Split (1)

train · 729k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
Read the following responses written with OPEN NOTES in about 5-6 minutes. Which are better? What specific characteristics make some stronger than others? Why are some responses weak? 1) This was said in the document that brought France back together after the French Civil War. It was said right after the war was over in the late 1500s. It is saying that it will bring back the Catholic religion to France and restore all order to the country. 2) In 1598, the Edict of Nantes ended the wars of religion in France between Catholics and Huguenots (French Calvinists). Henry of Navarre, who became king Henry IV, ended these destructive wars by putting the interests of France ahead of those of religious conformity. He did this by converting to Catholicism. The edict not only restored France to Catholicism, but allowed toleration within certain limits to the French Protestants who made up a much smaller proportion of the total population. Huguenots, for example, were allowed to worship within their cities, but were not allowed to preach Calvinism in Catholic areas in order to keep the peace. 3) It is said about a person or a group who wants the catholic religion to be dominant in there countries. It was at the end of the 1500s. 4) Said by Henry IV in the Edict of Nantes. He wrote it in the small French city of Nantes. Its significant because it ceased the French war of religion and gave protection to the protestant religion and said they could practice their religion in the kingdom. It also said no one can force their religion onto others. The document was described as a statute. 5) People in the catholic church wanted catholicism to be the major religion in the catholic church. 6) Henry IV wrote this in the Edict of Nantes in 1598. He was recognizing Protestants as a religion and protecting them from being forced to go against their beliefs. This is important because this document helped to bring about the end of the religious wars in France. 7) This comes from early 1500s. I forgot who says it. I see a country coming back together and laying laws down, so all can see. 8) I believe it took place in Europe when the 30 years war was over and the peace of Augsburg was taking place. 9) This is part of Henry of Navarre's Edict of Nantes that brought an end to the French Wars of Religion around 1598. The edict stated that the Huguenots (Calvinists) had the right to practice their religion freely and openly as long as they didn't try to push their religion on others. 10) This is from the Edict of Nantes (1598) from King Henry IV of France proclaiming Catholicism the state religion but also allowing Protestants to practice their religion, just not in public. It's significant because Henry had been Protestant but converted to unite the country and consolidate power after years of civil war. 11) Its about some people wanting to rebuild Catholic churches during 1570s. Elizabeth wanted to change religion. King Henry tried to but didn't succeed at everything. 12) This quote is from King Henry II and he was writing or saying the laws that they need to introduce so that the fighting would come to an end. He was stating that those things would end and the variety and make it one religion.	<urn:uuid:f1f0908e-b55f-4d0f-bb59-d48d9a88be56>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essaydocs.org/practice-quotation-edict-of-nantes-1598-assigned-reading-pp-1.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00540.warc.gz	en	0.982835	694	3.5625	4	[ -0.11759990453720093, 0.26176321506500244, -0.18417568504810333, -0.2604506313800812, -0.10322187095880508, 0.097434401512146, -0.186813086271286, 0.33496880531311035, 0.3343573808670044, -0.228147953748703, -0.3193594813346863, -0.01994960382580757, 0.06154273450374603, 0.2598514556884765...	2	Read the following responses written with OPEN NOTES in about 5-6 minutes. Which are better? What specific characteristics make some stronger than others? Why are some responses weak? 1) This was said in the document that brought France back together after the French Civil War. It was said right after the war was over in the late 1500s. It is saying that it will bring back the Catholic religion to France and restore all order to the country. 2) In 1598, the Edict of Nantes ended the wars of religion in France between Catholics and Huguenots (French Calvinists). Henry of Navarre, who became king Henry IV, ended these destructive wars by putting the interests of France ahead of those of religious conformity. He did this by converting to Catholicism. The edict not only restored France to Catholicism, but allowed toleration within certain limits to the French Protestants who made up a much smaller proportion of the total population. Huguenots, for example, were allowed to worship within their cities, but were not allowed to preach Calvinism in Catholic areas in order to keep the peace. 3) It is said about a person or a group who wants the catholic religion to be dominant in there countries. It was at the end of the 1500s. 4) Said by Henry IV in the Edict of Nantes. He wrote it in the small French city of Nantes. Its significant because it ceased the French war of religion and gave protection to the protestant religion and said they could practice their religion in the kingdom. It also said no one can force their religion onto others. The document was described as a statute. 5) People in the catholic church wanted catholicism to be the major religion in the catholic church. 6) Henry IV wrote this in the Edict of Nantes in 1598. He was recognizing Protestants as a religion and protecting them from being forced to go against their beliefs. This is important because this document helped to bring about the end of the religious wars in France. 7) This comes from early 1500s. I forgot who says it. I see a country coming back together and laying laws down, so all can see. 8) I believe it took place in Europe when the 30 years war was over and the peace of Augsburg was taking place. 9) This is part of Henry of Navarre's Edict of Nantes that brought an end to the French Wars of Religion around 1598. The edict stated that the Huguenots (Calvinists) had the right to practice their religion freely and openly as long as they didn't try to push their religion on others. 10) This is from the Edict of Nantes (1598) from King Henry IV of France proclaiming Catholicism the state religion but also allowing Protestants to practice their religion, just not in public. It's significant because Henry had been Protestant but converted to unite the country and consolidate power after years of civil war. 11) Its about some people wanting to rebuild Catholic churches during 1570s. Elizabeth wanted to change religion. King Henry tried to but didn't succeed at everything. 12) This quote is from King Henry II and he was writing or saying the laws that they need to introduce so that the fighting would come to an end. He was stating that those things would end and the variety and make it one religion.	720	ENGLISH	1
A stereotype can be classed as a generalization of people, classifying people into a certain group, placing judgment on people based first impressions and in many different forms. This essay will discuss the way in which our society reinforces stereotypes, and why it seems necessary to categorize people. Society seems to stereotype people and place judgment on them in different ways. They generalize people by there jobs, the way they dress, they way they speak even down to the names they are given and in many other ways. For example, if we were told of someone with the name of Bob, we would never see them as a person that worked in the Houses of Parliament or an environment of that sort, where standards are set very high. Its more likely that we place them under a category of men who worked as builders, that spent a large majority of their time in the local pub, then would go home and watch television all night and are often seen with a can of something in there hands. The same way that if we looked at the name Betty, it would be almost certain that many would think of a old white woman, looking frail, possibly with a walking stick and who’s sentences start with the phrase “In may days”. Society has reinforced this stereotype in that on television programs, most builders have names such as Bob, Jack, Stan etc. (usually very short names) and old women seem to have the name of Betty, Peggy, Nora, etc. Television seems to add and build or stereotypical views of names by giving characters typical names that fit the image of the character. When we hear the name we automatically make assumptions of how we imagine the person to be. Looking at card designers and how they have stereotyped cards. There are certain cards that you would not buy people of a certain age or gender. Young girls are supposed to be quiet and innocent looking and are only interested in dolls and flowery dresses, and young boys are into trucks, cars, sports, and more destructive and active toys. The designers of cards have picked up this stereotype and have made cards specialized for certain age groups and genders. It is not very likely you would give young male adolescent a pink card with flowers on, it would not seem right for the gender nor age group. In the same ways that a card that featured pint of bear on it would not seem suitable for a young girl. Television and the Media seem to add to the way in which we stereotype people. Adverts use stereotypes to appeal to their target audience. When advertising sports cars, the advertising companies almost always seem to use young professional looking males; you hardly ever see females behind the steering wheel, unless being used to add sex appeal. Another example would be when advertising household cleaning appliances. You never seem to see a man at the stove or with a hoover in his hands cleaning the house. The stereotype has been to say that it is only the women who clean and cook and tend to the entire domestic household needs. Media has added to this in the way in which they word articles in Tabloids. Instead of describing a person for the individual that they are, they put them in a class, and make general statements about them. To call a woman a house wife, would give the image of a woman who did nothing but clean the house and looked after her kids, when in actual fact she could be a retired millionairess who has a maid who does all the cooking and cleaning. The tabloids make a general statement and leave the rest to the reader, which means that in-accurate judgments can me made. From the time we are born we are stereotyped and made to think certain things about certain people. Primarily by the way that we see our parents act around certain people and the names and titles they give people. Children are vulnerable to everything that they are told (especially from parents and family). If their parents have brought them up with a particular mind set about certain people, it’s very likely that they would stick that view. (Until told other wise, or learns from their own experiences). Thus meaning that the very places that we grow in teach us how to stereotype and generalize by first impressions. If some one is given the word, ‘Biker’ they establish a mental picture of over weight men, with tattooed bodies dressed in black leather outfits with long beards. Again, another stereotypical view. Society seems to make judgments and classify people due to their inability to asses further than they eyes can see. They take certain parts of a parts of a person, like cloths they are wearing, they way they speak, the jobs they have, even down to the names they have as a means of stereotyping people. Stereotypes seem to be made just to make people feel safer about other people. If they can put them in some kind of class or category they can know what to expect of them and seem to judge them on the rest of ‘their kind’. Society also seems to stereotype just to feel safe. If they know what a group of people act like they are less likely to feel threatened, as they know what to expect. Many people are threatened by people or things that they are not familiar with or have never come across before, if they can take one part of them take on part of them and associate it with a certain type or class of people they feel less threatened because they supposedly know what they are like. Another reason why people may stereotype others is to be in control (and to reduce Anxiety). People would be very anxious and unsettled surrounded by people they dont understand, it may even be a little chaotic is peoples actions and behaviors were meaningless. We make perceptions and stereotype people in an aim to understand, just for our own benefit, just so that are not left guessing. Another reason why people stereotype, is so that they can plan/organize their own response to others. They make assumptions of people and mentally think of things to and not to say once engaged in conversation with them lest we offend at any point. If we have an idea of what they are like one can guess things that would not be suitable to say in their presence. Every one seems to stereotype and make assumptions on the first encounter with people that we dont know, whether it consciously or subconsciously.	<urn:uuid:243b8cae-760e-498d-a110-3ab86aaa75a4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thenewstandardgallery.com/discuss-different-ways-society-reinforces-stereotypes-essay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00116.warc.gz	en	0.983644	1,295	3.546875	4	[ 0.159112811088562, 0.062222253531217575, -0.1685321033000946, -0.029954826459288597, 0.03995127975940704, 0.37889403104782104, 0.46692803502082825, -0.10078398883342743, -0.1497829258441925, 0.04660606011748314, 0.29881933331489563, 0.13336044549942017, -0.040761109441518784, 0.04908508062...	2	A stereotype can be classed as a generalization of people, classifying people into a certain group, placing judgment on people based first impressions and in many different forms. This essay will discuss the way in which our society reinforces stereotypes, and why it seems necessary to categorize people. Society seems to stereotype people and place judgment on them in different ways. They generalize people by there jobs, the way they dress, they way they speak even down to the names they are given and in many other ways. For example, if we were told of someone with the name of Bob, we would never see them as a person that worked in the Houses of Parliament or an environment of that sort, where standards are set very high. Its more likely that we place them under a category of men who worked as builders, that spent a large majority of their time in the local pub, then would go home and watch television all night and are often seen with a can of something in there hands. The same way that if we looked at the name Betty, it would be almost certain that many would think of a old white woman, looking frail, possibly with a walking stick and who’s sentences start with the phrase “In may days”. Society has reinforced this stereotype in that on television programs, most builders have names such as Bob, Jack, Stan etc. (usually very short names) and old women seem to have the name of Betty, Peggy, Nora, etc. Television seems to add and build or stereotypical views of names by giving characters typical names that fit the image of the character. When we hear the name we automatically make assumptions of how we imagine the person to be. Looking at card designers and how they have stereotyped cards. There are certain cards that you would not buy people of a certain age or gender. Young girls are supposed to be quiet and innocent looking and are only interested in dolls and flowery dresses, and young boys are into trucks, cars, sports, and more destructive and active toys. The designers of cards have picked up this stereotype and have made cards specialized for certain age groups and genders. It is not very likely you would give young male adolescent a pink card with flowers on, it would not seem right for the gender nor age group. In the same ways that a card that featured pint of bear on it would not seem suitable for a young girl. Television and the Media seem to add to the way in which we stereotype people. Adverts use stereotypes to appeal to their target audience. When advertising sports cars, the advertising companies almost always seem to use young professional looking males; you hardly ever see females behind the steering wheel, unless being used to add sex appeal. Another example would be when advertising household cleaning appliances. You never seem to see a man at the stove or with a hoover in his hands cleaning the house. The stereotype has been to say that it is only the women who clean and cook and tend to the entire domestic household needs. Media has added to this in the way in which they word articles in Tabloids. Instead of describing a person for the individual that they are, they put them in a class, and make general statements about them. To call a woman a house wife, would give the image of a woman who did nothing but clean the house and looked after her kids, when in actual fact she could be a retired millionairess who has a maid who does all the cooking and cleaning. The tabloids make a general statement and leave the rest to the reader, which means that in-accurate judgments can me made. From the time we are born we are stereotyped and made to think certain things about certain people. Primarily by the way that we see our parents act around certain people and the names and titles they give people. Children are vulnerable to everything that they are told (especially from parents and family). If their parents have brought them up with a particular mind set about certain people, it’s very likely that they would stick that view. (Until told other wise, or learns from their own experiences). Thus meaning that the very places that we grow in teach us how to stereotype and generalize by first impressions. If some one is given the word, ‘Biker’ they establish a mental picture of over weight men, with tattooed bodies dressed in black leather outfits with long beards. Again, another stereotypical view. Society seems to make judgments and classify people due to their inability to asses further than they eyes can see. They take certain parts of a parts of a person, like cloths they are wearing, they way they speak, the jobs they have, even down to the names they have as a means of stereotyping people. Stereotypes seem to be made just to make people feel safer about other people. If they can put them in some kind of class or category they can know what to expect of them and seem to judge them on the rest of ‘their kind’. Society also seems to stereotype just to feel safe. If they know what a group of people act like they are less likely to feel threatened, as they know what to expect. Many people are threatened by people or things that they are not familiar with or have never come across before, if they can take one part of them take on part of them and associate it with a certain type or class of people they feel less threatened because they supposedly know what they are like. Another reason why people may stereotype others is to be in control (and to reduce Anxiety). People would be very anxious and unsettled surrounded by people they dont understand, it may even be a little chaotic is peoples actions and behaviors were meaningless. We make perceptions and stereotype people in an aim to understand, just for our own benefit, just so that are not left guessing. Another reason why people stereotype, is so that they can plan/organize their own response to others. They make assumptions of people and mentally think of things to and not to say once engaged in conversation with them lest we offend at any point. If we have an idea of what they are like one can guess things that would not be suitable to say in their presence. Every one seems to stereotype and make assumptions on the first encounter with people that we dont know, whether it consciously or subconsciously.	1,275	ENGLISH	1
The biblical story of the three gifts at Christmas begins with the Magi. The word Magi is the plural of magus, and a magus in antiquity would have been roughly the equivalent of what we call a wizard. They were known as wise men in much the same way that witches were called wise women in Britain up until the seventeenth century. In effect, this would have meant that they were probably skilled alchemists and astronomers, since much of the magic tradition can be traced back to these two disciplines. Alchemy is the forebear of modern chemistry, and astronomy gave us not only geometry, but mathematics and science in general. Thus the wise men of the Bible were really ancient scientists. So, where did they come from, why did they appear in the Gospel of Matthew, and what was the point of their gifts? Not everyone accepts the historical veracity of the Bible, but the fact is, that if the Magi did travel to Bethlehem at the time of the recorded birth of Christ, it would have almost certainly been based on a prophecy they would probably have made themselves. Was it a prophecy about the birth of an influential leader, or did it even herald the birth of a new religion — one that would come to dominate almost half the world? Whatever you believe, the realisation of their prophecy can hardly be doubted. Images spring to mind of the wise men bent over a chart of the stars, like Nostradamus, and the idea that they followed the star to Bethlehem may well suggest as much. But ancient history is fraught with inconsistencies; some traditions say there were four Magi, others that there were even as many as twelve. The number three was probably arrived at because it matched the gifts they brought. Gold, frankincense and myrrh: three gifts for one prophecy. The remains of the Magi are said to have been discovered in Persia, removed to Constantinople then transported to Milan in the 5th century AD. The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa then took them to Cologne in Germany, the seat of the Holy Roman Empire in the 12th century, and to this day they lie behind the altar of Cologne Cathedral. Whether there are three sets of bones, two or twenty is not clear, but Bethlehem, which is close to Jerusalem, would have once formed part of the greater Persian Empire, and relations between the Persians and the Jews were reported as being friendly. It would not have been unusual for Persian scholars to take an interest in events unfolding on the fringes of their old territories, and the time recorded as the birth of Christ was a turbulent one, with Roman rule casting a deep shadow on Judea. It could well have been that the Magi were part of a group of scholars inspired to make the journey to Bethlehem on the basis of what they suspected to be imminent: a turning point. The Persians were Zoroastrians, and although much of their original culture has been buried since the rise of Islam, there would have been skilled astronomers and alchemists among them. If such a group of scholars did make the journey to Bethlehem on the basis of a prophecy, why did they bring with them such particular and valuable items as gold, frankincense and myrrh? Again, the Bible gives us little to go on, but a little alchemical research provides the clues. Gold was a symbol of kingship and wealth. Power, in effect. As for Frankincense, the way it was harvested paints a prophecy in itself: make incisions in the bark of the tree until the resin bleeds out from it, and burn the resin as a sacrificial offering on the altars of your gods. Myrrh adds fuel to the fire of conjecture; it was used as an embalming fluid for mummification, and is associated with both death and resurrection. The Magi chose their gifts wisely. Either the Persians suspected that the time had come for would-be Christians to find a champion against the hell of Roman rule, or they had a true mystical insight that a new religion was on the verge of being born – one that would bring the Roman Empire to its knees in ways that even the Judeans themselves had not imagined. Wishing all my Readers A Very Merry Christmas!	<urn:uuid:bdd4153c-f606-4ebb-b787-afc3f20b62a2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lucilleturner.com/single-post/2017/12/02/a-short-history-of-ideas-gold-frankincense-and-myrrh/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00367.warc.gz	en	0.985482	865	3.5	4	[ 0.03859056532382965, 0.5720151662826538, -0.03127744048833847, -0.05069391056895256, -0.14486128091812134, -0.3335099220275879, 0.24555878341197968, 0.1452130675315857, -0.19483743607997894, 0.010276230052113533, -0.3832753896713257, -0.01905866339802742, -0.15662696957588196, -0.112679213...	14	The biblical story of the three gifts at Christmas begins with the Magi. The word Magi is the plural of magus, and a magus in antiquity would have been roughly the equivalent of what we call a wizard. They were known as wise men in much the same way that witches were called wise women in Britain up until the seventeenth century. In effect, this would have meant that they were probably skilled alchemists and astronomers, since much of the magic tradition can be traced back to these two disciplines. Alchemy is the forebear of modern chemistry, and astronomy gave us not only geometry, but mathematics and science in general. Thus the wise men of the Bible were really ancient scientists. So, where did they come from, why did they appear in the Gospel of Matthew, and what was the point of their gifts? Not everyone accepts the historical veracity of the Bible, but the fact is, that if the Magi did travel to Bethlehem at the time of the recorded birth of Christ, it would have almost certainly been based on a prophecy they would probably have made themselves. Was it a prophecy about the birth of an influential leader, or did it even herald the birth of a new religion — one that would come to dominate almost half the world? Whatever you believe, the realisation of their prophecy can hardly be doubted. Images spring to mind of the wise men bent over a chart of the stars, like Nostradamus, and the idea that they followed the star to Bethlehem may well suggest as much. But ancient history is fraught with inconsistencies; some traditions say there were four Magi, others that there were even as many as twelve. The number three was probably arrived at because it matched the gifts they brought. Gold, frankincense and myrrh: three gifts for one prophecy. The remains of the Magi are said to have been discovered in Persia, removed to Constantinople then transported to Milan in the 5th century AD. The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa then took them to Cologne in Germany, the seat of the Holy Roman Empire in the 12th century, and to this day they lie behind the altar of Cologne Cathedral. Whether there are three sets of bones, two or twenty is not clear, but Bethlehem, which is close to Jerusalem, would have once formed part of the greater Persian Empire, and relations between the Persians and the Jews were reported as being friendly. It would not have been unusual for Persian scholars to take an interest in events unfolding on the fringes of their old territories, and the time recorded as the birth of Christ was a turbulent one, with Roman rule casting a deep shadow on Judea. It could well have been that the Magi were part of a group of scholars inspired to make the journey to Bethlehem on the basis of what they suspected to be imminent: a turning point. The Persians were Zoroastrians, and although much of their original culture has been buried since the rise of Islam, there would have been skilled astronomers and alchemists among them. If such a group of scholars did make the journey to Bethlehem on the basis of a prophecy, why did they bring with them such particular and valuable items as gold, frankincense and myrrh? Again, the Bible gives us little to go on, but a little alchemical research provides the clues. Gold was a symbol of kingship and wealth. Power, in effect. As for Frankincense, the way it was harvested paints a prophecy in itself: make incisions in the bark of the tree until the resin bleeds out from it, and burn the resin as a sacrificial offering on the altars of your gods. Myrrh adds fuel to the fire of conjecture; it was used as an embalming fluid for mummification, and is associated with both death and resurrection. The Magi chose their gifts wisely. Either the Persians suspected that the time had come for would-be Christians to find a champion against the hell of Roman rule, or they had a true mystical insight that a new religion was on the verge of being born – one that would bring the Roman Empire to its knees in ways that even the Judeans themselves had not imagined. Wishing all my Readers A Very Merry Christmas!	867	ENGLISH	1
“Exercising and keeping active can slash the risk of depression by a third, research claims,” The Sun reports. Researchers who pooled information from 49 studies from around the world, found that people who did the most physical activity were less likely to get depression than those who did the least. Information about more than 266,000 people of all ages, none of whom had depression at the start of the study, was included in the analysis. People were asked to say how much exercise they had done in recent days or weeks. They were then followed up for an average of 7.4 years to see if they developed depression or depressive symptoms. Because of the nature of the research, we can’t say that exercise alone was the reason people were less likely to get depressed. Other associated factors, such as long-term illnesses, might also be involved. There are other limitations to the study, which may make the results less accurate. For example, many of the pooled studies relied on people self-reporting the amount of exercise they did, which can be prone to error. Nevertheless, this comprehensive study adds to previous evidence suggesting exercise is not just good for reducing symptoms of depression but may also prevent it. (NHS Choices, 2018)	<urn:uuid:ac20b35f-82c7-4993-8219-abcba8375842>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://health1st.ltd.uk/the-physical-and-mental-health-benefits-of-regular-exercise/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00179.warc.gz	en	0.985048	258	3.71875	4	[ -0.07146887481212616, 0.10796768218278885, 0.28410398960113525, 0.09745454043149948, -0.13505353033542633, 0.5539418458938599, 0.033132173120975494, 0.06261192262172699, 0.2919106185436249, 0.011292096227407455, 0.3441658914089203, -0.10666052997112274, 0.11574100703001022, 0.1585057228803...	10	“Exercising and keeping active can slash the risk of depression by a third, research claims,” The Sun reports. Researchers who pooled information from 49 studies from around the world, found that people who did the most physical activity were less likely to get depression than those who did the least. Information about more than 266,000 people of all ages, none of whom had depression at the start of the study, was included in the analysis. People were asked to say how much exercise they had done in recent days or weeks. They were then followed up for an average of 7.4 years to see if they developed depression or depressive symptoms. Because of the nature of the research, we can’t say that exercise alone was the reason people were less likely to get depressed. Other associated factors, such as long-term illnesses, might also be involved. There are other limitations to the study, which may make the results less accurate. For example, many of the pooled studies relied on people self-reporting the amount of exercise they did, which can be prone to error. Nevertheless, this comprehensive study adds to previous evidence suggesting exercise is not just good for reducing symptoms of depression but may also prevent it. (NHS Choices, 2018)	257	ENGLISH	1
New data from evidence found in New Zealand has revealed that the Southern Hemisphere continued to warm its way out of the ice age, even as the north temporarily plunged back into a another deep freeze. American paleoclimatologist Michael Kaplan undertook his study at the Mackenzie Country’s Irishman Stream. The Irishman valley is strewn with soil deposits and large boulders that had been pushed downstream by a glacier during the ice age. Kaplan says he and colleagues chose the valley because the team’s previous research had shown that the location remains essentially undisturbed from when it emerged from the ice — the boulders and soil have not budged since. Evidence found proves glaciers in New Zealand were retreating at the same time as the glaciers covering the northern half of the globe were on the move again.	<urn:uuid:05ba4a91-bb20-44ae-880c-4521eaef752a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nzedge.com/news/comparing-hemispheres/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00397.warc.gz	en	0.983137	162	3.4375	3	[ -0.43959856033325195, 0.28919997811317444, 0.05019456520676613, 0.28075382113456726, 0.5923160314559937, 0.06904905289411545, -0.11445216834545135, -0.024175383150577545, -0.48606857657432556, 0.14900089800357819, 0.21031001210212708, -0.5861763954162598, 0.5227281451225281, 0.419037312269...	4	New data from evidence found in New Zealand has revealed that the Southern Hemisphere continued to warm its way out of the ice age, even as the north temporarily plunged back into a another deep freeze. American paleoclimatologist Michael Kaplan undertook his study at the Mackenzie Country’s Irishman Stream. The Irishman valley is strewn with soil deposits and large boulders that had been pushed downstream by a glacier during the ice age. Kaplan says he and colleagues chose the valley because the team’s previous research had shown that the location remains essentially undisturbed from when it emerged from the ice — the boulders and soil have not budged since. Evidence found proves glaciers in New Zealand were retreating at the same time as the glaciers covering the northern half of the globe were on the move again.	162	ENGLISH	1
Added to this, Japanese immigrants to the US were prohibited from naturalizing as American citizens. And by this time, anti-Asian sentiments were not limited to the West Coast. Co-sponsor of the immigration act was Senator James Aiken Reed, a prominent Pittsburgh attorney. Fourth, was Western foreign policy toward Japan. Britain and America, after a century of estrangement, realized in the course of defeating Germany that they had similar foreign policy interests. The two English-speaking powers engineered the Washington Treaty of , and the London Treaty of , the latter extending the naval armaments ratios for Japan, Britain and the US to other categories of ships, both to set up an overall security system in the Pacific AND to provide cover for Britain to terminate its alliance with Japan. Under the old treaty, Britain had agreed to maintain neutrality if Japan and the US went to war. The Anglo-Americans reasoned that Japan would not need the alliance if it were part of a regional security arrangement. The cooperative policy worked in the s, largely because key politicians like Takahashi, and Hamaguchi Osachi and Shidehara Kijuro, leaders of the Minseito, the other major political party of the s, were committed to the Washington Treaty System. By , reduced demand and thus reduced investment in new technology and facilities led to unemployment, underemployment and falling incomes everywhere. Worldwide, economies spiraled downward. Given the panoply of policy choices available in times of economic downturn, one is stunned to find that virtually every country in the world chose the wrong ones in the early s. Rather than increasing spending, governments raised taxes and import tariffs, and balanced budgets, which drove their economies more deeply into deflation and depression. Japan, with Takahashi as its finance minister, was a rare exception. In the face of the severe economic crisis of the first half of the s, Takahashi undertook unprecedented exchange rate, monetary, and fiscal policies. He carried out a one-time devaluation of the yen to stimulate exports. He lowered interest rates and undertook deficit financing to stimulate domestic investment and demand. Japan came out of the depression by , five years ahead of the United States. Several historians have written in recent years that the key political figure in Japan during the Inukai, Saito, and Okada cabinets, , was Takahashi Korekiyo, not the three prime ministers. Military officers plotted and carried out an invasion of Manchuria in September , and their actions met thunderous public applause at home. The mass society that had brought Japan democracy in the s helped bring it something else in the s. The military killed or silenced the people who advocated cooperation—the threat of assassination was a powerful weapon for keeping opponents in line. Students of Japan have commented on how few voices spoke out against the rise of militarism, fascism if you want to use that word, in Japan in the s. Even the socialists in the Diet e. It was with this in mind that the New York Times correspondent, Hugh Byas, entitled his book on Japan in the s, Government by Assassination : right wing or military terrorists murdered three of five prime ministers, and a fourth escaped only when young officers shot his brother-in-law by mistake; two of three finance ministers were killed, and the third died prematurely from ill health, thus avoiding the need for the military to assassinate him. He correctly predicted it would lead to economic stagnation, inflation, and worst of all, war with the United States. The Tokyo and regional press frequently reported his anti-military rhetoric in this period during one cabinet meeting, for example, he told the army minister not to speak like an idiot, and in another he asked the same general if there were really idiots in the army who thought Japan could defeat the United States in a war. The 30 greatest war novels of all time The invasion of China was not planned aggression by the military high command—the war broke out over a skirmish between Chinese and Japanese troops in the suburbs of Beijing. What Japanese troops were doing in the suburbs of Beijing is another story. But the Japanese generals were wrong—in spite of unspeakable atrocities or maybe because of them , the Chinese soldiers fought well and over the next eight years, the Japanese military was unable to pacify China. One imagines Takahashi, as he looked down from the Buddhist Western Paradise, shuddering when he saw what his countrymen were doing. The story of the transition from aggression in China in to the attack on Pearl Harbor is a complex one that includes an alliance with Germany and Italy—the alliance of the nations that believed they were excluded from full membership in the Western imperialist order--and the fall of France. But it is very important to keep in mind that the war in China was central to the Japanese decision to go to war with Britain and America. The answer they came up with was Anglo-American support of China. The way to defeat China was to cut off its supply lines from the West—in other words, move into Hong Kong and Southeast Asia. There were other reasons that the Japanese army decided to move into French Indo-China, and then to attack the American, British and Dutch colonies—but one important reason was to outflank China, to cut off its connections with the allied powers. The Japanese Empire, Then there were the Jews who, as we have just mentioned, were still suffering horrendous anti-Semitism across the continent. Keep in touch They would rather be in Germany — the place that persecuted them in the first place — than go back to places they believed would continue to persecute them after the war. A lot of the displaced people were the same type of people who would be fighting if they had been in Ukraine. The idea of going back is the worst thing they can think of. They went everywhere. Lots went to Canada, the United States and Australia. Hundreds of thousands of Poles ended up coming to Britain. Many of the Jews were helped by Zionists to get into Palestine. I chose this because I think it really epitomises the vengeance that took place against Germans in Germany in the aftermath of the war. She was repeatedly raped by Russian soldiers. She eventually manages to protect herself by getting together with a high-ranking Soviet officer — that was the only way she could prevent the junior soldiers from attacking her repeatedly. So not only has she had this horrific experience but she is then abandoned by the man that she loves. This was a subject that everybody knew about but nobody talked about for years and years. There was a very influential German television documentary that was shown in the s where women came forward for the first time to talk about their experiences. It was very controversial. All sorts of German academics came out and said this was a dangerous development and that once Germans started to think of themselves as being victims of the war they might lose sight of the fact that they were also the perpetrators of it. There is a sense of it being unspoken because of that. But there was also a complete double standard between the way men and women were allowed to talk about the war. Norman Lewis was a prolific 20th century travel writer who had many eminent fans. Do you want to tell us more about it? This was the first area of Europe to be liberated so it was the first sight the Allies had of what they were dealing with, which was pretty chaotic. Naples in was a city in meltdown. First and foremost, there was no food at all. Children would dig up grass from the roadside to take home to eat. People would do anything to get hold of some food — literally anything. Norman Lewis repeatedly had men approach him trying to press the favours of their wives and their daughters upon him in return for a hot meal. The mafia is still there. The mafia was, to a degree, reinstated by the Allies when they arrived. They wanted to avoid complete chaos so they installed people who looked like they had authority. In some cases that meant keeping the fascists on board, in other cases it meant reinstalling the mafia people who the fascists had got rid of years earlier. When the Allies arrived they were like gods. They had unlimited access to food, money and cigarettes and all the things that the local people were craving. The corruption that brought with it was every bit as bad as the home-grown corruption. Some of the stories of Allied soldiers lining up with tins of food to hand over to women they are going to sleep with are quite chilling. The Forest Brothers is the name given to the partisans in the Baltic states. Can you can give us some background on them? If you were in Ukraine, the Baltic states, and in bits of Poland, the war began for you not when the Germans invaded but when the Soviet Union invaded — in areas of Poland in and the Baltic states in So the fact that Germans took over most of Europe subsequently is kind of neither here nor there because the war ends with the Soviets still in control. So when the war came to an end for most of Europe in these partisans carried on fighting in units in the forests all the way into the s. He was a Lithuanian student in when the Soviets re-entered his country. He and his family were staunch nationalists and they joined a group of partisans in order to try to fight against the Soviets. Initially it was all organised by the Lithuanian army, so they had huge units of men hiding in the woods conducting ambushes on Soviet troops. But they were no match for the Red Army and they started suffering some really terrible defeats. They then reorganised themselves into little partisan cells hiding out in little bunkers dotted around the woodlands. For years and years they fought this clandestine battle against the might of the Red Army. It reminds me of stories of the French resistance during the war. One of the really poignant things about the story is that he left Lithuania at the end of in order to inform the West about what was happening in his country. He travelled through all the border regions, travelling by night and hiding in the woods by day, and finally made his way through to the West. He also fell in love with a woman there. It could have all ended happily for him had he stayed in the West. Civil Military Relations. Kriegsberichterstattung, Kriegsberichterstatter. Prisoners in War. Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. World War II. Japan, the United States, and the Road to World War II in the Pacific 日本、合衆国、および第二次世界大戦太平洋戦局への道 Warfare — The article evaluates the degree to which the Second World War was responsible for the development of Europe since It seeks to disentangle effects that were clearly directly due to the war from those which can be seen as the result of changes already affecting pre-war Europe, and those due to post-war developments, such as the Cold War and the European Union. It examines the relationship between long term social, economic and cultural developments and the impact of the war and political turning points. That great events have great effects seems a truism and it would follow that the Second World War, a conflict which caused a colossal loss of life, saw a continent divided as mighty armies strove for supremacy, and ended with much of Europe in ruins and the rest impoverished, must have had a transforming effect. Few would deny that the great context for the development of Europe, politically, socially and economically, in the immediate post-war years was the war, but did it really transform Europe and, if so, for how long? Among the problems in assessing the changes to Europe, its nations, societies, economies and cultures, that may or may not be seen as consequent upon the war is the perennial historian's dilemma in distinguishing between short and long term developments. Many of the changes that seem at first sight to have been due to the conflict and its aftermath may well have been simply the further effects of salient developments evident before the war. Then, of course, the impact of the war varied considerably as between the defeated and the victorious states, and indeed between combatants and neutrals, the latter providing a "control" for any assessment of the war's effects. Post-war Germany and Poland looked very different in, say, to what they had been in , but can the same be said for Sweden or, for that matter, Spain? An essay on this subject written in, shall we say, , or , would have a very different perspective, for many of changes made by the war were far from permanent and, arguably, post-war developments had a greater effect. This is most obviously the case when we consider the redrawing of the map of Europe in the immediate post war period. The war ended with what in historical terms was an odd peace, for there was no peace treaty with Germany, 1 in part because the unconditional surrender of the Axis powers had left no authority to conclude peace with, and also because of the disintegration of the alliance of the victorious powers shortly after the moment of victory. Nevertheless, states Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania disappeared, frontiers were changed, and, most importantly, the division of Germany into occupied zones provided the blueprint for the emergence of two German states. In general, East Central Europe moved west, in terms of frontier changes, seen most evidently in those of Poland, which lost territory to the Soviet Union and gained it at the expense of what had been Germany, and because of the movement of millions of people, expelled from their homes and moving west in search of security. There was also a movement in the opposite direction as Latvians and other Baltic people and numerous other ethnic groups, such as Crimean Tartars, were forcibly moved eastwards by the Soviet authorities. A feature of the post settlement was thus, if settlement is not an inappropriate term, the brutal displacement of populations. Whereas the Versailles Settlement had attempted to make frontiers coincide with national or ethnic divisions, the aftermath of the Second World War saw peoples made to fit frontiers. In particular, millions of Germans were expelled from East Prussia and other German territory ceded to Poland, and from the Sudetenland , while there were parallel movements of Poles from the territories ceded to the Soviet Union into that gained from Germany. Although the fate of Eastern and Central Europe was largely decided at Yalta in February , the future political shape of the continent was formally agreed at Potsdam , 17 July to 2 August , where the Allied leaders decided that there should be an inter-allied council to co-ordinate the four occupied zones of Germany and agreed that Austria should be independent, France be returned Alsace-Lorraine , and Czechoslovakia the Sudetenland, and that Poland's western frontier should be the Oder-Neisse Line previously the Curzon and then the Molotov-Ribbentrop Line. The palimpsest of the arrangements was distinct in and discernible in or even the late s, when troops of the wartime allies still garrisoned Berlin , but by , after the implosion of the Soviet Union, the "velvet" revolutions in the satrap people's republics, and the reunification of Germany, the map of Europe resembled that in the wake of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of March , rather more than that of , though the end of Yugoslavia and recent events in the Ukrainian Republic remind us that political geography is rarely permanent; a hundred-year-old inhabitant of Lviv will have been an Austro-Hungarian , a Polish, a Soviet, and a Ukrainian national during his or her lifetime. We must also consider the view that the two World Wars should not necessarily be treated as autonomous but perhaps be seen as parts of a single conflict, a "Thirty Years War" of the twentieth century, 2 a conflict that arose from the long-term political and economic rivalries of great powers and Europe's fault lines which led these rivalries to ignite into warfare. It is, indeed, possible to argue that the Cold War period can be seen as at least a sequel to it. Such an interpretation of the dark history of Europe in the twentieth century does, of course, downgrade the importance of ideology and of the "great dictators" and has been attacked on the grounds that the coming to power of Adolf Hitler — was, not only the major cause of World War II, but that his hysterical and paranoid agenda gave that war its own unique and horrific nature. Nevertheless, the outcome of the Second World War and the nature of the fracturing alliance that triumphed was clearly the major factor in determining, in political-geographic respects, the map of post-war Europe. Its impact was clearly discernible for nearly half a century, although we can debate whether it was the position of the armies of the western powers vis-a-vis the Red Army in or the subsequent announcement of the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan in , the formation of NATO in , or the entry of West Germany into the alliance in that decisively made for a divided Europe. In that the division was also an ideological one, it determined the nature of economies and societies. It is, however, when we come to the economic and social effects of the war upon Europe, that determining the degrees and the ways in which the experience of the war as well as its outcome shaped the post-war world becomes difficult. The major problem is that of distinguishing between pre-war influences, the experience of the war, its result, and the Cold War, which followed so swiftly. The relentless advance of Allied forces in and achieved a victory, so complete as to prevent any revival of the defeated regimes. Although celebrated with justice by the victors, it was gained at an enormous cost to all of Europe. The excesses of the Soviet forces, which raped and looted their way through eastern Germany are now well known, 4 but for many years this went unrecognised by western writers. If the conduct of the western Allies was far superior, total war cannot be waged without leaving desolation and a huge loss of civilian life in its wake and, what one author has called, "collective amnesia", 5 has obscured the costs of liberation as armies fought their way through France, Belgium and Holland. Europe in offered a picture of desolation and ruin. Parts of the Soviet Union had been fought over three times, while Poland had suffered aggression from both Germany and Russia in and the Soviet advance in had paused only to allow the German army to destroy Warsaw. Central Europe has been described as a "lunar landscape dotted with enormous heaps of rubble and bomb craters", 6 while, in Berlin, "Ninety-five per cent of its urban area lay in ruins". Victorious but battered, Britain was, a threadbare and austere country with an exhausted economy, now that American aid was withdrawn, and the French economy was dislocated: "food was scarce in the winter of , and there were virtually no reserves of gold or foreign currency". Two European civil wars or one punctuated by a lengthy armistice had not only resulted in the problems of reconstruction, but had substantially reduced the power and influence of the major European states with the exception of Russia, long perceived in western and central Europe as largely an extra-European power, but one whose armies had penetrated deep into Central Europe in much as they had done in As the Cold War developed, it became clear that only two powers in the world had emerged from the war with enhanced strength and that these two "super powers" were the USA and the Soviet Union or USSR. A further weakening of the position of Europe came with the diminuendo of the colonial empires of Britain, France and the Netherlands. The stress and expense of war and of humiliation at the hands of Japan had already impacted severely upon the positions of the imperial powers, while the opposition of the USA and of the emergent United Nations to colonial possessions was a further factor. Winston Churchill — [ ] had, perhaps, failed to realise or had ignored the anti-colonial implications of the Atlantic Charter, which he and Franklin D. Roosevelt — [ ] had signed in , or the strength of American opposition to empires. US policy was, nevertheless, ambiguous as anti-imperialism could conflict with its Cold War interests; having refused to back Britain during the Suez crisis in , it proceeded to press her to retain bases of strategic importance, as with Cyprus and Diego Garcia. The process of decolonisation set in, sometimes "with astonishing — and in some cases excessive speed", as with the British Empire, 9 at a single blow with the Dutch Empire, collapse and precipitate withdrawal as with the Belgian Empire, or accompanied by a hard and lengthy struggle as with France's wars in Vietnam and Algeria , 10 but it was practically complete by the early s. Essentially the imperial powers lost the appetite and will to hold on to empires, which were no longer seen as worthwhile by their home electorates. As Mark Mazower born has commented, "imperial powers were rarely forced to retreat as a direct result of military insurrection — Algeria was the exception rather than the rule". Britain, at first sought a substitute for Empire in the Commonwealth, but was then to waver between Atlanticism and Europe, while France, hastily, turned its attention towards Europe and followed a policy of forming a close relationship with West Germany. The physical and economic recovery of Europe was, despite the enormous damage done to the infrastructure, industry, agriculture and commerce, to be quicker than most observers expected and that of Western Europe was spectacular after the bleak and austere immediate post-war years. It has been argued that it was the depths to which Germany had sunk in , the near-starvation, disorder and hopelessness that inspired a West German recovery that prioritised economic recovery stability, and order, 12 while another view is that it was a determined effort to erase the past. These developments were underpinned by different economic and social systems and, if in part the result of the war and differing national traditions, were also consequent on America's aid to the West via the Marshall Plan. A salient feature of the recovering Europe has been identified as the increased role of the state as director of economies and, via increased taxation and state welfare, of civil societies and the organisation and direction of states for the war effort has been held to be a major influence on these developments. A little disputed effect of total war is that it vastly increases the power of governments and both governments and peoples had become accustomed to, respectively, positions of command and dependency. Whether these post-war developments represented a continuation of war-time systems of government, had already been evident in pre-war Europe, or were largely a response to the problems of a ravaged Europe can be debated. The more extreme forms of state control of economic and social life experienced by the states of Eastern and Central Europe may be seen as imported from, or imposed by, the Soviet Union, though many of these states had formerly been used to a high degree of government direction and were experiencing some of the worst problems of post-war dislocation and poverty. Central to the recovery of Western Europe was a balance or synthesis between liberal capitalism and socialism, though in France and Italy this was challenged by powerful Communist Parties, strengthened by the Resistance movements which had developed late in the war. The general direction of governments' policies was contested between social democratic and moderate conservative parties, but moved steadily towards the latter from the early s. Whether the Cold War divide, the formation of the Soviet Bloc and the imposition of socialist one party economic and political systems of government on much of East Central Europe was planned by Joseph Stalin — from the beginning has been much debated. Anne Applebaum born , Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe has, more recently, provided support for this thesis. Certainly the take-over of the Baltic States had already provided a taste of what was to come, while Communist parties in states overrun by Russian forces clearly expected full support for their seizure of power. Against this interpretation, there is Stalin's apparent flexibility in making his "back of an envelope" Percentage Agreement with Churchill, while Mark Mazower has queried whether over Italy and Poland there was not, "at the highest levels, a tacit quid pro quo? Blueprint or not, the fact remains that, one by one, socialist states, closely allied to the Soviet Union or "people's democracies" emerged: Bulgaria , where from a Communist-dominated Fatherland Front was the only legal political group; Poland and Romania, where a strong parallel state was dominated by Communists; and Hungary and Czechoslovakia, where, until , a limited degree of democracy was permitted. Some have argued that the timetable of the Soviet takeover was dependent on Stalin's reactions to US policies - the ending of aid to the Soviet Union, the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan -but there are good reasons for believing that whatever flexibility he demonstrated elsewhere, as in Greece , Stalin was determined to place sympathetic governments and economic systems in the countries "liberated" by the Soviet forces.	<urn:uuid:e9ebede1-8f8a-47f6-85ad-cad83e50a334>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://zyjosaredu.ga/poetry/british-writers-and-the-approach-of-world-war-ii.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00033.warc.gz	en	0.980948	5,163	3.3125	3	[ -0.3509708642959595, -0.31018543243408203, 0.13017192482948303, -0.3370041847229004, 0.23275524377822876, 0.25252750515937805, -0.2878471314907074, 0.26596713066101074, -0.10296282172203064, -0.024087615311145782, 0.3517933487892151, 0.027681246399879456, 0.4710170030593872, 0.473786383867...	2	Added to this, Japanese immigrants to the US were prohibited from naturalizing as American citizens. And by this time, anti-Asian sentiments were not limited to the West Coast. Co-sponsor of the immigration act was Senator James Aiken Reed, a prominent Pittsburgh attorney. Fourth, was Western foreign policy toward Japan. Britain and America, after a century of estrangement, realized in the course of defeating Germany that they had similar foreign policy interests. The two English-speaking powers engineered the Washington Treaty of , and the London Treaty of , the latter extending the naval armaments ratios for Japan, Britain and the US to other categories of ships, both to set up an overall security system in the Pacific AND to provide cover for Britain to terminate its alliance with Japan. Under the old treaty, Britain had agreed to maintain neutrality if Japan and the US went to war. The Anglo-Americans reasoned that Japan would not need the alliance if it were part of a regional security arrangement. The cooperative policy worked in the s, largely because key politicians like Takahashi, and Hamaguchi Osachi and Shidehara Kijuro, leaders of the Minseito, the other major political party of the s, were committed to the Washington Treaty System. By , reduced demand and thus reduced investment in new technology and facilities led to unemployment, underemployment and falling incomes everywhere. Worldwide, economies spiraled downward. Given the panoply of policy choices available in times of economic downturn, one is stunned to find that virtually every country in the world chose the wrong ones in the early s. Rather than increasing spending, governments raised taxes and import tariffs, and balanced budgets, which drove their economies more deeply into deflation and depression. Japan, with Takahashi as its finance minister, was a rare exception. In the face of the severe economic crisis of the first half of the s, Takahashi undertook unprecedented exchange rate, monetary, and fiscal policies. He carried out a one-time devaluation of the yen to stimulate exports. He lowered interest rates and undertook deficit financing to stimulate domestic investment and demand. Japan came out of the depression by , five years ahead of the United States. Several historians have written in recent years that the key political figure in Japan during the Inukai, Saito, and Okada cabinets, , was Takahashi Korekiyo, not the three prime ministers. Military officers plotted and carried out an invasion of Manchuria in September , and their actions met thunderous public applause at home. The mass society that had brought Japan democracy in the s helped bring it something else in the s. The military killed or silenced the people who advocated cooperation—the threat of assassination was a powerful weapon for keeping opponents in line. Students of Japan have commented on how few voices spoke out against the rise of militarism, fascism if you want to use that word, in Japan in the s. Even the socialists in the Diet e. It was with this in mind that the New York Times correspondent, Hugh Byas, entitled his book on Japan in the s, Government by Assassination : right wing or military terrorists murdered three of five prime ministers, and a fourth escaped only when young officers shot his brother-in-law by mistake; two of three finance ministers were killed, and the third died prematurely from ill health, thus avoiding the need for the military to assassinate him. He correctly predicted it would lead to economic stagnation, inflation, and worst of all, war with the United States. The Tokyo and regional press frequently reported his anti-military rhetoric in this period during one cabinet meeting, for example, he told the army minister not to speak like an idiot, and in another he asked the same general if there were really idiots in the army who thought Japan could defeat the United States in a war. The 30 greatest war novels of all time The invasion of China was not planned aggression by the military high command—the war broke out over a skirmish between Chinese and Japanese troops in the suburbs of Beijing. What Japanese troops were doing in the suburbs of Beijing is another story. But the Japanese generals were wrong—in spite of unspeakable atrocities or maybe because of them , the Chinese soldiers fought well and over the next eight years, the Japanese military was unable to pacify China. One imagines Takahashi, as he looked down from the Buddhist Western Paradise, shuddering when he saw what his countrymen were doing. The story of the transition from aggression in China in to the attack on Pearl Harbor is a complex one that includes an alliance with Germany and Italy—the alliance of the nations that believed they were excluded from full membership in the Western imperialist order--and the fall of France. But it is very important to keep in mind that the war in China was central to the Japanese decision to go to war with Britain and America. The answer they came up with was Anglo-American support of China. The way to defeat China was to cut off its supply lines from the West—in other words, move into Hong Kong and Southeast Asia. There were other reasons that the Japanese army decided to move into French Indo-China, and then to attack the American, British and Dutch colonies—but one important reason was to outflank China, to cut off its connections with the allied powers. The Japanese Empire, Then there were the Jews who, as we have just mentioned, were still suffering horrendous anti-Semitism across the continent. Keep in touch They would rather be in Germany — the place that persecuted them in the first place — than go back to places they believed would continue to persecute them after the war. A lot of the displaced people were the same type of people who would be fighting if they had been in Ukraine. The idea of going back is the worst thing they can think of. They went everywhere. Lots went to Canada, the United States and Australia. Hundreds of thousands of Poles ended up coming to Britain. Many of the Jews were helped by Zionists to get into Palestine. I chose this because I think it really epitomises the vengeance that took place against Germans in Germany in the aftermath of the war. She was repeatedly raped by Russian soldiers. She eventually manages to protect herself by getting together with a high-ranking Soviet officer — that was the only way she could prevent the junior soldiers from attacking her repeatedly. So not only has she had this horrific experience but she is then abandoned by the man that she loves. This was a subject that everybody knew about but nobody talked about for years and years. There was a very influential German television documentary that was shown in the s where women came forward for the first time to talk about their experiences. It was very controversial. All sorts of German academics came out and said this was a dangerous development and that once Germans started to think of themselves as being victims of the war they might lose sight of the fact that they were also the perpetrators of it. There is a sense of it being unspoken because of that. But there was also a complete double standard between the way men and women were allowed to talk about the war. Norman Lewis was a prolific 20th century travel writer who had many eminent fans. Do you want to tell us more about it? This was the first area of Europe to be liberated so it was the first sight the Allies had of what they were dealing with, which was pretty chaotic. Naples in was a city in meltdown. First and foremost, there was no food at all. Children would dig up grass from the roadside to take home to eat. People would do anything to get hold of some food — literally anything. Norman Lewis repeatedly had men approach him trying to press the favours of their wives and their daughters upon him in return for a hot meal. The mafia is still there. The mafia was, to a degree, reinstated by the Allies when they arrived. They wanted to avoid complete chaos so they installed people who looked like they had authority. In some cases that meant keeping the fascists on board, in other cases it meant reinstalling the mafia people who the fascists had got rid of years earlier. When the Allies arrived they were like gods. They had unlimited access to food, money and cigarettes and all the things that the local people were craving. The corruption that brought with it was every bit as bad as the home-grown corruption. Some of the stories of Allied soldiers lining up with tins of food to hand over to women they are going to sleep with are quite chilling. The Forest Brothers is the name given to the partisans in the Baltic states. Can you can give us some background on them? If you were in Ukraine, the Baltic states, and in bits of Poland, the war began for you not when the Germans invaded but when the Soviet Union invaded — in areas of Poland in and the Baltic states in So the fact that Germans took over most of Europe subsequently is kind of neither here nor there because the war ends with the Soviets still in control. So when the war came to an end for most of Europe in these partisans carried on fighting in units in the forests all the way into the s. He was a Lithuanian student in when the Soviets re-entered his country. He and his family were staunch nationalists and they joined a group of partisans in order to try to fight against the Soviets. Initially it was all organised by the Lithuanian army, so they had huge units of men hiding in the woods conducting ambushes on Soviet troops. But they were no match for the Red Army and they started suffering some really terrible defeats. They then reorganised themselves into little partisan cells hiding out in little bunkers dotted around the woodlands. For years and years they fought this clandestine battle against the might of the Red Army. It reminds me of stories of the French resistance during the war. One of the really poignant things about the story is that he left Lithuania at the end of in order to inform the West about what was happening in his country. He travelled through all the border regions, travelling by night and hiding in the woods by day, and finally made his way through to the West. He also fell in love with a woman there. It could have all ended happily for him had he stayed in the West. Civil Military Relations. Kriegsberichterstattung, Kriegsberichterstatter. Prisoners in War. Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. World War II. Japan, the United States, and the Road to World War II in the Pacific 日本、合衆国、および第二次世界大戦太平洋戦局への道 Warfare — The article evaluates the degree to which the Second World War was responsible for the development of Europe since It seeks to disentangle effects that were clearly directly due to the war from those which can be seen as the result of changes already affecting pre-war Europe, and those due to post-war developments, such as the Cold War and the European Union. It examines the relationship between long term social, economic and cultural developments and the impact of the war and political turning points. That great events have great effects seems a truism and it would follow that the Second World War, a conflict which caused a colossal loss of life, saw a continent divided as mighty armies strove for supremacy, and ended with much of Europe in ruins and the rest impoverished, must have had a transforming effect. Few would deny that the great context for the development of Europe, politically, socially and economically, in the immediate post-war years was the war, but did it really transform Europe and, if so, for how long? Among the problems in assessing the changes to Europe, its nations, societies, economies and cultures, that may or may not be seen as consequent upon the war is the perennial historian's dilemma in distinguishing between short and long term developments. Many of the changes that seem at first sight to have been due to the conflict and its aftermath may well have been simply the further effects of salient developments evident before the war. Then, of course, the impact of the war varied considerably as between the defeated and the victorious states, and indeed between combatants and neutrals, the latter providing a "control" for any assessment of the war's effects. Post-war Germany and Poland looked very different in, say, to what they had been in , but can the same be said for Sweden or, for that matter, Spain? An essay on this subject written in, shall we say, , or , would have a very different perspective, for many of changes made by the war were far from permanent and, arguably, post-war developments had a greater effect. This is most obviously the case when we consider the redrawing of the map of Europe in the immediate post war period. The war ended with what in historical terms was an odd peace, for there was no peace treaty with Germany, 1 in part because the unconditional surrender of the Axis powers had left no authority to conclude peace with, and also because of the disintegration of the alliance of the victorious powers shortly after the moment of victory. Nevertheless, states Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania disappeared, frontiers were changed, and, most importantly, the division of Germany into occupied zones provided the blueprint for the emergence of two German states. In general, East Central Europe moved west, in terms of frontier changes, seen most evidently in those of Poland, which lost territory to the Soviet Union and gained it at the expense of what had been Germany, and because of the movement of millions of people, expelled from their homes and moving west in search of security. There was also a movement in the opposite direction as Latvians and other Baltic people and numerous other ethnic groups, such as Crimean Tartars, were forcibly moved eastwards by the Soviet authorities. A feature of the post settlement was thus, if settlement is not an inappropriate term, the brutal displacement of populations. Whereas the Versailles Settlement had attempted to make frontiers coincide with national or ethnic divisions, the aftermath of the Second World War saw peoples made to fit frontiers. In particular, millions of Germans were expelled from East Prussia and other German territory ceded to Poland, and from the Sudetenland , while there were parallel movements of Poles from the territories ceded to the Soviet Union into that gained from Germany. Although the fate of Eastern and Central Europe was largely decided at Yalta in February , the future political shape of the continent was formally agreed at Potsdam , 17 July to 2 August , where the Allied leaders decided that there should be an inter-allied council to co-ordinate the four occupied zones of Germany and agreed that Austria should be independent, France be returned Alsace-Lorraine , and Czechoslovakia the Sudetenland, and that Poland's western frontier should be the Oder-Neisse Line previously the Curzon and then the Molotov-Ribbentrop Line. The palimpsest of the arrangements was distinct in and discernible in or even the late s, when troops of the wartime allies still garrisoned Berlin , but by , after the implosion of the Soviet Union, the "velvet" revolutions in the satrap people's republics, and the reunification of Germany, the map of Europe resembled that in the wake of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of March , rather more than that of , though the end of Yugoslavia and recent events in the Ukrainian Republic remind us that political geography is rarely permanent; a hundred-year-old inhabitant of Lviv will have been an Austro-Hungarian , a Polish, a Soviet, and a Ukrainian national during his or her lifetime. We must also consider the view that the two World Wars should not necessarily be treated as autonomous but perhaps be seen as parts of a single conflict, a "Thirty Years War" of the twentieth century, 2 a conflict that arose from the long-term political and economic rivalries of great powers and Europe's fault lines which led these rivalries to ignite into warfare. It is, indeed, possible to argue that the Cold War period can be seen as at least a sequel to it. Such an interpretation of the dark history of Europe in the twentieth century does, of course, downgrade the importance of ideology and of the "great dictators" and has been attacked on the grounds that the coming to power of Adolf Hitler — was, not only the major cause of World War II, but that his hysterical and paranoid agenda gave that war its own unique and horrific nature. Nevertheless, the outcome of the Second World War and the nature of the fracturing alliance that triumphed was clearly the major factor in determining, in political-geographic respects, the map of post-war Europe. Its impact was clearly discernible for nearly half a century, although we can debate whether it was the position of the armies of the western powers vis-a-vis the Red Army in or the subsequent announcement of the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan in , the formation of NATO in , or the entry of West Germany into the alliance in that decisively made for a divided Europe. In that the division was also an ideological one, it determined the nature of economies and societies. It is, however, when we come to the economic and social effects of the war upon Europe, that determining the degrees and the ways in which the experience of the war as well as its outcome shaped the post-war world becomes difficult. The major problem is that of distinguishing between pre-war influences, the experience of the war, its result, and the Cold War, which followed so swiftly. The relentless advance of Allied forces in and achieved a victory, so complete as to prevent any revival of the defeated regimes. Although celebrated with justice by the victors, it was gained at an enormous cost to all of Europe. The excesses of the Soviet forces, which raped and looted their way through eastern Germany are now well known, 4 but for many years this went unrecognised by western writers. If the conduct of the western Allies was far superior, total war cannot be waged without leaving desolation and a huge loss of civilian life in its wake and, what one author has called, "collective amnesia", 5 has obscured the costs of liberation as armies fought their way through France, Belgium and Holland. Europe in offered a picture of desolation and ruin. Parts of the Soviet Union had been fought over three times, while Poland had suffered aggression from both Germany and Russia in and the Soviet advance in had paused only to allow the German army to destroy Warsaw. Central Europe has been described as a "lunar landscape dotted with enormous heaps of rubble and bomb craters", 6 while, in Berlin, "Ninety-five per cent of its urban area lay in ruins". Victorious but battered, Britain was, a threadbare and austere country with an exhausted economy, now that American aid was withdrawn, and the French economy was dislocated: "food was scarce in the winter of , and there were virtually no reserves of gold or foreign currency". Two European civil wars or one punctuated by a lengthy armistice had not only resulted in the problems of reconstruction, but had substantially reduced the power and influence of the major European states with the exception of Russia, long perceived in western and central Europe as largely an extra-European power, but one whose armies had penetrated deep into Central Europe in much as they had done in As the Cold War developed, it became clear that only two powers in the world had emerged from the war with enhanced strength and that these two "super powers" were the USA and the Soviet Union or USSR. A further weakening of the position of Europe came with the diminuendo of the colonial empires of Britain, France and the Netherlands. The stress and expense of war and of humiliation at the hands of Japan had already impacted severely upon the positions of the imperial powers, while the opposition of the USA and of the emergent United Nations to colonial possessions was a further factor. Winston Churchill — [ ] had, perhaps, failed to realise or had ignored the anti-colonial implications of the Atlantic Charter, which he and Franklin D. Roosevelt — [ ] had signed in , or the strength of American opposition to empires. US policy was, nevertheless, ambiguous as anti-imperialism could conflict with its Cold War interests; having refused to back Britain during the Suez crisis in , it proceeded to press her to retain bases of strategic importance, as with Cyprus and Diego Garcia. The process of decolonisation set in, sometimes "with astonishing — and in some cases excessive speed", as with the British Empire, 9 at a single blow with the Dutch Empire, collapse and precipitate withdrawal as with the Belgian Empire, or accompanied by a hard and lengthy struggle as with France's wars in Vietnam and Algeria , 10 but it was practically complete by the early s. Essentially the imperial powers lost the appetite and will to hold on to empires, which were no longer seen as worthwhile by their home electorates. As Mark Mazower born has commented, "imperial powers were rarely forced to retreat as a direct result of military insurrection — Algeria was the exception rather than the rule". Britain, at first sought a substitute for Empire in the Commonwealth, but was then to waver between Atlanticism and Europe, while France, hastily, turned its attention towards Europe and followed a policy of forming a close relationship with West Germany. The physical and economic recovery of Europe was, despite the enormous damage done to the infrastructure, industry, agriculture and commerce, to be quicker than most observers expected and that of Western Europe was spectacular after the bleak and austere immediate post-war years. It has been argued that it was the depths to which Germany had sunk in , the near-starvation, disorder and hopelessness that inspired a West German recovery that prioritised economic recovery stability, and order, 12 while another view is that it was a determined effort to erase the past. These developments were underpinned by different economic and social systems and, if in part the result of the war and differing national traditions, were also consequent on America's aid to the West via the Marshall Plan. A salient feature of the recovering Europe has been identified as the increased role of the state as director of economies and, via increased taxation and state welfare, of civil societies and the organisation and direction of states for the war effort has been held to be a major influence on these developments. A little disputed effect of total war is that it vastly increases the power of governments and both governments and peoples had become accustomed to, respectively, positions of command and dependency. Whether these post-war developments represented a continuation of war-time systems of government, had already been evident in pre-war Europe, or were largely a response to the problems of a ravaged Europe can be debated. The more extreme forms of state control of economic and social life experienced by the states of Eastern and Central Europe may be seen as imported from, or imposed by, the Soviet Union, though many of these states had formerly been used to a high degree of government direction and were experiencing some of the worst problems of post-war dislocation and poverty. Central to the recovery of Western Europe was a balance or synthesis between liberal capitalism and socialism, though in France and Italy this was challenged by powerful Communist Parties, strengthened by the Resistance movements which had developed late in the war. The general direction of governments' policies was contested between social democratic and moderate conservative parties, but moved steadily towards the latter from the early s. Whether the Cold War divide, the formation of the Soviet Bloc and the imposition of socialist one party economic and political systems of government on much of East Central Europe was planned by Joseph Stalin — from the beginning has been much debated. Anne Applebaum born , Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe has, more recently, provided support for this thesis. Certainly the take-over of the Baltic States had already provided a taste of what was to come, while Communist parties in states overrun by Russian forces clearly expected full support for their seizure of power. Against this interpretation, there is Stalin's apparent flexibility in making his "back of an envelope" Percentage Agreement with Churchill, while Mark Mazower has queried whether over Italy and Poland there was not, "at the highest levels, a tacit quid pro quo? Blueprint or not, the fact remains that, one by one, socialist states, closely allied to the Soviet Union or "people's democracies" emerged: Bulgaria , where from a Communist-dominated Fatherland Front was the only legal political group; Poland and Romania, where a strong parallel state was dominated by Communists; and Hungary and Czechoslovakia, where, until , a limited degree of democracy was permitted. Some have argued that the timetable of the Soviet takeover was dependent on Stalin's reactions to US policies - the ending of aid to the Soviet Union, the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan -but there are good reasons for believing that whatever flexibility he demonstrated elsewhere, as in Greece , Stalin was determined to place sympathetic governments and economic systems in the countries "liberated" by the Soviet forces.	5,084	ENGLISH	1
The exact origins of cricket are not completely known. It has been around for centuries. Only recently has it evolved into the popular sport it is today. In modern times people all over the world currently enjoy placing bets on it. However, originally it would have been almost unrecognisable. Historians believe that cricket was created by either the Normans or Saxons. It was originally a children’s game, played in woodlands and clearings throughout Sussex and Kent. The first known reference to it dates back to the late 16th century. The Importance Of Cricket Gambling During the time of Restoration, cricket gained a mass popularity. This was due to the abundance of betting at the time. In 1664 the Gambling Act came into effect. This new law meant that stakes were limited to £100. Despite this seemingly low amount it was considered a fortune by 17th century standards. People were attracted by the prospect of winning such a high amount. Cricket became a significant sport to gamble on. Interestingly, new gambling laws continue to be passed, aimed at reducing sports betting. However, for centuries people have enjoyed placing wagers on cricket. This is likely to carry on in the future. As a Children’s Game Over many generations the game now known as cricket was played primarily by children. By the 17th century adults had taken it up as a recreational sport. Back then it shared similarities with bowls. The main difference between the two games was that in cricket the ball could be hit by bat. The sport would have been played on land grazed by sheep. There is even some evidence that the balls were stones wrapped in sheep’s wool. Sticks or crooks could have been used as bats. Wickets may have been made from tree stumps or wooden gates.	<urn:uuid:ac5a5381-5d19-494e-aba6-d029f13a79ca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://villaamo.co.nz/cricket-origins/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00103.warc.gz	en	0.992575	368	3.328125	3	[ -0.1137683242559433, 0.19194906949996948, -0.2201727330684662, -0.30721423029899597, -0.2834591865539551, 0.5337957739830017, 0.35745134949684143, -0.08519593626260757, 0.35701438784599304, 0.4944522976875305, 0.006701820995658636, -0.39571091532707214, -0.14824040234088898, 0.172059893608...	3	The exact origins of cricket are not completely known. It has been around for centuries. Only recently has it evolved into the popular sport it is today. In modern times people all over the world currently enjoy placing bets on it. However, originally it would have been almost unrecognisable. Historians believe that cricket was created by either the Normans or Saxons. It was originally a children’s game, played in woodlands and clearings throughout Sussex and Kent. The first known reference to it dates back to the late 16th century. The Importance Of Cricket Gambling During the time of Restoration, cricket gained a mass popularity. This was due to the abundance of betting at the time. In 1664 the Gambling Act came into effect. This new law meant that stakes were limited to £100. Despite this seemingly low amount it was considered a fortune by 17th century standards. People were attracted by the prospect of winning such a high amount. Cricket became a significant sport to gamble on. Interestingly, new gambling laws continue to be passed, aimed at reducing sports betting. However, for centuries people have enjoyed placing wagers on cricket. This is likely to carry on in the future. As a Children’s Game Over many generations the game now known as cricket was played primarily by children. By the 17th century adults had taken it up as a recreational sport. Back then it shared similarities with bowls. The main difference between the two games was that in cricket the ball could be hit by bat. The sport would have been played on land grazed by sheep. There is even some evidence that the balls were stones wrapped in sheep’s wool. Sticks or crooks could have been used as bats. Wickets may have been made from tree stumps or wooden gates.	366	ENGLISH	1
