-35 years), and six had abscesses in their jawbones (caused by an infected tooth we would treat with a root canal). One skull had rotated teeth, another malocclusion, and a third had an impacted wisdom tooth.
Of 10 children’s skulls, seven had cavities, showing that by about age two children started to get cavities.
So the Maya had plenty of reason to try to repair their teeth, they just didn’t seem interested in restorative dentistry.
Instead, they were interested in making their teeth beautiful rather than functional, and a class of cosmetic dentist arose to help accomplish this. | <urn:uuid:91983e90-959a-47c5-b877-5d86aba625bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.irvinedentalcare.com/blog/jewel-inlays-cosmetic-dentists-maya/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00339.warc.gz | en | 0.982848 | 698 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
-0.43200260400772095,
0.30153757333755493,
0.49844610691070557,
0.35834425687789917,
-0.3829696774482727,
0.014237459748983383,
0.032765429466962814,
0.16031596064567566,
-0.24525173008441925,
-0.17589248716831207,
0.3345065712928772,
-0.34916621446609497,
-0.11557343602180481,
-0.06433106... | 4 | Although scientific dentistry is a relatively recent innovation, cosmetic dentists developed their art alongside more primitive forms of the art thousands of years ago. One great example is the Maya, who shaped their teeth and inlaid them with jade, pyrite, and other gemstones.
No Anesthesia and No Power Drills
The Maya civilization began about 2000 BCE and flourished through the first millennium. It occupied hundreds of city states throughout southern Mexico and much of Central America. The Maya cosmetic dentist worked without many of the tools and comforts that we consider standard today. With no pneumatic or electric drills, the Maya cosmetic dentist relied on hand power, using a bow drill to create a whole in the front teeth, typically the front 4-6 teeth on the top and bottom, making these inlays somewhat similar to porcelain veneers: not a health-related treatment, but, instead, purely cosmetic.
And without any kind of anesthesia, it was likely quite painful, especially some of the more extreme examples of teeth filing.
Another common cosmetic dentistry procedure among the Maya was the filing of teeth. This was done before the inlays began being used, and often people had both inlays and filing of teeth. Maya had their teeth filed in many different ways. Sometimes the teeth were just notched. Other times, they were squared off on one or both sides. Sometimes the Maya filed teeth down to create small teeth. Possibly this is because people wanted to look old, rather than young, since tooth wear would naturally create small teeth?
Who Had Their Teeth Treated?
Although you might think this practice was reserved for the social elite, it was, like cosmetic dentistry today, accessible to much of the population. Depending on the time and place a survey was taken, the number of people who had their teeth treated ranged from 22% to 65%. It seems that both men and women had their teeth modified, although sometimes women preferred filing to inlays, and sometimes it was the opposite.
What about Reconstructive Dentistry?
Although Maya dentists were obviously skilled at making holes in teeth and filling them, they did not use these skills to remove tooth decay and perform reconstructive dentistry. Some people will tell you that this is because they didn’t have tooth decay, but this is not true.
The Maya had similar amounts of tooth decay as other primitive agricultural societies. In one sample of 20 adult skulls, all showed some degree of tooth wear, often severe. Calculus deposits were present on 19 of the skulls, and 15 of them had cavities. Eleven of the people had lost teeth before dying (although the researchers in this study didn’t rate skeletons by age, life expectancy for this period was 25-35 years), and six had abscesses in their jawbones (caused by an infected tooth we would treat with a root canal). One skull had rotated teeth, another malocclusion, and a third had an impacted wisdom tooth.
Of 10 children’s skulls, seven had cavities, showing that by about age two children started to get cavities.
So the Maya had plenty of reason to try to repair their teeth, they just didn’t seem interested in restorative dentistry.
Instead, they were interested in making their teeth beautiful rather than functional, and a class of cosmetic dentist arose to help accomplish this. | 687 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Azabs (Ottoman Turkish: , modern Turkish Azap, from Arabic, literally unmarried, meaning bachelor) also known as Asappes or Asappi, were a kind of peasant militia, originally made up of unmarried youths who served as irregular foot soldiers (light infantry) in the early Ottoman army.
The Azaps were also known as "the bachelors", they were volunteers who were paid only during campaigns and had the freedom to leave the army whenever they wanted. The Azaps were initially only Anatolian Turks, though by the late 16th century any Muslim from an Ottoman province could enlist as an Azap. The main role of Azaps was fighting as infantry archers, although they were often mounted as well. In addition to jobs in the military many also had jobs as guards.
As volunteers the Azaps had a wide range of weaponry. These include pole arms, such as the tirpan and harba as well as balta (halberd). In addition to pole arms they were armed with a variety of maces, bows, sabers and to a rarer extent crossbows. Later on guns were adopted instead.
The power and significance of the Azaps began to deteriorate as time went on. Despite once seen as rivals to the elite Janissary Ocak, by the 16th they were responsible for taking on smaller tasks such as carrying ammunition and sapping the enemy walls.
In the late 16th century all Muslim men could enlist. From every 20-30 households 1 man would join whilst the others supported him. The standard weaponry of an Azap of this era was a matchlock and a sabre. | <urn:uuid:3155332e-f0e9-4f39-a46d-fb64d118250d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Azap | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00241.warc.gz | en | 0.994916 | 339 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
-0.46348464488983154,
0.6933771371841431,
-0.07491616904735565,
-0.021035313606262207,
0.11700024455785751,
-0.37856200337409973,
0.33227449655532837,
-0.0765049085021019,
-0.09283551573753357,
-0.45395398139953613,
0.3075737953186035,
-0.48322856426239014,
-0.08079445362091064,
-0.0972157... | 1 | Azabs (Ottoman Turkish: , modern Turkish Azap, from Arabic, literally unmarried, meaning bachelor) also known as Asappes or Asappi, were a kind of peasant militia, originally made up of unmarried youths who served as irregular foot soldiers (light infantry) in the early Ottoman army.
The Azaps were also known as "the bachelors", they were volunteers who were paid only during campaigns and had the freedom to leave the army whenever they wanted. The Azaps were initially only Anatolian Turks, though by the late 16th century any Muslim from an Ottoman province could enlist as an Azap. The main role of Azaps was fighting as infantry archers, although they were often mounted as well. In addition to jobs in the military many also had jobs as guards.
As volunteers the Azaps had a wide range of weaponry. These include pole arms, such as the tirpan and harba as well as balta (halberd). In addition to pole arms they were armed with a variety of maces, bows, sabers and to a rarer extent crossbows. Later on guns were adopted instead.
The power and significance of the Azaps began to deteriorate as time went on. Despite once seen as rivals to the elite Janissary Ocak, by the 16th they were responsible for taking on smaller tasks such as carrying ammunition and sapping the enemy walls.
In the late 16th century all Muslim men could enlist. From every 20-30 households 1 man would join whilst the others supported him. The standard weaponry of an Azap of this era was a matchlock and a sabre. | 343 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Colonial History of Jamaica
Contributed by Tamekia Kentish
The Tainos were the first recorded inhabitants of Jamaica. They settled here relatively peacefully until the beautiful Caribbean island saw its first European visitor - the Spaniards, in 1494.
By the way, the Tainos were gentle fishers and farmers who were contented with a simple way of life. They are believed to be of South American ancestry and arrived in the Caribbean, primarily, in the search for food.
The Spaniards, led by Christopher Columbus and his crew, had set out from Spain on their second voyage to the New World, when they found the shores of this beautiful island they named Jamaica.
Although they arrived in Jamaica in 1494, it was not until 1509 that Juan de Esquivel arrived from Santa Domingo and established settlements.
They entered the north end of Jamaica at St. Ann and built their first town called Sevilla Nueva, or New Seville. Later they travelled to the south and developed Jago de la Vega (St. James of the Plain), which at present is known in the island as Spanish Town.
Further settlements such as Liguanea, Guanaboa, Esquivel (Old Harbour), Passage
Fort, Oristan (Bluefields) and Ayala (Yallahs) were established. Names
such as Rio Minho and the Rio Cobre have survived the changes in
It appears that Spain seemed to lack vision for the island initially; as such, it was not properly used for all the benefits that it could have yielded them. The main employment came from ship building and repairs.
The tainos were brutally treated, in fact, they were not seen as equal to the spaniards are were enslaved. Many, being foreign to these practices, died soon after while others took their own lives; even their babies were killed.
In acts of infanticide, the Tainos thought it better to take the lives of their children than have them live as slaves. The Spanish colony of Jamaica was considered a financial burden to Spain. Thus, Spain bought the first slaves for Jamaica in 1517.
In 1655, the British, led by Admiral Penn and General Venables, having failed to capture Hispaniola, arrived in Jamaica at the Kingston Harbour and captured the island from Spain.
Spain had surrendered without much resistance. Britain claimed the island as a colony formally in 1661.
Britain was able to accomplish what the Spanish could not; they made Jamaica prosperous. Their first bid at stirring interest to the island was to offer attractive land grants to British citizens. Thus, by 1664 Sir Thomas Modyford brought over 1000 British settlers and slaves to Jamaica.
As a British colony, Jamaica flourished in agriculture. Products like cacao, coffee and pimento all did well, but sugarcane was the king crop.
With the growth of sugarcane plantations went the growth of the slave trade. The massive economic benefits of slavery are believed by many to have been the major force behind Britain’s Industrial Revolution.
considered the slaves no higher than they would their cows or goats.
As a result of this, over 1 million slaves were estimated to have been
transported from Africa to Jamaica.
This horrendous slave trade was finally abolished in 1807 and full Emancipation of the British slaves was realized on August 1, 1834.
At this time Britain established a system of Apprenticeship in which slaves’ children under the age of 6 years old and those born after this date were free. However, those over this age would be apprentices for 4-6 years.
After years of struggling against British (colonial) rule, Jamaica rallied to gain it's Independence on August 6, 1962.
Jamaica was no longer a Spanish or British colony; it was now guided only by the will of its people and carried out by its publicly elected officials.
How effective the leadership has been since then though is probably a topic for another discussion :-)
Be sure to read more on the history of Jamaica page, which captures important dates and significant events in Jamaica's history.
Coalie speaks about his personal experiences as Jamaica moved from British Rule to Independence.
Make sure you subscribe to my free monthly e-zine My Island Jamaica Digest (MIJD) and stay with the latest from Jamaica!
Back to Top of Colonial History of JamaicaReturn to Culture of Jamaica from Colonial History of Jamaica
If you found this page useful, please consider subscribing to my weekly newsletter, My Island Jamaica Digest here. It tells you each week about the new information that I have added, including new developments and great stories from lovers of Jamaica! | <urn:uuid:f9a97c35-3e02-464f-ba96-c4795d7e1a4b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.my-island-jamaica.com/colonial_history_of_jamaica.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00350.warc.gz | en | 0.982998 | 967 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
0.11687527596950531,
-0.16287460923194885,
0.8603370189666748,
-0.42613452672958374,
0.3838348388671875,
-0.16055360436439514,
0.0353943407535553,
-0.11323074996471405,
-0.026981519535183907,
-0.0010621321853250265,
0.10925175994634628,
-0.2097632735967636,
-0.427665114402771,
0.2330335676... | 1 | The Colonial History of Jamaica
Contributed by Tamekia Kentish
The Tainos were the first recorded inhabitants of Jamaica. They settled here relatively peacefully until the beautiful Caribbean island saw its first European visitor - the Spaniards, in 1494.
By the way, the Tainos were gentle fishers and farmers who were contented with a simple way of life. They are believed to be of South American ancestry and arrived in the Caribbean, primarily, in the search for food.
The Spaniards, led by Christopher Columbus and his crew, had set out from Spain on their second voyage to the New World, when they found the shores of this beautiful island they named Jamaica.
Although they arrived in Jamaica in 1494, it was not until 1509 that Juan de Esquivel arrived from Santa Domingo and established settlements.
They entered the north end of Jamaica at St. Ann and built their first town called Sevilla Nueva, or New Seville. Later they travelled to the south and developed Jago de la Vega (St. James of the Plain), which at present is known in the island as Spanish Town.
Further settlements such as Liguanea, Guanaboa, Esquivel (Old Harbour), Passage
Fort, Oristan (Bluefields) and Ayala (Yallahs) were established. Names
such as Rio Minho and the Rio Cobre have survived the changes in
It appears that Spain seemed to lack vision for the island initially; as such, it was not properly used for all the benefits that it could have yielded them. The main employment came from ship building and repairs.
The tainos were brutally treated, in fact, they were not seen as equal to the spaniards are were enslaved. Many, being foreign to these practices, died soon after while others took their own lives; even their babies were killed.
In acts of infanticide, the Tainos thought it better to take the lives of their children than have them live as slaves. The Spanish colony of Jamaica was considered a financial burden to Spain. Thus, Spain bought the first slaves for Jamaica in 1517.
In 1655, the British, led by Admiral Penn and General Venables, having failed to capture Hispaniola, arrived in Jamaica at the Kingston Harbour and captured the island from Spain.
Spain had surrendered without much resistance. Britain claimed the island as a colony formally in 1661.
Britain was able to accomplish what the Spanish could not; they made Jamaica prosperous. Their first bid at stirring interest to the island was to offer attractive land grants to British citizens. Thus, by 1664 Sir Thomas Modyford brought over 1000 British settlers and slaves to Jamaica.
As a British colony, Jamaica flourished in agriculture. Products like cacao, coffee and pimento all did well, but sugarcane was the king crop.
With the growth of sugarcane plantations went the growth of the slave trade. The massive economic benefits of slavery are believed by many to have been the major force behind Britain’s Industrial Revolution.
considered the slaves no higher than they would their cows or goats.
As a result of this, over 1 million slaves were estimated to have been
transported from Africa to Jamaica.
This horrendous slave trade was finally abolished in 1807 and full Emancipation of the British slaves was realized on August 1, 1834.
At this time Britain established a system of Apprenticeship in which slaves’ children under the age of 6 years old and those born after this date were free. However, those over this age would be apprentices for 4-6 years.
After years of struggling against British (colonial) rule, Jamaica rallied to gain it's Independence on August 6, 1962.
Jamaica was no longer a Spanish or British colony; it was now guided only by the will of its people and carried out by its publicly elected officials.
How effective the leadership has been since then though is probably a topic for another discussion :-)
Be sure to read more on the history of Jamaica page, which captures important dates and significant events in Jamaica's history.
Coalie speaks about his personal experiences as Jamaica moved from British Rule to Independence.
Make sure you subscribe to my free monthly e-zine My Island Jamaica Digest (MIJD) and stay with the latest from Jamaica!
Back to Top of Colonial History of JamaicaReturn to Culture of Jamaica from Colonial History of Jamaica
If you found this page useful, please consider subscribing to my weekly newsletter, My Island Jamaica Digest here. It tells you each week about the new information that I have added, including new developments and great stories from lovers of Jamaica! | 976 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is the story of Dervis M Korkut, a scholar who helped save Jewish lives and preserve their heritage in Bosnia.
One morning in early 1942, German military authorities called and informed the National Museum in Sarajevo that the Nazi General Johann Hans Fortner, commander of the 718th division, was going to visit the Museum.
Jozo Petrovic, the Museum director, conveyed this to his colleague and Museum curator Dervis Korkut. Korkut immediately asked for the keys to the safe. Together they went to the basement, opened the safe, and Korkut took the Sarajevo Haggadah and hid it in the waistband of his trousers.
After a tour of the Museum, General Fortner demanded they give him the Haggadah. Although accounts differ, none of which can be confirmed categorically, what is certain is that the Haggadah was not given to Fortner. Korkut brought it home, after which he gave it to a trustworthy imam in a mountain village mosque, who protected it until it was safe.
Hailing from an influential religious family, Korkut studied in Istanbul and spoke several languages. Istanbul at that time, was awash with revolutionary ideas and dissidents.
Korkut, along with other students, witnessed this turbulent era and graduated around the same time that a Serb terrorist assassinated the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914.
The war was already underway when Korkut returned to Bosnia, and he soon became a military imam in the Austro-Hungarian Army, spending time on the frontlines with the Bosniak regiment.
After the First World War, the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was formed. Elections were held on November 1920, and Korkut campaigned for the Yugoslav Muslim Organization, the largest Bosniak political party.
During the elections, Milorad Draskovic, the Serb Minister of Interior, initiated a process to strip Yugoslav Jews of their voting rights. During the electioneering in the town of Derventa, Korkut gave a speech in favour of Jews and spoke against Draskovic’s policies.
The Yugoslav Muslim Organization performed well in the election and recommended that Korkut be made the head of the Muslim Department in the Ministry of Religions. However, Korkut’s work at the Ministry was not well received by Serb nationalists, and after three years the Serb Radical Party managed to have him removed.
Korkut returned to work as a teacher and soon became a curator at the National Museum in Sarajevo. Over the next ten years, he would change jobs on many occasions, including a one year stint as the Mufti of Travnik. It is believed the regular change of employment was ascribed to his forthright manner.
In 1937, he would return to the National Museum in Sarajevo. On the eve of the Second World War, anti-Semitism in Yugoslavia was growing, with the Belgrade authorities initiated laws that targeted the Jewish population. This atmosphere also slowly spread to Sarajevo, so Korkut reacted by writing an article “Anti-Semitism is foreign to the Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina”, published in Belgrade in 1940, on the eve of the war.
In October 1941, Korkut would reiterate his stand by co-signing the Sarajevo Resolution, alongside several members of the Sarajevo Bosniak Muslim social elite – a public condemnation of and distancing from Nazi and Ustasha crimes.
Korkut didn't just talk the talk.
In November 1941, a friend of Korkut brought Donkica Papo, a young Jewish girl, to Korkut and asked if he could help her. Her parents had been sent to a concentration camp, and she was a member of a Partisan group that had been decimated by Nazi security forces.
Korkut brought her home and told his wife Servet that she would be staying with them for a while. She was to be presented as Servet’s cousin from Kosovo, who did not speak Bosnian. Papo was kept safe until Korkut managed to get her a false ID and send her to an Italian-occupied area of the country.
By 1943, the number of Bosniak Muslim refugees from eastern Bosnia, survivors of genocidal Serb Chetnik campaigns, was overwhelming in Sarajevo. Korkut, along with his colleagues, started collecting humanitarian aid for the refugees, most of whom were women and children.
At this point, Korkut's principles were getting him into trouble at the museum. Members of the Ustasha administration wanted to get their hands on the museum’s rich library but, according to archival documents, Korkut refused to hand over the library, often citing legal or administrative reasons.
In short, he became a liability to the regime, and in 1944 he received an order, signed by the Ustasha leader Ante Pavelic, to be transferred as a librarian to the Zagreb National University Library.
However, Korkut’s sources warned him that this was a foil to incarcerate him and his family in the Jasenovac camp, the largest and most brutal Ustasha-run camp where thousands of Jews and Serbs were murdered. Korkut managed to evade the transfer by taking sick leave and then going into hiding with his family in Sarajevo until the Partisans liberated it in April 1945.
After the establishment of the new Communist state, Korkut continued working at the Museum. The new government’s policy was to create a new Communist elite. To do that, they attempted to dispose of or retire previous non-Communist elites by putting them on trial for “collaboration with the occupiers.”
Korkut criticised the new government for decisions related to the destruction of cultural heritage in Sarajevo. He met with the British consul in Sarajevo and asked him to intervene with the Allies to provide international legal protection, similar to the 1919 Saint Germain Minority Protection Treaty, for Yugoslavian Muslims.
Korkut was arrested and tried in 1947. It was a short trial in which several prominent Bosniak intellectuals were accused of collaboration with the Ustashas. Korkut's primary sin was the conversation he had had with the British consul, and he was sentenced to 8 years in prison with hard labour.
After his release, Korkut started working at the Sarajevo City Museum, where he worked until his death in 1969. He passed away at the age of 81.
The story of his life and saving the Haggadah and Donkica Papo was unknown until the Bosnian War when, in 1994, Papo wrote a letter to Yad Vashem and told the story of Korkut. On December 14, 1994, Yad Vashem recognised Dervis and Servet Korkut as Righteous Among the Nations.
Korkut lived and worked according to what he believed in and never compromised on his principles. He did not calculate self-preservation into his decisions and sacrificed his work and life to do what was right. The least we can do is to remember him and honour his memory.
Disclaimer: The viewpoints expressed by the authors do not necessarily reflect the opinions, viewpoints and editorial policies of TRT World.
We welcome all pitches and submissions to TRT World Opinion – please send them via email, to email@example.com | <urn:uuid:60165a67-e2a3-4a62-92e0-d21e5597cfc0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.trtworld.com/opinion/the-bosnian-muslim-scholar-who-saved-the-sarajevo-hagaddah-31968 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00551.warc.gz | en | 0.983979 | 1,590 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
0.03537770360708237,
0.9704986810684204,
-0.13759872317314148,
0.060358285903930664,
0.06532187759876251,
0.1534956693649292,
0.026522506028413773,
0.2609148621559143,
-0.34800225496292114,
-0.0316011868417263,
-0.0010393103584647179,
-0.2313157021999359,
-0.11388667672872543,
0.2470864802... | 6 | This is the story of Dervis M Korkut, a scholar who helped save Jewish lives and preserve their heritage in Bosnia.
One morning in early 1942, German military authorities called and informed the National Museum in Sarajevo that the Nazi General Johann Hans Fortner, commander of the 718th division, was going to visit the Museum.
Jozo Petrovic, the Museum director, conveyed this to his colleague and Museum curator Dervis Korkut. Korkut immediately asked for the keys to the safe. Together they went to the basement, opened the safe, and Korkut took the Sarajevo Haggadah and hid it in the waistband of his trousers.
After a tour of the Museum, General Fortner demanded they give him the Haggadah. Although accounts differ, none of which can be confirmed categorically, what is certain is that the Haggadah was not given to Fortner. Korkut brought it home, after which he gave it to a trustworthy imam in a mountain village mosque, who protected it until it was safe.
Hailing from an influential religious family, Korkut studied in Istanbul and spoke several languages. Istanbul at that time, was awash with revolutionary ideas and dissidents.
Korkut, along with other students, witnessed this turbulent era and graduated around the same time that a Serb terrorist assassinated the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914.
The war was already underway when Korkut returned to Bosnia, and he soon became a military imam in the Austro-Hungarian Army, spending time on the frontlines with the Bosniak regiment.
After the First World War, the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was formed. Elections were held on November 1920, and Korkut campaigned for the Yugoslav Muslim Organization, the largest Bosniak political party.
During the elections, Milorad Draskovic, the Serb Minister of Interior, initiated a process to strip Yugoslav Jews of their voting rights. During the electioneering in the town of Derventa, Korkut gave a speech in favour of Jews and spoke against Draskovic’s policies.
The Yugoslav Muslim Organization performed well in the election and recommended that Korkut be made the head of the Muslim Department in the Ministry of Religions. However, Korkut’s work at the Ministry was not well received by Serb nationalists, and after three years the Serb Radical Party managed to have him removed.
Korkut returned to work as a teacher and soon became a curator at the National Museum in Sarajevo. Over the next ten years, he would change jobs on many occasions, including a one year stint as the Mufti of Travnik. It is believed the regular change of employment was ascribed to his forthright manner.
In 1937, he would return to the National Museum in Sarajevo. On the eve of the Second World War, anti-Semitism in Yugoslavia was growing, with the Belgrade authorities initiated laws that targeted the Jewish population. This atmosphere also slowly spread to Sarajevo, so Korkut reacted by writing an article “Anti-Semitism is foreign to the Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina”, published in Belgrade in 1940, on the eve of the war.
In October 1941, Korkut would reiterate his stand by co-signing the Sarajevo Resolution, alongside several members of the Sarajevo Bosniak Muslim social elite – a public condemnation of and distancing from Nazi and Ustasha crimes.
Korkut didn't just talk the talk.
In November 1941, a friend of Korkut brought Donkica Papo, a young Jewish girl, to Korkut and asked if he could help her. Her parents had been sent to a concentration camp, and she was a member of a Partisan group that had been decimated by Nazi security forces.
Korkut brought her home and told his wife Servet that she would be staying with them for a while. She was to be presented as Servet’s cousin from Kosovo, who did not speak Bosnian. Papo was kept safe until Korkut managed to get her a false ID and send her to an Italian-occupied area of the country.