Just five years after the creation of the National Parks Conservation Association, a rising politician took over the presidency of the fledgling organization. He would later lead the nation during tumultuous times. NPCA has had many influential presidents, but only one created national park sites at the stroke of a pen and had one established in his honor. Herbert Hoover was already a man of considerable influence when he was chosen as president of NPCA (then known as the National Parks Association) in 1924. A wealthy businessman who had earned public recognition for his relief work in Europe during World War I, he ran for the Republican presidential nomination in 1920. While he lost that race, he won the favor of Warren Harding, who selected him as his secretary of Commerce after Harding was elected president. Hoover, who had also been considered for the secretary of the Interior position, was an active Commerce secretary who sought to increase the scope of his department by taking over responsibilities from his Cabinet colleagues. According to biographer William Leuchtenburg, he became known derisively as “the secretary of Commerce and under-secretary of all other departments.” From his early childhood explorations of the woods around West Branch, Iowa, and his passion for fishing, Hoover developed a strong attachment to the outdoors, so it was not out of character for him to accept the position of NPCA president while serving in his Cabinet role. (In those days, the title of NPCA president referred to the head of the board. The association’s highest-ranking — and only — employee was Executive Secretary Robert Sterling Yard.) Of all the people who have served as U.S. president to date, only one also worked as a national park ranger. Can you name this ranger-in-chief?See more › “The defense and preservation of our national parks is a most worthy effort,” wrote Hoover, a friend of NPCA co-founder Stephen Mather, in a letter accepting the president position in early 1924. “Recreation grounds and natural museums are as necessary to our advancing civilization as are wheat fields and factories.” Despite his busy schedule as Commerce secretary, Hoover found the time to preside over most of the meetings of the association. NPCA’s main preoccupation during Hoover’s tenure was a National Conference on Outdoor Recreation convened in 1925 by President Calvin Coolidge, who had succeeded Harding after he died from a heart attack. The conference cast a light on divergences of opinion over how much to develop public lands in an era of increasing car ownership. Hoover, who supported expanding recreation opportunities, was somewhat at odds with others at NPCA, including Yard, who saw cars as a threat to the pristine character of national parks. “The era of outdoor recreation has rushed upon us with the speed of the automobile, which brought it, and there can be no denying its pace, its power and its permanence,” Yard wrote after the conference. “It swept from east to west … engulfed our National Parks, swept down our coasts, overran valleys and mountains, and now is invading desert and wilderness.” Perhaps as a result of those tensions, Hoover resigned from the NPCA presidency in November 1925. During his two terms as Commerce secretary, he secured some notable environmental achievements, including a law limiting oil pollution of coastal waters and protection of salmon fisheries in Alaska. Seven months after Hoover took office as the country’s 31st president in 1929, the stock market crashed, and he focused on mitigating the effects of the Great Depression for much of his presidency. Still, he did not forget his love for national parks. Appropriations for park operations increased 70 percent from 1929 to 1932, and the size of the National Park System expanded by 40 percent during his administration. Stay On Top of News Our email newsletter shares the latest on parks. Under the authority of the Antiquities Act, the Republican president established several national monuments that are now among visitors’ most beloved national parks, including Arches, Death Valley, Saguaro, Great Sand Dunes and Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Parks. Hoover also initiated construction of Skyline Drive, the scenic highway that meanders through Shenandoah National Park in Virginia, and he donated his rustic cabin, Camp Rapidan, for the creation of the park. Fittingly, the man who did much to expand the park system was honored with his own national park site. The Herbert Hoover National Historic Site was established in Hoover’s hometown of West Branch, Iowa, in 1965, one year after the former president’s death at the age of 90. About the author Nicolas Brulliard Senior Editor Nicolas is a journalist and former geologist who joined NPCA in November 2015. He writes and edits online content for NPCA and serves as senior editor of National Parks magazine. Position on H.R. 1049, H.R. 2748, H.R. 2795, H.R. 4348, and H.R. 5179 Trump Administration Dismantles Clean Water Rule Days After Gutting National Environmental Policy Act, Putting Park Waters Further at Risk Prominent Park Advocates and Leaders Take Battle Over Atlantic Coast Pipeline to the Supreme Court	<urn:uuid:55234f37-6d1c-4726-93d9-8065b70ccbae>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.npca.org/articles/2155-the-npca-president-who-became-us-president	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00054.warc.gz	en	0.98018	1,083	3.328125	3	[ -0.17403647303581238, 0.3272959589958191, 0.47630149126052856, -0.1878470629453659, 0.1336723268032074, 0.4268295466899872, 0.37765443325042725, -0.1506190299987793, -0.11086462438106537, -0.08244030177593231, 0.2107486128807068, -0.2188260555267334, 0.406787246465683, 0.43344271183013916,...	1	Just five years after the creation of the National Parks Conservation Association, a rising politician took over the presidency of the fledgling organization. He would later lead the nation during tumultuous times. NPCA has had many influential presidents, but only one created national park sites at the stroke of a pen and had one established in his honor. Herbert Hoover was already a man of considerable influence when he was chosen as president of NPCA (then known as the National Parks Association) in 1924. A wealthy businessman who had earned public recognition for his relief work in Europe during World War I, he ran for the Republican presidential nomination in 1920. While he lost that race, he won the favor of Warren Harding, who selected him as his secretary of Commerce after Harding was elected president. Hoover, who had also been considered for the secretary of the Interior position, was an active Commerce secretary who sought to increase the scope of his department by taking over responsibilities from his Cabinet colleagues. According to biographer William Leuchtenburg, he became known derisively as “the secretary of Commerce and under-secretary of all other departments.” From his early childhood explorations of the woods around West Branch, Iowa, and his passion for fishing, Hoover developed a strong attachment to the outdoors, so it was not out of character for him to accept the position of NPCA president while serving in his Cabinet role. (In those days, the title of NPCA president referred to the head of the board. The association’s highest-ranking — and only — employee was Executive Secretary Robert Sterling Yard.) Of all the people who have served as U.S. president to date, only one also worked as a national park ranger. Can you name this ranger-in-chief?See more › “The defense and preservation of our national parks is a most worthy effort,” wrote Hoover, a friend of NPCA co-founder Stephen Mather, in a letter accepting the president position in early 1924. “Recreation grounds and natural museums are as necessary to our advancing civilization as are wheat fields and factories.” Despite his busy schedule as Commerce secretary, Hoover found the time to preside over most of the meetings of the association. NPCA’s main preoccupation during Hoover’s tenure was a National Conference on Outdoor Recreation convened in 1925 by President Calvin Coolidge, who had succeeded Harding after he died from a heart attack. The conference cast a light on divergences of opinion over how much to develop public lands in an era of increasing car ownership. Hoover, who supported expanding recreation opportunities, was somewhat at odds with others at NPCA, including Yard, who saw cars as a threat to the pristine character of national parks. “The era of outdoor recreation has rushed upon us with the speed of the automobile, which brought it, and there can be no denying its pace, its power and its permanence,” Yard wrote after the conference. “It swept from east to west … engulfed our National Parks, swept down our coasts, overran valleys and mountains, and now is invading desert and wilderness.” Perhaps as a result of those tensions, Hoover resigned from the NPCA presidency in November 1925. During his two terms as Commerce secretary, he secured some notable environmental achievements, including a law limiting oil pollution of coastal waters and protection of salmon fisheries in Alaska. Seven months after Hoover took office as the country’s 31st president in 1929, the stock market crashed, and he focused on mitigating the effects of the Great Depression for much of his presidency. Still, he did not forget his love for national parks. Appropriations for park operations increased 70 percent from 1929 to 1932, and the size of the National Park System expanded by 40 percent during his administration. Stay On Top of News Our email newsletter shares the latest on parks. Under the authority of the Antiquities Act, the Republican president established several national monuments that are now among visitors’ most beloved national parks, including Arches, Death Valley, Saguaro, Great Sand Dunes and Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Parks. Hoover also initiated construction of Skyline Drive, the scenic highway that meanders through Shenandoah National Park in Virginia, and he donated his rustic cabin, Camp Rapidan, for the creation of the park. Fittingly, the man who did much to expand the park system was honored with his own national park site. The Herbert Hoover National Historic Site was established in Hoover’s hometown of West Branch, Iowa, in 1965, one year after the former president’s death at the age of 90. About the author Nicolas Brulliard Senior Editor Nicolas is a journalist and former geologist who joined NPCA in November 2015. He writes and edits online content for NPCA and serves as senior editor of National Parks magazine. Position on H.R. 1049, H.R. 2748, H.R. 2795, H.R. 4348, and H.R. 5179 Trump Administration Dismantles Clean Water Rule Days After Gutting National Environmental Policy Act, Putting Park Waters Further at Risk Prominent Park Advocates and Leaders Take Battle Over Atlantic Coast Pipeline to the Supreme Court	1,096	ENGLISH	1
Sign up to our e-newsletter and keep up to date with news, events and developments at the Tanfield Railway, the World’s Oldest Railway. When was the world's first railway laid? No one is quite confident on a precise date but simple rails have been used to guide vehicles for centuries, definitely as far back as the middle ages and possibly even in ancient Greece. What is certain is that in the early 1600s a Nottinghamshire businessman called Huntingdon Beaumont came to Northumberland and laid rails from collieries near Blyth to a shipping point on the coast. His waggonway used horses hauling wooden waggons on wooden wheels on wooden rails, however this was not a financial success. It did though provide the spark of progression from primitive wooden rails over short distances, to a railway network which would change Britain and the world forever. From the mid 1600 onwards waggonways and the Tyneside coal industry became linked so closely that they were known throughout the rest of Britain as 'Tyneside Roads'. A network of lines linked collieries on both sides of the Tyne to the river. It is no coincidence that the North East was the area where waggonways took greatest hold, because canal building was impossible due to deep valleys and steep hills. What set the rail systems of Tyneside apart from all others was its use of the flanged wheel - a key element of the modern railway as we know it. When the Tanfield Railway - or waggonway as it was known at the time - was built in 1725, it was a revelation. Its massive engineering was unlike anything else in its era, or even since the Roman Empire. It was a triumph of engineering over nature, a clear signal that a new industrial age was upon the world, and that railways would play a massive part. First laid down more than a quarter of a century before the first railway officially sanctioned by government, over 75 years before the first steam locomotive and a whole 100 years earlier than the Stockton and Darlington Railway, the Tanfield Railway is the world's oldest railway. We will be the first railway to celebrate our tricentenary in 2025. 26 January 2020	<urn:uuid:918b1f76-5960-47fe-b153-061061bbbfd7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tanfield-railway.co.uk/index.php?page=railways-history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00476.warc.gz	en	0.980708	461	3.671875	4	[ -0.08824983239173889, 0.32064002752304077, 0.42220115661621094, -0.0031959139741957188, -0.063348188996315, 0.14255793392658234, -0.4570094645023346, -0.1207805648446083, -0.3542921245098114, -0.04531047120690346, -0.08742830902338028, -0.41706976294517517, -0.18037553131580353, 0.52322739...	1	Sign up to our e-newsletter and keep up to date with news, events and developments at the Tanfield Railway, the World’s Oldest Railway. When was the world's first railway laid? No one is quite confident on a precise date but simple rails have been used to guide vehicles for centuries, definitely as far back as the middle ages and possibly even in ancient Greece. What is certain is that in the early 1600s a Nottinghamshire businessman called Huntingdon Beaumont came to Northumberland and laid rails from collieries near Blyth to a shipping point on the coast. His waggonway used horses hauling wooden waggons on wooden wheels on wooden rails, however this was not a financial success. It did though provide the spark of progression from primitive wooden rails over short distances, to a railway network which would change Britain and the world forever. From the mid 1600 onwards waggonways and the Tyneside coal industry became linked so closely that they were known throughout the rest of Britain as 'Tyneside Roads'. A network of lines linked collieries on both sides of the Tyne to the river. It is no coincidence that the North East was the area where waggonways took greatest hold, because canal building was impossible due to deep valleys and steep hills. What set the rail systems of Tyneside apart from all others was its use of the flanged wheel - a key element of the modern railway as we know it. When the Tanfield Railway - or waggonway as it was known at the time - was built in 1725, it was a revelation. Its massive engineering was unlike anything else in its era, or even since the Roman Empire. It was a triumph of engineering over nature, a clear signal that a new industrial age was upon the world, and that railways would play a massive part. First laid down more than a quarter of a century before the first railway officially sanctioned by government, over 75 years before the first steam locomotive and a whole 100 years earlier than the Stockton and Darlington Railway, the Tanfield Railway is the world's oldest railway. We will be the first railway to celebrate our tricentenary in 2025. 26 January 2020	469	ENGLISH	1
National Architectural Monument, 1211, XIII-XX centuries Dome Square 1 The building of St. Mary’s Cathedral or Riga Dome and Monastery for Riga’s Order of Monks, was started in 1211, as Riga’s Archbishop’s Chapel. By 1270 the main construction was finished. At first the cathedral was in the shape of a cross, the earliest section (the altar) was made of precisely arranged, broached, Roman-style limestone blocks, later the construction was changed into Gothic style. A monastery was built to the cathedral’s southern wall as a residence for Riga’s Order of Monks. Between the church and monastery a square courtyard was formed with crosswalks. In the beginning the courtyard was used as a graveyard, but later it was used also as a market area. During the period from 1888 till 1891, over the crosswalks were built premises for Riga’s museum and archives (now known as the Museum of History and Navigation of Riga). The cathedral’s first tower was destroyed by fire in 1547, and in 1595 a new tower was constructed. In 1775 when wooden parts of the building staled and became jeopardous, the tower’s steeple was removed and the present baroque dome replaced it. In 1884 the German organ producing company “E. F. Walker&Co” constructed the celebrated Dome organ, which at that time was the largest organ in the entire world. In 1856 the old main portal vestibule was rebuilt; in 19th century many annexations were removed around the cathedral. From 1989 until 1990 a wide alcove was formed by the cathedral’s walls made 3 m deep down into archaeological strata of many centuries allowing to detect the Dome Cathedral’s original size and to view the primary foundation of the cathedral.	<urn:uuid:35c784ed-204e-405b-9704-8b1ce2587886>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pasvaldiba.riga.lv/EN/Channels/About_Riga/Riga_architecture/Old_Riga/RigasDoms.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00462.warc.gz	en	0.983604	393	3.546875	4	[ 0.07298978418111801, -0.13510945439338684, 0.3733363449573517, -0.13748669624328613, -0.1954377144575119, 0.13960500061511993, -0.37019556760787964, 0.221095010638237, 0.16423334181308746, -0.08676502108573914, -0.4373769760131836, -0.2353852242231369, -0.07387859374284744, 0.3367810547351...	1	National Architectural Monument, 1211, XIII-XX centuries Dome Square 1 The building of St. Mary’s Cathedral or Riga Dome and Monastery for Riga’s Order of Monks, was started in 1211, as Riga’s Archbishop’s Chapel. By 1270 the main construction was finished. At first the cathedral was in the shape of a cross, the earliest section (the altar) was made of precisely arranged, broached, Roman-style limestone blocks, later the construction was changed into Gothic style. A monastery was built to the cathedral’s southern wall as a residence for Riga’s Order of Monks. Between the church and monastery a square courtyard was formed with crosswalks. In the beginning the courtyard was used as a graveyard, but later it was used also as a market area. During the period from 1888 till 1891, over the crosswalks were built premises for Riga’s museum and archives (now known as the Museum of History and Navigation of Riga). The cathedral’s first tower was destroyed by fire in 1547, and in 1595 a new tower was constructed. In 1775 when wooden parts of the building staled and became jeopardous, the tower’s steeple was removed and the present baroque dome replaced it. In 1884 the German organ producing company “E. F. Walker&Co” constructed the celebrated Dome organ, which at that time was the largest organ in the entire world. In 1856 the old main portal vestibule was rebuilt; in 19th century many annexations were removed around the cathedral. From 1989 until 1990 a wide alcove was formed by the cathedral’s walls made 3 m deep down into archaeological strata of many centuries allowing to detect the Dome Cathedral’s original size and to view the primary foundation of the cathedral.	408	ENGLISH	1
Diogenes Childhood and Early Life Diogenes was born on 412 BC in the Greek colony of Sinope on the south coast of the Black Sea. There is no information on his early life except that his father’s name was Hicesias who was a banker by profession. It appears that Diogenes was also engaged into the banking business helping his father. At one time, Diogenes and his father got involved in a scandal of adulteration or defacement of the currency inviting trouble for themselves. As a result, Diogenes was thrown out from the city. This aspect of the story is certified by the archaeological evidence as several defaced coins destroyed by a big chisel stamp were found at Sinope dated the middle of the 4th century BC, and other coins of the same time period bearing the name of Hicesias as the official who created them. The reason for this act is still not clear, although Sinope had been the witness of clashes between pro-Persian and pro-Greek factions in the 4th century, and there may be some political motives behind the same. Another story regarding this act suggests that Diogenes went to the Oracle at Delphi to take its advice, and was asked that he should “deface the currency”, and Diogenes realized that the oracle meant that he should deface the political currency rather than the actual coins. He, then, journeyed to Athens making his goal for a life to challenge the already present customs and values. After coming to Athens, Diogenes motive became to metaphorically destroy the “coinage” of custom. Destroying the established customs and values became the main motive of his life. Instead of being worried about the real nature of evil, people simply depended on customary interpretations. This distinction between nature and custom remained a most liked theme of Greek philosophers in ancient times. Diogenes is said to have moved to Athens with a slave called ‘Manes’, who eventually left him. With an in-built characteristic humor, Diogenes abolished his misfortune by saying “If Manes can live without Diogenes, why not Diogenes without Manes?” Diogenes continued making joke of such immense dependency relations. He was charmed by the ascetic teachings of Antisthenes who was a pupil of Socrates. Also, in spite of the cruelty he experienced initially, Diogenes became the student of Antisthenes. The fact that the two ever actually met is unclear, but he instantly surpassed Antisthenes in terms of reputation as well as in life’s austerity. He believed his escape of earthly delights a contrast to and explanation on contemporary Athenian behaviors. This attitude was laid in a great abhor for what he saw as the folly, pretense, vanity, self-deception, and artificiality of much human conduct. According to stories recited, there lies a glimpse of the logical regularity of his character. He adapted himself to the vicissitudes of weather by residing in a tub owned by the temple of Cybele. He broke down his only wooden bowl after looking at a peasant boy drinking from the hollow of his hands. It was also opposite to the believes of the Athenian customs to eat in the marketplace; however, still Diogenes would eat explaining when criticized that he felt hungry when he was in the marketplace. Another strange act that Diogenes indulged in was wandering in broad daylight carrying a lamp. When asked what he was doing, he used to answer, “I am just looking for an honest man”. He generally searched for a human being, but always ended up finding nothing but rascals and scoundrels. When Plato suggested the Socrates' definition of man as “featherless bipeds”, and received great praise for the same, Diogenes pulled a chicken and brought it into the Academy of Plato and said “Behold! I've brought you a man”. After this act of Diogenes, the definition was revised and “with broad flat nails” was added to the definition. Believing a story which seems to be originated with Menippus of Gadara, once Diogenes was on a voyage to Aegina and was grabbed by pirates. He was then sold for slavery to a Corinthian named “Xeniades” in Crete. When he was asked about his trade, Diogenes answered that he knew nothing about trade but that of governing men and also that he desired to be sold to a man who required a master. Thereafter, Diogenes resided in Corinth as a tutor of Xeniades' two sons for the rest of his life. He completely dedicated his life to preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. Also, some suggest that he even lectured a large number of people at the Isthmian Games. His Relationship With Alexander In the Corinth itself, Diogenes met Alexander the Great. The accounts of Plutarch and Diogenes Laërtius depict that the two exchanged only a few words. One morning, Diogenes was resting in the sunlight when he was stimulated after meeting the popular philosopher, Alexander. When asked if he wanted any favor, Diogenes replied “Yes, stand out of my sunlight”. Alexander then announced, “If I were not Alexander, then I should wish to be Diogenes”. Also in another story, Alexander saw Diogenes looking at a pile of human bones with extreme concentration. Diogenes explained that “I am searching for the bones of your father but cannot distinguish them from those of a slave”. Diogenes died in 323 BC. There are a large number of accounts suggesting the death of Diogenes. He is said to variously hold his breathe or to have became sick after eating a raw octopus or having been bitten by an infected dog. When Diogenes was questioned how he desired to be buried, he directed to be dumped outside the city wall so that wild animals could enjoy feast on his body. When asked that if he minded the same, he replied “Not at all, as long as you provide me with a stick to chase the creatures away!” To this, the people were surprised and asked him that how could he use the stick when he lacked the awareness, he replied, “If I lack awareness, then why should I care what happens to me when I am dead?” Later, Diogenes made fun of people's excessive concern with the “proper” treatment of the dead. The Corinthians erected to his memory a pillar on which rested a dog made of Parian marble.	<urn:uuid:89880aa3-f3b4-47a3-b7c3-715e8afd4146>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/diogenes-of-sinope-224.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00231.warc.gz	en	0.984399	1,386	3.546875	4	[ -0.18763944506645203, 0.5664544105529785, 0.3658984899520874, -0.40273579955101013, -0.23713034391403198, -0.6295664310455322, 0.17423750460147858, 0.27639445662498474, -0.06841310858726501, -0.21608804166316986, 0.043060302734375, -0.3745453655719757, 0.0997806042432785, 0.5072061419487, ...	2	Diogenes Childhood and Early Life Diogenes was born on 412 BC in the Greek colony of Sinope on the south coast of the Black Sea. There is no information on his early life except that his father’s name was Hicesias who was a banker by profession. It appears that Diogenes was also engaged into the banking business helping his father. At one time, Diogenes and his father got involved in a scandal of adulteration or defacement of the currency inviting trouble for themselves. As a result, Diogenes was thrown out from the city. This aspect of the story is certified by the archaeological evidence as several defaced coins destroyed by a big chisel stamp were found at Sinope dated the middle of the 4th century BC, and other coins of the same time period bearing the name of Hicesias as the official who created them. The reason for this act is still not clear, although Sinope had been the witness of clashes between pro-Persian and pro-Greek factions in the 4th century, and there may be some political motives behind the same. Another story regarding this act suggests that Diogenes went to the Oracle at Delphi to take its advice, and was asked that he should “deface the currency”, and Diogenes realized that the oracle meant that he should deface the political currency rather than the actual coins. He, then, journeyed to Athens making his goal for a life to challenge the already present customs and values. After coming to Athens, Diogenes motive became to metaphorically destroy the “coinage” of custom. Destroying the established customs and values became the main motive of his life. Instead of being worried about the real nature of evil, people simply depended on customary interpretations. This distinction between nature and custom remained a most liked theme of Greek philosophers in ancient times. Diogenes is said to have moved to Athens with a slave called ‘Manes’, who eventually left him. With an in-built characteristic humor, Diogenes abolished his misfortune by saying “If Manes can live without Diogenes, why not Diogenes without Manes?” Diogenes continued making joke of such immense dependency relations. He was charmed by the ascetic teachings of Antisthenes who was a pupil of Socrates. Also, in spite of the cruelty he experienced initially, Diogenes became the student of Antisthenes. The fact that the two ever actually met is unclear, but he instantly surpassed Antisthenes in terms of reputation as well as in life’s austerity. He believed his escape of earthly delights a contrast to and explanation on contemporary Athenian behaviors. This attitude was laid in a great abhor for what he saw as the folly, pretense, vanity, self-deception, and artificiality of much human conduct. According to stories recited, there lies a glimpse of the logical regularity of his character. He adapted himself to the vicissitudes of weather by residing in a tub owned by the temple of Cybele. He broke down his only wooden bowl after looking at a peasant boy drinking from the hollow of his hands. It was also opposite to the believes of the Athenian customs to eat in the marketplace; however, still Diogenes would eat explaining when criticized that he felt hungry when he was in the marketplace. Another strange act that Diogenes indulged in was wandering in broad daylight carrying a lamp. When asked what he was doing, he used to answer, “I am just looking for an honest man”. He generally searched for a human being, but always ended up finding nothing but rascals and scoundrels. When Plato suggested the Socrates' definition of man as “featherless bipeds”, and received great praise for the same, Diogenes pulled a chicken and brought it into the Academy of Plato and said “Behold! I've brought you a man”. After this act of Diogenes, the definition was revised and “with broad flat nails” was added to the definition. Believing a story which seems to be originated with Menippus of Gadara, once Diogenes was on a voyage to Aegina and was grabbed by pirates. He was then sold for slavery to a Corinthian named “Xeniades” in Crete. When he was asked about his trade, Diogenes answered that he knew nothing about trade but that of governing men and also that he desired to be sold to a man who required a master. Thereafter, Diogenes resided in Corinth as a tutor of Xeniades' two sons for the rest of his life. He completely dedicated his life to preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. Also, some suggest that he even lectured a large number of people at the Isthmian Games. His Relationship With Alexander In the Corinth itself, Diogenes met Alexander the Great. The accounts of Plutarch and Diogenes Laërtius depict that the two exchanged only a few words. One morning, Diogenes was resting in the sunlight when he was stimulated after meeting the popular philosopher, Alexander. When asked if he wanted any favor, Diogenes replied “Yes, stand out of my sunlight”. Alexander then announced, “If I were not Alexander, then I should wish to be Diogenes”. Also in another story, Alexander saw Diogenes looking at a pile of human bones with extreme concentration. Diogenes explained that “I am searching for the bones of your father but cannot distinguish them from those of a slave”. Diogenes died in 323 BC. There are a large number of accounts suggesting the death of Diogenes. He is said to variously hold his breathe or to have became sick after eating a raw octopus or having been bitten by an infected dog. When Diogenes was questioned how he desired to be buried, he directed to be dumped outside the city wall so that wild animals could enjoy feast on his body. When asked that if he minded the same, he replied “Not at all, as long as you provide me with a stick to chase the creatures away!” To this, the people were surprised and asked him that how could he use the stick when he lacked the awareness, he replied, “If I lack awareness, then why should I care what happens to me when I am dead?” Later, Diogenes made fun of people's excessive concern with the “proper” treatment of the dead. The Corinthians erected to his memory a pillar on which rested a dog made of Parian marble.	1,345	ENGLISH	1
Rare separately published map of Hong Kong, published by John Bartholomew and the Edinburgh Geographical Institute. The map illustrates the boundaries set up by the Territorial Convention of 1860 and the New Convention of 1898. The map was issued shortly after the signing of the New Convention on June 9, 1898. Under the convention the territories north of what is now Boundary Street and south of the Sham Chun River, and the surrounding islands, later known as the "New Territories" were leased to the United Kingdom for 99 years rent-free, expiring on 30 June 1997, and became part of the crown colony of Hong Kong. The Kowloon Walled City was excepted and remained under the control of Qing China. The territories which were leased to the United Kingdom were originally governed by Xin'an County, Guangdong province. Claude MacDonald, the British representative during the convention, picked a 99-year lease because he thought it was "as good as forever". Britain did not think they would ever have to give the territories back. The 99-year lease was a convenient agreement. We were unable to find an institutional examples of the map. A smaller version of the map appeared the in Europe in China: The History of Hong Kong from the Beginning to the Year 1882, published in 1899.	<urn:uuid:3bf3a669-8264-4ff1-b2e9-21cc34632820>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/64206/hong-kong-kau-lung-and-adjacent-territories-bartholomew?q=1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00064.warc.gz	en	0.982334	265	3.640625	4	[ -0.40857499837875366, -0.1640334576368332, 0.601406991481781, -0.08235083520412445, 0.34171754121780396, 0.021367473527789116, -0.2692546844482422, -0.41850998997688293, 0.07437078654766083, 0.1025504618883133, 0.4544123113155365, -0.7504927515983582, 0.32970425486564636, 0.346744716167449...	5	Rare separately published map of Hong Kong, published by John Bartholomew and the Edinburgh Geographical Institute. The map illustrates the boundaries set up by the Territorial Convention of 1860 and the New Convention of 1898. The map was issued shortly after the signing of the New Convention on June 9, 1898. Under the convention the territories north of what is now Boundary Street and south of the Sham Chun River, and the surrounding islands, later known as the "New Territories" were leased to the United Kingdom for 99 years rent-free, expiring on 30 June 1997, and became part of the crown colony of Hong Kong. The Kowloon Walled City was excepted and remained under the control of Qing China. The territories which were leased to the United Kingdom were originally governed by Xin'an County, Guangdong province. Claude MacDonald, the British representative during the convention, picked a 99-year lease because he thought it was "as good as forever". Britain did not think they would ever have to give the territories back. The 99-year lease was a convenient agreement. We were unable to find an institutional examples of the map. A smaller version of the map appeared the in Europe in China: The History of Hong Kong from the Beginning to the Year 1882, published in 1899.	289	ENGLISH	1
The findings of the study that involved over 500 four-year-olds are contrary to the popular assumption that in this age which is dominated by television and computer games, children could shed weight if they climbed more trees. The study was led by John Reilly, a professor in pediatric energy metabolism at Glasgow University. Its findings have been published in the British Medical Journal this week. The study was aimed at establishing whether greater physical activity would prevent children from becoming overweight. 545 children in their last year at 36 nursery schools were recruited for the study. The schools were made to institute three extra half-hour sessions of physical play and activity every week, while parents were given information packs that encouraged them to give their children more activity and less television. The other half had no extra activity or information. Weights, measurements and body mass index were regularly measured and calculated, and no difference was found between the groups. The researchers wrote, "Despite rigorous implementation, we found no significant effect of the intervention on physical activity, sedentary behavior or body mass index." Besides, tendency of these children to sit about was not particularly less nor was there any greater inclination to run around. However one positive observation made was that the more active children had better motor and movement skills, which would probably increase their confidence about doing physical activity in the future. Still as the researchers point out the problem is serious. In Scotland in 2001 at least 10% of children aged four to five and 20% of children aged 11 to 12 were obese. They wrote, "Children in Scotland establish a physically inactive lifestyle before school entry." The study was aimed at finding some way to increase activity and prevent the progression to obesity before children start mainstream school. The program was designed to be inexpensive, costing £200 and involving the training of just two members of staff at each nursery, to make it feasible if adopted at all schools. The researchers wrote, "Successful interventions to prevent obesity in early childhood may require changes not just at nursery, school and home but in the wider environment. Changes in other behaviors, including diet, may also be necessary." According to the British Heart Foundation, which partly-funded the study, accepted the research was solid, but said it did not mean it was not necessary to encourage children to run about and play. Mike Knapton, its director of prevention and care said, "It's absolutely vital for young children to be active. Although this study suggests that the benefits of a small amount of extra exercise for nursery children are not visible immediately, we know it's crucial to encourage good exercise habits from an early age. "Children get less active as they get older so it's vital that youngsters get regular physical activity to lay the foundations for good health as they grow up."	<urn:uuid:f031a7f1-3846-4e89-a3fd-139d7575555f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.medindia.net/news/view_news_main.asp?x=14838	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00367.warc.gz	en	0.983427	562	3.546875	4	[ -0.06067774444818497, -0.09614105522632599, 0.5927973985671997, -0.15818847715854645, -0.11413051933050156, 0.5212438106536865, -0.6221469640731812, 0.07348239421844482, 0.027513649314641953, 0.28487154841423035, 0.43995362520217896, -0.2999231219291687, 0.2267276495695114, 0.1563068628311...	1	The findings of the study that involved over 500 four-year-olds are contrary to the popular assumption that in this age which is dominated by television and computer games, children could shed weight if they climbed more trees. The study was led by John Reilly, a professor in pediatric energy metabolism at Glasgow University. Its findings have been published in the British Medical Journal this week. The study was aimed at establishing whether greater physical activity would prevent children from becoming overweight. 545 children in their last year at 36 nursery schools were recruited for the study. The schools were made to institute three extra half-hour sessions of physical play and activity every week, while parents were given information packs that encouraged them to give their children more activity and less television. The other half had no extra activity or information. Weights, measurements and body mass index were regularly measured and calculated, and no difference was found between the groups. The researchers wrote, "Despite rigorous implementation, we found no significant effect of the intervention on physical activity, sedentary behavior or body mass index." Besides, tendency of these children to sit about was not particularly less nor was there any greater inclination to run around. However one positive observation made was that the more active children had better motor and movement skills, which would probably increase their confidence about doing physical activity in the future. Still as the researchers point out the problem is serious. In Scotland in 2001 at least 10% of children aged four to five and 20% of children aged 11 to 12 were obese. They wrote, "Children in Scotland establish a physically inactive lifestyle before school entry." The study was aimed at finding some way to increase activity and prevent the progression to obesity before children start mainstream school. The program was designed to be inexpensive, costing £200 and involving the training of just two members of staff at each nursery, to make it feasible if adopted at all schools. The researchers wrote, "Successful interventions to prevent obesity in early childhood may require changes not just at nursery, school and home but in the wider environment. Changes in other behaviors, including diet, may also be necessary." According to the British Heart Foundation, which partly-funded the study, accepted the research was solid, but said it did not mean it was not necessary to encourage children to run about and play. Mike Knapton, its director of prevention and care said, "It's absolutely vital for young children to be active. Although this study suggests that the benefits of a small amount of extra exercise for nursery children are not visible immediately, we know it's crucial to encourage good exercise habits from an early age. "Children get less active as they get older so it's vital that youngsters get regular physical activity to lay the foundations for good health as they grow up."	568	ENGLISH	1
The first railway construction across a continent began in the United States in 1863 and completed in May 1869. The idea of building the railroad was presented to Congress by Asa Whitney at 1845. Although it was one of Abraham Lincoln's major infrastructure development projects, it was only completed after his death. The railway was built by several companies, including the Western Pacific Railway Company, the California Central Pacific Railway Company, and the United Pacific Railway Company. The railway was built to connect the eastern and western coasts of the United States. He passed through various cities and towns, including Sacramento, Omaha, and then Nebraska. The aim of the railway was to make the interior areas attractive to settlements, to reach the rural areas and the natural richness of the undiscovered lands, and to ensure that both goods and people could be transported from one shore to the whole of the continent. At the same time, it was aimed to increase business activities, economic growth and industrial investments in these new areas. The Transcontinental Railroad strengthened the economic situation in the United States in various ways. After the completion of the railway, the transportation of raw materials and finished goods to the industry became easier and faster and the connection of the two shorelines increased the commercial activities on the coasts remarkably. The railway provided access to the undiscovered inland areas of the country, creating new settlements even in areas with no chance of development. Instead of expensive, slow and dangerous horse-drawn carriages, it has developed faster, safer and cheaper transport of goods and passengers. In addition, significant cultural exchanges took place during the construction process with migrant workers from countries such as China, Ireland and Germany. During construction, there were some difficulties which slowed down the construction of the railway. It took a long time for the railroad to pass through the Sierra because of the American Civil War. Moreover, the construction in the Sierra was dealing with rugged terrain and rough mountains. Shipment of building materials from Cape Horn to California took a long time. Labor, food and housing shortages were other reasons that slowed down the construction process. Weather conditions, such as freezing cold and sandstorms, adversely affected workers and the construction process. The establishment of the American east-west railway also affected several groups. Indigenous tribes were forced to leave their land for this railway. Epidemics were common among workers coming from all over the railway construction, and construction itself was dangerous to workers' health. In addition, many bison were killed during the production process.	<urn:uuid:42db7939-1774-4c70-8cbc-07e2be3cecbf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.raillynews.com/2019/12/amerikan-dogu-bati-demiryolu-neden-yapildi/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00225.warc.gz	en	0.984805	499	4.15625	4	[ 0.03475690633058548, -0.02543579787015915, 0.4671386182308197, 0.24240966141223907, -0.2691288888454437, 0.08422817289829254, -0.572861909866333, 0.03944781422615051, -0.34998786449432373, -0.0342436209321022, 0.19409959018230438, -0.24808068573474884, 0.14751501381397247, 0.27081677317619...	4	The first railway construction across a continent began in the United States in 1863 and completed in May 1869. The idea of building the railroad was presented to Congress by Asa Whitney at 1845. Although it was one of Abraham Lincoln's major infrastructure development projects, it was only completed after his death. The railway was built by several companies, including the Western Pacific Railway Company, the California Central Pacific Railway Company, and the United Pacific Railway Company. The railway was built to connect the eastern and western coasts of the United States. He passed through various cities and towns, including Sacramento, Omaha, and then Nebraska. The aim of the railway was to make the interior areas attractive to settlements, to reach the rural areas and the natural richness of the undiscovered lands, and to ensure that both goods and people could be transported from one shore to the whole of the continent. At the same time, it was aimed to increase business activities, economic growth and industrial investments in these new areas. The Transcontinental Railroad strengthened the economic situation in the United States in various ways. After the completion of the railway, the transportation of raw materials and finished goods to the industry became easier and faster and the connection of the two shorelines increased the commercial activities on the coasts remarkably. The railway provided access to the undiscovered inland areas of the country, creating new settlements even in areas with no chance of development. Instead of expensive, slow and dangerous horse-drawn carriages, it has developed faster, safer and cheaper transport of goods and passengers. In addition, significant cultural exchanges took place during the construction process with migrant workers from countries such as China, Ireland and Germany. During construction, there were some difficulties which slowed down the construction of the railway. It took a long time for the railroad to pass through the Sierra because of the American Civil War. Moreover, the construction in the Sierra was dealing with rugged terrain and rough mountains. Shipment of building materials from Cape Horn to California took a long time. Labor, food and housing shortages were other reasons that slowed down the construction process. Weather conditions, such as freezing cold and sandstorms, adversely affected workers and the construction process. The establishment of the American east-west railway also affected several groups. Indigenous tribes were forced to leave their land for this railway. Epidemics were common among workers coming from all over the railway construction, and construction itself was dangerous to workers' health. In addition, many bison were killed during the production process.	505	ENGLISH	1
Episodes & Studies Volume 1 The Incalculable Japanese The Incalculable Japanese In their entry into the war the Japanese provided themselves with every modern weapon, used the latest tactics, and imitated, often with overwhelming success, the western nations in every mechanical and industrial device to increase their striking power and chance of victory. But they themselves were less Europeanised than their ships, planes, weapons and uniforms suggested. How little they had advanced towards civilisation (a condition they understood mainly on the material side) was shown most clearly in their abominable treatment of their prisoners. The Japanese themselves did not ‘allow’ their troops to become prisoners of the enemy. It was their duty to die rather than face the world in which they had suffered defeat. Japanese soldiers who fell into the hands of the Chinese, for instance, were considered officially to be dead: their relatives were paid compensation and their glorious death was reported at the Shinto shrines. Never, never could these living dead return to their homes to outrage both their sorrowing relatives and their ancestors by contradicting so satisfying a legend. The Japanese in some degree extended this attitude to those sailors, soldiers, and airmen of the Allies who fell into their hands. (This did not, however, prevent them in some camps attempting to victimise New Zealanders as a reprisal for the shooting of Japanese prisoners at Featherston in February 1943; this discrimination broke down in practice because the general treatment of all prisoners was in any case already a terrible victimisation.) Men who should have been dead could have no rights. But the Japanese declared their adherence to the Geneva Convention, which they had not previously ratified and could not therefore have been blamed for not observing. Thus, for the sake of wishing to appear before the world as humane, to appear as though they were capable of behaving by the standards of the European nations, the Japanese greatly increased their war guilt. It would seem, however, that the Japanese were in any case incapable of understanding the humanitarian spirit which lies behind this international agreement. The Japanese themselves in their own services and even to some extent in civil life practise the active brutality of which prisoners of war were so often the victims. Himself struck by his superiors, the non-commissioned officer passes on the blows to the private on any occasion of displeasure; the humble private slaps or clubs the civilian or, when he is within reach, the prisoner of war. Among their former prisoners the consensus of opinion seems to be that the Japanese were brutal rather than sadistic and largely unaware of their own brutality, which might find its target in an animal as readily as in a helpless prisoner. (That so much of their motives must be left to conjecture is some indication of the bewilderment of anyone who attempts to elucidate the contradictions of the Japanese character.) Undoubtedly they were arrogant in victory and obsessed with a desire to avenge on individuals the galling pretensions to superiority of the white races over the coloured. This led to calculated humiliations being heaped on their prisoners. An intelligent observer,* who was their prisoner for three and a half years in Malaya and Thailand, considered the main characteristic of the Japanese to be a frightening lack of balance, ‘which means that they can swing from murder to laughter in a couple of seconds, and this makes them always unpredictable and impossible to trust in any way’. They have a marked tendency to hysteria. Before attacking prisoners page 5 who had offended them, they used to work themselves up into a berserk condition until virtually they did not know what they were doing. Prisoners of war found a very few who were uniformly considerate, fair, honest, and humane. Their national tradition placed no value on these virtues even within the circle of their own families. It is impossible not to feel deep indignation at the treatment of their prisoners by the Japanese. But, while pitying the prisoners, one may also pity the Japanese. One ex-prisoner, when asked why the Japanese had beaten up so many prisoners of war for trivial offences or for what were not really offences at all, replied, ‘Because they were unhappy’. Many times the Japanese committed atrocities which were directly opposed to their own interests. The building of the Burma-Thailand railway with prisoner-of-war labour is a case in point: it was obviously in the interest of the Japanese war effort to keep this labour force in a condition of health and vigour, yet the callous denial of essential drugs to the sick or of adequate food to any of the workers resulted in the labour force dwindling away through every type of tropical disease being added to malnutrition. * John Coast, Railroad of Death (Commodore Press), p. 243.	<urn:uuid:90665731-3d40-447e-9eec-b732667ff051>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-1Epi-c2-WH2-1Epi-f.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00421.warc.gz	en	0.984677	963	3.359375	3	[ -0.40394431352615356, 0.27643030881881714, 0.19124893844127655, -0.059592004865407944, 0.15440967679023743, 0.25043511390686035, 0.28522467613220215, 0.32674330472946167, 0.245885968208313, -0.08623218536376953, 0.28679877519607544, -0.044188130646944046, 0.5333155393600464, 0.907166361808...	6	Episodes & Studies Volume 1 The Incalculable Japanese The Incalculable Japanese In their entry into the war the Japanese provided themselves with every modern weapon, used the latest tactics, and imitated, often with overwhelming success, the western nations in every mechanical and industrial device to increase their striking power and chance of victory. But they themselves were less Europeanised than their ships, planes, weapons and uniforms suggested. How little they had advanced towards civilisation (a condition they understood mainly on the material side) was shown most clearly in their abominable treatment of their prisoners. The Japanese themselves did not ‘allow’ their troops to become prisoners of the enemy. It was their duty to die rather than face the world in which they had suffered defeat. Japanese soldiers who fell into the hands of the Chinese, for instance, were considered officially to be dead: their relatives were paid compensation and their glorious death was reported at the Shinto shrines. Never, never could these living dead return to their homes to outrage both their sorrowing relatives and their ancestors by contradicting so satisfying a legend. The Japanese in some degree extended this attitude to those sailors, soldiers, and airmen of the Allies who fell into their hands. (This did not, however, prevent them in some camps attempting to victimise New Zealanders as a reprisal for the shooting of Japanese prisoners at Featherston in February 1943; this discrimination broke down in practice because the general treatment of all prisoners was in any case already a terrible victimisation.) Men who should have been dead could have no rights. But the Japanese declared their adherence to the Geneva Convention, which they had not previously ratified and could not therefore have been blamed for not observing. Thus, for the sake of wishing to appear before the world as humane, to appear as though they were capable of behaving by the standards of the European nations, the Japanese greatly increased their war guilt. It would seem, however, that the Japanese were in any case incapable of understanding the humanitarian spirit which lies behind this international agreement. The Japanese themselves in their own services and even to some extent in civil life practise the active brutality of which prisoners of war were so often the victims. Himself struck by his superiors, the non-commissioned officer passes on the blows to the private on any occasion of displeasure; the humble private slaps or clubs the civilian or, when he is within reach, the prisoner of war. Among their former prisoners the consensus of opinion seems to be that the Japanese were brutal rather than sadistic and largely unaware of their own brutality, which might find its target in an animal as readily as in a helpless prisoner. (That so much of their motives must be left to conjecture is some indication of the bewilderment of anyone who attempts to elucidate the contradictions of the Japanese character.) Undoubtedly they were arrogant in victory and obsessed with a desire to avenge on individuals the galling pretensions to superiority of the white races over the coloured. This led to calculated humiliations being heaped on their prisoners. An intelligent observer,* who was their prisoner for three and a half years in Malaya and Thailand, considered the main characteristic of the Japanese to be a frightening lack of balance, ‘which means that they can swing from murder to laughter in a couple of seconds, and this makes them always unpredictable and impossible to trust in any way’. They have a marked tendency to hysteria. Before attacking prisoners page 5 who had offended them, they used to work themselves up into a berserk condition until virtually they did not know what they were doing. Prisoners of war found a very few who were uniformly considerate, fair, honest, and humane. Their national tradition placed no value on these virtues even within the circle of their own families. It is impossible not to feel deep indignation at the treatment of their prisoners by the Japanese. But, while pitying the prisoners, one may also pity the Japanese. One ex-prisoner, when asked why the Japanese had beaten up so many prisoners of war for trivial offences or for what were not really offences at all, replied, ‘Because they were unhappy’. Many times the Japanese committed atrocities which were directly opposed to their own interests. The building of the Burma-Thailand railway with prisoner-of-war labour is a case in point: it was obviously in the interest of the Japanese war effort to keep this labour force in a condition of health and vigour, yet the callous denial of essential drugs to the sick or of adequate food to any of the workers resulted in the labour force dwindling away through every type of tropical disease being added to malnutrition. * John Coast, Railroad of Death (Commodore Press), p. 243.	961	ENGLISH	1
Modern CIA, The: The History of America's Central Intelligence Agency from the Cold War to Today Publisher: Charles River Editors Date: July 2019 Duration: 2 hours 39 minutes The 28-year period from 1933-1961, bracketed on one end by Hitler's rise to power in Germany and on the other by the very height of the Cold War, was marked by a remarkably stable succession of American presidents. In fact, only three men held office in this period, and that predictability led to a general stability among government agencies. The CIA had five different directors in its first 15 years, from 1946-1961, but nine different directors in the next 20, with four of those directors serving less than a year. Although plagued by its own share of problems in its early existence during World War II and the early Cold War years, the agency's early problems, smoothed over by a string of tenured presidents, paled in comparison to those it would face in the coming decades. The presidency became much more tumultuous and plagued by scandal and tragedy in the following decades. Beginning with Kennedy, the country had five presidents in the span of less than 20 years, and none of them completed two full terms, so it is perhaps not surprising that the CIA felt its way through its own tough days during this period. To place the agency's blame for its own very real mistakes at the feet of the ever-churning office of the presidency is not entirely fair, because in many cases the CIA made its own bed and was forced to lie in it, but the continuously changing executive landscape and the subsequent jerky and often haphazard changes of directions certainly played a part in the agency's troubles of this period.	<urn:uuid:4397075e-d653-44d8-9620-9fddb8bf4927>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.audiobooks.com/audiobook/modern-cia-the-the-history-of-americas-central-intelligence-agency-from-the-cold-war-to-today/394975	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00230.warc.gz	en	0.980475	350	3.46875	3	[ -0.5352736711502075, 0.37020036578178406, 0.17359499633312225, -0.020513566210865974, 0.1187908947467804, 0.2916662096977234, -0.13159096240997314, -0.4175362288951874, -0.26943397521972656, -0.18556994199752808, 0.3563084602355957, 0.7334845662117004, 0.520537793636322, 0.4097490608692169...	1	Modern CIA, The: The History of America's Central Intelligence Agency from the Cold War to Today Publisher: Charles River Editors Date: July 2019 Duration: 2 hours 39 minutes The 28-year period from 1933-1961, bracketed on one end by Hitler's rise to power in Germany and on the other by the very height of the Cold War, was marked by a remarkably stable succession of American presidents. In fact, only three men held office in this period, and that predictability led to a general stability among government agencies. The CIA had five different directors in its first 15 years, from 1946-1961, but nine different directors in the next 20, with four of those directors serving less than a year. Although plagued by its own share of problems in its early existence during World War II and the early Cold War years, the agency's early problems, smoothed over by a string of tenured presidents, paled in comparison to those it would face in the coming decades. The presidency became much more tumultuous and plagued by scandal and tragedy in the following decades. Beginning with Kennedy, the country had five presidents in the span of less than 20 years, and none of them completed two full terms, so it is perhaps not surprising that the CIA felt its way through its own tough days during this period. To place the agency's blame for its own very real mistakes at the feet of the ever-churning office of the presidency is not entirely fair, because in many cases the CIA made its own bed and was forced to lie in it, but the continuously changing executive landscape and the subsequent jerky and often haphazard changes of directions certainly played a part in the agency's troubles of this period.	373	ENGLISH	1
The traditional and most recognisable image of the Welsh national dress or costume is that of a woman in a red, black and white woollen cloak with an accompanying tall black hat. This image is one which largely developed during the nineteenth century. During this period the traditional values of Welsh culture were under threat and the development of the image of the Welsh national dress was played a part in safeguarding Wales’ identity. Prior to the late 18th / early 19th century there was no such thing as a Welsh national costume. During the 1830s, Lady Llanover, the wife of an ironmaster in Gwent, was very influential in encouraging the wearing of a ‘national’ dress. She considered it important to establish a Welsh national identity as at this time many felt their national identity was under threat. She encouraged the Welsh language and its day to day use and the wearing of an identifiable Welsh costume, based on the rural women’s traditional dress. The traditional Welsh dress was primarily worn by women in rural areas of Wales and it was based on a type of bedgown made from wool and worn over a corset. This was teamed with a printed neckerchief, a petticoat, apron and knitted stockings. The dress was completed by a high crowned hat reminiscent of 17th century fashions and a red, caped cloak. Perhaps one of the most famous historic occasions where the Welsh national costume was worn was in 1797 when the last invasion of mainland Britain took place. Not many countries can say that a foreign army was defeated by women dressed in their national dress. The last invasion of Britain took place at Fishguard in Wales in 1797, when French troops successfully landed near Llanwnda. After a looting spree during which much wine was consumed (a Portuguese ship had been shipwrecked just a few days earlier and her cargo ‘saved’ by the locals), many of the invaders were too drunk to fight. Within two days, the invasion collapsed, and the French surrendered to a local militia force. Strangely though, the surrender agreement refers to several thousand British redcoat soldiers coming at the French – but there were only a few hundred soldiers in Fishguard! However, in this rural area, the Welsh national ccostume was popular and hundreds of Welsh women dressed in their traditional red cloaks and black hats come to see what was happening. At a distance, it appears that the drunken French may have mistaken these women for British Grenadiers! The day to day use of the costume also came at the same time as the growth of Welsh Nationalism, as the rise of industrialisation was a threat to the traditional agricultural way of life. Another benefit of the costume was that it was made from wool which benefited the Welsh woollen industry. As the 19th century progressed, the wearing of traditional dress became less popular and by the 1880s the Welsh costume was worn more as an attempt to maintain tradition and celebrate a separate Welsh identity, - it is no longer worn as a day to day costume. Today Welsh costume is worn on celebration and ceremonial days and in particular on the 1st March each year, St David's Day and by performers at concerts and eisteddfodau. It is also very important for the tourism and Welsh gifts industry. Promote Wales, Promote Love, Celebrate St Dwynwen's Day. St Dwynwen's Day is Wales' St Valentine’s Day, celebrated on 25th January and is the most romantic day in the Welsh calendar year. It is celebrated with the giving and receiving of cards and presents and by saying "I Love you" in Welsh, "Rwy'n dy garu di". In the Welsh village of Cwm Gwaun (the Gwaun valley), near Fishguard in Wales, locals are keeping old traditions alive by celebrating the New Year, known as Hen Galan and Calennig, 13 days after everyone else. Back in the 1700s, the people of Cwm Gwaun used the Julian calendar and still do. New Years Eve is on 13th January!!! On 26th December, FelinFach received its 300th customer review from a Margaret S. who purchased a Pen Dinas blanket. Her 5-star review stated "Beautiful blanket - Purchased the red gold / leaf green as a gift for my mother, who was delighted with it. Lovely warm colours and soft wool". See all customer reviews on FelinFach.com, Click here…	<urn:uuid:376dacc5-0483-4d62-ae74-76c799f596d9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.felinfach.com/blogs/blog/welsh-dress	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00415.warc.gz	en	0.983117	927	3.59375	4	[ -0.27832841873168945, 0.6814578771591187, -0.005608036182820797, 0.20760658383369446, 0.25608471035957336, 0.06910035014152527, 0.3779740035533905, 0.13973426818847656, -0.5322578549385071, -0.4877855181694031, 0.11088377237319946, 0.09670626372098923, 0.05827834829688072, 0.23608642816543...	1	The traditional and most recognisable image of the Welsh national dress or costume is that of a woman in a red, black and white woollen cloak with an accompanying tall black hat. This image is one which largely developed during the nineteenth century. During this period the traditional values of Welsh culture were under threat and the development of the image of the Welsh national dress was played a part in safeguarding Wales’ identity. Prior to the late 18th / early 19th century there was no such thing as a Welsh national costume. During the 1830s, Lady Llanover, the wife of an ironmaster in Gwent, was very influential in encouraging the wearing of a ‘national’ dress. She considered it important to establish a Welsh national identity as at this time many felt their national identity was under threat. She encouraged the Welsh language and its day to day use and the wearing of an identifiable Welsh costume, based on the rural women’s traditional dress. The traditional Welsh dress was primarily worn by women in rural areas of Wales and it was based on a type of bedgown made from wool and worn over a corset. This was teamed with a printed neckerchief, a petticoat, apron and knitted stockings. The dress was completed by a high crowned hat reminiscent of 17th century fashions and a red, caped cloak. Perhaps one of the most famous historic occasions where the Welsh national costume was worn was in 1797 when the last invasion of mainland Britain took place. Not many countries can say that a foreign army was defeated by women dressed in their national dress. The last invasion of Britain took place at Fishguard in Wales in 1797, when French troops successfully landed near Llanwnda. After a looting spree during which much wine was consumed (a Portuguese ship had been shipwrecked just a few days earlier and her cargo ‘saved’ by the locals), many of the invaders were too drunk to fight. Within two days, the invasion collapsed, and the French surrendered to a local militia force. Strangely though, the surrender agreement refers to several thousand British redcoat soldiers coming at the French – but there were only a few hundred soldiers in Fishguard! However, in this rural area, the Welsh national ccostume was popular and hundreds of Welsh women dressed in their traditional red cloaks and black hats come to see what was happening. At a distance, it appears that the drunken French may have mistaken these women for British Grenadiers! The day to day use of the costume also came at the same time as the growth of Welsh Nationalism, as the rise of industrialisation was a threat to the traditional agricultural way of life. Another benefit of the costume was that it was made from wool which benefited the Welsh woollen industry. As the 19th century progressed, the wearing of traditional dress became less popular and by the 1880s the Welsh costume was worn more as an attempt to maintain tradition and celebrate a separate Welsh identity, - it is no longer worn as a day to day costume. Today Welsh costume is worn on celebration and ceremonial days and in particular on the 1st March each year, St David's Day and by performers at concerts and eisteddfodau. It is also very important for the tourism and Welsh gifts industry. Promote Wales, Promote Love, Celebrate St Dwynwen's Day. St Dwynwen's Day is Wales' St Valentine’s Day, celebrated on 25th January and is the most romantic day in the Welsh calendar year. It is celebrated with the giving and receiving of cards and presents and by saying "I Love you" in Welsh, "Rwy'n dy garu di". In the Welsh village of Cwm Gwaun (the Gwaun valley), near Fishguard in Wales, locals are keeping old traditions alive by celebrating the New Year, known as Hen Galan and Calennig, 13 days after everyone else. Back in the 1700s, the people of Cwm Gwaun used the Julian calendar and still do. New Years Eve is on 13th January!!! On 26th December, FelinFach received its 300th customer review from a Margaret S. who purchased a Pen Dinas blanket. Her 5-star review stated "Beautiful blanket - Purchased the red gold / leaf green as a gift for my mother, who was delighted with it. Lovely warm colours and soft wool". See all customer reviews on FelinFach.com, Click here…	944	ENGLISH	1
Feast Day: October 23 This saint died in Austria on this date when the Church was in the midst of schism and was threatened by the Turks. He is well known by the people of the United States because of the California mission “San Juan Capistrano,” to which the swallows return each year. John Capistrano was born in the fourteenth century. His education was thorough. His talents and success were great. When he was twenty-six he was made governor of Perugia. Imprisoned after a battle against the Malatestas, John resolved to change his way of life completely. It was said that he had a vision in which St. Francis of Assisi invited him to enter the Franciscan Order. This he did and at the age of thirty he entered the Franciscan novitiate and was ordained a priest four years later. He combined extreme austerity of life with unremitting effort in studying theology under Bernardino of Siena. He then became a successful preacher in Italy attracting great throngs at a time of religious apathy and confusion. So successful was Father John in his preaching that after one of his sermons more than 100 young university students entered the Franciscan Order. He also won many converts from among the Jews in Eastern Europe. He spent long hours in the confessional and promoted works of charity by the Third Order Franciscans. He and twelve Franciscan brethren were received in the countries of central Europe as angels of God. They were instrumental in reviving a dying faith and devotion. He also worked hard at the reform and reorganization of the Franciscan Observant friars and of the nuns. The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 led to John being commissioned by Pope Pius II to preach a crusade for the defense of Europe. Gaining little response in Bavaria and Austria, he decided to concentrate his efforts in Hungary. He led the army to Belgrade. Under the great General Janos Hunyadi, they gained an overwhelming victory, and the siege of Belgrade was lifted. But the neglect of unburied corpses around the city caused the deaths of many through disease. Worn out by his superhuman efforts, Capistrano was an easy prey to the infection bred by the refuse of battle. He died October 23, 1456. John Hofer, a biographer of John Capistrano, recalls a Brussels organization named after the saint. Seeking to solve problems in a fully Christian spirit, its motto was: “Initiative, Organization, Activity.” These three words characterized John’s life. He was not one to sit around, ever. His deep Christian optimism drove him to battle problems at all levels with the confidence engendered by a deep faith in Christ. Farmer, David. “Oxford Dictionary of Saints.” New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. Foley, Leonard, O.F.M., and Pat McCloskey, O.F.M. “Saint of the Day.” Cincinnati: St. Anthony Messenger Press, 2009. Lodi, Enzo. “Saints of the Roman Calendar.” New York: Alba House, 1992.	<urn:uuid:fd44986d-b95f-4ecd-995f-942af65dd696>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://voiceofthesouthwest.org/saints-for-today-john-of-capistrano-priest-1386-1456/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00241.warc.gz	en	0.981127	665	3.34375	3	[ -0.09065258502960205, 0.14085087180137634, -0.016426701098680496, -0.1892671287059784, -0.25304993987083435, -0.554477334022522, 0.2788771986961365, 0.24320770800113678, 0.1519482433795929, 0.1269989162683487, -0.12124916166067123, -0.3017458915710449, 0.24911728501319885, 0.11970995366573...	8	Feast Day: October 23 This saint died in Austria on this date when the Church was in the midst of schism and was threatened by the Turks. He is well known by the people of the United States because of the California mission “San Juan Capistrano,” to which the swallows return each year. John Capistrano was born in the fourteenth century. His education was thorough. His talents and success were great. When he was twenty-six he was made governor of Perugia. Imprisoned after a battle against the Malatestas, John resolved to change his way of life completely. It was said that he had a vision in which St. Francis of Assisi invited him to enter the Franciscan Order. This he did and at the age of thirty he entered the Franciscan novitiate and was ordained a priest four years later. He combined extreme austerity of life with unremitting effort in studying theology under Bernardino of Siena. He then became a successful preacher in Italy attracting great throngs at a time of religious apathy and confusion. So successful was Father John in his preaching that after one of his sermons more than 100 young university students entered the Franciscan Order. He also won many converts from among the Jews in Eastern Europe. He spent long hours in the confessional and promoted works of charity by the Third Order Franciscans. He and twelve Franciscan brethren were received in the countries of central Europe as angels of God. They were instrumental in reviving a dying faith and devotion. He also worked hard at the reform and reorganization of the Franciscan Observant friars and of the nuns. The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 led to John being commissioned by Pope Pius II to preach a crusade for the defense of Europe. Gaining little response in Bavaria and Austria, he decided to concentrate his efforts in Hungary. He led the army to Belgrade. Under the great General Janos Hunyadi, they gained an overwhelming victory, and the siege of Belgrade was lifted. But the neglect of unburied corpses around the city caused the deaths of many through disease. Worn out by his superhuman efforts, Capistrano was an easy prey to the infection bred by the refuse of battle. He died October 23, 1456. John Hofer, a biographer of John Capistrano, recalls a Brussels organization named after the saint. Seeking to solve problems in a fully Christian spirit, its motto was: “Initiative, Organization, Activity.” These three words characterized John’s life. He was not one to sit around, ever. His deep Christian optimism drove him to battle problems at all levels with the confidence engendered by a deep faith in Christ. Farmer, David. “Oxford Dictionary of Saints.” New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. Foley, Leonard, O.F.M., and Pat McCloskey, O.F.M. “Saint of the Day.” Cincinnati: St. Anthony Messenger Press, 2009. Lodi, Enzo. “Saints of the Roman Calendar.” New York: Alba House, 1992.	664	ENGLISH	1
Society, and the logic of social living, asks its members to cooperate through the life tasks (work, love, friendship). Success with the life tasks involves using one’s abilities in a useful and creative manner to support the well-being of community. When a person courageously uses his or her abilities and develops these with a sense of social interest, he or she becomes useful to society, and so acquires power – influence. This is the power of perfecting what one has to offer – one’s abilities. But when people have dis-abilities this can become problematic. Part of the difficulty is how we tend to think about disabilities. Fine and Asch (1988) challenged five assumptions that influence attitudes toward disability: (1) that disability is located solely in biology, (2) that the problems of the disabled are due to disability-produced impairment, (3) that the disabled person is a “victim”, (4) that disability is central to the persons’ self-concept, self-definition, social comparisons, and reference groups, and (5) that having a disability is synonymous with needing help and social support. The son of a friend severely broke his leg and after six weeks in the hospital was in a wheel chair for a period of time. I saw father and son one day leaving school. I smiled at the father, Tom, and said, “Now you see the importance of wheel chair accessibility and handicapped parking spaces.” Tom replied, “I never got it before.” His son was not permanently disabled, and in fact at 9 years old today is an excellent football goalie. But to the extent that buildings and parking were not accessible, during that time he was disadvantaged. The physical condition did not make him disabled. The physical barriers that existed in the world reduced his abilities. If the barriers can be removed, a person’s dis-abilities may no longer be so significant. However, these barriers are not always physical; they are frequently social as well. Adlerian psychology is a psychology of use and not possession; it is about what you do with the abilities that you have. But society may not always recognize the use, and societal structures may serve to increase feelings of inferiority among those who find that their disabilities block them from access to society. Consider the life tasks. Work: are there abilities that compensate for the disabilities? Are the disabilities relevant to the work? I was asked recently whether a person who as Cerebral Palsy should be hired as a school psychologist. I asked about her training and experience. She had graduated from a training program, and had worked as a school psychologist before and evidently did well. But although she seemed quite capable, the school to which she had applied for a position was very concerned. Love: are there traits that compensate for not representing the ideal in beauty or masculinity? My friend Jim was divorced and had decided it was time to start dating again. A widow I knew was also interested in a social life. But she was born with only one arm, and wore a prosthetic. I asked Jim if it would bother him to date someone with one arm. He said that it would. Friendship: What would other people say if you were friends with that person? In college I knew a fellow student who today we would say had high functioining autism. He seemed very isolated, and I suggested to my girlfriend that perhaps I should try to make friends with him. She thought that was a terrible idea, because others would judge me for being friends with him. A family eating out with their severely disable son had to endure people changing tables to move away from them. This leaves few options for those with disabilities. One is to form a community separate from the larger society, and some societies support this by providing programs and developing structures that guarantee the isolation of this community of dis-abled. The deaf community is a good example. Members have developed their own culture and language, and in many cases have developed a sense of superiority. The deafblind are not generally welcome in the deaf community, nor in many cases are people who have physical disabilities in addition to their deafness. The use of cochlear implants is frowned upon because it implies there is something wrong with being deaf. But within the deaf culture a member’s abilities are recognized and valued and the hearing impairment is irrelevant. Special Olympics is an extremely popular way to provide some power to a disadvantaged group. But despite the enormous amount of volunteer work by those without disabilities, the program is one of only relative power. In the context of one’s own group there is the potential for achievement, but in the eyes of society it is in some respects still “pretend” olympics, and unfortunately perpetuates the separation and isolation of the disabled. “We give them their program.” There is no real power here. There is no Lance Armstrong – the disease has not been overcome. Another option is to strive to compensate for one’s disabilities and become a success, and so powerful; striving for a personal superiority. Some societies like to parade the heartwarming stories of those who have succeeded in spite of every obstacle society may have laid in their way. Christopher Reeve was a very powerful individual, but he was powerful before his horse riding accident. There was a librarian I knew with CP who was evidently quite brilliant, at least according to the heart warming newspaper article I read about him. He still appeared to lead a life of isolation, but he was a success. Judy, in a wheel chair and with a hearing impairment has managed to succeed at work despite problems with a co-worker. “If it was up to her, I’d have been gone long ago. Fortunately, she and I are at the same level and she’s not a manager, so I don’t have to worry about that .After thirteen years, I really don’t care anymore. I’m still here, that’s the best revenge.” These people seem to have done it in spite of the barriers. Of course this leads to discouragement for those who have tried and failed, and more fail than succeed, and for the few who succeed it interferes with social interest (because group membership is contingent) and creates the fear of losing one’s position. As Green, Davis, Karshmer, Marsh, and Straight (2005) note, “The difficulty, of course, is that where the attitudes of others lead to discrimination, chances of attaining positions of power are limited thus encouraging further discrimination and status loss” (pp. 209-210). According to Link and Phelan (2001), the lack of access to social, economic, and political power leads to the possibility of stigmatization, as seen in labeling, stereotyping, separating, reducing status, and discriminating. Labeling assigns social salience to recognized differences. It is one thing to have difficulties relating and communicating with others; it is another thing to be autistic. Labels create their own realities, which is why this is countered in the US with person first language. I would not dare to refer to a “deafblind person” in the US; I would have to say “a person who is deafblind” to emphasize that they are a person first and foremost. In other parts of the world persons who are deafblind want to be referred to as “deafblind persons,” because it is part of the social definition they have created for themselves, much like the deaf community, which is never called a community of persons who are deaf. Stereotyping is assigning negative attributes to the labeled differences, or placing social significance on differences. Would you date a one-armed woman? Would you be seen with a one-armed woman, or a college student with Aspergers? Would you eat at the table next to a woman with CP who was drooling? Is that one unfair? Separation results in a sense of “otherness;” a sense of not belonging. When the reactions of others unmistakably communicate not only a lack of acceptance, but a rejection of whatever abilities one might be able to contribute, this is deeply discouraging. This is very hard for parents to see happening to their children. I spoke with the mother of a young girl with a genetic syndrome who was sitting on the floor slightly rocking. Although the girl was functioning very well, even on grade level at school, the mother worried about the rocking. “If we could only get her to stop the rocking she would be nearly normal.” This mother eventually gave her daughter plastic surgery to improve her facial features. “I want her to have a date for the prom.” Status loss and then discrimination occurs when the ability to participate fully in the community is denied. I knew a woman with epilepsy who was prevented from attending school after fourth grade due to her condition. We now have laws to prevent this, but as we know, you can outlaw discrimination but you cannot outlaw prejudice and stigmatization. Besides living in one’s own group where some power may be available, or striving for personal superiority by compensating for one’s disabilities, a third option is to courageously advocate for recognition of those abilities that can still serve society and make a contribution, if society will remove some of the roadblocks that are in the way. But advocacy takes a great deal of courage. The strongest advocates tend to be the parents, although not all parents have the courage to do this, and even those who do can be worn down. Let me mention two strong advocates, both fathers. I spent a day with the father of a young adult girl with a genetic syndrome on a train and bus trip from Brisbane to Surfer’s Paradise. Ken has been a mover and a shaker for persons with his daughter’s syndrome in Australia. It was a difficult trip. On the train his daughter dropped the stuffed animal she was carrying. When I tried to pick it up for her, she briefly attacked and scratched me. At a mall she had to go to the bathroom. She was capable of going by herself, but she was gone a long time. Eventually Ken had to go into the women’s room to fetch her out. Of course we endured many stares as we journeyed. I asked Ken the next day as he was sitting and starring into space if it was hard. All he could do was nod and work to keep the tears from welling up. Another father was sitting with his son who was engaged in self-stimulation. Like Ken, this father has been a strong advocate for disability rights and inclusion. The father, with an affectionate smile on his face said, “Son, you are acting retarded.” His son, who is profoundly deaf, continued the self-stimulation. The father continued to smile, but a bit wistfully. Advocacy means both living with the child and facing the community’s barriers and attitudes. Both can be exhausting and discouraging. Adlerians should be advocates for the courageous who seek to belong in spite of dis-abilities through the recognition of the abilities that are there. Adlerians should think about the kinds of statements that discourage those with disabilities: The counselor who tells the parents that they have to grieve over the child they did not have before they can love their disabled child. The physician who works on the child’s hands and legs as if the limbs were not attached to a whole person. The falsely encouraging parents who assure their children that they can grow up to be anything they want to be, even when the children want to be ballerinas or football players in spite of their wheelchairs. The colleges that tell persons with disabilities that they cannot be accepted because they would not be able to cut it with the rest of the able-bodied students. The mother who does not want her son to marry a disabled woman or the father who does not want the man with a disability to marry his daughter. The therapist who tells clients that they are in denial of their disabilities. It is not about the disability – it is about the person and their courage to contribute. Adlerians should use their holistic perspective to see beyond the disability and see the abilities. Adlerians should help society to focus on the “use” of all people, instead of what they possess. When interviewing parents of children with disabilities I administered an inventory popularly used to measure stress in these parents. One of the questions was “Do you do as much now as a family as you did before your child with disabilities was born?” One mother very quickly responded “No,” which according to the authors of the instrument would indicate greater amounts of stress. But then she continued, “We now do more.” I once asked a group of fathers how they had been changed by having a child with severe disabilities. One raised his hand immediately and replied, “Before he was born I had two other sons with whom I spent no time at all. I was either working or drinking. After this child was born I recognized that I could no longer continue like that, and I gave up drinking and I changed jobs so that now I can spend time with all three of my boys.” That is power. Fine, M., & Asch, A. (1988). Disability beyond stigma: Social interaction, discrimination, and activism. Journal of Social Issues, 44, 3-21. Green S., Davis, C., Karshmer, E., Marsh P., & Straight, B. (2005). Living stigma: The impact of labeling, stereotyping, separation, status loss, and discrimination in the lives of individuals with disabilities and their families. Sociological Inquiry, 75, 197-215. Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 363-385.	<urn:uuid:0a258f5e-20e3-46da-8605-ac454b18cd6d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://adler-iaip.net/power-and-disability/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00507.warc.gz	en	0.983942	2,896	3.46875	3	[ -0.11258597671985626, 0.15555325150489807, 0.15387435257434845, -0.214100182056427, -0.5213972926139832, 0.39929455518722534, 0.8910219669342041, 0.5263923406600952, -0.030205992981791496, -0.24689987301826477, 0.3004224896430969, 0.10969556868076324, 0.01044898945838213, 0.008985777385532...	11	Society, and the logic of social living, asks its members to cooperate through the life tasks (work, love, friendship). Success with the life tasks involves using one’s abilities in a useful and creative manner to support the well-being of community. When a person courageously uses his or her abilities and develops these with a sense of social interest, he or she becomes useful to society, and so acquires power – influence. This is the power of perfecting what one has to offer – one’s abilities. But when people have dis-abilities this can become problematic. Part of the difficulty is how we tend to think about disabilities. Fine and Asch (1988) challenged five assumptions that influence attitudes toward disability: (1) that disability is located solely in biology, (2) that the problems of the disabled are due to disability-produced impairment, (3) that the disabled person is a “victim”, (4) that disability is central to the persons’ self-concept, self-definition, social comparisons, and reference groups, and (5) that having a disability is synonymous with needing help and social support. The son of a friend severely broke his leg and after six weeks in the hospital was in a wheel chair for a period of time. I saw father and son one day leaving school. I smiled at the father, Tom, and said, “Now you see the importance of wheel chair accessibility and handicapped parking spaces.” Tom replied, “I never got it before.” His son was not permanently disabled, and in fact at 9 years old today is an excellent football goalie. But to the extent that buildings and parking were not accessible, during that time he was disadvantaged. The physical condition did not make him disabled. The physical barriers that existed in the world reduced his abilities. If the barriers can be removed, a person’s dis-abilities may no longer be so significant. However, these barriers are not always physical; they are frequently social as well. Adlerian psychology is a psychology of use and not possession; it is about what you do with the abilities that you have. But society may not always recognize the use, and societal structures may serve to increase feelings of inferiority among those who find that their disabilities block them from access to society. Consider the life tasks. Work: are there abilities that compensate for the disabilities? Are the disabilities relevant to the work? I was asked recently whether a person who as Cerebral Palsy should be hired as a school psychologist. I asked about her training and experience. She had graduated from a training program, and had worked as a school psychologist before and evidently did well. But although she seemed quite capable, the school to which she had applied for a position was very concerned. Love: are there traits that compensate for not representing the ideal in beauty or masculinity? My friend Jim was divorced and had decided it was time to start dating again. A widow I knew was also interested in a social life. But she was born with only one arm, and wore a prosthetic. I asked Jim if it would bother him to date someone with one arm. He said that it would. Friendship: What would other people say if you were friends with that person? In college I knew a fellow student who today we would say had high functioining autism. He seemed very isolated, and I suggested to my girlfriend that perhaps I should try to make friends with him. She thought that was a terrible idea, because others would judge me for being friends with him. A family eating out with their severely disable son had to endure people changing tables to move away from them. This leaves few options for those with disabilities. One is to form a community separate from the larger society, and some societies support this by providing programs and developing structures that guarantee the isolation of this community of dis-abled. The deaf community is a good example. Members have developed their own culture and language, and in many cases have developed a sense of superiority. The deafblind are not generally welcome in the deaf community, nor in many cases are people who have physical disabilities in addition to their deafness. The use of cochlear implants is frowned upon because it implies there is something wrong with being deaf. But within the deaf culture a member’s abilities are recognized and valued and the hearing impairment is irrelevant. Special Olympics is an extremely popular way to provide some power to a disadvantaged group. But despite the enormous amount of volunteer work by those without disabilities, the program is one of only relative power. In the context of one’s own group there is the potential for achievement, but in the eyes of society it is in some respects still “pretend” olympics, and unfortunately perpetuates the separation and isolation of the disabled. “We give them their program.” There is no real power here. There is no Lance Armstrong – the disease has not been overcome. Another option is to strive to compensate for one’s disabilities and become a success, and so powerful; striving for a personal superiority. Some societies like to parade the heartwarming stories of those who have succeeded in spite of every obstacle society may have laid in their way. Christopher Reeve was a very powerful individual, but he was powerful before his horse riding accident. There was a librarian I knew with CP who was evidently quite brilliant, at least according to the heart warming newspaper article I read about him. He still appeared to lead a life of isolation, but he was a success. Judy, in a wheel chair and with a hearing impairment has managed to succeed at work despite problems with a co-worker. “If it was up to her, I’d have been gone long ago. Fortunately, she and I are at the same level and she’s not a manager, so I don’t have to worry about that .After thirteen years, I really don’t care anymore. I’m still here, that’s the best revenge.” These people seem to have done it in spite of the barriers. Of course this leads to discouragement for those who have tried and failed, and more fail than succeed, and for the few who succeed it interferes with social interest (because group membership is contingent) and creates the fear of losing one’s position. As Green, Davis, Karshmer, Marsh, and Straight (2005) note, “The difficulty, of course, is that where the attitudes of others lead to discrimination, chances of attaining positions of power are limited thus encouraging further discrimination and status loss” (pp. 209-210). According to Link and Phelan (2001), the lack of access to social, economic, and political power leads to the possibility of stigmatization, as seen in labeling, stereotyping, separating, reducing status, and discriminating. Labeling assigns social salience to recognized differences. It is one thing to have difficulties relating and communicating with others; it is another thing to be autistic. Labels create their own realities, which is why this is countered in the US with person first language. I would not dare to refer to a “deafblind person” in the US; I would have to say “a person who is deafblind” to emphasize that they are a person first and foremost. In other parts of the world persons who are deafblind want to be referred to as “deafblind persons,” because it is part of the social definition they have created for themselves, much like the deaf community, which is never called a community of persons who are deaf. Stereotyping is assigning negative attributes to the labeled differences, or placing social significance on differences. Would you date a one-armed woman? Would you be seen with a one-armed woman, or a college student with Aspergers? Would you eat at the table next to a woman with CP who was drooling? Is that one unfair? Separation results in a sense of “otherness;” a sense of not belonging. When the reactions of others unmistakably communicate not only a lack of acceptance, but a rejection of whatever abilities one might be able to contribute, this is deeply discouraging. This is very hard for parents to see happening to their children. I spoke with the mother of a young girl with a genetic syndrome who was sitting on the floor slightly rocking. Although the girl was functioning very well, even on grade level at school, the mother worried about the rocking. “If we could only get her to stop the rocking she would be nearly normal.” This mother eventually gave her daughter plastic surgery to improve her facial features. “I want her to have a date for the prom.” Status loss and then discrimination occurs when the ability to participate fully in the community is denied. I knew a woman with epilepsy who was prevented from attending school after fourth grade due to her condition. We now have laws to prevent this, but as we know, you can outlaw discrimination but you cannot outlaw prejudice and stigmatization. Besides living in one’s own group where some power may be available, or striving for personal superiority by compensating for one’s disabilities, a third option is to courageously advocate for recognition of those abilities that can still serve society and make a contribution, if society will remove some of the roadblocks that are in the way. But advocacy takes a great deal of courage. The strongest advocates tend to be the parents, although not all parents have the courage to do this, and even those who do can be worn down. Let me mention two strong advocates, both fathers. I spent a day with the father of a young adult girl with a genetic syndrome on a train and bus trip from Brisbane to Surfer’s Paradise. Ken has been a mover and a shaker for persons with his daughter’s syndrome in Australia. It was a difficult trip. On the train his daughter dropped the stuffed animal she was carrying. When I tried to pick it up for her, she briefly attacked and scratched me. At a mall she had to go to the bathroom. She was capable of going by herself, but she was gone a long time. Eventually Ken had to go into the women’s room to fetch her out. Of course we endured many stares as we journeyed. I asked Ken the next day as he was sitting and starring into space if it was hard. All he could do was nod and work to keep the tears from welling up. Another father was sitting with his son who was engaged in self-stimulation. Like Ken, this father has been a strong advocate for disability rights and inclusion. The father, with an affectionate smile on his face said, “Son, you are acting retarded.” His son, who is profoundly deaf, continued the self-stimulation. The father continued to smile, but a bit wistfully. Advocacy means both living with the child and facing the community’s barriers and attitudes. Both can be exhausting and discouraging. Adlerians should be advocates for the courageous who seek to belong in spite of dis-abilities through the recognition of the abilities that are there. Adlerians should think about the kinds of statements that discourage those with disabilities: The counselor who tells the parents that they have to grieve over the child they did not have before they can love their disabled child. The physician who works on the child’s hands and legs as if the limbs were not attached to a whole person. The falsely encouraging parents who assure their children that they can grow up to be anything they want to be, even when the children want to be ballerinas or football players in spite of their wheelchairs. The colleges that tell persons with disabilities that they cannot be accepted because they would not be able to cut it with the rest of the able-bodied students. The mother who does not want her son to marry a disabled woman or the father who does not want the man with a disability to marry his daughter. The therapist who tells clients that they are in denial of their disabilities. It is not about the disability – it is about the person and their courage to contribute. Adlerians should use their holistic perspective to see beyond the disability and see the abilities. Adlerians should help society to focus on the “use” of all people, instead of what they possess. When interviewing parents of children with disabilities I administered an inventory popularly used to measure stress in these parents. One of the questions was “Do you do as much now as a family as you did before your child with disabilities was born?” One mother very quickly responded “No,” which according to the authors of the instrument would indicate greater amounts of stress. But then she continued, “We now do more.” I once asked a group of fathers how they had been changed by having a child with severe disabilities. One raised his hand immediately and replied, “Before he was born I had two other sons with whom I spent no time at all. I was either working or drinking. After this child was born I recognized that I could no longer continue like that, and I gave up drinking and I changed jobs so that now I can spend time with all three of my boys.” That is power. Fine, M., & Asch, A. (1988). Disability beyond stigma: Social interaction, discrimination, and activism. Journal of Social Issues, 44, 3-21. Green S., Davis, C., Karshmer, E., Marsh P., & Straight, B. (2005). Living stigma: The impact of labeling, stereotyping, separation, status loss, and discrimination in the lives of individuals with disabilities and their families. Sociological Inquiry, 75, 197-215. Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 363-385.	2,806	ENGLISH	1
Eating disorders (young people) Eating disorders and thought patterns Many of the people we talked with described being taken over by constant negative thoughts, particularly about themselves. Some people referred to this as the “eating disorder voice”; a “supercritical”, “relentless” and “intrusive” voice. They said that voice makes them feel low and ’not good enough’, pushing them to restrict (severely limit eating), binge (eat excessively) or purge (rid the body of food). Rob compared the internal voice to “having a bully in your head”. Maria had a constant 'screaming voice' inside her head. It was exhausting to have conversations... If bad things happened in life, people often felt it was their fault. They were first to blame themselves if anything went wrong at home. Such feelings could delay the initial contact with their GP as they didn’t want to feel like “a burden”. Young people often described themselves as “worriers”. Their minds were filled up by “worst case scenarios”, worry about failure or what other people thought of them or even “the world ending tomorrow”. Some even worried about other people being worried about them. Fiona-Grace said her challenge was to learn to live in the moment, rather than worry about the future and “endless what ifs”. People talked about different ways they coped with negative thoughts. These included getting the thoughts out into journals or blogs, having positive walls and compliments books and doing things that made them feel good about themselves. Distractions and mindfulness or relaxation techniques worked too. (For more see Coping with an eating disorder and self-help.) Young people we spoke with often described an eating disorder as a form of control they could have over their own lives. People could feel out of control because of things happening around them such as: Often the eating disorder was described as the only thing they could “control”. Some called it “my thing” that they “didn’t want to let others in on”. An eating disorder was something that was just for them and not for others to decide. Sometimes people felt that it was an “escape” and helped them cope. A lot of people had experienced more than one type of eating disorder (often anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa) and said that one of the differences between them was the amount of control they felt they had. Zoe found it harder to cope with bulimia than anorexia. Restricting gave her a sense of control,... People we talked with commonly described themselves as having “perfectionist” tendencies, being “driven” and “hard-working”. Desire to “do things right” and to achieve the highest possible goals could extend into many areas in life such as school or exercise. At the same time people often struggled with low self-esteem and could lack self-confidence even when they were in recovery. Rachel felt that anorexia was her best friend and the one thing she was good at. Throughout their illness, people developed complicated emotional relationships with food, bingeing, eating and not eating. As part of the negative mindset, people could feel that they didn’t deserve enjoyment or pleasure. The eating disorder could become a form of self-harm. People with anorexia nervosa sometimes described restricting their food intake as a way of punishing themselves. Elizabeth used to think that “pleasure meant failure” and that by restricting her food intake she was also restricting the fun she didn’t feel she deserved. Rob felt “he had no right to have fun” in life, either through food or in other areas of life. Georgia even said that she felt she didn’t “deserve to eat”. Elizabeth said she needed to restrict food to compensate for having any fun. Feeling weak and... Restricting food is like restricting pleasure and it’s like a compensation for any kind of fun. So the kind of example I use is this sort of holiday periods where I feel I can’t control what I’m eating and I feel like having the freedom to wander off around Europe and like see loads of different countries and visit loads of different places that had to be compensated for by not eating. And to kind of punish myself for that, for that freedom. And that experience. I had to like I had to kind of dampen the pleasure of, the enjoyment of that by making it really hard and making it, making myself feel like I was gonna faint the entire time because I was too weak, and yeah just, yeah being self-disciplined and I kind of feel, believe quite strongly that people don’t really deserve to have like, I felt that people just didn’t deserve to have any pleasure in their life. Like why? Why would you? Like why should you? You have to earn stuff and if you haven’t done anything to earn eating nice food, then why should you? Restricting used to be a form of punishment for James. He used to love the feeling of hunger pains. “My reaction to that unhappiness of feeling really dissimilar to all of these people around me was to kind of hold back and eat bean salad and go to the gym loads. And so I got into a very punishing cycle of working really hard, obsessively and exercising obsessively. And feeling like I didn’t have the right to have any fun.” -Elizabeth Jasmin used to feel that eating would take away any feelings of upset. Emily describes the cycle of bingeing and purging and the emotions that kept the cycle going. Last reviewed October 2018.	<urn:uuid:e047f4a3-ca15-4d13-8945-d15d718f4932>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://healthtalk.org/eating-disorders/eating-disorders-and-thought-patterns	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00284.warc.gz	en	0.987486	1,224	3.296875	3	[ 0.3600703477859497, 0.00986236147582531, 0.5614153146743774, 0.05917367339134216, -0.5923067927360535, 0.12046255171298981, 0.611236572265625, -0.12977206707000732, -0.09997329115867615, -0.4591289460659027, 0.30131709575653076, -0.2955280542373657, 0.3119233548641205, 0.06994490325450897,...	3	Eating disorders (young people) Eating disorders and thought patterns Many of the people we talked with described being taken over by constant negative thoughts, particularly about themselves. Some people referred to this as the “eating disorder voice”; a “supercritical”, “relentless” and “intrusive” voice. They said that voice makes them feel low and ’not good enough’, pushing them to restrict (severely limit eating), binge (eat excessively) or purge (rid the body of food). Rob compared the internal voice to “having a bully in your head”. Maria had a constant 'screaming voice' inside her head. It was exhausting to have conversations... If bad things happened in life, people often felt it was their fault. They were first to blame themselves if anything went wrong at home. Such feelings could delay the initial contact with their GP as they didn’t want to feel like “a burden”. Young people often described themselves as “worriers”. Their minds were filled up by “worst case scenarios”, worry about failure or what other people thought of them or even “the world ending tomorrow”. Some even worried about other people being worried about them. Fiona-Grace said her challenge was to learn to live in the moment, rather than worry about the future and “endless what ifs”. People talked about different ways they coped with negative thoughts. These included getting the thoughts out into journals or blogs, having positive walls and compliments books and doing things that made them feel good about themselves. Distractions and mindfulness or relaxation techniques worked too. (For more see Coping with an eating disorder and self-help.) Young people we spoke with often described an eating disorder as a form of control they could have over their own lives. People could feel out of control because of things happening around them such as: Often the eating disorder was described as the only thing they could “control”. Some called it “my thing” that they “didn’t want to let others in on”. An eating disorder was something that was just for them and not for others to decide. Sometimes people felt that it was an “escape” and helped them cope. A lot of people had experienced more than one type of eating disorder (often anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa) and said that one of the differences between them was the amount of control they felt they had. Zoe found it harder to cope with bulimia than anorexia. Restricting gave her a sense of control,... People we talked with commonly described themselves as having “perfectionist” tendencies, being “driven” and “hard-working”. Desire to “do things right” and to achieve the highest possible goals could extend into many areas in life such as school or exercise. At the same time people often struggled with low self-esteem and could lack self-confidence even when they were in recovery. Rachel felt that anorexia was her best friend and the one thing she was good at. Throughout their illness, people developed complicated emotional relationships with food, bingeing, eating and not eating. As part of the negative mindset, people could feel that they didn’t deserve enjoyment or pleasure. The eating disorder could become a form of self-harm. People with anorexia nervosa sometimes described restricting their food intake as a way of punishing themselves. Elizabeth used to think that “pleasure meant failure” and that by restricting her food intake she was also restricting the fun she didn’t feel she deserved. Rob felt “he had no right to have fun” in life, either through food or in other areas of life. Georgia even said that she felt she didn’t “deserve to eat”. Elizabeth said she needed to restrict food to compensate for having any fun. Feeling weak and... Restricting food is like restricting pleasure and it’s like a compensation for any kind of fun. So the kind of example I use is this sort of holiday periods where I feel I can’t control what I’m eating and I feel like having the freedom to wander off around Europe and like see loads of different countries and visit loads of different places that had to be compensated for by not eating. And to kind of punish myself for that, for that freedom. And that experience. I had to like I had to kind of dampen the pleasure of, the enjoyment of that by making it really hard and making it, making myself feel like I was gonna faint the entire time because I was too weak, and yeah just, yeah being self-disciplined and I kind of feel, believe quite strongly that people don’t really deserve to have like, I felt that people just didn’t deserve to have any pleasure in their life. Like why? Why would you? Like why should you? You have to earn stuff and if you haven’t done anything to earn eating nice food, then why should you? Restricting used to be a form of punishment for James. He used to love the feeling of hunger pains. “My reaction to that unhappiness of feeling really dissimilar to all of these people around me was to kind of hold back and eat bean salad and go to the gym loads. And so I got into a very punishing cycle of working really hard, obsessively and exercising obsessively. And feeling like I didn’t have the right to have any fun.” -Elizabeth Jasmin used to feel that eating would take away any feelings of upset. Emily describes the cycle of bingeing and purging and the emotions that kept the cycle going. Last reviewed October 2018.	1,127	ENGLISH	1
The Effects Of Westward Expansion 1994 Essay At the beginning of the 1840s there was a new mindset that was summed up by Horace Greeleys famous quote, Go West, Young man. This was only fueled by the numerous Natural and Social environmental advantages of going west. The Natural environment of the West was the land, gold, industry, and climate. The Social environment of the West was freedom and Native American interaction. The natural environment along with the social environment of the West helped greatly shape the way in which the West was developed and the way in which people lived their lives while west of the Mississippi river. The Natural environment of the West greatly affected the development of the west. First natural environmental factor was gold and other precious minerals. The discovery of gold and silver led many poor Americans to move to the far West. The great and sudden rush of people led to boom towns, which were towns that were basically built over night. These towns often had no police and mainly had just bars, brothels, and motels. Most of these boom towns became ghost towns when the mine dried up. On occasion some of these towns would remain and grow greatly. Some of these towns included San Francisco, Sacramento Denver, and Greeley. The growth of Greeley, Colorado can be seen in Document G. In addition to gold and other minerals being an important natural environmental factor, so was the land. To the east of the Mississippi river, according to the map in document A, most of the land was forest. In the west however, most of the land was grass or desert. This shaped the development of the west because the grass lands allowed for vast amounts of farming and grazing, while the desert was full of precious minerals to be mined. The negative of the desert was the lack of water, which led to a little amount towns showing up over the desert. The lack of water in the mid west led to a great increase in dry-farming techniques. The lack of water also made cattle herding very hard, which can best be seen in Andy Adams, The Log of a Cowboy, when he writes, after passing the next chain of lakes it was sixty miles to the next water. There are only five herds ahead of us, and the first three went through the old rout, but the last two for some reason or other turned and went westward (Doc. I). The lack of water in the great plains of the Midwest led many cattle herders to move westward to find some more water. The discovery of precious minerals and the vast amounts of land greatly impacted the development of the west. There were not only economical factors like land and gold, but there were climatic and industrial factors. Towards to southwest the climate was very hot and dry, while in the Northwest the climate was very cold and dry. The effects of the cold climate can be seen in L. R. Hafens, Recollections of a Handcart Pioneer, which is an account of the 1846 to 1847 trek to Salt Lake City. Cold weather, scarcity of food, lassitude and fatigue from over-exertion We soon though it unusual to leave a camp-ground without burying one or more persons, (Doc. C). Additionally, in Diary of Lucy Henderson Dealy in document E, there is a tale of death from cold and a trip that took almost twice the months it should have. To adapt to the cold and dry climate the west developed great amounts of railroads to shorten trips out west and make it easier and safer to travel. With the expansion of the railroad industry, there was an increase in migration west and an increase in the percentage that survived the trip west. The climate and industry greatly impacted the development of the west. Not only were there Natural environmental factors, but there was also social factors. After the end of the civil war, racial tensions were still very high. Many African Americans moved west to start a new life away from the racist white supremacists. With the end of slavery many mid western farmers had to find new ways of working on the plantation. Many people headed west to get work on a plantation, which helped the farmers adapt to the lack of a free work force. In addition to racial freedom, women in Wyoming were gaining freedoms. Two acts were passed by the Wyoming Territorial legislature in 1869 and 1870. The first act was to confer to women all rights of citizenship, (Doc. F) and the second act was stop protect married women in their separate property, and the enjoyment of their labor, (Doc. F). These acts were basically giving women the right to vote, hold office, and own property. These may have led to the women civil rights movement. In addition to American citizens, the Native Americans were being affected. During the 1860s to 1870s Natives were becoming much more violent because of the Homestead Act, which gave 160 acres to any family that lived on that land for five years, and the Dawes Act, which attempted to break up tribal separation. This can be seen when Parra-Wa-Samen of the Yamparika Comanches said, the Texans had kept out of my country, there might have been peace (doc. H). Opinions like this led to many battles between the United States Military and the Natives, including the battle of Wounded Knee and the battle of Little Big Horn. It was not until 1924 that the United States admitted partial failure of its policy of forced assimilation, and in turn granted all Natives full Citizenship. The Social environmental factors of freedom and Native policy caused a great impact into the development of the west. Clearly the Social and Natural environmental factors greatly impacted the development of West. Some Natural environmental factors were the gold, the land, the climate, and the expansion of industry. Some of the Social environmental factors were the freeing of black people, the rights granted to women, and the treatment of Native Americans. Although many of the factors were good from the start, some like gold caused an increase in questioning of the way the government handled its money supply. Also, the Homestead Act and Dawes Act caused great tension between the Natives and the Western Americans. The West is what it is today because of the Natural and Social environments of the 1840s through the 1890s.	<urn:uuid:6c7fe259-b5f4-4dc5-94bf-c134c5312078>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/effects-westward-expansion-1994/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00328.warc.gz	en	0.981271	1,283	3.46875	3	[ 0.2068566083908081, -0.173071026802063, 0.6355646848678589, 0.5123732089996338, 0.4308222830295563, -0.13468371331691742, -0.25950050354003906, 0.1261710822582245, -0.25163763761520386, -0.3664452135562897, -0.09093758463859558, 0.07991290092468262, 0.2543085217475891, 0.006986219435930252...	2	The Effects Of Westward Expansion 1994 Essay At the beginning of the 1840s there was a new mindset that was summed up by Horace Greeleys famous quote, Go West, Young man. This was only fueled by the numerous Natural and Social environmental advantages of going west. The Natural environment of the West was the land, gold, industry, and climate. The Social environment of the West was freedom and Native American interaction. The natural environment along with the social environment of the West helped greatly shape the way in which the West was developed and the way in which people lived their lives while west of the Mississippi river. The Natural environment of the West greatly affected the development of the west. First natural environmental factor was gold and other precious minerals. The discovery of gold and silver led many poor Americans to move to the far West. The great and sudden rush of people led to boom towns, which were towns that were basically built over night. These towns often had no police and mainly had just bars, brothels, and motels. Most of these boom towns became ghost towns when the mine dried up. On occasion some of these towns would remain and grow greatly. Some of these towns included San Francisco, Sacramento Denver, and Greeley. The growth of Greeley, Colorado can be seen in Document G. In addition to gold and other minerals being an important natural environmental factor, so was the land. To the east of the Mississippi river, according to the map in document A, most of the land was forest. In the west however, most of the land was grass or desert. This shaped the development of the west because the grass lands allowed for vast amounts of farming and grazing, while the desert was full of precious minerals to be mined. The negative of the desert was the lack of water, which led to a little amount towns showing up over the desert. The lack of water in the mid west led to a great increase in dry-farming techniques. The lack of water also made cattle herding very hard, which can best be seen in Andy Adams, The Log of a Cowboy, when he writes, after passing the next chain of lakes it was sixty miles to the next water. There are only five herds ahead of us, and the first three went through the old rout, but the last two for some reason or other turned and went westward (Doc. I). The lack of water in the great plains of the Midwest led many cattle herders to move westward to find some more water. The discovery of precious minerals and the vast amounts of land greatly impacted the development of the west. There were not only economical factors like land and gold, but there were climatic and industrial factors. Towards to southwest the climate was very hot and dry, while in the Northwest the climate was very cold and dry. The effects of the cold climate can be seen in L. R. Hafens, Recollections of a Handcart Pioneer, which is an account of the 1846 to 1847 trek to Salt Lake City. Cold weather, scarcity of food, lassitude and fatigue from over-exertion We soon though it unusual to leave a camp-ground without burying one or more persons, (Doc. C). Additionally, in Diary of Lucy Henderson Dealy in document E, there is a tale of death from cold and a trip that took almost twice the months it should have. To adapt to the cold and dry climate the west developed great amounts of railroads to shorten trips out west and make it easier and safer to travel. With the expansion of the railroad industry, there was an increase in migration west and an increase in the percentage that survived the trip west. The climate and industry greatly impacted the development of the west. Not only were there Natural environmental factors, but there was also social factors. After the end of the civil war, racial tensions were still very high. Many African Americans moved west to start a new life away from the racist white supremacists. With the end of slavery many mid western farmers had to find new ways of working on the plantation. Many people headed west to get work on a plantation, which helped the farmers adapt to the lack of a free work force. In addition to racial freedom, women in Wyoming were gaining freedoms. Two acts were passed by the Wyoming Territorial legislature in 1869 and 1870. The first act was to confer to women all rights of citizenship, (Doc. F) and the second act was stop protect married women in their separate property, and the enjoyment of their labor, (Doc. F). These acts were basically giving women the right to vote, hold office, and own property. These may have led to the women civil rights movement. In addition to American citizens, the Native Americans were being affected. During the 1860s to 1870s Natives were becoming much more violent because of the Homestead Act, which gave 160 acres to any family that lived on that land for five years, and the Dawes Act, which attempted to break up tribal separation. This can be seen when Parra-Wa-Samen of the Yamparika Comanches said, the Texans had kept out of my country, there might have been peace (doc. H). Opinions like this led to many battles between the United States Military and the Natives, including the battle of Wounded Knee and the battle of Little Big Horn. It was not until 1924 that the United States admitted partial failure of its policy of forced assimilation, and in turn granted all Natives full Citizenship. The Social environmental factors of freedom and Native policy caused a great impact into the development of the west. Clearly the Social and Natural environmental factors greatly impacted the development of West. Some Natural environmental factors were the gold, the land, the climate, and the expansion of industry. Some of the Social environmental factors were the freeing of black people, the rights granted to women, and the treatment of Native Americans. Although many of the factors were good from the start, some like gold caused an increase in questioning of the way the government handled its money supply. Also, the Homestead Act and Dawes Act caused great tension between the Natives and the Western Americans. The West is what it is today because of the Natural and Social environments of the 1840s through the 1890s.	1,313	ENGLISH	1
Recent findings show that 'Vampire burial' techniques were used in ancient times to prevent a child, possibly infected with malaria, from rising from the dead and spreading the disease to the living. The discovery of an ancient grave of a 10-year-old at a Roman site in Italy suggested that measures were taken to prevent the child--probably infected with malaria--from rising from the dead. The skeletal remains, uncovered by archaeologists from the University of Arizona and Stanford University, along with archaeologists from Italy, included a skull with a rock intentionally inserted into the mouth. Researchers believe the stone may have been placed there as part of a funeral ritual designed to contain disease - and the body itself. The discovery of this unusual, so-called "vampire burial" was made over the summer in the commune of Lugnano in Teverina in the Italian region of Umbria, where UA archaeologist David Soren has overseen archaeological excavations since 1987. "I've never seen anything like it. It's extremely eerie and weird," said Soren, a Regents' Professor in the UA School of Anthropology and Department of Religious Studies and Classics. "Locally, they're calling it the 'Vampire of Lugnano.'" The discovery was made at La Necropoli dei Bambini, or the Cemetery of the Babies, which dates to the mid-fifth century when a deadly malaria outbreak swept the area, killing many vulnerable babies and small children. The bodies of the young victims were buried at the site of an abandoned Roman villa that was originally constructed at the end of the first century B.C. Until now, archaeologists believed the cemetery was designated specifically for infants, toddlers, and unborn fetuses; in previous excavations of more than 50 burials, a 3-year-old girl was the oldest child found. The discovery of the 10-year-old, whose age was determined, based on dental development but whose sex is unknown, suggests that the cemetery may have been used for older children as well, said bioarcheologist Jordan Wilson, a UA doctoral student in anthropology who analyzed the skeletal remains in Italy. "There are still sections of the cemetery that we haven't excavated yet, so we don't know if we'll find other older kids," Wilson said. Excavation director David Pickel, who has a master's degree in classical archaeology from the UA and is now a doctoral student at Stanford, said the discovery has the potential to tell researchers much more about the devastating malaria epidemic that hit Umbria nearly 1,500 years ago, as well as the community's response to it. "Given the age of this child and its unique deposition, with the stone placed within his or her mouth, it represents, at the moment, an anomaly within an already abnormal cemetery," Pickel said. "This just further highlights how unique the infant - or now, rather, child - cemetery at Lugnano is." In previous excavations at the Cemetery of the Babies, archaeologists found infant and toddler bones alongside items like raven talons, toad bones, bronze cauldrons filled with ash and the remains of puppies that appear to have been sacrificed - all objects commonly associated with witchcraft and magic. In addition, the body of the 3-year-old girl had stones weighing down her hands and feet - a practice used by different cultures throughout history to keep the deceased in their graves. "We know that the Romans were very much concerned with this and would even go to the extent of employing witchcraft to keep the evil - whatever is contaminating the body - from coming out," Soren said. The "evil," in the case of the babies and toddlers uncovered in Lugnano, was malaria, Soren believed. DNA testing of several of the excavated bones supported his theory. Although the 10-year-old's remains have not yet undergone DNA testing, the child had an abscessed tooth - a side effect of malaria - that suggests he or she may also have fallen victim to the disease, Wilson said. The child was one of five new burials uncovered at the cemetery over the summer. The body was found lying on its left side in a makeshift tomb created by two large roof tiles propped against a wall - an alla cappuccina-style burial typical of Roman Italy. "Knowing that two large roof tiles were used for this burial, I was expecting something unique to be found inside, perhaps a 'double-inhumation' - not uncommon for this cemetery - where a single burial contains two individuals," Pickel said. "After removing the roof tiles, however, it became immediately clear to us that we were dealing with an older individual." The open position of the child's jaw, which would not have opened naturally during decomposition with the body positioned on its side, suggests that the rock was intentionally inserted in the mouth after death, Wilson said. Teeth marks on the surface of the stone provide further evidence that it was placed purposefully. The 10-year old was the first at the cemetery to be found with a stone in its mouth. Similar burials have been documented in other locations, including in Venice, where an elderly 16th-century woman dubbed the "Vampire of Venice" was found with a brick in her mouth in 2009. In Northamptonshire, England, in 2017, an adult male from the third or fourth century was found buried face down with his tongue removed and replaced with a stone. These types of burials are often referred to as vampire burials since they are associated with a belief that the dead could rise again. Other examples of vampire burials throughout history include bodies being staked to the ground through the heart or dismembered prior to interment. "This is a very unusual mortuary treatment that you see in various forms in different cultures, especially in the Roman world, that could indicate there was a fear that this person might come back from the dead and try to spread the disease to the living," Wilson said. Archaeologists will return to Lugnano next summer to complete excavations of the cemetery and learn more about a dark time in history. "It's a very human thing to have complicated feelings about the dead and wonder if that's really the end," Wilson said. "Anytime you can look at burials, they're significant because they provide a window into ancient minds. We have a saying in bioarchaeology: 'The dead don't bury themselves.' We can tell a lot about people's beliefs and hopes and by the way they treat the dead."...	<urn:uuid:217a443a-8f81-402c-bc3c-f13890f8d6b3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/161018/vampire-burial-of-child-with-malaria-discovered.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00216.warc.gz	en	0.980035	1,355	3.53125	4	[ -0.5827906727790833, 0.6331310272216797, 0.5200096368789673, 0.30801379680633545, -0.03899651765823364, 0.06254996359348297, -0.2840994596481323, 0.10449875891208649, -0.15254947543144226, 0.178350567817688, 0.41599199175834656, -0.1400669813156128, -0.150243878364563, 0.6785885095596313, ...	1	Recent findings show that 'Vampire burial' techniques were used in ancient times to prevent a child, possibly infected with malaria, from rising from the dead and spreading the disease to the living. The discovery of an ancient grave of a 10-year-old at a Roman site in Italy suggested that measures were taken to prevent the child--probably infected with malaria--from rising from the dead. The skeletal remains, uncovered by archaeologists from the University of Arizona and Stanford University, along with archaeologists from Italy, included a skull with a rock intentionally inserted into the mouth. Researchers believe the stone may have been placed there as part of a funeral ritual designed to contain disease - and the body itself. The discovery of this unusual, so-called "vampire burial" was made over the summer in the commune of Lugnano in Teverina in the Italian region of Umbria, where UA archaeologist David Soren has overseen archaeological excavations since 1987. "I've never seen anything like it. It's extremely eerie and weird," said Soren, a Regents' Professor in the UA School of Anthropology and Department of Religious Studies and Classics. "Locally, they're calling it the 'Vampire of Lugnano.'" The discovery was made at La Necropoli dei Bambini, or the Cemetery of the Babies, which dates to the mid-fifth century when a deadly malaria outbreak swept the area, killing many vulnerable babies and small children. The bodies of the young victims were buried at the site of an abandoned Roman villa that was originally constructed at the end of the first century B.C. Until now, archaeologists believed the cemetery was designated specifically for infants, toddlers, and unborn fetuses; in previous excavations of more than 50 burials, a 3-year-old girl was the oldest child found. The discovery of the 10-year-old, whose age was determined, based on dental development but whose sex is unknown, suggests that the cemetery may have been used for older children as well, said bioarcheologist Jordan Wilson, a UA doctoral student in anthropology who analyzed the skeletal remains in Italy. "There are still sections of the cemetery that we haven't excavated yet, so we don't know if we'll find other older kids," Wilson said. Excavation director David Pickel, who has a master's degree in classical archaeology from the UA and is now a doctoral student at Stanford, said the discovery has the potential to tell researchers much more about the devastating malaria epidemic that hit Umbria nearly 1,500 years ago, as well as the community's response to it. "Given the age of this child and its unique deposition, with the stone placed within his or her mouth, it represents, at the moment, an anomaly within an already abnormal cemetery," Pickel said. "This just further highlights how unique the infant - or now, rather, child - cemetery at Lugnano is." In previous excavations at the Cemetery of the Babies, archaeologists found infant and toddler bones alongside items like raven talons, toad bones, bronze cauldrons filled with ash and the remains of puppies that appear to have been sacrificed - all objects commonly associated with witchcraft and magic. In addition, the body of the 3-year-old girl had stones weighing down her hands and feet - a practice used by different cultures throughout history to keep the deceased in their graves. "We know that the Romans were very much concerned with this and would even go to the extent of employing witchcraft to keep the evil - whatever is contaminating the body - from coming out," Soren said. The "evil," in the case of the babies and toddlers uncovered in Lugnano, was malaria, Soren believed. DNA testing of several of the excavated bones supported his theory. Although the 10-year-old's remains have not yet undergone DNA testing, the child had an abscessed tooth - a side effect of malaria - that suggests he or she may also have fallen victim to the disease, Wilson said. The child was one of five new burials uncovered at the cemetery over the summer. The body was found lying on its left side in a makeshift tomb created by two large roof tiles propped against a wall - an alla cappuccina-style burial typical of Roman Italy. "Knowing that two large roof tiles were used for this burial, I was expecting something unique to be found inside, perhaps a 'double-inhumation' - not uncommon for this cemetery - where a single burial contains two individuals," Pickel said. "After removing the roof tiles, however, it became immediately clear to us that we were dealing with an older individual." The open position of the child's jaw, which would not have opened naturally during decomposition with the body positioned on its side, suggests that the rock was intentionally inserted in the mouth after death, Wilson said. Teeth marks on the surface of the stone provide further evidence that it was placed purposefully. The 10-year old was the first at the cemetery to be found with a stone in its mouth. Similar burials have been documented in other locations, including in Venice, where an elderly 16th-century woman dubbed the "Vampire of Venice" was found with a brick in her mouth in 2009. In Northamptonshire, England, in 2017, an adult male from the third or fourth century was found buried face down with his tongue removed and replaced with a stone. These types of burials are often referred to as vampire burials since they are associated with a belief that the dead could rise again. Other examples of vampire burials throughout history include bodies being staked to the ground through the heart or dismembered prior to interment. "This is a very unusual mortuary treatment that you see in various forms in different cultures, especially in the Roman world, that could indicate there was a fear that this person might come back from the dead and try to spread the disease to the living," Wilson said. Archaeologists will return to Lugnano next summer to complete excavations of the cemetery and learn more about a dark time in history. "It's a very human thing to have complicated feelings about the dead and wonder if that's really the end," Wilson said. "Anytime you can look at burials, they're significant because they provide a window into ancient minds. We have a saying in bioarchaeology: 'The dead don't bury themselves.' We can tell a lot about people's beliefs and hopes and by the way they treat the dead."...	1,336	ENGLISH	1
However on any given day you can travel to the top of one of these mountains and find what looks like a graveyard. The mountaintop that once provided lush forests, plant, and animal life but now is reduced to rubble. Acres and acres of rock and debris; no more waterfalls, no more wildflowers, no more beautiful hardwoods- just rubble to remind you of what once was here but is no more. This is what is left after the coal is removed from the mountaintop. The mountaintop itself is pushed of the side and carried down into the valleys and streams below. The mountain has been blown up layer by layer to remove the coal from below in what seems to be an act of massive vandalism. As of 2009, Kentucky has lost 574,000 acres of forests and 293 mountains. In total the coal region of Appalachia has lost 1,160,000 acres of forests and 501 mountains (Wasson, 2009). Mountaintop removal does not only destroy the top of the mountain but it covers up waterways and destroys the valleys below. Once the mountaintops are remove there is no forest or waterways to protect the valleys instead debris is carried down below and when it begins to rain new routes are made out through the valley because there are no streams anymore to carry the rain water. The mining companies like to label this as an act of God- when instead its devastation brought on by industry (Kennedy Jr., 2011). It was after the Civil War that the outside world began to enter Appalachia. Railroads began to push through all the areas that were once too isolated for people to venture into. As the railroads came in so too did industry. They wanted to use Appalachia for all the dense hardwoods. As they began stripping the forests they soon found coal deposits as well. Between the 1880s and 1920s businessmen began using many tactics to procure the land in Appalachia. They would lie, cheat, and steal. They went so far as to burn down courthouses so that they would destroy records proving private ownership. Once the forests were clear-cut any remaining occupants were forced to leave because of the horrific flooding that ensued. After the forests had disappeared business owners turned to coal deposits (Shapiro, 2010). Coal mining boomed through the 1920s. The little hollows were built up as company towns. Places where you lived and breathed coal mine. All…	<urn:uuid:ce66cd53-2240-4a37-bb90-fcc839482b31>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Mountaintop-Removal-556698.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00197.warc.gz	en	0.98097	495	3.65625	4	[ -0.24034437537193298, -0.14711979031562805, 0.3214816451072693, 0.1572287231683731, -0.10975668579339981, -0.16925524175167084, 0.11713425070047379, -0.14631387591362, -0.511843204498291, 0.28971177339553833, 0.06488477438688278, -0.07837776094675064, 0.18833819031715393, 0.203497827053070...	1	However on any given day you can travel to the top of one of these mountains and find what looks like a graveyard. The mountaintop that once provided lush forests, plant, and animal life but now is reduced to rubble. Acres and acres of rock and debris; no more waterfalls, no more wildflowers, no more beautiful hardwoods- just rubble to remind you of what once was here but is no more. This is what is left after the coal is removed from the mountaintop. The mountaintop itself is pushed of the side and carried down into the valleys and streams below. The mountain has been blown up layer by layer to remove the coal from below in what seems to be an act of massive vandalism. As of 2009, Kentucky has lost 574,000 acres of forests and 293 mountains. In total the coal region of Appalachia has lost 1,160,000 acres of forests and 501 mountains (Wasson, 2009). Mountaintop removal does not only destroy the top of the mountain but it covers up waterways and destroys the valleys below. Once the mountaintops are remove there is no forest or waterways to protect the valleys instead debris is carried down below and when it begins to rain new routes are made out through the valley because there are no streams anymore to carry the rain water. The mining companies like to label this as an act of God- when instead its devastation brought on by industry (Kennedy Jr., 2011). It was after the Civil War that the outside world began to enter Appalachia. Railroads began to push through all the areas that were once too isolated for people to venture into. As the railroads came in so too did industry. They wanted to use Appalachia for all the dense hardwoods. As they began stripping the forests they soon found coal deposits as well. Between the 1880s and 1920s businessmen began using many tactics to procure the land in Appalachia. They would lie, cheat, and steal. They went so far as to burn down courthouses so that they would destroy records proving private ownership. Once the forests were clear-cut any remaining occupants were forced to leave because of the horrific flooding that ensued. After the forests had disappeared business owners turned to coal deposits (Shapiro, 2010). Coal mining boomed through the 1920s. The little hollows were built up as company towns. Places where you lived and breathed coal mine. All…	532	ENGLISH	1
Under the rule of Isabel II (1833-1868), Spain got centralized: The national territory was divided into 49 provinces; internal tariffs were disestablished and the calculating system standardized. The currency system ought to be reformed also, as it was as chaotic in Spain as in most other European countries at that time. In 1848, a time of monetary experiment thus began in Spain, during which several currency reforms were decreed. The diverse reforms did not help, however, since the old coins in circulation were not demonetized. The currency chaos only accumulated. In 1868, Spain finally accepted the regimentations on coinage decreed by the Latin Coin Union. Spain thus once again got a new currency – the peseta worth 100 céntimos. It was in use until 2002, when Spain introduced the euro.	<urn:uuid:cef9b6ac-8673-4b54-a121-bcdeb5269483>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://moneymuseum.com/en/coins?id=1089	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00409.warc.gz	en	0.981871	167	3.78125	4	[ -0.5820991396903992, 0.007892943918704987, 0.1254822164773941, 0.06520374119281769, -0.051402583718299866, -0.2006942182779312, -0.22307024896144867, 0.12857769429683685, 0.032342810183763504, 0.3274100422859192, 0.11778140068054199, -0.4108608663082123, -0.18262000381946564, 0.16083066165...	11	Under the rule of Isabel II (1833-1868), Spain got centralized: The national territory was divided into 49 provinces; internal tariffs were disestablished and the calculating system standardized. The currency system ought to be reformed also, as it was as chaotic in Spain as in most other European countries at that time. In 1848, a time of monetary experiment thus began in Spain, during which several currency reforms were decreed. The diverse reforms did not help, however, since the old coins in circulation were not demonetized. The currency chaos only accumulated. In 1868, Spain finally accepted the regimentations on coinage decreed by the Latin Coin Union. Spain thus once again got a new currency – the peseta worth 100 céntimos. It was in use until 2002, when Spain introduced the euro.	186	ENGLISH	1
After that, scientists wanted to determine the value of the gravitational constant, in which the English scientist Henry Cavendish calculated as G= 6.754 x 10 Nm /Kg. For hundreds of years, Newton’s laws where considered as the basis of modern physics, and one of the things that proved Newton’s theories was the discovery of the planet Neptune but there were also many important issues that were not discovered by Newton such as, that there is no way to describe mass except with reference to acceleration, another issue is that no force moves without acceleration, a third one is that when we mention acceleration we have to say with respect to what? Einstein who wondered why the inertial mass is proportional to the gravitational mass studied all the previously mentioned theories. After experimenting, he made his theory of equivalence, which stated that if we had two systems, the first has acceleration with no gravitational field while the second has acceleration with no gravitational mass and while the other is at rest and has a gravitational field, the results would be equivalent. By the year 1916, Einstein had completed the mathematical theory of gravitation, which was the general theory of relativity. Einstein’s theories opposed those of Newton’s in at least two major and measurable issues that were the curvature of light and the shifting of the wavelength of the light. In conclusion, the issue was a subject of research done by the greatest scientists ever known as Newton and Einstein, and it will always be a subject of research, as the gravitational mystery still might not be totally unravelled.	<urn:uuid:2b21ef3a-b6fa-4031-a31c-cf354242dcc1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/essay-on-the-gravitational-force-of-earth/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00336.warc.gz	en	0.981773	319	3.828125	4	[ -0.39674028754234314, 0.004243730567395687, -0.42965948581695557, -0.21546882390975952, -0.14500859379768372, -0.12523803114891052, 0.08575926721096039, 0.3459741771221161, 0.1270349621772766, 0.24210727214813232, 0.3272688388824463, -0.8157510161399841, -0.004940310958772898, 0.1068824157...	1	After that, scientists wanted to determine the value of the gravitational constant, in which the English scientist Henry Cavendish calculated as G= 6.754 x 10 Nm /Kg. For hundreds of years, Newton’s laws where considered as the basis of modern physics, and one of the things that proved Newton’s theories was the discovery of the planet Neptune but there were also many important issues that were not discovered by Newton such as, that there is no way to describe mass except with reference to acceleration, another issue is that no force moves without acceleration, a third one is that when we mention acceleration we have to say with respect to what? Einstein who wondered why the inertial mass is proportional to the gravitational mass studied all the previously mentioned theories. After experimenting, he made his theory of equivalence, which stated that if we had two systems, the first has acceleration with no gravitational field while the second has acceleration with no gravitational mass and while the other is at rest and has a gravitational field, the results would be equivalent. By the year 1916, Einstein had completed the mathematical theory of gravitation, which was the general theory of relativity. Einstein’s theories opposed those of Newton’s in at least two major and measurable issues that were the curvature of light and the shifting of the wavelength of the light. In conclusion, the issue was a subject of research done by the greatest scientists ever known as Newton and Einstein, and it will always be a subject of research, as the gravitational mystery still might not be totally unravelled.	316	ENGLISH	1
Vocational education, a mainstay of the American school system since the early 1900s, has experienced a slow but steady decline in the last few decades. What was once a pipeline into stable, middle class employment has become, in many schools, a shell of its former self; programs have either been slashed in the wake of “accountability” and college readiness mandates, or have become options of last resort for students who don’t do well in college-track programs. The Smith-Hughes Act provided federal funding for vocational education for the first time in 1917. At the time, the nature of schooling and work in the United States was changing dramatically. With rapid industrialization underway, it was no longer safe or feasible for kids to learn a trade at their parents’ sides, and apprenticeships, which had once taken place in small, specialized shops, were no longer practical as a way of training new workers at a rate adequate to meet production demands. The country was rapidly becoming more urbanized, which meant that fewer children were following their parents into farming. At the same time, waves of immigrants were flooding urban centers. More and more children who weren’t headed for a college education were staying in school beyond the eighth grade. Schools had to find something for all of them to do; vocational education was intended to provide the answer. At first, these programs meshed perfectly with the demands of the economy. Vocational programs partnered with industry leaders to ensure that students were learning the skills that were most needed in the job market, and in turn, local industry provided high schools with up to date equipment to use in their training programs. Graduates were all but guaranteed that their skills would be marketable, and that they could count on making a good living until retirement. There were many good union jobs available, and the market could sustain individuals in a trade for their entire careers. As late as the early 1970s, only one in four middle class workers had any education beyond high school. Around this time, though, the seeds were planted for erosion in the quality and success of job training programs. Concerns about equity had led many programs to expand in order to accept more students, making it more difficult for local factories to continue providing materials and equipment for training. Eventually, the partnership between industry and vocational education programs all but disappeared. Toward the end of the 20th century, the demands of the job market shifted; increasing globalization and rapid advancements in technology dictated that workers needed to be ready to learn new skills and transition to different jobs, perhaps multiple times over the courses of their careers. It was no longer possible for workers to rely on the fact that they could spend their entire working lives in one trade. As these changes were taking shape, education was faced with a movement toward higher standards and increased demands for “accountability.” One major consequence of these changes was pressure to provide every student with an education that would make him or her “college ready.” Many job-training programs were eliminated in the wake of these demands. The future of vocational education remains uncertain, but one thing is clear: the unfulfilled need for qualified, skilled trade workers is a threat to the nation’s economy. The infographic below presents more information on the current state of job training in the United States.	<urn:uuid:1ac55b04-d257-42dd-993c-1d899e2df704>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.jobacle.com/blog/rethinking-the-role-of-vocational-schooling.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00159.warc.gz	en	0.986791	680	3.46875	3	[ -0.28884321451187134, 0.21341055631637573, 0.13710515201091766, 0.10616251826286316, -0.17191283404827118, 0.26389098167419434, -0.4604550004005432, 0.1535487323999405, -0.08312681317329407, 0.12704947590827942, 0.26574015617370605, 0.31185463070869446, 0.07449816167354584, 0.1105040609836...	6	Vocational education, a mainstay of the American school system since the early 1900s, has experienced a slow but steady decline in the last few decades. What was once a pipeline into stable, middle class employment has become, in many schools, a shell of its former self; programs have either been slashed in the wake of “accountability” and college readiness mandates, or have become options of last resort for students who don’t do well in college-track programs. The Smith-Hughes Act provided federal funding for vocational education for the first time in 1917. At the time, the nature of schooling and work in the United States was changing dramatically. With rapid industrialization underway, it was no longer safe or feasible for kids to learn a trade at their parents’ sides, and apprenticeships, which had once taken place in small, specialized shops, were no longer practical as a way of training new workers at a rate adequate to meet production demands. The country was rapidly becoming more urbanized, which meant that fewer children were following their parents into farming. At the same time, waves of immigrants were flooding urban centers. More and more children who weren’t headed for a college education were staying in school beyond the eighth grade. Schools had to find something for all of them to do; vocational education was intended to provide the answer. At first, these programs meshed perfectly with the demands of the economy. Vocational programs partnered with industry leaders to ensure that students were learning the skills that were most needed in the job market, and in turn, local industry provided high schools with up to date equipment to use in their training programs. Graduates were all but guaranteed that their skills would be marketable, and that they could count on making a good living until retirement. There were many good union jobs available, and the market could sustain individuals in a trade for their entire careers. As late as the early 1970s, only one in four middle class workers had any education beyond high school. Around this time, though, the seeds were planted for erosion in the quality and success of job training programs. Concerns about equity had led many programs to expand in order to accept more students, making it more difficult for local factories to continue providing materials and equipment for training. Eventually, the partnership between industry and vocational education programs all but disappeared. Toward the end of the 20th century, the demands of the job market shifted; increasing globalization and rapid advancements in technology dictated that workers needed to be ready to learn new skills and transition to different jobs, perhaps multiple times over the courses of their careers. It was no longer possible for workers to rely on the fact that they could spend their entire working lives in one trade. As these changes were taking shape, education was faced with a movement toward higher standards and increased demands for “accountability.” One major consequence of these changes was pressure to provide every student with an education that would make him or her “college ready.” Many job-training programs were eliminated in the wake of these demands. The future of vocational education remains uncertain, but one thing is clear: the unfulfilled need for qualified, skilled trade workers is a threat to the nation’s economy. The infographic below presents more information on the current state of job training in the United States.	671	ENGLISH	1
In the 18th century, the Founding Fathers were considered radical for wanting an educated populace. A nation of educated citizens requires teachers as a fundamental component of the idea of democracy — though in their time, only white, land-owning men could participate. The Common School Movement Horace Mann, an American educational reformer, advocated for the Common School Movement, an effort to provide free education to all students regardless of class. Additionally, several normal schools, which are known today as colleges of education, were founded to train teachers. Horace Mann believed in expanding education to a larger group of people, so he needed a workforce that would work at a price affordable for taxpayers. Unfortunately, women were more affordable, which has contributed to the feminization of the profession. Other contemporaries, like Catharine Beecher, believed women were “more nurturing,” and therefore, more of a natural teacher. Prior to this, teaching had traditionally been more male-oriented. All of this contributes to the predominantly female workforce in the profession we know today.	<urn:uuid:6e426d8d-7213-4c9e-ab60-1077ed909086>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thelinek12.com/social-impact-changes-to-the-teacher-workforce-in-america/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00531.warc.gz	en	0.982674	216	3.640625	4	[ -0.26735374331474304, -0.016784727573394775, 0.12970414757728577, -0.06939006596803665, -0.06101210415363312, 0.26503872871398926, -0.12706786394119263, 0.19933953881263733, -0.02880191057920456, -0.07925382256507874, -0.02115071751177311, 0.07901278138160706, -0.18768054246902466, 0.22984...	6	In the 18th century, the Founding Fathers were considered radical for wanting an educated populace. A nation of educated citizens requires teachers as a fundamental component of the idea of democracy — though in their time, only white, land-owning men could participate. The Common School Movement Horace Mann, an American educational reformer, advocated for the Common School Movement, an effort to provide free education to all students regardless of class. Additionally, several normal schools, which are known today as colleges of education, were founded to train teachers. Horace Mann believed in expanding education to a larger group of people, so he needed a workforce that would work at a price affordable for taxpayers. Unfortunately, women were more affordable, which has contributed to the feminization of the profession. Other contemporaries, like Catharine Beecher, believed women were “more nurturing,” and therefore, more of a natural teacher. Prior to this, teaching had traditionally been more male-oriented. All of this contributes to the predominantly female workforce in the profession we know today.	211	ENGLISH	1
Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Dec 30, 2010 In 2010, Germany celebrated 20 years of Unification, and British Foreign Minister Douglas Hurd was a key figure in making it happen. He had his work cut out for him convincing then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher that the British could not be the eternal nay-sayers.The Iron Lady was very worried that German re-unification would stoke the fires of German nationalism, and together with French President Francois Mitterrand she sought to hinder it. But Douglas Hurd and his staff held a different opinion. When Mitterrand decided to support the move, Thatcher was isolated, and Hurd was given the green light to represent Britain at the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany.	<urn:uuid:d9f6b816-c575-4c99-8866-71aacc4bc325>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.youtube.com/watch/?v=_52B6uOucUg	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00276.warc.gz	en	0.981876	172	3.265625	3	[ -0.5263392925262451, 0.6611775755882263, 0.061728671193122864, -0.31700947880744934, 0.2395520955324173, 0.2939191460609436, 0.10703691095113754, 0.08747811615467072, -0.05081219971179962, -0.34539586305618286, 0.014834469184279442, -0.6824544072151184, 0.09080280363559723, 0.1534526050090...	1	Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Dec 30, 2010 In 2010, Germany celebrated 20 years of Unification, and British Foreign Minister Douglas Hurd was a key figure in making it happen. He had his work cut out for him convincing then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher that the British could not be the eternal nay-sayers.The Iron Lady was very worried that German re-unification would stoke the fires of German nationalism, and together with French President Francois Mitterrand she sought to hinder it. But Douglas Hurd and his staff held a different opinion. When Mitterrand decided to support the move, Thatcher was isolated, and Hurd was given the green light to represent Britain at the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany.	179	ENGLISH	1
President Wilson’s righteous views of his efforts were so strong that not even the advice and urging of his closest confidants could sway his stance. While it is true that opposition forces helped to defeat the treaty, it was ultimately Wilson’s stubbornness that led to its defeat in the Senate. There were many factors that led to the initial outbreak of World War I in Europe. A constant struggle to gain the upper hand in the “balance of power” existed, and it resulted in the formation of many alliances between European nations. For the most part, these agreements stipulated that the nations would aid one another if one of them were to be attacked by an enemy. Eventually two distinct sides formed: the Allies and the Central Powers. The former consisted of Britain, France, Italy, and Japan, while the latter was made up of Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and what was left of the Ottoman Empire. Nationalism was an important factor in the outbreak of war as well. The French desperately wanted revenge against Germany, as well as the return of the Alsace-Lorraine region which Germany had seized from them. The Germans had their own nationalism at work, as their government took great pride in the industrial growth of the country, as well as the mounting power of their military. Conflict for power existed not only in Europe, but because of imperialism it spread across much of the Eastern Hemisphere. First and foremost, economic rivalries had developed between Britain, Germany, and France. The two Allied members of the group were very concerned about their Central opponent, as both wished to contain Germany’s territorial claims on the resource- and labor-rich continent of Africa. But what would ultimately lead to the outbreak of the first world war was Germany’s ever-increasing belief in militarism. The German military power had continued to grow as their industrial sector did the same; such power was seen as a symbol of national pride by the government. Other nations had built up their arms stockpiles as well, though they did not glorify it nearly as much as the Germans did. Nevertheless, the availability of arms, when combined with other political and economic factors, meant that a full-scale conflict was all but unavoidable. Billions upon billions of dollars worth of resources were poured into manpower and resources in World War I, yet after millions of lives were being lost to gruesome trench warfare, little was being gained by either side; for all their toils, the Allies and Central Powers were at a stalemate. The United States, tied to British trade, and supporters of their system of democracy, broke their official neutrality policy that dated back to the days of George Washington and joined the Allied powers. U.S. support would prove to be enough of a boost to strike down the Central Powers’ attack, and it also signaled America’s entrance into the peace negotiations that followed. During a speech to Congress while the war was still going on, President Woodrow Wilson introduced his “Fourteen Points,” which called for a new Europe and a peaceful world. Ideas expressed in the speech included a policy of open diplomacy with no secret treaties, freedom of the seas, removal of tariffs, arms reduction, fair colonial policies, as well as several boundary changes in Europe. But most important of all was point fourteen. This item called for “a general association of nations for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.” This association, which would come to be known as the League of Nations, was conceived by the idealistic Wilson to keep the peace after the war and to promote open diplomacy between countries of varying types of size and power. In order to maintain peace the league was to be given the authority to impose economic sanctions against offending states, and it additionally called for its member states to respect the territorial boundaries of their neighbors. All of this was to take place without the league having any power to back it up. In late June of 1919, Wilson met with other leaders of the victorious nations, including David Lloyd George of Great Britain, Georges Clemanceau	<urn:uuid:146518c6-0e47-41f5-90d2-2fecbc9c7ea7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://codepost.org/president-wilson-and-the-treaty-of-versailles/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00067.warc.gz	en	0.988398	849	4.21875	4	[ -0.2712775766849518, 0.45312216877937317, -0.1258246898651123, -0.147642582654953, 0.2439596951007843, 0.1974300891160965, 0.06837078928947449, 0.3308680057525635, 0.08613163232803345, -0.08649487793445587, 0.21746701002120972, -0.10589618980884552, 0.4191357493400574, 0.6127114295959473, ...	5	President Wilson’s righteous views of his efforts were so strong that not even the advice and urging of his closest confidants could sway his stance. While it is true that opposition forces helped to defeat the treaty, it was ultimately Wilson’s stubbornness that led to its defeat in the Senate. There were many factors that led to the initial outbreak of World War I in Europe. A constant struggle to gain the upper hand in the “balance of power” existed, and it resulted in the formation of many alliances between European nations. For the most part, these agreements stipulated that the nations would aid one another if one of them were to be attacked by an enemy. Eventually two distinct sides formed: the Allies and the Central Powers. The former consisted of Britain, France, Italy, and Japan, while the latter was made up of Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and what was left of the Ottoman Empire. Nationalism was an important factor in the outbreak of war as well. The French desperately wanted revenge against Germany, as well as the return of the Alsace-Lorraine region which Germany had seized from them. The Germans had their own nationalism at work, as their government took great pride in the industrial growth of the country, as well as the mounting power of their military. Conflict for power existed not only in Europe, but because of imperialism it spread across much of the Eastern Hemisphere. First and foremost, economic rivalries had developed between Britain, Germany, and France. The two Allied members of the group were very concerned about their Central opponent, as both wished to contain Germany’s territorial claims on the resource- and labor-rich continent of Africa. But what would ultimately lead to the outbreak of the first world war was Germany’s ever-increasing belief in militarism. The German military power had continued to grow as their industrial sector did the same; such power was seen as a symbol of national pride by the government. Other nations had built up their arms stockpiles as well, though they did not glorify it nearly as much as the Germans did. Nevertheless, the availability of arms, when combined with other political and economic factors, meant that a full-scale conflict was all but unavoidable. Billions upon billions of dollars worth of resources were poured into manpower and resources in World War I, yet after millions of lives were being lost to gruesome trench warfare, little was being gained by either side; for all their toils, the Allies and Central Powers were at a stalemate. The United States, tied to British trade, and supporters of their system of democracy, broke their official neutrality policy that dated back to the days of George Washington and joined the Allied powers. U.S. support would prove to be enough of a boost to strike down the Central Powers’ attack, and it also signaled America’s entrance into the peace negotiations that followed. During a speech to Congress while the war was still going on, President Woodrow Wilson introduced his “Fourteen Points,” which called for a new Europe and a peaceful world. Ideas expressed in the speech included a policy of open diplomacy with no secret treaties, freedom of the seas, removal of tariffs, arms reduction, fair colonial policies, as well as several boundary changes in Europe. But most important of all was point fourteen. This item called for “a general association of nations for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.” This association, which would come to be known as the League of Nations, was conceived by the idealistic Wilson to keep the peace after the war and to promote open diplomacy between countries of varying types of size and power. In order to maintain peace the league was to be given the authority to impose economic sanctions against offending states, and it additionally called for its member states to respect the territorial boundaries of their neighbors. All of this was to take place without the league having any power to back it up. In late June of 1919, Wilson met with other leaders of the victorious nations, including David Lloyd George of Great Britain, Georges Clemanceau	820	ENGLISH	1
This is a poetry book. Milton’s social position can be inferred from the fact that his father was what was then called a scrivener, — that is, he kept an office in his dwelling, and was employed to draw up contracts, wills, and other legal documents. This occupation [xii] implied knowledge at least of the forms of the law, though not of its history or principles. It did not imply liberal education, though it brought its practitioner, doubtless, more or less into contact with men of really professional standing in the science of jurisprudence. Perhaps the elder Milton cherished a deeper conviction of the value of classic culture than do those who simply inherit, and take as a matter of course, the custom of devoting years to the study of ancient languages and literatures. Evidently the father thought he saw in his son that promise of intellectual vigor and of sound moral stamina which justified the innovation, in his family, of sending his boy to the university. His preparation for college Milton got under private masters and at the famous public school of St. Paul’s, which was near his home. This preparation consisted chiefly in exercises in Latin composition and literature, and was both thorough and effectual. At sixteen, when he went to college, he had already composed Latin verse, and he read and wrote Latin with facility.	<urn:uuid:ba0d2468-1eb0-4491-b8e7-2f0104231b09>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.apple.com/az/book/minor-poems-by-milton/id492190436	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00396.warc.gz	en	0.988568	276	3.296875	3	[ 0.23485465347766876, 0.38750770688056946, 0.15994296967983246, -0.4471941590309143, 0.024390535429120064, 0.10001006722450256, 0.2364058643579483, 0.048650939017534256, -0.19052757322788239, -0.03500045835971832, -0.19659945368766785, 0.36825433373451233, -0.09508206695318222, 0.3744126260...	3	This is a poetry book. Milton’s social position can be inferred from the fact that his father was what was then called a scrivener, — that is, he kept an office in his dwelling, and was employed to draw up contracts, wills, and other legal documents. This occupation [xii] implied knowledge at least of the forms of the law, though not of its history or principles. It did not imply liberal education, though it brought its practitioner, doubtless, more or less into contact with men of really professional standing in the science of jurisprudence. Perhaps the elder Milton cherished a deeper conviction of the value of classic culture than do those who simply inherit, and take as a matter of course, the custom of devoting years to the study of ancient languages and literatures. Evidently the father thought he saw in his son that promise of intellectual vigor and of sound moral stamina which justified the innovation, in his family, of sending his boy to the university. His preparation for college Milton got under private masters and at the famous public school of St. Paul’s, which was near his home. This preparation consisted chiefly in exercises in Latin composition and literature, and was both thorough and effectual. At sixteen, when he went to college, he had already composed Latin verse, and he read and wrote Latin with facility.	272	ENGLISH	1
What happened that caused such an abrupt move in the Church of England towards a reformation in the 16th century? Why did the church change hands from Catholic to Protestant so many times? Finally, how did the church become a middle of the road church that most were able to accept as the Anglican Church? These are the questions I hope to answer in this short paper on the Reformation of the Church of England during the sixteenth century as we take a quick peek at the influential rulers of that time period. From Henry VIII and the split with Rome to the middle of the road Anglican Church of Elizabeth I, we see a new and separate church evolve from that of Rome. The abrupt move in the Church of England towards a reformation started out in a much different manner than in continental Europe. It had come about mainly for reasons to due with Henry VIII attempts to gain an annulment from his first wife Katherine.1 Henry VIII did not simply seek an annulment for his own personal gratification in the need or want for a new wife, but that he was in desperate need for a successor to the royal thrown.2 The marriage of Henry VIII and Katherine had remained fruitless in the attempts to produce a male heir to the English Royal Thrown, with Henry believing that a curse listed in the Book of Leviticus stating that a man who marries his brothers wife will not be able to produce children from this nuptial and the only surviving to this point had been his daughter Mary.3 Having that Katherine had been previously married for a short time to Henrys brother Prince Arthur, who died within months of their marriage, he used this as a means to seek an annulment from the marriage and sought the then pope Clement VII to declare the marriage void.4 Henry had a trust and a belief that the papacy in Rome would grant him the annulment that he sought and it may have happened if it had not been for really bad timing.5 The pope was under the control of the Holy Roman Emperor, who just happened to be the nephew of his wife Katherine of whom he was seeking the annulment from.6 Although the pope tried to appease all parties involved, it failed through the use of stalling in the courts and turned down proposals by Queen Katherine herself whom no longer recognized the jurisdiction of the English courts and claimed that she and Arthur had never consummated the marriage in the first place giving little validity to the claim Henry was making for reasons of annulment.7 The failure to be granted his most sought after annulment brought some hesitation to the king, but under a new direction with the help of his minister Thomas Cromwell he was able to set up a new arena to legitimize his separation from the queen by installing himself as a kind of pope in his own right of the Church of England.8 Thomas Cramner was assigned as the archbishop of Canterbury and with the kings eyes as well as a few other anatomical items now looking towards the sister of Katherine, Anne Boleyn who was now impregnated, the whole assignment of annulment needed to be hastened to assure legitimacy.9 Cramners archiepiscopal court was conveyed as the highest and one true court in dealings with religion under the Act of Appeals which totally shut out any links between Rome and the Church of England.10 In May of 1533, the much sought after annulment was granted by Cramner who acted as more or less a puppet serving the kings needs, and thus a separation from Rome was fully complete with the needs being met now at home.11 The results of the pregnancy of Anne Boleyn were yet another daughter for Henry VIII.12 With still no heir to the English thrown he wed several more times with only one producing a son. The son would become the next King of England as Edward VI, followed by his eldest daughter Mary, and the daughter that was produced in the union with Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth.13	<urn:uuid:2e2cd807-ce6a-4ad2-9d88-1773313c387f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pennsylvaniaangerclass.com/16th-century-reformation-of-the-church-of-england/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00429.warc.gz	en	0.988047	811	3.765625	4	[ -0.15534889698028564, 0.07010810077190399, 0.32240474224090576, -0.05274931713938713, -0.14815977215766907, -0.2570273280143738, -0.2082834094762802, -0.039137087762355804, 0.3406676650047302, 0.14125889539718628, 0.06552824378013611, -0.22913654148578644, 0.04020746052265167, -0.030311400...	1	What happened that caused such an abrupt move in the Church of England towards a reformation in the 16th century? Why did the church change hands from Catholic to Protestant so many times? Finally, how did the church become a middle of the road church that most were able to accept as the Anglican Church? These are the questions I hope to answer in this short paper on the Reformation of the Church of England during the sixteenth century as we take a quick peek at the influential rulers of that time period. From Henry VIII and the split with Rome to the middle of the road Anglican Church of Elizabeth I, we see a new and separate church evolve from that of Rome. The abrupt move in the Church of England towards a reformation started out in a much different manner than in continental Europe. It had come about mainly for reasons to due with Henry VIII attempts to gain an annulment from his first wife Katherine.1 Henry VIII did not simply seek an annulment for his own personal gratification in the need or want for a new wife, but that he was in desperate need for a successor to the royal thrown.2 The marriage of Henry VIII and Katherine had remained fruitless in the attempts to produce a male heir to the English Royal Thrown, with Henry believing that a curse listed in the Book of Leviticus stating that a man who marries his brothers wife will not be able to produce children from this nuptial and the only surviving to this point had been his daughter Mary.3 Having that Katherine had been previously married for a short time to Henrys brother Prince Arthur, who died within months of their marriage, he used this as a means to seek an annulment from the marriage and sought the then pope Clement VII to declare the marriage void.4 Henry had a trust and a belief that the papacy in Rome would grant him the annulment that he sought and it may have happened if it had not been for really bad timing.5 The pope was under the control of the Holy Roman Emperor, who just happened to be the nephew of his wife Katherine of whom he was seeking the annulment from.6 Although the pope tried to appease all parties involved, it failed through the use of stalling in the courts and turned down proposals by Queen Katherine herself whom no longer recognized the jurisdiction of the English courts and claimed that she and Arthur had never consummated the marriage in the first place giving little validity to the claim Henry was making for reasons of annulment.7 The failure to be granted his most sought after annulment brought some hesitation to the king, but under a new direction with the help of his minister Thomas Cromwell he was able to set up a new arena to legitimize his separation from the queen by installing himself as a kind of pope in his own right of the Church of England.8 Thomas Cramner was assigned as the archbishop of Canterbury and with the kings eyes as well as a few other anatomical items now looking towards the sister of Katherine, Anne Boleyn who was now impregnated, the whole assignment of annulment needed to be hastened to assure legitimacy.9 Cramners archiepiscopal court was conveyed as the highest and one true court in dealings with religion under the Act of Appeals which totally shut out any links between Rome and the Church of England.10 In May of 1533, the much sought after annulment was granted by Cramner who acted as more or less a puppet serving the kings needs, and thus a separation from Rome was fully complete with the needs being met now at home.11 The results of the pregnancy of Anne Boleyn were yet another daughter for Henry VIII.12 With still no heir to the English thrown he wed several more times with only one producing a son. The son would become the next King of England as Edward VI, followed by his eldest daughter Mary, and the daughter that was produced in the union with Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth.13	822	ENGLISH	1
\|October 11, 2013\| Whale discovery sets science on its ear \|Whales don't use Q-tips and that turns out to be a good thing for science. Using built-up earwax taken from a blue whale carcass, researchers have been able to reconstruct a picture of its life by the chemicals and hormones in its ears.\| The whale in question was a male blue whale that died after it was struck by a ship near Santa Barbara, Calif., in 2007. Researchers removed a 10-inch ear plug from the carcass during a necropsy. They did a careful chemical analysis to measure what the whale had been exposed to in its lifetime. The study appeared recently in Proceedings of the National Academies of Science. The scientific community has been excited about the possibilities raised by the new method "once they get past the 'eew!' factor of it being earwax," says Stephen Trumble, lead author on the paper and a biology professor at Baylor University in Waco, Texas. Baleen whales are known to accumulate layers of earwax in their ear canal. These create a waxy plug that can be over a foot long. The earwax is laid down in layers, a dark one when the animal is feeding and a light one when the animal is migrating and eats very little. The layers are routinely used to determine whale ages. Now by analyzing the chemicals, pollutants and other matter that accumulated in that wax, researchers were able to build a very complete picture of the animal's life and exposure to chemicals. The whale was likely born around 1995. It was exposed to large concentrations of persistent organic pollutants such as DDT and other pesticides in the first six months of its life. Many mammals are known to pass chemicals through milk and researchers believe that's what happened to this whale. DDT is one of a group of persistent organic pollutants that can take decades to break down. Although it was banned in the United States in 1972, it is still found in the world's oceans and was present at higher levels when this whale was born. There were also two spikes in its exposure to mercury, around ages 5 and 10. When it was about 10 years of age researchers believe it became sexually mature because of increases in testosterone. The method offers researchers a much easier and more precise way of measuring what whales are exposed to than previous methods, which included examining whale blubber, blood, feces and blowhole spray, says Sascha Usenko, a professor of environmental chemistry and one of the Baylor researchers. Since their paper was published, they've been getting offers of whale earwax specimens, called plugs, from around the world. "We're going to receive one hopefully this week that's about 31/2 feet long from a bowhead whale from Barrow, Alaska," Trumble said.	<urn:uuid:4bdea072-9eee-43a0-a024-faf0cbdc633b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.kleanindustries.com/s/environmental_market_industry_news.asp?ReportID=607654	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00076.warc.gz	en	0.984876	581	3.328125	3	[ 0.026043593883514404, 0.06955814361572266, 0.01862504333257675, -0.08627022802829742, -0.13766014575958252, 0.09206544607877731, 0.47270795702934265, 0.355594277381897, -0.20079311728477478, 0.00876068975776434, 0.2845928370952606, -0.6943162679672241, 0.19490069150924683, 0.19436046481132...	1	\|October 11, 2013\| Whale discovery sets science on its ear \|Whales don't use Q-tips and that turns out to be a good thing for science. Using built-up earwax taken from a blue whale carcass, researchers have been able to reconstruct a picture of its life by the chemicals and hormones in its ears.\| The whale in question was a male blue whale that died after it was struck by a ship near Santa Barbara, Calif., in 2007. Researchers removed a 10-inch ear plug from the carcass during a necropsy. They did a careful chemical analysis to measure what the whale had been exposed to in its lifetime. The study appeared recently in Proceedings of the National Academies of Science. The scientific community has been excited about the possibilities raised by the new method "once they get past the 'eew!' factor of it being earwax," says Stephen Trumble, lead author on the paper and a biology professor at Baylor University in Waco, Texas. Baleen whales are known to accumulate layers of earwax in their ear canal. These create a waxy plug that can be over a foot long. The earwax is laid down in layers, a dark one when the animal is feeding and a light one when the animal is migrating and eats very little. The layers are routinely used to determine whale ages. Now by analyzing the chemicals, pollutants and other matter that accumulated in that wax, researchers were able to build a very complete picture of the animal's life and exposure to chemicals. The whale was likely born around 1995. It was exposed to large concentrations of persistent organic pollutants such as DDT and other pesticides in the first six months of its life. Many mammals are known to pass chemicals through milk and researchers believe that's what happened to this whale. DDT is one of a group of persistent organic pollutants that can take decades to break down. Although it was banned in the United States in 1972, it is still found in the world's oceans and was present at higher levels when this whale was born. There were also two spikes in its exposure to mercury, around ages 5 and 10. When it was about 10 years of age researchers believe it became sexually mature because of increases in testosterone. The method offers researchers a much easier and more precise way of measuring what whales are exposed to than previous methods, which included examining whale blubber, blood, feces and blowhole spray, says Sascha Usenko, a professor of environmental chemistry and one of the Baylor researchers. Since their paper was published, they've been getting offers of whale earwax specimens, called plugs, from around the world. "We're going to receive one hopefully this week that's about 31/2 feet long from a bowhead whale from Barrow, Alaska," Trumble said.	596	ENGLISH	1