By 1943, the number of Bosniak Muslim refugees from eastern Bosnia, survivors of genocidal Serb Chetnik campaigns, was overwhelming in Sarajevo. Korkut, along with his colleagues, started collecting humanitarian aid for the refugees, most of whom were women and children.
At this point, Korkut's principles were getting him into trouble at the museum. Members of the Ustasha administration wanted to get their hands on the museum’s rich library but, according to archival documents, Korkut refused to hand over the library, often citing legal or administrative reasons.
In short, he became a liability to the regime, and in 1944 he received an order, signed by the Ustasha leader Ante Pavelic, to be transferred as a librarian to the Zagreb National University Library.
However, Korkut’s sources warned him that this was a foil to incarcerate him and his family in the Jasenovac camp, the largest and most brutal Ustasha-run camp where thousands of Jews and Serbs were murdered. Korkut managed to evade the transfer by taking sick leave and then going into hiding with his family in Sarajevo until the Partisans liberated it in April 1945.
After the establishment of the new Communist state, Korkut continued working at the Museum. The new government’s policy was to create a new Communist elite. To do that, they attempted to dispose of or retire previous non-Communist elites by putting them on trial for “collaboration with the occupiers.”
Korkut criticised the new government for decisions related to the destruction of cultural heritage in Sarajevo. He met with the British consul in Sarajevo and asked him to intervene with the Allies to provide international legal protection, similar to the 1919 Saint Germain Minority Protection Treaty, for Yugoslavian Muslims.
Korkut was arrested and tried in 1947. It was a short trial in which several prominent Bosniak intellectuals were accused of collaboration with the Ustashas. Korkut's primary sin was the conversation he had had with the British consul, and he was sentenced to 8 years in prison with hard labour.
After his release, Korkut started working at the Sarajevo City Museum, where he worked until his death in 1969. He passed away at the age of 81.
The story of his life and saving the Haggadah and Donkica Papo was unknown until the Bosnian War when, in 1994, Papo wrote a letter to Yad Vashem and told the story of Korkut. On December 14, 1994, Yad Vashem recognised Dervis and Servet Korkut as Righteous Among the Nations.
Korkut lived and worked according to what he believed in and never compromised on his principles. He did not calculate self-preservation into his decisions and sacrificed his work and life to do what was right. The least we can do is to remember him and honour his memory.
Disclaimer: The viewpoints expressed by the authors do not necessarily reflect the opinions, viewpoints and editorial policies of TRT World.
We welcome all pitches and submissions to TRT World Opinion – please send them via email, to email@example.com | 1,589 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From the day you conceive to the time you feel your baby's kick for the first time, carrying a baby in the womb is most definitely a special feeling. Through the nine months of your pregnancy
, babies in the womb depend on moms for their nutrition as they grow inside the warmth of the fetus. They can change their positions, get active, move around and start to develop a sense of balance and can even cry. Well, what if we told you that's not the only thing your tiny little one can do inside the womb?
New studies have now said that babies inside the womb can do much more than just hear your voices or kick around. In fact, growing babies can be smarter than you think. For starters, he or she can begin to see a lot more than actually possible.
Experts based out of the University of California, Berkley have revealed that babies might still be in the development stages of their growth but that doesn't mean their senses aren't growing. Way before being actually born, babies can begin to see and sense things around themselves. It was observed that the light-sensitive cells developing in the retina, which were earlier presumed to just help the baby realize or balance between the day and night can now offer much more sensitivity to the eye and can also help promote brain development, paving way for influencing their growth in the future.
The study also threw light on the fact that babies in the womb are much more aware than they seem to be. In fact, you should also be careful of what you speak in front of pregnant mothers. Upon analysis, it was seen that babies can start hearing and processing what their moms say when they are still inside. In fact, the findings support the premise that unborn fetus can learn, grasp and remember stuff just as well as newborns. In a striking observation, it was also seen that babies can also grasp melodies while still inside. According to the study, sonography found that babies whose moms watched soaps and television shows begun to respond to the melodic cues as well.
Well, a lot smarter than you think, aren't they? | <urn:uuid:7747cc9b-cbcc-4656-a685-74f6e37cafd4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/parenting/pregnancy/babies-in-the-womb-are-smarter-than-we-thought-finds-a-study/articleshow/72457659.cms | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00376.warc.gz | en | 0.980877 | 425 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
-0.043427616357803345,
-0.2953663170337677,
-0.003813959425315261,
0.05203140899538994,
-0.3002142906188965,
0.659011960029602,
0.4802010953426361,
0.04387754946947098,
-0.09549064934253693,
0.015367652289569378,
0.15459857881069183,
-0.01757078617811203,
-0.02667897567152977,
0.3010185956... | 1 | From the day you conceive to the time you feel your baby's kick for the first time, carrying a baby in the womb is most definitely a special feeling. Through the nine months of your pregnancy
, babies in the womb depend on moms for their nutrition as they grow inside the warmth of the fetus. They can change their positions, get active, move around and start to develop a sense of balance and can even cry. Well, what if we told you that's not the only thing your tiny little one can do inside the womb?
New studies have now said that babies inside the womb can do much more than just hear your voices or kick around. In fact, growing babies can be smarter than you think. For starters, he or she can begin to see a lot more than actually possible.
Experts based out of the University of California, Berkley have revealed that babies might still be in the development stages of their growth but that doesn't mean their senses aren't growing. Way before being actually born, babies can begin to see and sense things around themselves. It was observed that the light-sensitive cells developing in the retina, which were earlier presumed to just help the baby realize or balance between the day and night can now offer much more sensitivity to the eye and can also help promote brain development, paving way for influencing their growth in the future.
The study also threw light on the fact that babies in the womb are much more aware than they seem to be. In fact, you should also be careful of what you speak in front of pregnant mothers. Upon analysis, it was seen that babies can start hearing and processing what their moms say when they are still inside. In fact, the findings support the premise that unborn fetus can learn, grasp and remember stuff just as well as newborns. In a striking observation, it was also seen that babies can also grasp melodies while still inside. According to the study, sonography found that babies whose moms watched soaps and television shows begun to respond to the melodic cues as well.
Well, a lot smarter than you think, aren't they? | 420 | ENGLISH | 1 |
natives in the New World. By the time Isaac entered the Jesuit apprenticeship in 1624, a Jesuit mission had been established among the Indians in Huronia (the present province of Ontario). Twelve years of discipline, study, and prayer prepared Isaac well for the life he anticipated as a missionary--though the hardships he would face in the rugged wilderness of New France were far different from his cultured French upbringing. Shortly after his ordination in 1636, the twenty-nine-year-old priest sailed for Quebec with four other Jesuits. From 1636 until 1642, Fr. Jogues lived among the natives in Huronia, who named him Ondessonk (bird of prey) because of his keen eye.
There, under the instruction of the veteran missionary Fr. Jean de beuf, he learned the language and customs of the Hurons, and together with the Indians and his fellow missionaries, Jogues suffered from sickness, hunger, and the hardships of the climate. In addition, Huron sorcerers jealous of the priests’ growing influence blamed them for crop failures, poor hunting, or defeats in battle and frequently threatened to kill them. Yet despite all these challenges, some of the Hurons came to profess their belief in the Christian God and accepted baptism.
Under Deaths Shadow In the summer of 1642, while returning in heavily loaded canoes from a journey to Quebec to replenish the missionaries’ supplies, Jogues, two French lay missionaries, and almost forty Hurons were ambushed by Mohawks. One of the five nations of the Iroquois, the Mohawks were relentless enemies of the Hurons. The two laymen and eighteen of the Hurons--many of whom were Christians--were taken prisoner. The others were killed or escaped into the woods. In the melee, Jacques canoe capsized, and he lay hidden among the reeds. Rather than flee, he surrendered himself to the Mohawks so that he could accompany his companions and offer whatever help he could in the ordeals sure to follow. Over the course of the next few weeks, the captives were paraded triumphantly from village to village, made to run the gauntlet, and subjected to hideous torture. The Mohawks pulled out their hair and beards, cut slices of flesh from them--which they roasted and ate in front of them--and tore out their fingernails. They also crushed the bones of Jogues forefingers between their teeth and sawed off his left thumb with an oyster shell. At night, the prisoners were tied spread-eagle to the ground, and the children were encouraged to throw live coals on their bare flesh. One of the laymen and many of the Hurons were killed during these ordeals. In spite of his own pain, Jogues heard his companions’ confessions, gave absolution and comfort, and baptized the catechumens. None of them wavered in their new faith.
When the Mohawks’ fury abated, they decided to hold Jogues --the “Blackrobe”--hostage and make him a slave. They forced him to do hard tasks and carry heavy loads. They fed him very little, gave him no warm clothing, and constantly threatened to kill him. However, he was adopted into the Wolf clan, and his new “aunt” gave him some measure of freedom to pray alone and to talk with the villagers. Rather than hating his captors, Jogues prayed unceasingly for them and sought to bring as many of them as possible to salvation. Learning the Mohawks’ language, he entered the lodgehouses--just as he had done among the Hurons in search of the sick, so that he might win them to Christ before they died. He even nursed the brave who had torn out his fingernails. During his captivity, Jogues managed to baptize seventy dying Mohawks. He also consoled and baptized Huron prisoners who were brought into the village for torture and execution.
After a year as a slave of the Mohawks, Jogues was able to escape when he was taken along to a settlement where the Mohawks traded with the Dutch. He remained in hiding for weeks until the Dutch could transport him down the Hudson to Manhattan and on to where he landed on Christmas Eve 1643. Jogues was welcomed as a living martyr by his fellow Jesuits. Queen Anne received him as an honored guest and examined his mangled fingers with tears in her eyes. A humble man, Jogues was distressed by these honors and longed to be back among the Indians. In the spring of 1644, after only a three-month stay in his own country, Jogues’ superiors allowed him to return to New France. In the year after Jogues return, the Iroquois, Mohawk and French began to negotiate a peace treaty. Governor Montmagny asked him to be an ambassador representing the French. As the Jesuit understood the Mohawk language and the Iroquois knew of his high standing among the French, there could be no better peace envoy. Jogues readily agreed, though this meant returning to the Mohawk village where he had been tortured and enslaved.
Jogues and his companions reached the village in June 1646. A great multitude gathered to see the party, and those who had once made life so miserable for him now pretended to have forgotten their past deeds and greeted him cordially. An assembly of the chiefs was held, compassionate speeches were given promising peace, and furs and belts of wampum were exchanged. The council ended favorably, and Jogues again began to administer the sacraments to Christian captives and baptize the dying. The mission of diplomacy completed, the peace envoy returned to Quebec , but Jogues left a chest containing Mass supplies and personal effects, hoping to return the next season. He showed the box and its contents to the villagers, assured them there was nothing harmful in it, and entrusted it to them.
Though eager to establish a Mohawk mission, Isaac and his superiors were cautious. Not long afterward, however, conditions seemed favorable and it was decided that Jogues should winter among the Iroquois. He wrote to a friend in France, “My heart tells me that if I have the happiness of being employed in this mission, I shall go never to return; but I shall be happy if our Lord will complete the sacrifice where he has begun it, and make the little blood I have shed in that land the pledge of what I would give from every vein of my body and my heart. In a word, this people is ‘a bloody spouse to me’--‘In my blood have I espoused them to me’ May our good Master who has purchased them in His blood, open to them the door of His gospel, as well as to the four allied nations near them. Farewell, dear Father; pray to him to unite me inseparably to him.”
On September 24, Jogues left for his third journey to the Five Nations, accompanied by a layman, John de Lalande, and some Huron companions. As they approached the village, the group was attacked by a war party and taken captive. Jogues reminded the Indians of their invitation for him to return and of the treaty, but to no avail. They angrily accused the Blackrobe of having put a curse on them--they had experienced a scourge of disease and a plague of worms that destroyed their crops--and they blamed the chest he had left among them for their misfortunes. Jogues’ “adoptive” Wolf clan defended him, and the chiefs’ council honored the treaty and let him live. The Bear clan, however, decided to kill Jogues on their own.
On the evening of October 18, 1646 Jogues was invited to a feast in one of the Mohawk lodgehouses. As he stooped to enter through the low door, the brave following behind him split his skull with a tomahawk. The traitors immediately cut off his head and displayed it on the palisades of the village. The next day, they killed John de Lalande and the Hurons. News of the martyrdoms did not reach Quebec until June 1647.
The Iroquois broke the treaty with the French and, in the following years, mercilessly attacked the Hurons. They destroyed all their villages and the Jesuit mission posts among them. Fathers Jean de beuf, Gabriel Lalemant, Charles Garnier, Anthony Daniel, and Noel Charbanel were martyred in Huronia between July 4, 1648 , and December 8, 1649. Within months after these martyrdoms, fourteen hundred Hurons were converted to Christ. The seed of faith was watered by the blood of these martyrs, and an abundance of souls harvested for heaven. The brave who tomahawked Jogues and another who had been wounded attempting to deflect the blow from the victim were later converted to Christianity. The murderer took “Isaac” as his baptismal name and died repentant, satisfied that he was going to heaven. Ten years after Jogues was martyred, Kateri Tekakwitha was born in the same village and became a firm witness to Christ through the undaunted efforts of the Jesuits who followed the first North American martyrs. The first native American to be beatified, Kateri is among the fruits for whom Isaac Jogues shed his blood in the hopes that his holocaust would hasten the conversion of the Mohawks. | <urn:uuid:5e903af1-4aff-41bd-bf05-c3650fa6f92c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.catholicrcia.com/Black-Robe.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00009.warc.gz | en | 0.986602 | 1,979 | 3.875 | 4 | [
-0.19946910440921783,
0.5608119368553162,
0.021449437364935875,
-0.16236650943756104,
-0.18346719443798065,
-0.19539010524749756,
-0.06354624778032303,
0.38454684615135193,
0.09733855724334717,
0.0700371265411377,
0.062040410935878754,
-0.2318786382675171,
-0.4442041516304016,
0.2700426280... | 6 | natives in the New World. By the time Isaac entered the Jesuit apprenticeship in 1624, a Jesuit mission had been established among the Indians in Huronia (the present province of Ontario). Twelve years of discipline, study, and prayer prepared Isaac well for the life he anticipated as a missionary--though the hardships he would face in the rugged wilderness of New France were far different from his cultured French upbringing. Shortly after his ordination in 1636, the twenty-nine-year-old priest sailed for Quebec with four other Jesuits. From 1636 until 1642, Fr. Jogues lived among the natives in Huronia, who named him Ondessonk (bird of prey) because of his keen eye.
There, under the instruction of the veteran missionary Fr. Jean de beuf, he learned the language and customs of the Hurons, and together with the Indians and his fellow missionaries, Jogues suffered from sickness, hunger, and the hardships of the climate. In addition, Huron sorcerers jealous of the priests’ growing influence blamed them for crop failures, poor hunting, or defeats in battle and frequently threatened to kill them. Yet despite all these challenges, some of the Hurons came to profess their belief in the Christian God and accepted baptism.
Under Deaths Shadow In the summer of 1642, while returning in heavily loaded canoes from a journey to Quebec to replenish the missionaries’ supplies, Jogues, two French lay missionaries, and almost forty Hurons were ambushed by Mohawks. One of the five nations of the Iroquois, the Mohawks were relentless enemies of the Hurons. The two laymen and eighteen of the Hurons--many of whom were Christians--were taken prisoner. The others were killed or escaped into the woods. In the melee, Jacques canoe capsized, and he lay hidden among the reeds. Rather than flee, he surrendered himself to the Mohawks so that he could accompany his companions and offer whatever help he could in the ordeals sure to follow. Over the course of the next few weeks, the captives were paraded triumphantly from village to village, made to run the gauntlet, and subjected to hideous torture. The Mohawks pulled out their hair and beards, cut slices of flesh from them--which they roasted and ate in front of them--and tore out their fingernails. They also crushed the bones of Jogues forefingers between their teeth and sawed off his left thumb with an oyster shell. At night, the prisoners were tied spread-eagle to the ground, and the children were encouraged to throw live coals on their bare flesh. One of the laymen and many of the Hurons were killed during these ordeals. In spite of his own pain, Jogues heard his companions’ confessions, gave absolution and comfort, and baptized the catechumens. None of them wavered in their new faith.
When the Mohawks’ fury abated, they decided to hold Jogues --the “Blackrobe”--hostage and make him a slave. They forced him to do hard tasks and carry heavy loads. They fed him very little, gave him no warm clothing, and constantly threatened to kill him. However, he was adopted into the Wolf clan, and his new “aunt” gave him some measure of freedom to pray alone and to talk with the villagers. Rather than hating his captors, Jogues prayed unceasingly for them and sought to bring as many of them as possible to salvation. Learning the Mohawks’ language, he entered the lodgehouses--just as he had done among the Hurons in search of the sick, so that he might win them to Christ before they died. He even nursed the brave who had torn out his fingernails. During his captivity, Jogues managed to baptize seventy dying Mohawks. He also consoled and baptized Huron prisoners who were brought into the village for torture and execution.
After a year as a slave of the Mohawks, Jogues was able to escape when he was taken along to a settlement where the Mohawks traded with the Dutch. He remained in hiding for weeks until the Dutch could transport him down the Hudson to Manhattan and on to where he landed on Christmas Eve 1643. Jogues was welcomed as a living martyr by his fellow Jesuits. Queen Anne received him as an honored guest and examined his mangled fingers with tears in her eyes. A humble man, Jogues was distressed by these honors and longed to be back among the Indians. In the spring of 1644, after only a three-month stay in his own country, Jogues’ superiors allowed him to return to New France. In the year after Jogues return, the Iroquois, Mohawk and French began to negotiate a peace treaty. Governor Montmagny asked him to be an ambassador representing the French. As the Jesuit understood the Mohawk language and the Iroquois knew of his high standing among the French, there could be no better peace envoy. Jogues readily agreed, though this meant returning to the Mohawk village where he had been tortured and enslaved.
Jogues and his companions reached the village in June 1646. A great multitude gathered to see the party, and those who had once made life so miserable for him now pretended to have forgotten their past deeds and greeted him cordially. An assembly of the chiefs was held, compassionate speeches were given promising peace, and furs and belts of wampum were exchanged. The council ended favorably, and Jogues again began to administer the sacraments to Christian captives and baptize the dying. The mission of diplomacy completed, the peace envoy returned to Quebec , but Jogues left a chest containing Mass supplies and personal effects, hoping to return the next season. He showed the box and its contents to the villagers, assured them there was nothing harmful in it, and entrusted it to them.
Though eager to establish a Mohawk mission, Isaac and his superiors were cautious. Not long afterward, however, conditions seemed favorable and it was decided that Jogues should winter among the Iroquois. He wrote to a friend in France, “My heart tells me that if I have the happiness of being employed in this mission, I shall go never to return; but I shall be happy if our Lord will complete the sacrifice where he has begun it, and make the little blood I have shed in that land the pledge of what I would give from every vein of my body and my heart. In a word, this people is ‘a bloody spouse to me’--‘In my blood have I espoused them to me’ May our good Master who has purchased them in His blood, open to them the door of His gospel, as well as to the four allied nations near them. Farewell, dear Father; pray to him to unite me inseparably to him.”
On September 24, Jogues left for his third journey to the Five Nations, accompanied by a layman, John de Lalande, and some Huron companions. As they approached the village, the group was attacked by a war party and taken captive. Jogues reminded the Indians of their invitation for him to return and of the treaty, but to no avail. They angrily accused the Blackrobe of having put a curse on them--they had experienced a scourge of disease and a plague of worms that destroyed their crops--and they blamed the chest he had left among them for their misfortunes. Jogues’ “adoptive” Wolf clan defended him, and the chiefs’ council honored the treaty and let him live. The Bear clan, however, decided to kill Jogues on their own.
On the evening of October 18, 1646 Jogues was invited to a feast in one of the Mohawk lodgehouses. As he stooped to enter through the low door, the brave following behind him split his skull with a tomahawk. The traitors immediately cut off his head and displayed it on the palisades of the village. The next day, they killed John de Lalande and the Hurons. News of the martyrdoms did not reach Quebec until June 1647.
The Iroquois broke the treaty with the French and, in the following years, mercilessly attacked the Hurons. They destroyed all their villages and the Jesuit mission posts among them. Fathers Jean de beuf, Gabriel Lalemant, Charles Garnier, Anthony Daniel, and Noel Charbanel were martyred in Huronia between July 4, 1648 , and December 8, 1649. Within months after these martyrdoms, fourteen hundred Hurons were converted to Christ. The seed of faith was watered by the blood of these martyrs, and an abundance of souls harvested for heaven. The brave who tomahawked Jogues and another who had been wounded attempting to deflect the blow from the victim were later converted to Christianity. The murderer took “Isaac” as his baptismal name and died repentant, satisfied that he was going to heaven. Ten years after Jogues was martyred, Kateri Tekakwitha was born in the same village and became a firm witness to Christ through the undaunted efforts of the Jesuits who followed the first North American martyrs. The first native American to be beatified, Kateri is among the fruits for whom Isaac Jogues shed his blood in the hopes that his holocaust would hasten the conversion of the Mohawks. | 1,986 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Menai Bridge is the original gateway to Anglesey and construction was started on the bridge in 1818. Moreover it was the largest of its kind, all previous suspension bridges across the world were much smaller.
It was Designed by Thomas Telford and construction was completed on the 30th of January 1826. Once the bridge was finished road traffic and people would be able to cross safely between Anglesey and mainland Wales. This was the principal reason for the bridges construction, a road connection was needed for what was quickly becoming an important route.
With the Union between Britain and Ireland taking place it was an important route for diplomats travelling from Ireland to Parliament. A quicker way was needed and not just for the diplomats coming from Ireland. It made life far safer and simpler for the local population.
Prior to the bridge the only way to cross the Menai was via ferries. The Menai Strait was and still is a dangerous section of water with strong tidal currents. The locals and diplomats alike would have to make this perilous crossing on every journey. Plenty of boats capsized or crashed on to the rocks when making this perilous journey. It also gave local farmers a way of safely moving their cattle to the markets on the mainland. Land owners would have to wait until low tide and swim their cattle across the Menai, this would often lead to losses.
The Menai suspension Bridge was made from the nearby quarry at Penmon. It was loaded onto boats and floated down to the construction site. | <urn:uuid:d5fde9c8-f872-478a-88e1-85616375c466> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://angleseyisle.co.uk/menai-bridge | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00342.warc.gz | en | 0.986742 | 303 | 3.75 | 4 | [
-0.01817062497138977,
-0.09754472970962524,
0.08845143765211105,
-0.1401955634355545,
-0.2975434362888336,
-0.31145235896110535,
0.21751587092876434,
0.06663072109222412,
-0.502633810043335,
-0.47674253582954407,
0.045497313141822815,
-0.5189980864524841,
0.3411500155925751,
0.267509162425... | 8 | The Menai Bridge is the original gateway to Anglesey and construction was started on the bridge in 1818. Moreover it was the largest of its kind, all previous suspension bridges across the world were much smaller.
It was Designed by Thomas Telford and construction was completed on the 30th of January 1826. Once the bridge was finished road traffic and people would be able to cross safely between Anglesey and mainland Wales. This was the principal reason for the bridges construction, a road connection was needed for what was quickly becoming an important route.
With the Union between Britain and Ireland taking place it was an important route for diplomats travelling from Ireland to Parliament. A quicker way was needed and not just for the diplomats coming from Ireland. It made life far safer and simpler for the local population.
Prior to the bridge the only way to cross the Menai was via ferries. The Menai Strait was and still is a dangerous section of water with strong tidal currents. The locals and diplomats alike would have to make this perilous crossing on every journey. Plenty of boats capsized or crashed on to the rocks when making this perilous journey. It also gave local farmers a way of safely moving their cattle to the markets on the mainland. Land owners would have to wait until low tide and swim their cattle across the Menai, this would often lead to losses.
The Menai suspension Bridge was made from the nearby quarry at Penmon. It was loaded onto boats and floated down to the construction site. | 308 | ENGLISH | 1 |
International relations / Africa news
Nelson Mandela is born 18 July 1918
Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the small village of Mvezo, in the district of Qunu near Umtata, Transkei (now known as Eastern Cape).