Atomic Bombing: America's Only Choice It was discovered at the University of Chicago that neutrons striking the element uranium caused the atoms to split apart. The discovery, based on Einstein's E = mc 2 theory that mass has the potential to unleash great amounts of raw energy, showed that among the pieces of a split atom were newly produced neutrons. These might encounter other uranium nuclei, cause them to split, and start a chain reaction. If the chain reaction were limited to a moderate pace, a new source of energy could be the result. The chain reaction could release energy rapidly and with explosive force. Albert Einstein informed President Roosevelt about the possibility of the Germans making an atomic bomb. In late 1939 President Roosevelt ordered an American effort to make an atomic bomb before the Germans. This project to produce the atomic bomb was named the Manhattan Project. Industrial and research activities took place at such sites as Los Alamos, New Mexico; Oak Ridge, Tennessee; and Hanford, Washington. J. Robert Oppenheimer, known as the father of the bomb, led the Manhattan Project: he directed the design and building of the bomb from 1943 to 1945. The first atomic bomb was successfully exploded on July 16, 1945, near Alamogordo, New Mexico. There was a debate over whether dropping the remaining two bombs (Little Boy and Fat Man) could be avoided. Many people offered alternatives they saw as more morally justifiable. One alternative was an invasion of the Japan mainland, but most Americans wanted to avoid this option at all costs, since it involved the loss of a predicted one million American lives, as well as huge numbers of Japanese. It has also been argued that a demonstration could have been held for Japanese officials on an uninhabited island. This, if it had worked, would have spared Hiroshima and Nagasaki devastation while still revealing the atom bomb's fantast i power to the Japanese. Assuming that the Japanese would have even agreed to this, there was no guarantee that the fickle atomic bomb would detonate properly. Assuming that the bomb detonated correctly, it would still pose several large problems for America. First and most obvious was that one of the three bombs that were left, which were difficult to produce and very expensive, would be wasted if the demonstration did not have the right effect on the Japanese. Secondly, the Japanese might have taken this to mean that the United States lacked the resolve to use such a weapon, and seen them as cowards not as serious about destroying the Japanese as the Japanese were about destroying America's forces. Thirdly, air defense in cities such as Hiroshima and Nagasaki would have been put on high alert, diminishing the chances of a successful nuclear raid. If the bomb failed to detonate, this would spell political disaster for America. Besides looking very foolish, America would have caused even greater anti-American sentiments among the Japanese. Looking back, it can now be argued that dropping the bombs was not morally justified because of the long-term effects of nuclear radiation, and the damage and pain it caused to innocent humanity in those two cities. When Truman was briefed on the capabilities of the bomb, however, he was told what was believed at the time: the atomic bomb was just an enormously powerful bomb, like the ones already in existence but exponentially more powerful. Since the effects of radiation were not known at the time, this should not be considered as a reason for moral justification to argue that dropping the bombs was wrong. At the time, the decision to drop the bombs seemed like the lesser of two evils. With the options available to Truman, the atomic bombings proved to have the potential for the least casualties for both sides while ending the war quickly. Thus, dropping the bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was justified.	<urn:uuid:ea693aed-89fc-4765-9534-511ddf7ba4c5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaypride.com/ex/atomic-bomb-c7815	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00212.warc.gz	en	0.982239	759	3.71875	4	[ -0.4411497116088867, 0.045242808759212494, -0.0389387384057045, -0.13503196835517883, 0.4209035634994507, 0.10537925362586975, -0.10908123850822449, 0.35862985253334045, -0.2313341200351715, 0.09221614897251129, 0.4915289878845215, 0.0005329754203557968, -0.08978721499443054, 0.60441941022...	1	Atomic Bombing: America's Only Choice It was discovered at the University of Chicago that neutrons striking the element uranium caused the atoms to split apart. The discovery, based on Einstein's E = mc 2 theory that mass has the potential to unleash great amounts of raw energy, showed that among the pieces of a split atom were newly produced neutrons. These might encounter other uranium nuclei, cause them to split, and start a chain reaction. If the chain reaction were limited to a moderate pace, a new source of energy could be the result. The chain reaction could release energy rapidly and with explosive force. Albert Einstein informed President Roosevelt about the possibility of the Germans making an atomic bomb. In late 1939 President Roosevelt ordered an American effort to make an atomic bomb before the Germans. This project to produce the atomic bomb was named the Manhattan Project. Industrial and research activities took place at such sites as Los Alamos, New Mexico; Oak Ridge, Tennessee; and Hanford, Washington. J. Robert Oppenheimer, known as the father of the bomb, led the Manhattan Project: he directed the design and building of the bomb from 1943 to 1945. The first atomic bomb was successfully exploded on July 16, 1945, near Alamogordo, New Mexico. There was a debate over whether dropping the remaining two bombs (Little Boy and Fat Man) could be avoided. Many people offered alternatives they saw as more morally justifiable. One alternative was an invasion of the Japan mainland, but most Americans wanted to avoid this option at all costs, since it involved the loss of a predicted one million American lives, as well as huge numbers of Japanese. It has also been argued that a demonstration could have been held for Japanese officials on an uninhabited island. This, if it had worked, would have spared Hiroshima and Nagasaki devastation while still revealing the atom bomb's fantast i power to the Japanese. Assuming that the Japanese would have even agreed to this, there was no guarantee that the fickle atomic bomb would detonate properly. Assuming that the bomb detonated correctly, it would still pose several large problems for America. First and most obvious was that one of the three bombs that were left, which were difficult to produce and very expensive, would be wasted if the demonstration did not have the right effect on the Japanese. Secondly, the Japanese might have taken this to mean that the United States lacked the resolve to use such a weapon, and seen them as cowards not as serious about destroying the Japanese as the Japanese were about destroying America's forces. Thirdly, air defense in cities such as Hiroshima and Nagasaki would have been put on high alert, diminishing the chances of a successful nuclear raid. If the bomb failed to detonate, this would spell political disaster for America. Besides looking very foolish, America would have caused even greater anti-American sentiments among the Japanese. Looking back, it can now be argued that dropping the bombs was not morally justified because of the long-term effects of nuclear radiation, and the damage and pain it caused to innocent humanity in those two cities. When Truman was briefed on the capabilities of the bomb, however, he was told what was believed at the time: the atomic bomb was just an enormously powerful bomb, like the ones already in existence but exponentially more powerful. Since the effects of radiation were not known at the time, this should not be considered as a reason for moral justification to argue that dropping the bombs was wrong. At the time, the decision to drop the bombs seemed like the lesser of two evils. With the options available to Truman, the atomic bombings proved to have the potential for the least casualties for both sides while ending the war quickly. Thus, dropping the bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was justified.	772	ENGLISH	1
Herodotus, also known as the “Father of History,” lived in the 5th century B.C. (c. 484 BC – c. 425 BC) and was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a well-constructed and vivid narrative. The Histories — his masterpiece and the only work he is known to have produced — is a record of his investigation of the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars and includes a wealth of geographical and ethnographical information. Although some of his stories were not completely accurate, he claimed that he was reporting only what had been told to him. Herodotus’ writings on India are the oldest surviving account of India. Strabo was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher during the first century B.C. Though he is lesser known than Herodotus, he also wrote about India. Strabo traveled throughout the Mediterranean and Near East, and around 25 B.C., he sailed up the Nile until reaching Philae. He eventually returned to Rome to finish compiling a final draft of his Geography during his final years. Strabo’s Geography included detailed descriptions of much of Asia, including India. Gaius Plinius Secundus (23 – 25 August 79 CE), generally known as Pliny the Elder, writing around 77 A.D., left the most important account of India and its trade with Rome that has survived in classical literature. Pliny the Elder gives quite a lot of detail about India, and his observations do more than just outline the bare bones of history, helping give readers an idea of how intimately Indian culture and trade was becoming known in the Western world: This edition of the Greek and Roman Accounts of India is specially formatted with a Table of Contents.	<urn:uuid:07a6c31c-c913-4b3f-b549-d29b8d95f7e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.apple.com/ca/book/greek-and-roman-accounts-of-india/id474886083	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00134.warc.gz	en	0.987971	376	3.828125	4	[ 0.2978920340538025, 0.16109107434749603, 0.44601503014564514, -0.22620461881160736, -0.41418564319610596, -0.40511202812194824, 0.1681027114391327, 0.4919944107532501, -0.2954246997833252, -0.18516255915164948, -0.02353222295641899, -0.34282049536705017, -0.03973456099629402, 0.80147564411...	2	Herodotus, also known as the “Father of History,” lived in the 5th century B.C. (c. 484 BC – c. 425 BC) and was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a well-constructed and vivid narrative. The Histories — his masterpiece and the only work he is known to have produced — is a record of his investigation of the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars and includes a wealth of geographical and ethnographical information. Although some of his stories were not completely accurate, he claimed that he was reporting only what had been told to him. Herodotus’ writings on India are the oldest surviving account of India. Strabo was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher during the first century B.C. Though he is lesser known than Herodotus, he also wrote about India. Strabo traveled throughout the Mediterranean and Near East, and around 25 B.C., he sailed up the Nile until reaching Philae. He eventually returned to Rome to finish compiling a final draft of his Geography during his final years. Strabo’s Geography included detailed descriptions of much of Asia, including India. Gaius Plinius Secundus (23 – 25 August 79 CE), generally known as Pliny the Elder, writing around 77 A.D., left the most important account of India and its trade with Rome that has survived in classical literature. Pliny the Elder gives quite a lot of detail about India, and his observations do more than just outline the bare bones of history, helping give readers an idea of how intimately Indian culture and trade was becoming known in the Western world: This edition of the Greek and Roman Accounts of India is specially formatted with a Table of Contents.	377	ENGLISH	1
Is it true that a glass window, that has been placed in a wall for about 10 years or more, is thicker on the bottom than on the top? I can vaguely remember my physics teacher saying that this was true. So if this is true, how is this possible? The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries. The assumption being that the glass was once uniform, but has flowed to its new shape, which is a property of liquid. However, this assumption is incorrect; once solidified, glass does not flow anymore. The reason for the observation is that in the past, when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not, however, absolutely flat; the edges of the disk became a different thickness as the glass spun. When installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed with the thicker side down both for the sake of stability and to prevent water accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the window. Occasionally such glass has been found thinner side down or thicker on either side of the window's edge, the result of carelessness during installation.	<urn:uuid:d9f1d458-1dc8-481d-b328-07093744c878>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/55829/do-glass-panes-become-thicker-at-the-bottom-over-time/55830	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00050.warc.gz	en	0.98564	291	3.375	3	[ -0.12871679663658142, 0.08191332966089249, 0.3343110978603363, -0.13404083251953125, -0.3368227481842041, 0.35451701283454895, 0.125459685921669, 0.14511102437973022, 0.5348600149154663, -0.16090349853038788, -0.012448984198272228, -0.4062774181365967, -0.11973819881677628, 0.0802603438496...	2	Is it true that a glass window, that has been placed in a wall for about 10 years or more, is thicker on the bottom than on the top? I can vaguely remember my physics teacher saying that this was true. So if this is true, how is this possible? The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries. The assumption being that the glass was once uniform, but has flowed to its new shape, which is a property of liquid. However, this assumption is incorrect; once solidified, glass does not flow anymore. The reason for the observation is that in the past, when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not, however, absolutely flat; the edges of the disk became a different thickness as the glass spun. When installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed with the thicker side down both for the sake of stability and to prevent water accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the window. Occasionally such glass has been found thinner side down or thicker on either side of the window's edge, the result of carelessness during installation.	293	ENGLISH	1
In the previous post I gave a recounting of how we introduced the divider-chooser method as a simple, but effective way, to share fairly between two people. One of the things that we wanted to do was to get away from the paper-based exercises. There is a certain amount of abstraction that doesn’t reach younger students when there is nothing physically tangible to work with. Additionally, we wanted to really get them thinking about sharing in possibly adversarial settings. The word “adversarial” is loosely technical here and not in its colloquial sense of actually pitting one person against another. For the majority of this lesson, students had been engaged in cooperative sharing. They were interested in making sure that both sides got an equal amount. In reality, both in the kid world and the adult world, there is often an element of self-interest which supersedes an interest in making sure all parties involved get their fair share — hence, adversarial. How can we make sure that everyone gets a fair share even if everyone wants to get more than their fair share? In comes Play-Doh! We added a twist, however. So far, we had students in groups of two and we showed them how a divider-chooser type method can ensure fairness. Now, we gave them Play-Doh and put them in groups of four with the added incentive that we’ll get to have some Play-Doh time after we’re done. The objective for each group was to share Play-Doh fairly. This problem is trickier. It’s not obvious how to extend the divider-chooser method for more than two people. If one person divides, who chooses next? How does the first person divide? In a group of four, does the divider create four pieces? Who chooses? These were the things we wanted our students to confront, explore, and understand. Mrs. Valentine and I were each members of groups that had three students. In my group, I tried to not get involved with how they wanted to decide, but rather, I followed their lead. They had seen the rock-paper-scissors method of choosing a divider, and so, we played a four way round of rock-paper-scissors. I’m still not sure how this works, but this is what we did. All four of us, on the count of three, showed rock, paper, or scissors. I showed paper. Two of the students showed scissors and the other showed rock. As if there were some unwritten rule, the scissors get my paper and I was out. Then they went to rock and lost. And that’s how our divider was chosen. I can’t say I completely understand it, but that’s what we did! I love second grade. So, with our divider chosen, now what? According to the group, the divider had to break up the Play-Doh into four fair shares. For a good three minutes, she tried her best to split the Play-Doh equally. Eventually she got a distribution that she thought was fair. Following the pattern from the two-person divider chooser method, she was “elected” to choose last. One of the students elected himself to choose first. Curiously, he chose the smallest piece available. Then I chose the largest piece there. The third and fourth (the divider) got pieces that looked to be roughly equal in size. Then we compared. I asked everyone if they were happy with the piece they chose. The first person to choose said that he wasn’t happy! I asked “Why? You got to choose first, why are you not satisfied?” His response was that he was trying to be fair. Aha! He was looking to cooperate — take one for the team as it were — but when all was said and done, he had nice-person-chooser’s remorse! The other students looked at my share with envy and wished they could’ve gotten a piece as big as mine. And now we had a lesson! How are we going to fairly split among four of us? We tried to divide and choose but something went wrong. Here comes The Last Diminisher method. I took the Play-Doh, bunched it all up again and took out a chunk of it and said, “This is my piece!” The other students immediately said, “That’s not fair!”. I agreed. “Now,” I said, “what we’re going to do is this.” I looked to the student to my left and asked him, “Do you want me to have this piece or do you want to claim a smaller part of this piece?” He said he wanted some of that piece. So I told him to take however, much he wants and the whatever is left over will be put back into the Play-Doh pile. The constraint was that he had to take at least some of the Play-Doh out from the share I had originally declared to be my own. With a little prodding we repeated this with the next student. Technically, the Last Diminisher method goes around once, but we decided to go around a few times so that they could get the feel for it. Eventually, we got to a point where no one was willing to take away a piece from the piece in question. Thus, we had found our Last Diminisher. That person got the share he / she was holding on to. Now, there were three of us. Rinse and repeat and voila, we each had pieces we were happy with. When we were down to two people left, we realized we could just do a divider-chooser. What we ended up with was this Mrs. Valentine’s group had an interesting dynamic. One student was elected the divider. She divided the pieces into four parts and then elected herself to choose first! She chose the largest piece. Mrs. Valentine let this play out and when everyone had their pieces, all but one of the students looked sad. The one student who didn’t look sad was the one who chose first, naturally. Mrs. Valentine animated this to highlight the unfairness. So they too, were taught about the Last Diminisher method and were able to eventually produce a reasonable split. The other groups that we weren’t supervising were locked in endless debate. One group did eventually manage a split, which looked more or less fair (equal proportions, in this case). When asked how they did it, they explained that they looked at everyone’s piece and tried to balance it out. Another group had a “fair” divider who managed to split the Play-Doh into four equal parts. They had decided that the divider would choose last and the other students would choose in some pre-determined order. This method is biased against the divider, for sure, but it really forced the divider to keep things as balanced as possible. We wrapped up the lesson as I showed the class the Last Diminisher method and recapped Divider-Chooser. We asked them if they could see how they would use something like this at home. One student said that she could use this for splitting Gatorade. Not bad! Another said, that they could use this to split money. Dangerous territory, but yes! All in all, this was a general success. We got our students thinking about division without them knowing that they were doing division. We got them to think about fairness and how unfairness can be a result of a process [we didn’t phrase it like that, but I venture to guess that for some students this sits somewhere in their subconscious]. And hopefully, they learned at the least that there are ways to share fairly without having to have a third party [adult] mediate. Even if they didn’t all understand the methods we had shown for sharing, we know that they all understood that there is a method. We hope that when the time comes and they find themselves in a situation where they have to distribute resources, they’ll fall back onto this lesson and continue their exploration. Confront, explore, understand! Thank you for reading! I want to keep in touch with my readers. If you are interested, click here to sign up!	<urn:uuid:413506c3-83c0-4be7-a507-2cbed4453abb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://mathmisery.com/wp/2017/03/07/fair-sharing-for-second-grade-final-part-4/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00126.warc.gz	en	0.987652	1,768	3.421875	3	[ -0.6149377822875977, -0.42315635085105896, -0.06667570024728775, -0.2685582935810089, -0.38543379306793213, 0.23194295167922974, 0.015484610572457314, 0.18614336848258972, 0.3541155159473419, -0.029715068638324738, 0.021850671619176865, 0.14630919694900513, -0.1362047642469406, 0.343105256...	2	In the previous post I gave a recounting of how we introduced the divider-chooser method as a simple, but effective way, to share fairly between two people. One of the things that we wanted to do was to get away from the paper-based exercises. There is a certain amount of abstraction that doesn’t reach younger students when there is nothing physically tangible to work with. Additionally, we wanted to really get them thinking about sharing in possibly adversarial settings. The word “adversarial” is loosely technical here and not in its colloquial sense of actually pitting one person against another. For the majority of this lesson, students had been engaged in cooperative sharing. They were interested in making sure that both sides got an equal amount. In reality, both in the kid world and the adult world, there is often an element of self-interest which supersedes an interest in making sure all parties involved get their fair share — hence, adversarial. How can we make sure that everyone gets a fair share even if everyone wants to get more than their fair share? In comes Play-Doh! We added a twist, however. So far, we had students in groups of two and we showed them how a divider-chooser type method can ensure fairness. Now, we gave them Play-Doh and put them in groups of four with the added incentive that we’ll get to have some Play-Doh time after we’re done. The objective for each group was to share Play-Doh fairly. This problem is trickier. It’s not obvious how to extend the divider-chooser method for more than two people. If one person divides, who chooses next? How does the first person divide? In a group of four, does the divider create four pieces? Who chooses? These were the things we wanted our students to confront, explore, and understand. Mrs. Valentine and I were each members of groups that had three students. In my group, I tried to not get involved with how they wanted to decide, but rather, I followed their lead. They had seen the rock-paper-scissors method of choosing a divider, and so, we played a four way round of rock-paper-scissors. I’m still not sure how this works, but this is what we did. All four of us, on the count of three, showed rock, paper, or scissors. I showed paper. Two of the students showed scissors and the other showed rock. As if there were some unwritten rule, the scissors get my paper and I was out. Then they went to rock and lost. And that’s how our divider was chosen. I can’t say I completely understand it, but that’s what we did! I love second grade. So, with our divider chosen, now what? According to the group, the divider had to break up the Play-Doh into four fair shares. For a good three minutes, she tried her best to split the Play-Doh equally. Eventually she got a distribution that she thought was fair. Following the pattern from the two-person divider chooser method, she was “elected” to choose last. One of the students elected himself to choose first. Curiously, he chose the smallest piece available. Then I chose the largest piece there. The third and fourth (the divider) got pieces that looked to be roughly equal in size. Then we compared. I asked everyone if they were happy with the piece they chose. The first person to choose said that he wasn’t happy! I asked “Why? You got to choose first, why are you not satisfied?” His response was that he was trying to be fair. Aha! He was looking to cooperate — take one for the team as it were — but when all was said and done, he had nice-person-chooser’s remorse! The other students looked at my share with envy and wished they could’ve gotten a piece as big as mine. And now we had a lesson! How are we going to fairly split among four of us? We tried to divide and choose but something went wrong. Here comes The Last Diminisher method. I took the Play-Doh, bunched it all up again and took out a chunk of it and said, “This is my piece!” The other students immediately said, “That’s not fair!”. I agreed. “Now,” I said, “what we’re going to do is this.” I looked to the student to my left and asked him, “Do you want me to have this piece or do you want to claim a smaller part of this piece?” He said he wanted some of that piece. So I told him to take however, much he wants and the whatever is left over will be put back into the Play-Doh pile. The constraint was that he had to take at least some of the Play-Doh out from the share I had originally declared to be my own. With a little prodding we repeated this with the next student. Technically, the Last Diminisher method goes around once, but we decided to go around a few times so that they could get the feel for it. Eventually, we got to a point where no one was willing to take away a piece from the piece in question. Thus, we had found our Last Diminisher. That person got the share he / she was holding on to. Now, there were three of us. Rinse and repeat and voila, we each had pieces we were happy with. When we were down to two people left, we realized we could just do a divider-chooser. What we ended up with was this Mrs. Valentine’s group had an interesting dynamic. One student was elected the divider. She divided the pieces into four parts and then elected herself to choose first! She chose the largest piece. Mrs. Valentine let this play out and when everyone had their pieces, all but one of the students looked sad. The one student who didn’t look sad was the one who chose first, naturally. Mrs. Valentine animated this to highlight the unfairness. So they too, were taught about the Last Diminisher method and were able to eventually produce a reasonable split. The other groups that we weren’t supervising were locked in endless debate. One group did eventually manage a split, which looked more or less fair (equal proportions, in this case). When asked how they did it, they explained that they looked at everyone’s piece and tried to balance it out. Another group had a “fair” divider who managed to split the Play-Doh into four equal parts. They had decided that the divider would choose last and the other students would choose in some pre-determined order. This method is biased against the divider, for sure, but it really forced the divider to keep things as balanced as possible. We wrapped up the lesson as I showed the class the Last Diminisher method and recapped Divider-Chooser. We asked them if they could see how they would use something like this at home. One student said that she could use this for splitting Gatorade. Not bad! Another said, that they could use this to split money. Dangerous territory, but yes! All in all, this was a general success. We got our students thinking about division without them knowing that they were doing division. We got them to think about fairness and how unfairness can be a result of a process [we didn’t phrase it like that, but I venture to guess that for some students this sits somewhere in their subconscious]. And hopefully, they learned at the least that there are ways to share fairly without having to have a third party [adult] mediate. Even if they didn’t all understand the methods we had shown for sharing, we know that they all understood that there is a method. We hope that when the time comes and they find themselves in a situation where they have to distribute resources, they’ll fall back onto this lesson and continue their exploration. Confront, explore, understand! Thank you for reading! I want to keep in touch with my readers. If you are interested, click here to sign up!	1,642	ENGLISH	1
They gave Congress the right to issue money and forbade the states from doing so. But the Federal Government hasn’t been the only entity that, has in practice, issued money. Private citizens and private companies have done so in various forms over the years. Scrip is any substitute for currency which is not legal tender, and is often a form of credit. Scrips were created as company payment of employees and also as a means of payment in times where regular money was/is unavailable, such as remote coal towns, or occupied territories, etc. Mining and lumber companies relied on scrip going back to Civil War times. Companies used scrip for payroll in lieu of cash, which was usually difficult and dangerous to transport into remote towns and lumber camps where their employees and families lived. The miners and lumberjacks could use the scrip at the company store, usually the only store in town, to purchase their necessities. Eventually “independent” towns got into the game. These independent towns were not built by a mining or lumber company. Merchants in these towns would accept scrip, also at a sharp discount of 25% to 40%, and then redeem the scrip at full value at the company store for goods they could then resell in their stores. Needless to say, scrip soon acquired a bad reputation. However, scrip isn’t without its benefits. Without it, and lacking any form of recognized money, individuals will have to resort to either barter or credit. Bartering has its own obvious downsides. Hauling a sack of spuds around is certainly cumbersome, plus you will have to find someone who has something you want who simultaneously wants or needs your sack of spuds or the deal won’t work. And credit only works if someone is willing to extend it to you. So who needs private money? The list of those who have issued private money or scrip in the U.S. is long and varied. State and national banks, transportation suppliers such as canal, turnpike, and railroad companies have issued scrip. As previously mentioned, mining and lumber companies have also issued their own private scrip. Local merchants, farmers, and community groups have created their own private money. Each of these examples of private scrip arose to serve purposes that were not well served by government-provided money. These purposes include having a currency suited for making small purchases, having a suitable medium of exchange in remote areas, and having a means of exchange during financial panics. In the 1800’s the Treasury issued coins and occasionally a limited number of notes. Many state and national banks issued their own paper currency. One problem was that the banks were prohibited from issuing small denominations by their regulating authority which was either the state legislature or the U.S. Congress. This prohibition made their private notes nearly impossible to use for most daily purchases. State banks originally could only issue their notes in denominations of $1 or more. National bank notes could only be issued in denominations of $1 or more from 1863 to 1879, and after 1879, only in denominations of $5 or more. By 1882, all smaller-denomination national notes had been taken out of circulation. During these times, a denomination as little as $1 represented quite a large amount of money. In the 1830’s, a newspaper cost a penny. In the 1880’s, a laborer typically earned $5 a week. In 1890, a family paid about six cents for a pound of bacon. Trying to buy everyday items was cumbersome with these state and national private bank notes. To fill this gap, many private individuals and companies stepped forward to supply the market. They issued both paper money and tokens. From 1820 to 1875. private transportation companies, merchants, and farmers issued a significant amount of small-denomination currency. This money was denominated in dollars, or in good or services rendered. For a period of time, the small-denomination problem was solved. Then the Civil War came. The inflation associated with the war naturally led to a dramatic increase in the prices of precious metals, causing metallic coins to disappear from circulation. Once again many private enterprises stepped in and created small-denomination currencies. The Treasury also issued fractional paper currency from 1862 to 1876. This fractional currency was issued in denominations of a dollar, half-dollar, quarter, dime, and half-dime. The privately issued money did not go unnoticed by government officials, as Congress passed legislation that forbid private citizens or companies from issuing paper currency in denominations of less than $1. To avoid legal problems, many private issuers of paper money began denominating their currency in services instead of in dollars. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, mining and lumber companies flourished. Most of these companies were located in remote areas far from the nearest bank. These remote locations encouraged these companies to issue their own money or scrip. Originally, the scrip took the form of paper, but eventually durable metal tokens became widely used. Although the use of this scrip was often criticized, the courts typically ruled that mining and lumber companies were not violating the law of the land by issuing it, since the scrip was not intended to circulate as “real” money. Financial panics have also contributed to the use of scrip. For example the Great Depression of the early 1930’s saw the use of scrip in one form or another. Bank runs were quite common in the early stages of the Depression. Depositors would arrive in mass at a bank and attempt to convert their deposits into currency. Banks often responded to these runs by limiting or suspending payment temporarily. This meant that they refused to allow their customers to withdraw cash from their bank accounts. Bank runs became so severe the President Roosevelt declared a four-day “bank” holiday across the nation in March of 1933. In some places the closure was extended to a week. These suspension of payments caused the public to hoard money of any form. Currency hoarding, suspension of payments, and bank failures created severe shortages of cash that made it difficult for people and companies to make payments. In response to the currency shortage, school districts, merchants, local relief organizations, and private individuals issued private money in the form of scrip. Many state and local governments got into the act and issued their own local scrip as well. Companies, unable to make their payrolls due to currency shortages, paid their workers in scrip. This scrip was often redeemable in official currency after banks once again allowed deposit withdrawals. Much of the scrip issued during the Great Depression was only used in the locality where it was issued. The success of a particular scrip depended heavily on its backing and the credibility of its issuer. The success of the scrip issued by municipal and state governments typically depended on whether it could be used to pay taxes. The value of privately issued scrip depended on whether the user viewed the private issuer’s assts, reputation, or productive capacity was sufficient to honor the scrip. Surprisingly, local currencies or scrips seem to be making a comeback. Traverse City, Mich. Has its “Bay Bucks.” Ithaca, New York has its “Ithaca Hours.” Then there is the “Burlington Bread” in Burlington, Vermont. The point of local currencies is to boost the value of local resources that are generally undervalued such as labor. As we have seen private scrips have often had beneficial effects. However, its use has also caused problems. Many private issues of money were unsuccessful because people did not believe that the issuer would be able to honor their intentions to redeem the scrip in dollars, goods, or services. Most forms of scrip were and are highly localized, which means that they did not or would not circulate widely. Generally this isn’t a problem in itself. Most scrip was never intended to replace the real legal tender or currency. The localized nature of most scrip arises mainly from a problem of recognizability. The holder of the scrip can’t be sure of how much a note might be worth if he or she doesn’t know the issuer of the scrip. Local citizens have a greater awareness of the credibility of a local issuer than would someone who lives a great distance from that local. The acceptance of any currency whether it is private or government issued is largely dependent by how easy it is to redeem it for goods or services. Money that is hard to redeem will be greatly discounted or not accepted at all. Editor's Picks Articles Top Ten Articles Content copyright © 2019 by Gary Eggleston. All rights reserved. This content was written by Gary Eggleston. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Gary Eggleston for details.	<urn:uuid:51e97ab2-7676-42f0-ad66-3d218211ed5e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bellaonline.com/article.asp?id=66245	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00188.warc.gz	en	0.98001	1,843	3.4375	3	[ -0.24507933855056763, -0.3688729405403137, -0.12419373542070389, -0.18067950010299683, 0.09700281918048859, -0.15008176863193512, 0.3667416572570801, -0.05699099227786064, -0.42482349276542664, 0.35106194019317627, 0.45954447984695435, 0.49205780029296875, 0.057882100343704224, 0.187571331...	2	They gave Congress the right to issue money and forbade the states from doing so. But the Federal Government hasn’t been the only entity that, has in practice, issued money. Private citizens and private companies have done so in various forms over the years. Scrip is any substitute for currency which is not legal tender, and is often a form of credit. Scrips were created as company payment of employees and also as a means of payment in times where regular money was/is unavailable, such as remote coal towns, or occupied territories, etc. Mining and lumber companies relied on scrip going back to Civil War times. Companies used scrip for payroll in lieu of cash, which was usually difficult and dangerous to transport into remote towns and lumber camps where their employees and families lived. The miners and lumberjacks could use the scrip at the company store, usually the only store in town, to purchase their necessities. Eventually “independent” towns got into the game. These independent towns were not built by a mining or lumber company. Merchants in these towns would accept scrip, also at a sharp discount of 25% to 40%, and then redeem the scrip at full value at the company store for goods they could then resell in their stores. Needless to say, scrip soon acquired a bad reputation. However, scrip isn’t without its benefits. Without it, and lacking any form of recognized money, individuals will have to resort to either barter or credit. Bartering has its own obvious downsides. Hauling a sack of spuds around is certainly cumbersome, plus you will have to find someone who has something you want who simultaneously wants or needs your sack of spuds or the deal won’t work. And credit only works if someone is willing to extend it to you. So who needs private money? The list of those who have issued private money or scrip in the U.S. is long and varied. State and national banks, transportation suppliers such as canal, turnpike, and railroad companies have issued scrip. As previously mentioned, mining and lumber companies have also issued their own private scrip. Local merchants, farmers, and community groups have created their own private money. Each of these examples of private scrip arose to serve purposes that were not well served by government-provided money. These purposes include having a currency suited for making small purchases, having a suitable medium of exchange in remote areas, and having a means of exchange during financial panics. In the 1800’s the Treasury issued coins and occasionally a limited number of notes. Many state and national banks issued their own paper currency. One problem was that the banks were prohibited from issuing small denominations by their regulating authority which was either the state legislature or the U.S. Congress. This prohibition made their private notes nearly impossible to use for most daily purchases. State banks originally could only issue their notes in denominations of $1 or more. National bank notes could only be issued in denominations of $1 or more from 1863 to 1879, and after 1879, only in denominations of $5 or more. By 1882, all smaller-denomination national notes had been taken out of circulation. During these times, a denomination as little as $1 represented quite a large amount of money. In the 1830’s, a newspaper cost a penny. In the 1880’s, a laborer typically earned $5 a week. In 1890, a family paid about six cents for a pound of bacon. Trying to buy everyday items was cumbersome with these state and national private bank notes. To fill this gap, many private individuals and companies stepped forward to supply the market. They issued both paper money and tokens. From 1820 to 1875. private transportation companies, merchants, and farmers issued a significant amount of small-denomination currency. This money was denominated in dollars, or in good or services rendered. For a period of time, the small-denomination problem was solved. Then the Civil War came. The inflation associated with the war naturally led to a dramatic increase in the prices of precious metals, causing metallic coins to disappear from circulation. Once again many private enterprises stepped in and created small-denomination currencies. The Treasury also issued fractional paper currency from 1862 to 1876. This fractional currency was issued in denominations of a dollar, half-dollar, quarter, dime, and half-dime. The privately issued money did not go unnoticed by government officials, as Congress passed legislation that forbid private citizens or companies from issuing paper currency in denominations of less than $1. To avoid legal problems, many private issuers of paper money began denominating their currency in services instead of in dollars. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, mining and lumber companies flourished. Most of these companies were located in remote areas far from the nearest bank. These remote locations encouraged these companies to issue their own money or scrip. Originally, the scrip took the form of paper, but eventually durable metal tokens became widely used. Although the use of this scrip was often criticized, the courts typically ruled that mining and lumber companies were not violating the law of the land by issuing it, since the scrip was not intended to circulate as “real” money. Financial panics have also contributed to the use of scrip. For example the Great Depression of the early 1930’s saw the use of scrip in one form or another. Bank runs were quite common in the early stages of the Depression. Depositors would arrive in mass at a bank and attempt to convert their deposits into currency. Banks often responded to these runs by limiting or suspending payment temporarily. This meant that they refused to allow their customers to withdraw cash from their bank accounts. Bank runs became so severe the President Roosevelt declared a four-day “bank” holiday across the nation in March of 1933. In some places the closure was extended to a week. These suspension of payments caused the public to hoard money of any form. Currency hoarding, suspension of payments, and bank failures created severe shortages of cash that made it difficult for people and companies to make payments. In response to the currency shortage, school districts, merchants, local relief organizations, and private individuals issued private money in the form of scrip. Many state and local governments got into the act and issued their own local scrip as well. Companies, unable to make their payrolls due to currency shortages, paid their workers in scrip. This scrip was often redeemable in official currency after banks once again allowed deposit withdrawals. Much of the scrip issued during the Great Depression was only used in the locality where it was issued. The success of a particular scrip depended heavily on its backing and the credibility of its issuer. The success of the scrip issued by municipal and state governments typically depended on whether it could be used to pay taxes. The value of privately issued scrip depended on whether the user viewed the private issuer’s assts, reputation, or productive capacity was sufficient to honor the scrip. Surprisingly, local currencies or scrips seem to be making a comeback. Traverse City, Mich. Has its “Bay Bucks.” Ithaca, New York has its “Ithaca Hours.” Then there is the “Burlington Bread” in Burlington, Vermont. The point of local currencies is to boost the value of local resources that are generally undervalued such as labor. As we have seen private scrips have often had beneficial effects. However, its use has also caused problems. Many private issues of money were unsuccessful because people did not believe that the issuer would be able to honor their intentions to redeem the scrip in dollars, goods, or services. Most forms of scrip were and are highly localized, which means that they did not or would not circulate widely. Generally this isn’t a problem in itself. Most scrip was never intended to replace the real legal tender or currency. The localized nature of most scrip arises mainly from a problem of recognizability. The holder of the scrip can’t be sure of how much a note might be worth if he or she doesn’t know the issuer of the scrip. Local citizens have a greater awareness of the credibility of a local issuer than would someone who lives a great distance from that local. The acceptance of any currency whether it is private or government issued is largely dependent by how easy it is to redeem it for goods or services. Money that is hard to redeem will be greatly discounted or not accepted at all. Editor's Picks Articles Top Ten Articles Content copyright © 2019 by Gary Eggleston. All rights reserved. This content was written by Gary Eggleston. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Gary Eggleston for details.	1,832	ENGLISH	1
Birth Of A New Freedom One of the most courageous and esteemed presidents of the United States of America, Abraham Lincoln is known mainly for abolishing slavery and his leadership during the Civil War. He grew up in a single-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm in Hardin County, Kenrucky. His mother died when he was nine, and his relationship with his father was often strained. He had an insatiable desire to learn, which his stepmother nutured by encouraging young Abe to read. Though he had only a year of formal education, he could read any book he got his hands on. Lincoln was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1836, and later became a congressman for the same state. He served as president from March 1861 until his assasination at the hands of John Wilkes Booth in 1864. This book tells the story of a young boy who grew up to become one of the most important leaders in American history. “"I highly recommend Campfire’s comics. They do what they are intended to do and do it in a way that excites kids about classic literature."— Chris Wilson, The Graphic Classroom (a resource for teachers and librarians)”	<urn:uuid:871adb5d-d08d-4d20-bd24-e73e0f78a5af>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.penguin.com.au/books/abraham-lincoln-9789380741215	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00173.warc.gz	en	0.989526	250	3.546875	4	[ -0.1755039244890213, 0.6217451095581055, 0.1957126259803772, 0.1092747300863266, -0.31531521677970886, 0.4391477108001709, 0.1540493369102478, -0.06310362368822098, -0.2102060467004776, -0.19490870833396912, -0.1641944944858551, 0.3765527606010437, -0.1445770263671875, 0.4337693154811859, ...	2	Birth Of A New Freedom One of the most courageous and esteemed presidents of the United States of America, Abraham Lincoln is known mainly for abolishing slavery and his leadership during the Civil War. He grew up in a single-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm in Hardin County, Kenrucky. His mother died when he was nine, and his relationship with his father was often strained. He had an insatiable desire to learn, which his stepmother nutured by encouraging young Abe to read. Though he had only a year of formal education, he could read any book he got his hands on. Lincoln was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1836, and later became a congressman for the same state. He served as president from March 1861 until his assasination at the hands of John Wilkes Booth in 1864. This book tells the story of a young boy who grew up to become one of the most important leaders in American history. “"I highly recommend Campfire’s comics. They do what they are intended to do and do it in a way that excites kids about classic literature."— Chris Wilson, The Graphic Classroom (a resource for teachers and librarians)”	252	ENGLISH	1
stained glass window from Saint Patrick Catholic Church, Junction City, Ohio IF the virtue of children reflects an honor on their parents, much more justly is the name of St. Patrick rendered illustrious by the innumerable lights of sanctity with which the Church of Ireland shone during many ages, and by the colonies of Saints with which it peopled many foreign countries; for, under God, its inhabitants derived from their glorious apostle the streams of that eminent sanctity by which they were long conspicuous to the whole world. St. Patrick was born towards the close of the fourth century, in a village called Bonaven Taberniæ, which seems to be the town of Kilpatrick, on the mouth of the river Clyde, in Scotland, between Dumbarton and Glasgow. He calls himself both a Briton and a Roman, or of a mixed extraction, and says his father was of a good family named Calphurnius, and a denizen of a neighboring city of the Romans, who not long after abandoned Britain, in 409. Some writers call his mother Conchessa, and say she was niece to St. Martin of Tours. In his sixteenth year he was carried into captivity by certain barbarians, who took him into Ireland, where he was obliged to keep cattle on the mountains and in the forests, in hunger and nakedness, amidst snow, rain, and ice. Whilst he lived in this suffering condition, God had pity on his soul, and quickened him to a sense of his duty by the impulse of a strong interior grace. The young man had recourse to Him with his whole heart in fervent prayer and fasting; and from that time faith and the love of God acquired continually new strength in his tender soul. After six months spent in slavery under the same master, St. Patrick was admonished by God in a dream to return to his own country, and informed that a ship was then ready to sail thither. He went at once to the sea-coast, though at a great distance, and found the vessel; but could not obtain his passage, probably for want of money. The Saint returned towards his hut, praying as he went; but the sailors, though pagans, called him back and took him on board. After three days’ sail they made land, but wandered twenty-seven days through deserts, and were a long while distressed for want of provisions, finding nothing to eat. Patrick had often spoken to the company on the infinite power of God; they therefore asked him why he did not pray for relief. Animated by a strong faith, he assured them that if they would address themselves with their whole hearts to the true God He would hear and succor them. They did so, and on the same day met with a herd of swine. From that time provisions never failed them, till on the twenty-seventh day they came info a country that was cultivated and inhabited. Some years afterwards he was again led captive, but recovered his liberty after two months. When he was at home with his parents, God manifested to him, by divers visions, that He destined him to the great work of the conversion of Ireland. The writers of his life say that after his second captivity he travelled into Gaul and Italy, and saw St. Martin, St. Germanus of Auxerre, and Pope Celestine, and that he received his mission and the apostolical benediction from this Pope, who died in 432. It is certain that he spent many years in preparing himself for his sacred calling. Great opposition was made against his episcopal consecration and mission, both by his own relatives and by the clergy. These made him great offers in order to detain him among them, and endeavored to affright him by exaggerating the dangers to which he exposed himself amidst the enemies of the Romans and Britons, who did not know God. All these temptations threw the Saint into great perplexities; but the Lord, Whose will he consulted by earnest prayer, supported him, and he persevered in his resolution. He forsook his family, sold his birthright and dignity, to serve strangers, and consecrated his soul to God, to carry His name to the ends of the earth. In this disposition he passed into Ireland, to preach the Gospel, where the worship of idols still generally reigned. He devoted himself entirely to the salvation of these barbarians. He travelled over the whole island, penetrating into the remotest corners, and such was the fruit of his preachings and sufferings that he baptized an infinite number of people. He ordained everywhere clergymen, induced women to live in holy widowhood and continence, consecrated virgins to Christ, and instituted monks. He took nothing from the many thousands whom he baptized, and often gave back the little presents which some laid on the altar, choosing rather to mortify the fervent than to scandalize the weak or the infidels. He gave freely of his own, however, both to pagans and Christians, distributed large alms to the poor in the provinces where he passed, made presents to the kings, judging that necessary for the progress of the Gospel, and maintained and educated many children, whom he trained up to serve at the altar. The happy success of his labors cost him many persecutions. A certain prince named Corotick, a Christian in name only, disturbed the peace of his flock. This tyrant, having made a descent into Ireland, plundered the country where St. Patrick had been just conferring confirmation on a great number of neophytes, who were yet in their white garments after Baptism. Corotick massacred many, and carried away others, whom he sold to the infidel Picts or Scots. The next day the Saint sent the barbarian a letter entreating him to restore the Christian captives, and at least part of the booty he had taken, that the poor people might not perish for want, but was only answered by railleries. The Saint, therefore, wrote with his own hand a letter. In it he styles himself a sinner and an ignorant man; he declares, nevertheless, that he is established Bishop of Ireland, and pronounces Corotick and the other parricides and accomplices separated from him and from Jesus Christ, Whose place he holds, forbidding any to eat with them, or to receive their alms, till they should have satisfied God by the tears of sincere penance, and restored the servants of Jesus Christ to their liberty. This letter expresses his most tender love for his flock, and his grief for those who had been slain, yet mingled with joy because they reign with the prophets, apostles, and martyrs. Jocelin assures us that Corotick was overtaken by the divine vengeance. St. Patrick held several councils to settle the discipline of the Church which he had planted. St. Bernard and the tradition of the country testify that St. Patrick fixed his metropolitan see at Armagh. He established some other bishops, as appears by his Council and other monuments. He not only converted the whole country by his preaching and wonderful miracles, but also cultivated this vineyard with so fruitful a benediction and increase from heaven as to render Ireland a most flourishing garden in the Church of God, and a country of Saints. Many particulars are related of the labors of St. Patrick, which we pass over. In the first year of his mission he attempted to preach Christ in the general assembly of the kings and states of all Ireland, held yearly at Tara, the residence of the chief king, styled the monarch of the whole island, and the principal seat of the Druids, or priests, and their paganish rites. The son of Neill, the chief monarch, declared himself against the preacher; however, Patrick converted several, and, on his road to that place, the father of St. Benignus, his immediate successor in the see of Armagh. He afterwards converted and baptized the Icings of Dublin and Munster, and the seven sons of the king of Connaught, with the greatest part of their subjects, and before his death almost the whole island. He founded a monastery at Armagh; another called Domnach-Padraig, or Patrick’s Church; also a third, named Sabhal-Padraig; and filled the country with churches and schools of piety and learning, the reputation of which, for the three succeeding centuries, drew many foreigners into Ireland. He died and was buried at Down in Ulster. His body was found there in a church of his name in 1185, and translated to another part of the same church. Ireland is the nursery whence St. Patrick sent forth his missionaries and teachers. Glastonbury and Lindisfarne, Ripon and Malmesbury, bear testimony to the labors of Irish priests and bishops for the conversion of England. Iona is to this day the most venerated spot in Scotland. Columban, Fiacre, Gall, and many others evangelized the “rough places” of France and Switzerland. America and Australia, in modern times, owe their Christianity to the faith and zeal of the sons and daughters of St. Patrick. Reflection.—By the instrumentality of St. Patrick the Faith is now as fresh in Ireland, even in this cold nineteenth century, as when it was first planted. Ask him to obtain for you the special grace of his children—to prefer the loss of every earthly good to the least compromise in matters of faith Source: Lives of the Saints, by Alban Butler, Benziger Bros. ed.	<urn:uuid:150b327d-1d5a-47d8-84a5-b747bcd36c36>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://catholicnctv.com/saints/march-17-st-patrick-bishop-apostle-of-ireland/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00470.warc.gz	en	0.987025	1,970	3.296875	3	[ 0.3396151661872864, 0.31182539463043213, -0.022150918841362, -0.3251115679740906, -0.12370878458023071, -0.2682252526283264, 0.30936622619628906, -0.24556471407413483, 0.28927332162857056, -0.1437714695930481, -0.36628615856170654, -0.2905612885951996, -0.1080223098397255, 0.17673429846763...	1	stained glass window from Saint Patrick Catholic Church, Junction City, Ohio IF the virtue of children reflects an honor on their parents, much more justly is the name of St. Patrick rendered illustrious by the innumerable lights of sanctity with which the Church of Ireland shone during many ages, and by the colonies of Saints with which it peopled many foreign countries; for, under God, its inhabitants derived from their glorious apostle the streams of that eminent sanctity by which they were long conspicuous to the whole world. St. Patrick was born towards the close of the fourth century, in a village called Bonaven Taberniæ, which seems to be the town of Kilpatrick, on the mouth of the river Clyde, in Scotland, between Dumbarton and Glasgow. He calls himself both a Briton and a Roman, or of a mixed extraction, and says his father was of a good family named Calphurnius, and a denizen of a neighboring city of the Romans, who not long after abandoned Britain, in 409. Some writers call his mother Conchessa, and say she was niece to St. Martin of Tours. In his sixteenth year he was carried into captivity by certain barbarians, who took him into Ireland, where he was obliged to keep cattle on the mountains and in the forests, in hunger and nakedness, amidst snow, rain, and ice. Whilst he lived in this suffering condition, God had pity on his soul, and quickened him to a sense of his duty by the impulse of a strong interior grace. The young man had recourse to Him with his whole heart in fervent prayer and fasting; and from that time faith and the love of God acquired continually new strength in his tender soul. After six months spent in slavery under the same master, St. Patrick was admonished by God in a dream to return to his own country, and informed that a ship was then ready to sail thither. He went at once to the sea-coast, though at a great distance, and found the vessel; but could not obtain his passage, probably for want of money. The Saint returned towards his hut, praying as he went; but the sailors, though pagans, called him back and took him on board. After three days’ sail they made land, but wandered twenty-seven days through deserts, and were a long while distressed for want of provisions, finding nothing to eat. Patrick had often spoken to the company on the infinite power of God; they therefore asked him why he did not pray for relief. Animated by a strong faith, he assured them that if they would address themselves with their whole hearts to the true God He would hear and succor them. They did so, and on the same day met with a herd of swine. From that time provisions never failed them, till on the twenty-seventh day they came info a country that was cultivated and inhabited. Some years afterwards he was again led captive, but recovered his liberty after two months. When he was at home with his parents, God manifested to him, by divers visions, that He destined him to the great work of the conversion of Ireland. The writers of his life say that after his second captivity he travelled into Gaul and Italy, and saw St. Martin, St. Germanus of Auxerre, and Pope Celestine, and that he received his mission and the apostolical benediction from this Pope, who died in 432. It is certain that he spent many years in preparing himself for his sacred calling. Great opposition was made against his episcopal consecration and mission, both by his own relatives and by the clergy. These made him great offers in order to detain him among them, and endeavored to affright him by exaggerating the dangers to which he exposed himself amidst the enemies of the Romans and Britons, who did not know God. All these temptations threw the Saint into great perplexities; but the Lord, Whose will he consulted by earnest prayer, supported him, and he persevered in his resolution. He forsook his family, sold his birthright and dignity, to serve strangers, and consecrated his soul to God, to carry His name to the ends of the earth. In this disposition he passed into Ireland, to preach the Gospel, where the worship of idols still generally reigned. He devoted himself entirely to the salvation of these barbarians. He travelled over the whole island, penetrating into the remotest corners, and such was the fruit of his preachings and sufferings that he baptized an infinite number of people. He ordained everywhere clergymen, induced women to live in holy widowhood and continence, consecrated virgins to Christ, and instituted monks. He took nothing from the many thousands whom he baptized, and often gave back the little presents which some laid on the altar, choosing rather to mortify the fervent than to scandalize the weak or the infidels. He gave freely of his own, however, both to pagans and Christians, distributed large alms to the poor in the provinces where he passed, made presents to the kings, judging that necessary for the progress of the Gospel, and maintained and educated many children, whom he trained up to serve at the altar. The happy success of his labors cost him many persecutions. A certain prince named Corotick, a Christian in name only, disturbed the peace of his flock. This tyrant, having made a descent into Ireland, plundered the country where St. Patrick had been just conferring confirmation on a great number of neophytes, who were yet in their white garments after Baptism. Corotick massacred many, and carried away others, whom he sold to the infidel Picts or Scots. The next day the Saint sent the barbarian a letter entreating him to restore the Christian captives, and at least part of the booty he had taken, that the poor people might not perish for want, but was only answered by railleries. The Saint, therefore, wrote with his own hand a letter. In it he styles himself a sinner and an ignorant man; he declares, nevertheless, that he is established Bishop of Ireland, and pronounces Corotick and the other parricides and accomplices separated from him and from Jesus Christ, Whose place he holds, forbidding any to eat with them, or to receive their alms, till they should have satisfied God by the tears of sincere penance, and restored the servants of Jesus Christ to their liberty. This letter expresses his most tender love for his flock, and his grief for those who had been slain, yet mingled with joy because they reign with the prophets, apostles, and martyrs. Jocelin assures us that Corotick was overtaken by the divine vengeance. St. Patrick held several councils to settle the discipline of the Church which he had planted. St. Bernard and the tradition of the country testify that St. Patrick fixed his metropolitan see at Armagh. He established some other bishops, as appears by his Council and other monuments. He not only converted the whole country by his preaching and wonderful miracles, but also cultivated this vineyard with so fruitful a benediction and increase from heaven as to render Ireland a most flourishing garden in the Church of God, and a country of Saints. Many particulars are related of the labors of St. Patrick, which we pass over. In the first year of his mission he attempted to preach Christ in the general assembly of the kings and states of all Ireland, held yearly at Tara, the residence of the chief king, styled the monarch of the whole island, and the principal seat of the Druids, or priests, and their paganish rites. The son of Neill, the chief monarch, declared himself against the preacher; however, Patrick converted several, and, on his road to that place, the father of St. Benignus, his immediate successor in the see of Armagh. He afterwards converted and baptized the Icings of Dublin and Munster, and the seven sons of the king of Connaught, with the greatest part of their subjects, and before his death almost the whole island. He founded a monastery at Armagh; another called Domnach-Padraig, or Patrick’s Church; also a third, named Sabhal-Padraig; and filled the country with churches and schools of piety and learning, the reputation of which, for the three succeeding centuries, drew many foreigners into Ireland. He died and was buried at Down in Ulster. His body was found there in a church of his name in 1185, and translated to another part of the same church. Ireland is the nursery whence St. Patrick sent forth his missionaries and teachers. Glastonbury and Lindisfarne, Ripon and Malmesbury, bear testimony to the labors of Irish priests and bishops for the conversion of England. Iona is to this day the most venerated spot in Scotland. Columban, Fiacre, Gall, and many others evangelized the “rough places” of France and Switzerland. America and Australia, in modern times, owe their Christianity to the faith and zeal of the sons and daughters of St. Patrick. Reflection.—By the instrumentality of St. Patrick the Faith is now as fresh in Ireland, even in this cold nineteenth century, as when it was first planted. Ask him to obtain for you the special grace of his children—to prefer the loss of every earthly good to the least compromise in matters of faith Source: Lives of the Saints, by Alban Butler, Benziger Bros. ed.	1,978	ENGLISH	1
Lochinvar is a ballad about romance and courage penned by Sir Walter Scott. The poem starts with the introduction of the protagonist by the name of Lochinvar. He is a courageous knight and undeterred romantic. He is described as the dawning of the sun (from the west). The brave-heart is a skilled fighter and needs no other weapon than his stately sword to send terror down his enemies’ spine. He is a sole crusader who enters the field of battle with total confidence in his abilities and swordsmanship. Another striking trait of Lochinvar is his loyalty and resoluteness in love. He loves Ellen, who is getting married to a timid and lethargic man. She and Lochinvar is a perfect match but Ellen’s father, the King, disapproves of the knight. Now, the poet describes various feats and accomplishments of the young Lochinvar. He never leaves any battle half-fought. He is tireless in his pursuit of victory and glory. He has swum through rivers like River Eske which is very deep and fast where it was being crossed by some stream. It was a deep river that he crossed bravely and without any fear. But his final and most difficult battle is at the Netherby gate where his beloved Ellen has agreed to marry another man who is not worthy of her beauty and grace. Now, he has arrived at the battle to win back his lost love. Ellen considers Lochinvar coward who left her behind in the war of love. He was heartbroken and disillusioned by Lochinvar’s passion for wars over love. Now, the knight gets off at the hall. His presence sends a flutter in the crowd of women, men and Ellen’s family His arrival is considered an open act of outrage, brave but provocative. However, the meek groom does not even offer a syllable of protest or challenge. So it was the King who thunders a resounding declaration at Lochinvar. He inquires if he had come to fight or give her blessings to the marrying couple. Lochinvar was equally defiant and bold in his reply. He said that he had already given up his pursuit of Ellen as the King had previously rebuffed his marriage proposal. He reassures Ellen and her people that he had only come to dance and drink in celebration. He goes on to proclaim that there were numerous maidens in Scotland, more beautiful and desirable than Ellen, who would be jumping at the chance of marrying the gallant hero. Ellen offers Lochinvar a glass of wine after consecrating it with a kiss. The knight accepted it and drank it in one breath and threw the glass in anger. He is tormented by the fact that Ellen married another man and betrayed his love. However, he offers her a final dance together. Ellen is aggrieved at his contempt but agrees. The lovers have united again. She kept blushing unable to think clearly. But she kept a smile on her face signifying the upwelling affections for Lochinvar. Her eyes are awash with tears at the prospect of marrying another man and losing him forever tugs at her heartstrings. Such mixed emotions were tearing her from inside. He took one dance with the bride after she blessed his wine. The pair danced and enraptured the whole crowd. Lochinvar’s stature and strength complemented Ellen’s poise and grace. The whole hall was sparkled with their starry presence. Ellen’s mother was anxious, her father infuriated and the groom helpless and humiliated. They could not do anything to drive a wedge between the reunited lovers. The bridesmaids were entranced by the perfect match of Ellen and Lochinvar as they swooned across the floor. There were soft cries of exultation and admiration at the divine match they both made. Lochinvar touched Ellen’s hand and whispered in her ear. It was as if her disaffection for his alienation just melted away. She was hypnotized by his love. They both ran across the hall and reached for Lochinvar’s horse. He flung her on the horse and rose to take the reins in his hands. Determined and defiant Lochinvar proclaimed that he had won back his love and rode as hard as he could to get away from the chasing pack of Ellen’s kinsmen. The various clans of Scotland could not muster enough power to arrest the fleeting couple and imprison their unfettered love. Ultimately, they relented and Ellen was never seen again in the region. She and her beloved rode in triumphantly into the sunset. The story of Lochinvar became the favorite fable for the people so much so that it was considered unmatched in terms of its heroism, romanticism, gallantry, and lion-heartedness. The poem Lochinvar intertwines beautifully intricacies of romance, war, relationships, and power-play. It also celebrates the triumph of love over discord and heroic actions over grandiose statements. Even though there is no explicit fighting in the poem, it has a wealth of implicit and cold moments of battle and one-upmanship and a final victory.	<urn:uuid:1a54a4fa-28a7-4d43-acac-37ac43fb7b08>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://englishsummary.com/lochinvar-poem-summary-walter-scott/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00266.warc.gz	en	0.984726	1,089	3.5625	4	[ -0.6454766988754272, 0.11842852830886841, -0.3397796154022217, 0.2619706392288208, -0.30055510997772217, -0.27961599826812744, 0.41125333309173584, -0.019194595515727997, 0.27539393305778503, -0.20266583561897278, -0.1933213472366333, -0.00032350700348615646, 0.555736243724823, -0.02639367...	2	Lochinvar is a ballad about romance and courage penned by Sir Walter Scott. The poem starts with the introduction of the protagonist by the name of Lochinvar. He is a courageous knight and undeterred romantic. He is described as the dawning of the sun (from the west). The brave-heart is a skilled fighter and needs no other weapon than his stately sword to send terror down his enemies’ spine. He is a sole crusader who enters the field of battle with total confidence in his abilities and swordsmanship. Another striking trait of Lochinvar is his loyalty and resoluteness in love. He loves Ellen, who is getting married to a timid and lethargic man. She and Lochinvar is a perfect match but Ellen’s father, the King, disapproves of the knight. Now, the poet describes various feats and accomplishments of the young Lochinvar. He never leaves any battle half-fought. He is tireless in his pursuit of victory and glory. He has swum through rivers like River Eske which is very deep and fast where it was being crossed by some stream. It was a deep river that he crossed bravely and without any fear. But his final and most difficult battle is at the Netherby gate where his beloved Ellen has agreed to marry another man who is not worthy of her beauty and grace. Now, he has arrived at the battle to win back his lost love. Ellen considers Lochinvar coward who left her behind in the war of love. He was heartbroken and disillusioned by Lochinvar’s passion for wars over love. Now, the knight gets off at the hall. His presence sends a flutter in the crowd of women, men and Ellen’s family His arrival is considered an open act of outrage, brave but provocative. However, the meek groom does not even offer a syllable of protest or challenge. So it was the King who thunders a resounding declaration at Lochinvar. He inquires if he had come to fight or give her blessings to the marrying couple. Lochinvar was equally defiant and bold in his reply. He said that he had already given up his pursuit of Ellen as the King had previously rebuffed his marriage proposal. He reassures Ellen and her people that he had only come to dance and drink in celebration. He goes on to proclaim that there were numerous maidens in Scotland, more beautiful and desirable than Ellen, who would be jumping at the chance of marrying the gallant hero. Ellen offers Lochinvar a glass of wine after consecrating it with a kiss. The knight accepted it and drank it in one breath and threw the glass in anger. He is tormented by the fact that Ellen married another man and betrayed his love. However, he offers her a final dance together. Ellen is aggrieved at his contempt but agrees. The lovers have united again. She kept blushing unable to think clearly. But she kept a smile on her face signifying the upwelling affections for Lochinvar. Her eyes are awash with tears at the prospect of marrying another man and losing him forever tugs at her heartstrings. Such mixed emotions were tearing her from inside. He took one dance with the bride after she blessed his wine. The pair danced and enraptured the whole crowd. Lochinvar’s stature and strength complemented Ellen’s poise and grace. The whole hall was sparkled with their starry presence. Ellen’s mother was anxious, her father infuriated and the groom helpless and humiliated. They could not do anything to drive a wedge between the reunited lovers. The bridesmaids were entranced by the perfect match of Ellen and Lochinvar as they swooned across the floor. There were soft cries of exultation and admiration at the divine match they both made. Lochinvar touched Ellen’s hand and whispered in her ear. It was as if her disaffection for his alienation just melted away. She was hypnotized by his love. They both ran across the hall and reached for Lochinvar’s horse. He flung her on the horse and rose to take the reins in his hands. Determined and defiant Lochinvar proclaimed that he had won back his love and rode as hard as he could to get away from the chasing pack of Ellen’s kinsmen. The various clans of Scotland could not muster enough power to arrest the fleeting couple and imprison their unfettered love. Ultimately, they relented and Ellen was never seen again in the region. She and her beloved rode in triumphantly into the sunset. The story of Lochinvar became the favorite fable for the people so much so that it was considered unmatched in terms of its heroism, romanticism, gallantry, and lion-heartedness. The poem Lochinvar intertwines beautifully intricacies of romance, war, relationships, and power-play. It also celebrates the triumph of love over discord and heroic actions over grandiose statements. Even though there is no explicit fighting in the poem, it has a wealth of implicit and cold moments of battle and one-upmanship and a final victory.	1,041	ENGLISH	1
City of Caves City of Caves is a visitor attraction in Nottingham based on a network of caves, carved out of sandstone that have been variously used over the years as a tannery, public house cellars, and as an air raid shelter. The caves are listed as a scheduled monument by Historic England under the name Caves at Drury Hill, Drury Hill being the medieval street under which they were formerly located until it was demolished to make way for the Broadmarsh Shopping Centre. The newer City of Caves name refers to the fact that the city of Nottingham has hundreds of man-made caves, which have been in use for over a thousand years. The City of Caves was accessed from the upper level of the Broadmarsh Shopping Centre but can currently be accessed from Garner's Hill due to construction works in the Broadmarsh Centre, scheduled to finish in 2021. The attraction, part of the National Justice Museum, has been run by the Egalitarian Trust since opening 2004. 1 What makes this place unique is the fact that there is no other area throughout the whole of Britain that has more man-made caves than the one located in the city of Nottingham. Known as the “City of Caves,” the area which is still being explored by archaeologists consists of a complex of around 500 caves carved out of sandstone, believed to have existed for as long as the city or even earlier than that. From dungeons to cellars, the eerie underground caves have been used for various purposes, including brewhouses for beer. It’s no wonder that many caves were used as brewhouses since the temperature inside the caves created ideal conditions for the purpose. As a matter of fact, the caves under the Nottingham Castle were used for brewing and storing beer. Most recently, the caves were used as air raid shelters during World War II. They played a crucial role in saving the lives of many citizens of Nottingham during the Nottingham Blitz, which occurred on May 8, 1941, and up to this day, it remains Nottingham’s biggest raid. The Germans dropped over 1,000 bombs on the city, killing 200 people and injuring several hundred more. But many people escaped to the centuries-old caves, which were the best possible air raid shelters the city could afford during the darkest hours of the war. The citizens of Nottingham and archaeologists keep discovering more and more man-made caves every year and over the past decade, more than 100 caves have been discovered. It is believed that there are over 200 caves under Nottingham yet to be discovered.2	<urn:uuid:cf9c1d24-c26c-4d3b-82ab-6a05f65c0ba0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nationalmastershockey.com.au/blog/mathos-blog/city-of-caves	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00075.warc.gz	en	0.982861	526	3.390625	3	[ -0.04733356460928917, -0.10242153704166412, 0.2708130478858948, 0.1501578390598297, 0.011556984856724739, 0.033916547894477844, 0.40483343601226807, -0.4002392292022705, -0.3929075002670288, 0.2903726398944855, 0.03020605817437172, -0.4703293442726135, -0.37297874689102173, -0.014485726132...	3	City of Caves City of Caves is a visitor attraction in Nottingham based on a network of caves, carved out of sandstone that have been variously used over the years as a tannery, public house cellars, and as an air raid shelter. The caves are listed as a scheduled monument by Historic England under the name Caves at Drury Hill, Drury Hill being the medieval street under which they were formerly located until it was demolished to make way for the Broadmarsh Shopping Centre. The newer City of Caves name refers to the fact that the city of Nottingham has hundreds of man-made caves, which have been in use for over a thousand years. The City of Caves was accessed from the upper level of the Broadmarsh Shopping Centre but can currently be accessed from Garner's Hill due to construction works in the Broadmarsh Centre, scheduled to finish in 2021. The attraction, part of the National Justice Museum, has been run by the Egalitarian Trust since opening 2004. 1 What makes this place unique is the fact that there is no other area throughout the whole of Britain that has more man-made caves than the one located in the city of Nottingham. Known as the “City of Caves,” the area which is still being explored by archaeologists consists of a complex of around 500 caves carved out of sandstone, believed to have existed for as long as the city or even earlier than that. From dungeons to cellars, the eerie underground caves have been used for various purposes, including brewhouses for beer. It’s no wonder that many caves were used as brewhouses since the temperature inside the caves created ideal conditions for the purpose. As a matter of fact, the caves under the Nottingham Castle were used for brewing and storing beer. Most recently, the caves were used as air raid shelters during World War II. They played a crucial role in saving the lives of many citizens of Nottingham during the Nottingham Blitz, which occurred on May 8, 1941, and up to this day, it remains Nottingham’s biggest raid. The Germans dropped over 1,000 bombs on the city, killing 200 people and injuring several hundred more. But many people escaped to the centuries-old caves, which were the best possible air raid shelters the city could afford during the darkest hours of the war. The citizens of Nottingham and archaeologists keep discovering more and more man-made caves every year and over the past decade, more than 100 caves have been discovered. It is believed that there are over 200 caves under Nottingham yet to be discovered.2	541	ENGLISH	1
Watercolor painting is one of the most accessible forms of art. More likely than not, everyone has tried this type of painting at some point in their life, whether it be in art class as a child or just discovering it as an adult. Despite this familiarity, however, many people don’t know its rich history and some of the most famous watercolor artists who have made the medium what it is today. Similar to textile art, watercolor painting has roots in Paleolithic Europe, but it gained some popularity in manuscript illumination in the Middle Ages. Using brightly colored pigments, artists illustrated small scenes and decorative designs in the margins of handwritten books. These elaborate texts weren’t for everyone—it took four people to create one illuminated manuscript—and the often-religious works were mostly confined to monasteries. The Renaissance brought watercolor painting into the spotlight. It went beyond decorative manuscripts and into the works of artists like Albrecht Dürer. He, like other easel painters during that time, used watercolor for sketches, copies, or informal drawings. Watercolor painting was also adopted by the elite class as part of their overall education and eventually popularized—particularly in England—as a way to chronicle one’s travels. But while watercolor painting was well known, it was not taken as seriously as oil painting or printmaking. In the 19th century, however, watercolors had a major bump in status. There was a general excitement about worldwide exploration, and wildlife and nature illustrations were used to illustrate scientific publications. Artist and ornithologist John James Audubon represents the height of this movement, and he used watercolor painting to help bring his realistic drawings of birds to life. His famous book, The Birds of America (1827 – 1839), identified 25 new species. With it, he began an artistic tradition that still lives on today—field guides as illustrated with watercolors. While Audubon had a restrained, technical approach to his work, other famous watercolor artists weren’t as precise. Georgia O’Keeffe, for instance, played with the fluidity of the medium to create paintings that are beautiful fields of intense color. Like Audubon, she was inspired by the natural world, but her interpretation of it is the complete opposite. Together, they demonstrate the incredible range that watercolor has. To understand the appeal of watercolor painting today, learn more about some of the most famous watercolor artists throughout history. Albrecht Dürer (1471 – 1528) Albrecht Dürer was a man of many talents and known for his paintings, woodcuts, and engravings. In terms of watercolor, he was considered one of the first prominent European painters to use the medium in his work. This took the form of sketches of landscapes and nature, which we’re still able to see today thanks to his almost-obsessive collection of work. J.M.W. Turner (1775 – 1851) Like Dürer, J.M.W. Turner dabbled in more than watercolor painting. Counting poetry and teaching as part of his interests, his general artistic talent was nurtured from a young age. He used his skills in watercolors to show in exhibitions and produce commercial works that provided him his “first real income.” Later, Turner used the medium as a way to chronicle his travels—his passion for it never waning. The last decade of his working life featured a surge in watercolor painting production. William Blake (1757 – 1827) William Blake is considered one of the greatest poets in the English language, but his art is noteworthy as well. After studying it as a child, he had an apprenticeship with an engraver before trying watercolor painting. Eventually, he perfected his technique of “fresco,” which is basically monotype printing; he first painted a design on a flat surface (like a copper plate) and then applied it to paper. The designs were then individually finished in ink and watercolor, ensuring that each image was one of a kind.	<urn:uuid:a9ad59b6-4ad2-4629-a485-e6bf7b0bb4a6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mymodernmet.com/famous-watercolor-artists/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00317.warc.gz	en	0.981944	861	3.5625	4	[ 0.22366243600845337, -0.19490480422973633, 0.09927812963724136, 0.24360933899879456, -0.1493905931711197, 0.13775154948234558, -0.09271757304668427, 0.0003211663570255041, 0.06531469523906708, 0.1788155436515808, -0.10752958059310913, -0.13140907883644104, -0.06419476866722107, -0.13297457...	3	Watercolor painting is one of the most accessible forms of art. More likely than not, everyone has tried this type of painting at some point in their life, whether it be in art class as a child or just discovering it as an adult. Despite this familiarity, however, many people don’t know its rich history and some of the most famous watercolor artists who have made the medium what it is today. Similar to textile art, watercolor painting has roots in Paleolithic Europe, but it gained some popularity in manuscript illumination in the Middle Ages. Using brightly colored pigments, artists illustrated small scenes and decorative designs in the margins of handwritten books. These elaborate texts weren’t for everyone—it took four people to create one illuminated manuscript—and the often-religious works were mostly confined to monasteries. The Renaissance brought watercolor painting into the spotlight. It went beyond decorative manuscripts and into the works of artists like Albrecht Dürer. He, like other easel painters during that time, used watercolor for sketches, copies, or informal drawings. Watercolor painting was also adopted by the elite class as part of their overall education and eventually popularized—particularly in England—as a way to chronicle one’s travels. But while watercolor painting was well known, it was not taken as seriously as oil painting or printmaking. In the 19th century, however, watercolors had a major bump in status. There was a general excitement about worldwide exploration, and wildlife and nature illustrations were used to illustrate scientific publications. Artist and ornithologist John James Audubon represents the height of this movement, and he used watercolor painting to help bring his realistic drawings of birds to life. His famous book, The Birds of America (1827 – 1839), identified 25 new species. With it, he began an artistic tradition that still lives on today—field guides as illustrated with watercolors. While Audubon had a restrained, technical approach to his work, other famous watercolor artists weren’t as precise. Georgia O’Keeffe, for instance, played with the fluidity of the medium to create paintings that are beautiful fields of intense color. Like Audubon, she was inspired by the natural world, but her interpretation of it is the complete opposite. Together, they demonstrate the incredible range that watercolor has. To understand the appeal of watercolor painting today, learn more about some of the most famous watercolor artists throughout history. Albrecht Dürer (1471 – 1528) Albrecht Dürer was a man of many talents and known for his paintings, woodcuts, and engravings. In terms of watercolor, he was considered one of the first prominent European painters to use the medium in his work. This took the form of sketches of landscapes and nature, which we’re still able to see today thanks to his almost-obsessive collection of work. J.M.W. Turner (1775 – 1851) Like Dürer, J.M.W. Turner dabbled in more than watercolor painting. Counting poetry and teaching as part of his interests, his general artistic talent was nurtured from a young age. He used his skills in watercolors to show in exhibitions and produce commercial works that provided him his “first real income.” Later, Turner used the medium as a way to chronicle his travels—his passion for it never waning. The last decade of his working life featured a surge in watercolor painting production. William Blake (1757 – 1827) William Blake is considered one of the greatest poets in the English language, but his art is noteworthy as well. After studying it as a child, he had an apprenticeship with an engraver before trying watercolor painting. Eventually, he perfected his technique of “fresco,” which is basically monotype printing; he first painted a design on a flat surface (like a copper plate) and then applied it to paper. The designs were then individually finished in ink and watercolor, ensuring that each image was one of a kind.	845	ENGLISH	1
NCERT Solutions for Class 10 English Chapter 5 - Footprints Without Feet English is a widely used language across the world. To improve your English communication skills, the CBSE Class 10 syllabus focuses on English Grammar, English Comprehension and English Composition. There are several reading and writing exercises on TopperLearning to study the topics present in the CBSE Class 10 English syllabus. We make it easy for you to understand English grammar concepts such as parts of speech, idioms, prepositions, determiners, etc. If you are visual learner, you can watch CBSE Class 10 English videos to understand the concepts. Also, you can score more by solving the CBSE Class 10 English Sample papers or learning from our CBSE Class 10 English notes. Answering the questions in the CBSE Board Class 10 exams can be challenging for you. To support you in your studies, we provide step-by-step explanations for CBSE Class 10 English textbook questions. Our CBSE Class 10 English solutions are prepared by qualified academic experts. So, get started without stress and remember, we are there to help you score more marks. TopperLearning provides study materials for CBSE Class 10 English which will help you to score more marks in the examination. Students can find study resources like highly interactive video lessons, important question banks, sample papers, past year question papers and many more fun learning sessions which will help them crack the examination with ease. Our study materials for CBSE Class 10 English are created by subject experts and teachers of English. Our video lessons will help you to clear all your concepts. Apart from all these resources, we provide free NCERT textbook solutions to our CBSE Class 10 students. For revision and practise, you can refer to our sample papers. At TopperLearning, we believe in making study materials fun and compelling, so that students get a strong grip on their studies. Chapter 5 - Footprints Without Feet Exercise 26 Griffin, the scientist, had carried out an experiment and become invisible. However he happened to step in some mud, and left footprints as he walked which were observed by two boys who followed them fascinated, until the muddy impressions became fainter and finally disappeared altogether. Since it was mid winter he slipped into a big London store for warmth. There he fitted himself out with warm clothes. Soon, with shoes, an overcoat and a wide-brimmed hat, he became a fully dressed and visible person. He settled down to sleep on a pile of quilts and in this way was visible to the assistants at the store the next morning. Griffin, the scientist, had carried out an experiment to prove that the human body could become invisible. Finally he swallowed certain rare drugs and his body became transparent. Brilliant scientist though he was, Griffin was rather a lawless person. His landlord disliked him and tried to eject him. In revenge Griffin set fire to the house. To get away without being seen he had removed his clothes. Thus it was that he became homeless and was wandering on the streets, without clothes, without money, and quite invisible. Chapter 5 - Footprints Without Feet Exercise 28 The arrival of a stranger at an inn in winter was in itself a strange occurrence. Mrs. Hall the landlord’s wife, made every effort to be friendly with the stranger but Griffin had no desire to talk, and told her that his reason for coming to Iping was a desire for solitude. He did not wish to be disturbed in his work. Besides, an accident had affected his face. His desire for solitude, his uncommon appearance, strange habits and irritable temper all made Mrs. Hall find the scientist eccentric. Very early in the morning a clergyman and his wife were awakened by noises in the study. Creeping downstairs, they heard the chink of money being taken from the clergyman’s desk. Without making any noise and with a poker grasped firmly in his hand, the clergyman flung open the door and shouted ‘surrender’. To their amazement -they realised that the room appeared to be empty. They looked under the desk, and behind the curtains, and even up the chimney but there wasn’t a sign of anybody. Yet the desk had been opened and the housekeeping money was missing. The clergyman kept saying for the rest of the day that it was an ‘Extraordinary affair!” The other extraordinary things that happened at the inn was when the landlord and his wife were up early, and were surprised to see the scientist’s door wide open. Usually it was shut and locked, and when they peeped round the door, they saw nobody, but, the bedclothes were cold, showing that the scientist must have been up for some time; what was stranger was that the clothes and bandages that he always wore were lying about the room. Suddenly Mrs. Hall heard a sniff close to her ear and a moment later the hat on the bedpost leapt up and dashed itself into her face. Then the bedroom chair came alive and springing into the air it charged straight at her, legs foremost. As she and her husband turned away in terror, the extraordinary chair pushed them both out of the room and then appeared to slam and lock the door after them. Mrs. Hall almost fell down the stairs in hysterics and was convinced that the room was haunted by spirits, and that the stranger had somehow caused these to enter into her furniture. When news of the burglary at the clergyman’s home became known, the strange scientist was strongly suspected of having had a hand in it. Suspicion grew even stronger when he suddenly produced some ready cash, though he had admitted not long before that he had no money. When Mrs. Hall questioned him about the mysterious happenings in the room the bandages, whiskers, spectacles, and even nose were thrown off and the horrified people in the bar found themselves staring at a headless man. Mr Jaffers, the constable, was quite surprised to find that he had to arrest a man without a head. There followed a remarkable scene as the policeman tried to get hold of a man who was becoming more and more invisible as he threw off one garment after another Some people tried to help him, but found themselves hit by blows that seemed to come from nowhere. In the end Jaffers was knocked unconscious as he made a last attempt to hold on to the unseen scientist. Chapter 5 - Footprints Without Feet Exercise 31 Griffin, had carried out experiment after experiment to prove that the human body could become invisible. Finally he swallowed certain rare drugs and his body became as transparent as a sheet of glass though it also remained as solid as glass. Griffin however was rather a lawless person. His landlord disliked him and tried to eject him. In revenge Griffin set fire to the house. To get away without being seen he had to remove his clothes. Thus it was that he became a homeless wanderer, without clothes, without money, and quite invisible. Since it was mid winter, he entered a big London store for warmth and as soon as the doors were shut he was able to give himself the pleasure of clothing and feeding himself without regard to expense. He broke open boxes and wrappers and fitted himself out with warm clothes. Once out of the big store and shivering with cold he hurried to Drury Lane, the centre of the theatre world and found a suitable shop. He made his way, invisible, upstairs and came out a little later wearing bandages round his forehead, dark glasses, false nose, big bushy side-whiskers, and a large hat. To escape without being seen, he callously attacked the shopkeeper from behind, after which he robbed him of all the money he could find. Griffin was a brilliant scientist who carried out experiment after experiment to prove that the human body could become invisible. Finally he swallowed certain rare drugs and his body became as transparent as a sheet of glass — though it also remained as solid as glass. But he was not an honest person as he used his discovery of invisibility to attack and hurt people, steal money from shopkeepers and others like the clergy and made people furious and scared of him. At the store he fed and clothed himself without regard to expense. He was very revengeful and because his landlord disliked him and tried to eject him he set fireto the house. Why choose TopperLearning’s CBSE Class 10 study materials? We provide CBSE Class 10 Chapter-wise English lesson explanation as per the latest CBSE syllabus. For each subject, we have 2000+ questions (with answers) and 10+ sample papers to support you with your exam preparations. Also, we respond to doubts posted in our forum within 24 hours. Our MIQs and revision notes are perfect for last-minute revisions. With our support, you can feel at ease and work successfully towards your goal of becoming a CBSE topper. Kindly Sign up for a personalised experience - Ask Study Doubts - Sample Papers - Past Year Papers - Textbook Solutions Verify mobile number Enter the OTP sent to your number	<urn:uuid:8f0971a0-baaa-4596-83ef-0d82fde80756>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.topperlearning.com/ncert-solutions/cbse-class-10-english/footprints-without-feet/footprints-without-feet	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00318.warc.gz	en	0.98324	1,895	3.96875	4	[ -0.5150213241577148, 0.07379531115293503, 0.24216502904891968, -0.4638229310512543, -0.15757691860198975, 0.04570678994059563, 0.08906923234462738, 0.37287718057632446, -0.09084257483482361, -0.2829896807670593, 0.19494928419589996, -0.18399259448051453, 0.06968377530574799, 0.170423984527...	1	NCERT Solutions for Class 10 English Chapter 5 - Footprints Without Feet English is a widely used language across the world. To improve your English communication skills, the CBSE Class 10 syllabus focuses on English Grammar, English Comprehension and English Composition. There are several reading and writing exercises on TopperLearning to study the topics present in the CBSE Class 10 English syllabus. We make it easy for you to understand English grammar concepts such as parts of speech, idioms, prepositions, determiners, etc. If you are visual learner, you can watch CBSE Class 10 English videos to understand the concepts. Also, you can score more by solving the CBSE Class 10 English Sample papers or learning from our CBSE Class 10 English notes. Answering the questions in the CBSE Board Class 10 exams can be challenging for you. To support you in your studies, we provide step-by-step explanations for CBSE Class 10 English textbook questions. Our CBSE Class 10 English solutions are prepared by qualified academic experts. So, get started without stress and remember, we are there to help you score more marks. TopperLearning provides study materials for CBSE Class 10 English which will help you to score more marks in the examination. Students can find study resources like highly interactive video lessons, important question banks, sample papers, past year question papers and many more fun learning sessions which will help them crack the examination with ease. Our study materials for CBSE Class 10 English are created by subject experts and teachers of English. Our video lessons will help you to clear all your concepts. Apart from all these resources, we provide free NCERT textbook solutions to our CBSE Class 10 students. For revision and practise, you can refer to our sample papers. At TopperLearning, we believe in making study materials fun and compelling, so that students get a strong grip on their studies. Chapter 5 - Footprints Without Feet Exercise 26 Griffin, the scientist, had carried out an experiment and become invisible. However he happened to step in some mud, and left footprints as he walked which were observed by two boys who followed them fascinated, until the muddy impressions became fainter and finally disappeared altogether. Since it was mid winter he slipped into a big London store for warmth. There he fitted himself out with warm clothes. Soon, with shoes, an overcoat and a wide-brimmed hat, he became a fully dressed and visible person. He settled down to sleep on a pile of quilts and in this way was visible to the assistants at the store the next morning. Griffin, the scientist, had carried out an experiment to prove that the human body could become invisible. Finally he swallowed certain rare drugs and his body became transparent. Brilliant scientist though he was, Griffin was rather a lawless person. His landlord disliked him and tried to eject him. In revenge Griffin set fire to the house. To get away without being seen he had removed his clothes. Thus it was that he became homeless and was wandering on the streets, without clothes, without money, and quite invisible. Chapter 5 - Footprints Without Feet Exercise 28 The arrival of a stranger at an inn in winter was in itself a strange occurrence. Mrs. Hall the landlord’s wife, made every effort to be friendly with the stranger but Griffin had no desire to talk, and told her that his reason for coming to Iping was a desire for solitude. He did not wish to be disturbed in his work. Besides, an accident had affected his face. His desire for solitude, his uncommon appearance, strange habits and irritable temper all made Mrs. Hall find the scientist eccentric. Very early in the morning a clergyman and his wife were awakened by noises in the study. Creeping downstairs, they heard the chink of money being taken from the clergyman’s desk. Without making any noise and with a poker grasped firmly in his hand, the clergyman flung open the door and shouted ‘surrender’. To their amazement -they realised that the room appeared to be empty. They looked under the desk, and behind the curtains, and even up the chimney but there wasn’t a sign of anybody. Yet the desk had been opened and the housekeeping money was missing. The clergyman kept saying for the rest of the day that it was an ‘Extraordinary affair!” The other extraordinary things that happened at the inn was when the landlord and his wife were up early, and were surprised to see the scientist’s door wide open. Usually it was shut and locked, and when they peeped round the door, they saw nobody, but, the bedclothes were cold, showing that the scientist must have been up for some time; what was stranger was that the clothes and bandages that he always wore were lying about the room. Suddenly Mrs. Hall heard a sniff close to her ear and a moment later the hat on the bedpost leapt up and dashed itself into her face. Then the bedroom chair came alive and springing into the air it charged straight at her, legs foremost. As she and her husband turned away in terror, the extraordinary chair pushed them both out of the room and then appeared to slam and lock the door after them. Mrs. Hall almost fell down the stairs in hysterics and was convinced that the room was haunted by spirits, and that the stranger had somehow caused these to enter into her furniture. When news of the burglary at the clergyman’s home became known, the strange scientist was strongly suspected of having had a hand in it. Suspicion grew even stronger when he suddenly produced some ready cash, though he had admitted not long before that he had no money. When Mrs. Hall questioned him about the mysterious happenings in the room the bandages, whiskers, spectacles, and even nose were thrown off and the horrified people in the bar found themselves staring at a headless man. Mr Jaffers, the constable, was quite surprised to find that he had to arrest a man without a head. There followed a remarkable scene as the policeman tried to get hold of a man who was becoming more and more invisible as he threw off one garment after another Some people tried to help him, but found themselves hit by blows that seemed to come from nowhere. In the end Jaffers was knocked unconscious as he made a last attempt to hold on to the unseen scientist. Chapter 5 - Footprints Without Feet Exercise 31 Griffin, had carried out experiment after experiment to prove that the human body could become invisible. Finally he swallowed certain rare drugs and his body became as transparent as a sheet of glass though it also remained as solid as glass. Griffin however was rather a lawless person. His landlord disliked him and tried to eject him. In revenge Griffin set fire to the house. To get away without being seen he had to remove his clothes. Thus it was that he became a homeless wanderer, without clothes, without money, and quite invisible. Since it was mid winter, he entered a big London store for warmth and as soon as the doors were shut he was able to give himself the pleasure of clothing and feeding himself without regard to expense. He broke open boxes and wrappers and fitted himself out with warm clothes. Once out of the big store and shivering with cold he hurried to Drury Lane, the centre of the theatre world and found a suitable shop. He made his way, invisible, upstairs and came out a little later wearing bandages round his forehead, dark glasses, false nose, big bushy side-whiskers, and a large hat. To escape without being seen, he callously attacked the shopkeeper from behind, after which he robbed him of all the money he could find. Griffin was a brilliant scientist who carried out experiment after experiment to prove that the human body could become invisible. Finally he swallowed certain rare drugs and his body became as transparent as a sheet of glass — though it also remained as solid as glass. But he was not an honest person as he used his discovery of invisibility to attack and hurt people, steal money from shopkeepers and others like the clergy and made people furious and scared of him. At the store he fed and clothed himself without regard to expense. He was very revengeful and because his landlord disliked him and tried to eject him he set fireto the house. Why choose TopperLearning’s CBSE Class 10 study materials? We provide CBSE Class 10 Chapter-wise English lesson explanation as per the latest CBSE syllabus. For each subject, we have 2000+ questions (with answers) and 10+ sample papers to support you with your exam preparations. Also, we respond to doubts posted in our forum within 24 hours. Our MIQs and revision notes are perfect for last-minute revisions. With our support, you can feel at ease and work successfully towards your goal of becoming a CBSE topper. Kindly Sign up for a personalised experience - Ask Study Doubts - Sample Papers - Past Year Papers - Textbook Solutions Verify mobile number Enter the OTP sent to your number	1,887	ENGLISH	1
In todays lecture we were focussing on why music matters. Through this we were encouraged to consider our own musical experiences, how we can participate with music, how we discover music, our musical awareness and the power of music. All of these things have strong links in the curriculum relating to the experiences and outcomes. It was good to think about these things and reflect on how music is a powerful thing in each of our lives. This would be important for children to consider to realise why music matters and allow them to be more interested in it as a subject and become fully engaged. Today we were fortunate to have children from the Greenmill Primary School string project visiting us. The children displayed their talent by playing us one of their musical pieces. They then went on to show us some of the musical games they often play. We then had the chance to sit with some of the pupils as they taught us about their musical instruments. The pupil i was with played the violin, she described to me what the different parts of the violin were called and what there purpose was, she showed me how to correctly hold the violin and gave me the opportunity to give it a go myself. Being taught by the children was good as it gave us the opportunity to see how much they have learned and how passionate they are about music. It was amazing to see how being part of the orchestra had brought to many benefits to these children due to being part of a team they were all very polite, well behaved and friendly and truly did show the impact music can have. It was insightful to see this type of thing happening in schools and show us what we could help to initiate in our own schools in the future. Today we continued on with the story of the dragon focussing on hot seating and improvisation considering how these conventions would would in the classroom. Our lecturer then read us the first part of the story entitled ‘The Tunnel’. From this we participated in one of the drama conventions ‘role on the wall’ whereby you draw a character from the story. On the inside of the character you write the feelings that they would have and on the outside, the feelings you would have. We then heard the rest of the story and reflected on our previous feelings which had completely changed. We then split into groups and chose a scene from the story to portray through narration. This was useful as it showed the different ways to teach drama through the one book.	<urn:uuid:439b73c6-8840-4d11-a551-01c366b00691>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/glowblogs/kathrynmairepdp/2017/01/05/session-7-11116/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00393.warc.gz	en	0.989325	497	3.46875	3	[ 0.16858701407909393, -0.1889950931072235, 0.6750274300575256, -0.5385971665382385, -0.24558469653129578, 0.4150361716747284, 0.0410066656768322, 0.12937740981578827, 0.009269500151276588, -0.2857522964477539, 0.10100414603948593, -0.01601860485970974, 0.16292090713977814, 0.369380384683609...	3	In todays lecture we were focussing on why music matters. Through this we were encouraged to consider our own musical experiences, how we can participate with music, how we discover music, our musical awareness and the power of music. All of these things have strong links in the curriculum relating to the experiences and outcomes. It was good to think about these things and reflect on how music is a powerful thing in each of our lives. This would be important for children to consider to realise why music matters and allow them to be more interested in it as a subject and become fully engaged. Today we were fortunate to have children from the Greenmill Primary School string project visiting us. The children displayed their talent by playing us one of their musical pieces. They then went on to show us some of the musical games they often play. We then had the chance to sit with some of the pupils as they taught us about their musical instruments. The pupil i was with played the violin, she described to me what the different parts of the violin were called and what there purpose was, she showed me how to correctly hold the violin and gave me the opportunity to give it a go myself. Being taught by the children was good as it gave us the opportunity to see how much they have learned and how passionate they are about music. It was amazing to see how being part of the orchestra had brought to many benefits to these children due to being part of a team they were all very polite, well behaved and friendly and truly did show the impact music can have. It was insightful to see this type of thing happening in schools and show us what we could help to initiate in our own schools in the future. Today we continued on with the story of the dragon focussing on hot seating and improvisation considering how these conventions would would in the classroom. Our lecturer then read us the first part of the story entitled ‘The Tunnel’. From this we participated in one of the drama conventions ‘role on the wall’ whereby you draw a character from the story. On the inside of the character you write the feelings that they would have and on the outside, the feelings you would have. We then heard the rest of the story and reflected on our previous feelings which had completely changed. We then split into groups and chose a scene from the story to portray through narration. This was useful as it showed the different ways to teach drama through the one book.	486	ENGLISH	1
It is surprising, in a way, to discover that life was not always the same as it is now; that boundaries and laws and structures have changed, often dramatically, over the years. Canada, 170 years ago, was going through such a time of dramatic change, and some of those changes remain relevant to us still. In the 1830’s, there had been a great deal of unrest in what were then the two provinces of Canada, Upper Canada and Lower Canada, where political power lay in the hands of a few wealthy families, and even those elected representatives in the Assembly had no control over laws and decision-making. In the United Kingdom, home of the British Empire, similar unrest and agitation had led to a significant change in the laws in 1832, with the Great Reform Act, and those demanding more democracy in the Canada’s drew encouragement from that victory. In this part of the Empire, people were unhappy with the legal and administrative structures. Upper Canada was divided into Districts, which were administered by the district court of General Quarter Sessions of the Peace, the judges who made up these Quarter Sessions were appointed by the Governor, and met only four times a year. Frequently, these Sessions were held in places like Brockville, far away from the farms and homes of the majority of the population, who found it difficult to get to the courts, much less to get justice there. So meetings were held to demand a reorganisation of the Districts in order to make them more fitted to the needs, and the homes, of the people. For instance, a series of meetings were held in Grenville County to draw up petitions to be presented to the Governor, seeking the division of the Johnstown District. It asked that a new District be formed, with Kemptville as its capital. Townships to be included were Edwardsburg and Matilda, Mountain and Osgoode, North and South Gower, Oxford and Marlborough, Montague and Wolford. The first meeting took place in December, 1835, and was attended by many of the families whose names are associated with the region at the time. The venue was Thomas Beckett’s Hotel, which stood on the corner of Clothier and Sanders Streets, where the parking lot is today. Col. Stephen Burritt was Chair, and resolutions were made by W. H. “Squire” Bottom and Milo McCargar. The main resolution, passed unanimously, stated: “That it is expedient and highly necessary, for the convenience and general interests of the people inhabiting the townships of Montague, Wolford, Marlboro, Oxford, North and South Gower, and Edwardsburgh of the Johnstown District – Mountain & Matilda of the Eastern, and Osgoode of the Ottawa District, that the said townships be formed into a separate District, and that Kemptville, in the township of Oxford, be the place selected for the transacting of the public business of the said proposed District.” Hundreds of signatures had been received on previous petitions to this end, but with no immediate result. Other meetings, and more petitions, followed in 1836, but the project was overtaken by the rebellions which took place the following year in both Upper and Lower Canada. Although these risings were soon put down, they had made it clear that some reforms were needed, though they did not turn out to be the ones requested. In July, 1840, was passed An Act to Re-unite the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and for the Government of Canada. The new United Province of Canada reorganised the Districts, and the Johnstown District consisted of what is now the United Counties of Leeds & Grenville, as well as North Burgess, North Elmsley, Montague, Marlborough and North Gower. In was not until the following year, 1841, when the District Council’s Act was passed, establishing a District Council, which took on the administrative powers of the magistrates of the Quarter Sessions, becoming effective on 1 January, 1842. Each District Council was composed of a warden, councillors, clerk, district treasurer, surveyor and two auditors. The Governor appointed all members with the exception of the elected councillors. This Act removed North Burgess, Montague and North Elmsley from the Johnstown District, adding them to the District of Bathurst; and removed Marlborough and North Gower and added them to District of Dalhousie. The legislation was amended in 1849, to establish municipalities, towns, and villages, with the authority to raise taxes and enact by-laws. It also established a hierarchy of types of municipal governments, starting at the top with cities and continued down past towns, villages and finally townships. And that system has remained basically unchanged, ever since.	<urn:uuid:c5ca9472-c0a6-48f0-9f2b-1b189447b29e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ngtimes.ca/the-making-of-municipalities/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00085.warc.gz	en	0.983859	1,003	3.421875	3	[ -0.33848878741264343, 0.14102581143379211, 0.6390308737754822, -0.0529288649559021, -0.01567951589822769, -0.10102266073226929, 0.12143470346927643, -0.20348620414733887, -0.13058754801750183, 0.19725309312343597, 0.23340097069740295, 0.18533053994178772, 0.07913912087678909, -0.0306520536...	4	It is surprising, in a way, to discover that life was not always the same as it is now; that boundaries and laws and structures have changed, often dramatically, over the years. Canada, 170 years ago, was going through such a time of dramatic change, and some of those changes remain relevant to us still. In the 1830’s, there had been a great deal of unrest in what were then the two provinces of Canada, Upper Canada and Lower Canada, where political power lay in the hands of a few wealthy families, and even those elected representatives in the Assembly had no control over laws and decision-making. In the United Kingdom, home of the British Empire, similar unrest and agitation had led to a significant change in the laws in 1832, with the Great Reform Act, and those demanding more democracy in the Canada’s drew encouragement from that victory. In this part of the Empire, people were unhappy with the legal and administrative structures. Upper Canada was divided into Districts, which were administered by the district court of General Quarter Sessions of the Peace, the judges who made up these Quarter Sessions were appointed by the Governor, and met only four times a year. Frequently, these Sessions were held in places like Brockville, far away from the farms and homes of the majority of the population, who found it difficult to get to the courts, much less to get justice there. So meetings were held to demand a reorganisation of the Districts in order to make them more fitted to the needs, and the homes, of the people. For instance, a series of meetings were held in Grenville County to draw up petitions to be presented to the Governor, seeking the division of the Johnstown District. It asked that a new District be formed, with Kemptville as its capital. Townships to be included were Edwardsburg and Matilda, Mountain and Osgoode, North and South Gower, Oxford and Marlborough, Montague and Wolford. The first meeting took place in December, 1835, and was attended by many of the families whose names are associated with the region at the time. The venue was Thomas Beckett’s Hotel, which stood on the corner of Clothier and Sanders Streets, where the parking lot is today. Col. Stephen Burritt was Chair, and resolutions were made by W. H. “Squire” Bottom and Milo McCargar. The main resolution, passed unanimously, stated: “That it is expedient and highly necessary, for the convenience and general interests of the people inhabiting the townships of Montague, Wolford, Marlboro, Oxford, North and South Gower, and Edwardsburgh of the Johnstown District – Mountain & Matilda of the Eastern, and Osgoode of the Ottawa District, that the said townships be formed into a separate District, and that Kemptville, in the township of Oxford, be the place selected for the transacting of the public business of the said proposed District.” Hundreds of signatures had been received on previous petitions to this end, but with no immediate result. Other meetings, and more petitions, followed in 1836, but the project was overtaken by the rebellions which took place the following year in both Upper and Lower Canada. Although these risings were soon put down, they had made it clear that some reforms were needed, though they did not turn out to be the ones requested. In July, 1840, was passed An Act to Re-unite the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and for the Government of Canada. The new United Province of Canada reorganised the Districts, and the Johnstown District consisted of what is now the United Counties of Leeds & Grenville, as well as North Burgess, North Elmsley, Montague, Marlborough and North Gower. In was not until the following year, 1841, when the District Council’s Act was passed, establishing a District Council, which took on the administrative powers of the magistrates of the Quarter Sessions, becoming effective on 1 January, 1842. Each District Council was composed of a warden, councillors, clerk, district treasurer, surveyor and two auditors. The Governor appointed all members with the exception of the elected councillors. This Act removed North Burgess, Montague and North Elmsley from the Johnstown District, adding them to the District of Bathurst; and removed Marlborough and North Gower and added them to District of Dalhousie. The legislation was amended in 1849, to establish municipalities, towns, and villages, with the authority to raise taxes and enact by-laws. It also established a hierarchy of types of municipal governments, starting at the top with cities and continued down past towns, villages and finally townships. And that system has remained basically unchanged, ever since.	1,000	ENGLISH	1
Explore the animal world, from aardvark to zebu! Discover hundreds of animals, great and small. Lion and lizard, whale and wombat. Learn one wild fact about each animal. (Did you know that gorillas yawn when they are nervous?) Look carefully, because for each letter of the alphabet, one animal is pictured eight times. Why 8? Come inside and find out. 8: An Animal Alphabet has a page dedicated to each letter of the Alphabet, I love it! It is going to be great for helping Mr Three recognize letters and also great to help Mr Seven to learn about animals. Above and beyond that it will also be a great "Lear to Count" tool with a challenge set at the start of the book to find one animal that is featured on a page 8 times, it is different on each page. The fact that the featured animal were not all the same for example for letter "F" the animal is a frog, there are green frogs and brown frogs. This makes it more challenging which is great. There are animals featured in the book my kids have never heard of such as an Abalone, Booby a Falcon so we had fun looking these up and learning about each one. Once we reached the end of the book we were surprised and delighted to find facts about each animal in the book. We learnt new things such as the fact that a Starfish can loose an arm and it will grow right back! The kids all loved this book and so did Mum! I have a five year old daughter that is crazy about animals and facts so a book that helps teach the letters of the alphabet as well as learn about animals would have been perfect for her last year. Now she has been at school for six months she knows all the letters but still really enjoyed 8: An Animal Alphabet for all the other things it has to offer. In this book there is a page devoted to each letter of the alphabet. It has the common animals you would expect along with some I had never heard of. I was grateful for the glossary at the back of the book that helped me to identify the more obscure ones. The glossary also had an interesting fact about each animal. It certainly taught me several new things. The 8 part of the title refers to the fact there are 8 of one type of animal on the page. This isn't an identical illustrated repeated on the page which is what the children looked for at first. On the L page there were 8 lions but a few had manes, others without as well as cubs. On the F page their were different species of frogs. I thought this was very well done as it encouraged the children to think about the animals. This book has it all. It teaches the alphabet, counting, identifying animals and facts. It is aimed for an international market with its wide range of animals. It even includes New Zealand natives the kakapo and the kiwi which we were delighted to see especially given the author/illustrator Elisha Cooper lives in New York. This is a great book that my 5 year old has returned to many times in the few weeks we have had it. I have also shared it with three 4 year olds that I have for homebased childcare and that have asked for it again and again. The illustrations are beautiful and it makes a great gift or book to share with any young child. It is a book that you can read from cover to cover or just read your favourite page. For this reason it will be one I would take with me to share with my daughter while we kill time in a waiting room or on a flight. Random listing from 'Books'... Find out which creatures live in your eyelashes, how sweaty feet help us to run, what time of the year you grow faster, and much more! • Amazing non-fiction with a picture book feel • Full of extraordinary facts • A lively, fun book that is certain to make you say 'Wow! I didn't know that' again and again All trademarks, images and copyrights on this site are owned by their respective companies. KIWIreviews is an independent entity, part of the ePLURIBUS.nz Network. This is a free public forum presenting user opinions on selected products, and as such the views expressed do not necessarily reflect the opinion of KIWIreviews.co.nz and are protected under New Zealand law by the "Honest Opinion" clause of the Defamation Act of 1992. KIWIreviews accepts no liability for statements made on this site, under the assumption that they are the true and honest opinions of the individual posters. In most cases, prices and dates stated are approximate and should be considered as only guidelines. "Whose idea was it to put an 'S' in the word 'lisp'?"	<urn:uuid:6ebc459a-f2ba-47f9-80e4-955ebadfd990>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.kiwireviews.co.nz/review/6571-an-animal-alphabet	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00141.warc.gz	en	0.980332	995	3.375	3	[ -0.3210941553115845, -0.3031195402145386, 0.2548092007637024, 0.20673592388629913, -0.588853120803833, 0.31864404678344727, 0.17135567963123322, 0.3355298340320587, 0.09543578326702118, 0.1614682525396347, -0.013320988975465298, -0.285746693611145, 0.22289609909057617, 0.18073607981204987,...	1	Explore the animal world, from aardvark to zebu! Discover hundreds of animals, great and small. Lion and lizard, whale and wombat. Learn one wild fact about each animal. (Did you know that gorillas yawn when they are nervous?) Look carefully, because for each letter of the alphabet, one animal is pictured eight times. Why 8? Come inside and find out. 8: An Animal Alphabet has a page dedicated to each letter of the Alphabet, I love it! It is going to be great for helping Mr Three recognize letters and also great to help Mr Seven to learn about animals. Above and beyond that it will also be a great "Lear to Count" tool with a challenge set at the start of the book to find one animal that is featured on a page 8 times, it is different on each page. The fact that the featured animal were not all the same for example for letter "F" the animal is a frog, there are green frogs and brown frogs. This makes it more challenging which is great. There are animals featured in the book my kids have never heard of such as an Abalone, Booby a Falcon so we had fun looking these up and learning about each one. Once we reached the end of the book we were surprised and delighted to find facts about each animal in the book. We learnt new things such as the fact that a Starfish can loose an arm and it will grow right back! The kids all loved this book and so did Mum! I have a five year old daughter that is crazy about animals and facts so a book that helps teach the letters of the alphabet as well as learn about animals would have been perfect for her last year. Now she has been at school for six months she knows all the letters but still really enjoyed 8: An Animal Alphabet for all the other things it has to offer. In this book there is a page devoted to each letter of the alphabet. It has the common animals you would expect along with some I had never heard of. I was grateful for the glossary at the back of the book that helped me to identify the more obscure ones. The glossary also had an interesting fact about each animal. It certainly taught me several new things. The 8 part of the title refers to the fact there are 8 of one type of animal on the page. This isn't an identical illustrated repeated on the page which is what the children looked for at first. On the L page there were 8 lions but a few had manes, others without as well as cubs. On the F page their were different species of frogs. I thought this was very well done as it encouraged the children to think about the animals. This book has it all. It teaches the alphabet, counting, identifying animals and facts. It is aimed for an international market with its wide range of animals. It even includes New Zealand natives the kakapo and the kiwi which we were delighted to see especially given the author/illustrator Elisha Cooper lives in New York. This is a great book that my 5 year old has returned to many times in the few weeks we have had it. I have also shared it with three 4 year olds that I have for homebased childcare and that have asked for it again and again. The illustrations are beautiful and it makes a great gift or book to share with any young child. It is a book that you can read from cover to cover or just read your favourite page. For this reason it will be one I would take with me to share with my daughter while we kill time in a waiting room or on a flight. Random listing from 'Books'... Find out which creatures live in your eyelashes, how sweaty feet help us to run, what time of the year you grow faster, and much more! • Amazing non-fiction with a picture book feel • Full of extraordinary facts • A lively, fun book that is certain to make you say 'Wow! I didn't know that' again and again All trademarks, images and copyrights on this site are owned by their respective companies. KIWIreviews is an independent entity, part of the ePLURIBUS.nz Network. This is a free public forum presenting user opinions on selected products, and as such the views expressed do not necessarily reflect the opinion of KIWIreviews.co.nz and are protected under New Zealand law by the "Honest Opinion" clause of the Defamation Act of 1992. KIWIreviews accepts no liability for statements made on this site, under the assumption that they are the true and honest opinions of the individual posters. In most cases, prices and dates stated are approximate and should be considered as only guidelines. "Whose idea was it to put an 'S' in the word 'lisp'?"	985	ENGLISH	1
People - Ancient Greece: Archilochus (c. 680 BC – c. 645 BC) He was an ancient Greek poet and a warrior. Archilŏchus in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities （Ἀρχίλοχος). A Greek lyric poet, especially eminent as a writer of lampoons. Born at Paros, he was the son of Telesicles by a slave-woman, but was driven by poverty to go with a colony to Thasos in B.C. 640 or 650. From Thasos he was soon driven by want, and by the enmities which his unrestrained passion for invective had drawn upon him. He seems to have roamed restlessly from place to place, until, on his return to Paros, he was slain in a fight by the Naxian, Calondas. Long afterwards, when this man visited the Delphian temple, the god is said to have driven him from his threshold as the slayer of a servant of the Muses, and refused to admit him until he had propitiated the soul of the poet at his tomb-a story which expresses the high value set on his art by the ancients, who placed him on a level with Homer, Pindar, and Sophocles; for Archilochus had an extraordinary poetical genius, which enabled him to invent a large number of new metres, and to manipulate them with the ease of a master. He brought iambic poetry, in particular, to artistic perfection. The many misfortunes of his stormy life had bred in his irritable nature a deeply settled indignation, which in poems perfect in form and alive with force and fury, vented itself in bitter mockery even of his friends, and in merciless, unpardonable abuse of his foes. Such was the effect of his lampoons that Lycambes, who had first promised and then refused him his daughter Neobulé, hanged himself and his family in the despair engendered by the poet's furious attacks. Of his poems, which were written in the Old-Ionic dialect, and taken by Horace for his model in his epodes, only a number of short fragments are preserved. The best text of these will be found in the collection of Bergk. Archilochus in Wikipedia Archilochus, or, Archilochos (Greek: Ἀρχίλοχος) (c. 680 BC – c. 645 BC) was an Archaic or Classical Greek poet and supposed mercenary, or, at least, a warrior. Besides his actual poems (or surviving fragments thereof), his main claim to fame rests on being the first known person to write lyric poetry (in the "Western Tradition"), in the first person. Archilochus was a colonist of Thasos (part of general ‘colonization’ efforts of his era (750-550 B.C.)). He was a mercenary soldier by profession -typical of many landless, rootless ‘younger’ or illegitimate sons (no inheritance) in Archaic Greece, when ‘overpopulation’ was a major problem. He is remembered as a Lyric poet; the first of the known Lyric poets, who broke with Homeric Epic poetry style to write of their own lives, experiences, feelings, attitudes. The details of his life are inferred from his poetry, doubtless including details that were traditional in antiquity (although, in this case, biographical details may also have been inferred from his poetry, rather than a separate tradition): "it is often easiest and certainly entertaining to imagine that the words spoken in a poem are those of real persons, or at least a stylized description of an actual encounter in the poet's life," warns John Van Sickle in assessing the extent of biographical subject matter in a fragment of an epode containing an erotic dialogue, which was discovered in a papyrus now at Cologne. Archilochus was born on the island of Paros. His father, Telesicles, who was from a noble family, had conducted a colony to Thasos, in obedience to the command of the Delphic oracle. To this island, Archilochus himself, hard pressed by poverty, afterwards removed. Another reason for leaving his native place was personal disappointment and indignation at the treatment he had received from Lycambes, a citizen of Paros, who had promised him his daughter Neobule in marriage but had afterwards withdrawn his consent. Archilochus, taking advantage of the license allowed at the feasts of Demeter, poured out his wounded feelings in unmerciful satire. He accused Lycambes of perjury and recited such verses against his daughters that Lycambes and his daughters are said to have hanged themselves. A series of archaeological discoveries on Paros have added to our knowledge of Archilochus. Two stones inscribed in the 3rd century B.C.E. tell the story of a legend concerning a meeting between Archilochos and the Muses. According to the stones, "the young Archilochos was sent to town by his father to sell a cow, and met on his way a group of jolly women, who asked if the cow was for sale; when told that it was, they said they would give him a good price, whereupon they and the cow disappeared and Archilochos found a lyre before his feet. Soon after, his father was told by Apollo at Delphi that his son would be immortal and famous." Another inscription, which is in fragmentary form, tells of Archilochos's introduction to Paros of a new form of worship of Dionysus, for which he was punished by his fellow citizens, but ultimately vindicated by Apollo. The later choral poet Pindar had a low opinion of Archilochus. Along with the epics of Homer and Hesiod, the satires of Archilochus were one of the mainstays of itinerant rhapsodes, who made a living declaiming poetry at both religious festivals and private homes. Archilochus' poetry survives only in fragments, most of which come from Egyptian papyri. In the historical and poetic imagination, Archilochus represents the romantic intersection of the fighting and the poetic spirits; this dual aspect of his personality is captured with brevity in the following poetic fragment, wherein he describes himself as both a warrior and a poet: Εἰμὶ δ' ἐγὼ θεράπων μὲν Ἐνυαλίοιο ἄνακτος, καὶ Μουσέων ἐρατὸν δῶρον ἐπιστάμενος. Although I am a servant of Lord Enyalios [Ares, god of war], I also know well the lovely gift of the Muses. Though it is thought by some that at Thasos the poet passed some unhappy years or that his hopes of wealth were disappointed, one can interpret quite the opposite from the following fragment which suggests that Archilochus cares little for materialistic things, nor does he have any kind of intense lust for power. The following fragment suggests Archilochus acknowledges the rationality of stoic philosophy: These golden matters Of Gyges and his treasuries Are no concern of mine. Jealousy has no power over me, Nor do I envy a god his work, And I do not burn to rule. Such things have no Fascination for my eyes. According to him, Thasos was the meeting-place of the calamities of all Hellas. The inhabitants were frequently involved in quarrels with their neighbors, and in a war against the Saians- a Thracian tribe- he threw away his shield and fled from the field of battle. He does not seem to have felt the disgrace very keenly, for, like Alcaeus, he commemorates the event: in a surviving fragment he congratulates himself on having saved his life, and says he can easily procure another shield: Some barbarian is waving my shield, since I was obliged to leave that perfectly good piece of equipment behind under a bush. But I got away, so what does it matter? Life seemed somehow more precious. Let the shield go; I can buy another one equally good. After leaving Thasos, he is said to have visited Sparta, but to have been at once banished from that city on account of his cowardice and the licentious character of his works (Valerius Maximus vi. 3, externa 1). He next visited Magna Graecia, Hellenic southern Italy, of which he speaks very favorably. He then returned to his native home on Paros, and was slain in a battle against the Naxians by one Calondas or Corax, who was cursed by the oracle for having slain a servant of the Muses. The writings of Archilochus consisted of elegies, hymns- one of which used to be sung by the victors in the Olympic games- and of poems in the iambic and trochaic measures. Greek rhetors credited him with the invention of iambic poetry and its application to satire. The only previous measures used in Greek poetry for which we have extant, literary testimony had been the epic hexameter, and its offshoot the elegiac meter; but the slow measured structure of hexameter verse was utterly unsuited to express the quick, light motions of satire. There is good reason to believe that the lyric meters are just as old as that of epic (dactylic hexameter). Just as Homer did not create his own meter, the lyric poets did not create their meter but employed the meter of past poets. Evidence for this can be seen in Homer, particularly in the Iliad (1.472-74; 16.182-83; 18.493). Thus, Archilochus had options when choosing his meters. Tradition may have been as important a factor in Archilochus' selection of verse as it was for Homer, and his decision may have been influenced by his relationship to Demeter and Dionysus and rituals surrounding these particular deities (as is briefly alluded to above). These rituals would have strengthened cultural mores through a demonstration of the opposite. The connection is tied to the definition of ἵαμβος (iambos). Iambos was a type of poetry not simply a metric device, and an expected subject matter accompanied the performance of this type of poetry. There were of course common meters of iambos/iambic poetry. Archilochus made use of the iambus and the trochee, and organized them into the two forms of meter known as the iambic trimeter and the trochaic tetrameter. The trochaic meter he generally used for subjects of a vicarious nature; the iambic for satires. He was also the first to make use of the arrangement of verses called the epode. Horace in his meters to a great extent follows Archilochus. All ancient authorities unite in praising the poems of Archilochus, in terms that appear exaggerated. His verses seem certainly to have possessed strength, flexibility, nervous vigor, and, beyond everything else, impetuous vehemence and energy: Horace speaks of the "rage" of Archilochus, and Hadrian calls his verses "raging iambics." His countrymen reverenced him as the equal of Homer, and statues of these two poets were dedicated on the same day. The hero cult of Archilochus on Paros had a history of 800 years. His poems were written in the old Ionic dialect. Thirty lines of a previously unknown poem in the elegiac meter by Archilochos describing events leading up to the Trojan War, in which Achaeans battled Telephus king of Mysia, have recently been identified among the Oxyrhynchus papyri and published in The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Volume LXIX (Graeco-Roman Memoirs 89). * "For 'tis thy friends that make thee choke with rage". * "The fox knows many things; the hedgehog one great thing." (cf. The Hedgehog and the Fox) * "Wretched I lie, dead with desire, pierced through my bones, with the bitter pains the Gods have given me."	<urn:uuid:a72082e0-b9b5-47da-a5cb-b5c11e4ed592>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bible-history.com/links.php?cat=48&sub=3743&cat_name=People+-+Ancient+Greece&subcat_name=Archilochus	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00266.warc.gz	en	0.981942	2,672	3.53125	4	[ -0.1276857852935791, 0.4046976566314697, 0.4558418393135071, -0.06506102532148361, -0.7640546560287476, -0.7561092376708984, 0.10663048923015594, 0.26574596762657166, -0.455044150352478, -0.16163459420204163, -0.27050161361694336, -0.39187321066856384, 0.12426921725273132, 0.30439412593841...	1	People - Ancient Greece: Archilochus (c. 680 BC – c. 645 BC) He was an ancient Greek poet and a warrior. Archilŏchus in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities （Ἀρχίλοχος). A Greek lyric poet, especially eminent as a writer of lampoons. Born at Paros, he was the son of Telesicles by a slave-woman, but was driven by poverty to go with a colony to Thasos in B.C. 640 or 650. From Thasos he was soon driven by want, and by the enmities which his unrestrained passion for invective had drawn upon him. He seems to have roamed restlessly from place to place, until, on his return to Paros, he was slain in a fight by the Naxian, Calondas. Long afterwards, when this man visited the Delphian temple, the god is said to have driven him from his threshold as the slayer of a servant of the Muses, and refused to admit him until he had propitiated the soul of the poet at his tomb-a story which expresses the high value set on his art by the ancients, who placed him on a level with Homer, Pindar, and Sophocles; for Archilochus had an extraordinary poetical genius, which enabled him to invent a large number of new metres, and to manipulate them with the ease of a master. He brought iambic poetry, in particular, to artistic perfection. The many misfortunes of his stormy life had bred in his irritable nature a deeply settled indignation, which in poems perfect in form and alive with force and fury, vented itself in bitter mockery even of his friends, and in merciless, unpardonable abuse of his foes. Such was the effect of his lampoons that Lycambes, who had first promised and then refused him his daughter Neobulé, hanged himself and his family in the despair engendered by the poet's furious attacks. Of his poems, which were written in the Old-Ionic dialect, and taken by Horace for his model in his epodes, only a number of short fragments are preserved. The best text of these will be found in the collection of Bergk. Archilochus in Wikipedia Archilochus, or, Archilochos (Greek: Ἀρχίλοχος) (c. 680 BC – c. 645 BC) was an Archaic or Classical Greek poet and supposed mercenary, or, at least, a warrior. Besides his actual poems (or surviving fragments thereof), his main claim to fame rests on being the first known person to write lyric poetry (in the "Western Tradition"), in the first person. Archilochus was a colonist of Thasos (part of general ‘colonization’ efforts of his era (750-550 B.C.)). He was a mercenary soldier by profession -typical of many landless, rootless ‘younger’ or illegitimate sons (no inheritance) in Archaic Greece, when ‘overpopulation’ was a major problem. He is remembered as a Lyric poet; the first of the known Lyric poets, who broke with Homeric Epic poetry style to write of their own lives, experiences, feelings, attitudes. The details of his life are inferred from his poetry, doubtless including details that were traditional in antiquity (although, in this case, biographical details may also have been inferred from his poetry, rather than a separate tradition): "it is often easiest and certainly entertaining to imagine that the words spoken in a poem are those of real persons, or at least a stylized description of an actual encounter in the poet's life," warns John Van Sickle in assessing the extent of biographical subject matter in a fragment of an epode containing an erotic dialogue, which was discovered in a papyrus now at Cologne. Archilochus was born on the island of Paros. His father, Telesicles, who was from a noble family, had conducted a colony to Thasos, in obedience to the command of the Delphic oracle. To this island, Archilochus himself, hard pressed by poverty, afterwards removed. Another reason for leaving his native place was personal disappointment and indignation at the treatment he had received from Lycambes, a citizen of Paros, who had promised him his daughter Neobule in marriage but had afterwards withdrawn his consent. Archilochus, taking advantage of the license allowed at the feasts of Demeter, poured out his wounded feelings in unmerciful satire. He accused Lycambes of perjury and recited such verses against his daughters that Lycambes and his daughters are said to have hanged themselves. A series of archaeological discoveries on Paros have added to our knowledge of Archilochus. Two stones inscribed in the 3rd century B.C.E. tell the story of a legend concerning a meeting between Archilochos and the Muses. According to the stones, "the young Archilochos was sent to town by his father to sell a cow, and met on his way a group of jolly women, who asked if the cow was for sale; when told that it was, they said they would give him a good price, whereupon they and the cow disappeared and Archilochos found a lyre before his feet. Soon after, his father was told by Apollo at Delphi that his son would be immortal and famous." Another inscription, which is in fragmentary form, tells of Archilochos's introduction to Paros of a new form of worship of Dionysus, for which he was punished by his fellow citizens, but ultimately vindicated by Apollo. The later choral poet Pindar had a low opinion of Archilochus. Along with the epics of Homer and Hesiod, the satires of Archilochus were one of the mainstays of itinerant rhapsodes, who made a living declaiming poetry at both religious festivals and private homes. Archilochus' poetry survives only in fragments, most of which come from Egyptian papyri. In the historical and poetic imagination, Archilochus represents the romantic intersection of the fighting and the poetic spirits; this dual aspect of his personality is captured with brevity in the following poetic fragment, wherein he describes himself as both a warrior and a poet: Εἰμὶ δ' ἐγὼ θεράπων μὲν Ἐνυαλίοιο ἄνακτος, καὶ Μουσέων ἐρατὸν δῶρον ἐπιστάμενος. Although I am a servant of Lord Enyalios [Ares, god of war], I also know well the lovely gift of the Muses. Though it is thought by some that at Thasos the poet passed some unhappy years or that his hopes of wealth were disappointed, one can interpret quite the opposite from the following fragment which suggests that Archilochus cares little for materialistic things, nor does he have any kind of intense lust for power. The following fragment suggests Archilochus acknowledges the rationality of stoic philosophy: These golden matters Of Gyges and his treasuries Are no concern of mine. Jealousy has no power over me, Nor do I envy a god his work, And I do not burn to rule. Such things have no Fascination for my eyes. According to him, Thasos was the meeting-place of the calamities of all Hellas. The inhabitants were frequently involved in quarrels with their neighbors, and in a war against the Saians- a Thracian tribe- he threw away his shield and fled from the field of battle. He does not seem to have felt the disgrace very keenly, for, like Alcaeus, he commemorates the event: in a surviving fragment he congratulates himself on having saved his life, and says he can easily procure another shield: Some barbarian is waving my shield, since I was obliged to leave that perfectly good piece of equipment behind under a bush. But I got away, so what does it matter? Life seemed somehow more precious. Let the shield go; I can buy another one equally good. After leaving Thasos, he is said to have visited Sparta, but to have been at once banished from that city on account of his cowardice and the licentious character of his works (Valerius Maximus vi. 3, externa 1). He next visited Magna Graecia, Hellenic southern Italy, of which he speaks very favorably. He then returned to his native home on Paros, and was slain in a battle against the Naxians by one Calondas or Corax, who was cursed by the oracle for having slain a servant of the Muses. The writings of Archilochus consisted of elegies, hymns- one of which used to be sung by the victors in the Olympic games- and of poems in the iambic and trochaic measures. Greek rhetors credited him with the invention of iambic poetry and its application to satire. The only previous measures used in Greek poetry for which we have extant, literary testimony had been the epic hexameter, and its offshoot the elegiac meter; but the slow measured structure of hexameter verse was utterly unsuited to express the quick, light motions of satire. There is good reason to believe that the lyric meters are just as old as that of epic (dactylic hexameter). Just as Homer did not create his own meter, the lyric poets did not create their meter but employed the meter of past poets. Evidence for this can be seen in Homer, particularly in the Iliad (1.472-74; 16.182-83; 18.493). Thus, Archilochus had options when choosing his meters. Tradition may have been as important a factor in Archilochus' selection of verse as it was for Homer, and his decision may have been influenced by his relationship to Demeter and Dionysus and rituals surrounding these particular deities (as is briefly alluded to above). These rituals would have strengthened cultural mores through a demonstration of the opposite. The connection is tied to the definition of ἵαμβος (iambos). Iambos was a type of poetry not simply a metric device, and an expected subject matter accompanied the performance of this type of poetry. There were of course common meters of iambos/iambic poetry. Archilochus made use of the iambus and the trochee, and organized them into the two forms of meter known as the iambic trimeter and the trochaic tetrameter. The trochaic meter he generally used for subjects of a vicarious nature; the iambic for satires. He was also the first to make use of the arrangement of verses called the epode. Horace in his meters to a great extent follows Archilochus. All ancient authorities unite in praising the poems of Archilochus, in terms that appear exaggerated. His verses seem certainly to have possessed strength, flexibility, nervous vigor, and, beyond everything else, impetuous vehemence and energy: Horace speaks of the "rage" of Archilochus, and Hadrian calls his verses "raging iambics." His countrymen reverenced him as the equal of Homer, and statues of these two poets were dedicated on the same day. The hero cult of Archilochus on Paros had a history of 800 years. His poems were written in the old Ionic dialect. Thirty lines of a previously unknown poem in the elegiac meter by Archilochos describing events leading up to the Trojan War, in which Achaeans battled Telephus king of Mysia, have recently been identified among the Oxyrhynchus papyri and published in The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Volume LXIX (Graeco-Roman Memoirs 89). * "For 'tis thy friends that make thee choke with rage". * "The fox knows many things; the hedgehog one great thing." (cf. The Hedgehog and the Fox) * "Wretched I lie, dead with desire, pierced through my bones, with the bitter pains the Gods have given me."	2,653	ENGLISH	1
Frederick was the eldest of nine children born to Duke Ernst and his second wife Cymburgis of Masovia. As a result of the division of the lineages in the House of Habsburg, his father Duke Ernst had become sovereign of Inner Austria, ruling over Styria, Carinthia and Carniola. Frederick was born in Innsbruck, as at that time his father was governing in the stead of his relative, Duke Frederick IV of Tyrol, who was being held prisoner by Emperor Siegmund in Constance. After Frederick IV had been restored as ruler of Tyrol he also became the guardian of his nephew, the younger Frederick, following the death of Duke Ernst in 1424. At the age of twenty Frederick V assumed the reins of government in his ancestral lands. It is to him that the city of Graz, his seat of residence, owes two fine late Gothic monuments: the royal palace, which is today the official residence of the provincial governor of Styria, and the court parish church, later Graz Cathedral, both started in 1438. In 1439 two deaths in the family led to Frederick becoming head of the entire dynasty. His uncle Frederick IV of Tyrol left a son called Siegmund, who was still a minor and whose guardian Frederick V now became. Thus Frederick also had control over Tyrol and the Forelands until his cousin assumed the regency in 1446. Of more momentous consequence was the sudden death of Albrecht V, the head of the Albertine line of the dynasty, who had ruled over Lower and Upper Austria. He had been elected Roman-German king only the previous year (1438), but his position as head of the Empire was not yet secure. Frederick sought to exploit the vacancy on the throne to his own advantage. Albrecht V had also succeeded in securing the title of king in both Bohemia and Hungary. He had been married to Elisabeth, the daughter of Emperor Sigismund, and as the latter’s son-in-law had only recently been installed as his successor on Sigismund’s death in 1437. Thus Albrecht V died at an extremely inopportune moment. His wife subsequently gave birth to a son, Ladislaus, who was given the epithet ‘Postumus’, having been born after his father’s death. This infant was now heir to Austria as well as candidate for the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary. Frederick assumed guardianship over Ladislaus and was therefore involved in the complex situation concerning the succession in both kingdoms.	<urn:uuid:c1c9f67f-61f4-40e9-b4c5-c26ed0aa83e8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.habsburger.net/de/node/14138	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00202.warc.gz	en	0.991971	537	3.375	3	[ -0.11835072934627533, 0.7349190711975098, 0.010445852763950825, -0.18463203310966492, -0.31121429800987244, 0.0313376784324646, 0.22003333270549774, -0.21514955163002014, 0.059046421200037, -0.3183034658432007, -0.22201701998710632, -0.5652971863746643, 0.38324806094169617, -0.154458403587...	2	Frederick was the eldest of nine children born to Duke Ernst and his second wife Cymburgis of Masovia. As a result of the division of the lineages in the House of Habsburg, his father Duke Ernst had become sovereign of Inner Austria, ruling over Styria, Carinthia and Carniola. Frederick was born in Innsbruck, as at that time his father was governing in the stead of his relative, Duke Frederick IV of Tyrol, who was being held prisoner by Emperor Siegmund in Constance. After Frederick IV had been restored as ruler of Tyrol he also became the guardian of his nephew, the younger Frederick, following the death of Duke Ernst in 1424. At the age of twenty Frederick V assumed the reins of government in his ancestral lands. It is to him that the city of Graz, his seat of residence, owes two fine late Gothic monuments: the royal palace, which is today the official residence of the provincial governor of Styria, and the court parish church, later Graz Cathedral, both started in 1438. In 1439 two deaths in the family led to Frederick becoming head of the entire dynasty. His uncle Frederick IV of Tyrol left a son called Siegmund, who was still a minor and whose guardian Frederick V now became. Thus Frederick also had control over Tyrol and the Forelands until his cousin assumed the regency in 1446. Of more momentous consequence was the sudden death of Albrecht V, the head of the Albertine line of the dynasty, who had ruled over Lower and Upper Austria. He had been elected Roman-German king only the previous year (1438), but his position as head of the Empire was not yet secure. Frederick sought to exploit the vacancy on the throne to his own advantage. Albrecht V had also succeeded in securing the title of king in both Bohemia and Hungary. He had been married to Elisabeth, the daughter of Emperor Sigismund, and as the latter’s son-in-law had only recently been installed as his successor on Sigismund’s death in 1437. Thus Albrecht V died at an extremely inopportune moment. His wife subsequently gave birth to a son, Ladislaus, who was given the epithet ‘Postumus’, having been born after his father’s death. This infant was now heir to Austria as well as candidate for the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary. Frederick assumed guardianship over Ladislaus and was therefore involved in the complex situation concerning the succession in both kingdoms.	536	ENGLISH	1
The Transatlantic Slave Trade between Africa, the Caribbean and the Americas began in the 15th century and lasted into the 19th century. Britain abolished slave trading by an Act of Parliament in 1807 but slave ownership was still permitted. Like many families of their class at that time, the Hall-Dares had made money from plantations employing slave labour. When slave ownership was finally abolished by the British Government in 1833, Mabel’s grandfather, Robert Westley Hall-Dare, was awarded compensation of £14452, 14 shillings and 1 penny for the 273 slaves employed on his plantation, Maria’s Pleasure, on Wakenaam Island at the mouth of the Essequibo River in Guyana. It seems that he died before the compensation was paid out and the money was eventually paid to his son, Mabel’s father, Robert Westley Hall-Dare. The award is estimated to be worth around £12million at today’s value. Mabel’s grandfather was born Robert Westley Hall in Essequibo River, Guyana on March 3, 1789. He changed his name to add the hyphenated Dare on 25 April 1823. His father, Mabel’s great-grandfather, also Robert Westley Hall, had married Maria Elizabeth Brower, after whom we presume the plantation of Maria’s Pleasure was named. Maria’s father, Cornelius, is listed as having lived at Demerara, so one wonders whether her family were also members of the so-called plantocracy, the Guyana ruling class of plantation owners. Mabel’s grandfather died on May 20, 1836 at the age of 47 and is buried at Theydon Bois, Essex, where Theodore and Mabel were later laid to rest. As part of the abolition legislation, records were drawn up of 46,000 compensation awards to the British owners of 800,000 slaves. Any judgement on individual morality should be tempered by the ‘normality’ of such a practice in those less-enlightened times. The payouts to slave owners was extremely controversial at the time and amounted to the biggest ever bail-out by the British Government – £17billion at today’s value – only recently eclipsed by the £20billion bail-out of the Royal Bank of Scotland following the financial collapse of 2008. The slaves themselves got nothing, not even freedom until 5 years later in 1838 after a period, of what was effectively still slavery, called ‘apprenticeship’.	<urn:uuid:c7637c07-6b65-45f7-abe8-308db5349013>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://the-cyclades.click/archives/1676	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00458.warc.gz	en	0.981673	531	3.546875	4	[ -0.1599830687046051, 0.4442690312862396, 0.6659987568855286, -0.12605854868888855, 0.24149207770824432, -0.16467662155628204, 0.13193586468696594, -0.5760754942893982, -0.026690782979130745, 0.08553321659564972, 0.34166768193244934, -0.19529825448989868, -0.5505671501159668, 0.195273265242...	10	The Transatlantic Slave Trade between Africa, the Caribbean and the Americas began in the 15th century and lasted into the 19th century. Britain abolished slave trading by an Act of Parliament in 1807 but slave ownership was still permitted. Like many families of their class at that time, the Hall-Dares had made money from plantations employing slave labour. When slave ownership was finally abolished by the British Government in 1833, Mabel’s grandfather, Robert Westley Hall-Dare, was awarded compensation of £14452, 14 shillings and 1 penny for the 273 slaves employed on his plantation, Maria’s Pleasure, on Wakenaam Island at the mouth of the Essequibo River in Guyana. It seems that he died before the compensation was paid out and the money was eventually paid to his son, Mabel’s father, Robert Westley Hall-Dare. The award is estimated to be worth around £12million at today’s value. Mabel’s grandfather was born Robert Westley Hall in Essequibo River, Guyana on March 3, 1789. He changed his name to add the hyphenated Dare on 25 April 1823. His father, Mabel’s great-grandfather, also Robert Westley Hall, had married Maria Elizabeth Brower, after whom we presume the plantation of Maria’s Pleasure was named. Maria’s father, Cornelius, is listed as having lived at Demerara, so one wonders whether her family were also members of the so-called plantocracy, the Guyana ruling class of plantation owners. Mabel’s grandfather died on May 20, 1836 at the age of 47 and is buried at Theydon Bois, Essex, where Theodore and Mabel were later laid to rest. As part of the abolition legislation, records were drawn up of 46,000 compensation awards to the British owners of 800,000 slaves. Any judgement on individual morality should be tempered by the ‘normality’ of such a practice in those less-enlightened times. The payouts to slave owners was extremely controversial at the time and amounted to the biggest ever bail-out by the British Government – £17billion at today’s value – only recently eclipsed by the £20billion bail-out of the Royal Bank of Scotland following the financial collapse of 2008. The slaves themselves got nothing, not even freedom until 5 years later in 1838 after a period, of what was effectively still slavery, called ‘apprenticeship’.	553	ENGLISH	1
Help Now > St. Boniface of Mainz FREE Catholic School Enroll Now Winfrith had expected to return to England from Friesland (in what is now Holland) in triumph. He had left the land where he was a respected scholar, teacher, and priest because he was convinced he was called to missionary work. He had argued and pestered his abbot into letting him go because he would gain greater success for God in foreign lands. He had abandoned a successful, safe life in his mid-forties to win souls for God. But from the moment he stepped off the ship, his trip to Friesland to join the famous missionary Willibrord had been a disaster. Winfrith and his companions had landed to discover that the ruler of Friesland, Radbod, had declared war on Christians, destroying churches and monasteries, driving Willibrord into exile, and sending what was left of the Church into hiding. Winfrith tried in vain to convince Radbod to let him and his companions preach. Finally, he had no choice but to return to England a few short months later in defeat. It would have been easy to give up missionary work at this point. Almost anyone would have looked at this fiasco and said that God was trying to tell him that he was called to stay and serve in England. Winfrith agreed that God had given him a message and he agreed that he had been mistaken. But his mistake had not been in the call but how he followed it. He had believed all he needed to ensure the mission's success was an enthusiastic response to God's call. It's surprising that Winfrith ever would have believed this since so much of his previous life had depended on training and organization. Born about 675, he had convinced his parents to send him to a monastery for schooling because he admired the monks who had visited his home. Through diligent study he rapidly learned all that this local monastery could teach him and was transfered to the monastery at Nursling for further schooling. There he became such a well-known teacher that students circulated notes from his classes. Back in England he started planning for his second missionary journey. He kept his enthusiasm but directed his zeal into organization and preparation for the journey. He would go to the pagan lands ... but first he would travel to Rome. When he had traveled to Friesland he had had no authority to back him up. No one had sent him there, no one would stand up for him if he needed support or help. Now he went to the pope asking for an official mission and the backing of the Church. Pope Gregory II was intrigued but uncertain and talked to Winfrith all winter long before finally sending him on a test mission to Thuringia in Germany. In the pope's commission on May 15, 1719, we have the first record of Winfrith's new name, Boniface. The pope apparently gave him this new name because the previous day had been the feast of a martyr by that name. From then on he was known as Boniface to all who knew him. Missionaries had come to Thuringia before but the Church there was in bad shape, isolated and subject to superstition and heresy. Boniface saw that he was going to get no help from the local clergy and monks, but he had learned in Friesland he could not spread God's word alone. He was about to send for help when he heard that Radbod had died and the missionary Willibrord was back in Friesland. Boniface immediately took off for Friesland, the site of his former humiliation. Perhaps he returned in hopes of redeeming his earlier disaster. It seems more likely, however, that he was following through on the lesson he had learned at that time and was going to get training from the expert in missions: Willibrord. In the three years he spent with Willibrord, Boniface gave as much as he gained. So helpful was he that Willibrord, who was in his sixties, wanted to make Boniface his successor. But with his training over, Boniface felt the pull of the German missionary work he'd left behind, and, despite Willibrord's pleas, went to Hesse. Unlike Thuringia or Friesland, Hesse had never been evangelized. Boniface had to start from scratch. Needing even more authority in dealing with chieftains who were his first goal for converts, he appealed to the pope again. During a trip to Rome, the pope consecrated Boniface bishop. Boniface returned to find that his problems had worsened. People were attracted by Christianity but unable to give up their old religion and superstitions, perhaps out of fear of being different or of how their old "gods" would react. Knowing that the people needed a reason to let go, Boniface called the tribes to a display of power. As the people watched, Boniface approached the giant oak of Geismar, a sacred tree dedicated to Thor, with an axe. Some of the people must have trembled with each stroke of his axe, but nothing happened. Finally with a crack, the tree split in four parts that we, are told, fell to the ground in the shape of a cross. There stood Boniface, axe in hand, unharmed by their old gods, strong in the power of the one God. After his success in Hesse, he returned to Thuringia to confront the old problem of the decadent remnants of the Church there. Unable to get help from the suspect clergy in Thuringia, he called to England for help. Nuns and monks responded to his call enthusiastically for many years. We still have many of Boniface's letters, including correspondence with his helpers in England. Reforming the Church was the biggest challenge in Thuringia and he had many thorny questions to answer. When a rite of baptism had been defective was it valid? What should he do about immoral clergy? Still remembering his first lesson, he appealed to Rome for answers from the pope. All his appeals to Rome helped him -- but it also helped forge a much stronger bond between Rome and Europe. Boniface was called upon to lend his own support to Frankish Church which was also sadly in need of reform. He set up councils and syonds and instituted reforms which revitalized the Church there. Few saints retire, and Boniface was no exception. At 73, a time when most are thinking of rest and relaxation, Boniface headed back to Friesland on a new mission. One day in 754 while he was awaiting some confirmands, an enemy band attacked his camp. Although his companions wanted to fight, Boniface told them to trust in God and to welcome death for the faith. All of them were martyred. When have you jumped into something without thinking you needed preparation? What was the result? Is there something you feel called to do but don't feel that you know enough or would be able to handle it? Who can you go to for training or support? Talk to one of these people this week.Prayer: St. Padre Pio Find SaintsPopular Saints Saints by Alphabet Saint of the Day Saint Feast Days by Month Patron Saints by Alphabet FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	<urn:uuid:f781f54d-879d-4be3-ba6f-7b395378627e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=29	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00211.warc.gz	en	0.991793	1,664	3.421875	3	[ 0.23605981469154358, -0.023605292662978172, -0.022446487098932266, -0.15802501142024994, -0.06949952244758606, -0.4265408515930176, -0.0714830607175827, 0.32688647508621216, 0.08364245295524597, -0.11776694655418396, -0.31326594948768616, -0.48060786724090576, -0.06987620890140533, 0.04894...	1	Help Now > St. Boniface of Mainz FREE Catholic School Enroll Now Winfrith had expected to return to England from Friesland (in what is now Holland) in triumph. He had left the land where he was a respected scholar, teacher, and priest because he was convinced he was called to missionary work. He had argued and pestered his abbot into letting him go because he would gain greater success for God in foreign lands. He had abandoned a successful, safe life in his mid-forties to win souls for God. But from the moment he stepped off the ship, his trip to Friesland to join the famous missionary Willibrord had been a disaster. Winfrith and his companions had landed to discover that the ruler of Friesland, Radbod, had declared war on Christians, destroying churches and monasteries, driving Willibrord into exile, and sending what was left of the Church into hiding. Winfrith tried in vain to convince Radbod to let him and his companions preach. Finally, he had no choice but to return to England a few short months later in defeat. It would have been easy to give up missionary work at this point. Almost anyone would have looked at this fiasco and said that God was trying to tell him that he was called to stay and serve in England. Winfrith agreed that God had given him a message and he agreed that he had been mistaken. But his mistake had not been in the call but how he followed it. He had believed all he needed to ensure the mission's success was an enthusiastic response to God's call. It's surprising that Winfrith ever would have believed this since so much of his previous life had depended on training and organization. Born about 675, he had convinced his parents to send him to a monastery for schooling because he admired the monks who had visited his home. Through diligent study he rapidly learned all that this local monastery could teach him and was transfered to the monastery at Nursling for further schooling. There he became such a well-known teacher that students circulated notes from his classes. Back in England he started planning for his second missionary journey. He kept his enthusiasm but directed his zeal into organization and preparation for the journey. He would go to the pagan lands ... but first he would travel to Rome. When he had traveled to Friesland he had had no authority to back him up. No one had sent him there, no one would stand up for him if he needed support or help. Now he went to the pope asking for an official mission and the backing of the Church. Pope Gregory II was intrigued but uncertain and talked to Winfrith all winter long before finally sending him on a test mission to Thuringia in Germany. In the pope's commission on May 15, 1719, we have the first record of Winfrith's new name, Boniface. The pope apparently gave him this new name because the previous day had been the feast of a martyr by that name. From then on he was known as Boniface to all who knew him. Missionaries had come to Thuringia before but the Church there was in bad shape, isolated and subject to superstition and heresy. Boniface saw that he was going to get no help from the local clergy and monks, but he had learned in Friesland he could not spread God's word alone. He was about to send for help when he heard that Radbod had died and the missionary Willibrord was back in Friesland. Boniface immediately took off for Friesland, the site of his former humiliation. Perhaps he returned in hopes of redeeming his earlier disaster. It seems more likely, however, that he was following through on the lesson he had learned at that time and was going to get training from the expert in missions: Willibrord. In the three years he spent with Willibrord, Boniface gave as much as he gained. So helpful was he that Willibrord, who was in his sixties, wanted to make Boniface his successor. But with his training over, Boniface felt the pull of the German missionary work he'd left behind, and, despite Willibrord's pleas, went to Hesse. Unlike Thuringia or Friesland, Hesse had never been evangelized. Boniface had to start from scratch. Needing even more authority in dealing with chieftains who were his first goal for converts, he appealed to the pope again. During a trip to Rome, the pope consecrated Boniface bishop. Boniface returned to find that his problems had worsened. People were attracted by Christianity but unable to give up their old religion and superstitions, perhaps out of fear of being different or of how their old "gods" would react. Knowing that the people needed a reason to let go, Boniface called the tribes to a display of power. As the people watched, Boniface approached the giant oak of Geismar, a sacred tree dedicated to Thor, with an axe. Some of the people must have trembled with each stroke of his axe, but nothing happened. Finally with a crack, the tree split in four parts that we, are told, fell to the ground in the shape of a cross. There stood Boniface, axe in hand, unharmed by their old gods, strong in the power of the one God. After his success in Hesse, he returned to Thuringia to confront the old problem of the decadent remnants of the Church there. Unable to get help from the suspect clergy in Thuringia, he called to England for help. Nuns and monks responded to his call enthusiastically for many years. We still have many of Boniface's letters, including correspondence with his helpers in England. Reforming the Church was the biggest challenge in Thuringia and he had many thorny questions to answer. When a rite of baptism had been defective was it valid? What should he do about immoral clergy? Still remembering his first lesson, he appealed to Rome for answers from the pope. All his appeals to Rome helped him -- but it also helped forge a much stronger bond between Rome and Europe. Boniface was called upon to lend his own support to Frankish Church which was also sadly in need of reform. He set up councils and syonds and instituted reforms which revitalized the Church there. Few saints retire, and Boniface was no exception. At 73, a time when most are thinking of rest and relaxation, Boniface headed back to Friesland on a new mission. One day in 754 while he was awaiting some confirmands, an enemy band attacked his camp. Although his companions wanted to fight, Boniface told them to trust in God and to welcome death for the faith. All of them were martyred. When have you jumped into something without thinking you needed preparation? What was the result? Is there something you feel called to do but don't feel that you know enough or would be able to handle it? Who can you go to for training or support? Talk to one of these people this week.Prayer: St. Padre Pio Find SaintsPopular Saints Saints by Alphabet Saint of the Day Saint Feast Days by Month Patron Saints by Alphabet FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	1,656	ENGLISH	1