Mandela became involved in politics while a student at Fort Hare University after he met Oliver Tambo, who became his life-long friend.
In 2009, the United Nations, declared 18 July as Nelson Mandela International Day, to be celebrated annually. It was first celebrated in 2010.
On 12 June 1964 Mandela was sentenced to life in prison on Robben Island. From Robben Island he was transferred to Pollsmoor prison and then Victor Verster prison before he was released in 1990.
Mandela was elected president of South Africa in 1994.
In 1999, at the end of his first term in office, he voluntarily stepped down.
Source: South African History Online – www.sahistory.org.za | <urn:uuid:626ba25d-892c-4936-98f3-6083c660a2ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.vukuzenzele.gov.za/month-history-jul-2017-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00348.warc.gz | en | 0.984454 | 209 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
-0.3664844334125519,
1.0450247526168823,
-0.013438631780445576,
-0.2688879072666168,
0.2068517506122589,
0.015553777106106281,
0.09035180509090424,
-0.44322794675827026,
-0.32322922348976135,
0.5247737765312195,
0.6377768516540527,
-0.4673320949077606,
0.3060401976108551,
0.458267599344253... | 6 | International relations / Africa news
Nelson Mandela is born 18 July 1918
Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the small village of Mvezo, in the district of Qunu near Umtata, Transkei (now known as Eastern Cape).
Mandela became involved in politics while a student at Fort Hare University after he met Oliver Tambo, who became his life-long friend.
In 2009, the United Nations, declared 18 July as Nelson Mandela International Day, to be celebrated annually. It was first celebrated in 2010.
On 12 June 1964 Mandela was sentenced to life in prison on Robben Island. From Robben Island he was transferred to Pollsmoor prison and then Victor Verster prison before he was released in 1990.
Mandela was elected president of South Africa in 1994.
In 1999, at the end of his first term in office, he voluntarily stepped down.
Source: South African History Online – www.sahistory.org.za | 239 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of Leeds facts for kids
Loidis, from which Leeds derives its name, was anciently a forested area of the Celtic kingdom of Elmet. The settlement certainly existed at the time of the Norman conquest of England and in 1086 was a thriving manor under the overlordship of Ilbert de Lacy. It gained its first charter from Maurice de Gant in 1207 yet grew but slowly throughout the medieval and Tudor periods. The town had become part of the Duchy of Lancaster and reverted to the crown in the medieval period, so was a Royalist stronghold at the start of the English Civil War.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Leeds prospered and expanded as a centre of the woollen industry and it continued to expand rapidly in the Industrial Revolution. Following a period of post industrial decline in the mid twentieth century Leeds' prosperity revived with the development of tertiary industrial sectors.
- Prehistoric to Anglo-Saxon periods
- Norman period
- First borough charter
- Late Middle Ages
- Tudor period and incorporation
- English Civil War and political representation
- Woollen cloth trade
- Industrial Revolution Expansion
- Modern history
The name "Leeds" is first attested in the form "Loidis": around 731 Bede mentioned it in book II, chapter 14 of his Historia ecclesiastica, in a discussion of an altar surviving from a church erected by Edwin of Northumbria, located in "...regione quae vocatur Loidis" ('the region known as Loidis'). This was evidently a regional name, but it subsequently occurs in the 1086 Domesday Book denoting a settlement, in the later Old English form Ledes. (The 1725 map by John Cossins spells it as Leedes.)The name is not Old English in form, so is presumably an Anglo-Saxonisation of an earlier Celtic name. It is hard to be sure what this name was; Mills's A Dictionary of British Place-Names prefers Celtic *Lādenses 'people living by the strongly flowing river'. It has been surmised that the name denoted a forest covering most of the kingdom of Elmet, which existed during the fifth century into the early seventh. An inhabitant of Leeds is locally known as a Loiner, possibly derived from Loidis.
Prehistoric to Anglo-Saxon periods
There is no dependable reference to any place that might be associated with Leeds, before Bede's mention in circa 730 AD; and that was to a region rather than a village or town; thus little is known of any Roman or Anglo-Saxon predecessors to Leeds.
As well as scattered Bronze Age objects throughout the Leeds area, there were, according to 19th-century records, two Bronze Age barrows on Woodhouse Moor. In the pre-Roman and Roman Iron Age, the vicinity of Leeds was associated with the Brigantes; as well as possible Roman-period earthworks, a paved ford across the River Aire has been discovered, and is supposed to date to Roman times. Brigantian remains have been found in villages and towns in the vicinity of Leeds, and there are Roman remains in nearby settlements, notably at Adel, and at Alwoodley; in the suburb of Headingley a stone coffin was found in 1995 at Beckett's Park which is believed to date from Roman times.
Bede's account indicates activity in the vicinity of Leeds, though not necessarily near the town as it is now known: his unidentified place-name Campodonum might refer to an important place in the area; and one Abbot Thrythwulf had a monastery nearby in Bede's time, though it did not last long into the medieval period. However, evidence for major wealth and status comes from fragments of at least six stone crosses/other monuments, with the ninth- to tenth-century decoration characteristic of Anglo-Scandinavian culture, which were found in the fabric of the 14th-century Leeds Parish Church when it was demolished and replaced in 1838. The best preserved, now in the modern church, depicts alongside other images the story of Wayland the Smith. Leeds's profile was raised by the 2008-09 discovery of the West Yorkshire Hoard, a small, probably tenth- or eleventh-century treasure hoard of items from the early 7th century onwards, in the Leeds area. It seems likely that the Anglo-Saxon settlement consisted largely of an ecclesiastical site, a ford over the river Aire, and Kirkgate.
Other evidence for occupation in the Anglo-Saxon period lies in the old Shire Oak at Headingley, which is believed to have lent its name to the wapentake of Skyrack, and in the presence of many places around Leeds which have the termination of their names in ley: such as Bramley, Rodley, Farnley, Armley, Wortley, and Farsley, which is derived from the Anglo-Saxon leah, an open place in the wood.
Leeds parish is thought to have developed from a large British multiple estate which, under subsequent Anglo-Saxon occupation was further sub divided into smaller land holdings. The ancient estate straddled the wapentakes of Morley and Skyrack, encompassing Leeds, Headingley, Allerton, Gipton, Bramley, Armley, Farnley, Beeston and Ristone (Wortley). Leeds parish in Skyrack was the most important of these holdings. Leeds was then further sub divided so that when the first dependable historical record about Leeds (as "Ledes") was written in the Domesday book of 1086, it was recorded as having comprised seven small manors in the days of Edward the Confessor. At the time of the Norman conquest, Leeds was evidently a purely agricultural domain, of about 1,000 acres (4 km2) in extent. It was divided into seven manors, held by as many thanes; they possessed six ploughs; there was a priest, and a church, and a mill: its taxable value was six pounds. When the Domesday records were made, it had slightly increased in value; the seven thanes had been replaced by twenty-seven villains, four sokemen, and four bordars. The villains were what we should now call day-labourers: the soke or soc men were persons of various degrees, from small owners under a greater lord, to mere husbandmen: the bordars are considered by most specialists in Domesday terminology to have been mere drudges, hewers of wood, drawers of water. The mill, when this survey was made, was worth four shillings. There were 10 acres (40,000 m2) of meadow. The tenant in chief was Ilbert de Lacy to whom William the Conqueror had granted a vast Honour stretching widely across country from Lincolnshire into Lancashire, and whose chief stronghold was at Pontefract Castle, a few miles to the south-east.
That Leeds was owned by one of the chief favourites of William was fortunate; the probability is that the lands of the de Lacy ownership were spared when the harrying of the North took place. While the greater part of the county was absolutely destitute of human life, and all the land northward lay blackened, Leeds in 1086 had a population of at least two hundred people.
There were two significant foci to the settlement; the area around the parish church and the main manorial landholding half a mile to the west of the church. The Leeds Guide of 1837 states that Ilbert de Lacy built a castle on Mill Hill—roughly City Square in contemporary times—which was besieged by Stephen in his march towards Scotland in 1139. In 1399, according to the Hardynge Chronicle, the captive Richard II was briefly imprisoned at Leeds, before being transported to another de Lacy property at Pontefract, where he was later executed.
- The kyng then sent kyng Richard to Ledis,
- there to be kepte durely in previtee;
- fro thens after to Pykering went he needis,
- and to Knaresbro' after led was he
- but to pontefrete last where he did dee.
In 1147, Cistercian monks settled at Kirkstall, and there from about 1152 began to build Kirkstall Abbey.
First borough charter
Leeds was subinfeudated – along with much other land in Yorkshire, by the de Lacy family to the Paynel family; Ralph Paynel is mentioned often in the Domesday entries. He was one of the principal tenants-in-chief in Yorkshire. It was from a descendant of the Paynels, sometimes described as Maurice de Gant, that the inhabitants of Leeds received their first charter, in November, 1207. Leeds had the geographical advantages of being on a river crossing and being on the York to Chester route as well as being close to the Wharfedale to Skipton route through the Pennines. The manorial lords were keen to increase their revenues by exploiting these advantages.
The preamble of the charter reads:
- "I Maurice Paynall have given and granted and by this charter confirmed to my burgesses of Leeds and their heirs franchise and free burgage and their tofts and with each toft half an acre of land for tillage to hold these of me and my heirs in fief and inheritance freely quit and honourably rendering annually to me and my heirs for each toft and half an acre of land sixteen pence at Pentecost and at Martinmas."
The charter made various provisions for the appointment of a bailiff (prator) to preside over a court of justice, to collect rents and dues, and to fine recalcitrants; others stipulated for aids when the lord needed monetary help, and placed tenants under obligation to grind corn at his mill and bake in his oven. Leeds was granted some rights of self-government and it had burgesses who were freemen. Yet the charter granted to the townspeople of Leeds only the lowest conditions needed for urban development. It did not transform the manor into a borough but established a borough within a manor. It was not coextensive with the manor but consisted of only a group of tenements within it. The new town was laid out along the line of a street, later to be called Briggate, which was wide enough to hold a market, with about thirty burgage plots on either side. The south end of the street had a river crossing but the earliest recorded bridge, from which its name is derived (bridge gate), is in 1384. The population was small in 1207 and remained scanty for a long time afterwards. At the time of the Poll Tax of 1379 it appears not to have exceeded three hundred persons at the very outside; it was certainly one of the smallest towns in Yorkshire, such places as Snaith, Ripon, Tickhill, and Selby exceeding it in importance. Even in the thirteenth century, Leeds consisted of several distinct areas of habitation and activity. There was the old settlement around the parish church, the newly founded borough, the manor house and mill to the west and the town fields at Burmantofts (borough men's tofts). By establishing the borough the manorial revenues were increased and Leeds became more prosperous. Tax returns of 1334 and 1377 show that population of the whole parish before the Black Death was about 1,000 people of whom 350 to 400 lived in the central area including the borough. Leeds began to rank with the more prosperous towns to the east.
In 1217 Maurice de Gant lost the Leeds estate by figuring on the wrong side at the battle of Lincoln.His holding passed from him to Ranulf, Earl of Chester, and through him reverted to the de Lacy family; when the de Lacy estates became merged by marriage in the Duchy of Lancaster they passed to the royal family, and, on the accession of Henry IV, were absorbed into the possessions of the Crown.
Late Middle Ages
For four centuries after the Norman invasion, the growth of Leeds was slow. Its site had no particular military advantages: the great strategic position of that part of Yorkshire was at Pontefract, close by. It had, at first, no commercial values—it may have been that its first beginnings in its staple wool trade sprang from the wool growing of the Cistercians at Kirkstall Abbey, on its western borders. The township was concerned with little more than agriculture, and such trade as it knew was confined to those retailings which establish themselves wherever communities spring up—dealings in the necessities of life, which, reduced to a minimum, are merely food and clothing. The town itself was small—it was probably confined within a triangle formed on the lines of the present lower Briggate, Kirkgate, and the river Aire, with the parish church at one angle somewhere about, perhaps on, the site of the modern one. The streets would be narrow, unpaved and unlighted. The houses, in spite of the fact that stone is so plentiful in the district, were of wood, whitewashed, in many cases, thatched. All around the town lay the open fields and meadows, cultivated on the principle of strip-farming. And beyond these lay the forest of Elmet.
Tudor period and incorporation
The Tudor period was a time of transition for Leeds, from a relatively mean settlement to a solid cloth-trading town. In 1470, it was obscure enough to be described as being "near to Rothwell", which in the fifteenth century had the rights of a market town. By 1536, when John Leland visited it, he was able to report of it that it was a pretty market town which stood most by clothing and was as large as Bradford, though not so "quik", by which he evidently meant not so enterprising. Nevertheless, much of the old life and conditions still existed. The Crown was now over-lord, and had been so ever since the accession of Henry IV, and the folk still ground their corn at the King's mills and baked their bread at the King's oven. There was as yet no charter of incorporation, and though the people were rapidly approaching to conditions of liberty their lot was still not very appreciably different from that of their forefathers. Up to the end of the sixteenth century Leeds may be looked upon as existing in semi-feudalism.
There is no mention of education in Leeds until 1552, when one William Sheafield, who seems to have been a chantry priest of St. Catherine in Leeds, left property in the town for the establishment of a learned school-master who should teach freely for ever such scholars, youths, and children as should resort to him, with the wise proviso that the Leeds folk themselves should find a suitable building and make up the master's salary to ten pounds a year. Here is the origin of Leeds Grammar School which, first housed in the Calls, and subsequently—through the beneficence of John Harrison—in Lady Lane, had by the end of that century become an institution of vast importance.
As the sixteenth century drew to a close, and while the seventeenth was still young, the towns-folk of Leeds secured in the first instance at their own cost, in the second by a strictly limited Royal favour two important privileges—the right of electing their own vicar and of governing themselves in municipal affairs. In 1583 the town bought the advowson of the parish church from its then possessor, Oliver Darnley, for £130, and henceforth the successive vicars were chosen by a body of trustees—the most notably successful experiment in popular election which has ever been known in the National Church. In 1626, Leeds received its first charter of incorporation from Charles I. The charter, premising that Leeds in the County of York is an ancient and populous town, whose inhabitants are well acquainted with the Art and Mystery of making Woollen Cloths, sets up a governing body of one Alderman, nine Burgesses, and twenty Assistants. But the privilege for some years was a limited one: the Crown reserved to itself the rights of appointment to any of the thirty vacancies which might occur by death: popular election did not come for some time.
English Civil War and political representation
Eighteen years after the granting of the charter of incorporation, Leeds joined with other towns in the neighbourhood in a Memorial to the King wherein he was besought to settle his differences with the rebellious Parliament. Of this no notice was taken, and in the earlier stages of the Civil War the town was garrisoned for the Royal cause under Sir William Savile. But it was a very small Leeds which he occupied for the King in January, 1643, having under him 500 horse and 1,500 foot. He made elaborate preparations for the defence of the place, digging a six-foot trench from St. John's Church by Upper Headrow, Boar Lane, and Swinegate to the banks of the river; erecting breastworks at the north end of the bridge, and placing demi-culverins in a position to sweep Briggate. Against him on Monday, January 23, advanced the redoubtable Sir Thomas Fairfax, at the head of a Parliamentary force which appears to have numbered at least 3000 horse and foot. Finding the bridge at Kirkstall broken down, Fairfax crossed the Aire at Apperley Bridge, and came on to Woodhouse Moor, from where he called on Savile to surrender. Savile returned the answer which was doubtless expected, and in the teeth of a heavy snowstorm, Fairfax led his troops forward to the assault. The action began about two o'clock of the afternoon and appears to have developed on all sides of the town. It rapidly went in favour of the assailants, and by four o'clock the Parliamentarian leaders and their troops were in Briggate and Boar Lane, while Savile and others were fleeing for their lives. Fairfax took nearly 500 prisoners and immediately released them on their promising not to take up arms against the Parliament on any further occasion. Though not a very great affair, it settled the question of King or Commons so far as that part of the West Riding was concerned.
The Puritan regime followed on the first successes of the Parliamentarians, and Leeds saw two Puritan ministers placed in the parish church and the new church of St. John. But in 1644 Leeds folk had something else to think: an epidemic, so serious as to rank with the medieval visitations of plague, broke out, and resulted in the death of 1300 inhabitants. The weekly markets were discontinued, and deaths occurred with such startling rapidity that it was impossible to keep pace with them in the parish registers.
In 1646 Charles I. came to Leeds a prisoner. After his surrender to the Scottish generals at Kelham, near Newark, he was led northward to Newcastle; on his return from that city, he spent one night in the house called Red Hall, in Upper Head Row.
It seems curious that up to the middle of the seventeenth century Leeds had never been directly represented in Parliament. Many now quite insignificant places in Yorkshire had sent members to the House of Commons from a very early period--Malton, Beverley, Northallerton had returned members as far back as 1298; Otley had had two members for centuries. But it was not until 1654 that Adam Baynes was returned to sit at Westminster; he was returned again two years later with Francis Allanson as a second member. This representation came to an end at the Restoration in 1660, and Leeds had no more members of Parliament until the Reform Act 1832. But in 1661 it received some concession from the Crown which was perhaps of more importance to it—a new Municipal Charter. There had been some readjustment of the old one in 1642, but Charles II's Charter was of a far-reaching nature. It set up a Mayor, twelve Aldermen, twenty-four Assistants or Councillors, a Town Clerk, and a Recorder; it also provided for local election to vacancies. From the Charter of Charles I and that of his son are derived the well-known arms of the town. The owls are the Savile owls famous throughout the county, where the Saviles have been legion; the mullets figured on the arms of Thomas Danby, first Mayor. The dependent sheep typifies the wool trade.
In 1715 the first history of Leeds was written by Ralph Thoresby, entitled Ducatus Leodiensis; or the Topography of the antient and populous Town and Parish of Leedes.
Leeds was mainly a merchant town, manufacturing woollen cloths and trading with Europe via the Humber estuary and the population grew from 10,000 at the end of the seventeenth century to 30,000 at the end of the eighteenth. As a gauge of the importance of the town, by the 1770s Leeds merchants were responsible for 30% of the country's woollen exports, valued at £1,500,000 when 70 years previously Yorkshire accounted for only 20% of exports.
Woollen cloth trade
Weaving was introduced into West Yorkshire in the reign of Edward III, and Cistercians, such as at Kirkstall, were certainly engaged in sheep farming. Leland (date) records the organised trading of cloth on the bridge over the Aire, at the foot of Briggate, at specified times and under set conditions. The traded woollen cloth was predominantly of home manufacture, produced in the villages and settlements surrounding Leeds. (Bradford, by contrast, was the centre of the worsted cloth trade.) There was, however, a fulling mill at Leeds by 1400, and cloth dying may also have been an early centralised activity. Before the time of Defoe's visit to Leeds, cloth trading outstripped the capacity of the bridge, and moved instead to trestle tables in up to two rows on each side of Briggate. Defoe mentions that at this time Leeds traders went all over the country, selling cloth on credit terms; and that an export trade existed. Ralph Thoresby was involved in the establishment of the first covered cloth market, when with others he secured the permission of the 3rd Viscount Irwin, holder of Manor of Leeds, to erect the White Cloth Hall. The fact of Wakefield having erected a trading hall in 1710 was almost certainly a driver of change. The new hall opened on 22 May 1711, and lasted for 65 years before being removed to a new site in the Calls, and later at the time of the railways to the present trading hall. In 1758 a coloured or mixed cloth hall was built near Mill Hill – a quadrangular building 66 yards (60 m) by 128 yards (117 m), with capacity for 1800 trading stalls, initially let at 3 guineas per annum, but later trading at a premium of £24 per annum. The hall was pulled down in 1899 to make way for the new General Post Office; the last White Cloth hall in 1896 to make way for the Metropole Hotel.
Industrial Revolution Expansion
The industrial revolution had resulted in the radical growth of Leeds whose population had risen to over 150,000 by 1840. The city's industrial growth was catalysed by the introduction of the Aire & Calder Navigation in 1699, Leeds and Liverpool Canal in 1816 and the railways from 1834 onwards; the first being the Leeds and Selby Railway opened on 22 September 1834. The first Leeds railway station was at Marsh Lane; the Leeds Wellington station was opened in 1848; the Central in 1854, and the New station in 1869. Little by little the town was linked up with Hull, York, Sheffield, Bradford, Dewsbury; with the Durham and Northumberland towns; with Manchester and Liverpool; and with the Midlands and London.
In 1893 Leeds had been granted city status. These industries that developed in the industrial revolution had included making machinery for spinning, machine tools, steam engines and gears as well as other industries based on textiles, chemicals and leather and pottery. Coal was extracted on a large scale and the still functioning Middleton Railway, the first successful commercial steam locomotive railway in the world, transported coal into the centre of Leeds. The track was the first rack railway and the locomotive (Salamanca) was the first to have twin cylinders.
Various areas in Leeds developed different roles in the industrial revolution. The city centre became a major centre of transport and commerce, Hunslet and Holbeck became major engineering centres. Armley, Bramley and Kirkstall became milling centres and areas such as Roundhay became middle class suburbs, the building of the Leeds Tramway allowing them better connections with the rest of the city.
By the 20th century this social and economic had started to change with the creation of the academic institutions that are known today as the University of Leeds and Leeds Beckett University. This period had also witnessed expansion in medical provision, particularly Leeds General Infirmary and St James's Hospital. Following the Second World War there has been, as in many other cities, a decline in secondary industries that thrived in the 19th century. However this decline was reversed in the growth of new tertiary industries such as retail, call centres, offices and media. Today Leeds is known as one of eight core cities that act as a focus of their respective regions and Leeds is generally regarded as the dominant city of the ceremonial county of West Yorkshire.
Leeds made a notable contribution during the First World War. Leeds suffered no raids during the war; however, it suffered significant losses during the war.
Barnbow in Cross Gates was a large ammunitions factory producing ten thousand shells per week by August 1915. The worst tragedy ever to happen within Leeds (in terms of fatalities) happened at the Barnbow tragedy of 5 December 1916. 35 workers (all women aged 14 or over) were killed in the Barnbow Munitions Factory, which later became the Royal Ordnance Factory Barnbow. The plant employed 16,000 workers, from Leeds, Selby, Wakefield, Tadcaster and Wetherby and had its own railway station to cope with the daily influx of workers. The railway station had an 850-foot (260 m) platform and 38 special trains from surrounding towns and cities. An explosion from Hall 42 killed 35 workers and mutilated many more. Mechanic Mr William Parking was presented with an engraved silver watch for his bravery in saving factory workers during the incident.
During the First World War, regiments were made up of men from particular towns, meaning that if one regiment suffered heavy losses, a town or city would suffer heavy losses of its male population. Leeds was one city unfortunate enough to suffer this. By the Second World War, regiments weren't so geographically based. The battalion formed in 1914 and suffered its worse losses in the Battle of the Somme in 1916.
Second World War
During the Second World War Leeds made a further contribution to the war effort, although it was perhaps less historically notable than that of the first. Although the result of the sinking of the third Royal naval vessel named 'Ark Royal' which was Leeds's adopted ship the people of Leeds raised over £9 million in 1942 for a new ship, surpassing the £5 million target.
Leeds escaped the worst of The Blitz, due mainly to its inland location and it not having any significant industrial targets. On the night of the 14 March and early hours of 15 March 1941, Leeds received its worst night of Luftwaffe bombing. Beeston had more bombs dropped on it then any other district of the city, yet escaped with the least damage. Flaxton Terrace was the only street to be damaged during the night-time blackout air raid, with nearly all the other bombs landing on Cross Flatts Park. In his 2005 poem 'Shrapnel' poet Tony Harrison, who was in Beeston on the night of the raid, speculates whether this was an act of heroism by the Luftwaffe pilot, a theory that has been explored ever since the raid. Significant damage was also caused in Holbeck and Headingley, while the Eastern side of the Town Hall was damaged. Bombs were also dropped on the Woodhouse area during nighttime air raids, as the Luftwaffe attempted to destroy an industrial target.
- See also: Thorp Arch Trading Estate
ROF Thorp Arch was the main munitions factory in the area at this time. The facility which is now a trading estate and retail park, was situated near Wetherby and like Barnbow featured significant railway facilities. The works suffered minor damage from bombing raids. People from all over West Yorkshire travelled to work at the facility by train from Leeds and Wetherby stations.