Korematsu v. United States: The Background The trial of Korematsu v. United States started during World War II, when President Roosevelt passed Executive Order 9066 to command the placement of Japanese residents and Japanese citizens who were staying or located in the United States into special facilities where they were excluded from the general population. Isolating people from the general population for no good reason is a direct violation of the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution. To defend this aggressive action, President Roosevelt explained that the order was passed to prevent internal damages or sabotage that may have been caused by individuals who supported Japan. Roosevelt separated Japanese people because he didn’t want them banning together in a time of war. Japan was a primary enemy of the United States during this time; Roosevelt believed that separation was the best way to contain an uprising. The case of Korematsu v. United States deals with military law. This aspect of law is a legal field within Federal Law, which addresses the activity and behavior of military personnel, including issues of treason, war crimes and criminal offenses directed towards military personnel. Korematsu stood up against the forced imprisonment of Japanese people because the government did not differentiate between Japanese extremists or American citizens who happened to be of Japanese descent. Korematsu was one of these American citizens who was forcefully removed from his home and his everyday life and taken to a prison camp. Korematsu v. United States: The Case Profile The case of Korematsu v. United States took place on December 18th of 1944. The trial was initiated by Korematsu in response to Roosevelt’s executive order. Koramatsu believed that forced residency was illegal. Korematsu brought his case to the Supreme Court by stating that imprisonment of his people was a direct violation of civil liberties and the human rights afforded to American citizens in the United States Constitution. The case of Korematsu v. United States was decided on December 18th of 1944. The case was heard by the Supreme Court of the United States. Korematsu v. United States: The Verdict In the case of Korematsu v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the United States, claiming that based on military law, the preservation and protection of the general population of the United States outweighed the individual who was detained in a prison camp. The ruling in Korematsu v. United States also explained that during a time of war, the government was allowed to pass certain laws that may not be legal in times of peace.	<urn:uuid:1a4844aa-7730-4951-8465-fd270cfa7244>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.laws.com/korematsu-v-united-states	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00201.warc.gz	en	0.983027	517	3.59375	4	[ -0.6450968980789185, 0.22364337742328644, 0.15022924542427063, -0.16941498219966888, 0.17725205421447754, 0.37034136056900024, 0.41109490394592285, 0.22108176350593567, 0.22349035739898682, 0.26257964968681335, 0.14715051651000977, 0.263947069644928, -0.1100253164768219, 0.4598084390163421...	4	Korematsu v. United States: The Background The trial of Korematsu v. United States started during World War II, when President Roosevelt passed Executive Order 9066 to command the placement of Japanese residents and Japanese citizens who were staying or located in the United States into special facilities where they were excluded from the general population. Isolating people from the general population for no good reason is a direct violation of the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution. To defend this aggressive action, President Roosevelt explained that the order was passed to prevent internal damages or sabotage that may have been caused by individuals who supported Japan. Roosevelt separated Japanese people because he didn’t want them banning together in a time of war. Japan was a primary enemy of the United States during this time; Roosevelt believed that separation was the best way to contain an uprising. The case of Korematsu v. United States deals with military law. This aspect of law is a legal field within Federal Law, which addresses the activity and behavior of military personnel, including issues of treason, war crimes and criminal offenses directed towards military personnel. Korematsu stood up against the forced imprisonment of Japanese people because the government did not differentiate between Japanese extremists or American citizens who happened to be of Japanese descent. Korematsu was one of these American citizens who was forcefully removed from his home and his everyday life and taken to a prison camp. Korematsu v. United States: The Case Profile The case of Korematsu v. United States took place on December 18th of 1944. The trial was initiated by Korematsu in response to Roosevelt’s executive order. Koramatsu believed that forced residency was illegal. Korematsu brought his case to the Supreme Court by stating that imprisonment of his people was a direct violation of civil liberties and the human rights afforded to American citizens in the United States Constitution. The case of Korematsu v. United States was decided on December 18th of 1944. The case was heard by the Supreme Court of the United States. Korematsu v. United States: The Verdict In the case of Korematsu v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the United States, claiming that based on military law, the preservation and protection of the general population of the United States outweighed the individual who was detained in a prison camp. The ruling in Korematsu v. United States also explained that during a time of war, the government was allowed to pass certain laws that may not be legal in times of peace.	526	ENGLISH	1
The Victorian Chimney Sweepers started in the United Kingdom. In the 1700s-1800s with children being kidnapped or sold by their parents. These children were kept under an apprentice and had to sleep in unsatisfactory places also being forced to work under harsh conditions. Many of these children were under the age of ten but older than three cleaning inside chimneys, causing life threatening situations. One of the requirements of being a chimney sweeper was the fact that the children had to be small. In order to have a toddler, a master or an apprentice would buy these boys from their parents or kidnapped them off the streets. What would happen next is these young boys were often starved in order to fit inside a chimney and clean soot of the walls. Another is that the small little boys had to fit in the narrow chimneys that were no bigger than 20 inches. In addition, to the requirements there was several controversial subjects in the victorian era about the young boys working conditions The controversial subjects included not being paid, children dying, developing cancer, being disfigured throughout their lifetime, and the fact that a small child forced to clean inside a chimney. Whenever the boys would mature they soon developed cancer in their in scrotum and die during this tragic ordeal. Also the small boys bones would end up expanding differently than average children their age. Many of these children were not paid, and some were paid in food while others not so lucky. While inside the chimneys the toddlers would die due to suffocation and get stuck. The apprentices next act was to send yet again another child up the chimney up to remove the body, most often both boys ended up stuck. In later years, there would soon be many acts stopping children from working at young ages. After many deaths, and unpleasant working conditions this was brought to the attention of parliament in the United Kingdom many acts were created to stop children from dying in chimneys. A first act of defence was The Chimney Sweepers Act of 1788 was established so no boy would work younger than eight years old. This was a first of many acts to prohibit child labor in the UK. Another was The Act of Chimney Sweepers and Chimney Regulation Act in 1840 this was meant to stop anyone from cleaning and working in chimneys under the age of twenty-one. Finally in 1875, an edited version of the past chimney sweepers acts a new act named the Chimney Sweepers Act of 1875 mission was to forbid child labor after the death of George Brewster aged 12. Shortly following his death, George’s master Mr. Wyer was sent to jail and charged with manslaughter. Unfortunately George Brewster’s body was stuck inside the chimney while cleaning soot from the walls. Once realizing young Mr. Brewster was stuck multiple people attempted to break down the wall and free George but in the end he was declared dead. George Brewster became the last child to have died inside a chimney while cleaning.	<urn:uuid:d5dad44c-77db-4c93-9baf-9d6c6656c674>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://taxteaparty.com/the-their-parents-or-kidnapped-them-off-the/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00140.warc.gz	en	0.987968	604	3.75	4	[ -0.03663790225982666, 0.09932826459407806, 0.5395643711090088, -0.31390100717544556, -0.3024130165576935, 0.0069153765216469765, -0.09502005577087402, -0.1334158480167389, -0.21454869210720062, 0.12086229026317596, -0.1120697557926178, -0.27811235189437866, -0.14526605606079102, 0.03291755...	2	The Victorian Chimney Sweepers started in the United Kingdom. In the 1700s-1800s with children being kidnapped or sold by their parents. These children were kept under an apprentice and had to sleep in unsatisfactory places also being forced to work under harsh conditions. Many of these children were under the age of ten but older than three cleaning inside chimneys, causing life threatening situations. One of the requirements of being a chimney sweeper was the fact that the children had to be small. In order to have a toddler, a master or an apprentice would buy these boys from their parents or kidnapped them off the streets. What would happen next is these young boys were often starved in order to fit inside a chimney and clean soot of the walls. Another is that the small little boys had to fit in the narrow chimneys that were no bigger than 20 inches. In addition, to the requirements there was several controversial subjects in the victorian era about the young boys working conditions The controversial subjects included not being paid, children dying, developing cancer, being disfigured throughout their lifetime, and the fact that a small child forced to clean inside a chimney. Whenever the boys would mature they soon developed cancer in their in scrotum and die during this tragic ordeal. Also the small boys bones would end up expanding differently than average children their age. Many of these children were not paid, and some were paid in food while others not so lucky. While inside the chimneys the toddlers would die due to suffocation and get stuck. The apprentices next act was to send yet again another child up the chimney up to remove the body, most often both boys ended up stuck. In later years, there would soon be many acts stopping children from working at young ages. After many deaths, and unpleasant working conditions this was brought to the attention of parliament in the United Kingdom many acts were created to stop children from dying in chimneys. A first act of defence was The Chimney Sweepers Act of 1788 was established so no boy would work younger than eight years old. This was a first of many acts to prohibit child labor in the UK. Another was The Act of Chimney Sweepers and Chimney Regulation Act in 1840 this was meant to stop anyone from cleaning and working in chimneys under the age of twenty-one. Finally in 1875, an edited version of the past chimney sweepers acts a new act named the Chimney Sweepers Act of 1875 mission was to forbid child labor after the death of George Brewster aged 12. Shortly following his death, George’s master Mr. Wyer was sent to jail and charged with manslaughter. Unfortunately George Brewster’s body was stuck inside the chimney while cleaning soot from the walls. Once realizing young Mr. Brewster was stuck multiple people attempted to break down the wall and free George but in the end he was declared dead. George Brewster became the last child to have died inside a chimney while cleaning.	619	ENGLISH	1
Ghost of King Edward II of Berkeley Castle Located in Gloucestershire England, Berkeley Castle was built in 1153 by William FitzOsbern after Henry II granted permission to construct a castle of stone. Over the centuries, Berkeley Castle served an important role in English history with its Earls participating in many famous wars. The castle was damaged after being battered by Lord Oliver Cromwell. For approximately 850 years, the castle has been inhabited by the Berkeley Family and resides as the oldest inhabited castle in England. The castle is best known for the royal figure who was imprisoned and murdered there. As Richard Jones tells the story ... "Visitors to the castle can still see a deep dungeon in the old keep, into which were once thrown the rotting carcasses of animals, accompanied every so often, it is said, by the corpses of common people who had offended the powerful Lord Berkeley. The stench rising from this disease-ridden and malodorous pit must have been unbearable, but it also provided an exquisitely horrific way to punish those of noble birth who had incurred the wrath of the Berkeley family. A windowless cell can be seen close by. Here, unfortunate nobles would be locked away, with only the stinking air from the nearby dungeon to breathe. It provided a convenient method by which to dispose of those who could not be seen to have been murdered, since few people could survive long in the dreadful and fetid atmosphere. It was this living hell that Edward II found himself confined in 1327, after he was deposed by his wife, Queen Isabella, and her lover, Roger Mortimer. It was their intention that a few days in the dreadful chamber would bring about the king’s death. But his constitution surprised them. He did become ill, but he recovered and managed to survive five months in the loathsome cell. Clearly a more direct approach was required, and so the queen instructed Edward’s jailers, Sir John Maltravers and Sir Thomas Gurney, to dispose of her husband as they saw fit. And so on September 21, 1327, Edward II suffered the most horrible death of any British monarch. The two men seized Edward and pinned him face down to the bed, whereupon 'a kind of horn or funnel was thrust into his fundament through which a red-hot spit was run up his bowels'. Such was the king’s agony that his screams are said to have been heard far beyond the castle walls, and have echoed down the centuries on the anniversary of his death ever since." This ghost story was taken from the book "Haunted Castles of Britain and Ireland" by Richard Jones. We would like to thank Richard for graciously allowing us to use his text on Great Castles for some of the ghost stories presented on this site. You can find other stories by Mr. Jones on his web site, Haunted Britain. About the Haunted Castles of Britain and Ireland book: Region by region, ghost-seeker Richard Jones reveals, explains and delights in the tales of tortured phantoms eager to restage their dark and turbulent pasts. The cast of characters ranges from ghostly queens that hurl themselves from the ramparts to malevolent monks that wander the corridors. This authoritative and accessible guide to haunted sites is illustrated throughout and includes extracts from original documents.	<urn:uuid:19959a5f-1d56-405a-a35a-9c571fbd60fd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://great-castles.com/berkeleyghost.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00081.warc.gz	en	0.981141	683	3.328125	3	[ -0.2087157815694809, 0.2518191337585449, 0.5081276297569275, -0.15862073004245758, -0.46779006719589233, -0.7314116954803467, 0.506928563117981, -0.35298770666122437, -0.1517951935529709, -0.03461402282118797, -0.06575275212526321, -0.5630685091018677, 0.06692419946193695, 0.45228457450866...	2	Ghost of King Edward II of Berkeley Castle Located in Gloucestershire England, Berkeley Castle was built in 1153 by William FitzOsbern after Henry II granted permission to construct a castle of stone. Over the centuries, Berkeley Castle served an important role in English history with its Earls participating in many famous wars. The castle was damaged after being battered by Lord Oliver Cromwell. For approximately 850 years, the castle has been inhabited by the Berkeley Family and resides as the oldest inhabited castle in England. The castle is best known for the royal figure who was imprisoned and murdered there. As Richard Jones tells the story ... "Visitors to the castle can still see a deep dungeon in the old keep, into which were once thrown the rotting carcasses of animals, accompanied every so often, it is said, by the corpses of common people who had offended the powerful Lord Berkeley. The stench rising from this disease-ridden and malodorous pit must have been unbearable, but it also provided an exquisitely horrific way to punish those of noble birth who had incurred the wrath of the Berkeley family. A windowless cell can be seen close by. Here, unfortunate nobles would be locked away, with only the stinking air from the nearby dungeon to breathe. It provided a convenient method by which to dispose of those who could not be seen to have been murdered, since few people could survive long in the dreadful and fetid atmosphere. It was this living hell that Edward II found himself confined in 1327, after he was deposed by his wife, Queen Isabella, and her lover, Roger Mortimer. It was their intention that a few days in the dreadful chamber would bring about the king’s death. But his constitution surprised them. He did become ill, but he recovered and managed to survive five months in the loathsome cell. Clearly a more direct approach was required, and so the queen instructed Edward’s jailers, Sir John Maltravers and Sir Thomas Gurney, to dispose of her husband as they saw fit. And so on September 21, 1327, Edward II suffered the most horrible death of any British monarch. The two men seized Edward and pinned him face down to the bed, whereupon 'a kind of horn or funnel was thrust into his fundament through which a red-hot spit was run up his bowels'. Such was the king’s agony that his screams are said to have been heard far beyond the castle walls, and have echoed down the centuries on the anniversary of his death ever since." This ghost story was taken from the book "Haunted Castles of Britain and Ireland" by Richard Jones. We would like to thank Richard for graciously allowing us to use his text on Great Castles for some of the ghost stories presented on this site. You can find other stories by Mr. Jones on his web site, Haunted Britain. About the Haunted Castles of Britain and Ireland book: Region by region, ghost-seeker Richard Jones reveals, explains and delights in the tales of tortured phantoms eager to restage their dark and turbulent pasts. The cast of characters ranges from ghostly queens that hurl themselves from the ramparts to malevolent monks that wander the corridors. This authoritative and accessible guide to haunted sites is illustrated throughout and includes extracts from original documents.	682	ENGLISH	1
The Muslims began distrusting the Hindus and then the Hindu and Sikhs also got convinced that mutual co-existence was impossible. It was the, Hindus’ and Sikhs’ desire for Partition that made him a mass leader without any masses behind him in his struggle for unity. The Muslims had already declared him to be their enemy. When different segments of people wanted partition, what could he or the Congress do but to accept it? At his daily prayer meeting on 4th June 1947 Gandhi said: “The demand has been granted because you asked for it. The Congress never asked for it…. But the Congress can feel the pulse of the people. It realised that the Khalsa as also the Hindus desired it.” Spcialists and Gandhians appealed to Gandhi to launch a struggle for unity bypassing the Congress leaders. Gandhi pointed out that the problem was not that he was unwilling to go ahead without the Congress leaders. After all, few had agreed with his assessment in 1942 that the time was right for a struggle of the Quit India type, and yet he had defied their counsels and he had been proved right. The crucial lacuna in 1947 was that there were no ‘forces of good’ upon which he could ‘build up a programme’. He confessed, ‘Today I see no sign of such a healthy feeling. And, therefore, I shall have to wait until the time comes.” The time never came for political developments were moving at too fast a pace. Partition was announced on 3rd June and implemented on 15th August 1947. Gandhi’s advice to Congressmen, conveyed in his speech to the AICC meeting on 14th June 1947, was to accept Partition as an unavoidable necessity for the present, but not accept it in their hearts and fight to reverse it later, when passions would subside.	<urn:uuid:f5f96e08-90ef-4408-b8e4-b5ccb5fdb8cc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lucasdipasquale.com/short-essay-on-gandhiji-and-partition/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00178.warc.gz	en	0.992175	396	3.71875	4	[ -0.27228420972824097, 0.313625305891037, -0.3396568298339844, 0.24395552277565002, -0.33140313625335693, 0.0467844121158123, 0.15133130550384521, -0.112127386033535, 0.1425412893295288, 0.0012362184934318066, 0.17737922072410583, -0.32903367280960083, 0.1892746239900589, 0.263200581073761,...	2	The Muslims began distrusting the Hindus and then the Hindu and Sikhs also got convinced that mutual co-existence was impossible. It was the, Hindus’ and Sikhs’ desire for Partition that made him a mass leader without any masses behind him in his struggle for unity. The Muslims had already declared him to be their enemy. When different segments of people wanted partition, what could he or the Congress do but to accept it? At his daily prayer meeting on 4th June 1947 Gandhi said: “The demand has been granted because you asked for it. The Congress never asked for it…. But the Congress can feel the pulse of the people. It realised that the Khalsa as also the Hindus desired it.” Spcialists and Gandhians appealed to Gandhi to launch a struggle for unity bypassing the Congress leaders. Gandhi pointed out that the problem was not that he was unwilling to go ahead without the Congress leaders. After all, few had agreed with his assessment in 1942 that the time was right for a struggle of the Quit India type, and yet he had defied their counsels and he had been proved right. The crucial lacuna in 1947 was that there were no ‘forces of good’ upon which he could ‘build up a programme’. He confessed, ‘Today I see no sign of such a healthy feeling. And, therefore, I shall have to wait until the time comes.” The time never came for political developments were moving at too fast a pace. Partition was announced on 3rd June and implemented on 15th August 1947. Gandhi’s advice to Congressmen, conveyed in his speech to the AICC meeting on 14th June 1947, was to accept Partition as an unavoidable necessity for the present, but not accept it in their hearts and fight to reverse it later, when passions would subside.	396	ENGLISH	1
Ebenezer Zane (October 7, 1747 – 1811) was an American pioneer, road builder and land speculator. Born in what is now Moorefield, West Virginia (which was then in the colony of Virginia), Zane established the settlement known as Fort Henry in Wheeling, Virginia (present-day West Virginia) on the Ohio River. Zane is also famous for blazing the trail known as Zane's Trace. Zane died of jaundice in 1811. Ebenezer Zane was one of six children born to William Andrew Zane and his wife, Nancy Ann Nolan. He had four brothers: Silas (born 1745), Andrew (born 1749), Jonathan (born about 1750), and Isaac (born 1753), as well as one sister, Elizabeth "Betty" (born 1759). Ebenezer Zane married Elizabeth McColloch (October 30, 1748 – 1814). Their first child was daughter Catherine (born June 27, 1769), who married Absalom Martin, a government surveyor of the Seven Ranges who founded Martins Ferry, Ohio. Sarah (born February 23, 1773) married John McIntire, later founder of Zanesville, Ohio and helped write the first Ohio Constitution. Noah was born October 25, 1778. Rebecca (born October 10, 1776) was married to John Clarke. Hester, or Esther (born October 8, 1786) was married to Elijah Woods, who also helped write the Ohio Constitution. Daniel was born October 25, 1788, Jesse, October 5, 1790, John April 30, 1780, and Samuel born May 12, 1782. Jesse and John died young. He was a maternal ancestor of author Zane Grey, who was born in Zanesville. At Fort HenryEdit Zane headed west with his brothers Silas and Jonathan Zane from Moorefield and established Fort Henry in 1769. During the American Revolutionary War, Zane and his brothers defended Fort Henry against two Native American attacks. The first Siege of Fort Henry occurred in September 1777. Zane's sister Elizabeth was celebrated for her courage during the second siege in September 1782 when she left the fort to retrieve a badly needed keg of gunpowder and sprinted back safely under a hail of gunfire. Ebenezer Zane began his military career under British rule. He served as a disbursing officer under Lord Dunmore. Zane later became a colonel in the Virginia colonial militia. In 1788, he served as a western delegate to the Virginia Ratifying Convention and voted in favor of ratification of the United States Constitution. Building Zane's TraceEdit Following the war in 1796, Zane obtained permission and funds from the United States Congress to build a road through the Northwest Territory. In exchange for his work, Congress granted Zane tracts of land in the areas where the road intersected the Muskingum, Hocking, and Scioto rivers. When Zane's Trace was completed, it crossed what is now the state of Ohio from Wheeling, Virginia to Maysville, Kentucky. Although the road was a rudimentary path and at first suitable only for travel by foot or horseback (not by wagon), the state of Ohio undertook improvements in the early 19th century. It was the only major road in Ohio until the War of 1812. Zanesville, Ohio was named in his honor. - Wiseman 1901, p. 11-12.	<urn:uuid:3a237aa5-8510-49f2-8c8a-257f67e42d41>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebenezer_Zane	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00110.warc.gz	en	0.989651	723	3.5625	4	[ -0.46353888511657715, 0.4796300232410431, 0.43368908762931824, 0.3633538484573364, -0.062317606061697006, 0.2901272475719452, 0.3310947120189667, 0.049882180988788605, -0.29646795988082886, 0.19943514466285706, 0.03799539804458618, -0.27333202958106995, -0.03394157066941261, -0.26013833284...	1	Ebenezer Zane (October 7, 1747 – 1811) was an American pioneer, road builder and land speculator. Born in what is now Moorefield, West Virginia (which was then in the colony of Virginia), Zane established the settlement known as Fort Henry in Wheeling, Virginia (present-day West Virginia) on the Ohio River. Zane is also famous for blazing the trail known as Zane's Trace. Zane died of jaundice in 1811. Ebenezer Zane was one of six children born to William Andrew Zane and his wife, Nancy Ann Nolan. He had four brothers: Silas (born 1745), Andrew (born 1749), Jonathan (born about 1750), and Isaac (born 1753), as well as one sister, Elizabeth "Betty" (born 1759). Ebenezer Zane married Elizabeth McColloch (October 30, 1748 – 1814). Their first child was daughter Catherine (born June 27, 1769), who married Absalom Martin, a government surveyor of the Seven Ranges who founded Martins Ferry, Ohio. Sarah (born February 23, 1773) married John McIntire, later founder of Zanesville, Ohio and helped write the first Ohio Constitution. Noah was born October 25, 1778. Rebecca (born October 10, 1776) was married to John Clarke. Hester, or Esther (born October 8, 1786) was married to Elijah Woods, who also helped write the Ohio Constitution. Daniel was born October 25, 1788, Jesse, October 5, 1790, John April 30, 1780, and Samuel born May 12, 1782. Jesse and John died young. He was a maternal ancestor of author Zane Grey, who was born in Zanesville. At Fort HenryEdit Zane headed west with his brothers Silas and Jonathan Zane from Moorefield and established Fort Henry in 1769. During the American Revolutionary War, Zane and his brothers defended Fort Henry against two Native American attacks. The first Siege of Fort Henry occurred in September 1777. Zane's sister Elizabeth was celebrated for her courage during the second siege in September 1782 when she left the fort to retrieve a badly needed keg of gunpowder and sprinted back safely under a hail of gunfire. Ebenezer Zane began his military career under British rule. He served as a disbursing officer under Lord Dunmore. Zane later became a colonel in the Virginia colonial militia. In 1788, he served as a western delegate to the Virginia Ratifying Convention and voted in favor of ratification of the United States Constitution. Building Zane's TraceEdit Following the war in 1796, Zane obtained permission and funds from the United States Congress to build a road through the Northwest Territory. In exchange for his work, Congress granted Zane tracts of land in the areas where the road intersected the Muskingum, Hocking, and Scioto rivers. When Zane's Trace was completed, it crossed what is now the state of Ohio from Wheeling, Virginia to Maysville, Kentucky. Although the road was a rudimentary path and at first suitable only for travel by foot or horseback (not by wagon), the state of Ohio undertook improvements in the early 19th century. It was the only major road in Ohio until the War of 1812. Zanesville, Ohio was named in his honor. - Wiseman 1901, p. 11-12.	818	ENGLISH	1
In honor of President’s Day, we give you five fun and off-beat facts about each of New England’s presidents, beginning with the earliest and working forward. Massachusetts’ John Adams was the nation’s second president. Elected after serving as George Washington’s vice president, Adams was a Federalist who served one tumultuous term in office after winning election in 1896. He was defeated for a second term by Thomas Jefferson, the Democratic-Republican candidate who had earlier lost to Adams. While the colonists pulled together during the American Revolution, they were hardly of one mind politically when it came to establishing the new nation. As vice president, Adams was called on to settle ties in the senate 31 times, a record that stands to this day. Linked With Jefferson until Death While Jefferson and Adams were bitter political rivals in the early days of America, the two men eventually reconciled. In their later days, they shared many letters that discuss the fortunes of the country that they both worked to found. Eventually, they would both die on the very same day, July 4, 1826 – the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. Dire Warnings for the Future One month before his death, Adams published a statement on the upcoming anniversary of the Declaration of Independence that contained something of a warning about the future of America. The country, he cautioned, was “destined in future history to form the brightest or the blackest page, according to the use or the abuse of those political institutions by which they shall, in time to come, be shaped by the human mind.” Stole a Bit of Shakespeare’s Chair In 1786, Jefferson and Adams visited England on a diplomatic mission, and while in the country they took time to tour William Shakespeare’s home in Stratford-Upon-Avon. While there, they chipped off a tiny piece of one of the Bard’s chairs as a souvenir, which Adams explained was the custom. Not a Slaveholder Adams, from Massachusetts, was the only President until 1825 who was not a slaveholder. His son John Quincy was the second. John Quincy Adams John Quincy Adams, the sixth president of the United States, was the son of another president who faced intense political hostility in office and only served one term. Adams was far more successful before and after his four years in the White House; before, he set foreign policy as a diplomat and secretary of state; after, he vehemently opposed slavery as a long-time member of the House of Representatives. At the age of 14 he became secretary to Francis Dana, traveling with him to St. Petersburg, Russia, to win recognition for the new United States. Born July 11, 1767, in Braintree, Mass., to John and Abigail Adams. He first traveled with his father in 1778 on a diplomatic mission to France. He became one of the greatest diplomats in U.S. history, negotiating the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812, and designing the Monroe Doctrine. He was the only president later elected to the House of Representatives. He served for 17 years to more acclaim than he had in the White House, where he served one term from 1825 to 1829. He used his role in Congress to fight slavery. He liked to go skinny dipping in the Potomac during his presidency. Every morning at 5 a.m. he would go down to the river and swim. A female reporter named Ann Royall was denied the chance to interview him, but she knew of his habit. One morning she went to the riverbank and sat on his clothes until he gave her an interview. He thus became the first president to give an interview to a female reporter. The Marquis de Lafayette gave him an alligator, which he had been given as a gift on his tour of the 24 states in 1824 and 1825. He in turn gave it to President Adams and his wife Louise. They kept it in the bathtub, where Adams enjoyed showing it to incredulous guests for several months. Eventually the alligator found a new home. Haunting the Capitol John Quincy Adams’ ghost is said to haunt the Capitol. He had a stroke at his desk in the House chamber on February 21, 1848. His condition was fragile, so he was taken to the Speaker’s Room. He lingered there for two days, then died. Many say they’ve heard him rail against slavery in National Statuary Hall. Many also claim you can hear his whisper by standing where his desk once stood. New Hampshire’s Franklin Pierce served a relatively forgettable four years in the White House following the 1852 elections. Remembered largely as an appeaser of southern slaveholders, he was beset with personal difficulties when his son died after the election but before his inauguration and his wife, stricken with grief, never got beyond the loss. A few unusual facts from his life: No Flags for Lincoln In the aftermath of the assassination of President Lincoln, a mob several hundred angry Concord, N.H. residents accosted Pierce at his home demanding to know why he was not displaying the flag to mark the tragedy. Pierce said he had no need to raise the flag to show his patriotism, and apparently did not do so. The event ended without violence. No One Wanted Four More Years Pierce was the only elected president in history to be rejected for re-nomination by his own party. Others have declined to run or dropped out of the race, but Pierce had the decision made for him at the convention where his party chose to nominate James Buchanan, one of the few presidents that historians think less of than Pierce. He Bought Tucson If you have an affection for Tucson, Arizona, you can thank Franklin Pierce. The Gadsden Purchase that added a swath of land in southern Arizona and New Mexico was finalized during Pierce’s time in office. He Defended Two Wrongly Accused Men Long before he was president, Franklin Pierce represented the defendants in one of New England’s most highly publicized murder trials, and he got the accused off. Jonas Parker, Manchester’s tax collector, was brutally murdered with a knife and razor in 1845. When suspicion fell on the Wentworth brothers of Saco, Maine, they relied on Pierce to get them acquitted. Pierce’s co-counsel in the case was Benjamin Butler of Lowell, Mass. who went on to become one of the most feared northern generals in the Civil War. Butler would later reveal that he had deduced who the murder was: it was a man from Massachusetts that had connections to Parker, and the murder was probably because Parker would not return $2,000 to the man — the proceeds of an earlier robbery that Parker had invested and refused to return. Lifelong Friends with Nathaniel Hawthorne Franklin Pierce and Nathaniel Hawthorne attended Bowdoin College together, and the two remained close throughout Hawthorne’s life. Hawthorne wrote a flattering biography of Pierce that served as election propaganda, and was rewarded after the election with the post of consul of Liverpool. An odd-sounding job, perhaps, but a lucrative one. It gave Hawthorne a cut of all shipping between Liverpool and America. Following Hawthorne’s return to America in 1860, the two old friends embarked on a carriage tour of New Hampshire in 1864 that they hoped would restore Hawthorne’s failing health. Hawthorne died on the trip, however, in Plymouth, N.H. Chester A. Arthur, the man with the mutton chops, was an improbable president during America’s Gilded Age: First, because he’d never been elected to office before James A. Garfield selected him as his running mate; and second, because he exceeded very low expectations of him when he took office upon Garfield’s assassination. Only One Election Chester A. Arthur, the 21st president of the United States, was only elected to one public office, vice president of the United States. President Ulysses S. Grant appointed him Collector of the Port of New York after he had risen in the political machine of New York Sen. Roscoe Conkling. James Garfield then selected him as his vice president. Arthur became president after Garfield was assassinated. Arthur, born in Fairfield, Vt., on Oct. 5, 1829, was the son of a staunch abolitionist minister. William Arthur was a Baptist minister who helped for the New York Anti-Slavery Society in the 1830s. Chester Arthur became a New York lawyer. In 1855,he successfully represented Elizabeth Jennings Graham, an African-American woman who insisted on her right to ride on a Manhattan streetcar. The case paved the way for the desegregation of public transportation in New York City. Married a Singer He married a singer. Arthur and Ellen “Nell” Lewis Herndon were wed on October 25, 1859. She was a talented soprano who sang with the Mendelssohn Glee Club, performing at benefits in New York City. They had two sons, one who died at age three, and a daughter. Nell died of pneumonia on Jan. 10, 1860.Arthur’s sister acted as First Lady when he became president on Sept. 19, 1881. The Oddly Honest President Arthur surprised everyone when he turned out to be an honest president. He was a member of the Republican Party’s Stalwart wing, which supported machine politics and patronage. When Charles Guiteau shot Garfield, he shouted, ““I am a Stalwart of the Stalwarts! Arthur is president now!” Arthur was mortified and hid out at his home in New York while Garfield lingered near death. When he took office he overcame his dirty reputation by successfully advocating civil service reform – and enforcing it. He also fought fraud in the U.S. Postal Service. He died shortly after leaving office. Mark Twain praised him, saying, “It would be hard indeed to better President Arthur’s administration.” The Clothes Horse Calvin Coolidge was the president who made the roaring 20s roar. Coolidge took over the presidency after the death of President Harding, whose administration had gotten bogged down in cronyism and scandals. Coolidge changed that. He was a no-nonsense leader. Unfortunately, he also took a hands-off approach to governing that helped create the bubble that burst and gave us the Great Depression. Both Massachusetts and Vermont can claim Coolidge as he was born in Vermont, but rose to political prominence in Massachusetts as a mayor and later governor. Sworn in in Vermont Calvin Coolidge was actually sworn in to office in Vermont. He was vacationing at his family’s homestead in Plymouth Notch, Vt., which had no telephone, on August 2, 1923, when Harding died. His father, a notary, swore him in in the early morning of August 3 and Coolidge went back to bed for the rest of the night. Caught Shaving with a Hat Coolidge earned his law degree and in 1897, at his father’s urging, joined to the Massachusetts bar to practice in Northampton, Mass. where he settled. His first introduction to his future wife Grace came in 1905 when she spotted him through the window of the boarding house where he was staying shaving — while wearing a hat. They were later formally introduced and went on to marry. He explained, by the way, that he wore the hat while shaving because it kept his hair under control. Coolidge was a man of few words, especially for those he found annoying or stupid. And so he came to be known as Silent Cal. He was, however, far from silent. He had more than 500 press conferences, gave speeches that were aired on the radio and was the first president to have his inauguration broadcast over the radio. Perhaps more than silent, he was boring. One of Ronald Reagan’s favorites Coolidge rose to national prominence when he ended a Boston police department strike by ordering up the National Guard to keep the peace in the city and firing all of the striking police officers. Ronald Reagan praised Coolidge for his firing of the police officers when he, himself, famously fired the striking air traffic controllers in 1981. John F. Kennedy John F. Kennedy brought an image of youthful vigor to the White House, though he was plagued with health problems throughout his short life. His wife, Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy, restored the White House and hosted dazzling, sophisticated dinners, lending the name ‘Camelot’ to the Kennedy presidency. His assassination in 1963 traumatized the country; ask Baby Boomers where they were on Nov. 22, 1963 and they will tell you. One Leg Short President John F. Kennedy was born May 29, 1917 in Brookline, Mass., with one leg shorter than the other. The condition caused muscle spasms in his back and left leg, making it hard to walk. The pain was so bad he considered giving up his political career. Dr. Janet Travell discovered the condition, prescribing corrective shoes and shots of procaine. She also advised him to sit in a rocking chair, which became a famous piece of Kennedy lore. He was a huge fan of Ian Fleming, who wrote the James Bond novels. His favorite was From Russia With Love, in which James Bond is marked for death by the Russian counterintelligence agency SMERSH. Fleming had dinner with Kennedy at his Georgetown home in 1960, when he was running for president, and the two discussed ways to overthrow Fidel Castro. Donated his Salary Kennedy gave all of his $100,000-a-year salary as president to charity. He was wealthy, as his father Joseph P. Kennedy had made a fortune in finance, movies and liquor. After taxes were taken out of his presidential income, it was given to the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts of America, the United Negro College Fund, and the Federation of Jewish Philanthropies. Integrated the Inauguration Dancefloor He was the first president to dance with African-American women at an inaugural ball. Frank Sinatra, a friend of Kennedy’s brother-in-law Peter Lawford, put on a pre-inaugural gala featuring entertainers Nat King Cole, Sidney Poitier, Marian Anderson, Mahalia Jackson Harry Belafonte and Ella Fitzgerald. Kennedy’s was the first fully integrated inaugural ball in history. Last Rites X 4 He was given last rites, the Catholic blessing before death, four times in his life: in 1947 on a sea voyage home after becoming gravely ill in England; in 1951 while stricken with a high fever in Japan; in 1954 following back surgery; on Nov. 22, 1963, after he’d been shot in Dallas.	<urn:uuid:f4b0fe65-38d7-4162-adc6-08692fc203b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/30-unusual-facts-new-england-presidents/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00287.warc.gz	en	0.983411	3,099	3.828125	4	[ -0.14945323765277863, 0.4929088354110718, 0.40453261137008667, -0.4011184573173523, -0.5993946194648743, 0.35857293009757996, 0.13870489597320557, 0.10983705520629883, 0.4722710847854614, 0.04057758301496506, 0.07632507383823395, 0.6393934488296509, 0.340252548456192, 0.4219421446323395, ...	7	In honor of President’s Day, we give you five fun and off-beat facts about each of New England’s presidents, beginning with the earliest and working forward. Massachusetts’ John Adams was the nation’s second president. Elected after serving as George Washington’s vice president, Adams was a Federalist who served one tumultuous term in office after winning election in 1896. He was defeated for a second term by Thomas Jefferson, the Democratic-Republican candidate who had earlier lost to Adams. While the colonists pulled together during the American Revolution, they were hardly of one mind politically when it came to establishing the new nation. As vice president, Adams was called on to settle ties in the senate 31 times, a record that stands to this day. Linked With Jefferson until Death While Jefferson and Adams were bitter political rivals in the early days of America, the two men eventually reconciled. In their later days, they shared many letters that discuss the fortunes of the country that they both worked to found. Eventually, they would both die on the very same day, July 4, 1826 – the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. Dire Warnings for the Future One month before his death, Adams published a statement on the upcoming anniversary of the Declaration of Independence that contained something of a warning about the future of America. The country, he cautioned, was “destined in future history to form the brightest or the blackest page, according to the use or the abuse of those political institutions by which they shall, in time to come, be shaped by the human mind.” Stole a Bit of Shakespeare’s Chair In 1786, Jefferson and Adams visited England on a diplomatic mission, and while in the country they took time to tour William Shakespeare’s home in Stratford-Upon-Avon. While there, they chipped off a tiny piece of one of the Bard’s chairs as a souvenir, which Adams explained was the custom. Not a Slaveholder Adams, from Massachusetts, was the only President until 1825 who was not a slaveholder. His son John Quincy was the second. John Quincy Adams John Quincy Adams, the sixth president of the United States, was the son of another president who faced intense political hostility in office and only served one term. Adams was far more successful before and after his four years in the White House; before, he set foreign policy as a diplomat and secretary of state; after, he vehemently opposed slavery as a long-time member of the House of Representatives. At the age of 14 he became secretary to Francis Dana, traveling with him to St. Petersburg, Russia, to win recognition for the new United States. Born July 11, 1767, in Braintree, Mass., to John and Abigail Adams. He first traveled with his father in 1778 on a diplomatic mission to France. He became one of the greatest diplomats in U.S. history, negotiating the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812, and designing the Monroe Doctrine. He was the only president later elected to the House of Representatives. He served for 17 years to more acclaim than he had in the White House, where he served one term from 1825 to 1829. He used his role in Congress to fight slavery. He liked to go skinny dipping in the Potomac during his presidency. Every morning at 5 a.m. he would go down to the river and swim. A female reporter named Ann Royall was denied the chance to interview him, but she knew of his habit. One morning she went to the riverbank and sat on his clothes until he gave her an interview. He thus became the first president to give an interview to a female reporter. The Marquis de Lafayette gave him an alligator, which he had been given as a gift on his tour of the 24 states in 1824 and 1825. He in turn gave it to President Adams and his wife Louise. They kept it in the bathtub, where Adams enjoyed showing it to incredulous guests for several months. Eventually the alligator found a new home. Haunting the Capitol John Quincy Adams’ ghost is said to haunt the Capitol. He had a stroke at his desk in the House chamber on February 21, 1848. His condition was fragile, so he was taken to the Speaker’s Room. He lingered there for two days, then died. Many say they’ve heard him rail against slavery in National Statuary Hall. Many also claim you can hear his whisper by standing where his desk once stood. New Hampshire’s Franklin Pierce served a relatively forgettable four years in the White House following the 1852 elections. Remembered largely as an appeaser of southern slaveholders, he was beset with personal difficulties when his son died after the election but before his inauguration and his wife, stricken with grief, never got beyond the loss. A few unusual facts from his life: No Flags for Lincoln In the aftermath of the assassination of President Lincoln, a mob several hundred angry Concord, N.H. residents accosted Pierce at his home demanding to know why he was not displaying the flag to mark the tragedy. Pierce said he had no need to raise the flag to show his patriotism, and apparently did not do so. The event ended without violence. No One Wanted Four More Years Pierce was the only elected president in history to be rejected for re-nomination by his own party. Others have declined to run or dropped out of the race, but Pierce had the decision made for him at the convention where his party chose to nominate James Buchanan, one of the few presidents that historians think less of than Pierce. He Bought Tucson If you have an affection for Tucson, Arizona, you can thank Franklin Pierce. The Gadsden Purchase that added a swath of land in southern Arizona and New Mexico was finalized during Pierce’s time in office. He Defended Two Wrongly Accused Men Long before he was president, Franklin Pierce represented the defendants in one of New England’s most highly publicized murder trials, and he got the accused off. Jonas Parker, Manchester’s tax collector, was brutally murdered with a knife and razor in 1845. When suspicion fell on the Wentworth brothers of Saco, Maine, they relied on Pierce to get them acquitted. Pierce’s co-counsel in the case was Benjamin Butler of Lowell, Mass. who went on to become one of the most feared northern generals in the Civil War. Butler would later reveal that he had deduced who the murder was: it was a man from Massachusetts that had connections to Parker, and the murder was probably because Parker would not return $2,000 to the man — the proceeds of an earlier robbery that Parker had invested and refused to return. Lifelong Friends with Nathaniel Hawthorne Franklin Pierce and Nathaniel Hawthorne attended Bowdoin College together, and the two remained close throughout Hawthorne’s life. Hawthorne wrote a flattering biography of Pierce that served as election propaganda, and was rewarded after the election with the post of consul of Liverpool. An odd-sounding job, perhaps, but a lucrative one. It gave Hawthorne a cut of all shipping between Liverpool and America. Following Hawthorne’s return to America in 1860, the two old friends embarked on a carriage tour of New Hampshire in 1864 that they hoped would restore Hawthorne’s failing health. Hawthorne died on the trip, however, in Plymouth, N.H. Chester A. Arthur, the man with the mutton chops, was an improbable president during America’s Gilded Age: First, because he’d never been elected to office before James A. Garfield selected him as his running mate; and second, because he exceeded very low expectations of him when he took office upon Garfield’s assassination. Only One Election Chester A. Arthur, the 21st president of the United States, was only elected to one public office, vice president of the United States. President Ulysses S. Grant appointed him Collector of the Port of New York after he had risen in the political machine of New York Sen. Roscoe Conkling. James Garfield then selected him as his vice president. Arthur became president after Garfield was assassinated. Arthur, born in Fairfield, Vt., on Oct. 5, 1829, was the son of a staunch abolitionist minister. William Arthur was a Baptist minister who helped for the New York Anti-Slavery Society in the 1830s. Chester Arthur became a New York lawyer. In 1855,he successfully represented Elizabeth Jennings Graham, an African-American woman who insisted on her right to ride on a Manhattan streetcar. The case paved the way for the desegregation of public transportation in New York City. Married a Singer He married a singer. Arthur and Ellen “Nell” Lewis Herndon were wed on October 25, 1859. She was a talented soprano who sang with the Mendelssohn Glee Club, performing at benefits in New York City. They had two sons, one who died at age three, and a daughter. Nell died of pneumonia on Jan. 10, 1860.Arthur’s sister acted as First Lady when he became president on Sept. 19, 1881. The Oddly Honest President Arthur surprised everyone when he turned out to be an honest president. He was a member of the Republican Party’s Stalwart wing, which supported machine politics and patronage. When Charles Guiteau shot Garfield, he shouted, ““I am a Stalwart of the Stalwarts! Arthur is president now!” Arthur was mortified and hid out at his home in New York while Garfield lingered near death. When he took office he overcame his dirty reputation by successfully advocating civil service reform – and enforcing it. He also fought fraud in the U.S. Postal Service. He died shortly after leaving office. Mark Twain praised him, saying, “It would be hard indeed to better President Arthur’s administration.” The Clothes Horse Calvin Coolidge was the president who made the roaring 20s roar. Coolidge took over the presidency after the death of President Harding, whose administration had gotten bogged down in cronyism and scandals. Coolidge changed that. He was a no-nonsense leader. Unfortunately, he also took a hands-off approach to governing that helped create the bubble that burst and gave us the Great Depression. Both Massachusetts and Vermont can claim Coolidge as he was born in Vermont, but rose to political prominence in Massachusetts as a mayor and later governor. Sworn in in Vermont Calvin Coolidge was actually sworn in to office in Vermont. He was vacationing at his family’s homestead in Plymouth Notch, Vt., which had no telephone, on August 2, 1923, when Harding died. His father, a notary, swore him in in the early morning of August 3 and Coolidge went back to bed for the rest of the night. Caught Shaving with a Hat Coolidge earned his law degree and in 1897, at his father’s urging, joined to the Massachusetts bar to practice in Northampton, Mass. where he settled. His first introduction to his future wife Grace came in 1905 when she spotted him through the window of the boarding house where he was staying shaving — while wearing a hat. They were later formally introduced and went on to marry. He explained, by the way, that he wore the hat while shaving because it kept his hair under control. Coolidge was a man of few words, especially for those he found annoying or stupid. And so he came to be known as Silent Cal. He was, however, far from silent. He had more than 500 press conferences, gave speeches that were aired on the radio and was the first president to have his inauguration broadcast over the radio. Perhaps more than silent, he was boring. One of Ronald Reagan’s favorites Coolidge rose to national prominence when he ended a Boston police department strike by ordering up the National Guard to keep the peace in the city and firing all of the striking police officers. Ronald Reagan praised Coolidge for his firing of the police officers when he, himself, famously fired the striking air traffic controllers in 1981. John F. Kennedy John F. Kennedy brought an image of youthful vigor to the White House, though he was plagued with health problems throughout his short life. His wife, Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy, restored the White House and hosted dazzling, sophisticated dinners, lending the name ‘Camelot’ to the Kennedy presidency. His assassination in 1963 traumatized the country; ask Baby Boomers where they were on Nov. 22, 1963 and they will tell you. One Leg Short President John F. Kennedy was born May 29, 1917 in Brookline, Mass., with one leg shorter than the other. The condition caused muscle spasms in his back and left leg, making it hard to walk. The pain was so bad he considered giving up his political career. Dr. Janet Travell discovered the condition, prescribing corrective shoes and shots of procaine. She also advised him to sit in a rocking chair, which became a famous piece of Kennedy lore. He was a huge fan of Ian Fleming, who wrote the James Bond novels. His favorite was From Russia With Love, in which James Bond is marked for death by the Russian counterintelligence agency SMERSH. Fleming had dinner with Kennedy at his Georgetown home in 1960, when he was running for president, and the two discussed ways to overthrow Fidel Castro. Donated his Salary Kennedy gave all of his $100,000-a-year salary as president to charity. He was wealthy, as his father Joseph P. Kennedy had made a fortune in finance, movies and liquor. After taxes were taken out of his presidential income, it was given to the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts of America, the United Negro College Fund, and the Federation of Jewish Philanthropies. Integrated the Inauguration Dancefloor He was the first president to dance with African-American women at an inaugural ball. Frank Sinatra, a friend of Kennedy’s brother-in-law Peter Lawford, put on a pre-inaugural gala featuring entertainers Nat King Cole, Sidney Poitier, Marian Anderson, Mahalia Jackson Harry Belafonte and Ella Fitzgerald. Kennedy’s was the first fully integrated inaugural ball in history. Last Rites X 4 He was given last rites, the Catholic blessing before death, four times in his life: in 1947 on a sea voyage home after becoming gravely ill in England; in 1951 while stricken with a high fever in Japan; in 1954 following back surgery; on Nov. 22, 1963, after he’d been shot in Dallas.	3,139	ENGLISH	1
This term we have been looking at The Tudors. In Autumn 1, we studied Henry VIII and his reasons for splitting from the Catholic church and this half term we have been focusing on his daughter Elizabeth I and the defeat of The Spanish Armada. We have really enjoyed presenting our work in different ways including drama, diary entries and newspaper reports. We have used both primary and secondary sources to gather our information on this period of history, being sure to take in to consideration just how reliable the source is. We were shocked to discover how Henry VIII's eldest sister was not allowed on the throne due to the line of succession (luckily, Queen Elizabeth II changed this rule when Prince Louis was born), and how Henry VIII treated his first two wives because they could not give him a male heir. Thankfully, Queen Elizabeth I proved to them just how powerful a female monarch could be! This term our attribute is 'Critical Thinking' and my word have we had to be thinking critically in our history lessons! We have been having some great discussions about the reasons why King Philip II of Spain may have had for wanting to attack England. These reasons have ranged from Francis Drake raiding his Spanish Ships to Elizabeth I beheading Mary Queen of Scots. Please be sure to ask us which we thought was the most important reason for his attack.	<urn:uuid:e5917b44-2f88-4f31-b339-6ebe184705d5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dukenorfolk.co.uk/history-10/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00361.warc.gz	en	0.988172	265	3.71875	4	[ -0.22092559933662415, 0.23138374090194702, 0.21979285776615143, -0.25526154041290283, -0.016500385478138924, -0.24850304424762726, 0.32980355620384216, 0.3153878450393677, 0.2198137491941452, -0.044981565326452255, -0.04052015766501427, -0.48686522245407104, -0.2873446047306061, 0.29616573...	10	This term we have been looking at The Tudors. In Autumn 1, we studied Henry VIII and his reasons for splitting from the Catholic church and this half term we have been focusing on his daughter Elizabeth I and the defeat of The Spanish Armada. We have really enjoyed presenting our work in different ways including drama, diary entries and newspaper reports. We have used both primary and secondary sources to gather our information on this period of history, being sure to take in to consideration just how reliable the source is. We were shocked to discover how Henry VIII's eldest sister was not allowed on the throne due to the line of succession (luckily, Queen Elizabeth II changed this rule when Prince Louis was born), and how Henry VIII treated his first two wives because they could not give him a male heir. Thankfully, Queen Elizabeth I proved to them just how powerful a female monarch could be! This term our attribute is 'Critical Thinking' and my word have we had to be thinking critically in our history lessons! We have been having some great discussions about the reasons why King Philip II of Spain may have had for wanting to attack England. These reasons have ranged from Francis Drake raiding his Spanish Ships to Elizabeth I beheading Mary Queen of Scots. Please be sure to ask us which we thought was the most important reason for his attack.	266	ENGLISH	1
I could really use some help with these last 3 questions. These need to be fairly in-depth answers and are worth about 33% each. Thanks! #1. Outline the various ways in which WW1 changed Canadian society. #2. Outline the causes of the Great Depression in Canada, and examine its effects on Canadians in various regions and social classes. #3. What conflicts developed within Canadian society between 1945 and 1975 along the lines of ethnicity and race, gender, sexual orientation, wealth distribution, religion, and education? What social changes resulted from these conflicts. Just incase you have access... the textbook we used is called History of the Canadian People (4th edition). Thanks!© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 9, 2019, 8:52 pm ad1c9bdddf 1. World War I was very influential in the shaping of Canada as a nation. Canada earned recognition, respect and admiration from the rest of the world through their successful and dedicated participation in WWI. Canadians successfully participated in a war that introduced the horrors of modern warfare to the world. Technology developed at a rapid pace during WWI because of the increasing demands of modern warfare. Although many Canadian lives were lost during the war, Canada grew stronger as a nation, and moved closer to becoming an independent nation. A distinctive and lasting Canadian identity was forged on the battlefields of Europe during WWI. Canadian women also made tremendous strides during the war, some voting for the first time, several serving as nurses and volunteers at the front, and many others becoming well established in the Canadian labor force. World War I brought many issues of racism to the forefront in Canada. The unjust internment of many "enemy aliens" or immigrants from "enemy" countries in Canada during WWI will be remembered as one of the most embarrassing aspects of Canadian history. The immigrant population of Canada today, including those who came from war torn Europe after 1918, has become a major part of the Canadian identity. Those living in Canada during the First World War could not escape the sudden pressure to 'do one's bit' and help assure an Allied victory, nor the enthusiasm for the war that swept the country. As one woman said, "Everybody wanted to be there; you were in the swim of things; everything was war, war ,war". Through taxation, conscription, volunteering, war bonds, munitions work and so much more, the war effort involved everybody on the home front. This brought about many changes in Canadian society. One major change was the increased use of propaganda to influence public opinion. Caroline Playne describes how "The war of 1914-1918 was very popular, but even the most popular war has to be stimulated by vigorous public propaganda". Governments gradually realized that efficiency at the front was dependent on efficiency and morale at home and this led to the birth of the propaganda machine, intended to direct the civilian response to war. Since this war was to involve non-combatants as never before, Canada, like England, distributed official propaganda in the form of posters and pamphlets, urging civilians to do their part for the war. Unlike in any previous conflict in which Canada had been involved, the First World War brought to bear the powerful influence of propaganda, bringing about a change in the relationship between government and governed. A second important change that came about was in attitudes towards religion. For many, the trials of war resulted in strengthened faith and renewed reliance on the church. Richard Schweitzer has even speculated that World War I may have brought about a revival of religious faith. During the war, people turned to the traditional comforts of religion, looking to God for answers to the unanswerable in the midst of such inexplicable hardship. There was also a sense of moral righteousness in fighting evil that borrowed very heavily from religion. It was rumored that the Germans had rejected Christianity for old pagan gods, that Germany had sold itself to the Devil, even that Kaiser Wilhelm was the Antichrist. All of this helped people to accept that the war the necessary. However, there were some people, particularly in Canada, who observed a noticeable decline in traditional religious life. One man observed during the conflict that the war had led to the end of church life. While there were many people who continued to put faith in God, and this song collection reflects that continued reliance on religion, clearly the horrors of war shook some people's faith and made them question what they had previously accepted. As a final example, the First World War also had important consequences for the way in which women were viewed by society. With the absence of so many men, women were forced to take on many of the roles that had traditionally been filled by men. Indeed, many women felt an obligation to step into these roles on account of the war. For some women, this was an opportunity to prove to a patriarchal society that women were capable of doing 'men's work' and thus advance the cause of women's suffrage. To a certain extent, Canadian society was ready to accept this new role for women from the standpoint of sheer necessity; according to one government official it was acceptable not only because it freed men for the front lines but also "resulted in a considerable saving by the Canadian Government". In spite of the necessity for women to step into traditionally male roles during the war, however, in most cases women were expected to give up these roles to the men who returned when the war was over. Women's suffrage was achieved during the war, but to a limited extent, since the vote was strategically granted only to those women serving overseas or related to a soldier, when Prime Minister Robert Borden sought re-election on a conscription platform. Ultimately, the war did not effect major changes on the place of women in Canadian society. Rather, for most women, their connection to the war was through the men in their lives, through a brother, son, husband or sweetheart serving in the army. However, the war did create the circumstances in which women could tentatively try out non-traditional roles in the absence of these men and laid some of the groundwork for future social change. 2. Over Production and Expansion - Canada's companies expanded their industries so they could handle more, but unfortunately didn't get the significant demand for goods and services and were forced to fire workers and diminish costs. Dependence on Few Primary Products - Canada's decrease in natural resources created a significant drop in sales causing an economical depression. Dependence on the United States - Due to the dependency Canada had on the U.S., when an economic depression hit the States, Canada was thrust into one as well. High Tariffs - Canada's efforts to get out of a recession by raising export tariffs only backfired due to competition from other countries and Canada's lack of variety in its exports. Too Much Credit - Canadians bought too much on lease and credit including stocks. Therefore when the stock market crashed (partly due to the credit buying), Canadians were in debt and faced an amazing time selling their personal belongings and having their half paid-off possessions repossessed. Many Canadians of the thirties felt that the depression wasn't brought about by the Wall Street Stock Market Crash, but by the enormous 1928 wheat crop crash. Due to this, many people were out of work and money and food began to run low. It was said by the Federal Department of Labor that a family needed between $1200 and $1500 a year to maintain the "minimum standard of decency." At that time, 60% of men and 82% of women made less than $1000 a year. The gross national product fell from $6.1 billion in 1929 to $3.5 billion in 1933 and the value of industrial production halved. Unfortunately for the well being of Canada's economy prices continued to plummet and they even fell faster then wages until 1933, at that time, there was another wage cut, this time of 15%. For all the unemployed there was a relief program for families and all unemployed single men were sent packing by relief officers by boxcar to British Columbia. There were also work camps established for single men by Bennett's Government. The Great Depression, also known as The Dirty Thirties, wasn't like an ordinary depression where savings vanished and city families went to the farm until it blew over. This depression effected everyone in some way and there was basically no way to escape it. J.S. Woodsworth told Parliament "If they went out today, they would meet another army of unemployed coming back from the country to the city." As the depression carried on 1 in 5 Canadians became dependent on government relief. 30% of the labor Force was unemployed, where as the unemployment rate had previously never dropped below 12%. Harshly impacted by both the global economic downturn and the Dust Bowl, Canadian industrial production had fallen to only at 58% of the 1929 level by 1932, the second lowest level in the world after the United States, and well behind nations such as Britain, which only saw it fall to 83% of the 1929 level. Total national income fell to 55% of the 1929 level, again worse than any nation other than the United States. It was estimated back in the thirties that 33% of Canada's Gross National Income came from exports; so the country was also greatly affected by the collapse of world trade. The four western prairie provinces were almost completely dependent on the export of wheat. The little money that they brought in for their wheat did not cover production costs, let alone farm taxes, depreciation and interest on the debts that farmers were building up. The net farm income fell from $417 million in 1929 to $109 million in 1933. Between 1933 and 1937 to make matters even worse, Saskatchewan suffered a drought. The money brought in for the wheat was at a record low and the provincial income dropped by 90% in two years, forcing 66% of the province into relief. Where the previous yield per acre was 27 bushels, it had dropped to as little as three in 1937. The price of grain also dropped from $1.60 a bushel to $0.28 a bushel in 1932. Although Ontario and Quebec were experiencing serious unemployment, as mining and forest incomes from exports had dropped though they were less effected due to more diversified industrial economics, which, luckily for them, protected they domestic market. For BC, the fish, lumber and fruit markets were considerably lower but they weren't as hard hit as the majority of the provinces. As for the Maritimes, they had entered provincial economic decline in the 1920's so therefore they had less of a margin to fall by. There was also a larger variety of jobs so the whole income wasn't wiped out due to the fall of one market. In 1934 Newfoundland had to surrender its government responsibilities and had to ask for financial aid from Britain. For an unemployed individual person during the depression there were no jobs and for those that had a job there was a high chance that it could be lost. Further there was little income from the majority of jobs. Tens of thousands of people were dependent on government relief, charity and food handouts for daily survival. Parents found it difficult to keep young children in school because they were needed on the farms to bring in as much goods as possible. University students were also dropping out all over the country because tuition was too much to pay. The home workers of the houses had to find part time jobs to "make ends meet." The same ill-fortune was felt by industry business. The values of stocks were dropping rapidly and as the demand for goods and services dropped business firms ceased to exist. Even the CPR, considered on the world's most reliable income earners, didn't make enough money in 1932. The depression of the thirties resulted in the expansion of government responsibilities for the economy and welfare of the country and its people. Born in 1932 the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission was created. In 1934, Bennett's government made the Bank of Canada to regulate the Monetary Policy. The Canadian Wheat Board was created in 1935 to market and establish the minimum price for wheat. The depression also sparked a variety of reform movements including, Social Credit, "Work and Wages" Program, Co-operative Commonwealth Federation, Union National and W.D. Herridge. There was also the relief program that was set up for families in need and the monthly rate for a family of five varied from $60 in Calgary to $17 in Halifax. The depression also ... How WWI changed the economics in Canada, religion and societal changes that occurred.	<urn:uuid:e2de6d3c-ee5a-4cbf-91a1-b80edd7789b7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brainmass.com/history/north-american-history/wwi-canadian-society-165150	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00260.warc.gz	en	0.984304	2,560	3.546875	4	[ -0.22347700595855713, 0.45441770553588867, 0.4962024688720703, 0.049247801303863525, -0.036271512508392334, 0.1725199818611145, 0.05172671750187874, 0.4736475348472595, -0.070314921438694, 0.1434651017189026, 0.4795020818710327, 0.08252761512994766, 0.04837867245078087, 0.02094127610325813...	1	I could really use some help with these last 3 questions. These need to be fairly in-depth answers and are worth about 33% each. Thanks! #1. Outline the various ways in which WW1 changed Canadian society. #2. Outline the causes of the Great Depression in Canada, and examine its effects on Canadians in various regions and social classes. #3. What conflicts developed within Canadian society between 1945 and 1975 along the lines of ethnicity and race, gender, sexual orientation, wealth distribution, religion, and education? What social changes resulted from these conflicts. Just incase you have access... the textbook we used is called History of the Canadian People (4th edition). Thanks!© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 9, 2019, 8:52 pm ad1c9bdddf 1. World War I was very influential in the shaping of Canada as a nation. Canada earned recognition, respect and admiration from the rest of the world through their successful and dedicated participation in WWI. Canadians successfully participated in a war that introduced the horrors of modern warfare to the world. Technology developed at a rapid pace during WWI because of the increasing demands of modern warfare. Although many Canadian lives were lost during the war, Canada grew stronger as a nation, and moved closer to becoming an independent nation. A distinctive and lasting Canadian identity was forged on the battlefields of Europe during WWI. Canadian women also made tremendous strides during the war, some voting for the first time, several serving as nurses and volunteers at the front, and many others becoming well established in the Canadian labor force. World War I brought many issues of racism to the forefront in Canada. The unjust internment of many "enemy aliens" or immigrants from "enemy" countries in Canada during WWI will be remembered as one of the most embarrassing aspects of Canadian history. The immigrant population of Canada today, including those who came from war torn Europe after 1918, has become a major part of the Canadian identity. Those living in Canada during the First World War could not escape the sudden pressure to 'do one's bit' and help assure an Allied victory, nor the enthusiasm for the war that swept the country. As one woman said, "Everybody wanted to be there; you were in the swim of things; everything was war, war ,war". Through taxation, conscription, volunteering, war bonds, munitions work and so much more, the war effort involved everybody on the home front. This brought about many changes in Canadian society. One major change was the increased use of propaganda to influence public opinion. Caroline Playne describes how "The war of 1914-1918 was very popular, but even the most popular war has to be stimulated by vigorous public propaganda". Governments gradually realized that efficiency at the front was dependent on efficiency and morale at home and this led to the birth of the propaganda machine, intended to direct the civilian response to war. Since this war was to involve non-combatants as never before, Canada, like England, distributed official propaganda in the form of posters and pamphlets, urging civilians to do their part for the war. Unlike in any previous conflict in which Canada had been involved, the First World War brought to bear the powerful influence of propaganda, bringing about a change in the relationship between government and governed. A second important change that came about was in attitudes towards religion. For many, the trials of war resulted in strengthened faith and renewed reliance on the church. Richard Schweitzer has even speculated that World War I may have brought about a revival of religious faith. During the war, people turned to the traditional comforts of religion, looking to God for answers to the unanswerable in the midst of such inexplicable hardship. There was also a sense of moral righteousness in fighting evil that borrowed very heavily from religion. It was rumored that the Germans had rejected Christianity for old pagan gods, that Germany had sold itself to the Devil, even that Kaiser Wilhelm was the Antichrist. All of this helped people to accept that the war the necessary. However, there were some people, particularly in Canada, who observed a noticeable decline in traditional religious life. One man observed during the conflict that the war had led to the end of church life. While there were many people who continued to put faith in God, and this song collection reflects that continued reliance on religion, clearly the horrors of war shook some people's faith and made them question what they had previously accepted. As a final example, the First World War also had important consequences for the way in which women were viewed by society. With the absence of so many men, women were forced to take on many of the roles that had traditionally been filled by men. Indeed, many women felt an obligation to step into these roles on account of the war. For some women, this was an opportunity to prove to a patriarchal society that women were capable of doing 'men's work' and thus advance the cause of women's suffrage. To a certain extent, Canadian society was ready to accept this new role for women from the standpoint of sheer necessity; according to one government official it was acceptable not only because it freed men for the front lines but also "resulted in a considerable saving by the Canadian Government". In spite of the necessity for women to step into traditionally male roles during the war, however, in most cases women were expected to give up these roles to the men who returned when the war was over. Women's suffrage was achieved during the war, but to a limited extent, since the vote was strategically granted only to those women serving overseas or related to a soldier, when Prime Minister Robert Borden sought re-election on a conscription platform. Ultimately, the war did not effect major changes on the place of women in Canadian society. Rather, for most women, their connection to the war was through the men in their lives, through a brother, son, husband or sweetheart serving in the army. However, the war did create the circumstances in which women could tentatively try out non-traditional roles in the absence of these men and laid some of the groundwork for future social change. 2. Over Production and Expansion - Canada's companies expanded their industries so they could handle more, but unfortunately didn't get the significant demand for goods and services and were forced to fire workers and diminish costs. Dependence on Few Primary Products - Canada's decrease in natural resources created a significant drop in sales causing an economical depression. Dependence on the United States - Due to the dependency Canada had on the U.S., when an economic depression hit the States, Canada was thrust into one as well. High Tariffs - Canada's efforts to get out of a recession by raising export tariffs only backfired due to competition from other countries and Canada's lack of variety in its exports. Too Much Credit - Canadians bought too much on lease and credit including stocks. Therefore when the stock market crashed (partly due to the credit buying), Canadians were in debt and faced an amazing time selling their personal belongings and having their half paid-off possessions repossessed. Many Canadians of the thirties felt that the depression wasn't brought about by the Wall Street Stock Market Crash, but by the enormous 1928 wheat crop crash. Due to this, many people were out of work and money and food began to run low. It was said by the Federal Department of Labor that a family needed between $1200 and $1500 a year to maintain the "minimum standard of decency." At that time, 60% of men and 82% of women made less than $1000 a year. The gross national product fell from $6.1 billion in 1929 to $3.5 billion in 1933 and the value of industrial production halved. Unfortunately for the well being of Canada's economy prices continued to plummet and they even fell faster then wages until 1933, at that time, there was another wage cut, this time of 15%. For all the unemployed there was a relief program for families and all unemployed single men were sent packing by relief officers by boxcar to British Columbia. There were also work camps established for single men by Bennett's Government. The Great Depression, also known as The Dirty Thirties, wasn't like an ordinary depression where savings vanished and city families went to the farm until it blew over. This depression effected everyone in some way and there was basically no way to escape it. J.S. Woodsworth told Parliament "If they went out today, they would meet another army of unemployed coming back from the country to the city." As the depression carried on 1 in 5 Canadians became dependent on government relief. 30% of the labor Force was unemployed, where as the unemployment rate had previously never dropped below 12%. Harshly impacted by both the global economic downturn and the Dust Bowl, Canadian industrial production had fallen to only at 58% of the 1929 level by 1932, the second lowest level in the world after the United States, and well behind nations such as Britain, which only saw it fall to 83% of the 1929 level. Total national income fell to 55% of the 1929 level, again worse than any nation other than the United States. It was estimated back in the thirties that 33% of Canada's Gross National Income came from exports; so the country was also greatly affected by the collapse of world trade. The four western prairie provinces were almost completely dependent on the export of wheat. The little money that they brought in for their wheat did not cover production costs, let alone farm taxes, depreciation and interest on the debts that farmers were building up. The net farm income fell from $417 million in 1929 to $109 million in 1933. Between 1933 and 1937 to make matters even worse, Saskatchewan suffered a drought. The money brought in for the wheat was at a record low and the provincial income dropped by 90% in two years, forcing 66% of the province into relief. Where the previous yield per acre was 27 bushels, it had dropped to as little as three in 1937. The price of grain also dropped from $1.60 a bushel to $0.28 a bushel in 1932. Although Ontario and Quebec were experiencing serious unemployment, as mining and forest incomes from exports had dropped though they were less effected due to more diversified industrial economics, which, luckily for them, protected they domestic market. For BC, the fish, lumber and fruit markets were considerably lower but they weren't as hard hit as the majority of the provinces. As for the Maritimes, they had entered provincial economic decline in the 1920's so therefore they had less of a margin to fall by. There was also a larger variety of jobs so the whole income wasn't wiped out due to the fall of one market. In 1934 Newfoundland had to surrender its government responsibilities and had to ask for financial aid from Britain. For an unemployed individual person during the depression there were no jobs and for those that had a job there was a high chance that it could be lost. Further there was little income from the majority of jobs. Tens of thousands of people were dependent on government relief, charity and food handouts for daily survival. Parents found it difficult to keep young children in school because they were needed on the farms to bring in as much goods as possible. University students were also dropping out all over the country because tuition was too much to pay. The home workers of the houses had to find part time jobs to "make ends meet." The same ill-fortune was felt by industry business. The values of stocks were dropping rapidly and as the demand for goods and services dropped business firms ceased to exist. Even the CPR, considered on the world's most reliable income earners, didn't make enough money in 1932. The depression of the thirties resulted in the expansion of government responsibilities for the economy and welfare of the country and its people. Born in 1932 the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission was created. In 1934, Bennett's government made the Bank of Canada to regulate the Monetary Policy. The Canadian Wheat Board was created in 1935 to market and establish the minimum price for wheat. The depression also sparked a variety of reform movements including, Social Credit, "Work and Wages" Program, Co-operative Commonwealth Federation, Union National and W.D. Herridge. There was also the relief program that was set up for families in need and the monthly rate for a family of five varied from $60 in Calgary to $17 in Halifax. The depression also ... How WWI changed the economics in Canada, religion and societal changes that occurred.	2,675	ENGLISH	1
The Catholic League was created by Henry of Guise, in 1576 during the French Wars of Religion. King Henry III Valois feared the power of the Guise family and thus accepted the existence of the league but made himself its commander, eventually disbanding it in 1577 after using it to win several victories over the Huguenots. In 1588, after the murder of Henry of Guise, the league rose up against the king in favor of the imprisoned Cardinal de Bourbon, whom they proclaimed "Charles X" (the next person to claim this title was Charles X of France, brother of Louis XVI). However, King Henry allied with the third faction, Henry of Navarre, in April 1589, and together they besieged Paris. Henry III was assassinated during the siege. This struggle in the French Wars of Religion is often known as "War of Three Henries." The League was eventually forced to acknowledge the kingship of Henry of Navarre (after his conversion to Catholicism), and eventually died out under his rule.	<urn:uuid:20c2e05a-8f05-4ea0-83b0-3ad832750749>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.infomutt.com/c/ca/catholic_league__french_.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00226.warc.gz	en	0.986254	209	3.578125	4	[ -0.18077677488327026, 0.20704975724220276, -0.24051067233085632, -0.03662147372961044, 0.009657172486186028, 0.044813770800828934, 0.13669146597385406, 0.3241640329360962, 0.209385484457016, -0.38762572407722473, -0.22141797840595245, -0.4381139576435089, -0.019994361326098442, 0.023947570...	2	The Catholic League was created by Henry of Guise, in 1576 during the French Wars of Religion. King Henry III Valois feared the power of the Guise family and thus accepted the existence of the league but made himself its commander, eventually disbanding it in 1577 after using it to win several victories over the Huguenots. In 1588, after the murder of Henry of Guise, the league rose up against the king in favor of the imprisoned Cardinal de Bourbon, whom they proclaimed "Charles X" (the next person to claim this title was Charles X of France, brother of Louis XVI). However, King Henry allied with the third faction, Henry of Navarre, in April 1589, and together they besieged Paris. Henry III was assassinated during the siege. This struggle in the French Wars of Religion is often known as "War of Three Henries." The League was eventually forced to acknowledge the kingship of Henry of Navarre (after his conversion to Catholicism), and eventually died out under his rule.	225	ENGLISH	1
Experts tell of ancient Irish kings violent and gruesome deaths but what is the truth behind these amazingly well-preserved bog bodies house in this Dublin museum. The first time I took my sons to the National Museum of Archaeology in Dublin. It was a great success; they were amazed by the hordes of ancient gold, fascinated by the Viking swords and longship, but what excited us all the most was the exhibition entitled 'Kingship and Sacrifice'. This display hosts several prehistoric bodies pulled from Ireland's peat bogs, and other items plumbed from the depths which may or may not be associated with them, such as gold jewelry, headdresses, weapons, eating utensils, and items concerned with corn and milk production. When the Irish decide to do something with their archaeology, it has to be said, they do it very well indeed. The mood is somber, respectful; the lighting subdued. The prehistoric past of Ireland's Kings is conjured up before our eyes with imagination and artistry, whilst we gaze with wonder into the faces of real people who lived and breathed, and loved and died thousands of years before us. It's a spectacular and unforgettable experience. But how were they so well preserved? Well, it's all down to the unique habitat of the Irish bog. The word 'bog' is derived from the Irish word bogarch, which means 'soft'. Peat bog covers 17% of Ireland's surface, which gives us the third-highest proportion of peatland in the world, after Canada and Finland. It takes one thousand years to grow just a one-meter depth of bog. The peat itself consists of 95% water, the remainder made up of rotting vegetation, pollen, dust and the like. In Ireland, it has traditionally been cut and dried and burned in the fireplace as turf. It is usually as a result of turf-cutting that the bog bodies come to light. The cold, acidic, oxygen-free conditions within the peat prevent decay and act to mummify and preserve the tissues of animal and human bodies. Around a hundred bodies have been found in our Irish bogs to date, some male, some female, and those of children too. Some were thought to be there by accident, perhaps as a result of falling into the bog and drowning. Others were considered to be formal (and some not so formal) burials, and others appear to be rather more sinister. Of these latter bodies, the most famous is known as Cashel Man, who was discovered near Portlaoise in 2011, and at over 4000 years old, is said to be the oldest European bog body ever found with skin intact; Old Croghan Man from Co. Offaly, and Clonycavan Man from Co. Meath. The exhibition also features Gallagh Man from Co. Galway, and Baronstownwest Man, from Co. Kildare. These bodies have been analyzed in great detail using modern techniques and teams of renowned experts from all over the world. Much has been discovered about the lives they led, and the injuries which caused their deaths. Old Croghan man, for example, was a giant of a man, estimated to have stood approximately 6ft 6ins tall. His soft hands with their well-manicured nails suggest he was a nobleman, a fact which is supported by evidence of a diet consistently dominated by meat. He died somewhere between 362-175BC. By contrast, Clonycavan man, 2300 years old, was a mere 5ft tall. His diet consisted mainly of grains and plants for the four months prior to his death; before that, he also ate a lot of meat. It is suggested that he may have died in the autumn after a summer diet of fruit, vegetables, and grain before a meat-rich winter diet could be resumed. Interestingly, he had a very distinctive hairstyle; it was cut to 21/2 cms long at the back, the rest of it 20 cms long, and gathered up into a bunch on top of his head. He also styled it with pine resin which came from trees only found in Spain and southern France, so it would have been expensive to import, suggesting that he too came from wealthy, perhaps noble origins. According to the popular press, they all suffered overly violent and gruesome deaths. Old Croghan man, for example, had holes cut through his upper arms through which ropes were inserted to restrain him, after which he was repeatedly stabbed, had his nipples sliced off, and was then cut in half. Clonycavan man was disemboweled, bopped over the head three times with an ax, once across his body, and then had his nipples removed too. Call me cynical, but these gory stories have the makings of attention-grabbing headlines, and sensational, punter-pulling content. In his paper, 'An Archaeological Interpretation of Irish Iron Age Bog Bodies', Eamonn Kelly, Keeper of Irish Antiquities at the National Museum explains it slightly differently. He claims that Clonycavan man was killed by ax blows to the head and chest and that he had a 40cm cut to the abdomen which was consistent with disembowelment. These wounds sound very like the cut and slash of battle, to me. Old Croghan man was killed by a stab wound to his chest. He had a defense wound on his arm, which suggests that he may have put his arm up to defend himself against the attack. This does not sound like the behavior of a sacrificial victim to me, although it does seem to indicate that he was probably weapon-less. He was then decapitated, his nipples cut, and his body cut in half at the stomach. The cuts in his arms which were threaded with ropes, Kelly explains as a means of fixing his body to the bottom of the bog. It seems to me that the perpetrators of this murder wanted the evidence well-hidden. It is unclear in both cases whether the mutilation occurred before or after death. All very gruesome indeed, but Kelly is convinced that "this is absolutely not torture but a form of ritual sacrifice." The Iron Age King was responsible for the ongoing success of his people, for ensuring the land remained fertile, for the health of livestock and productivity of crops. If any of this failed, he was held responsible for that too and sacrificed to the Gods in return for better fortune. Not only that, but it was believed that the King had to be whole and unblemished for his tribe to succeed; we see evidence of this in the mythological story of King Nuada of the Denann, who although he survived the loss of an arm in battle, could no longer remain as King because he was no longer whole. Whilst I respect the work of these experts, I am not convinced by their theories. Archaeologists can only make educated interpretations of what they find. Interpretations, no matter how intelligent or keenly observed, are not facts. In my (amateur enthusiast) opinion, they are very quick to claim 'ritual' when they don't understand something. I have read a lot of mythology, a lot about early history, and followed a lot of archaeology. I am no expert by any stretch of the imagination, but I have enough sense to formulate an opinion of my own. There are various references in mythology to the King's requirement to be whole. Nuada, as mentioned above, is one. Another is Fergus mac Leite, a King of Ulster, who after a battle with a sea monster emerged with wounds that twisted his mouth to the back of his head. Mirrors were removed from his home so he could not see his deformity, for such disfigurement would render him ineligible for Kingship. Few were permitted to witness it; those that did were under pain of death never to mention it. This deceit was maintained for seven years before finally word got out. In a previous post, I already discussed the role of human sacrifice in ancient Ireland, or rather, the lack of evidence to support such practices. It is my belief that a King already wounded is by that fact rendered less than the whole, and therefore does not require further mutilation. If the King was not successful in looking after his people, why would they consider him such a great gift to offer to their Gods? Perhaps they simply murdered him due to his ineffectual rule. Perhaps the bog bodies weren't kings at all, but rich noblemen who fell foul of a bunch of robbers, who were plundered, killed and dumped in the bog where all evidence of the crime was hidden. Perhaps they were warriors hideously defeated in battle. Perhaps they were captives, brutally tortured. What actual proof is there that these were ritual killings? Where is the proof which differentiates these killings from torture and murder? Some valuable items were discovered in the bogs, it's true, but ancient people have always deposited votive offerings in areas of water, there is nothing unusual about that. The various tribes of the time were continually battling and raiding against each other, mythology and history alike are full of such stories. Who is to say these men weren't tortured and murdered as prisoners of war? Their vicious wounds may be nothing more than the result of the cut and thrust of battle. That these bogs are situated along the lines of ancient borders only adds credence to the fact that battles may have been fought there. In Irish mythology, the only story of human sacrifice concerns a king named Tigernmas. He set up an idol known as Crom Cruach, ordering his people to sacrifice their first-born child and a third of their grain to it. In a 6th century poem in the Book of Leinster, the effigy was covered in sheets of gold and surrounded by a circle of twelve stone figures located on the plain of Magh Slécht (now Moysleet) in Co Cavan. Children were killed by hitting their heads against the idol stone, and their blood sprinkled on it. To me, the story reads rife with Christian propaganda. Tigernmas and three-quarters of his men were said to have mysteriously perished during their devotions to their idol, explained by the Christians as having been killed by their own God. Why would a God murder the very people who were feeding him the blood and grain he required? Fortunately, St Patrick comes to the rescue, striking the stone with his crozier and breaking it into many pieces. Out of it flew the demon, which the Saint subsequently banished to hell. It is worth noting, however, that this story is not mentioned in Patrick's own writing. If human or Kingly sacrifices were common, one would expect a great many stories like this to fill the ancient records. This was the only one I could find. Incidentally, a dome-shaped stone figure covered in what are said to be La Téne style carvings was found in Co Cavan in 1921, broken and partly buried beside a Bronze Age stone circle near a church called Kilnavert Church. The original name for this site was Rath Slécht. Re-named The Killycluggin Stone, it now resides in the Co Cavan Museum, only five minutes’ drive from where I live. As to the truth about Ireland's bog bodies? Unfortunately, the truth is, no one really knows. Ali Isaac lives in beautiful rural Co Cavan in Ireland, and is the author of two books based on Irish mythology, “Conor Kelly and The Four Treasures of Eirean,” and “Conor Kelly and The Fenian King.” Ali regularly posts on topics of Irish interest on her blog, www.aliisaacstoryteller.com *Originally published August 2014	<urn:uuid:3143d69d-f79d-4c31-a81d-6bbb071f8533>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.irishcentral.com/opinion/others/truth-irish-bog-bodies	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00263.warc.gz	en	0.987596	2,426	3.328125	3	[ 0.05677139386534691, 0.47543248534202576, 0.38065963983535767, 0.16819629073143005, 0.5111337900161743, -0.035562872886657715, 0.4231467843055725, -0.3845522999763489, -0.27810415625572205, -0.24749378859996796, -0.30168581008911133, -0.3749343752861023, 0.026287084445357323, 0.30548256635...	4	Experts tell of ancient Irish kings violent and gruesome deaths but what is the truth behind these amazingly well-preserved bog bodies house in this Dublin museum. The first time I took my sons to the National Museum of Archaeology in Dublin. It was a great success; they were amazed by the hordes of ancient gold, fascinated by the Viking swords and longship, but what excited us all the most was the exhibition entitled 'Kingship and Sacrifice'. This display hosts several prehistoric bodies pulled from Ireland's peat bogs, and other items plumbed from the depths which may or may not be associated with them, such as gold jewelry, headdresses, weapons, eating utensils, and items concerned with corn and milk production. When the Irish decide to do something with their archaeology, it has to be said, they do it very well indeed. The mood is somber, respectful; the lighting subdued. The prehistoric past of Ireland's Kings is conjured up before our eyes with imagination and artistry, whilst we gaze with wonder into the faces of real people who lived and breathed, and loved and died thousands of years before us. It's a spectacular and unforgettable experience. But how were they so well preserved? Well, it's all down to the unique habitat of the Irish bog. The word 'bog' is derived from the Irish word bogarch, which means 'soft'. Peat bog covers 17% of Ireland's surface, which gives us the third-highest proportion of peatland in the world, after Canada and Finland. It takes one thousand years to grow just a one-meter depth of bog. The peat itself consists of 95% water, the remainder made up of rotting vegetation, pollen, dust and the like. In Ireland, it has traditionally been cut and dried and burned in the fireplace as turf. It is usually as a result of turf-cutting that the bog bodies come to light. The cold, acidic, oxygen-free conditions within the peat prevent decay and act to mummify and preserve the tissues of animal and human bodies. Around a hundred bodies have been found in our Irish bogs to date, some male, some female, and those of children too. Some were thought to be there by accident, perhaps as a result of falling into the bog and drowning. Others were considered to be formal (and some not so formal) burials, and others appear to be rather more sinister. Of these latter bodies, the most famous is known as Cashel Man, who was discovered near Portlaoise in 2011, and at over 4000 years old, is said to be the oldest European bog body ever found with skin intact; Old Croghan Man from Co. Offaly, and Clonycavan Man from Co. Meath. The exhibition also features Gallagh Man from Co. Galway, and Baronstownwest Man, from Co. Kildare. These bodies have been analyzed in great detail using modern techniques and teams of renowned experts from all over the world. Much has been discovered about the lives they led, and the injuries which caused their deaths. Old Croghan man, for example, was a giant of a man, estimated to have stood approximately 6ft 6ins tall. His soft hands with their well-manicured nails suggest he was a nobleman, a fact which is supported by evidence of a diet consistently dominated by meat. He died somewhere between 362-175BC. By contrast, Clonycavan man, 2300 years old, was a mere 5ft tall. His diet consisted mainly of grains and plants for the four months prior to his death; before that, he also ate a lot of meat. It is suggested that he may have died in the autumn after a summer diet of fruit, vegetables, and grain before a meat-rich winter diet could be resumed. Interestingly, he had a very distinctive hairstyle; it was cut to 21/2 cms long at the back, the rest of it 20 cms long, and gathered up into a bunch on top of his head. He also styled it with pine resin which came from trees only found in Spain and southern France, so it would have been expensive to import, suggesting that he too came from wealthy, perhaps noble origins. According to the popular press, they all suffered overly violent and gruesome deaths. Old Croghan man, for example, had holes cut through his upper arms through which ropes were inserted to restrain him, after which he was repeatedly stabbed, had his nipples sliced off, and was then cut in half. Clonycavan man was disemboweled, bopped over the head three times with an ax, once across his body, and then had his nipples removed too. Call me cynical, but these gory stories have the makings of attention-grabbing headlines, and sensational, punter-pulling content. In his paper, 'An Archaeological Interpretation of Irish Iron Age Bog Bodies', Eamonn Kelly, Keeper of Irish Antiquities at the National Museum explains it slightly differently. He claims that Clonycavan man was killed by ax blows to the head and chest and that he had a 40cm cut to the abdomen which was consistent with disembowelment. These wounds sound very like the cut and slash of battle, to me. Old Croghan man was killed by a stab wound to his chest. He had a defense wound on his arm, which suggests that he may have put his arm up to defend himself against the attack. This does not sound like the behavior of a sacrificial victim to me, although it does seem to indicate that he was probably weapon-less. He was then decapitated, his nipples cut, and his body cut in half at the stomach. The cuts in his arms which were threaded with ropes, Kelly explains as a means of fixing his body to the bottom of the bog. It seems to me that the perpetrators of this murder wanted the evidence well-hidden. It is unclear in both cases whether the mutilation occurred before or after death. All very gruesome indeed, but Kelly is convinced that "this is absolutely not torture but a form of ritual sacrifice." The Iron Age King was responsible for the ongoing success of his people, for ensuring the land remained fertile, for the health of livestock and productivity of crops. If any of this failed, he was held responsible for that too and sacrificed to the Gods in return for better fortune. Not only that, but it was believed that the King had to be whole and unblemished for his tribe to succeed; we see evidence of this in the mythological story of King Nuada of the Denann, who although he survived the loss of an arm in battle, could no longer remain as King because he was no longer whole. Whilst I respect the work of these experts, I am not convinced by their theories. Archaeologists can only make educated interpretations of what they find. Interpretations, no matter how intelligent or keenly observed, are not facts. In my (amateur enthusiast) opinion, they are very quick to claim 'ritual' when they don't understand something. I have read a lot of mythology, a lot about early history, and followed a lot of archaeology. I am no expert by any stretch of the imagination, but I have enough sense to formulate an opinion of my own. There are various references in mythology to the King's requirement to be whole. Nuada, as mentioned above, is one. Another is Fergus mac Leite, a King of Ulster, who after a battle with a sea monster emerged with wounds that twisted his mouth to the back of his head. Mirrors were removed from his home so he could not see his deformity, for such disfigurement would render him ineligible for Kingship. Few were permitted to witness it; those that did were under pain of death never to mention it. This deceit was maintained for seven years before finally word got out. In a previous post, I already discussed the role of human sacrifice in ancient Ireland, or rather, the lack of evidence to support such practices. It is my belief that a King already wounded is by that fact rendered less than the whole, and therefore does not require further mutilation. If the King was not successful in looking after his people, why would they consider him such a great gift to offer to their Gods? Perhaps they simply murdered him due to his ineffectual rule. Perhaps the bog bodies weren't kings at all, but rich noblemen who fell foul of a bunch of robbers, who were plundered, killed and dumped in the bog where all evidence of the crime was hidden. Perhaps they were warriors hideously defeated in battle. Perhaps they were captives, brutally tortured. What actual proof is there that these were ritual killings? Where is the proof which differentiates these killings from torture and murder? Some valuable items were discovered in the bogs, it's true, but ancient people have always deposited votive offerings in areas of water, there is nothing unusual about that. The various tribes of the time were continually battling and raiding against each other, mythology and history alike are full of such stories. Who is to say these men weren't tortured and murdered as prisoners of war? Their vicious wounds may be nothing more than the result of the cut and thrust of battle. That these bogs are situated along the lines of ancient borders only adds credence to the fact that battles may have been fought there. In Irish mythology, the only story of human sacrifice concerns a king named Tigernmas. He set up an idol known as Crom Cruach, ordering his people to sacrifice their first-born child and a third of their grain to it. In a 6th century poem in the Book of Leinster, the effigy was covered in sheets of gold and surrounded by a circle of twelve stone figures located on the plain of Magh Slécht (now Moysleet) in Co Cavan. Children were killed by hitting their heads against the idol stone, and their blood sprinkled on it. To me, the story reads rife with Christian propaganda. Tigernmas and three-quarters of his men were said to have mysteriously perished during their devotions to their idol, explained by the Christians as having been killed by their own God. Why would a God murder the very people who were feeding him the blood and grain he required? Fortunately, St Patrick comes to the rescue, striking the stone with his crozier and breaking it into many pieces. Out of it flew the demon, which the Saint subsequently banished to hell. It is worth noting, however, that this story is not mentioned in Patrick's own writing. If human or Kingly sacrifices were common, one would expect a great many stories like this to fill the ancient records. This was the only one I could find. Incidentally, a dome-shaped stone figure covered in what are said to be La Téne style carvings was found in Co Cavan in 1921, broken and partly buried beside a Bronze Age stone circle near a church called Kilnavert Church. The original name for this site was Rath Slécht. Re-named The Killycluggin Stone, it now resides in the Co Cavan Museum, only five minutes’ drive from where I live. As to the truth about Ireland's bog bodies? Unfortunately, the truth is, no one really knows. Ali Isaac lives in beautiful rural Co Cavan in Ireland, and is the author of two books based on Irish mythology, “Conor Kelly and The Four Treasures of Eirean,” and “Conor Kelly and The Fenian King.” Ali regularly posts on topics of Irish interest on her blog, www.aliisaacstoryteller.com *Originally published August 2014	2,422	ENGLISH	1
We all know that eating well and exercising frequently can help slow down aging and prevent a wide range of diseases; but a new study from Brigham Young University shows that simply cutting calories can also lead to a longer life. The new research was published in the journal Molecular & Cellular Proteomics. Cutting calories to maintain longevity works on a cellular level, according to researchers. Ribosomes, which make protein in the cells, tend to slow down their production on a lower calorie diet. This gives ribosomes extra time to repair themselves, thus dramatically slowing down the aging process of the entire host organism. John Price and his team at BYU studied mice for this experiment. As mice are very similar to humans in their make-up and reactions, scientists often use them as the go-to before conducting a similar experiment on human beings. For Price’s research, he divided the mice into two groups. One was able to eat as much as they wanted whenever they wanted. The other group received 35% fewer calories than the first group. It was found that those who ate fewer calories were proven to live longer than the first group. The mice who did not consume as much were also found to be more active than their counterparts and did not get sick as often. This is not the first time scientists have found that eating less increases the one’s quality of life in a positive way. Several years ago, a study at Saint Louis University showed that those who skip calorie dense desserts and eat less produce fewer hormones in the body. And while Price and his BYU team acknowledge St. Louis University’s findings, they also state that their study is the first to connect food quantities to ribosomes and their production of protein. “Food isn’t just material to be burned — it’s a signal that tells our body and cells how to respond. We’re getting down to the mechanisms of aging, which may help us make more educated decisions about what we eat.” This theory has not been tested out on humans and will therefore need more research. However, if it works in mice, it does seem plausible that it will work for humans as well. By the way, people who know what's coming are taking advantage of our healthy & delicious storable food!	<urn:uuid:eff7f712-3f47-4934-86a3-507748c8c46a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.infowars.com/study-eating-less-can-slow-aging-process/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00479.warc.gz	en	0.981119	472	3.34375	3	[ -0.3913446366786957, 0.10374248027801514, 0.21273647248744965, 0.15198756754398346, 0.00793427973985672, 0.22348405420780182, 0.0024938532151281834, 0.2009817510843277, -0.1841181367635727, -0.09747234731912613, 0.2413637936115265, -0.32734209299087524, 0.1864698827266693, 0.41134408116340...	1	We all know that eating well and exercising frequently can help slow down aging and prevent a wide range of diseases; but a new study from Brigham Young University shows that simply cutting calories can also lead to a longer life. The new research was published in the journal Molecular & Cellular Proteomics. Cutting calories to maintain longevity works on a cellular level, according to researchers. Ribosomes, which make protein in the cells, tend to slow down their production on a lower calorie diet. This gives ribosomes extra time to repair themselves, thus dramatically slowing down the aging process of the entire host organism. John Price and his team at BYU studied mice for this experiment. As mice are very similar to humans in their make-up and reactions, scientists often use them as the go-to before conducting a similar experiment on human beings. For Price’s research, he divided the mice into two groups. One was able to eat as much as they wanted whenever they wanted. The other group received 35% fewer calories than the first group. It was found that those who ate fewer calories were proven to live longer than the first group. The mice who did not consume as much were also found to be more active than their counterparts and did not get sick as often. This is not the first time scientists have found that eating less increases the one’s quality of life in a positive way. Several years ago, a study at Saint Louis University showed that those who skip calorie dense desserts and eat less produce fewer hormones in the body. And while Price and his BYU team acknowledge St. Louis University’s findings, they also state that their study is the first to connect food quantities to ribosomes and their production of protein. “Food isn’t just material to be burned — it’s a signal that tells our body and cells how to respond. We’re getting down to the mechanisms of aging, which may help us make more educated decisions about what we eat.” This theory has not been tested out on humans and will therefore need more research. However, if it works in mice, it does seem plausible that it will work for humans as well. By the way, people who know what's coming are taking advantage of our healthy & delicious storable food!	444	ENGLISH	1
A poem that I have been studying recently is Assisi by Norman McCaig, which I found very interesting to read because it made a statement which relates to our world today even though the poem was wrote about thirty or forty years ago. The poem has lots of ideas including effective figures of speech, good choice of words, important images and irony. The statement that McCaig makes is, where ever there is great wealth it always exists along side great poverty. The poem is set in Assisi in Italy around the 1970s were all the rich tourists are coming in hundreds from all different countries far and wide to see the frescoes painted by Giotto in Assisis huge cathedral. McCaig mainly focuses on the dwarf outside of the three-tier cathedral built in honour of St. Francis. McCaig then proceeds to the priest guiding the tourists around the cathedral telling them the history of Giottos frescoes and how they individually teach people the goodness of God and the suffering of his son. McCaig uses effective littery techniques to describe the tourists and to describe the dwarf. He then goes on to explain that the tourists are not studying the frescoes and are just there to boast about being there. Then he goes on to tell of the dwarfs voice when he says Grazie for the money one of the tourists have given to him outside the cathedral. McCaig uses juxtaposition by situating the dwarf outside of the huge three tier cathedral. McCaig also refers to the dwarf as a ruined temple. By saying this he creates a huge contrast between the dwarf and the cathedral, he also uses irony to compare the dwarf to St. Francis were he says: Outside the three tiers of churches built in honour of St. Francis, brother of the poor, talker with birds, over whom he had the advantage of not being dead yet. This is saying that the dwarf had an advantage over one group of people, the dead. I think that it was a good idea to situate the dwarf outside the huge cathedral and create the image of a great, strong, beautifully designed building standing over a small, weak, deformed person. McCaig gives the reader a graphic description of the dwarf in both stanzas 1 and 3 where he uses many littery techniques to describe the dwarf. In stanza 1 he uses alliteration, simile and metaphor to give the reader a graphic view of the dwarfs deformed body: The dwarf with his hands on backwards sat, slumped like a half-filled sack on tiny twisted legs from which sawdust might run. He uses alliteration to say things like, sat slumped and tiny twisted, these two pieces of text give a good view of the dwarfs way of sitting and his little weak legs. The simile used is, Slumped like a half-filled sack. This tells me that the dwarf had no strength to keep himself up straight and every time he sat down his back got closer to the ground. McCaig also uses a metaphor to tell you of the dwarfs legs, Tiny twisted legs from which sawdust might run. Here he is speaking about the dwarf as if he was an old teddy bear, he is saying that his legs are so worn out that sawdust might run from them, this is what happened to the teddy bears in the late 19th centaury, they were filled with sawdust and if they wore away the sawdust would run out. In stanza 3 McCaig called the dwarf a ruined temple., this gives the image of the dwarf who is battered and bruised and over the years he has begun to rot since no one has been looking after him. McCaig says this because the dwarf has been living around the huge cathedral for many years and is now wearing away. McCaig goes on to give more details of the dwarfs appearance: wept pus, whose back was higher than his head, whose lopsided mouth All of these properties of the dwarf are very brutal, McCaig says this to make the reader feel pity for the dwarf but surprisingly McCaig goes on to tell how the dwarf had a voice as sweet as a childs: Said Grazie in a voice as sweet as a childs when she speaks to her mother. I think McCaig does this to give the reader an element of surprise by giving the dwarf such a sweet voice when the reader would expect a rough, deep voice, McCaig uses very good figures of speech in these both stanzas describing the dwarf. In stanza 3 there is an extended metaphor comparing the tourists to hens: A rush of tourists, clucking contentedly, fluttered after him as he scattered the grain of the word. McCaig uses this metaphor to show that the tourists are rushing after the priest because he is spreading the word of God, he compares the tourists to hens who are following the farmer as if he is scattering grain. This also shows that the tourists did not pay much attention to Giottos frescoes which told stories of God. This leads to the tourists devaluing the life and work of Christ. I think that McCaig has made a very clear image of the tourists and that he makes very good use of the metaphor by extending it. Throughout the poem there is the use of irony and sarcasm, the first piece of irony used is in stanza 1 were he compared the three tier cathedral built in honour of St. Francis to the little deformed dwarf. The next piece of irony is in stanza 2 were McCaig tells us that the priest is spending his time guiding rich tourists round the cathedral showing of Giottos frescoes instead of spending time with the people who need it most. The next and last piece of irony I will highlight is in stanza 3 were the dwarf is sitting outside the cathedral which was built to friend the poor begging. This is a good littery technique used by McCaig were he compares the cathedral which was supposedly built for the poor to the poor dwarf who is begging to the rich tourists. McCaig then goes on to use sarcasm when he compares the dwarf to St. Francis and says: He had the advantage of not being dead yet. This is true but the dwarf has nothing to live for and would most probably want to be dead. I think that these two techniques which were used by McCaig were really useful in describing the scenes he is trying to show the reader of the poem. In stanza 3 McCaig gives the reader the one and only experience of the dwarfs voice, from the way McCaig has vividly described the dwarf you would expect him to have a rough, deep voice but it is not: Whose lopsided mouth said Grazie in a voice as sweet as a childs when she speaks to her mother or a birds when it spoke to St. Francis. Once again McCaig bring St. Francis into the poemby comparing one of the birds voice when it spoke to St. Francis to the dwarfs voice as he says Grazie. This shows that McCaig is a good writer because he can use so many littery techniques to create a poem of this class. I have chosen a poem and studied it carefully, identified the littery techniques used. I looked at such ideas as effective figures of speech, choice of words, important images, irony. I have also showed how the poet has made the social comment: Where ever there is great wealth it always exists along side great poverty. / Pages : 2,094 / 24	<urn:uuid:9606b5f9-f512-4c68-9148-ad0de6f2c704>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pennsylvaniaangerclass.com/assisi/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00432.warc.gz	en	0.98045	1,581	3.375	3	[ -0.08392612636089325, 0.10648937523365021, 0.23004195094108582, 0.3494710326194763, 0.15970543026924133, 0.16889996826648712, 0.272959440946579, 0.27843546867370605, -0.17169055342674255, -0.23213037848472595, -0.16046443581581116, -0.19741788506507874, 0.21628199517726898, 0.2775910496711...	1	A poem that I have been studying recently is Assisi by Norman McCaig, which I found very interesting to read because it made a statement which relates to our world today even though the poem was wrote about thirty or forty years ago. The poem has lots of ideas including effective figures of speech, good choice of words, important images and irony. The statement that McCaig makes is, where ever there is great wealth it always exists along side great poverty. The poem is set in Assisi in Italy around the 1970s were all the rich tourists are coming in hundreds from all different countries far and wide to see the frescoes painted by Giotto in Assisis huge cathedral. McCaig mainly focuses on the dwarf outside of the three-tier cathedral built in honour of St. Francis. McCaig then proceeds to the priest guiding the tourists around the cathedral telling them the history of Giottos frescoes and how they individually teach people the goodness of God and the suffering of his son. McCaig uses effective littery techniques to describe the tourists and to describe the dwarf. He then goes on to explain that the tourists are not studying the frescoes and are just there to boast about being there. Then he goes on to tell of the dwarfs voice when he says Grazie for the money one of the tourists have given to him outside the cathedral. McCaig uses juxtaposition by situating the dwarf outside of the huge three tier cathedral. McCaig also refers to the dwarf as a ruined temple. By saying this he creates a huge contrast between the dwarf and the cathedral, he also uses irony to compare the dwarf to St. Francis were he says: Outside the three tiers of churches built in honour of St. Francis, brother of the poor, talker with birds, over whom he had the advantage of not being dead yet. This is saying that the dwarf had an advantage over one group of people, the dead. I think that it was a good idea to situate the dwarf outside the huge cathedral and create the image of a great, strong, beautifully designed building standing over a small, weak, deformed person. McCaig gives the reader a graphic description of the dwarf in both stanzas 1 and 3 where he uses many littery techniques to describe the dwarf. In stanza 1 he uses alliteration, simile and metaphor to give the reader a graphic view of the dwarfs deformed body: The dwarf with his hands on backwards sat, slumped like a half-filled sack on tiny twisted legs from which sawdust might run. He uses alliteration to say things like, sat slumped and tiny twisted, these two pieces of text give a good view of the dwarfs way of sitting and his little weak legs. The simile used is, Slumped like a half-filled sack. This tells me that the dwarf had no strength to keep himself up straight and every time he sat down his back got closer to the ground. McCaig also uses a metaphor to tell you of the dwarfs legs, Tiny twisted legs from which sawdust might run. Here he is speaking about the dwarf as if he was an old teddy bear, he is saying that his legs are so worn out that sawdust might run from them, this is what happened to the teddy bears in the late 19th centaury, they were filled with sawdust and if they wore away the sawdust would run out. In stanza 3 McCaig called the dwarf a ruined temple., this gives the image of the dwarf who is battered and bruised and over the years he has begun to rot since no one has been looking after him. McCaig says this because the dwarf has been living around the huge cathedral for many years and is now wearing away. McCaig goes on to give more details of the dwarfs appearance: wept pus, whose back was higher than his head, whose lopsided mouth All of these properties of the dwarf are very brutal, McCaig says this to make the reader feel pity for the dwarf but surprisingly McCaig goes on to tell how the dwarf had a voice as sweet as a childs: Said Grazie in a voice as sweet as a childs when she speaks to her mother. I think McCaig does this to give the reader an element of surprise by giving the dwarf such a sweet voice when the reader would expect a rough, deep voice, McCaig uses very good figures of speech in these both stanzas describing the dwarf. In stanza 3 there is an extended metaphor comparing the tourists to hens: A rush of tourists, clucking contentedly, fluttered after him as he scattered the grain of the word. McCaig uses this metaphor to show that the tourists are rushing after the priest because he is spreading the word of God, he compares the tourists to hens who are following the farmer as if he is scattering grain. This also shows that the tourists did not pay much attention to Giottos frescoes which told stories of God. This leads to the tourists devaluing the life and work of Christ. I think that McCaig has made a very clear image of the tourists and that he makes very good use of the metaphor by extending it. Throughout the poem there is the use of irony and sarcasm, the first piece of irony used is in stanza 1 were he compared the three tier cathedral built in honour of St. Francis to the little deformed dwarf. The next piece of irony is in stanza 2 were McCaig tells us that the priest is spending his time guiding rich tourists round the cathedral showing of Giottos frescoes instead of spending time with the people who need it most. The next and last piece of irony I will highlight is in stanza 3 were the dwarf is sitting outside the cathedral which was built to friend the poor begging. This is a good littery technique used by McCaig were he compares the cathedral which was supposedly built for the poor to the poor dwarf who is begging to the rich tourists. McCaig then goes on to use sarcasm when he compares the dwarf to St. Francis and says: He had the advantage of not being dead yet. This is true but the dwarf has nothing to live for and would most probably want to be dead. I think that these two techniques which were used by McCaig were really useful in describing the scenes he is trying to show the reader of the poem. In stanza 3 McCaig gives the reader the one and only experience of the dwarfs voice, from the way McCaig has vividly described the dwarf you would expect him to have a rough, deep voice but it is not: Whose lopsided mouth said Grazie in a voice as sweet as a childs when she speaks to her mother or a birds when it spoke to St. Francis. Once again McCaig bring St. Francis into the poemby comparing one of the birds voice when it spoke to St. Francis to the dwarfs voice as he says Grazie. This shows that McCaig is a good writer because he can use so many littery techniques to create a poem of this class. I have chosen a poem and studied it carefully, identified the littery techniques used. I looked at such ideas as effective figures of speech, choice of words, important images, irony. I have also showed how the poet has made the social comment: Where ever there is great wealth it always exists along side great poverty. / Pages : 2,094 / 24	1,565	ENGLISH	1
Once a symbol of national unity and reconciliation, Robert E. Lee is under attack in modern America. In recent years, his name and that of other Confederate generals have been erased from schools across the South, and his statue and those of his Southern compatriots have been removed from countless town squares throughout the country. Washington and Lee University, where Lee served as president after the Cvil War, has removed the historic battle flags of Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia that long adorned Lee Chapel, under which the great commander is buried. Like the Confederate flag itself, Lee has become in the eyes of many an emblem of racism and, increasingly and interestingly in our jingoistic age, treason. How did it come to this? Long the embodiment of the South’s “Lost Cause,” Lee’s place in the pantheon of America’s secular religion has always been problematic. The Nationalist interpretation of American history holds that the internecine conflict of 1861-1865 was at its heart a conflict over slavery and that the Southern states, by engaging in secession and the use of armed force against the federal government, had essentially committed treason. The clear implication of this interpretation is that those who fought for the Southern cause were traitors and, at least by association, racists. Americans have generally agreed with Ulysses S. Grant that the Confederate cause was “one of the worst for which a people ever fought, and one for which there was the least excuse.” Yet for most of the twentieth century, such aspersions were muted by Northerners. In the aftermath of Appomattox, there had been talk of hanging Lee as a traitor, though nothing came of it. Among Southern officers, only the commandant of the Confederate prison camp at Andersonville, Henry Wirz—foreign-born and Catholic, which made it easier—was hanged by the federal government. Lee, like most Confederate leaders, with the notable exception of Confederate President Jefferson Davis, never spent a day in jail, though his great estate at Arlington was lost, having been seized by Union forces during the war. It would soon be turned into a national cemetery for the Union dead. After the bitter period of Reconstruction, a period of national healing came in the era of the Spanish-American War of 1898, when White Protestant Americans again fought side-by-side against brown-skinned Catholics, as they had done in the Mexican-American war half a century earlier. (Indeed, Lee himself earned a superior reputation in that latter war.) Veterans from North and South gathered at Gettysburg in 1913 to shake hands across the stone wall on Cemetery Ridge that symbolically marked the “high tide of the Confederacy.” In this atmosphere Lee became more than a sectional hero to a Lost Cause; instead he was transformed into a national icon of the spirit of brotherly reconciliation. President Theodore Roosevelt praised Lee as “the very greatest of all the great captains that the English-speaking peoples have brought forth.” President Dwight D. Eisenhower said of Lee: “Through all his many trials, he remained selfless almost to a fault and unfailing in his faith in God. Taken altogether, he was noble as a leader and as a man, and unsullied as I read the pages of our history. From deep conviction I simply say this: a nation of men of Lee’s caliber would be unconquerable in spirit and soul.” With the civil rights movement of the 1960s, however, Southerners clung anew to the Lost Cause, making symbolic protest against desegregation of schools and voting rights for African Americans by incorporating the Confederate battle flag into state flags and by naming roads and schools after Confederate generals. Robert E. Lee, at least for a time, stood above this fray. Indeed, it was in 1975 that President Gerald Ford signed into law an act restoring Lee’s citizenship rights (Shortly after the war, Lee had signed the requisite Oath of Allegiance that should have led to the regaining of his citizenship status, but Secretary of State William Seward ignored the request.) The North’s honoring of Lee was based not only on his indisputable military genius and unassailable integrity. More crucial to the Nationalist interpretation, which has always held sway in the North and increasingly dominates the South now, is the image of Lee as the cooperative penitent, the man who gave up armed resistance to federal power, condemned the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, and urged his fellow Southerners to be loyal to Washington. As President Ford declared in signing the bill restoring his citizenship rights, Lee “firmly felt the wounds of the North and South must be bound up. He sought to show by example that the citizens of the South must dedicate their efforts to rebuilding that region of the country as a strong and vital part of the American Union.” He may have been a rebel fighting for a racist cause, the Nationalist school holds, but he saw the error of his ways and properly acknowledged the wisdom of the Union cause. It is indeed true that Lee urged national reconciliation, writing to a fellow Confederate veteran, “I believe it to be the duty of everyone to unite in the restoration of the country and the reestablishment of peace and harmony.” Lee accepted the decision of the battlefield and, ever the conservative, adjusted to realities and determined to make the best of things. Unlike some of his former comrades, he would not join in resistance to Reconstruction or stir up feelings of ill will toward federal officials or freed African Americans. In the days leading up to his surrender to Grant in April 1865, he rejected counsel that his army should continue the fight and even suggestions that he should order his men to make for the hills and become guerillas. He could not countenance anarchy and needless, endless bloodshed in the name of political principle. Lee was no ideologue. For these actions, Northerners are right to praise Lee, though his acquiescence was just that. He never repudiated his decision to fight for his “country” (Virginia) and never criticized the Lost Cause with which he came to be identified. In this, he is not the penitent sinner of the Northern imagination. Yet Southerners have Lee wrong too, for he did not believe in secession as a principle and despised the “fire-eaters” who had led the South down the road of disunion. He was a reluctant rebel who in a conflict between competing duties made the only choice he believed he could rightly make. Lee decided that his first loyalties lay with his family and his state, whom he could not oppose in war, and these trumped his oath as a United States officer to uphold the federal Constitution. The charge of traitor against Lee—and indeed against all who took up arms in the name of the Confederacy— rings quite hollow. There is not the space here to go into a full-blown analysis of the Constitutional, political, and philosophical issues involved in secession. Suffice it to say that the charge of treason can just as easily be leveled at those in the North who made war upon the Southern states (Article III, Section 3 of the United States Constitution states, in part, “treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them.”) Southerners did not choose war and wished only for a peaceful separation and independence. Certainly, in the particular case of Lee, it would be churlish to condemn him for either course of action that he might have chosen. He detested secession in principle, agonizing over what route to take when his own Virginia voted to leave the Union in 1861. Conservatives should praise him for deciding that his ultimate duty was to his family and state: “I have been unable to make up my mind to raise my hand against my native state, my relations, my children & my home . . . & never desire again to draw my sword save in defence of my State.” In regard to the charge that Lee was racist or that he supported a racist cause, again there is not room here to discuss the causes of the War Between the States. Suffice it to say that this issue is one on which honest men can disagree. Certainly Lee himself did not see the conflict in this light. In a letter of 1856 to his wife, Lee had written that “slavery as an institution, is a moral & political evil in any country.” Despising revolutionary social change and the rhetoric of the abolitionists, he hoped for gradual emancipation and shared with Abraham Lincoln a sympathy for the idea of colonizing freed African Americans in Central America or Africa. Lee never purchased a slave in his life. The slaves over whom he had control, some 200, came to him through his marriage to Mary Custis, a descendant of George Washington. Lee became the executor of the will of his father-in-law, George Washington Parke Custis. Though permitted by the will to free the slaves upon the elder Custis’ death in 1857, Lee deemed the slaves necessary to the financial recovery of the Arlington estate. He thus kept them enslaved as long as he could—the will stipulated a maximum of five years—freeing them in December 1862 on the eve of the Emancipation Proclamation’s going into effect. Again, Lee believed that his highest duty was to his family, in this case to their economic well-being, and this trumped his concern for the freedom of the particular slaves under his control. Lee did not enjoy being a slaveholder. He saw his father-in-law’s slaves as a necessary burden; most of them were poor workers, having developed lax habits under the slack supervision of Custis. Lee was compelled by the poor economic and physical condition of Arlington House to cajole its slaves to work longer and harder. Many resisted the new regimen, and several tried to escape. One group of escapees—two men and a woman—were captured in Maryland and were returned to Lee, who likely had them all whipped, including the female slave. In so doing, of course, Lee’s action was not atypical among slaveowners, even in an Upper South state like Virginia, whose laws in fact stipulated that owners administer corporal punishment for certain infractions. In this, as in his paternalistic attitude toward blacks, Lee fell short of heroism. Of the bondsmen Lee once opined that “the painful discipline they are undergoing, is necessary for their instruction as a race,” and he told a congressional committee after the war that it was his view blacks “at this time, cannot vote intelligently,” though he added, “what the future may prove, how intelligent they may become…. I cannot say more than you can.” As Lee’s great biographer Douglas Southall Freeman writes, his “was the prevailing view among most religious people of Lee’s class in the border states. Lee shared these convictions of his neighbors without ever having come in contact with the worst evils of African bondage.” His conservative views precluded him from, say, taking the extreme step taken by his relation, Robert Carter III, who because of his radical religious convictions freed all 500 of his slaves in 1800. It should be recalled that George Washington only provided for his slaves’ freedom in his will, and only after his wife Martha’s death (though she freed her slaves during her lifetime, as she feared they might kill her.) Lee thought enough of the prowess of African Americans that he was a proponent of enlisting slaves to fight for the Confederacy and thereby earn their freedom. This is also additional evidence that Lee did not consider the war a crusade to preserve slavery, as he was willing to give up the institution in order to secure the greater goal of Southern independence. In the post-war years, numerous incidents were reported in which Lee flouted the conventions of his class and daringly treated a black man as his equal in social situations. Despite his flaws when it came to his views on race, Lee should be honored as a hero by all Americans and especially by conservatives. His classical devotion to the idea of duty has been mentioned. His resistance to the temptations of power also demands our acclaim. Much is rightly made of George Washington’s laying down of his sword at the end of the American Revolution to resume his status as a private citizen. Lee similarly passed this Tolkienian test when Abraham Lincoln, on the advice of General Winfield Scott, offered him command of all United States forces in April 1861 after South Carolina forces fired on Fort Sumter. Lee declined the offer, which would have gained for him the ultimate career goal sought by every West Point-trained military man. We must remember that the alternative for Lee was NOT the command of the Confederate armies. He was not foregoing one offer of power in order to pursue another. Indeed, his home state of Virginia had not yet seceded, and at the moment he rejected Lincoln’s offer the most he could have reasonably hoped for was command of Virginia’s troops (an honor that he did eventually receive.) It ought to be kept in mind also that Lee was aware of the superior manpower number of the North and the superior resources of Northern industrialism; the prospects of Southern independence were far from certain. As with the American Revolutionaries, the noose seemed the most likely end for the leaders of Southern independence. Even when Virginia seceded and war began, Lee did not immediately receive a high command within Confederate ranks. He was relegated to a desk job, serving as an advisor to President Jefferson Davis. He did not receive a field command until May of 1862, when General Joseph E. Johnston was severely wounded during the Seven Days’ Battles on the Virginia Peninsula. Lee then took command of the Army of Northern Virginia, but he would not be appointed commander of all Confederate forces until January 1865. This was a series of events that he could hardly have expected when he refused Lincoln’s immediate offer of power in 1861. In addition to duty, Lee valued humility. He did not angle for promotion as he chafed at his desk job in Richmond. Rather, he humbly served President Davis, and even after being assigned command of the Army of Northern Virginia, his letters reveal that he always deferred to the prickly Davis. Just as Lee eschewed ambition, so he avoided avarice, turning down several offers in the post-war years to lend his name to companies in return for lucrative compensation. The idea of profiting from the selling of his name was anathema to Lee. Lee embodied the Aristotelian ideal of moderation. As the deep South seceded in the winter of 1860-1861, Lee, stationed in Texas, was shocked when Texas voted for secession in February 1861; one witness recalled that Lee’s “lips trembled and his eyes [became] full of tears” when he heard the news. Lee voiced his resolve not to take up arms against the Union, “but it may be necessary for me to carry a musket in defense of my native state.” When Virginia reversed its initial vote against secession in May 1861—in the light of Lincoln’s decision to make war upon the South—Lee made the anguished decision to resign his commission in the United States Army, concluding that despite his love for the Union, he “could not take part in an invasion of the southern states.” Lee indeed despised war. Surveying the slaughter of Union troops charging his lines at Fredericksburg in December 1862, Lee commented to an aide: “It is good that war is so terrible. Otherwise, we would enjoy it too much.” As Richard Weaver has argued, this profound statement, “richer than a Delphic saying,” shows Lee to be a true philosopher. In the days after the smashing Confederate victory, Lee wrote to his wife: “What a cruel thing is war; to separate and destroy families and friends, and mar the purest joys and happiness God has granted us in this world; to fill our hearts with hatred instead of love for our neighbours, and to devastate the fair face of this beautiful world!” This is far from the tone of a bloodthirsty martinet drunk on the intoxication of his repeated victories. Twenty-eight months later, as mentioned above, at Appomattox Lee turned aside the suggestions of aides to continue the fight as a guerilla war. The social anarchy and protracted bloodshed that would result were anathema to the conservative Lee, and he prudently judged that Southern independence was not worth the price. Guerilla war horrified Lee because it would bring down the wrath of Mars more harshly on civilians. Indeed, Lee rejected the idea of total war that was developed by Union Generals Grant, William T. Sherman, and Phillip Sheridan, and embraced by President Lincoln. Lee was always careful to avoid civilian casualties. On the first campaign into Maryland in 1862, Lee issued General Order No. 72, which prohibited the plundering of civilian property and reminded his soldiers “that we make war only upon armed men.” Lee’s action in issuing this order can be contrasted with that of Union General John Pope, whom Lee had just soundly defeated prior to his foray into Maryland. Only weeks prior to Lee’s Order No. 72, Pope had issued his own order authorizing in Virginia the burning of private homes and the levying of fines upon civilians as retribution for guerilla actions taken against Union troops. More egregiously, in May of 1862, Union General Benjamin Butler, presiding over conquered New Orleans, had issued his infamous General Order No. 28, stipulating that “when any female shall by word, gesture, or movement insult or show contempt for any officer or soldier of the United States she shall be regarded and held liable to be treated as a woman of the town plying her avocation.” In practice, this meant that a female civilian who dared merely to display a Confederate symbol on her dress was liable to be raped by Union troops. Such atrocities did occur. Lee’s dogged adherence to the traditional, Christian principles of limited war is even more impressive in light of the many atrocities that were authorized and indeed perpetrated against his own people by his enemy. Lee considered the protection of civilian life so important that, as the head of the detachment sent to capture abolitionist John Brown on the eve of the Civil War, Lee ordered his Marines to unload their rifles during their assault on the building where Brown had holed up, lest the hostages that Brown held be injured or killed. Lee’s amazing self-restraint reflected the advice he had given to a young mother about raising her infant son: “Teach him he must deny himself.” The Christian Lee valued self-control as essential to proper behavior and indeed to personal and public liberty. “I cannot trust a man to control others who cannot control himself,” he said in evaluating his military subordinates. Lee practiced what he preached. He had the rare distinction of being a cadet who did not earn a single demerit at West Point. He expected the same gentlemanly behavior from the young men in his care at Lexington, Virginia’s Washington College, of which he became president after Appomattox. There he reduced the college’s many rules to one simple rule: “Every student must be a gentleman.” As his name and image, and those of his fellow Confederate officers, are removed from shops, schools, and museums across the country, it is ever more important, especially for conservatives, to speak up for Robert E. Lee. A man of military genius and personal honor, a defender of civilians and civilization, a champion of duty and truth, a model of humility and prudence, Lee was perhaps the last defender of the ideals of the Old Republic, whose greying glory was ground under the wheels of the New Order of the centralized, industrialized state that triumphed in 1865. Though he wore the racial blinders of his class and time, Robert E. Lee was a man of exemplary character and remains an excellent role model for all Americans and is indeed a worthy contender for the title of “Greatest American.” The Imaginative Conservative applies the principle of appreciation to the discussion of culture and politics—we approach dialogue with magnanimity rather than with mere civility. Will you help us remain a refreshing oasis in the increasingly contentious arena of modern discourse? Please consider donating now. The featured image is a photograph of Robert E. Lee by Michael Miley, c.1870, and is in the public domain, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.	<urn:uuid:ea720c22-c5ef-4e6c-adbb-eaf8757472f2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://theimaginativeconservative.org/2015/01/saving-robert-e-lee-stephen-klugewicz.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00015.warc.gz	en	0.981162	4,282	3.3125	3	[ -0.23565493524074554, 0.4522663950920105, 0.2657817602157593, 0.002897203667089343, 0.059995099902153015, 0.2224690020084381, 0.2664583921432495, -0.09846866875886917, -0.06831321120262146, -0.03186574578285217, 0.4251229166984558, 0.25029873847961426, 0.4634398818016052, 0.225954860448837...	1	Once a symbol of national unity and reconciliation, Robert E. Lee is under attack in modern America. In recent years, his name and that of other Confederate generals have been erased from schools across the South, and his statue and those of his Southern compatriots have been removed from countless town squares throughout the country. Washington and Lee University, where Lee served as president after the Cvil War, has removed the historic battle flags of Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia that long adorned Lee Chapel, under which the great commander is buried. Like the Confederate flag itself, Lee has become in the eyes of many an emblem of racism and, increasingly and interestingly in our jingoistic age, treason. How did it come to this? Long the embodiment of the South’s “Lost Cause,” Lee’s place in the pantheon of America’s secular religion has always been problematic. The Nationalist interpretation of American history holds that the internecine conflict of 1861-1865 was at its heart a conflict over slavery and that the Southern states, by engaging in secession and the use of armed force against the federal government, had essentially committed treason. The clear implication of this interpretation is that those who fought for the Southern cause were traitors and, at least by association, racists. Americans have generally agreed with Ulysses S. Grant that the Confederate cause was “one of the worst for which a people ever fought, and one for which there was the least excuse.” Yet for most of the twentieth century, such aspersions were muted by Northerners. In the aftermath of Appomattox, there had been talk of hanging Lee as a traitor, though nothing came of it. Among Southern officers, only the commandant of the Confederate prison camp at Andersonville, Henry Wirz—foreign-born and Catholic, which made it easier—was hanged by the federal government. Lee, like most Confederate leaders, with the notable exception of Confederate President Jefferson Davis, never spent a day in jail, though his great estate at Arlington was lost, having been seized by Union forces during the war. It would soon be turned into a national cemetery for the Union dead. After the bitter period of Reconstruction, a period of national healing came in the era of the Spanish-American War of 1898, when White Protestant Americans again fought side-by-side against brown-skinned Catholics, as they had done in the Mexican-American war half a century earlier. (Indeed, Lee himself earned a superior reputation in that latter war.) Veterans from North and South gathered at Gettysburg in 1913 to shake hands across the stone wall on Cemetery Ridge that symbolically marked the “high tide of the Confederacy.” In this atmosphere Lee became more than a sectional hero to a Lost Cause; instead he was transformed into a national icon of the spirit of brotherly reconciliation. President Theodore Roosevelt praised Lee as “the very greatest of all the great captains that the English-speaking peoples have brought forth.” President Dwight D. Eisenhower said of Lee: “Through all his many trials, he remained selfless almost to a fault and unfailing in his faith in God. Taken altogether, he was noble as a leader and as a man, and unsullied as I read the pages of our history. From deep conviction I simply say this: a nation of men of Lee’s caliber would be unconquerable in spirit and soul.” With the civil rights movement of the 1960s, however, Southerners clung anew to the Lost Cause, making symbolic protest against desegregation of schools and voting rights for African Americans by incorporating the Confederate battle flag into state flags and by naming roads and schools after Confederate generals. Robert E. Lee, at least for a time, stood above this fray. Indeed, it was in 1975 that President Gerald Ford signed into law an act restoring Lee’s citizenship rights (Shortly after the war, Lee had signed the requisite Oath of Allegiance that should have led to the regaining of his citizenship status, but Secretary of State William Seward ignored the request.) The North’s honoring of Lee was based not only on his indisputable military genius and unassailable integrity. More crucial to the Nationalist interpretation, which has always held sway in the North and increasingly dominates the South now, is the image of Lee as the cooperative penitent, the man who gave up armed resistance to federal power, condemned the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, and urged his fellow Southerners to be loyal to Washington. As President Ford declared in signing the bill restoring his citizenship rights, Lee “firmly felt the wounds of the North and South must be bound up. He sought to show by example that the citizens of the South must dedicate their efforts to rebuilding that region of the country as a strong and vital part of the American Union.” He may have been a rebel fighting for a racist cause, the Nationalist school holds, but he saw the error of his ways and properly acknowledged the wisdom of the Union cause. It is indeed true that Lee urged national reconciliation, writing to a fellow Confederate veteran, “I believe it to be the duty of everyone to unite in the restoration of the country and the reestablishment of peace and harmony.” Lee accepted the decision of the battlefield and, ever the conservative, adjusted to realities and determined to make the best of things. Unlike some of his former comrades, he would not join in resistance to Reconstruction or stir up feelings of ill will toward federal officials or freed African Americans. In the days leading up to his surrender to Grant in April 1865, he rejected counsel that his army should continue the fight and even suggestions that he should order his men to make for the hills and become guerillas. He could not countenance anarchy and needless, endless bloodshed in the name of political principle. Lee was no ideologue. For these actions, Northerners are right to praise Lee, though his acquiescence was just that. He never repudiated his decision to fight for his “country” (Virginia) and never criticized the Lost Cause with which he came to be identified. In this, he is not the penitent sinner of the Northern imagination. Yet Southerners have Lee wrong too, for he did not believe in secession as a principle and despised the “fire-eaters” who had led the South down the road of disunion. He was a reluctant rebel who in a conflict between competing duties made the only choice he believed he could rightly make. Lee decided that his first loyalties lay with his family and his state, whom he could not oppose in war, and these trumped his oath as a United States officer to uphold the federal Constitution. The charge of traitor against Lee—and indeed against all who took up arms in the name of the Confederacy— rings quite hollow. There is not the space here to go into a full-blown analysis of the Constitutional, political, and philosophical issues involved in secession. Suffice it to say that the charge of treason can just as easily be leveled at those in the North who made war upon the Southern states (Article III, Section 3 of the United States Constitution states, in part, “treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them.”) Southerners did not choose war and wished only for a peaceful separation and independence. Certainly, in the particular case of Lee, it would be churlish to condemn him for either course of action that he might have chosen. He detested secession in principle, agonizing over what route to take when his own Virginia voted to leave the Union in 1861. Conservatives should praise him for deciding that his ultimate duty was to his family and state: “I have been unable to make up my mind to raise my hand against my native state, my relations, my children & my home . . . & never desire again to draw my sword save in defence of my State.” In regard to the charge that Lee was racist or that he supported a racist cause, again there is not room here to discuss the causes of the War Between the States. Suffice it to say that this issue is one on which honest men can disagree. Certainly Lee himself did not see the conflict in this light. In a letter of 1856 to his wife, Lee had written that “slavery as an institution, is a moral & political evil in any country.” Despising revolutionary social change and the rhetoric of the abolitionists, he hoped for gradual emancipation and shared with Abraham Lincoln a sympathy for the idea of colonizing freed African Americans in Central America or Africa. Lee never purchased a slave in his life. The slaves over whom he had control, some 200, came to him through his marriage to Mary Custis, a descendant of George Washington. Lee became the executor of the will of his father-in-law, George Washington Parke Custis. Though permitted by the will to free the slaves upon the elder Custis’ death in 1857, Lee deemed the slaves necessary to the financial recovery of the Arlington estate. He thus kept them enslaved as long as he could—the will stipulated a maximum of five years—freeing them in December 1862 on the eve of the Emancipation Proclamation’s going into effect. Again, Lee believed that his highest duty was to his family, in this case to their economic well-being, and this trumped his concern for the freedom of the particular slaves under his control. Lee did not enjoy being a slaveholder. He saw his father-in-law’s slaves as a necessary burden; most of them were poor workers, having developed lax habits under the slack supervision of Custis. Lee was compelled by the poor economic and physical condition of Arlington House to cajole its slaves to work longer and harder. Many resisted the new regimen, and several tried to escape. One group of escapees—two men and a woman—were captured in Maryland and were returned to Lee, who likely had them all whipped, including the female slave. In so doing, of course, Lee’s action was not atypical among slaveowners, even in an Upper South state like Virginia, whose laws in fact stipulated that owners administer corporal punishment for certain infractions. In this, as in his paternalistic attitude toward blacks, Lee fell short of heroism. Of the bondsmen Lee once opined that “the painful discipline they are undergoing, is necessary for their instruction as a race,” and he told a congressional committee after the war that it was his view blacks “at this time, cannot vote intelligently,” though he added, “what the future may prove, how intelligent they may become…. I cannot say more than you can.” As Lee’s great biographer Douglas Southall Freeman writes, his “was the prevailing view among most religious people of Lee’s class in the border states. Lee shared these convictions of his neighbors without ever having come in contact with the worst evils of African bondage.” His conservative views precluded him from, say, taking the extreme step taken by his relation, Robert Carter III, who because of his radical religious convictions freed all 500 of his slaves in 1800. It should be recalled that George Washington only provided for his slaves’ freedom in his will, and only after his wife Martha’s death (though she freed her slaves during her lifetime, as she feared they might kill her.) Lee thought enough of the prowess of African Americans that he was a proponent of enlisting slaves to fight for the Confederacy and thereby earn their freedom. This is also additional evidence that Lee did not consider the war a crusade to preserve slavery, as he was willing to give up the institution in order to secure the greater goal of Southern independence. In the post-war years, numerous incidents were reported in which Lee flouted the conventions of his class and daringly treated a black man as his equal in social situations. Despite his flaws when it came to his views on race, Lee should be honored as a hero by all Americans and especially by conservatives. His classical devotion to the idea of duty has been mentioned. His resistance to the temptations of power also demands our acclaim. Much is rightly made of George Washington’s laying down of his sword at the end of the American Revolution to resume his status as a private citizen. Lee similarly passed this Tolkienian test when Abraham Lincoln, on the advice of General Winfield Scott, offered him command of all United States forces in April 1861 after South Carolina forces fired on Fort Sumter. Lee declined the offer, which would have gained for him the ultimate career goal sought by every West Point-trained military man. We must remember that the alternative for Lee was NOT the command of the Confederate armies. He was not foregoing one offer of power in order to pursue another. Indeed, his home state of Virginia had not yet seceded, and at the moment he rejected Lincoln’s offer the most he could have reasonably hoped for was command of Virginia’s troops (an honor that he did eventually receive.) It ought to be kept in mind also that Lee was aware of the superior manpower number of the North and the superior resources of Northern industrialism; the prospects of Southern independence were far from certain. As with the American Revolutionaries, the noose seemed the most likely end for the leaders of Southern independence. Even when Virginia seceded and war began, Lee did not immediately receive a high command within Confederate ranks. He was relegated to a desk job, serving as an advisor to President Jefferson Davis. He did not receive a field command until May of 1862, when General Joseph E. Johnston was severely wounded during the Seven Days’ Battles on the Virginia Peninsula. Lee then took command of the Army of Northern Virginia, but he would not be appointed commander of all Confederate forces until January 1865. This was a series of events that he could hardly have expected when he refused Lincoln’s immediate offer of power in 1861. In addition to duty, Lee valued humility. He did not angle for promotion as he chafed at his desk job in Richmond. Rather, he humbly served President Davis, and even after being assigned command of the Army of Northern Virginia, his letters reveal that he always deferred to the prickly Davis. Just as Lee eschewed ambition, so he avoided avarice, turning down several offers in the post-war years to lend his name to companies in return for lucrative compensation. The idea of profiting from the selling of his name was anathema to Lee. Lee embodied the Aristotelian ideal of moderation. As the deep South seceded in the winter of 1860-1861, Lee, stationed in Texas, was shocked when Texas voted for secession in February 1861; one witness recalled that Lee’s “lips trembled and his eyes [became] full of tears” when he heard the news. Lee voiced his resolve not to take up arms against the Union, “but it may be necessary for me to carry a musket in defense of my native state.” When Virginia reversed its initial vote against secession in May 1861—in the light of Lincoln’s decision to make war upon the South—Lee made the anguished decision to resign his commission in the United States Army, concluding that despite his love for the Union, he “could not take part in an invasion of the southern states.” Lee indeed despised war. Surveying the slaughter of Union troops charging his lines at Fredericksburg in December 1862, Lee commented to an aide: “It is good that war is so terrible. Otherwise, we would enjoy it too much.” As Richard Weaver has argued, this profound statement, “richer than a Delphic saying,” shows Lee to be a true philosopher. In the days after the smashing Confederate victory, Lee wrote to his wife: “What a cruel thing is war; to separate and destroy families and friends, and mar the purest joys and happiness God has granted us in this world; to fill our hearts with hatred instead of love for our neighbours, and to devastate the fair face of this beautiful world!” This is far from the tone of a bloodthirsty martinet drunk on the intoxication of his repeated victories. Twenty-eight months later, as mentioned above, at Appomattox Lee turned aside the suggestions of aides to continue the fight as a guerilla war. The social anarchy and protracted bloodshed that would result were anathema to the conservative Lee, and he prudently judged that Southern independence was not worth the price. Guerilla war horrified Lee because it would bring down the wrath of Mars more harshly on civilians. Indeed, Lee rejected the idea of total war that was developed by Union Generals Grant, William T. Sherman, and Phillip Sheridan, and embraced by President Lincoln. Lee was always careful to avoid civilian casualties. On the first campaign into Maryland in 1862, Lee issued General Order No. 72, which prohibited the plundering of civilian property and reminded his soldiers “that we make war only upon armed men.” Lee’s action in issuing this order can be contrasted with that of Union General John Pope, whom Lee had just soundly defeated prior to his foray into Maryland. Only weeks prior to Lee’s Order No. 72, Pope had issued his own order authorizing in Virginia the burning of private homes and the levying of fines upon civilians as retribution for guerilla actions taken against Union troops. More egregiously, in May of 1862, Union General Benjamin Butler, presiding over conquered New Orleans, had issued his infamous General Order No. 28, stipulating that “when any female shall by word, gesture, or movement insult or show contempt for any officer or soldier of the United States she shall be regarded and held liable to be treated as a woman of the town plying her avocation.” In practice, this meant that a female civilian who dared merely to display a Confederate symbol on her dress was liable to be raped by Union troops. Such atrocities did occur. Lee’s dogged adherence to the traditional, Christian principles of limited war is even more impressive in light of the many atrocities that were authorized and indeed perpetrated against his own people by his enemy. Lee considered the protection of civilian life so important that, as the head of the detachment sent to capture abolitionist John Brown on the eve of the Civil War, Lee ordered his Marines to unload their rifles during their assault on the building where Brown had holed up, lest the hostages that Brown held be injured or killed. Lee’s amazing self-restraint reflected the advice he had given to a young mother about raising her infant son: “Teach him he must deny himself.” The Christian Lee valued self-control as essential to proper behavior and indeed to personal and public liberty. “I cannot trust a man to control others who cannot control himself,” he said in evaluating his military subordinates. Lee practiced what he preached. He had the rare distinction of being a cadet who did not earn a single demerit at West Point. He expected the same gentlemanly behavior from the young men in his care at Lexington, Virginia’s Washington College, of which he became president after Appomattox. There he reduced the college’s many rules to one simple rule: “Every student must be a gentleman.” As his name and image, and those of his fellow Confederate officers, are removed from shops, schools, and museums across the country, it is ever more important, especially for conservatives, to speak up for Robert E. Lee. A man of military genius and personal honor, a defender of civilians and civilization, a champion of duty and truth, a model of humility and prudence, Lee was perhaps the last defender of the ideals of the Old Republic, whose greying glory was ground under the wheels of the New Order of the centralized, industrialized state that triumphed in 1865. Though he wore the racial blinders of his class and time, Robert E. Lee was a man of exemplary character and remains an excellent role model for all Americans and is indeed a worthy contender for the title of “Greatest American.” The Imaginative Conservative applies the principle of appreciation to the discussion of culture and politics—we approach dialogue with magnanimity rather than with mere civility. Will you help us remain a refreshing oasis in the increasingly contentious arena of modern discourse? Please consider donating now. The featured image is a photograph of Robert E. Lee by Michael Miley, c.1870, and is in the public domain, courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.	4,244	ENGLISH	1
What is really a several in math? You will find lots of techniques to say what is really a variable in mathematics. By applying also a a number of from the equation and also the emblem N, you’re saying exactly what exactly N is at the equation and into the right. The way is and also a variety certified professional resume writer that is different. The equation might be written this way or utilizing the equation by you, however, you want to publish N as a individual group. The N from the equation is utilised to demonstrate which some is just not becoming defined by you, however are still specifying a word. N is often written by you as the exact same number working with another angle, you could write N as you of the angles to the right or you are able to compose N as an angle. You are able to use this is of the multiple in mathematics with the definition of N as an angle. You may create N employing exactly the identical significance . You are able to utilize N . You may also compose N by two angles utilizing the right hand side of this equation. N is usually written by you. All of these are variations of N. The http://nanotech.grenoble-inp.fr/epf-lausanne-/ means to express what N is in math is a different angle, and N. It’s possible for you to produce N by one angle several angles, or even two angles. You are able to compose N by one angle. You can even create N two angles. You are able to even produce N two angles and a angle. N could be written by you as two angles as well as also a double angle angle. You may even produce N by two angles and a few angles, a angle, along with a double angle angle. You’re able to write N by two angles and a quadrant, a quadrangle or quadrant, or four angles. N may be written by you for a three and quadrant angles. You are able to also produce N using means of a three and quadrant angles. It’s possible to even create N by also a radius and also several angles. You could also produce N as two angles and a quadrant. You could also create N using a quadrant and three angles as well as means of a quadrant plus two angles. You could also create N for a two and quadrant angles as well as also a quadrant.	<urn:uuid:0475aa1b-c0b3-4360-a5a0-7997cb4292fc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.cabinet-intervalle.fr/?p=4715	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00083.warc.gz	en	0.983775	509	3.421875	3	[ -0.1504940390586853, -0.11749444901943207, -0.01804046332836151, -0.38476231694221497, -0.51254802942276, 0.32476988434791565, 0.046917662024497986, 0.17946405708789825, -0.10522810369729996, -0.1372682899236679, 0.04497016221284866, -0.10639914870262146, 0.34543681144714355, -0.3337494432...	1	What is really a several in math? You will find lots of techniques to say what is really a variable in mathematics. By applying also a a number of from the equation and also the emblem N, you’re saying exactly what exactly N is at the equation and into the right. The way is and also a variety certified professional resume writer that is different. The equation might be written this way or utilizing the equation by you, however, you want to publish N as a individual group. The N from the equation is utilised to demonstrate which some is just not becoming defined by you, however are still specifying a word. N is often written by you as the exact same number working with another angle, you could write N as you of the angles to the right or you are able to compose N as an angle. You are able to use this is of the multiple in mathematics with the definition of N as an angle. You may create N employing exactly the identical significance . You are able to utilize N . You may also compose N by two angles utilizing the right hand side of this equation. N is usually written by you. All of these are variations of N. The http://nanotech.grenoble-inp.fr/epf-lausanne-/ means to express what N is in math is a different angle, and N. It’s possible for you to produce N by one angle several angles, or even two angles. You are able to compose N by one angle. You can even create N two angles. You are able to even produce N two angles and a angle. N could be written by you as two angles as well as also a double angle angle. You may even produce N by two angles and a few angles, a angle, along with a double angle angle. You’re able to write N by two angles and a quadrant, a quadrangle or quadrant, or four angles. N may be written by you for a three and quadrant angles. You are able to also produce N using means of a three and quadrant angles. It’s possible to even create N by also a radius and also several angles. You could also produce N as two angles and a quadrant. You could also create N using a quadrant and three angles as well as means of a quadrant plus two angles. You could also create N for a two and quadrant angles as well as also a quadrant.	478	ENGLISH	1