The town of Yeadon housed the underground factory that manufactured the parts for Avro Lancaster bombers. The factory was located alongside the current Leeds Bradford International Airport.
Rodley to the west of the city had two factories, Smiths and Booths, that manufactured cranes, they were converted to make bombs.
History of Leeds Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:ea809984-d6cb-4dec-a9e1-f82d3bc2a6f2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.kiddle.co/History_of_Leeds | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00251.warc.gz | en | 0.980982 | 6,082 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
0.13403671979904175,
-0.21847406029701233,
0.40206027030944824,
-0.021571677178144455,
0.16739800572395325,
-0.2648305296897888,
-0.28467148542404175,
-0.05555354803800583,
-0.06137743964791298,
-0.2589896321296692,
0.3542631268501282,
-0.5573096871376038,
-0.3048824369907379,
0.0799779295... | 1 | History of Leeds facts for kids
Loidis, from which Leeds derives its name, was anciently a forested area of the Celtic kingdom of Elmet. The settlement certainly existed at the time of the Norman conquest of England and in 1086 was a thriving manor under the overlordship of Ilbert de Lacy. It gained its first charter from Maurice de Gant in 1207 yet grew but slowly throughout the medieval and Tudor periods. The town had become part of the Duchy of Lancaster and reverted to the crown in the medieval period, so was a Royalist stronghold at the start of the English Civil War.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Leeds prospered and expanded as a centre of the woollen industry and it continued to expand rapidly in the Industrial Revolution. Following a period of post industrial decline in the mid twentieth century Leeds' prosperity revived with the development of tertiary industrial sectors.
- Prehistoric to Anglo-Saxon periods
- Norman period
- First borough charter
- Late Middle Ages
- Tudor period and incorporation
- English Civil War and political representation
- Woollen cloth trade
- Industrial Revolution Expansion
- Modern history
The name "Leeds" is first attested in the form "Loidis": around 731 Bede mentioned it in book II, chapter 14 of his Historia ecclesiastica, in a discussion of an altar surviving from a church erected by Edwin of Northumbria, located in "...regione quae vocatur Loidis" ('the region known as Loidis'). This was evidently a regional name, but it subsequently occurs in the 1086 Domesday Book denoting a settlement, in the later Old English form Ledes. (The 1725 map by John Cossins spells it as Leedes.)The name is not Old English in form, so is presumably an Anglo-Saxonisation of an earlier Celtic name. It is hard to be sure what this name was; Mills's A Dictionary of British Place-Names prefers Celtic *Lādenses 'people living by the strongly flowing river'. It has been surmised that the name denoted a forest covering most of the kingdom of Elmet, which existed during the fifth century into the early seventh. An inhabitant of Leeds is locally known as a Loiner, possibly derived from Loidis.
Prehistoric to Anglo-Saxon periods
There is no dependable reference to any place that might be associated with Leeds, before Bede's mention in circa 730 AD; and that was to a region rather than a village or town; thus little is known of any Roman or Anglo-Saxon predecessors to Leeds.
As well as scattered Bronze Age objects throughout the Leeds area, there were, according to 19th-century records, two Bronze Age barrows on Woodhouse Moor. In the pre-Roman and Roman Iron Age, the vicinity of Leeds was associated with the Brigantes; as well as possible Roman-period earthworks, a paved ford across the River Aire has been discovered, and is supposed to date to Roman times. Brigantian remains have been found in villages and towns in the vicinity of Leeds, and there are Roman remains in nearby settlements, notably at Adel, and at Alwoodley; in the suburb of Headingley a stone coffin was found in 1995 at Beckett's Park which is believed to date from Roman times.
Bede's account indicates activity in the vicinity of Leeds, though not necessarily near the town as it is now known: his unidentified place-name Campodonum might refer to an important place in the area; and one Abbot Thrythwulf had a monastery nearby in Bede's time, though it did not last long into the medieval period. However, evidence for major wealth and status comes from fragments of at least six stone crosses/other monuments, with the ninth- to tenth-century decoration characteristic of Anglo-Scandinavian culture, which were found in the fabric of the 14th-century Leeds Parish Church when it was demolished and replaced in 1838. The best preserved, now in the modern church, depicts alongside other images the story of Wayland the Smith. Leeds's profile was raised by the 2008-09 discovery of the West Yorkshire Hoard, a small, probably tenth- or eleventh-century treasure hoard of items from the early 7th century onwards, in the Leeds area. It seems likely that the Anglo-Saxon settlement consisted largely of an ecclesiastical site, a ford over the river Aire, and Kirkgate.
Other evidence for occupation in the Anglo-Saxon period lies in the old Shire Oak at Headingley, which is believed to have lent its name to the wapentake of Skyrack, and in the presence of many places around Leeds which have the termination of their names in ley: such as Bramley, Rodley, Farnley, Armley, Wortley, and Farsley, which is derived from the Anglo-Saxon leah, an open place in the wood.
Leeds parish is thought to have developed from a large British multiple estate which, under subsequent Anglo-Saxon occupation was further sub divided into smaller land holdings. The ancient estate straddled the wapentakes of Morley and Skyrack, encompassing Leeds, Headingley, Allerton, Gipton, Bramley, Armley, Farnley, Beeston and Ristone (Wortley). Leeds parish in Skyrack was the most important of these holdings. Leeds was then further sub divided so that when the first dependable historical record about Leeds (as "Ledes") was written in the Domesday book of 1086, it was recorded as having comprised seven small manors in the days of Edward the Confessor. At the time of the Norman conquest, Leeds was evidently a purely agricultural domain, of about 1,000 acres (4 km2) in extent. It was divided into seven manors, held by as many thanes; they possessed six ploughs; there was a priest, and a church, and a mill: its taxable value was six pounds. When the Domesday records were made, it had slightly increased in value; the seven thanes had been replaced by twenty-seven villains, four sokemen, and four bordars. The villains were what we should now call day-labourers: the soke or soc men were persons of various degrees, from small owners under a greater lord, to mere husbandmen: the bordars are considered by most specialists in Domesday terminology to have been mere drudges, hewers of wood, drawers of water. The mill, when this survey was made, was worth four shillings. There were 10 acres (40,000 m2) of meadow. The tenant in chief was Ilbert de Lacy to whom William the Conqueror had granted a vast Honour stretching widely across country from Lincolnshire into Lancashire, and whose chief stronghold was at Pontefract Castle, a few miles to the south-east.
That Leeds was owned by one of the chief favourites of William was fortunate; the probability is that the lands of the de Lacy ownership were spared when the harrying of the North took place. While the greater part of the county was absolutely destitute of human life, and all the land northward lay blackened, Leeds in 1086 had a population of at least two hundred people.
There were two significant foci to the settlement; the area around the parish church and the main manorial landholding half a mile to the west of the church. The Leeds Guide of 1837 states that Ilbert de Lacy built a castle on Mill Hill—roughly City Square in contemporary times—which was besieged by Stephen in his march towards Scotland in 1139. In 1399, according to the Hardynge Chronicle, the captive Richard II was briefly imprisoned at Leeds, before being transported to another de Lacy property at Pontefract, where he was later executed.
- The kyng then sent kyng Richard to Ledis,
- there to be kepte durely in previtee;
- fro thens after to Pykering went he needis,
- and to Knaresbro' after led was he
- but to pontefrete last where he did dee.
In 1147, Cistercian monks settled at Kirkstall, and there from about 1152 began to build Kirkstall Abbey.
First borough charter
Leeds was subinfeudated – along with much other land in Yorkshire, by the de Lacy family to the Paynel family; Ralph Paynel is mentioned often in the Domesday entries. He was one of the principal tenants-in-chief in Yorkshire. It was from a descendant of the Paynels, sometimes described as Maurice de Gant, that the inhabitants of Leeds received their first charter, in November, 1207. Leeds had the geographical advantages of being on a river crossing and being on the York to Chester route as well as being close to the Wharfedale to Skipton route through the Pennines. The manorial lords were keen to increase their revenues by exploiting these advantages.
The preamble of the charter reads:
- "I Maurice Paynall have given and granted and by this charter confirmed to my burgesses of Leeds and their heirs franchise and free burgage and their tofts and with each toft half an acre of land for tillage to hold these of me and my heirs in fief and inheritance freely quit and honourably rendering annually to me and my heirs for each toft and half an acre of land sixteen pence at Pentecost and at Martinmas."
The charter made various provisions for the appointment of a bailiff (prator) to preside over a court of justice, to collect rents and dues, and to fine recalcitrants; others stipulated for aids when the lord needed monetary help, and placed tenants under obligation to grind corn at his mill and bake in his oven. Leeds was granted some rights of self-government and it had burgesses who were freemen. Yet the charter granted to the townspeople of Leeds only the lowest conditions needed for urban development. It did not transform the manor into a borough but established a borough within a manor. It was not coextensive with the manor but consisted of only a group of tenements within it. The new town was laid out along the line of a street, later to be called Briggate, which was wide enough to hold a market, with about thirty burgage plots on either side. The south end of the street had a river crossing but the earliest recorded bridge, from which its name is derived (bridge gate), is in 1384. The population was small in 1207 and remained scanty for a long time afterwards. At the time of the Poll Tax of 1379 it appears not to have exceeded three hundred persons at the very outside; it was certainly one of the smallest towns in Yorkshire, such places as Snaith, Ripon, Tickhill, and Selby exceeding it in importance. Even in the thirteenth century, Leeds consisted of several distinct areas of habitation and activity. There was the old settlement around the parish church, the newly founded borough, the manor house and mill to the west and the town fields at Burmantofts (borough men's tofts). By establishing the borough the manorial revenues were increased and Leeds became more prosperous. Tax returns of 1334 and 1377 show that population of the whole parish before the Black Death was about 1,000 people of whom 350 to 400 lived in the central area including the borough. Leeds began to rank with the more prosperous towns to the east.
In 1217 Maurice de Gant lost the Leeds estate by figuring on the wrong side at the battle of Lincoln.His holding passed from him to Ranulf, Earl of Chester, and through him reverted to the de Lacy family; when the de Lacy estates became merged by marriage in the Duchy of Lancaster they passed to the royal family, and, on the accession of Henry IV, were absorbed into the possessions of the Crown.
Late Middle Ages
For four centuries after the Norman invasion, the growth of Leeds was slow. Its site had no particular military advantages: the great strategic position of that part of Yorkshire was at Pontefract, close by. It had, at first, no commercial values—it may have been that its first beginnings in its staple wool trade sprang from the wool growing of the Cistercians at Kirkstall Abbey, on its western borders. The township was concerned with little more than agriculture, and such trade as it knew was confined to those retailings which establish themselves wherever communities spring up—dealings in the necessities of life, which, reduced to a minimum, are merely food and clothing. The town itself was small—it was probably confined within a triangle formed on the lines of the present lower Briggate, Kirkgate, and the river Aire, with the parish church at one angle somewhere about, perhaps on, the site of the modern one. The streets would be narrow, unpaved and unlighted. The houses, in spite of the fact that stone is so plentiful in the district, were of wood, whitewashed, in many cases, thatched. All around the town lay the open fields and meadows, cultivated on the principle of strip-farming. And beyond these lay the forest of Elmet.
Tudor period and incorporation
The Tudor period was a time of transition for Leeds, from a relatively mean settlement to a solid cloth-trading town. In 1470, it was obscure enough to be described as being "near to Rothwell", which in the fifteenth century had the rights of a market town. By 1536, when John Leland visited it, he was able to report of it that it was a pretty market town which stood most by clothing and was as large as Bradford, though not so "quik", by which he evidently meant not so enterprising. Nevertheless, much of the old life and conditions still existed. The Crown was now over-lord, and had been so ever since the accession of Henry IV, and the folk still ground their corn at the King's mills and baked their bread at the King's oven. There was as yet no charter of incorporation, and though the people were rapidly approaching to conditions of liberty their lot was still not very appreciably different from that of their forefathers. Up to the end of the sixteenth century Leeds may be looked upon as existing in semi-feudalism.
There is no mention of education in Leeds until 1552, when one William Sheafield, who seems to have been a chantry priest of St. Catherine in Leeds, left property in the town for the establishment of a learned school-master who should teach freely for ever such scholars, youths, and children as should resort to him, with the wise proviso that the Leeds folk themselves should find a suitable building and make up the master's salary to ten pounds a year. Here is the origin of Leeds Grammar School which, first housed in the Calls, and subsequently—through the beneficence of John Harrison—in Lady Lane, had by the end of that century become an institution of vast importance.
As the sixteenth century drew to a close, and while the seventeenth was still young, the towns-folk of Leeds secured in the first instance at their own cost, in the second by a strictly limited Royal favour two important privileges—the right of electing their own vicar and of governing themselves in municipal affairs. In 1583 the town bought the advowson of the parish church from its then possessor, Oliver Darnley, for £130, and henceforth the successive vicars were chosen by a body of trustees—the most notably successful experiment in popular election which has ever been known in the National Church. In 1626, Leeds received its first charter of incorporation from Charles I. The charter, premising that Leeds in the County of York is an ancient and populous town, whose inhabitants are well acquainted with the Art and Mystery of making Woollen Cloths, sets up a governing body of one Alderman, nine Burgesses, and twenty Assistants. But the privilege for some years was a limited one: the Crown reserved to itself the rights of appointment to any of the thirty vacancies which might occur by death: popular election did not come for some time.
English Civil War and political representation
Eighteen years after the granting of the charter of incorporation, Leeds joined with other towns in the neighbourhood in a Memorial to the King wherein he was besought to settle his differences with the rebellious Parliament. Of this no notice was taken, and in the earlier stages of the Civil War the town was garrisoned for the Royal cause under Sir William Savile. But it was a very small Leeds which he occupied for the King in January, 1643, having under him 500 horse and 1,500 foot. He made elaborate preparations for the defence of the place, digging a six-foot trench from St. John's Church by Upper Headrow, Boar Lane, and Swinegate to the banks of the river; erecting breastworks at the north end of the bridge, and placing demi-culverins in a position to sweep Briggate. Against him on Monday, January 23, advanced the redoubtable Sir Thomas Fairfax, at the head of a Parliamentary force which appears to have numbered at least 3000 horse and foot. Finding the bridge at Kirkstall broken down, Fairfax crossed the Aire at Apperley Bridge, and came on to Woodhouse Moor, from where he called on Savile to surrender. Savile returned the answer which was doubtless expected, and in the teeth of a heavy snowstorm, Fairfax led his troops forward to the assault. The action began about two o'clock of the afternoon and appears to have developed on all sides of the town. It rapidly went in favour of the assailants, and by four o'clock the Parliamentarian leaders and their troops were in Briggate and Boar Lane, while Savile and others were fleeing for their lives. Fairfax took nearly 500 prisoners and immediately released them on their promising not to take up arms against the Parliament on any further occasion. Though not a very great affair, it settled the question of King or Commons so far as that part of the West Riding was concerned.
The Puritan regime followed on the first successes of the Parliamentarians, and Leeds saw two Puritan ministers placed in the parish church and the new church of St. John. But in 1644 Leeds folk had something else to think: an epidemic, so serious as to rank with the medieval visitations of plague, broke out, and resulted in the death of 1300 inhabitants. The weekly markets were discontinued, and deaths occurred with such startling rapidity that it was impossible to keep pace with them in the parish registers.
In 1646 Charles I. came to Leeds a prisoner. After his surrender to the Scottish generals at Kelham, near Newark, he was led northward to Newcastle; on his return from that city, he spent one night in the house called Red Hall, in Upper Head Row.
It seems curious that up to the middle of the seventeenth century Leeds had never been directly represented in Parliament. Many now quite insignificant places in Yorkshire had sent members to the House of Commons from a very early period--Malton, Beverley, Northallerton had returned members as far back as 1298; Otley had had two members for centuries. But it was not until 1654 that Adam Baynes was returned to sit at Westminster; he was returned again two years later with Francis Allanson as a second member. This representation came to an end at the Restoration in 1660, and Leeds had no more members of Parliament until the Reform Act 1832. But in 1661 it received some concession from the Crown which was perhaps of more importance to it—a new Municipal Charter. There had been some readjustment of the old one in 1642, but Charles II's Charter was of a far-reaching nature. It set up a Mayor, twelve Aldermen, twenty-four Assistants or Councillors, a Town Clerk, and a Recorder; it also provided for local election to vacancies. From the Charter of Charles I and that of his son are derived the well-known arms of the town. The owls are the Savile owls famous throughout the county, where the Saviles have been legion; the mullets figured on the arms of Thomas Danby, first Mayor. The dependent sheep typifies the wool trade.
In 1715 the first history of Leeds was written by Ralph Thoresby, entitled Ducatus Leodiensis; or the Topography of the antient and populous Town and Parish of Leedes.
Leeds was mainly a merchant town, manufacturing woollen cloths and trading with Europe via the Humber estuary and the population grew from 10,000 at the end of the seventeenth century to 30,000 at the end of the eighteenth. As a gauge of the importance of the town, by the 1770s Leeds merchants were responsible for 30% of the country's woollen exports, valued at £1,500,000 when 70 years previously Yorkshire accounted for only 20% of exports.
Woollen cloth trade
Weaving was introduced into West Yorkshire in the reign of Edward III, and Cistercians, such as at Kirkstall, were certainly engaged in sheep farming. Leland (date) records the organised trading of cloth on the bridge over the Aire, at the foot of Briggate, at specified times and under set conditions. The traded woollen cloth was predominantly of home manufacture, produced in the villages and settlements surrounding Leeds. (Bradford, by contrast, was the centre of the worsted cloth trade.) There was, however, a fulling mill at Leeds by 1400, and cloth dying may also have been an early centralised activity. Before the time of Defoe's visit to Leeds, cloth trading outstripped the capacity of the bridge, and moved instead to trestle tables in up to two rows on each side of Briggate. Defoe mentions that at this time Leeds traders went all over the country, selling cloth on credit terms; and that an export trade existed. Ralph Thoresby was involved in the establishment of the first covered cloth market, when with others he secured the permission of the 3rd Viscount Irwin, holder of Manor of Leeds, to erect the White Cloth Hall. The fact of Wakefield having erected a trading hall in 1710 was almost certainly a driver of change. The new hall opened on 22 May 1711, and lasted for 65 years before being removed to a new site in the Calls, and later at the time of the railways to the present trading hall. In 1758 a coloured or mixed cloth hall was built near Mill Hill – a quadrangular building 66 yards (60 m) by 128 yards (117 m), with capacity for 1800 trading stalls, initially let at 3 guineas per annum, but later trading at a premium of £24 per annum. The hall was pulled down in 1899 to make way for the new General Post Office; the last White Cloth hall in 1896 to make way for the Metropole Hotel.
Industrial Revolution Expansion
The industrial revolution had resulted in the radical growth of Leeds whose population had risen to over 150,000 by 1840. The city's industrial growth was catalysed by the introduction of the Aire & Calder Navigation in 1699, Leeds and Liverpool Canal in 1816 and the railways from 1834 onwards; the first being the Leeds and Selby Railway opened on 22 September 1834. The first Leeds railway station was at Marsh Lane; the Leeds Wellington station was opened in 1848; the Central in 1854, and the New station in 1869. Little by little the town was linked up with Hull, York, Sheffield, Bradford, Dewsbury; with the Durham and Northumberland towns; with Manchester and Liverpool; and with the Midlands and London.
In 1893 Leeds had been granted city status. These industries that developed in the industrial revolution had included making machinery for spinning, machine tools, steam engines and gears as well as other industries based on textiles, chemicals and leather and pottery. Coal was extracted on a large scale and the still functioning Middleton Railway, the first successful commercial steam locomotive railway in the world, transported coal into the centre of Leeds. The track was the first rack railway and the locomotive (Salamanca) was the first to have twin cylinders.
Various areas in Leeds developed different roles in the industrial revolution. The city centre became a major centre of transport and commerce, Hunslet and Holbeck became major engineering centres. Armley, Bramley and Kirkstall became milling centres and areas such as Roundhay became middle class suburbs, the building of the Leeds Tramway allowing them better connections with the rest of the city.
By the 20th century this social and economic had started to change with the creation of the academic institutions that are known today as the University of Leeds and Leeds Beckett University. This period had also witnessed expansion in medical provision, particularly Leeds General Infirmary and St James's Hospital. Following the Second World War there has been, as in many other cities, a decline in secondary industries that thrived in the 19th century. However this decline was reversed in the growth of new tertiary industries such as retail, call centres, offices and media. Today Leeds is known as one of eight core cities that act as a focus of their respective regions and Leeds is generally regarded as the dominant city of the ceremonial county of West Yorkshire.
Leeds made a notable contribution during the First World War. Leeds suffered no raids during the war; however, it suffered significant losses during the war.
Barnbow in Cross Gates was a large ammunitions factory producing ten thousand shells per week by August 1915. The worst tragedy ever to happen within Leeds (in terms of fatalities) happened at the Barnbow tragedy of 5 December 1916. 35 workers (all women aged 14 or over) were killed in the Barnbow Munitions Factory, which later became the Royal Ordnance Factory Barnbow. The plant employed 16,000 workers, from Leeds, Selby, Wakefield, Tadcaster and Wetherby and had its own railway station to cope with the daily influx of workers. The railway station had an 850-foot (260 m) platform and 38 special trains from surrounding towns and cities. An explosion from Hall 42 killed 35 workers and mutilated many more. Mechanic Mr William Parking was presented with an engraved silver watch for his bravery in saving factory workers during the incident.
During the First World War, regiments were made up of men from particular towns, meaning that if one regiment suffered heavy losses, a town or city would suffer heavy losses of its male population. Leeds was one city unfortunate enough to suffer this. By the Second World War, regiments weren't so geographically based. The battalion formed in 1914 and suffered its worse losses in the Battle of the Somme in 1916.
Second World War
During the Second World War Leeds made a further contribution to the war effort, although it was perhaps less historically notable than that of the first. Although the result of the sinking of the third Royal naval vessel named 'Ark Royal' which was Leeds's adopted ship the people of Leeds raised over £9 million in 1942 for a new ship, surpassing the £5 million target.
Leeds escaped the worst of The Blitz, due mainly to its inland location and it not having any significant industrial targets. On the night of the 14 March and early hours of 15 March 1941, Leeds received its worst night of Luftwaffe bombing. Beeston had more bombs dropped on it then any other district of the city, yet escaped with the least damage. Flaxton Terrace was the only street to be damaged during the night-time blackout air raid, with nearly all the other bombs landing on Cross Flatts Park. In his 2005 poem 'Shrapnel' poet Tony Harrison, who was in Beeston on the night of the raid, speculates whether this was an act of heroism by the Luftwaffe pilot, a theory that has been explored ever since the raid. Significant damage was also caused in Holbeck and Headingley, while the Eastern side of the Town Hall was damaged. Bombs were also dropped on the Woodhouse area during nighttime air raids, as the Luftwaffe attempted to destroy an industrial target.
- See also: Thorp Arch Trading Estate
ROF Thorp Arch was the main munitions factory in the area at this time. The facility which is now a trading estate and retail park, was situated near Wetherby and like Barnbow featured significant railway facilities. The works suffered minor damage from bombing raids. People from all over West Yorkshire travelled to work at the facility by train from Leeds and Wetherby stations.
The town of Yeadon housed the underground factory that manufactured the parts for Avro Lancaster bombers. The factory was located alongside the current Leeds Bradford International Airport.
Rodley to the west of the city had two factories, Smiths and Booths, that manufactured cranes, they were converted to make bombs.
History of Leeds Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 6,304 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The headright system tackled both, the needs of the British colonies, as well as the dreams of its unemployed youth back home. But what was the headright system all about, and what were its impacts? Historyplex answers such questions, as it tells you the definition and significance of the headright system, along with other interesting facts.
Did You Know?
The Jamestown settlement, where the headright system was first established, was also the first British colony in the Americas.
The first European explorers were drawn to the New World by dreams of finding gold and other riches. To get there, they had to brave long sea voyages on primitive ships. However, their ordeal did not end just there. On reaching their destination, they had to deal with tropical diseases, parasites, and formidable tribes, some of which were cannibalistic. Moreover, starvation was an ever-present threat, as the settlers relied on food supplies which had to be shipped from back home.
If the settlers triumphed over these hazards, then the land itself presented further obstacles. Thick forests had to be cleared to gain access to the interior of the continent and allow cultivation. Needless to say, most of these problems could be dealt with skilled and unskilled labor, which had to be attracted to such remote areas by offering some incentives. This strategy was the foundation for the headright system, whose significance is explained in the following sections.
Headright System Facts
✶ The headright system offered grants of land to those who sponsored an immigrant’s voyage to the British colonies in America.
✶ Non-resident sponsors received grants of 50 acres of land for each immigrant, while, for sponsors already residing in a colony, this grant was 100 acres.
✶ Immigrants were also offered land grants of 50 acres per person, if they paid for their own journey across the Atlantic.
✶ The person sponsoring an immigrant’s voyage was called a ‘patentee’ (since he would obtain a land patent), while both, the claim of land and the immigrant was called a ‘headright’.
✶ Land grants were only given to men, not women and children, though one could receive grants for sponsoring their voyage too. For this reason, entire families were encouraged to emigrate together, as the head of the family would receive grants for every member.
✶ The headright system was implemented in all thirteen British colonies, though it was more widespread in Virginia, Georgia, Maryland, North and South Carolina.
✶ Most of the immigrants sponsored by patentees were white British men from the lower economic strata, though women, teenagers, and children were also included. These people worked as indentured servants, meaning that, they pledged to work for their sponsor for 5 to 7 years to pay back the 6 Pounds paid by their employer for each immigrant’s sea voyage.
✶ After the completion of their contract, these laborers were given some wages, clothes, a gun, and some land at the frontiers of the colony.
✶ A lesser number of headrights were immigrants from Europe, Africa, the Caribbean, and even other North American Colonies.
History of Headright System
● On 14 May 1607, a settlement was established in Jamestown, Virginia, by the Virginia Company from Britain, which was a joint-stock venture.
● Initially, its investors expected to make profits from gold, but because reserves of such precious metals were not found, the company ran the risk of going bankrupt.
● Its saving grace came in the form of tobacco plantations, which thrived in the colony, earning profitable revenue to the company from exports to England.
● Tobacco cultivation required huge plantations with a large number of laborers. However, around the beginning of the 17th century, Virginia was only sparsely populated, so the company began using the headright system from 1618, to attract more immigrants.
● In 1624, Virginia became a royal colony, when Britain dissolved the Virginia Company. However, the headright system was allowed to continue by the Crown.
● In 1699, Britain restricted the headrights to only British citizens, thus excluding slaves and foreign immigrants. Moreover, the crown introduced treasury rights, which meant land patents could now be obtained by paying five Shillings for 50 acres of land.
● The headright system continued for a few decades after the 1699 ruling, though it received a lesser response. Finally, in May 1799, the British Parliament abolished the system, and gave a year’s deadline for patentees to claim their land, failing which, it was to pass to the Crown.
Procedure to Obtain Headrights
1. To obtain a grant of land, a sponsor needed to give a petition to a county court regarding the number and identity of immigrants whose journey he was paying for.
2. The court then issued a ‘certificate of importation’, which was to be taken to the Secretary of the Colony to obtain a headright for the land.
3. The sponsor now had to approach a surveyor with the headright, so that he could inspect the land and generate a map.
4. The sponsor had to submit these documents to the Secretary, and he would receive a land patent if they were approved.
The headright system helped draw in a large number of immigrants, who were attracted by the chance of having their own land at the end of their contract. These people realized they were working for their own future, and not for the company. This influx of workers helped in the expansion of the British colonies, by occupying land previously under forest cover. Tobacco cultivation reached new heights during this period. Many of these indentured servants would later set up their own farms, and become the forerunners of the future colonists.
This system helped wealthy landowners in the colonies to become even richer, by paying the travel expenses for every laborer and slave that they imported, in return for huge grants of land. Besides, they could now extract free labor from the immigrants for a period of several years. In fact, the laws allowed them land grants even if their sponsored laborer didn’t make it to the colony alive, which was a common occurrence.
The system was easy to misuse, owing to the lack of headright auditing. In many cases, both, the patentee as well as the captain of the ship that brought the immigrant would separately claim a land grant for the same individual. Since the grant of land required a petition detailing the immigrants to be presented before a county court, some sponsors would present multiple petitions for the same immigrant to several county courts. In other cases of fraud, sponsors would claim grants for people who had not immigrated at all. While the Virginia Company expected the land grants to attract more immigrants, in the end, these corrupt practices resulted in only a few wealthy landholders owning most of the land.
While the laborers were promised wages, their freedom, clothes, weapons, provisions, and land at the end of their contract period, this was easier said than done. Many laborers would fall victim to diseases and starvation, sometimes even during their voyage. Besides, the land granted to them at the end of their labor, was, most often than not, on the frontiers of the colony, where they had to brave fierce attacks from the Natives, which claimed many lives. In other cases, they were given possession of unproductive land. These land grants to indentured servants was later completely revoked by the British Crown, when the availability of good land decreased. Moreover, the plantation owners received newer grants of land for every single laborer they brought to the colony, which greatly widened the gap between the patentees and the laborers. This led to frequent tensions between the workers and the employees, such as the Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676, in which the Governor of Virginia himself was driven away by rioters.
Rise of Slavery
The increasing tension between indentured laborers and their employers led to many landowners turning to imported African-American slaves for labor. In fact, until 1699, the headright system gave equal weightage to the immigration of both, laborers and slaves, for distributing land grants, which was an added incentive for sponsors to turn to slave labor. Thus, it can be said that the headright system contributed to the scourge of slavery in the future.
The importance of the headright system in securing British Colonies in America cannot be overemphasized. Besides populating the new colony, it bolstered its growing economy, and helped create a protective ‘buffer’ between the colony and marauding tribes like the Creoles and the Cherokees. | <urn:uuid:8d2dae77-a982-4aba-a0a0-c0cc7b0439b0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historyplex.com/headright-system-facts-significance | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00285.warc.gz | en | 0.982158 | 1,783 | 4.375 | 4 | [
-0.15452834963798523,
-0.10764776170253754,
0.30308425426483154,
-0.4962143003940582,
0.012598566710948944,
-0.16103368997573853,
0.22016997635364532,
-0.3283606767654419,
-0.09122027456760406,
0.35760971903800964,
-0.14049643278121948,
-0.23495763540267944,
-0.2574010491371155,
0.03171382... | 9 | The headright system tackled both, the needs of the British colonies, as well as the dreams of its unemployed youth back home. But what was the headright system all about, and what were its impacts? Historyplex answers such questions, as it tells you the definition and significance of the headright system, along with other interesting facts.
Did You Know?
The Jamestown settlement, where the headright system was first established, was also the first British colony in the Americas.
The first European explorers were drawn to the New World by dreams of finding gold and other riches. To get there, they had to brave long sea voyages on primitive ships. However, their ordeal did not end just there. On reaching their destination, they had to deal with tropical diseases, parasites, and formidable tribes, some of which were cannibalistic. Moreover, starvation was an ever-present threat, as the settlers relied on food supplies which had to be shipped from back home.
If the settlers triumphed over these hazards, then the land itself presented further obstacles. Thick forests had to be cleared to gain access to the interior of the continent and allow cultivation. Needless to say, most of these problems could be dealt with skilled and unskilled labor, which had to be attracted to such remote areas by offering some incentives. This strategy was the foundation for the headright system, whose significance is explained in the following sections.
Headright System Facts
✶ The headright system offered grants of land to those who sponsored an immigrant’s voyage to the British colonies in America.
✶ Non-resident sponsors received grants of 50 acres of land for each immigrant, while, for sponsors already residing in a colony, this grant was 100 acres.
✶ Immigrants were also offered land grants of 50 acres per person, if they paid for their own journey across the Atlantic.
✶ The person sponsoring an immigrant’s voyage was called a ‘patentee’ (since he would obtain a land patent), while both, the claim of land and the immigrant was called a ‘headright’.
✶ Land grants were only given to men, not women and children, though one could receive grants for sponsoring their voyage too. For this reason, entire families were encouraged to emigrate together, as the head of the family would receive grants for every member.
✶ The headright system was implemented in all thirteen British colonies, though it was more widespread in Virginia, Georgia, Maryland, North and South Carolina.
✶ Most of the immigrants sponsored by patentees were white British men from the lower economic strata, though women, teenagers, and children were also included. These people worked as indentured servants, meaning that, they pledged to work for their sponsor for 5 to 7 years to pay back the 6 Pounds paid by their employer for each immigrant’s sea voyage.
✶ After the completion of their contract, these laborers were given some wages, clothes, a gun, and some land at the frontiers of the colony.
✶ A lesser number of headrights were immigrants from Europe, Africa, the Caribbean, and even other North American Colonies.
History of Headright System
● On 14 May 1607, a settlement was established in Jamestown, Virginia, by the Virginia Company from Britain, which was a joint-stock venture.
● Initially, its investors expected to make profits from gold, but because reserves of such precious metals were not found, the company ran the risk of going bankrupt.
● Its saving grace came in the form of tobacco plantations, which thrived in the colony, earning profitable revenue to the company from exports to England.
● Tobacco cultivation required huge plantations with a large number of laborers. However, around the beginning of the 17th century, Virginia was only sparsely populated, so the company began using the headright system from 1618, to attract more immigrants.
● In 1624, Virginia became a royal colony, when Britain dissolved the Virginia Company. However, the headright system was allowed to continue by the Crown.
● In 1699, Britain restricted the headrights to only British citizens, thus excluding slaves and foreign immigrants. Moreover, the crown introduced treasury rights, which meant land patents could now be obtained by paying five Shillings for 50 acres of land.
● The headright system continued for a few decades after the 1699 ruling, though it received a lesser response. Finally, in May 1799, the British Parliament abolished the system, and gave a year’s deadline for patentees to claim their land, failing which, it was to pass to the Crown.
Procedure to Obtain Headrights
1. To obtain a grant of land, a sponsor needed to give a petition to a county court regarding the number and identity of immigrants whose journey he was paying for.
2. The court then issued a ‘certificate of importation’, which was to be taken to the Secretary of the Colony to obtain a headright for the land.
3. The sponsor now had to approach a surveyor with the headright, so that he could inspect the land and generate a map.
4. The sponsor had to submit these documents to the Secretary, and he would receive a land patent if they were approved.
The headright system helped draw in a large number of immigrants, who were attracted by the chance of having their own land at the end of their contract. These people realized they were working for their own future, and not for the company. This influx of workers helped in the expansion of the British colonies, by occupying land previously under forest cover. Tobacco cultivation reached new heights during this period. Many of these indentured servants would later set up their own farms, and become the forerunners of the future colonists.
This system helped wealthy landowners in the colonies to become even richer, by paying the travel expenses for every laborer and slave that they imported, in return for huge grants of land. Besides, they could now extract free labor from the immigrants for a period of several years. In fact, the laws allowed them land grants even if their sponsored laborer didn’t make it to the colony alive, which was a common occurrence.
The system was easy to misuse, owing to the lack of headright auditing. In many cases, both, the patentee as well as the captain of the ship that brought the immigrant would separately claim a land grant for the same individual. Since the grant of land required a petition detailing the immigrants to be presented before a county court, some sponsors would present multiple petitions for the same immigrant to several county courts. In other cases of fraud, sponsors would claim grants for people who had not immigrated at all. While the Virginia Company expected the land grants to attract more immigrants, in the end, these corrupt practices resulted in only a few wealthy landholders owning most of the land.
While the laborers were promised wages, their freedom, clothes, weapons, provisions, and land at the end of their contract period, this was easier said than done. Many laborers would fall victim to diseases and starvation, sometimes even during their voyage. Besides, the land granted to them at the end of their labor, was, most often than not, on the frontiers of the colony, where they had to brave fierce attacks from the Natives, which claimed many lives. In other cases, they were given possession of unproductive land. These land grants to indentured servants was later completely revoked by the British Crown, when the availability of good land decreased. Moreover, the plantation owners received newer grants of land for every single laborer they brought to the colony, which greatly widened the gap between the patentees and the laborers. This led to frequent tensions between the workers and the employees, such as the Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676, in which the Governor of Virginia himself was driven away by rioters.
Rise of Slavery
The increasing tension between indentured laborers and their employers led to many landowners turning to imported African-American slaves for labor. In fact, until 1699, the headright system gave equal weightage to the immigration of both, laborers and slaves, for distributing land grants, which was an added incentive for sponsors to turn to slave labor. Thus, it can be said that the headright system contributed to the scourge of slavery in the future.
The importance of the headright system in securing British Colonies in America cannot be overemphasized. Besides populating the new colony, it bolstered its growing economy, and helped create a protective ‘buffer’ between the colony and marauding tribes like the Creoles and the Cherokees. | 1,773 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Templars, also called Knights Templar, members of the Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, consisted of a religious military order of knighthood established at the time of the Crusades that became a model and inspiration for other military orders.
Originally founded to protect Christian pilgrims travelling to the Holy Land, the order assumed greater military duties during the 12th century.
By the mid-12th century the constitution of the order and its basic structure were established. It was headed by a grand master, who was elected for life and served in Jerusalem. Templar territories were divided into provinces, which were governed by provincial commanders, and each individual house, called a preceptory, was headed by a preceptor. General chapter meetings of all members of the order were held to address important matters affecting the Templars and to elect a new master when necessary. Similar meetings were held at the provincial level and on a weekly basis in each house.
The Templars were originally divided into two classes: knights and sergeants. The knight-brothers came from the military aristocracy and were trained in the arts of war. They assumed elite leadership positions in the order and served at royal and papal courts. Only the knights wore the Templars’ distinctive regalia, a white surcoat marked with a red cross. The sergeants, or serving-brothers, who were usually from lower social classes, made up the majority of members. They dressed in black habits and served as both warriors and servants. The Templars eventually added a third class, the chaplains, who were responsible for holding religious services, administering the sacraments, and addressing the spiritual needs of the other members.
The rule of the order was modeled after the Benedictine Rule, especially as understood and implemented by the Cistercians. The Knights Templar swore an oath of poverty, chastity, and obedience and renounced the world, just as the Cistercians and other monks did.
Like the monks, the Templars heard the divine office during each of the canonical hours of the day and were expected to honour the fasts and vigils of the monastic calendar. They were frequently found in prayer and expressed particular veneration to the Virgin Mary. They were not allowed to gamble, swear, or become drunk and were required to live in community, sleeping in a common dormitory and eating meals together.
They were not, however, strictly cloistered, as were the monks, nor were they expected to perform devotional reading (most Templars were uneducated and unable to read Latin). The knights’ primary duty was to fight. The Templars gradually expanded their duties from protecting pilgrims to mounting a broader defense of the Crusader states in the Holy Land. They built castles, garrisoned important towns, and participated in battles, fielding significant contingents against Muslim armies until the fall of Acre, the last remaining Crusader stronghold in the Holy Land, in 1291. Their great effectiveness was attested by the sultan Saladin following the devastating defeat of Crusader forces at the Battle of Ḥaṭṭīn; he bought the Templars who were taken prisoner and later had each of them executed.
On October 13, 1307, Philip IV ordered the arrest of every Templar in France and sequestered all the Templars’ property in the country.
Due to strong pressure from King Philip, Pope Clement V eventually ordered the suppression of the order on March 22, 1312, and the Templars’ property throughout Europe was transferred to the Hospitallers or confiscated by secular rulers. Knights who confessed and were reconciled to the church were sent into retirement in the order’s former houses or in monasteries, but those who failed to confess or who relapsed were put on trial, and executed.
“Contemplative Templar” by Marc Dalmulder is licensed under CC BY 2.0 | <urn:uuid:86e01a63-e6e2-40e6-be94-0eb8d659d22c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.tenetnoctis.net/templar-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.98505 | 801 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
-0.2038940191268921,
0.3615751564502716,
0.05234701931476593,
-0.2749520242214203,
-0.2691686153411865,
-0.3205825984477997,
-0.13504275679588318,
-0.0600474588572979,
0.4248037338256836,
0.18716628849506378,
0.104917511343956,
-0.2951093912124634,
-0.16212160885334015,
0.08095580339431763... | 7 | Templars, also called Knights Templar, members of the Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, consisted of a religious military order of knighthood established at the time of the Crusades that became a model and inspiration for other military orders.
Originally founded to protect Christian pilgrims travelling to the Holy Land, the order assumed greater military duties during the 12th century.
By the mid-12th century the constitution of the order and its basic structure were established. It was headed by a grand master, who was elected for life and served in Jerusalem. Templar territories were divided into provinces, which were governed by provincial commanders, and each individual house, called a preceptory, was headed by a preceptor. General chapter meetings of all members of the order were held to address important matters affecting the Templars and to elect a new master when necessary. Similar meetings were held at the provincial level and on a weekly basis in each house.
The Templars were originally divided into two classes: knights and sergeants. The knight-brothers came from the military aristocracy and were trained in the arts of war. They assumed elite leadership positions in the order and served at royal and papal courts. Only the knights wore the Templars’ distinctive regalia, a white surcoat marked with a red cross. The sergeants, or serving-brothers, who were usually from lower social classes, made up the majority of members. They dressed in black habits and served as both warriors and servants. The Templars eventually added a third class, the chaplains, who were responsible for holding religious services, administering the sacraments, and addressing the spiritual needs of the other members.
The rule of the order was modeled after the Benedictine Rule, especially as understood and implemented by the Cistercians. The Knights Templar swore an oath of poverty, chastity, and obedience and renounced the world, just as the Cistercians and other monks did.
Like the monks, the Templars heard the divine office during each of the canonical hours of the day and were expected to honour the fasts and vigils of the monastic calendar. They were frequently found in prayer and expressed particular veneration to the Virgin Mary. They were not allowed to gamble, swear, or become drunk and were required to live in community, sleeping in a common dormitory and eating meals together.
They were not, however, strictly cloistered, as were the monks, nor were they expected to perform devotional reading (most Templars were uneducated and unable to read Latin). The knights’ primary duty was to fight. The Templars gradually expanded their duties from protecting pilgrims to mounting a broader defense of the Crusader states in the Holy Land. They built castles, garrisoned important towns, and participated in battles, fielding significant contingents against Muslim armies until the fall of Acre, the last remaining Crusader stronghold in the Holy Land, in 1291. Their great effectiveness was attested by the sultan Saladin following the devastating defeat of Crusader forces at the Battle of Ḥaṭṭīn; he bought the Templars who were taken prisoner and later had each of them executed.
On October 13, 1307, Philip IV ordered the arrest of every Templar in France and sequestered all the Templars’ property in the country.
Due to strong pressure from King Philip, Pope Clement V eventually ordered the suppression of the order on March 22, 1312, and the Templars’ property throughout Europe was transferred to the Hospitallers or confiscated by secular rulers. Knights who confessed and were reconciled to the church were sent into retirement in the order’s former houses or in monasteries, but those who failed to confess or who relapsed were put on trial, and executed.
“Contemplative Templar” by Marc Dalmulder is licensed under CC BY 2.0 | 814 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Guinea Pig is a small rodent that has stout body and no tail. They originated in the Andes and were domesticated as early as 5000 B.C. although they are not related to pigs but got their name for several reasons. They squeal (sound) and their physical appearance is somewhat similar to pigs, although they are a lot smaller.
Their scientific name is “Cavia Porcellus”. They are very active during the day and comparatively less active at night. Males are called boars, females are called sows and babies are called pups.
Quick Facts: –
- Guinea Pigs prefer to live on grassy plains and semi-arid deserts. They live in social groups known as herds.
- Their average lifespan can range anywhere between 4 to 7 years.
- Their diet needs to be supplemented with Vitamin C as their body cannot produce it naturally.
- They have a strong hearing sense and can hear sounds of up to 40,000 to 50,000 Hz.
- There are two major categories of Guinea Pigs – short haired and long haired.
- The pups are able to run within a few hours of their birth.
- At the time of the birth they can weigh about 3 ounces and 1-2 pounds when fully grown.
- They have one of the longest gestation period for pet rodents ranging anywhere between 59 to 72 days.
- These small rodents have 4 toes on their front feet but only 3 on their back ones.
- They make very good pets but should not be restricted by leashes as their soft spine structure is not able to tolerate the stress. | <urn:uuid:5cb05125-feb7-4d37-b5d7-a0363b408d7e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://easyscienceforkids.com/guinea-pig/?print=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00537.warc.gz | en | 0.983018 | 335 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
-0.05768442153930664,
0.0760699212551117,
0.08715197443962097,
0.16489063203334808,
0.03628426417708397,
0.10019120573997498,
0.08261767774820328,
0.11190623790025711,
0.23857468366622925,
0.3475804626941681,
0.17318245768547058,
-0.8254036903381348,
0.1507178395986557,
0.13384783267974854... | 7 | Guinea Pig is a small rodent that has stout body and no tail. They originated in the Andes and were domesticated as early as 5000 B.C. although they are not related to pigs but got their name for several reasons. They squeal (sound) and their physical appearance is somewhat similar to pigs, although they are a lot smaller.
Their scientific name is “Cavia Porcellus”. They are very active during the day and comparatively less active at night. Males are called boars, females are called sows and babies are called pups.
Quick Facts: –
- Guinea Pigs prefer to live on grassy plains and semi-arid deserts. They live in social groups known as herds.
- Their average lifespan can range anywhere between 4 to 7 years.
- Their diet needs to be supplemented with Vitamin C as their body cannot produce it naturally.
- They have a strong hearing sense and can hear sounds of up to 40,000 to 50,000 Hz.
- There are two major categories of Guinea Pigs – short haired and long haired.
- The pups are able to run within a few hours of their birth.
- At the time of the birth they can weigh about 3 ounces and 1-2 pounds when fully grown.
- They have one of the longest gestation period for pet rodents ranging anywhere between 59 to 72 days.
- These small rodents have 4 toes on their front feet but only 3 on their back ones.
- They make very good pets but should not be restricted by leashes as their soft spine structure is not able to tolerate the stress. | 344 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Ancient structure twice the size of Stonehenge found submerged
- Thought to be between 2,000 and 12,000 years old
- Archeologists believe it was built on land then later submerged
- Guesses as to site's purpose; could be ceremonial structure or huge ramp
A mysterious, circular structure, with a diameter greater than the length of a Boeing 747 jet, has been discovered submerged about 30 feet (9 meters) underneath the Sea of Galilee in Israel.
Scientists first made the discovery by accident in 2003 using sonar to survey the bottom of the lake but published their findings only recently.
"We just bumped into it," recalls Shmuel Marco, a geophysicist from Tel Aviv University who worked on the project. "Usually the bottom of the lake is quite smooth. We were surprised to find a large mound. Initially we didn't realize the importance of this but we consulted with a couple of archaeologists, and they said it looked like an unusually large Bronze Age statue."
The structure is comprised of basalt rocks, arranged in the shape of a cone. It measures 230 feet (70 meters) at the base of the structure, is 32 feet (10 meters) tall, and weighs an estimated 60,000 tons. It is twice the size of the ancient stone circle at Stonehenge in England.
Its size and location, say Marco, who also took video of the structure during a scuba dive to examine it, indicated it could have been constructed underwater as a type of fish nursery. However archeologists think it more likely it was built on dry land and later submerged by the lake.
"From a geophysical perspective, it is also important to the history of the lake, because it means the water level was lower than it was today," says Marco.
According to Yitzhak Paz, the archeologist who led the study, the fact that the structure is underwater has made it a particularly difficult study.
"If the site was inland, it would be much easier to investigate. By now we would have excavated, but because it's submerged we haven't yet been able to. It is a much harder process, both physically and financially. It is very expensive to raise support for such an enterprise."
The exact age of the structure has been difficult to pinpoint, but calculations based on the six to ten feet (two to three meters) of sand that have accumulated over the bottom of the base -- sand accumulates an average of one to four millimeters per year -- as well as comparisons to other structures in the region, put the estimate anywhere between 2,000 and 12,000 years old.
The possible purpose of the structure is even more enigmatic.
Dani Nadel, an archeologist from the University of Haifa, who partnered on the site, and who has led several prehistoric excavations in the region, notes it shares similarities with communal burial sites, though he's quick to discourage anyone from drawing a definitive conclusion.
"This is such a huge structure that it truly is something unusual. It could have been a big ceremonial structure, or a ramp. There could have once been statues on top of people in certain rituals. I mean, I'm really going wild here. The truth is we don't know how it was constructed, what its exact age is, how it was used, or how long ago it was used. We have severa | <urn:uuid:db1c812a-c64b-4e5d-892e-33c4435f18bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cnn.com/2013/04/19/world/meast/israel-ancient-structure-mystery/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00038.warc.gz | en | 0.980733 | 693 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
-0.04695511236786842,
0.06997997313737869,
0.3622273802757263,
0.0754229873418808,
-0.35266485810279846,
0.08440835773944855,
-0.3079204559326172,
0.21889328956604004,
-0.16183587908744812,
-0.13569623231887817,
0.09282738715410233,
-0.570875883102417,
0.053321219980716705,
0.3970002532005... | 1 | - Ancient structure twice the size of Stonehenge found submerged
- Thought to be between 2,000 and 12,000 years old
- Archeologists believe it was built on land then later submerged
- Guesses as to site's purpose; could be ceremonial structure or huge ramp
A mysterious, circular structure, with a diameter greater than the length of a Boeing 747 jet, has been discovered submerged about 30 feet (9 meters) underneath the Sea of Galilee in Israel.
Scientists first made the discovery by accident in 2003 using sonar to survey the bottom of the lake but published their findings only recently.
"We just bumped into it," recalls Shmuel Marco, a geophysicist from Tel Aviv University who worked on the project. "Usually the bottom of the lake is quite smooth. We were surprised to find a large mound. Initially we didn't realize the importance of this but we consulted with a couple of archaeologists, and they said it looked like an unusually large Bronze Age statue."
The structure is comprised of basalt rocks, arranged in the shape of a cone. It measures 230 feet (70 meters) at the base of the structure, is 32 feet (10 meters) tall, and weighs an estimated 60,000 tons. It is twice the size of the ancient stone circle at Stonehenge in England.
Its size and location, say Marco, who also took video of the structure during a scuba dive to examine it, indicated it could have been constructed underwater as a type of fish nursery. However archeologists think it more likely it was built on dry land and later submerged by the lake.
"From a geophysical perspective, it is also important to the history of the lake, because it means the water level was lower than it was today," says Marco.
According to Yitzhak Paz, the archeologist who led the study, the fact that the structure is underwater has made it a particularly difficult study.
"If the site was inland, it would be much easier to investigate. By now we would have excavated, but because it's submerged we haven't yet been able to. It is a much harder process, both physically and financially. It is very expensive to raise support for such an enterprise."
The exact age of the structure has been difficult to pinpoint, but calculations based on the six to ten feet (two to three meters) of sand that have accumulated over the bottom of the base -- sand accumulates an average of one to four millimeters per year -- as well as comparisons to other structures in the region, put the estimate anywhere between 2,000 and 12,000 years old.
The possible purpose of the structure is even more enigmatic.
Dani Nadel, an archeologist from the University of Haifa, who partnered on the site, and who has led several prehistoric excavations in the region, notes it shares similarities with communal burial sites, though he's quick to discourage anyone from drawing a definitive conclusion.
"This is such a huge structure that it truly is something unusual. It could have been a big ceremonial structure, or a ramp. There could have once been statues on top of people in certain rituals. I mean, I'm really going wild here. The truth is we don't know how it was constructed, what its exact age is, how it was used, or how long ago it was used. We have severa | 720 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A new study has found that eating soy regularly could help protect women from the harmful effects of bisphenol A, which can interfere with IVF treatment.
Bisphenol A, also referred to as BPA, is a chemical found in many common food containers including plastic water bottles, with the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimating that more than 96% of Americans have BPA in their bodies.
It can mimic estrogen, an important female sex hormone, with 100 previous studies linking BPA to numerous health problems, including reproductive problems, and women who are trying to conceive are advised to try to reduce their exposure to BPA.
Researchers from Massachusetts and Georgia wanted to examine further this association between BPA exposure and IVF success, and what part diet may play in a link between the two.
To carry out their study they looked at 239 women aged 18-45 who had undergone at least one cycle of IVF at the Massachusetts General Hospital Fertility Center between 2007 and 2012. The women were all part of the Environment and Reproductive Health (EARTH) Study, an ongoing study that looks at the effect of environmental factors and nutrition on fertility.
The researchers took urine samples to measure levels of BPA, and administered questionnaires to assess how often the women ate soy-based foods, with 176 of the women reporting that they ate soy-based foods, and 63 reporting that they did not.
Results showed that among the 63 women who did not eat soy, those that had a higher level of BPA in their urine also had a lower rate of embryo implantation and fewer pregnancies that resulted in live births when compared to women with lower levels of BPA in their bodies.
However when looking at the group that did eat soy, the researchers saw that levels of BPA had no effect on the outcome of their IVF cycles.
"Although it is recommended that women trying to get pregnant reduce their exposure to BPA, our findings suggest that diet may modify some of the risks of exposure to BPA, a chemical that is nearly impossible to completely avoid due to its widespread use," said senior author Russ Hauser commenting on the results
The team also believe that further research could help in identifying lifestyle and nutrition changes that individuals could make to try to offset the harmful effects of not only BPA but other potentially harmful chemicals.
The study was published in the Endocrine Society's Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. | <urn:uuid:79352cb5-e11a-42b8-b0e4-76df37133c10> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://news.yahoo.com/eating-soy-may-help-women-undergoing-ivf-163709663.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00160.warc.gz | en | 0.980227 | 498 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
0.024417182430624962,
-0.24405011534690857,
0.07881049066781998,
-0.13651014864444733,
0.3060455918312073,
0.22967341542243958,
0.19425132870674133,
0.34750014543533325,
-0.059221770614385605,
-0.09538393467664719,
0.049143146723508835,
-0.701470136642456,
0.2873079776763916,
0.19846814870... | 3 | A new study has found that eating soy regularly could help protect women from the harmful effects of bisphenol A, which can interfere with IVF treatment.
Bisphenol A, also referred to as BPA, is a chemical found in many common food containers including plastic water bottles, with the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimating that more than 96% of Americans have BPA in their bodies.
It can mimic estrogen, an important female sex hormone, with 100 previous studies linking BPA to numerous health problems, including reproductive problems, and women who are trying to conceive are advised to try to reduce their exposure to BPA.
Researchers from Massachusetts and Georgia wanted to examine further this association between BPA exposure and IVF success, and what part diet may play in a link between the two.
To carry out their study they looked at 239 women aged 18-45 who had undergone at least one cycle of IVF at the Massachusetts General Hospital Fertility Center between 2007 and 2012. The women were all part of the Environment and Reproductive Health (EARTH) Study, an ongoing study that looks at the effect of environmental factors and nutrition on fertility.
The researchers took urine samples to measure levels of BPA, and administered questionnaires to assess how often the women ate soy-based foods, with 176 of the women reporting that they ate soy-based foods, and 63 reporting that they did not.
Results showed that among the 63 women who did not eat soy, those that had a higher level of BPA in their urine also had a lower rate of embryo implantation and fewer pregnancies that resulted in live births when compared to women with lower levels of BPA in their bodies.
However when looking at the group that did eat soy, the researchers saw that levels of BPA had no effect on the outcome of their IVF cycles.
"Although it is recommended that women trying to get pregnant reduce their exposure to BPA, our findings suggest that diet may modify some of the risks of exposure to BPA, a chemical that is nearly impossible to completely avoid due to its widespread use," said senior author Russ Hauser commenting on the results
The team also believe that further research could help in identifying lifestyle and nutrition changes that individuals could make to try to offset the harmful effects of not only BPA but other potentially harmful chemicals.
The study was published in the Endocrine Society's Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. | 513 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It was not by chance that political parties were not mentioned in any of our founding documents. The founders were very familiar with political parties. They had existed in Britain and existed in the American Colonies. Interestingly they did not play a part in the Continental Congress nor in the Constitutional Convention. That is not to say that there were not differences, but the end goal of the members of both the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention were the same and that was to provide freedom and liberty for all.
What George Washington knew must be avoided was the growing of political parties, understanding that the differences and animosity inherent with political parties would become damaging to the country. Washington understood that unless the end goal of the citizens was to maintain and even promote greater liberty for citizens, which meant less government intrusion and control, the end result would be the loss of the freedom and liberty for which he and the other colonists paid such a high price.
George Washington told his fellow Americans, both current and future in his farewell address:
“However [political parties] may now and then answer popular ends, they are likely in the course of time and things, to become potent engines, by which cunning, ambitious, and unprincipled men will be enabled to subvert the power of the people and to usurp for themselves the reins of government, destroying afterwards the very engines which have lifted them to unjust dominion.”
This has happened. Today we have a political party that under the guise of impeachment, believes it can conduct a coup attempt against a duly elected president because it both hates and disagrees with that duly elected president. This political party has determined the United States Constitution is an outdated document and as such can be interpreted any way it deems necessary to bring power and glory to itself. This political party has determined that equality should now be placed above individual liberty, that conformity to the dictates of this political party is of greater importance than are the liberties of the individual, and that adherence to the philosophy of the party dictates that the United States is the most evil imperialist nation and must as such surrender its sovereignty and adherence to the principle of individualism, the very principle that propelled the nation for which George Washington paid such a tremendous price, must be abandoned.
This political party, for reasons unknown other than hatred and jealousy of a duly elected president, is praising and defending an individual and people who declared war against the United States years ago and has continued that war. This same individual and people have declared time after time their wish to bring death to our country and us as individuals. This individual and people have conducted activities to do exactly that. This individual had been designated a terrorist and enemy of the United States years prior to the current duly elected president taking office. Yet, when the terrorist is eliminated, the political party pours heaps of praise upon him and condemns the duly elected president in the harshest terms possible.
The only plausible explanation of the actions of this political party is because they, as George Washington stated would happen, are cunning, ambitious, and unprincipled people who have as their goal to subvert the power of the people and usurp for themselves the reins of government and destroying the principles of freedom and liberty. This should come as no surprise as the previous president, a member of said political party, stated that it was his purpose to transform the United States from a nation of freedom and liberty to a Marxist totalitarian state.
Mr. President, (George Washington) I wish you had been wrong, but just as you knew you had to cross the Delaware that Christmas and surprise the enemy, you foresaw the evil of political parties and how eventually one political party would place their desire for power and control over freedom and liberty and the good of the people.
Write something about yourself. No need to be fancy, just an overview. | <urn:uuid:324369d0-99f1-4016-88ae-b3baf2ee4743> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.mygrandchildrensamerica.com/don-jans-blog/george-washington-was-clairvoyant | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00213.warc.gz | en | 0.98007 | 772 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
-0.36617982387542725,
0.06193748116493225,
0.3456173837184906,
-0.4091304838657379,
-0.3443848788738251,
0.6344621181488037,
0.13113005459308624,
0.10645194351673126,
-0.07563786208629608,
0.0997767299413681,
0.5970460176467896,
0.38129758834838867,
0.29276472330093384,
0.2249474823474884,... | 12 | It was not by chance that political parties were not mentioned in any of our founding documents. The founders were very familiar with political parties. They had existed in Britain and existed in the American Colonies. Interestingly they did not play a part in the Continental Congress nor in the Constitutional Convention. That is not to say that there were not differences, but the end goal of the members of both the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention were the same and that was to provide freedom and liberty for all.
What George Washington knew must be avoided was the growing of political parties, understanding that the differences and animosity inherent with political parties would become damaging to the country. Washington understood that unless the end goal of the citizens was to maintain and even promote greater liberty for citizens, which meant less government intrusion and control, the end result would be the loss of the freedom and liberty for which he and the other colonists paid such a high price.
George Washington told his fellow Americans, both current and future in his farewell address:
“However [political parties] may now and then answer popular ends, they are likely in the course of time and things, to become potent engines, by which cunning, ambitious, and unprincipled men will be enabled to subvert the power of the people and to usurp for themselves the reins of government, destroying afterwards the very engines which have lifted them to unjust dominion.”
This has happened. Today we have a political party that under the guise of impeachment, believes it can conduct a coup attempt against a duly elected president because it both hates and disagrees with that duly elected president. This political party has determined the United States Constitution is an outdated document and as such can be interpreted any way it deems necessary to bring power and glory to itself. This political party has determined that equality should now be placed above individual liberty, that conformity to the dictates of this political party is of greater importance than are the liberties of the individual, and that adherence to the philosophy of the party dictates that the United States is the most evil imperialist nation and must as such surrender its sovereignty and adherence to the principle of individualism, the very principle that propelled the nation for which George Washington paid such a tremendous price, must be abandoned.
This political party, for reasons unknown other than hatred and jealousy of a duly elected president, is praising and defending an individual and people who declared war against the United States years ago and has continued that war. This same individual and people have declared time after time their wish to bring death to our country and us as individuals. This individual and people have conducted activities to do exactly that. This individual had been designated a terrorist and enemy of the United States years prior to the current duly elected president taking office. Yet, when the terrorist is eliminated, the political party pours heaps of praise upon him and condemns the duly elected president in the harshest terms possible.
The only plausible explanation of the actions of this political party is because they, as George Washington stated would happen, are cunning, ambitious, and unprincipled people who have as their goal to subvert the power of the people and usurp for themselves the reins of government and destroying the principles of freedom and liberty. This should come as no surprise as the previous president, a member of said political party, stated that it was his purpose to transform the United States from a nation of freedom and liberty to a Marxist totalitarian state.
Mr. President, (George Washington) I wish you had been wrong, but just as you knew you had to cross the Delaware that Christmas and surprise the enemy, you foresaw the evil of political parties and how eventually one political party would place their desire for power and control over freedom and liberty and the good of the people.
Write something about yourself. No need to be fancy, just an overview. | 766 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In looking at the opening two paragraphs of chapter two of The Great Gatsby, readers are able to view the connections between the social culture and the economic culture during the time in which the novel is set. The novel as a whole also comments on the careless festivity and moral decline of this period. The character that best helps to incorporate this theme into the plot is Nick Carraway. The year in which the novel is set is the summer of 1922. The narrator of the story, Nick Carraway, is first introduced to readers.
He is seen as the judge for what is right and wrong. He holds himself in higher esteem than the other characters. He goes to some length to establish his credibility, indeed his moral integrity, in telling the story about this “great” man called Gatsby. He begins with the reflection on his own upbringing, quoting his father’s words about Nick’s “advantages”, which the reader could assume to be material but, he soon makes clear, are spiritual or moral advantages.
He wants the readers too know that his upbringing gives him moral fiber with which to withstand and pass judgment on an amoral world. He says that as a consequence of such an upbringing, he is “inclined to reserve all judgments” about other people, but then goes on to say that such “tolerance…has it limits. ” He also suggests this with the manner in which he talks about all the rich characters in the story. The immoral people have all the money. Of course looking over all this like the eyes of God, are those of Dr. T. J. Eckleburg on the billboard. | <urn:uuid:1ac50c2e-d5ce-4983-a5ad-858642be278e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mypaynetapps.com/the-great-gatsby-analysis/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.983947 | 347 | 3.375 | 3 | [
0.08757783472537994,
0.18255828320980072,
-0.1066293716430664,
0.010653940960764885,
0.07579811662435532,
-0.18292087316513062,
0.2462105005979538,
0.0816739946603775,
0.05639226734638214,
-0.29049164056777954,
0.027629543095827103,
0.37026020884513855,
0.5293627977371216,
0.22116097807884... | 3 | In looking at the opening two paragraphs of chapter two of The Great Gatsby, readers are able to view the connections between the social culture and the economic culture during the time in which the novel is set. The novel as a whole also comments on the careless festivity and moral decline of this period. The character that best helps to incorporate this theme into the plot is Nick Carraway. The year in which the novel is set is the summer of 1922. The narrator of the story, Nick Carraway, is first introduced to readers.
He is seen as the judge for what is right and wrong. He holds himself in higher esteem than the other characters. He goes to some length to establish his credibility, indeed his moral integrity, in telling the story about this “great” man called Gatsby. He begins with the reflection on his own upbringing, quoting his father’s words about Nick’s “advantages”, which the reader could assume to be material but, he soon makes clear, are spiritual or moral advantages.
He wants the readers too know that his upbringing gives him moral fiber with which to withstand and pass judgment on an amoral world. He says that as a consequence of such an upbringing, he is “inclined to reserve all judgments” about other people, but then goes on to say that such “tolerance…has it limits. ” He also suggests this with the manner in which he talks about all the rich characters in the story. The immoral people have all the money. Of course looking over all this like the eyes of God, are those of Dr. T. J. Eckleburg on the billboard. | 334 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Churches are often placed at the center of town. For Christian societies, these are the centers of the community and have been central to the planning of the city or town for centuries. Most people who are familiar with the history of the Christian church know that this was not always the way things were. For the first few hundred years, worshippers did so in private homes. There were no church steeple plans or pews. When it started, Christians had to worship on the down low. This is because it was illegal to practice Christianity for the religion’s first three centuries.
As Christianity was made legal and then accepted more and more, churches began to be built. All churches now contain a steeple. The church steeple plans seem to date back to the time when Constantine made the conversion to Christianity and brought the Roman Empire with him. Originally, these symbols may have been used in Egyptian structures such as obelisks. Some have speculated that Constantine’s Rome was infatuated with the Egyptian obelisk so they took it over and modified it when they started designing church steeple plans.
One thing that no one has ever questioned is the way the lines seem to point to the heavens and God. The theory is that by looking upwards put people into a better and more appropriate frame of mind for worship. If you look at the church steeple plans, you can see your eyes are, indeed, drawn upward. The church steeple plans are meant to augment those of the entire structure. The stained glass depicts scenes from the Bible. The church bells are said to be set so high as to reach a greater number of people, calling them home to worship. The taller the church steeple plans are, for instance, the more elegant the building is.
Once the church steeple designs became commonplace, these buildings took on the role as the tallest building in the parish and could be seen from great distances away. This served to solidify the church’s position as not just the physical center but the spiritual heart of the community. Newcomers to the community would know immediately where to find the church and go to get to know people in the area. Their bells announced to the community the start of services or whatever other events were being held there.
Church steeple crosses were added at some point and have become fairly ubiquitous. Church steeples were also seen to do more than draw the eye upwards and prepare a person for worship but they also protected the parish from evil spirits. Many people had thought that evil spirits were attracted to churches and church steeple plans got several additions such as the crosses and gargoyles, which are also thought to protect worshippers from harm.
Church steeples therefore have a number of purposes within the church itself. They offer a majestic look to the building, they tell people when it is time to worship and they helped protect worshippers from harm from evil spirits who would find the steeple to hard to inhabit.
While we no longer live in a society where there is only one church in the community, it still plays an important role for many people. In the United States, 40% of people say they are religious. This is according to recent Gallup polls. These people say it is an important part of their day-to -day lives and report attending church services one or more times a week.
If your church is undergoing any kind of renovation, it is important that you maintain the original church steeple plans. More than any other part of the structure, this is directly linked to the church’s history and identity. If yours is a truly old church, it might have stood when the church steeple was the tallest building in the region making it important to local history as well as church history.
Unfortunately, what makes the church stand out to people also makes it attractive to lightening and damage from wind and rain. If this happens, it might be necessary to repair or replace it. Luckily, both options are possible and very doable under just about any budget. | <urn:uuid:22169e2b-caa0-4279-b372-348ff270d5ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://balancedlivingmag.com/the-important-history-of-church-steeples/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00170.warc.gz | en | 0.985649 | 819 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
0.15243342518806458,
0.1521831601858139,
-0.14529548585414886,
-0.14002270996570587,
-0.3807750940322876,
0.12096136063337326,
-0.395242840051651,
-0.09149125963449478,
0.39257675409317017,
0.22181205451488495,
0.13158956170082092,
0.21936935186386108,
0.005791713949292898,
-0.154369547963... | 2 | Churches are often placed at the center of town. For Christian societies, these are the centers of the community and have been central to the planning of the city or town for centuries. Most people who are familiar with the history of the Christian church know that this was not always the way things were. For the first few hundred years, worshippers did so in private homes. There were no church steeple plans or pews. When it started, Christians had to worship on the down low. This is because it was illegal to practice Christianity for the religion’s first three centuries.
As Christianity was made legal and then accepted more and more, churches began to be built. All churches now contain a steeple. The church steeple plans seem to date back to the time when Constantine made the conversion to Christianity and brought the Roman Empire with him. Originally, these symbols may have been used in Egyptian structures such as obelisks. Some have speculated that Constantine’s Rome was infatuated with the Egyptian obelisk so they took it over and modified it when they started designing church steeple plans.
One thing that no one has ever questioned is the way the lines seem to point to the heavens and God. The theory is that by looking upwards put people into a better and more appropriate frame of mind for worship. If you look at the church steeple plans, you can see your eyes are, indeed, drawn upward. The church steeple plans are meant to augment those of the entire structure. The stained glass depicts scenes from the Bible. The church bells are said to be set so high as to reach a greater number of people, calling them home to worship. The taller the church steeple plans are, for instance, the more elegant the building is.
Once the church steeple designs became commonplace, these buildings took on the role as the tallest building in the parish and could be seen from great distances away. This served to solidify the church’s position as not just the physical center but the spiritual heart of the community. Newcomers to the community would know immediately where to find the church and go to get to know people in the area. Their bells announced to the community the start of services or whatever other events were being held there.
Church steeple crosses were added at some point and have become fairly ubiquitous. Church steeples were also seen to do more than draw the eye upwards and prepare a person for worship but they also protected the parish from evil spirits. Many people had thought that evil spirits were attracted to churches and church steeple plans got several additions such as the crosses and gargoyles, which are also thought to protect worshippers from harm.
Church steeples therefore have a number of purposes within the church itself. They offer a majestic look to the building, they tell people when it is time to worship and they helped protect worshippers from harm from evil spirits who would find the steeple to hard to inhabit.
While we no longer live in a society where there is only one church in the community, it still plays an important role for many people. In the United States, 40% of people say they are religious. This is according to recent Gallup polls. These people say it is an important part of their day-to -day lives and report attending church services one or more times a week.
If your church is undergoing any kind of renovation, it is important that you maintain the original church steeple plans. More than any other part of the structure, this is directly linked to the church’s history and identity. If yours is a truly old church, it might have stood when the church steeple was the tallest building in the region making it important to local history as well as church history.
Unfortunately, what makes the church stand out to people also makes it attractive to lightening and damage from wind and rain. If this happens, it might be necessary to repair or replace it. Luckily, both options are possible and very doable under just about any budget. | 817 | ENGLISH | 1 |
B Daylight (1891)
The Daylight models are very special cameras because they freed the photographer from the darkroom to change films.
What's so special about that?
The first generation of Kodaks were darkroom loaded cameras. The spools of film had no protection against the light. They had to be loaded into the camera in a dark room. When the photographer was on a day out or on a vacation, he or she had to look for a darkroom when a new film had to be put in the camera. Imagine that you are on the beach and you have taken the last shot on the film. Where could you go to put a new film in the camera?
When Eastman introduced the Daylight Kodaks in December 1891, he tried to improve on this. The films for the Daylight cameras were contained in a box, with a black paper or cloth trailer at the beginning and end of the band of film. Both boxes, feed and take up, were put in the back of the camera. In the video you can see the compartments.
Salesman sample photo taken with a B Daylight or B Ordinary Kodak.
There are three sizes of Daylight Kodaks: A, B and C. The camera in this video is a size B, taking pictures of 2 3/4 x 3 1/4 inch (7x8 cm).
Being easy to use cameras with almost no settings, the Daylight Kodaks were intended for snapshooters.
The B Daylight cost $ 15, which was less than half of the contemporary No. 2 Kodak.
2350 B Daylights were made until the model was discontinued in 1895. | <urn:uuid:005de323-7b01-4367-8e45-d08fdb96ca0c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://kodaksefke.eu/b-daylight.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00270.warc.gz | en | 0.982174 | 339 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
-0.46891283988952637,
0.22950822114944458,
-0.20458528399467468,
0.28861647844314575,
0.7626417279243469,
0.47824281454086304,
-0.03321968391537666,
-0.11565520614385605,
-0.08899369090795517,
0.3408432602882385,
0.10335725545883179,
0.20689593255519867,
-0.14394962787628174,
0.87516379356... | 6 | B Daylight (1891)
The Daylight models are very special cameras because they freed the photographer from the darkroom to change films.
What's so special about that?
The first generation of Kodaks were darkroom loaded cameras. The spools of film had no protection against the light. They had to be loaded into the camera in a dark room. When the photographer was on a day out or on a vacation, he or she had to look for a darkroom when a new film had to be put in the camera. Imagine that you are on the beach and you have taken the last shot on the film. Where could you go to put a new film in the camera?
When Eastman introduced the Daylight Kodaks in December 1891, he tried to improve on this. The films for the Daylight cameras were contained in a box, with a black paper or cloth trailer at the beginning and end of the band of film. Both boxes, feed and take up, were put in the back of the camera. In the video you can see the compartments.
Salesman sample photo taken with a B Daylight or B Ordinary Kodak.
There are three sizes of Daylight Kodaks: A, B and C. The camera in this video is a size B, taking pictures of 2 3/4 x 3 1/4 inch (7x8 cm).
Being easy to use cameras with almost no settings, the Daylight Kodaks were intended for snapshooters.
The B Daylight cost $ 15, which was less than half of the contemporary No. 2 Kodak.
2350 B Daylights were made until the model was discontinued in 1895. | 354 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The First Thanksgiving? Plenty of Eel – No Pumpkin Pie
So, what do you know about the first Thanksgiving? It might be wrong.
For starters, the "first" Thanksgiving of 1621 was not the first celebration of "giving thanks" in America. There's evidence celebrations of those types, involving new settlers, happened in Florida in 1564, in Texas in 1598 and in Jamestown, Virginia in 1609.
The pilgrims were just happy to be alive at the Thanksgiving of 1621. A lot of passengers on the Mayflower died before they ever got to Plymouth. And the ones who did make it over alive had been sick and starving since landing at Plymouth Rock - on December 21, 1620. Thankfully, three months after arriving they met Samoset, an Abenaki chief and a guy named Squanto, from the Patuxet tribe, who both spoke English. And through those guys they met the Wamponoag tribe, who taught the pilgrims how to grow crops. And just in time - by the first Thanksgiving, half of the Mayflower passengers had died, including all but four of the women. To give "thanks" for that first good harvest, they had a three day party. And that's what became the first "Thanksgiving".
Plymouth Rock? Yeah, nobody really knows if that's where the pilgrims really landed or not, but in 1774, the town of Plymouth, MA decided to move the rock into the town square, and while trying to move it, they broke it in half. Nice. And then, people started chipping off pieces for souvenirs. And THIS is why we can't have nice things..
At that first Thanksgiving, the pilgrims ate wild fowl like geese and ducks, but there was NO mention, in writing, of turkey being eaten, even though they had plenty of wild turkeys in the area, and did eat them. Their friends from the Wampanoag tribe brought them five deer, so they could eat venison. White potatoes were native to South America and not part of the Native American or English diet yet. They ate corn and pumpkins, but didn't have the sugar required for pumpkin pie and cranberry sauce. And, since they were living right on the coast, they also ate seafood like oysters and clams. And eels. You wanna have an authentic Thanksgiving? Get yourself a three-foot eel, and put that in your brother-in-law's fryer.
And if there was beer, there were only a couple of gallons for everybody. Your brother-in-law (see above) drinks more beer on Thanksgiving than all the pilgrims, COMBINED.
The SECOND Thanksgiving was held in July of 1623. The pilgrims had planted their crops and then it didn't rain. For three months. Finally, one day in July, it started raining, and it rained softly for two weeks. The corn was saved and started growing again. So, they had another big "BYOB and Eels Party" to give thanks.
Hopefully, they had more beer by then. | <urn:uuid:d4ff9623-d059-4de8-8a29-68c4ab2cb54b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://witl.com/the-first-thanksgiving-plenty-of-eel-but-no-pumpkin-pie/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.98479 | 641 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
-0.2620445787906647,
-0.06491604447364807,
0.4645969271659851,
-0.20178788900375366,
-0.2941141724586487,
-0.17078082263469696,
0.013946725986897945,
0.32210615277290344,
0.11337806284427643,
0.33784738183021545,
-0.006982508581131697,
0.016086315736174583,
-0.299593448638916,
0.3307366371... | 6 | The First Thanksgiving? Plenty of Eel – No Pumpkin Pie
So, what do you know about the first Thanksgiving? It might be wrong.
For starters, the "first" Thanksgiving of 1621 was not the first celebration of "giving thanks" in America. There's evidence celebrations of those types, involving new settlers, happened in Florida in 1564, in Texas in 1598 and in Jamestown, Virginia in 1609.
The pilgrims were just happy to be alive at the Thanksgiving of 1621. A lot of passengers on the Mayflower died before they ever got to Plymouth. And the ones who did make it over alive had been sick and starving since landing at Plymouth Rock - on December 21, 1620. Thankfully, three months after arriving they met Samoset, an Abenaki chief and a guy named Squanto, from the Patuxet tribe, who both spoke English. And through those guys they met the Wamponoag tribe, who taught the pilgrims how to grow crops. And just in time - by the first Thanksgiving, half of the Mayflower passengers had died, including all but four of the women. To give "thanks" for that first good harvest, they had a three day party. And that's what became the first "Thanksgiving".
Plymouth Rock? Yeah, nobody really knows if that's where the pilgrims really landed or not, but in 1774, the town of Plymouth, MA decided to move the rock into the town square, and while trying to move it, they broke it in half. Nice. And then, people started chipping off pieces for souvenirs. And THIS is why we can't have nice things..
At that first Thanksgiving, the pilgrims ate wild fowl like geese and ducks, but there was NO mention, in writing, of turkey being eaten, even though they had plenty of wild turkeys in the area, and did eat them. Their friends from the Wampanoag tribe brought them five deer, so they could eat venison. White potatoes were native to South America and not part of the Native American or English diet yet. They ate corn and pumpkins, but didn't have the sugar required for pumpkin pie and cranberry sauce. And, since they were living right on the coast, they also ate seafood like oysters and clams. And eels. You wanna have an authentic Thanksgiving? Get yourself a three-foot eel, and put that in your brother-in-law's fryer.
And if there was beer, there were only a couple of gallons for everybody. Your brother-in-law (see above) drinks more beer on Thanksgiving than all the pilgrims, COMBINED.
The SECOND Thanksgiving was held in July of 1623. The pilgrims had planted their crops and then it didn't rain. For three months. Finally, one day in July, it started raining, and it rained softly for two weeks. The corn was saved and started growing again. So, they had another big "BYOB and Eels Party" to give thanks.
Hopefully, they had more beer by then. | 662 | ENGLISH | 1 |
10. Missing Mangoes
Starting with the problem number ten on our list of math problem-solving activities for middle school – one night a hungry King couldn’t sleep. He went down to the kitchen, where he found a crate full of mangoes. To satisfy his hunger, he took 1/6 of the mangoes. Later that same night, the Queen came down and found the same crate of mangoes. She took 1/5 of what the King had left and went back to bed satisfied. Still later, the Prince woke up, went to the kitchen, and ate one-fourth of the remaining mangoes. His brother, then went to the kitchen and ate 1/3 of what was then left. Finally, the princess ate 1/2 of what remained, leaving only three mangoes for the servants. How many mangoes were originally in the bowl?
There are a lot of different ways to solve this problem, including the strategies listed above. The first time I saw this problem, my natural instinct was to work backward from three until I reached the answer of 18. Contrarily, you could, in theory, guess any number that you thought might work and check piecemeal to see if you ended up with 3 at the end of your permutations.
Visual learners might draw a picture of a rectangle representing all of the mangoes and subsequently draw lines to divide the rectangle into equal pieces as each member of the royal family took their share. What you would find when all is said and done is that there are six equal bars. If the final bar is 3, then the other 5 bars must also be 3, as they are equivalent to the final bar, meaning that in total there were 6 x 3= 18 mangoes, to begin with. | <urn:uuid:74718749-35a5-4cd1-938d-2d9c83bf41f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.insidermonkey.com/blog/10-math-problem-solving-activities-for-middle-school-587486/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00322.warc.gz | en | 0.98624 | 360 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
-0.4646802246570587,
-0.11626937240362167,
0.19971057772636414,
-0.4129849076271057,
-0.471078097820282,
-0.04960353299975395,
0.2624500095844269,
0.14278046786785126,
0.16357210278511047,
0.24346868693828583,
0.14541730284690857,
-0.5178249478340149,
0.18919336795806885,
0.084318310022354... | 1 | 10. Missing Mangoes
Starting with the problem number ten on our list of math problem-solving activities for middle school – one night a hungry King couldn’t sleep. He went down to the kitchen, where he found a crate full of mangoes. To satisfy his hunger, he took 1/6 of the mangoes. Later that same night, the Queen came down and found the same crate of mangoes. She took 1/5 of what the King had left and went back to bed satisfied. Still later, the Prince woke up, went to the kitchen, and ate one-fourth of the remaining mangoes. His brother, then went to the kitchen and ate 1/3 of what was then left. Finally, the princess ate 1/2 of what remained, leaving only three mangoes for the servants. How many mangoes were originally in the bowl?
There are a lot of different ways to solve this problem, including the strategies listed above. The first time I saw this problem, my natural instinct was to work backward from three until I reached the answer of 18. Contrarily, you could, in theory, guess any number that you thought might work and check piecemeal to see if you ended up with 3 at the end of your permutations.
Visual learners might draw a picture of a rectangle representing all of the mangoes and subsequently draw lines to divide the rectangle into equal pieces as each member of the royal family took their share. What you would find when all is said and done is that there are six equal bars. If the final bar is 3, then the other 5 bars must also be 3, as they are equivalent to the final bar, meaning that in total there were 6 x 3= 18 mangoes, to begin with. | 370 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Featured are several descendants of George Abbott and Hannah Chandler, all single women, who worked as teachers.
For the first 200 years of New England, the majority of teachers were young men. This began to change in the early- to mid-1800’s when growing numbers of teachers were women, until the teaching of young children became almost entirely a female occupation. There was a corresponding change in educational culture. The early Puritans were focused on the innate sinfulness of all persons including young children. By the 19th century, there was a developing sense of the role of nurturing in education. This shift in education occurred around the time Horace Mann proposed educational reforms that resulted in schools being universal, free, and not affiliated with religious groups.
One factor in the feminization of the teaching profession was economics. Here is an excerpt from a Littleton, Massachusetts school committee. Basically, women did it better and would work for a pittance.
"God seems to have made woman peculiarly suited to guide and develop the infant mind, and it seems...very poor policy to pay a man 20 or 22 dollars a month, for teaching children the ABCs, when a female could do the work more successfully at one third of the price." -- Littleton School Committee, Littleton, Massachusetts, 1849
Not all women teachers were single women, but many of them seem to have been. Women were drawn to teaching as it was one of the few opportunities for them to establish an independent life. It also provided them an opportunity to participate in the world of ideas and they seemed to relish opportunities to participate in summer workshops.
(Public Broadcasting System n.d.)
Abigail Abbott (1816-1892) is a 7th generation descendant (Jeremiah6, Jeremiah5, John4, John3, John2, George1)
Abigail was the eighth oldest of ten children of Jeremiah Abbott and Eunice Blanchard. She was born in Wilton, New Hampshire. She worked as a teacher for her whole adult life, first in several communities in New Hampshire but for many years at a private school in Andover, Massachusetts.
Edith M. Abbott (1869-1910) is an 8th generation descendant (John7, Benjamin6, Benjamin5, Dorcas Abbott Abbott4, Benjamin3, Benjamin2, George1)
Edith was the only child of John Abbott and Betsey Abbott. John and Betsey were from two separate Abbott lines and so were not related to each other. Edith’s parents were married for 15 years before Edith was born and then her father died when she was seven years old. Edith’s mother remarried to a man 30 years her senior and she had no more children. Edith worked as a teacher in Douglas, Massachusetts and remained living with her mother until her mother died in 1902. After that, Edith lived as a boarder in a small boarding house. The date of her death is not certain but was after 1910.
Charlotte Helen Abbott (1844-1921) is an 8th generation descendant (Henry7, Nathan6, Nathan5, Job4, Jonathan3, Benjamin2, George1)
Charlotte Helen was the oldest of three children of Henry Russell Abbott and Lydia Liscombe. She was born and lived her entire life in Andover, Massachusetts. She was a member of the first graduating class of Punchard High School in 1859. She worked as a teacher and a dressmaker. But her real love was the genealogy of the families of Andover. She completed typewritten manuscripts documenting 200 Andover families and these are held in an archive at Memorial Hall Library in Andover and are available online. She wrote a genealogy column for the Andover Townsman for 25 years. Her typewritten family histories contain many anecdotes and reflect her intimate knowledge of the community. Also, note the outfit; she did work as a dressmaker but perhaps she saved her best work for her customers.
Florence Lunde Abbott (1874-1946) is an 8th generation descendant (William7, Benjamin6, Benjamin5, Jonathan4, David3, Benjamin2, George1)
Florence was the third oldest of five children of William Otis Abbott and Mary Helen Campbell. She was born in Manchester, New Hampshire and lived there her entire life. In the census record for 1940, Florence was the head of household living with her younger sister Frances. Florence worked as a primary teacher at the Wilson School in Manchester. Frances worked as a secretary.
Public Broadcasting System. n.d. Only a Teacher. Accessed June 27, 2019. http://www.pbs.org/onlyateacher/about.html. | <urn:uuid:e457ad0a-fa33-41d4-8fb4-1b8b26816a72> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.abbottgenealogy.com/single-post/2019/07/05/Teachers | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00082.warc.gz | en | 0.982425 | 976 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
0.05902818962931633,
0.10908503830432892,
0.035432592034339905,
-0.27074098587036133,
-0.37488922476768494,
0.27803945541381836,
-0.5513755083084106,
-0.14373207092285156,
-0.31710347533226013,
0.17978976666927338,
0.10571758449077606,
-0.07867531478404999,
0.39221641421318054,
0.290378034... | 12 | Featured are several descendants of George Abbott and Hannah Chandler, all single women, who worked as teachers.
For the first 200 years of New England, the majority of teachers were young men. This began to change in the early- to mid-1800’s when growing numbers of teachers were women, until the teaching of young children became almost entirely a female occupation. There was a corresponding change in educational culture. The early Puritans were focused on the innate sinfulness of all persons including young children. By the 19th century, there was a developing sense of the role of nurturing in education. This shift in education occurred around the time Horace Mann proposed educational reforms that resulted in schools being universal, free, and not affiliated with religious groups.
One factor in the feminization of the teaching profession was economics. Here is an excerpt from a Littleton, Massachusetts school committee. Basically, women did it better and would work for a pittance.
"God seems to have made woman peculiarly suited to guide and develop the infant mind, and it seems...very poor policy to pay a man 20 or 22 dollars a month, for teaching children the ABCs, when a female could do the work more successfully at one third of the price." -- Littleton School Committee, Littleton, Massachusetts, 1849
Not all women teachers were single women, but many of them seem to have been. Women were drawn to teaching as it was one of the few opportunities for them to establish an independent life. It also provided them an opportunity to participate in the world of ideas and they seemed to relish opportunities to participate in summer workshops.
(Public Broadcasting System n.d.)
Abigail Abbott (1816-1892) is a 7th generation descendant (Jeremiah6, Jeremiah5, John4, John3, John2, George1)
Abigail was the eighth oldest of ten children of Jeremiah Abbott and Eunice Blanchard. She was born in Wilton, New Hampshire. She worked as a teacher for her whole adult life, first in several communities in New Hampshire but for many years at a private school in Andover, Massachusetts.
Edith M. Abbott (1869-1910) is an 8th generation descendant (John7, Benjamin6, Benjamin5, Dorcas Abbott Abbott4, Benjamin3, Benjamin2, George1)
Edith was the only child of John Abbott and Betsey Abbott. John and Betsey were from two separate Abbott lines and so were not related to each other. Edith’s parents were married for 15 years before Edith was born and then her father died when she was seven years old. Edith’s mother remarried to a man 30 years her senior and she had no more children. Edith worked as a teacher in Douglas, Massachusetts and remained living with her mother until her mother died in 1902. After that, Edith lived as a boarder in a small boarding house. The date of her death is not certain but was after 1910.
Charlotte Helen Abbott (1844-1921) is an 8th generation descendant (Henry7, Nathan6, Nathan5, Job4, Jonathan3, Benjamin2, George1)
Charlotte Helen was the oldest of three children of Henry Russell Abbott and Lydia Liscombe. She was born and lived her entire life in Andover, Massachusetts. She was a member of the first graduating class of Punchard High School in 1859. She worked as a teacher and a dressmaker. But her real love was the genealogy of the families of Andover. She completed typewritten manuscripts documenting 200 Andover families and these are held in an archive at Memorial Hall Library in Andover and are available online. She wrote a genealogy column for the Andover Townsman for 25 years. Her typewritten family histories contain many anecdotes and reflect her intimate knowledge of the community. Also, note the outfit; she did work as a dressmaker but perhaps she saved her best work for her customers.
Florence Lunde Abbott (1874-1946) is an 8th generation descendant (William7, Benjamin6, Benjamin5, Jonathan4, David3, Benjamin2, George1)
Florence was the third oldest of five children of William Otis Abbott and Mary Helen Campbell. She was born in Manchester, New Hampshire and lived there her entire life. In the census record for 1940, Florence was the head of household living with her younger sister Frances. Florence worked as a primary teacher at the Wilson School in Manchester. Frances worked as a secretary.
Public Broadcasting System. n.d. Only a Teacher. Accessed June 27, 2019. http://www.pbs.org/onlyateacher/about.html. | 1,012 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gaius Cassius Longinus
|Born||3 October, before 85 BC|
|Died||3 October 42 BC (aged 43+)|
|Cause of death||Suicide|
|Resting place||Thasos, Greece|
|Occupation||Politician and military leader|
|Era||Late Roman Republic|
|Known for||Assassin of Julius Caesar|
Gaius Cassius Longinus (Classical Latin: ['?a:?.?s 'kass?.?s 'l?n?s]; 3 October, before 85 BC - 3 October 42 BC), often referred to as Cassius, was a Roman senator and general best known as a leading instigator of the plot to assassinate Julius Caesar on March 15, 44 BC. He was the brother-in-law of Brutus, another leader of the conspiracy. He commanded troops with Brutus during the Battle of Philippi against the combined forces of Mark Antony and Octavian, Caesar's former supporters, and committed suicide after being defeated by Mark Antony.
Cassius was elected as a Tribune of the Plebs in 49 BC. He opposed Caesar, and eventually he commanded a fleet against him during Caesar's Civil War: after Caesar defeated Pompey in the Battle of Pharsalus, Caesar overtook Cassius and forced him to surrender. After Caesar's death, Cassius fled to the East, where he amassed an army of twelve legions. He was supported and made Governor by the Senate. Though he and Brutus marched west against the allies of the Second Triumvirate, Cassius was defeated at the Battle of Phillippi and committed suicide.
He followed the teachings of the philosopher Epicurus, although scholars debate whether or not these beliefs affected his political life. Cassius is a main character in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar that depicts the assassination of Caesar and its aftermath. He is also shown in the lowest circle of Hell in Dante's Inferno as punishment for betraying and killing Caesar.
Cassius Longinus came from a very old Roman family, gens Cassia, which had been prominent in Rome since the 6th century BC. Little is known of his early life, apart from a story that he showed his dislike of despots while still at school, by quarreling with the son of the dictator Sulla. He studied philosophy at Rhodes under Archelaus of Rhodes and became fluent in Greek. He was married to Junia Tertia, who was the daughter of Servilia and thus a half-sister of his co-conspirator Brutus. They had one son, who was born in about 60 BC.
In 54 BC Cassius joined Marcus Licinius Crassus in his eastern campaign against the Parthian Empire. In 53 BC Crassus suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Carrhae in Northern-Mesopotamia losing two-thirds of his army. Cassius led the remaining troops retreat back into Syria, and organized an effective defense force for the province. Based on Plutarch's account, the defeat at Carrhae could have been avoided had Crassus acted as Cassius had advised. According to Dio, the Roman soldiers, as well as Crassus himself, were willing to give the overall command to Cassius after the initial disaster in the battle, which Cassius "very properly" refused. The Parthians also considered Cassius as equal to Crassus in authority, and superior to him in skill.
In 51 BC Cassius was able to ambush and defeat an invading Parthian army under the command of prince Pacorus and general Osaces. He first refused to do battle with the Parthians, keeping his army behind the walls of Antioch (Syria's most important city) where he was besieged. When the Parthians gave up the siege and started to ravage the countryside he followed them with his army harrying them as they went. The decisive encounter came on October 7th as the Parthians turned away from Antigonea. As they set about their return journey they were confronted by a detachment of Cassius' army, which faked a retreat and lured the Parthians into an ambush. The Parthians were suddenly surrounded by Cassius' main forces and defeated. Their general Osaces died from his wounds, and the rest of the Parthian army retreated back across the Euphrates.
Cassius returned to Rome in 50 BC, when civil war was about to break out between Julius Caesar and Pompey. Cassius was elected tribune of the Plebs for 49 BC, and threw in his lot with the Optimates, although his brother Lucius Cassius supported Caesar. Cassius left Italy shortly after Caesar crossed the Rubicon. He met Pompey in Greece, and was appointed to command part of his fleet.
In 48 BC, Cassius sailed his ships to Sicily, where he attacked and burned a large part of Caesar's navy. He then proceeded to harass ships off the Italian coast. News of Pompey's defeat at the Battle of Pharsalus caused Cassius to head for the Hellespont, with hopes of allying with the king of Pontus, Pharnaces II. Cassius was overtaken by Caesar en route, and was forced to surrender unconditionally.
Caesar made Cassius a legate, employing him in the Alexandrian War against the very same Pharnaces whom Cassius had hoped to join after Pompey's defeat at Pharsalus. However, Cassius refused to join in the fight against Cato and Scipio in Africa, choosing instead to retire to Rome.
Cassius spent the next two years in office, and apparently tightened his friendship with Cicero. In 44 BC, he became praetor peregrinus with the promise of the Syrian province for the ensuing year. The appointment of his junior and brother-in-law, Marcus Brutus, as praetor urbanus deeply offended him.
Although Cassius was "the moving spirit" in the plot against Caesar, winning over the chief assassins to the cause of tyrannicide, Brutus became their leader. On the Ides of March, 44 BC, Cassius urged on his fellow liberators and struck Caesar in the chest. Though they succeeded in assassinating Caesar, the celebration was short-lived, as Mark Antony seized power and turned the public against them. In letters written during 44 BC, Cicero frequently complains that Rome was still subjected to tyranny, because the "Liberators" had failed to kill Antony. According to some accounts, Cassius had wanted to kill Antony at the same time as Caesar, but Brutus dissuaded him.
Cassius' reputation in the East made it easy to amass an army from other governors in the area, and by 43 BC he was ready to take on Publius Cornelius Dolabella with 12 legions. By this point the Senate had split with Antonius, and cast its lot with Cassius, confirming him as governor of the province. Dolabella attacked but was betrayed by his allies, leading him to commit suicide. Cassius was now secure enough to march on Egypt, but on the formation of the Second Triumvirate, Brutus requested his assistance. Cassius quickly joined Brutus in Smyrna with most of his army, leaving his nephew behind to govern Syria.
The conspirators decided to attack the triumvirate's allies in Asia. Cassius set upon and sacked Rhodes, while Brutus did the same to Lycia. They regrouped the following year in Sardis, where their armies proclaimed them imperator. They crossed the Hellespont, marched through Thrace, and encamped near Philippi in Macedon. Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian (later known as Augustus) and Mark Antony soon arrived, and Cassius planned to starve them out through the use of their superior position in the country. However, they were forced into a pair of battles by Antony, collectively known as the Battle of Philippi. Brutus was successful against Octavian, and took his camp. Cassius, however, was defeated and overrun by Antony and, unaware of Brutus' victory, gave up all hope and killed himself with the very same dagger he had used against Julius Caesar. The date of Cassius' death is the same as that of his birth, October 3. He was mourned by Brutus as "the Last of the Romans" and buried in Thassos.
"Among that select band of philosophers who have managed to change the world," writes David Sedley, "it would be hard to find a pair with a higher public profile than Brutus and Cassius -- brothers-in-law, fellow-assassins, and Shakespearian heroes," adding that "it may not even be widely known that they were philosophers."
Like Brutus, whose Stoic proclivities are widely assumed but who is more accurately described as an Antiochean Platonist, Cassius exercised a long and serious interest in philosophy. His early philosophical commitments are hazy, though D.R. Shackleton Bailey thought that a remark by Cicero indicates a youthful adherence to the Academy. Sometime between 48 and 45 BC, however, Cassius famously converted to the school of thought founded by Epicurus. Although Epicurus advocated a withdrawal from politics, at Rome his philosophy was made to accommodate the careers of many prominent men in public life, among them Caesar's father-in-law, Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus.Arnaldo Momigliano called Cassius' conversion a "conspicuous date in the history of Roman Epicureanism," a choice made not to enjoy the pleasures of the Garden, but to provide a philosophical justification for assassinating a tyrant.
Cicero associates Cassius's new Epicureanism with a willingness to seek peace in the aftermath of the civil war between Caesar and Pompeius.Miriam Griffin dates his conversion to as early as 48 BC, after he had fought on the side of Pompeius at the Battle of Pharsalus but decided to come home instead of joining the last holdouts of the civil war in Africa. Momigliano placed it in 46 BC, based on a letter by Cicero to Cassius dated January 45. Shackleton Bailey points to a date of two or three years earlier.
The dating bears on, but is not essential to, the question of whether Cassius justified the murder of Caesar on Epicurean grounds. Griffin argues that his intellectual pursuits, like those of other Romans, may be entirely removed from any practical application in the realm of politics. Romans of the Late Republic who can be identified as Epicureans are more often found among the supporters of Caesar, and often literally in his camp. Momigliano argued, however, that many of those who opposed Caesar's dictatorship bore no personal animus toward him, and Republicanism was more congenial to the Epicurean way of life than dictatorship. The Roman concept of libertas had been integrated into Greek philosophical studies, and though Epicurus' theory of the political governance admitted various forms of government based on consent, including but not limited to democracy, a tyrannical state was regarded by Roman Epicureans as incompatible with the highest good of pleasure, defined as freedom from pain. Tyranny also threatened the Epicurean value of parrhesia (), "truthful speaking," and the movement toward deifying Caesar offended Epicurean belief in abstract gods who lead an ideal existence removed from mortal affairs.
Momigliano saw Cassius as moving from an initial Epicurean orthodoxy, which emphasized disinterest in matters not of vice and virtue, and detachment, to a "heroic Epicureanism." For Cassius, virtue was active. In a letter to Cicero, he wrote:
|"||I hope that people will understand that for all, cruelty exists in proportion to hatred, and goodness and clemency in proportion to love, and evil men most seek out and crave the things which accrue to good men. It's hard to persuade people that 'the good is desirable for its own sake'; but it's both true and creditable that pleasure and tranquility are obtained by virtue, justice, and the good. Epicurus himself, from whom all your Catii and Amafinii take their leave as poor interpreters of his words, says 'there is no living pleasantly without living a good and just life.'||"|
Sedley agrees that the conversion of Cassius should be dated to 48, when Cassius stopped resisting Caesar, and finds it unlikely that Epicureanism was a sufficient or primary motivation for his later decision to take violent action against the dictator. Rather, Cassius would have had to reconcile his intention with his philosophical views. Cicero provides evidence that Epicureans recognized circumstances when direct action was justified in a political crisis. In the quotation above, Cassius explicitly rejects the idea that morality is a good to be chosen for its own sake; morality, as a means of achieving pleasure and ataraxia, is not inherently superior to the removal of political anxieties.
The inconsistencies between traditional Epicureanism and an active approach to securing freedom ultimately could not be resolved, and during the Empire, the philosophy of political opposition tended to be Stoic. This circumstance, Momigliano argues, helps explain why historians of the Imperial era found Cassius more difficult to understand than Brutus, and less admirable.
In Dante's Inferno (Canto XXXIV), Cassius is one of three people deemed sinful enough to be chewed in one of the three mouths of Satan, in the very center of Hell, for all eternity, as a punishment for killing Julius Caesar. The other two are Brutus, his fellow conspirator, and Judas Iscariot, the Biblical betrayer of Jesus.
Cassius also plays a major role in Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar (I. ii. 190-195) as the leader of the conspiracy to assassinate Caesar. Caesar distrusts him, and states, "Yond Cassius has a lean and hungry look; He thinks too much: such men are dangerous." In one of the final scenes of the play, Cassius mentions to one of his subordinates that the day, October 3, is his birthday, and dies shortly afterwards.
...at this juncture Decimus Brutus, surnamed Albinus, who was so trusted by Caesar that he was entered in his will as his second heir, but was partner in the conspiracy of the other Brutus and Cassius, fearing that if Caesar should elude that day, their undertaking would become known, ridiculed the seers and chided Caesar for laying himself open to malicious charges on the part of the senators...
More than sixty joined the conspiracy against [Caesar], led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus and Decimus Brutus.
| Roman tribune of the plebs | <urn:uuid:8e653a83-fe3f-4dfb-82b3-d29db153a769> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=Gaius_Cassius_Longinus | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00167.warc.gz | en | 0.980563 | 3,069 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
0.02041635848581791,
0.3357943594455719,
0.29513630270957947,
0.47994694113731384,
-0.321664422750473,
-0.5295226573944092,
0.3251628577709198,
0.3699241876602173,
0.2066265046596527,
-0.4194800853729248,
0.10276942700147629,
-0.7613818049430847,
-0.20174823701381683,
0.3030358552932739,
... | 1 | Gaius Cassius Longinus
|Born||3 October, before 85 BC|
|Died||3 October 42 BC (aged 43+)|
|Cause of death||Suicide|
|Resting place||Thasos, Greece|
|Occupation||Politician and military leader|
|Era||Late Roman Republic|
|Known for||Assassin of Julius Caesar|
Gaius Cassius Longinus (Classical Latin: ['?a:?.?s 'kass?.?s 'l?n?s]; 3 October, before 85 BC - 3 October 42 BC), often referred to as Cassius, was a Roman senator and general best known as a leading instigator of the plot to assassinate Julius Caesar on March 15, 44 BC. He was the brother-in-law of Brutus, another leader of the conspiracy. He commanded troops with Brutus during the Battle of Philippi against the combined forces of Mark Antony and Octavian, Caesar's former supporters, and committed suicide after being defeated by Mark Antony.
Cassius was elected as a Tribune of the Plebs in 49 BC. He opposed Caesar, and eventually he commanded a fleet against him during Caesar's Civil War: after Caesar defeated Pompey in the Battle of Pharsalus, Caesar overtook Cassius and forced him to surrender. After Caesar's death, Cassius fled to the East, where he amassed an army of twelve legions. He was supported and made Governor by the Senate. Though he and Brutus marched west against the allies of the Second Triumvirate, Cassius was defeated at the Battle of Phillippi and committed suicide.
He followed the teachings of the philosopher Epicurus, although scholars debate whether or not these beliefs affected his political life. Cassius is a main character in William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar that depicts the assassination of Caesar and its aftermath. He is also shown in the lowest circle of Hell in Dante's Inferno as punishment for betraying and killing Caesar.
Cassius Longinus came from a very old Roman family, gens Cassia, which had been prominent in Rome since the 6th century BC. Little is known of his early life, apart from a story that he showed his dislike of despots while still at school, by quarreling with the son of the dictator Sulla. He studied philosophy at Rhodes under Archelaus of Rhodes and became fluent in Greek. He was married to Junia Tertia, who was the daughter of Servilia and thus a half-sister of his co-conspirator Brutus. They had one son, who was born in about 60 BC.
In 54 BC Cassius joined Marcus Licinius Crassus in his eastern campaign against the Parthian Empire. In 53 BC Crassus suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Carrhae in Northern-Mesopotamia losing two-thirds of his army. Cassius led the remaining troops retreat back into Syria, and organized an effective defense force for the province. Based on Plutarch's account, the defeat at Carrhae could have been avoided had Crassus acted as Cassius had advised. According to Dio, the Roman soldiers, as well as Crassus himself, were willing to give the overall command to Cassius after the initial disaster in the battle, which Cassius "very properly" refused. The Parthians also considered Cassius as equal to Crassus in authority, and superior to him in skill.
In 51 BC Cassius was able to ambush and defeat an invading Parthian army under the command of prince Pacorus and general Osaces. He first refused to do battle with the Parthians, keeping his army behind the walls of Antioch (Syria's most important city) where he was besieged. When the Parthians gave up the siege and started to ravage the countryside he followed them with his army harrying them as they went. The decisive encounter came on October 7th as the Parthians turned away from Antigonea. As they set about their return journey they were confronted by a detachment of Cassius' army, which faked a retreat and lured the Parthians into an ambush. The Parthians were suddenly surrounded by Cassius' main forces and defeated. Their general Osaces died from his wounds, and the rest of the Parthian army retreated back across the Euphrates.
Cassius returned to Rome in 50 BC, when civil war was about to break out between Julius Caesar and Pompey. Cassius was elected tribune of the Plebs for 49 BC, and threw in his lot with the Optimates, although his brother Lucius Cassius supported Caesar. Cassius left Italy shortly after Caesar crossed the Rubicon. He met Pompey in Greece, and was appointed to command part of his fleet.
In 48 BC, Cassius sailed his ships to Sicily, where he attacked and burned a large part of Caesar's navy. He then proceeded to harass ships off the Italian coast. News of Pompey's defeat at the Battle of Pharsalus caused Cassius to head for the Hellespont, with hopes of allying with the king of Pontus, Pharnaces II. Cassius was overtaken by Caesar en route, and was forced to surrender unconditionally.
Caesar made Cassius a legate, employing him in the Alexandrian War against the very same Pharnaces whom Cassius had hoped to join after Pompey's defeat at Pharsalus. However, Cassius refused to join in the fight against Cato and Scipio in Africa, choosing instead to retire to Rome.
Cassius spent the next two years in office, and apparently tightened his friendship with Cicero. In 44 BC, he became praetor peregrinus with the promise of the Syrian province for the ensuing year. The appointment of his junior and brother-in-law, Marcus Brutus, as praetor urbanus deeply offended him.
Although Cassius was "the moving spirit" in the plot against Caesar, winning over the chief assassins to the cause of tyrannicide, Brutus became their leader. On the Ides of March, 44 BC, Cassius urged on his fellow liberators and struck Caesar in the chest. Though they succeeded in assassinating Caesar, the celebration was short-lived, as Mark Antony seized power and turned the public against them. In letters written during 44 BC, Cicero frequently complains that Rome was still subjected to tyranny, because the "Liberators" had failed to kill Antony. According to some accounts, Cassius had wanted to kill Antony at the same time as Caesar, but Brutus dissuaded him.
Cassius' reputation in the East made it easy to amass an army from other governors in the area, and by 43 BC he was ready to take on Publius Cornelius Dolabella with 12 legions. By this point the Senate had split with Antonius, and cast its lot with Cassius, confirming him as governor of the province. Dolabella attacked but was betrayed by his allies, leading him to commit suicide. Cassius was now secure enough to march on Egypt, but on the formation of the Second Triumvirate, Brutus requested his assistance. Cassius quickly joined Brutus in Smyrna with most of his army, leaving his nephew behind to govern Syria.
The conspirators decided to attack the triumvirate's allies in Asia. Cassius set upon and sacked Rhodes, while Brutus did the same to Lycia. They regrouped the following year in Sardis, where their armies proclaimed them imperator. They crossed the Hellespont, marched through Thrace, and encamped near Philippi in Macedon. Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian (later known as Augustus) and Mark Antony soon arrived, and Cassius planned to starve them out through the use of their superior position in the country. However, they were forced into a pair of battles by Antony, collectively known as the Battle of Philippi. Brutus was successful against Octavian, and took his camp. Cassius, however, was defeated and overrun by Antony and, unaware of Brutus' victory, gave up all hope and killed himself with the very same dagger he had used against Julius Caesar. The date of Cassius' death is the same as that of his birth, October 3. He was mourned by Brutus as "the Last of the Romans" and buried in Thassos.
"Among that select band of philosophers who have managed to change the world," writes David Sedley, "it would be hard to find a pair with a higher public profile than Brutus and Cassius -- brothers-in-law, fellow-assassins, and Shakespearian heroes," adding that "it may not even be widely known that they were philosophers."
Like Brutus, whose Stoic proclivities are widely assumed but who is more accurately described as an Antiochean Platonist, Cassius exercised a long and serious interest in philosophy. His early philosophical commitments are hazy, though D.R. Shackleton Bailey thought that a remark by Cicero indicates a youthful adherence to the Academy. Sometime between 48 and 45 BC, however, Cassius famously converted to the school of thought founded by Epicurus. Although Epicurus advocated a withdrawal from politics, at Rome his philosophy was made to accommodate the careers of many prominent men in public life, among them Caesar's father-in-law, Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus.Arnaldo Momigliano called Cassius' conversion a "conspicuous date in the history of Roman Epicureanism," a choice made not to enjoy the pleasures of the Garden, but to provide a philosophical justification for assassinating a tyrant.
Cicero associates Cassius's new Epicureanism with a willingness to seek peace in the aftermath of the civil war between Caesar and Pompeius.Miriam Griffin dates his conversion to as early as 48 BC, after he had fought on the side of Pompeius at the Battle of Pharsalus but decided to come home instead of joining the last holdouts of the civil war in Africa. Momigliano placed it in 46 BC, based on a letter by Cicero to Cassius dated January 45. Shackleton Bailey points to a date of two or three years earlier.
The dating bears on, but is not essential to, the question of whether Cassius justified the murder of Caesar on Epicurean grounds. Griffin argues that his intellectual pursuits, like those of other Romans, may be entirely removed from any practical application in the realm of politics. Romans of the Late Republic who can be identified as Epicureans are more often found among the supporters of Caesar, and often literally in his camp. Momigliano argued, however, that many of those who opposed Caesar's dictatorship bore no personal animus toward him, and Republicanism was more congenial to the Epicurean way of life than dictatorship. The Roman concept of libertas had been integrated into Greek philosophical studies, and though Epicurus' theory of the political governance admitted various forms of government based on consent, including but not limited to democracy, a tyrannical state was regarded by Roman Epicureans as incompatible with the highest good of pleasure, defined as freedom from pain. Tyranny also threatened the Epicurean value of parrhesia (), "truthful speaking," and the movement toward deifying Caesar offended Epicurean belief in abstract gods who lead an ideal existence removed from mortal affairs.
Momigliano saw Cassius as moving from an initial Epicurean orthodoxy, which emphasized disinterest in matters not of vice and virtue, and detachment, to a "heroic Epicureanism." For Cassius, virtue was active. In a letter to Cicero, he wrote:
|"||I hope that people will understand that for all, cruelty exists in proportion to hatred, and goodness and clemency in proportion to love, and evil men most seek out and crave the things which accrue to good men. It's hard to persuade people that 'the good is desirable for its own sake'; but it's both true and creditable that pleasure and tranquility are obtained by virtue, justice, and the good. Epicurus himself, from whom all your Catii and Amafinii take their leave as poor interpreters of his words, says 'there is no living pleasantly without living a good and just life.'||"|
Sedley agrees that the conversion of Cassius should be dated to 48, when Cassius stopped resisting Caesar, and finds it unlikely that Epicureanism was a sufficient or primary motivation for his later decision to take violent action against the dictator. Rather, Cassius would have had to reconcile his intention with his philosophical views. Cicero provides evidence that Epicureans recognized circumstances when direct action was justified in a political crisis. In the quotation above, Cassius explicitly rejects the idea that morality is a good to be chosen for its own sake; morality, as a means of achieving pleasure and ataraxia, is not inherently superior to the removal of political anxieties.
The inconsistencies between traditional Epicureanism and an active approach to securing freedom ultimately could not be resolved, and during the Empire, the philosophy of political opposition tended to be Stoic. This circumstance, Momigliano argues, helps explain why historians of the Imperial era found Cassius more difficult to understand than Brutus, and less admirable.
In Dante's Inferno (Canto XXXIV), Cassius is one of three people deemed sinful enough to be chewed in one of the three mouths of Satan, in the very center of Hell, for all eternity, as a punishment for killing Julius Caesar. The other two are Brutus, his fellow conspirator, and Judas Iscariot, the Biblical betrayer of Jesus.
Cassius also plays a major role in Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar (I. ii. 190-195) as the leader of the conspiracy to assassinate Caesar. Caesar distrusts him, and states, "Yond Cassius has a lean and hungry look; He thinks too much: such men are dangerous." In one of the final scenes of the play, Cassius mentions to one of his subordinates that the day, October 3, is his birthday, and dies shortly afterwards.
...at this juncture Decimus Brutus, surnamed Albinus, who was so trusted by Caesar that he was entered in his will as his second heir, but was partner in the conspiracy of the other Brutus and Cassius, fearing that if Caesar should elude that day, their undertaking would become known, ridiculed the seers and chided Caesar for laying himself open to malicious charges on the part of the senators...
More than sixty joined the conspiracy against [Caesar], led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus and Decimus Brutus.
| Roman tribune of the plebs | 3,109 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pontius Pilate is chiefly known for the part he played in the trial and crucifixion of Jesus.
Jesus Delivered to Pilate
When morning came, all the chief priests and the elders of the people took counsel against Jesus to put him to death.
And they bound him and led him away and delivered him over to Pilate the governor.
Did you know that Pontius Pilate designed and circulated these coins himself.
Did you know that Pontius Pilate had the coins made and struck in Jerusalem and were in use for at least 35 years.
Did you know that Pontius Pilate's coins where found buried in the earth for 2000 years.
Did you know that Pontius Pilate's coins are Roman were circulated in Judea, and the words on them are Greek.
Pilate's coins are a surviving witness to a time when Jesus walked on the earth.
Some also believe these coins have left imprints on the eyes of the Turin shroud.
The face on the shroud was sent for analysis. The image obtained, new and now famous, distinctly revealed two circular protrusions on the eyelids and found the imprint of a coin in each eye-socket this indicated that it could be the coin minted in year 29.
However Barrie SCHWORTZ disagrees. Very interesting at least. I purchased some of Pilate coins which I found interesting to own Bronze prutah minted by Pontius Pilate and date LIS (year 16 = AD 29/30)
Again theses coins are physical evidence relating to Pilate. Evidence that a man called Pontius Pilate LIVED. When I received these coins they came with a note which states after the crucifixion of Jesus that Pontius Pilate and his wife became followers of Jesus.
I am not certain of how true this is as it is said that Pontius Pilate committed suicide there in Vienne and the 10th century historian Agapius of Hierapolis in his Universal History, says that Pilate committed suicide during the first year of Caligula's reign, i.e. AD 37/38. If this is true, suicide is against the Lord's teachings which would add doubt to Pontius Pilate becoming a follower of Jesus unless the story of Pilate committing suicide was not true.
What is certain is, his wife warned Pontius Pilate saying When he was set down on the judgment seat, his wife sent unto him, saying, Have thou nothing to do with that just man: for I have suffered many things this day in a dream because of him. Matthew 27:19.
So, Pontius Pilates wife most certainly believed which would confirm with her becoming a follower.
Pontius Pilate is most famous for the trial of Jesus. Pilate appears in association with the responsibility for the death of Jesus. In Matthew, Pilate washes his hands to show that he was not responsible for the execution of Jesus and reluctantly sends him to his death.
We know from the gospels that Pontius Pilate was very uncomfortable with the idea of killing Jesus, who in his eyes had committed no crime...
What do you accuse this man of? The PHARISEE replied "We would not have brought him to you if he had not committed a crime. PILATE replied "Then you yourselves take him, and try him according to your own law. PHARISEE replied "We are not allowed to put anyone to death. This happened in order to confirm the things Jesus had said when he indicated the kind of death he would die.
So Pilate had Jesus whipped and scourged instead to try to pacify the Jewish authorities and save Jesus from execution.
THE GOSPEL OF JOHN tells us the soldiers made a crown out of thorny branches and put it on his head. Then they put a purple robe on him and came to him and said, “Long live the king of the Jews!”
But Pilate was unsuccessful, and the people demanded that Jesus be crucified.
AGAIN WE HAVE Archaeology PROVING THE BIBLE.
With Thanks and references from Wikipedia the free encyclopedia
READ THE COINS OF PONTIUS PILATE By Jean-Philippe Fontanille. CLICK HERE | <urn:uuid:56b3f284-7a63-4674-ab01-ff546c4f3940> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wwwrealdiscoveriesorg-simon.blogspot.com/2015/02/pontius-pilate-roman-coins-discovered.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00369.warc.gz | en | 0.982514 | 877 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
-0.3782443702220917,
0.3649088442325592,
0.20969150960445404,
-0.20660854876041412,
-0.0944383293390274,
0.017916027456521988,
0.6351250410079956,
0.5034316778182983,
0.4422222077846527,
-0.2015886902809143,
0.07401891052722931,
-0.3596870005130768,
-0.013301282189786434,
0.302083611488342... | 1 | Pontius Pilate is chiefly known for the part he played in the trial and crucifixion of Jesus.
Jesus Delivered to Pilate
When morning came, all the chief priests and the elders of the people took counsel against Jesus to put him to death.
And they bound him and led him away and delivered him over to Pilate the governor.
Did you know that Pontius Pilate designed and circulated these coins himself.
Did you know that Pontius Pilate had the coins made and struck in Jerusalem and were in use for at least 35 years.
Did you know that Pontius Pilate's coins where found buried in the earth for 2000 years.
Did you know that Pontius Pilate's coins are Roman were circulated in Judea, and the words on them are Greek.
Pilate's coins are a surviving witness to a time when Jesus walked on the earth.
Some also believe these coins have left imprints on the eyes of the Turin shroud.
The face on the shroud was sent for analysis. The image obtained, new and now famous, distinctly revealed two circular protrusions on the eyelids and found the imprint of a coin in each eye-socket this indicated that it could be the coin minted in year 29.
However Barrie SCHWORTZ disagrees. Very interesting at least. I purchased some of Pilate coins which I found interesting to own Bronze prutah minted by Pontius Pilate and date LIS (year 16 = AD 29/30)
Again theses coins are physical evidence relating to Pilate. Evidence that a man called Pontius Pilate LIVED. When I received these coins they came with a note which states after the crucifixion of Jesus that Pontius Pilate and his wife became followers of Jesus.
I am not certain of how true this is as it is said that Pontius Pilate committed suicide there in Vienne and the 10th century historian Agapius of Hierapolis in his Universal History, says that Pilate committed suicide during the first year of Caligula's reign, i.e. AD 37/38. If this is true, suicide is against the Lord's teachings which would add doubt to Pontius Pilate becoming a follower of Jesus unless the story of Pilate committing suicide was not true.
What is certain is, his wife warned Pontius Pilate saying When he was set down on the judgment seat, his wife sent unto him, saying, Have thou nothing to do with that just man: for I have suffered many things this day in a dream because of him. Matthew 27:19.
So, Pontius Pilates wife most certainly believed which would confirm with her becoming a follower.
Pontius Pilate is most famous for the trial of Jesus. Pilate appears in association with the responsibility for the death of Jesus. In Matthew, Pilate washes his hands to show that he was not responsible for the execution of Jesus and reluctantly sends him to his death.
We know from the gospels that Pontius Pilate was very uncomfortable with the idea of killing Jesus, who in his eyes had committed no crime...
What do you accuse this man of? The PHARISEE replied "We would not have brought him to you if he had not committed a crime. PILATE replied "Then you yourselves take him, and try him according to your own law. PHARISEE replied "We are not allowed to put anyone to death. This happened in order to confirm the things Jesus had said when he indicated the kind of death he would die.
So Pilate had Jesus whipped and scourged instead to try to pacify the Jewish authorities and save Jesus from execution.
THE GOSPEL OF JOHN tells us the soldiers made a crown out of thorny branches and put it on his head. Then they put a purple robe on him and came to him and said, “Long live the king of the Jews!”
But Pilate was unsuccessful, and the people demanded that Jesus be crucified.
AGAIN WE HAVE Archaeology PROVING THE BIBLE.
With Thanks and references from Wikipedia the free encyclopedia
READ THE COINS OF PONTIUS PILATE By Jean-Philippe Fontanille. CLICK HERE | 871 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.