I F the fifteenth century has been called the Golden Age of Scottish poetry, it was also the dullest age in English literature. During the fifteenth century few books were written in England. One reason for this was that in England it was a time of foreign and of civil war. The century opened in war with Wales, it continued in war with France. Then for thirty years the wars of the Roses laid desolate the land. They ended at length in 1485 with Bosworth field, by which Henry VII became King. But in spite of all the wars and strife, the making of books did not quite cease. And if only a few books were written, it was because it was a time of rebirth and new life as well as a time of war and death. For it was in the fifteenth century that printing was discovered. Then it was that the listening time was really done. Men began to use their eyes rather than their ears. They saw as they had never before seen. Books began to grow many and cheap. More and more people learned to read, and this helped to settle our language into a form that was to last. French still, although it was no longer the language of the court or of the people, had an influence on our speech. People traveled little, and in different parts of the country different dialects, which were almost like different languages, were spoken. We have seen that the "Inglis" of Scotland differed from Chaucer's English, and the language of the north of England differed from it just as much. But when printed books increased in number quickly, when every man could see for himself what the printed words looked like, these differences began to die out. Then our English, as a literary language, was born. It was Caxton, you remember, who was the first English printer. We have already heard of him when following the Arthur story as the printer of Malory's Morte d'Arthur. But Caxton was not only a printer, he was author, editor, printer, publisher and bookseller all in one. William Caxton, as he himself tells us, was born in Kent in the Weald. But exactly where or when we do not know, although it may have been about the year 1420. Neither do we know who or what his father was. Some people think that he may have been a mercer or cloth merchant, because later Caxton was apprenticed to one of the richest cloth merchants of London. In those days no man was allowed to begin business for himself until he had served for a number of years as an apprentice. When he had served his time, and then only, was he admitted into the company and allowed to trade for himself. As the Mercers' Company was one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the merchant companies, they were very careful of whom they admitted as apprentices. Therefore it would seem that really Caxton's family was "of great repute of old, and genteel-like," as an old manuscript says. Caxton's master died before he had finished his apprenticeship, so he had to find a new master, and very soon he left England and went to Bruges. There he remained for thirty-five years. In those days there was much trade between England and Flanders (Belgium we now call the country) in wool and cloth, and there was a little colony of English merchants in Bruges. There Caxton steadily rose in importance until he became "Governor of the English Nation beyond the seas." As Governor he had great power, and ruled over his merchant adventurers as if he had been a king. But even with all his other work, with his trading and ruling to attend to, Caxton found time to read and write, and he began to translate from the French a book of stories called the Recuyell of the Histories of Troy. This is a book full of the stories of Greek heroes and of the ancient town of Troy. Caxton was not very well pleased with his work, however—he "fell into despair of it," he says—and for two years he put it aside and wrote no more. In 1468 Princess Margaret, the sister of King Edward IV, married the Duke of Burgundy and came to live in Flanders, for in those days Flanders was under the rule of the Dukes of Burgundy. Princess Margaret soon heard of the Englishman William Caxton who had made his home in Bruges. She liked him and encouraged him to go on with his writing, and after a time he gave up his post of Governor of the English and entered the service of the Princess. We do not know what post Caxton held in the household of the Princess, but it was one of honor we may feel sure. It was at the bidding of the Princess, whose "dreadful command I durst in no wise disobey," that Caxton finished the translation of his book of stories. And as at this time there were no stories written in English prose (poetry only being still used for stories), the book was a great success. The Duchess was delighted and rewarded Caxton well, and besides that so many other people wished to read it that he soon grew tired of making copies. It was then that he decided to learn the new and wonderful art of printing, which was already known in Flanders. So it came about that the first book ever printed in English was not printed in England, but somewhere on the continent. It was printed some time before 1477, perhaps in 1474. If in manuscript the book had been a success, it was now much more of one. And we may believe that it was this success that made Caxton leave Bruges and go home to England in order to begin life anew as a printer there. Many a time, as Governor of the English Nation over the seas, he had sent forth richly laden vessels. But had he known it, none was so richly laden as that which now sailed homeward bearing a printing-press. At Westminster, within the precincts of the Abbey, Caxton found a house and set up his printing-press. And there, not far from the great west door of the Abbey he, already an elderly man, began his new busy life. His house came to be known as the house of the Red Pale from the sign that he set up. It was probably a shield with a red line down the middle of it, called in heraldry a pale. And from here Caxton sent out the first printed advertisement known in England. "If it please any man spiritual or temporal," he says, to buy a certain book, "let him come to Westminster in to the Almonry at the Red Pale and he shall have them good cheap." The advertisement ended with some Latin words which we might translate, "Please do not pull down the advertisement." The first book that Caxton is known to have printed in England was called The Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers. This was also a translation from French, not, however, of Caxton's own writing. It was translated by Earl Rivers, who asked Caxton to revise it, which he did, adding a chapter and writing a prologue. To the people of Caxton's day printing seemed a marvelous thing. So marvelous did it seem that some of them thought it could only be done by the help of evil spirits. It is strange to think that in those days, when anything new and wonderful was discovered, people at once thought that it must be the work of evil spirits. That it might be the work of good spirits never seemed to occur to them. Printing, indeed, was a wonderful thing. For now, instead of taking weeks and months to make one copy of a book, a man could make dozens or even hundreds at once. And this made books so cheap that many more people could buy them, and so people were encouraged both to read and write. Instead of gathering together to hear one man read out of a book, each man could buy a copy for himself. At the end of one of his books Caxton begs folk to notice "that it is not written with pen and ink as other books be, to the end that every man may have them at once. For all the books of this story, called the Recuyell of the Histories of Troy thus imprinted as ye see here were begun on one day and also finished in one day." We who live in a world of books can hardly grasp what that meant to the people of Caxton's time. For fourteen years Caxton lived a busy life, translating, editing, and printing. Besides that he must have led a busy social life, for he was a favorite with Edward IV, and with his successors Richard III and Henry VII too. Great nobles visited his workshop, sent him gifts, and eagerly bought and read his books. The wealthy merchants, his old companions in trade, were glad still to claim him as a friend. Great ladies courted, flattered, and encouraged him. He married, too, and had children, though we known nothing of his home life. Altogether his days were full and busy, and we may believe that he was happy. But at length Caxton's useful, busy life came to an end. On the last day of it he was still translating a book from French. He finished it only a few hours before he died. We know this, although we do not know the exact date of his death. For his pupil and follower, who carried on his work afterwards, says on the title-page of this book that it was "finished at the last day of his life." Caxton was buried in the church near which he had worked—St. Margaret's, Westminster. He was laid to rest with some ceremony as a man of importance, for in the account-books of the parish we find these entries:— "At burying of William Caxton for four torches 6s. 8d. For the bell at same burying 6d." This was much more than was usually spent at the burial of ordinary people in those days. Among the many books which Caxton printed we must not forget Sir Thomas Malory's Morte d'Arthur, which we spoke of out of its place in following the story of Arthur in Chapter VIII. Perhaps you would like to turn back and read it over again now. As we have said, Caxton was not merely a printer. He was an author too. But although he translated books both from French and Dutch, it is perhaps to his delightful prefaces more than to anything else that he owes his title of author. Yet it must be owned that sometimes they are not all quite his own, but parts are taken wholesale from other men's works or are translated from the French. We are apt to look upon a preface as something dull which may be left unread. But when you come to read Caxton's books, you may perhaps like his prefaces as much as anything else about them. In one he tells of his difficulties about the language, because different people spoke it so differently. He tells how once he began to translate a book, but "when I saw the fair and strange terms therein, I doubted that it should not please some gentlemen which late blamed me, saying that in my translation I had over curious terms, which could not be understood by common people, and desired me to use old and homely terms in my translations. And fain would I satisfy every man. And so to do I took an old book and read therein, and certainly the English was so rude and broad that I could not well understand it. . . . And certainly our language now used varieth far from that which was used and spoken when I was born. . . . And that common English that is spoken in one shire varyeth from another. In-so-much that in my days it happened that certain merchants were in a ship in Thames, for to have sailed over the sea into Zealand. For lack of wind they tarried at Foreland, and went to land for to refresh them. "And one of them, named Sheffield, a mercer, came into a house and asked for meat. And especially he asked for eggs. And the good wife answered that she could speak no French. And the merchant was angry, for he also could speak no French, but would have had eggs, and she understood him not. "And then at last another said that he would have eyren. Then the good wife said that she understood him well. So what should a man in these days now write, eggs or eyren? Certainly it is hard to please every man by cause of diversity and change of language. . . . "And some honest and great clerks have been with me, and desired me to write the most curious terms that I could find. And thus between plain, rude, and curious I stand abashed. But in my judgement the common terms that be daily used, be lighter to be understood than the old and ancient English." In another book Caxton tells us that he knows his own "simpleness and unperfectness" in both French and English. "For in France was I never, and was born and learned my English in Kent, in the Weald, where I doubt not is spoken as broad and rude English as in any place in England." So you see our English was by no means yet settled. But printing, perhaps, did more than anything else to settle it. We know that Caxton printed at least one hundred and two editions of books. And you will be surprised to hear that of all these only two or three were books of poetry. Here we have a sure sign that the singing time was nearly over. I do not mean that we are to have no more singers, for most of our greatest are still to come. But from this time prose had shaken off its fetters. It was no longer to be used only for sermons, for prayers, for teaching. It was to take its place beside poetry as a means of enjoyment—as literature. Literature, then, was no longer the affair of the market-place and the banqueting-hall, but of a man's own fireside and quiet study. It was no longer the affair of the crowd, but of each man to himself alone. The chief poems which Caxton printed were Chaucer's. In one place he calls Chaucer "The worshipful father and first founder and embellisher of ornate eloquence in our English." Here, I think, he shows that he was trying to follow the advice of "those honest and great clerks" who told him he should write "the most curious terms" that he could find. But certainly he admired Chaucer very greatly. In the preface to his second edition of the Canterbury Tales he says, "Great thank, laud and honour ought to be given unto the clerks, poets" and others who have written "noble books." "Among whom especially before all others, we ought to give a singular laud unto that noble and great philosopher, Geoffrey Chaucer." Then Caxton goes on to tell us how hard he had found it to get a correct copy of Chaucer's poems, "For I find many of the said books which writers have abridged it, and many things left out: and in some places have set verses that he never made nor set in his book." This shows us how quickly stories became changed in the days when everything was copied by hand. When Caxton wrote these words Chaucer had not been dead more than about eighty years, yet already it was not easy to find a good copy of his works. And if stories changed, the language changed just as quickly. Caxton tells us that the language was changing so fast that he found it hard to read books written at the time he was born. His own language is very Frenchy, perhaps because he translated so many of his books from French. He not only uses words which are almost French, but arranges his sentences in a French manner. He often, too drops the e in the, just as in French the e or a in le and la is dropped before a vowel. This you will often find in old English books. "The abbey" becomes thabbay, "The English" thenglish. Caxton writes, too, thensygnementys for "the teaching." Here we have the dropped e and also the French word enseignement used instead of "teaching." But these were only last struggles of a foreign tongue. The triumphant English we now possess was already taking form. But it was not by printing alone that in the fifteenth century men's eyes were opened to new wonder. They were also opened to the wonder of new worlds far over the sea. For the fifteenth century was the age of discovery, and of all the world's first great sailors. It was the time when America and the western isles were discovered, when the Cape of Good Hope was first rounded, and the new way to India found. So with the whole world urged to action by the knowledge of these new lands, with imagination wakened by the tales of marvels to be seen there, with a new desire to see and do stirring in men's minds, it was not wonderful that there should be little new writing. The fifteenth century was the age of new action and new worlds. The new thought was to follow.	<urn:uuid:c9ebe15b-1008-45ee-b99e-0bcea3007ca8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/marshall/literature/redpale	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00147.warc.gz	en	0.993289	3,605	3.34375	3	[ -0.4002630114555359, 0.05834982544183731, 0.12182123214006424, 0.12882938981056213, 0.04316307604312897, -0.3343336582183838, -0.20292741060256958, 0.43992358446121216, 0.043708350509405136, 0.11597871780395508, -0.12331471592187881, -0.23821566998958588, -0.09199035912752151, 0.4558233022...	1	I F the fifteenth century has been called the Golden Age of Scottish poetry, it was also the dullest age in English literature. During the fifteenth century few books were written in England. One reason for this was that in England it was a time of foreign and of civil war. The century opened in war with Wales, it continued in war with France. Then for thirty years the wars of the Roses laid desolate the land. They ended at length in 1485 with Bosworth field, by which Henry VII became King. But in spite of all the wars and strife, the making of books did not quite cease. And if only a few books were written, it was because it was a time of rebirth and new life as well as a time of war and death. For it was in the fifteenth century that printing was discovered. Then it was that the listening time was really done. Men began to use their eyes rather than their ears. They saw as they had never before seen. Books began to grow many and cheap. More and more people learned to read, and this helped to settle our language into a form that was to last. French still, although it was no longer the language of the court or of the people, had an influence on our speech. People traveled little, and in different parts of the country different dialects, which were almost like different languages, were spoken. We have seen that the "Inglis" of Scotland differed from Chaucer's English, and the language of the north of England differed from it just as much. But when printed books increased in number quickly, when every man could see for himself what the printed words looked like, these differences began to die out. Then our English, as a literary language, was born. It was Caxton, you remember, who was the first English printer. We have already heard of him when following the Arthur story as the printer of Malory's Morte d'Arthur. But Caxton was not only a printer, he was author, editor, printer, publisher and bookseller all in one. William Caxton, as he himself tells us, was born in Kent in the Weald. But exactly where or when we do not know, although it may have been about the year 1420. Neither do we know who or what his father was. Some people think that he may have been a mercer or cloth merchant, because later Caxton was apprenticed to one of the richest cloth merchants of London. In those days no man was allowed to begin business for himself until he had served for a number of years as an apprentice. When he had served his time, and then only, was he admitted into the company and allowed to trade for himself. As the Mercers' Company was one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the merchant companies, they were very careful of whom they admitted as apprentices. Therefore it would seem that really Caxton's family was "of great repute of old, and genteel-like," as an old manuscript says. Caxton's master died before he had finished his apprenticeship, so he had to find a new master, and very soon he left England and went to Bruges. There he remained for thirty-five years. In those days there was much trade between England and Flanders (Belgium we now call the country) in wool and cloth, and there was a little colony of English merchants in Bruges. There Caxton steadily rose in importance until he became "Governor of the English Nation beyond the seas." As Governor he had great power, and ruled over his merchant adventurers as if he had been a king. But even with all his other work, with his trading and ruling to attend to, Caxton found time to read and write, and he began to translate from the French a book of stories called the Recuyell of the Histories of Troy. This is a book full of the stories of Greek heroes and of the ancient town of Troy. Caxton was not very well pleased with his work, however—he "fell into despair of it," he says—and for two years he put it aside and wrote no more. In 1468 Princess Margaret, the sister of King Edward IV, married the Duke of Burgundy and came to live in Flanders, for in those days Flanders was under the rule of the Dukes of Burgundy. Princess Margaret soon heard of the Englishman William Caxton who had made his home in Bruges. She liked him and encouraged him to go on with his writing, and after a time he gave up his post of Governor of the English and entered the service of the Princess. We do not know what post Caxton held in the household of the Princess, but it was one of honor we may feel sure. It was at the bidding of the Princess, whose "dreadful command I durst in no wise disobey," that Caxton finished the translation of his book of stories. And as at this time there were no stories written in English prose (poetry only being still used for stories), the book was a great success. The Duchess was delighted and rewarded Caxton well, and besides that so many other people wished to read it that he soon grew tired of making copies. It was then that he decided to learn the new and wonderful art of printing, which was already known in Flanders. So it came about that the first book ever printed in English was not printed in England, but somewhere on the continent. It was printed some time before 1477, perhaps in 1474. If in manuscript the book had been a success, it was now much more of one. And we may believe that it was this success that made Caxton leave Bruges and go home to England in order to begin life anew as a printer there. Many a time, as Governor of the English Nation over the seas, he had sent forth richly laden vessels. But had he known it, none was so richly laden as that which now sailed homeward bearing a printing-press. At Westminster, within the precincts of the Abbey, Caxton found a house and set up his printing-press. And there, not far from the great west door of the Abbey he, already an elderly man, began his new busy life. His house came to be known as the house of the Red Pale from the sign that he set up. It was probably a shield with a red line down the middle of it, called in heraldry a pale. And from here Caxton sent out the first printed advertisement known in England. "If it please any man spiritual or temporal," he says, to buy a certain book, "let him come to Westminster in to the Almonry at the Red Pale and he shall have them good cheap." The advertisement ended with some Latin words which we might translate, "Please do not pull down the advertisement." The first book that Caxton is known to have printed in England was called The Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers. This was also a translation from French, not, however, of Caxton's own writing. It was translated by Earl Rivers, who asked Caxton to revise it, which he did, adding a chapter and writing a prologue. To the people of Caxton's day printing seemed a marvelous thing. So marvelous did it seem that some of them thought it could only be done by the help of evil spirits. It is strange to think that in those days, when anything new and wonderful was discovered, people at once thought that it must be the work of evil spirits. That it might be the work of good spirits never seemed to occur to them. Printing, indeed, was a wonderful thing. For now, instead of taking weeks and months to make one copy of a book, a man could make dozens or even hundreds at once. And this made books so cheap that many more people could buy them, and so people were encouraged both to read and write. Instead of gathering together to hear one man read out of a book, each man could buy a copy for himself. At the end of one of his books Caxton begs folk to notice "that it is not written with pen and ink as other books be, to the end that every man may have them at once. For all the books of this story, called the Recuyell of the Histories of Troy thus imprinted as ye see here were begun on one day and also finished in one day." We who live in a world of books can hardly grasp what that meant to the people of Caxton's time. For fourteen years Caxton lived a busy life, translating, editing, and printing. Besides that he must have led a busy social life, for he was a favorite with Edward IV, and with his successors Richard III and Henry VII too. Great nobles visited his workshop, sent him gifts, and eagerly bought and read his books. The wealthy merchants, his old companions in trade, were glad still to claim him as a friend. Great ladies courted, flattered, and encouraged him. He married, too, and had children, though we known nothing of his home life. Altogether his days were full and busy, and we may believe that he was happy. But at length Caxton's useful, busy life came to an end. On the last day of it he was still translating a book from French. He finished it only a few hours before he died. We know this, although we do not know the exact date of his death. For his pupil and follower, who carried on his work afterwards, says on the title-page of this book that it was "finished at the last day of his life." Caxton was buried in the church near which he had worked—St. Margaret's, Westminster. He was laid to rest with some ceremony as a man of importance, for in the account-books of the parish we find these entries:— "At burying of William Caxton for four torches 6s. 8d. For the bell at same burying 6d." This was much more than was usually spent at the burial of ordinary people in those days. Among the many books which Caxton printed we must not forget Sir Thomas Malory's Morte d'Arthur, which we spoke of out of its place in following the story of Arthur in Chapter VIII. Perhaps you would like to turn back and read it over again now. As we have said, Caxton was not merely a printer. He was an author too. But although he translated books both from French and Dutch, it is perhaps to his delightful prefaces more than to anything else that he owes his title of author. Yet it must be owned that sometimes they are not all quite his own, but parts are taken wholesale from other men's works or are translated from the French. We are apt to look upon a preface as something dull which may be left unread. But when you come to read Caxton's books, you may perhaps like his prefaces as much as anything else about them. In one he tells of his difficulties about the language, because different people spoke it so differently. He tells how once he began to translate a book, but "when I saw the fair and strange terms therein, I doubted that it should not please some gentlemen which late blamed me, saying that in my translation I had over curious terms, which could not be understood by common people, and desired me to use old and homely terms in my translations. And fain would I satisfy every man. And so to do I took an old book and read therein, and certainly the English was so rude and broad that I could not well understand it. . . . And certainly our language now used varieth far from that which was used and spoken when I was born. . . . And that common English that is spoken in one shire varyeth from another. In-so-much that in my days it happened that certain merchants were in a ship in Thames, for to have sailed over the sea into Zealand. For lack of wind they tarried at Foreland, and went to land for to refresh them. "And one of them, named Sheffield, a mercer, came into a house and asked for meat. And especially he asked for eggs. And the good wife answered that she could speak no French. And the merchant was angry, for he also could speak no French, but would have had eggs, and she understood him not. "And then at last another said that he would have eyren. Then the good wife said that she understood him well. So what should a man in these days now write, eggs or eyren? Certainly it is hard to please every man by cause of diversity and change of language. . . . "And some honest and great clerks have been with me, and desired me to write the most curious terms that I could find. And thus between plain, rude, and curious I stand abashed. But in my judgement the common terms that be daily used, be lighter to be understood than the old and ancient English." In another book Caxton tells us that he knows his own "simpleness and unperfectness" in both French and English. "For in France was I never, and was born and learned my English in Kent, in the Weald, where I doubt not is spoken as broad and rude English as in any place in England." So you see our English was by no means yet settled. But printing, perhaps, did more than anything else to settle it. We know that Caxton printed at least one hundred and two editions of books. And you will be surprised to hear that of all these only two or three were books of poetry. Here we have a sure sign that the singing time was nearly over. I do not mean that we are to have no more singers, for most of our greatest are still to come. But from this time prose had shaken off its fetters. It was no longer to be used only for sermons, for prayers, for teaching. It was to take its place beside poetry as a means of enjoyment—as literature. Literature, then, was no longer the affair of the market-place and the banqueting-hall, but of a man's own fireside and quiet study. It was no longer the affair of the crowd, but of each man to himself alone. The chief poems which Caxton printed were Chaucer's. In one place he calls Chaucer "The worshipful father and first founder and embellisher of ornate eloquence in our English." Here, I think, he shows that he was trying to follow the advice of "those honest and great clerks" who told him he should write "the most curious terms" that he could find. But certainly he admired Chaucer very greatly. In the preface to his second edition of the Canterbury Tales he says, "Great thank, laud and honour ought to be given unto the clerks, poets" and others who have written "noble books." "Among whom especially before all others, we ought to give a singular laud unto that noble and great philosopher, Geoffrey Chaucer." Then Caxton goes on to tell us how hard he had found it to get a correct copy of Chaucer's poems, "For I find many of the said books which writers have abridged it, and many things left out: and in some places have set verses that he never made nor set in his book." This shows us how quickly stories became changed in the days when everything was copied by hand. When Caxton wrote these words Chaucer had not been dead more than about eighty years, yet already it was not easy to find a good copy of his works. And if stories changed, the language changed just as quickly. Caxton tells us that the language was changing so fast that he found it hard to read books written at the time he was born. His own language is very Frenchy, perhaps because he translated so many of his books from French. He not only uses words which are almost French, but arranges his sentences in a French manner. He often, too drops the e in the, just as in French the e or a in le and la is dropped before a vowel. This you will often find in old English books. "The abbey" becomes thabbay, "The English" thenglish. Caxton writes, too, thensygnementys for "the teaching." Here we have the dropped e and also the French word enseignement used instead of "teaching." But these were only last struggles of a foreign tongue. The triumphant English we now possess was already taking form. But it was not by printing alone that in the fifteenth century men's eyes were opened to new wonder. They were also opened to the wonder of new worlds far over the sea. For the fifteenth century was the age of discovery, and of all the world's first great sailors. It was the time when America and the western isles were discovered, when the Cape of Good Hope was first rounded, and the new way to India found. So with the whole world urged to action by the knowledge of these new lands, with imagination wakened by the tales of marvels to be seen there, with a new desire to see and do stirring in men's minds, it was not wonderful that there should be little new writing. The fifteenth century was the age of new action and new worlds. The new thought was to follow.	3,620	ENGLISH	1
The Commonwealth Period comes near the end of the English hammered period. That makes Commonwealth hammered coins doubly interesting as they reached their peak for quality at a time when milling was seriously seen as a competitive technology. Using the hammer had two major advantages - high speed and low cost - both factors dictated that the mint would find it difficult to implement the mill. There was one downside cost which was due to the number of dies which had to be made to sustain production. Typically a halfcrown size die might last on average for 8,000 strikings. With care more with abuse less. On the other hand low quality hammered coins from the mint allowed forgers to make counterfeit coins, mainly the halfcrown. The forgers piece was usually under weight and very badly double struck to the point where it made reading details very difficult. The response of the mint was to include subtle changes to the design of both the reverse and the obverse so that a genuine piece was obvious if the observer knew the changes for each year. The forger never matched these changes for his was made using an early Commonwealth piece as his master copy and his changes were often limited to the date. Civil War hoards reveal that only the halfcrown, shilling and sixpence were in daily use in the street with merchants. The gold unite, double crown, gold crown and silver crown have so far not been found hidden away. It appears their production was not for common use but maybe instead for trade which lead to the weight of gold or silver in these coins needing to be carefully controlled to the correct weights and metal purity.Their overall quality is much superior to the low denomination silver in everyday use.	<urn:uuid:89befc13-f042-4fbb-9dab-330083039015>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://cromwellcoins.com/html/hammered.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00230.warc.gz	en	0.98594	340	3.546875	4	[ -0.3973480463027954, 0.011685015633702278, 0.22328141331672668, 0.03981730341911316, -0.04454540088772774, -0.16085663437843323, -0.047951605170965195, 0.2995440661907196, -0.46635571122169495, 0.037638142704963684, 0.0019521835492923856, -0.2254248708486557, 0.037449855357408524, 0.017496...	2	The Commonwealth Period comes near the end of the English hammered period. That makes Commonwealth hammered coins doubly interesting as they reached their peak for quality at a time when milling was seriously seen as a competitive technology. Using the hammer had two major advantages - high speed and low cost - both factors dictated that the mint would find it difficult to implement the mill. There was one downside cost which was due to the number of dies which had to be made to sustain production. Typically a halfcrown size die might last on average for 8,000 strikings. With care more with abuse less. On the other hand low quality hammered coins from the mint allowed forgers to make counterfeit coins, mainly the halfcrown. The forgers piece was usually under weight and very badly double struck to the point where it made reading details very difficult. The response of the mint was to include subtle changes to the design of both the reverse and the obverse so that a genuine piece was obvious if the observer knew the changes for each year. The forger never matched these changes for his was made using an early Commonwealth piece as his master copy and his changes were often limited to the date. Civil War hoards reveal that only the halfcrown, shilling and sixpence were in daily use in the street with merchants. The gold unite, double crown, gold crown and silver crown have so far not been found hidden away. It appears their production was not for common use but maybe instead for trade which lead to the weight of gold or silver in these coins needing to be carefully controlled to the correct weights and metal purity.Their overall quality is much superior to the low denomination silver in everyday use.	340	ENGLISH	1
The Roman historian Livy (about 59 BC - AD 17) mentions that before the invention of silver coinage, when money consisted of 'heavy bronze', wealthy Romans of the fourth century BC transported their money from one place to another in wagons. The 'heavy bronze' took the form of cast ingots weighing about 1600 grams (around 5 Roman pounds). They had a variety of designs on either side. They seem to have been used as a means of making official payments, such as taxes or judicial fines. Their value was used as a unit to assess a citizen's wealth.The ingots were no longer made after the mid-third century BC, when the Romans moved over entirely to silver coins. But bronze remained important within the Roman monetary system. The Latin word for bronze, aes, was the colloquial word for money.The elephant design on this example was probably inspired by the war-elephants in the army of the Greek king Pyrrhus who invaded Italy and attacked the Romans in 280 BC. This was the first time the Roman army had ever faced elephants in battle. Pyrrhus defeated the Romans twice, but he lost so many of his own men in the process that he eventually lost the war, hence the phrase a 'Pyrrhic victory'. The pig on the other side may refer to a bizarre occasion when, in one of the battles, Pyrrhus' elephants were frightened away by the grunting of pigs kept by the Roman army.	<urn:uuid:79ef1f61-45c1-4e77-9ac9-f399d9be9c76>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/aes-signatum-or-money-ingot/TwEWNY91AjxxAA	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00372.warc.gz	en	0.98334	300	4.03125	4	[ -0.41409966349601746, 0.24990156292915344, 0.4677188992500305, 0.28367850184440613, -0.3067057132720947, -0.19251498579978943, 0.08942656219005585, -0.02515162155032158, -0.09630877524614334, -0.04242542386054993, -0.05310533568263054, -0.5275760889053345, 0.011563963256776333, 0.306945145...	2	The Roman historian Livy (about 59 BC - AD 17) mentions that before the invention of silver coinage, when money consisted of 'heavy bronze', wealthy Romans of the fourth century BC transported their money from one place to another in wagons. The 'heavy bronze' took the form of cast ingots weighing about 1600 grams (around 5 Roman pounds). They had a variety of designs on either side. They seem to have been used as a means of making official payments, such as taxes or judicial fines. Their value was used as a unit to assess a citizen's wealth.The ingots were no longer made after the mid-third century BC, when the Romans moved over entirely to silver coins. But bronze remained important within the Roman monetary system. The Latin word for bronze, aes, was the colloquial word for money.The elephant design on this example was probably inspired by the war-elephants in the army of the Greek king Pyrrhus who invaded Italy and attacked the Romans in 280 BC. This was the first time the Roman army had ever faced elephants in battle. Pyrrhus defeated the Romans twice, but he lost so many of his own men in the process that he eventually lost the war, hence the phrase a 'Pyrrhic victory'. The pig on the other side may refer to a bizarre occasion when, in one of the battles, Pyrrhus' elephants were frightened away by the grunting of pigs kept by the Roman army.	306	ENGLISH	1
In this day and age, a woman never wonders why she is able to vote, be elected to public office and hold the rights that she has today. She never realizes that the opportunities she has were once forbidden and furiously fought over in the 1800's. Furthermore, does one ever contemplate the harsh treatment of individuals in slavery taking place during this time? Living in modern-day America, it is difficult to imagine all this was occurring considering that now, everyone is free. But everyone must realize that "Freedom is not free." It took years to acquire women's rights and emancipation, among many other things. In order to provide liberty to every slave and woman deprived of her rights, people have had to step up and initiate action. Many people have died for what they believed in to make others understand how terribly they want the people of our generation to have what they did not. Among all of these people, one woman stands out like black print on white paper. This woman was not afraid to speak her mind and let her thoughts be known to everyone. She, along with others, led a society through a journey of truth. No other woman would fit this description except Sojourner Truth. Born into a family of slaves, one would never even think about the better lives that they may have had otherwise. In 1787, there were already 700,000 slaves in the US and the number continued to increase. (Franklin 33) Sojourner Truth was born a slave somewhere around 1797 in New York and after trying to escape several times, was set free July 4th 1827. (Russell 79) Like many others, she realized there was a better life ahead of her without being in bondage. . As early as 1815, there were organized efforts toward aiding fugitives in direct violation of state and federal laws. By 1817, Kentucky slaveholders were protesting over the escape of their slaves in appreciable numbers into Ohio and other free states.	<urn:uuid:eb949338-5ced-4605-8ad5-783a38ffd4c4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/80316.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00324.warc.gz	en	0.990925	396	3.84375	4	[ -0.40144652128219604, 0.0525469146668911, 0.039882414042949677, -0.0026239892467856407, -0.39309075474739075, 0.11239007115364075, 0.1701316386461258, -0.08144359290599823, 0.05395754054188728, 0.2619874179363251, 0.41745033860206604, 0.2687191665172577, -0.3834562301635742, 0.021637810394...	4	In this day and age, a woman never wonders why she is able to vote, be elected to public office and hold the rights that she has today. She never realizes that the opportunities she has were once forbidden and furiously fought over in the 1800's. Furthermore, does one ever contemplate the harsh treatment of individuals in slavery taking place during this time? Living in modern-day America, it is difficult to imagine all this was occurring considering that now, everyone is free. But everyone must realize that "Freedom is not free." It took years to acquire women's rights and emancipation, among many other things. In order to provide liberty to every slave and woman deprived of her rights, people have had to step up and initiate action. Many people have died for what they believed in to make others understand how terribly they want the people of our generation to have what they did not. Among all of these people, one woman stands out like black print on white paper. This woman was not afraid to speak her mind and let her thoughts be known to everyone. She, along with others, led a society through a journey of truth. No other woman would fit this description except Sojourner Truth. Born into a family of slaves, one would never even think about the better lives that they may have had otherwise. In 1787, there were already 700,000 slaves in the US and the number continued to increase. (Franklin 33) Sojourner Truth was born a slave somewhere around 1797 in New York and after trying to escape several times, was set free July 4th 1827. (Russell 79) Like many others, she realized there was a better life ahead of her without being in bondage. . As early as 1815, there were organized efforts toward aiding fugitives in direct violation of state and federal laws. By 1817, Kentucky slaveholders were protesting over the escape of their slaves in appreciable numbers into Ohio and other free states.	423	ENGLISH	1
Ever since the day the South surrendered to the North in May of 1865, Americans have argued on why the South lost. Others argued that the South never had chance to win the war, yet more than half a million people were killed, homes were lost and destroyed and families were torn apart. There are many theories to explain this, many arguing that the South never had a chance to win the Civil War to begin with, for the North out numbered and had better resources than the South at almost every point, militarily. Industrially the South couldn’t keep up in output of weapons, ammunition and other supplies. That is one of the main reasons the South looked overseas for help. Jefferson Davis knew that the South was at a disadvantage so he looked to England and France. By the end of the war, the South had, more or less, plenty of weaponry still, but it just didn’t have enough men to use the guns. By getting either England or France on the Confederate side, supplies would have been more plentiful and also it would have inevitably ended up doing great damage economically to England’s maritime trade. However, the fact remained that foreign recognition was denied to the Confederacy in all its attempts. Another reason the South well fell short of a victory was the obvious difference in population between the South and the North. The North at the time had twenty-two million men while the South had a meager nine-and-a-half million, of whom three-and-a-half million were slaves. While the slaves could be used to support the war effort through work on the plantations, in industries and as teamsters and pioneers with the army, they were not used as a combat arm in the war to any extent. This cuts the South’s manpower by a third, leaving a fifteen-and-a-half million difference in the population of the two areas. Give the South fifteen-and-a-half million more possible soldiers, and the outcome would have been different. The right military strategy is the key to a war. In order for the South to win the war, they would have needed to apply what is now called a blitzkrieg strategy. This would have been a quick decisive attack on the North to follow up its early victories of Manassas in the East and at Wilson’s Creek and Lexington in the West. However, the South employed a strategy that employed fighting in defense of their homeland. When moral was high in the South in 1861, it lacked the wherewithal and the resolution to follow up on its early victories, possibly with the reward of a quick end to the Civil War. The obvious differences of the population of the two sides along with the lack of industrial resources in the South and the poor selection of an intelligent military strategy all thwarted the south in the Civil War. The South obviously never had a chance to win the war, they merely dragged it out for four long years at the cost of approximately 620,000 men.	<urn:uuid:06576ce4-079e-422f-823f-5cfae7e0f506>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essay.ua-referat.com/Why_The_South_Could_Not_Win_The	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00277.warc.gz	en	0.98377	610	3.765625	4	[ -0.34749963879585266, 0.14055630564689636, -0.023375634104013443, -0.2950046956539154, 0.217840313911438, -0.018998268991708755, -0.04891614243388176, 0.08940631151199341, -0.09366422891616821, -0.11016645282506943, 0.21483176946640015, 0.1411554217338562, 0.313608318567276, 0.378373384475...	2	Ever since the day the South surrendered to the North in May of 1865, Americans have argued on why the South lost. Others argued that the South never had chance to win the war, yet more than half a million people were killed, homes were lost and destroyed and families were torn apart. There are many theories to explain this, many arguing that the South never had a chance to win the Civil War to begin with, for the North out numbered and had better resources than the South at almost every point, militarily. Industrially the South couldn’t keep up in output of weapons, ammunition and other supplies. That is one of the main reasons the South looked overseas for help. Jefferson Davis knew that the South was at a disadvantage so he looked to England and France. By the end of the war, the South had, more or less, plenty of weaponry still, but it just didn’t have enough men to use the guns. By getting either England or France on the Confederate side, supplies would have been more plentiful and also it would have inevitably ended up doing great damage economically to England’s maritime trade. However, the fact remained that foreign recognition was denied to the Confederacy in all its attempts. Another reason the South well fell short of a victory was the obvious difference in population between the South and the North. The North at the time had twenty-two million men while the South had a meager nine-and-a-half million, of whom three-and-a-half million were slaves. While the slaves could be used to support the war effort through work on the plantations, in industries and as teamsters and pioneers with the army, they were not used as a combat arm in the war to any extent. This cuts the South’s manpower by a third, leaving a fifteen-and-a-half million difference in the population of the two areas. Give the South fifteen-and-a-half million more possible soldiers, and the outcome would have been different. The right military strategy is the key to a war. In order for the South to win the war, they would have needed to apply what is now called a blitzkrieg strategy. This would have been a quick decisive attack on the North to follow up its early victories of Manassas in the East and at Wilson’s Creek and Lexington in the West. However, the South employed a strategy that employed fighting in defense of their homeland. When moral was high in the South in 1861, it lacked the wherewithal and the resolution to follow up on its early victories, possibly with the reward of a quick end to the Civil War. The obvious differences of the population of the two sides along with the lack of industrial resources in the South and the poor selection of an intelligent military strategy all thwarted the south in the Civil War. The South obviously never had a chance to win the war, they merely dragged it out for four long years at the cost of approximately 620,000 men.	602	ENGLISH	1
Published on June 24th, 2015 \| by Sarah Jubb Bloody Mary And The Virgin Queen The reign of the Tudor men was officially over and the removal of Lady Jane Grey from the throne meant that the latter half of the 16th century was ruled by the Tudor Queens. After centuries of being ruled by kings, England had its first queen regnant in Queen Mary whose reign was filled with infamy. Queen Mary I Mary was the daughter, and only living child, of Henry VIII and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Despite her father splitting from the Roman Catholic Church, she retained her Catholic beliefs. Due to her being older than her half sister, Elizabeth, Mary was the next in line to inherit the throne after Edward VI. As seen in our previous article, Edward was staunchly Protestant and sought to see England become a Protestant state. Due to their differing beliefs, he and Mary were repeatedly at odds as Mary refused to give up her Catholic beliefs. To prevent Mary taking the throne and bringing back Catholicism, Edward sought the Succession Act that excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the line of succession. As a result, Lady Jane Grey inherited the throne upon Edward’s death in 1553, but support for Mary had risen and only days later Jane was deposed and Mary was placed onto the throne. In 1554 Queen Mary married Prince Philip of Spain, the son of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Mary’s fervent belief in Catholicism saw her reinstate Roman Catholic bishops as well as reviving laws against heresy. These laws saw hundreds of Protestants executed for their religious beliefs over the next three years, including many being burnt at the stake. This ruthless determination to convert the country back to Catholicism gave rise to the nickname ‘Bloody Mary’ in later years. It also resulted in Mary’s support falling drastically in England as people became disillusioned with her and which gave rise to anti-Catholic feelings. The executed Protestants also became martyrs, showing their willingness to die for their religion. This feeling of unhappiness with Mary was only exacerbated when her husband, the already unpopular Philip, dragged England into a war with France. The Downfall of a Queen The final straw for the English though was in 1558 when France took Calais, an English holding that had remained in English hands for centuries. This loss resulted in even further unhappiness with the Queen as Calais had been the final holding England had on the mainland. By 1558 Mary was still childless, despite her desperate wishes to produce an heir that would keep her Protestant sister, Elizabeth, from the throne. She had wanted to ensure that England would remain Catholic, but she died without an heir at St James’s Palace in 1558. As such, the crown passed to Elizabeth, leaving England in Protestant hands once more. Queen Elizabeth I The last monarch of the Tudor dynasty was Queen Elizabeth I who ascended to the throne in 1558 after her half-sisters death. Unlike her sister, Elizabeth’s reign was far more subdued and she sought to create a more Protestant England without offending the Catholics. This saw the formation of the Church of England with Elizabeth as the head. She became famous for not marrying and producing an heir, giving her the nickname ‘The Virgin Queen’. Despite receiving many offers of marriage from both domestic and foreign suitors, she remained unmarried until her death. Defeating the Armada It was under Elizabeth that England employed a defensive foreign policy that saw the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Philip, her half-sister’s husband when she had been alive, had decided to bring war to England with an armada of over a hundred Spanish ships. His plan failed however with English and Dutch ships driving the Armada back after the Battle of Gravelines. This, combined with North Atlantic storms, meant the Armada limped back to Spain with only a third of the ships that set out. As well this, England began to look beyond Europe with Sir Francis Drake’s circumnavigation of the glove from 1577 to 1680 and other influential people such as Walter Raleigh who helped to colonise the Americas. This was the beginning of the age of colonisation for England, which would eventually lead to the largest Empire ever seen. Elizabeth eventually died in 1603, leaving no heirs to succeed her to the throne. She was mourned extensively as she had been a very popular monarch in her earlier years and was eventually interred in Westminster Abbey in a tomb with her half-sister, Mary. Her death without an heir led to the end of the Tudor dynasty and resulted in James VI of Scotland becoming king.	<urn:uuid:31ddaa8d-471e-4228-a2e2-9d225deeec4d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blog.postofficeshop.co.uk/bloody-mary-and-the-virgin-queen/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00120.warc.gz	en	0.984903	965	3.421875	3	[ -0.12088092416524887, 0.46637406945228577, 0.4497198760509491, -0.22178369760513306, -0.17162185907363892, 0.03917635977268219, -0.20855353772640228, -0.015403136610984802, 0.8817984461784363, 0.2506779432296753, -0.5456928014755249, -0.4559749960899353, -0.2257281243801117, 0.172350436449...	3	Published on June 24th, 2015 \| by Sarah Jubb Bloody Mary And The Virgin Queen The reign of the Tudor men was officially over and the removal of Lady Jane Grey from the throne meant that the latter half of the 16th century was ruled by the Tudor Queens. After centuries of being ruled by kings, England had its first queen regnant in Queen Mary whose reign was filled with infamy. Queen Mary I Mary was the daughter, and only living child, of Henry VIII and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Despite her father splitting from the Roman Catholic Church, she retained her Catholic beliefs. Due to her being older than her half sister, Elizabeth, Mary was the next in line to inherit the throne after Edward VI. As seen in our previous article, Edward was staunchly Protestant and sought to see England become a Protestant state. Due to their differing beliefs, he and Mary were repeatedly at odds as Mary refused to give up her Catholic beliefs. To prevent Mary taking the throne and bringing back Catholicism, Edward sought the Succession Act that excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the line of succession. As a result, Lady Jane Grey inherited the throne upon Edward’s death in 1553, but support for Mary had risen and only days later Jane was deposed and Mary was placed onto the throne. In 1554 Queen Mary married Prince Philip of Spain, the son of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Mary’s fervent belief in Catholicism saw her reinstate Roman Catholic bishops as well as reviving laws against heresy. These laws saw hundreds of Protestants executed for their religious beliefs over the next three years, including many being burnt at the stake. This ruthless determination to convert the country back to Catholicism gave rise to the nickname ‘Bloody Mary’ in later years. It also resulted in Mary’s support falling drastically in England as people became disillusioned with her and which gave rise to anti-Catholic feelings. The executed Protestants also became martyrs, showing their willingness to die for their religion. This feeling of unhappiness with Mary was only exacerbated when her husband, the already unpopular Philip, dragged England into a war with France. The Downfall of a Queen The final straw for the English though was in 1558 when France took Calais, an English holding that had remained in English hands for centuries. This loss resulted in even further unhappiness with the Queen as Calais had been the final holding England had on the mainland. By 1558 Mary was still childless, despite her desperate wishes to produce an heir that would keep her Protestant sister, Elizabeth, from the throne. She had wanted to ensure that England would remain Catholic, but she died without an heir at St James’s Palace in 1558. As such, the crown passed to Elizabeth, leaving England in Protestant hands once more. Queen Elizabeth I The last monarch of the Tudor dynasty was Queen Elizabeth I who ascended to the throne in 1558 after her half-sisters death. Unlike her sister, Elizabeth’s reign was far more subdued and she sought to create a more Protestant England without offending the Catholics. This saw the formation of the Church of England with Elizabeth as the head. She became famous for not marrying and producing an heir, giving her the nickname ‘The Virgin Queen’. Despite receiving many offers of marriage from both domestic and foreign suitors, she remained unmarried until her death. Defeating the Armada It was under Elizabeth that England employed a defensive foreign policy that saw the defeat of the Spanish Armada. Philip, her half-sister’s husband when she had been alive, had decided to bring war to England with an armada of over a hundred Spanish ships. His plan failed however with English and Dutch ships driving the Armada back after the Battle of Gravelines. This, combined with North Atlantic storms, meant the Armada limped back to Spain with only a third of the ships that set out. As well this, England began to look beyond Europe with Sir Francis Drake’s circumnavigation of the glove from 1577 to 1680 and other influential people such as Walter Raleigh who helped to colonise the Americas. This was the beginning of the age of colonisation for England, which would eventually lead to the largest Empire ever seen. Elizabeth eventually died in 1603, leaving no heirs to succeed her to the throne. She was mourned extensively as she had been a very popular monarch in her earlier years and was eventually interred in Westminster Abbey in a tomb with her half-sister, Mary. Her death without an heir led to the end of the Tudor dynasty and resulted in James VI of Scotland becoming king.	973	ENGLISH	1
A crucial factor in the migration of the Jamestown colony was the discovery of tobacco’s successful growth in the Chesapeake soil. Francis Drake’s heavy load of “jovial weed” procured in the West Indies in 1586, popularized it among the upper class and launched an addiction that still continues to this very day. James I denouncing on the effects of smoking failed to stop the smoking craze, as he had described it as “loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain, and dangerous to the lungs.” This had become Virginia’s salvation. The first shipment of this crop, by the planters, was in 1617; tobacco cultivation spread rapidly. Tobacco brought a surplus amount of profit which even enabled the planting in the streets and martketplaces of Jamestown. By 1624, 200,000 pounds had been exported, but by 1638, although the price of this crop had skyrocketed, it had exceeded 3 million pounds. Tobacco had become to Virginia in the 1620s what sugar was to the West Indies and silver to the Mexico and Peru. Due to the fact that tobacco required intensive care, cheap labor was found. The planters found it by recruiting a majority of English and Irish laborers with others from Spain, Germany, Portugal, Turkey, and Poland. They had come as indentured servants; they were willingly selling part of their working lives in exchange for the free passage to America. Four of every five immigrants were indentured. Nearly 75% of them were male, around the age of 15-25 years old. A majority of the immigrants were from the armies of the unemployed, while others were orphans, political prisoners, or convicts who had escaped from their execution. Some were even younger sons who were unlikely to inherit a father’s farm or shop, or even men fleeing an unfortunate marriage of theirs. Others were simply drawn by the prospect of adventure. Overwhelmingly, the indentured servants had come from the lower rungs of the social ladder at home. The life of an indentured servant often turned into a horrible nightmare, as only about one 5% had realized the dream of freedom and land. If malarial fever was not the case of their swift deaths, the cruel work routines had them deceased sooner or later. Half had died during the first couple years of “seasoning.” Their master had purchased and dealt their servants as property, gambled for them, and had maxed them out till their deaths; there was no other reason for their existence other than the use of labor. When servants were near the end of their labor contract, masters had always found ways to add time and were backed by courts that they had controlled. Contrary to the English custom, female servants were also used for labor. Sexual abuse was ordinary, as women had to pay a great amount for illegitimate pregnancies. They were fined heavily by the courts and were ordered to serve extra years to repay the time lost during their unplanned pregnancies and births of the child. The children had been seized from them, therefore, at an early age, they had been indentured. Marriage was the chief release of this life of tough labor. Many had accepted the purchases of their indentures by any man who had suggested marriage. The American People, Creating a Nation and a Society	<urn:uuid:c33a5b2d-63fd-4649-b5f9-08f1e2575cf6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studymode.com/essays/Did-Tobacco-Provide-The-Salvation-For-63691954.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00366.warc.gz	en	0.993224	685	4	4	[ -0.1676870435476303, 0.2102765142917633, 0.4206724166870117, -0.25368350744247437, 0.5087478160858154, 0.04296713322401047, 0.2184494137763977, 0.038316138088703156, -0.36966800689697266, 0.4781351089477539, -0.28944146633148193, -0.2804519832134247, -0.057471394538879395, 0.34138900041580...	1	A crucial factor in the migration of the Jamestown colony was the discovery of tobacco’s successful growth in the Chesapeake soil. Francis Drake’s heavy load of “jovial weed” procured in the West Indies in 1586, popularized it among the upper class and launched an addiction that still continues to this very day. James I denouncing on the effects of smoking failed to stop the smoking craze, as he had described it as “loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain, and dangerous to the lungs.” This had become Virginia’s salvation. The first shipment of this crop, by the planters, was in 1617; tobacco cultivation spread rapidly. Tobacco brought a surplus amount of profit which even enabled the planting in the streets and martketplaces of Jamestown. By 1624, 200,000 pounds had been exported, but by 1638, although the price of this crop had skyrocketed, it had exceeded 3 million pounds. Tobacco had become to Virginia in the 1620s what sugar was to the West Indies and silver to the Mexico and Peru. Due to the fact that tobacco required intensive care, cheap labor was found. The planters found it by recruiting a majority of English and Irish laborers with others from Spain, Germany, Portugal, Turkey, and Poland. They had come as indentured servants; they were willingly selling part of their working lives in exchange for the free passage to America. Four of every five immigrants were indentured. Nearly 75% of them were male, around the age of 15-25 years old. A majority of the immigrants were from the armies of the unemployed, while others were orphans, political prisoners, or convicts who had escaped from their execution. Some were even younger sons who were unlikely to inherit a father’s farm or shop, or even men fleeing an unfortunate marriage of theirs. Others were simply drawn by the prospect of adventure. Overwhelmingly, the indentured servants had come from the lower rungs of the social ladder at home. The life of an indentured servant often turned into a horrible nightmare, as only about one 5% had realized the dream of freedom and land. If malarial fever was not the case of their swift deaths, the cruel work routines had them deceased sooner or later. Half had died during the first couple years of “seasoning.” Their master had purchased and dealt their servants as property, gambled for them, and had maxed them out till their deaths; there was no other reason for their existence other than the use of labor. When servants were near the end of their labor contract, masters had always found ways to add time and were backed by courts that they had controlled. Contrary to the English custom, female servants were also used for labor. Sexual abuse was ordinary, as women had to pay a great amount for illegitimate pregnancies. They were fined heavily by the courts and were ordered to serve extra years to repay the time lost during their unplanned pregnancies and births of the child. The children had been seized from them, therefore, at an early age, they had been indentured. Marriage was the chief release of this life of tough labor. Many had accepted the purchases of their indentures by any man who had suggested marriage. The American People, Creating a Nation and a Society	699	ENGLISH	1
To begin with, all three philosophers have their unique outlook about law and justice. Their ideas and main beliefs was reflected by the time period they were in. Most of the beliefs and law was based upon how the generation currently was when each philosopher was alive. If each philosopher were to look at how the law and justice has changed either in the past or the future, I feel as if they would understand the current law based upon how the generation and society has changed through time. Socrates cared about he well- being of the society and impact others in a valueale way. Socrates would agree with Thomas Hobbes view towards law and justice because he was also dedicated to make decisions beneficial to others. Socrates had discovered that the human choice was mainly looked upon the desire for happiness, the government then took upon themselves to work best with individuals who had a greater understanding/ knowledge, greatest ability, and a higher understanding of themselves. Thomas Hobbes cared about the well-being of others, he viewed on how humans could succeed together while avoiding the fear of unwanted conflicts and social disagreements. Socrates and Thomas Hobbes had very similar beliefs and ideas, they would view each similarly and agree upon the ideas and laws they have conducted for the better of society. Socrates would look at John Rawls the same way because he had the same idea and belief for the society. John Rawls theory of justice as fairness explained the public of free citizens holding equal basic rights and collaboration within an egalitarian economic system. He had four political philosophy political philosophy’s first goal was to have an agreement within the society where sharp divisions threaten to lead to conflict, helping citizens to position themselves within their own society, to explore beyond their limits of possible political possibility. Political philosophy must describe achievable political arrangements that can gain support from individuals within the society, “to calm our frustration and rage against our society and its history by showing us the way in which its institutions… are rational, and developed over time as they did to attain their present, rational form”(JF,3). Socrates would agree upon adding these into the law if he were to have the similar idea generations before. Thomas Hobbes would agree upon Socrates decisions towards law and justice. They knew their purpose and objective for the better of society. Socrates would go to classrooms gathering others opinion about political and ethical truths. Even if he were to disagree with a fact he knew about, he would listen and he was also claimed to be ignorant because he had no ideas, but since Thomas Hobbes had already had a better understanding of others, they had both put their knowledge into law creating it peaceful and agreeable. A few of Thomas Hobbes ideas had to do with an individual’s rights, importance of republican government, and the thought that acts are allowed if they aren’t expressly disallowed, which would be highly approved by Socrates. Thomas Hobbes and John Rawls had a similar point of view towards law, justice, and their beliefs. Thomas Hobbes would use and expand upon the four political phiosopsy’s by John Rawls. John Rawls theory of justice as fairness explained the public of free citizens holding equal basic rights and collaboration within an egalitarian economic system. John Rawls had a simpler if not the same understanding as Socrates and Thomas Hobbes. They viewed society and individuals as their main goal and seeked their desire to happiness and beneficial for society. They did not take power for granted but instead took the power to create a society with agreements and wellbeing of others. They created many laws that had to do with raising money for army, individual freedoms, and and fairness. SOcirated and Thomas Hobbes would agree upon the slight changes made with the different generation but overall many rules remained the same. There are many organizations and laws for armies, which was one of Thomas Hobbes main objective. Many laws have formed themselves to where they will please the society’s needs which is referred to Socrates objective. Moving on, Socrates would be surprised with the changes made to the Canadian Law system. During his time period, women equality, same sex marriage, and rights to culture was not a presented as a problem.. SInce the Canadian Law system has had a dramatic change, SOcrates would see many changes to make. SInce marijuana is being legalized very soon, he would disagree with that. Socrates believed that philosophy would be beneficial and achieve the greater good for the well- being of society. He believed that, any decision made and said should benefit and impact the society in a useful and valuable way. He would not see any benefits in legalizing a drug which can be easily used to younger individuals. Thomas Hobbes would also be concerned with the law currently. He would also be concerned about the same sex marriage since in the past no one imagined being with someone besides the opposite sex, but he would not want to not have it is a law because his main goal was to have happiness within the society. He would also agree with SOcrates about the legalization of marijuana because he will see no benefits with legalizing a drug that would just cause more problems within the society, like driving while high since drinking and driving is still one of the biggest causes of accidents. Thomas Hobbes cared about the wellbeing of others, he viewed on how humans could succeed together while avoiding the fear of unwanted conflicts and social disagreements, which translates to having more conflict within the society rather than preventing that. John Rawls would agree upon the changes made to the Canadian Law system. He was the last one to die from Socrates and John Rawls. He was there when women rights were approved and he had a better knowledge of the culture and religion in Canada. He has passed away 3 years before same sex marriage was legalized, although he was not there he can agree upon the decision made for same sex marriage. An issue i believe he would also face is the upcoming legalization for marijuana Furthermore, I believe the way the law is shaped now is the best for society then it was before. WHen Socrates had to power to make any changed and how he look at law and justice was different from how it is now. There is a very big gap between when Socrates beliefs and ideas versus the ones now. The society and community had changed in various ways. This society before had a few laws and a few changes, the law now can still reflect off how it was and how it worked but many changed would have to be made to that because the society has expanded their beliefs to many things. Many dividuals believe there is more to life but 100 years back, many individual would disagree and stick to what they have felt comfortable to. For example, same sex marriage was legalized in canada on July 20, 2005. If this were to be brought up 100 years back, many individuals would fight back because the beliefs now would it reflect o the society and community they were in. Although the canadian law reflects their decision based on the past, laws would have to shape to the society they are currently in. John Rawls and Socrates were in a time period with less population and less opinions. Women did not have the power to do much during those time periods. As time went by, it was proven that women should not only be treated equally but should be given the same opportunity as men. Women weren’t aloud to do anything without a men with them, since The Famous Five fought for women’s rights, the community the understood the importance of women and then many laws were reflected off of that. Although if many philosophers were to look at the future now and see the changes to the law, they would have different opinions. At the end of the day, the law has shaped itself to the world currently live in, it is what everyone goes by and what works the best for how individuals and society has been brought up.	<urn:uuid:53cc28f9-d4e6-4183-9038-3844042864c0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essayhub.net/essays/thomas-hobbes-socrates-john-rawls-the-theories-of-law-justice	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00141.warc.gz	en	0.98956	1,588	3.859375	4	[ -0.5014874339103699, 0.3464425206184387, -0.1466192603111267, -0.4719226062297821, -0.4141453206539154, 0.051661938428878784, 0.1630149483680725, 0.17194530367851257, 0.1911834478378296, 0.0037472948897629976, -0.03276410698890686, 0.0768246129155159, 0.048925384879112244, 0.08137051016092...	2	To begin with, all three philosophers have their unique outlook about law and justice. Their ideas and main beliefs was reflected by the time period they were in. Most of the beliefs and law was based upon how the generation currently was when each philosopher was alive. If each philosopher were to look at how the law and justice has changed either in the past or the future, I feel as if they would understand the current law based upon how the generation and society has changed through time. Socrates cared about he well- being of the society and impact others in a valueale way. Socrates would agree with Thomas Hobbes view towards law and justice because he was also dedicated to make decisions beneficial to others. Socrates had discovered that the human choice was mainly looked upon the desire for happiness, the government then took upon themselves to work best with individuals who had a greater understanding/ knowledge, greatest ability, and a higher understanding of themselves. Thomas Hobbes cared about the well-being of others, he viewed on how humans could succeed together while avoiding the fear of unwanted conflicts and social disagreements. Socrates and Thomas Hobbes had very similar beliefs and ideas, they would view each similarly and agree upon the ideas and laws they have conducted for the better of society. Socrates would look at John Rawls the same way because he had the same idea and belief for the society. John Rawls theory of justice as fairness explained the public of free citizens holding equal basic rights and collaboration within an egalitarian economic system. He had four political philosophy political philosophy’s first goal was to have an agreement within the society where sharp divisions threaten to lead to conflict, helping citizens to position themselves within their own society, to explore beyond their limits of possible political possibility. Political philosophy must describe achievable political arrangements that can gain support from individuals within the society, “to calm our frustration and rage against our society and its history by showing us the way in which its institutions… are rational, and developed over time as they did to attain their present, rational form”(JF,3). Socrates would agree upon adding these into the law if he were to have the similar idea generations before. Thomas Hobbes would agree upon Socrates decisions towards law and justice. They knew their purpose and objective for the better of society. Socrates would go to classrooms gathering others opinion about political and ethical truths. Even if he were to disagree with a fact he knew about, he would listen and he was also claimed to be ignorant because he had no ideas, but since Thomas Hobbes had already had a better understanding of others, they had both put their knowledge into law creating it peaceful and agreeable. A few of Thomas Hobbes ideas had to do with an individual’s rights, importance of republican government, and the thought that acts are allowed if they aren’t expressly disallowed, which would be highly approved by Socrates. Thomas Hobbes and John Rawls had a similar point of view towards law, justice, and their beliefs. Thomas Hobbes would use and expand upon the four political phiosopsy’s by John Rawls. John Rawls theory of justice as fairness explained the public of free citizens holding equal basic rights and collaboration within an egalitarian economic system. John Rawls had a simpler if not the same understanding as Socrates and Thomas Hobbes. They viewed society and individuals as their main goal and seeked their desire to happiness and beneficial for society. They did not take power for granted but instead took the power to create a society with agreements and wellbeing of others. They created many laws that had to do with raising money for army, individual freedoms, and and fairness. SOcirated and Thomas Hobbes would agree upon the slight changes made with the different generation but overall many rules remained the same. There are many organizations and laws for armies, which was one of Thomas Hobbes main objective. Many laws have formed themselves to where they will please the society’s needs which is referred to Socrates objective. Moving on, Socrates would be surprised with the changes made to the Canadian Law system. During his time period, women equality, same sex marriage, and rights to culture was not a presented as a problem.. SInce the Canadian Law system has had a dramatic change, SOcrates would see many changes to make. SInce marijuana is being legalized very soon, he would disagree with that. Socrates believed that philosophy would be beneficial and achieve the greater good for the well- being of society. He believed that, any decision made and said should benefit and impact the society in a useful and valuable way. He would not see any benefits in legalizing a drug which can be easily used to younger individuals. Thomas Hobbes would also be concerned with the law currently. He would also be concerned about the same sex marriage since in the past no one imagined being with someone besides the opposite sex, but he would not want to not have it is a law because his main goal was to have happiness within the society. He would also agree with SOcrates about the legalization of marijuana because he will see no benefits with legalizing a drug that would just cause more problems within the society, like driving while high since drinking and driving is still one of the biggest causes of accidents. Thomas Hobbes cared about the wellbeing of others, he viewed on how humans could succeed together while avoiding the fear of unwanted conflicts and social disagreements, which translates to having more conflict within the society rather than preventing that. John Rawls would agree upon the changes made to the Canadian Law system. He was the last one to die from Socrates and John Rawls. He was there when women rights were approved and he had a better knowledge of the culture and religion in Canada. He has passed away 3 years before same sex marriage was legalized, although he was not there he can agree upon the decision made for same sex marriage. An issue i believe he would also face is the upcoming legalization for marijuana Furthermore, I believe the way the law is shaped now is the best for society then it was before. WHen Socrates had to power to make any changed and how he look at law and justice was different from how it is now. There is a very big gap between when Socrates beliefs and ideas versus the ones now. The society and community had changed in various ways. This society before had a few laws and a few changes, the law now can still reflect off how it was and how it worked but many changed would have to be made to that because the society has expanded their beliefs to many things. Many dividuals believe there is more to life but 100 years back, many individual would disagree and stick to what they have felt comfortable to. For example, same sex marriage was legalized in canada on July 20, 2005. If this were to be brought up 100 years back, many individuals would fight back because the beliefs now would it reflect o the society and community they were in. Although the canadian law reflects their decision based on the past, laws would have to shape to the society they are currently in. John Rawls and Socrates were in a time period with less population and less opinions. Women did not have the power to do much during those time periods. As time went by, it was proven that women should not only be treated equally but should be given the same opportunity as men. Women weren’t aloud to do anything without a men with them, since The Famous Five fought for women’s rights, the community the understood the importance of women and then many laws were reflected off of that. Although if many philosophers were to look at the future now and see the changes to the law, they would have different opinions. At the end of the day, the law has shaped itself to the world currently live in, it is what everyone goes by and what works the best for how individuals and society has been brought up.	1,595	ENGLISH	1
Cleopatra's presence at the river of Cydnus left an outstanding effect on the common people of Egypt. All men and boys could not help but be attracted to her. Cleopatra's beauty and wealth are told to be of great prosperity. When Cleopatra was near, everything was said to seem more beautiful than before, yet the setting was still incomparable to that beauty of her own. Her simple presence would change the mood of any person and leave such a memorable feeling of beauty to whatever place she would come across. When the commoners of Egyptfirst saw Cleopatra's barge entering the docks of Cydnus, they gawked at such splendiferous items as the large purple sails, and the oars of silver. Those purple sails were told to have "made the winds lovesick with them." The oars moved to the tune of flutes, which "made the water which they beat to follow faster. Cleopatra herself left the most striking appearance out of all that the barge contained. Her beauty is described to have "beggar'd all description."Items such as her'cloth-of gold tissue' and her'delicate cheeks' contributed to her remarkable beauty. The effects of Cleopatra's presence at the river of Cydnus were a very large amount of attention, especially from the men and their boys. They could not help but to look at such a marvelous beauty. The legendary Marc Antony was even said to have gazed in her direction. Cleopatra was said to have "cast her people out upon her." Such a'rare Egyptian' Cleopatra was. Cleopatra's arrival at Cydnus had stopped all work – everything was suddenly about her and her only – nothing else mattered. This one woman alone changed all of her surroundings, with simply her presence. Such an incredible feat could only be dreamed about in those times, as well as those of our own. Truly, Cleopatra was a very remarkable and highly admired rule…	<urn:uuid:e1b522b7-c06e-4222-930d-6420b62d2c6a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/cleopatra-at-cydnus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00430.warc.gz	en	0.986517	418	3.28125	3	[ -0.1612304449081421, 0.18156656622886658, 0.6301267147064209, 0.4279864728450775, -0.4149973690509796, -0.41156959533691406, 0.7480295896530151, 0.12835294008255005, -0.24215777218341827, -0.11157546192407608, 0.3175213634967804, -0.4723702669143677, -0.269204318523407, -0.1805250942707061...	1	Cleopatra's presence at the river of Cydnus left an outstanding effect on the common people of Egypt. All men and boys could not help but be attracted to her. Cleopatra's beauty and wealth are told to be of great prosperity. When Cleopatra was near, everything was said to seem more beautiful than before, yet the setting was still incomparable to that beauty of her own. Her simple presence would change the mood of any person and leave such a memorable feeling of beauty to whatever place she would come across. When the commoners of Egyptfirst saw Cleopatra's barge entering the docks of Cydnus, they gawked at such splendiferous items as the large purple sails, and the oars of silver. Those purple sails were told to have "made the winds lovesick with them." The oars moved to the tune of flutes, which "made the water which they beat to follow faster. Cleopatra herself left the most striking appearance out of all that the barge contained. Her beauty is described to have "beggar'd all description."Items such as her'cloth-of gold tissue' and her'delicate cheeks' contributed to her remarkable beauty. The effects of Cleopatra's presence at the river of Cydnus were a very large amount of attention, especially from the men and their boys. They could not help but to look at such a marvelous beauty. The legendary Marc Antony was even said to have gazed in her direction. Cleopatra was said to have "cast her people out upon her." Such a'rare Egyptian' Cleopatra was. Cleopatra's arrival at Cydnus had stopped all work – everything was suddenly about her and her only – nothing else mattered. This one woman alone changed all of her surroundings, with simply her presence. Such an incredible feat could only be dreamed about in those times, as well as those of our own. Truly, Cleopatra was a very remarkable and highly admired rule…	411	ENGLISH	1
In this essay you will read about different legislations and movements that happened during the 20th century that in some way formed to build the juvenile justice program that is used today throughout the United States of America. In the past juveniles were treated and sentenced like adults. It didn’t matter what their age was or what crime they had committed. Everyone was treated equally and sentenced accordingly. After the juvenile justice system was created, government officials noticed that they weren’t doing what the system was actually created for. The children’s needs and best interest was often overlooked. With over crowded court docks and no time to listen to each individual case a lot of delinquents were often just thrown into a stereotypical crowd and forgotten about. They didn’t get the protection or help that they were entitled to. The first movement that I am going to talk about is the Federal Juvenile Delinquency Act, it was passed in 1938. (Criminal Resource Manual)The main purpose of this act was to keep adults criminals apart from juvenile delinquents. Under most circumstances juveniles weren’t supposed to be sentenced for a term that exceeded their 21st birthday. This act gave the Attorney General the ability to make it his decision to prosecute a juvenile as an adult or as a juvenile depending on the crime that was committed, except for those that have committed a crime that would fall under the death penalty or life in prison. The second movement I am going to talk about is the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act (Major Acts of Congress). It was created because of the raising rates of the failing practice of rehabilitation. Anyone that would fall in this act would have to be under the age of 18, and a juvenile delinquent. This Act granted states and local governments with resources to assist with the planning, establishing, operating, coordinating, and evaluating projects to help with education, training, research, prevention, diversion, treatment, and rehabilitation programs concentrating on juvenile delinquency and other programs that would help assist with the improvements of the juvenile justice system. The outcome of the Act was not at all successful at first. Many states didn’t want to differ between adult and juvenile crimes and other states excluded serious crimes from juvenile courts. Therefore any juvenile committing a serious crime would be trialed as an adult no matter what. The goal of this Act was to separate juveniles from adults. To keep them out of adult prisons and institutions, but it actually did the opposite and increased the number of juveniles that were being trialed as adults. In the late 1900’s the juvenile justice system faced many serious problems. One of the most serious problems would be the overcrowding of delinquents in facilities and courts. With overcrowded courts there was little time to look into every detail of every case. Those delinquents that were committing the petty crimes were receiving less attention. The ones that were assigned probation officers rarely saw them due to the probation officer having to deal with the more serious delinquents. With the overflowing of courts piling up every day it eventually led to more juveniles being tried as an adult to free up space in the court dockets. By this time most government officials are beginning to doubt the juvenile justice system (Hall, 2004). In the mid 1990’s there was an act passed called “Balanced Juvenile Justice and Crime Prevention Act of 1996. ” It was a punitive approach to the juvenile system. It stated that if states would demonstrate that there laws, policies, and procedures that exceeded expectations then they would be given a grant (JABG) to help assist with the staffing of courts, such as lawyers, judges and dues. As well as help with specified courts, for example drug courts. This was a big leap in the juvenile justice programs and gave new motivation to governmental officials.	<urn:uuid:cd2b31fd-683b-495a-9964-837aabd431f6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tbf-sa.co.za/20th-century-movements/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00398.warc.gz	en	0.985098	772	3.859375	4	[ -0.8230686187744141, -0.21990033984184265, 0.27670353651046753, -0.5766826868057251, -0.08756928145885468, 0.3336988091468811, 0.013681110925972462, 0.19041945040225983, -0.013624444603919983, 0.026578104123473167, 0.24276649951934814, 0.5682163238525391, -0.0053130388259887695, 0.17034292...	3	In this essay you will read about different legislations and movements that happened during the 20th century that in some way formed to build the juvenile justice program that is used today throughout the United States of America. In the past juveniles were treated and sentenced like adults. It didn’t matter what their age was or what crime they had committed. Everyone was treated equally and sentenced accordingly. After the juvenile justice system was created, government officials noticed that they weren’t doing what the system was actually created for. The children’s needs and best interest was often overlooked. With over crowded court docks and no time to listen to each individual case a lot of delinquents were often just thrown into a stereotypical crowd and forgotten about. They didn’t get the protection or help that they were entitled to. The first movement that I am going to talk about is the Federal Juvenile Delinquency Act, it was passed in 1938. (Criminal Resource Manual)The main purpose of this act was to keep adults criminals apart from juvenile delinquents. Under most circumstances juveniles weren’t supposed to be sentenced for a term that exceeded their 21st birthday. This act gave the Attorney General the ability to make it his decision to prosecute a juvenile as an adult or as a juvenile depending on the crime that was committed, except for those that have committed a crime that would fall under the death penalty or life in prison. The second movement I am going to talk about is the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act (Major Acts of Congress). It was created because of the raising rates of the failing practice of rehabilitation. Anyone that would fall in this act would have to be under the age of 18, and a juvenile delinquent. This Act granted states and local governments with resources to assist with the planning, establishing, operating, coordinating, and evaluating projects to help with education, training, research, prevention, diversion, treatment, and rehabilitation programs concentrating on juvenile delinquency and other programs that would help assist with the improvements of the juvenile justice system. The outcome of the Act was not at all successful at first. Many states didn’t want to differ between adult and juvenile crimes and other states excluded serious crimes from juvenile courts. Therefore any juvenile committing a serious crime would be trialed as an adult no matter what. The goal of this Act was to separate juveniles from adults. To keep them out of adult prisons and institutions, but it actually did the opposite and increased the number of juveniles that were being trialed as adults. In the late 1900’s the juvenile justice system faced many serious problems. One of the most serious problems would be the overcrowding of delinquents in facilities and courts. With overcrowded courts there was little time to look into every detail of every case. Those delinquents that were committing the petty crimes were receiving less attention. The ones that were assigned probation officers rarely saw them due to the probation officer having to deal with the more serious delinquents. With the overflowing of courts piling up every day it eventually led to more juveniles being tried as an adult to free up space in the court dockets. By this time most government officials are beginning to doubt the juvenile justice system (Hall, 2004). In the mid 1990’s there was an act passed called “Balanced Juvenile Justice and Crime Prevention Act of 1996. ” It was a punitive approach to the juvenile system. It stated that if states would demonstrate that there laws, policies, and procedures that exceeded expectations then they would be given a grant (JABG) to help assist with the staffing of courts, such as lawyers, judges and dues. As well as help with specified courts, for example drug courts. This was a big leap in the juvenile justice programs and gave new motivation to governmental officials.	789	ENGLISH	1
World War One was a brutal and unnecessary waste of human life and sowed the seeds for the second war, argues Chris Bambery Combat along the Western Front ceased on 11 November 1918 at 11am. This is the date which is being commemorated as the close of the First World War. In fact, if you look at many British war memorials the dates for the Great War are given as 1914 to 1919. That is because the formal peace treaties were only signed then, in palaces outside Paris. The British kept up their naval blockade of Germany, which had seriously impacted on the civilian population until the peace treaty was signed at Versailles. Fighting did cease in France and Belgium but along what had been the Eastern Front it continued. German irregular units fought against the former territory of the Reich being incorporated into the new state of Poland, and helped defeat revolutionary forces in what became the Baltic States (where the new governments had to turn them out by force of arms). German troops had already been fighting the new Soviet Union in former Czarist Russia. In 1919 troops from Britain, France, the US, Japan and a score of countries, intervened to try and topple the Bolsheviks. They and the White armies they funded and armed failed because the Russian peasantry had been given the land and realised if the counter-revolution won they would lose it. The peace treaties meant the British Empire was geographically ever greater; expanding into what is now Iraq, Palestine and Jordan. But in Iraq, Egypt, and above all Ireland, it faced nationalist rebellions which in the latter case it could not repress. The British had also occupied Istanbul, hoping to control the sea route between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. The Lloyd George government egged on Greece to invade what is now Turkey, but a Turkish nationalist movement, backed by revolutionary Russia, defeated the Greeks and forced a British withdrawal. In the wake of that, Lloyd George, who led a coalition government, was forced from office by his Tory allies. Political polarisation in Europe meant the inter-war years were little more than an armed truce, and the Great Depression would see Germany under Hitler, Mussolini’s Fascist Italy, and Japan, try to rescue their economies by pushing to undo the partition of the world agreed in 1919 for the benefit of the Allies (Italy felt it had been cheated by Britain and France). One great myth developed in Germany among the right wing that the German Army had been stabbed in the back by a conspiracy of Communists, Jews and Liberals, with the German Army undefeated in the field. It is a myth crucial to the rise of Hitler. In recent years another myth has developed among British military historians that in the summer and autumn of 1918 the British army vanquished its German enemy on the Western Front. This has been held up as Britain’s most notable military achievement. That myth was created to counter the view that the British Army had suffered unacceptable losses because of its incompetent commanders – as exemplified in Oh What A Lovely War and Blackadder. In March 1918, the Germans, able to transfer troops from the Eastern Front after forcing a draconian peace on the Bolsheviks, launched a series of offensives. One drove towards the Channel ports and the British commander Haig envisaged a military evacuation back to Britain while his French counterpart, Pétain, pulled back his troops to defend Paris. The British and French governments intervened to stop this and forced the appointment of one single Allied commander, the French Marshal Foch (it took four years to take this step). The Germans attacked again and seemed to threaten Paris but they could not maintain the momentum. Firstly, as they advanced further away from their railway supply lines those supplies could not keep pace, having, as they did, to cross devastated territory. German troops were shocked too at the abundant Allied supply depots they over run. Back home they knew the civilian population was going hungry, in part because of the British naval blockade but, even more so, because of the failings of the German war economy. Unrest was growing on the home front with strikes and protests. Until now the mighty Social Democratic Party had backed the war, with only a small minority around Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht daring to oppose the blood bath. But after the Russian Revolution in October 1917 there was a break away by a section of the party who wanted peace immediately. Germany was moving left. That unrest began to spread into the rear areas of the German Army. When the Allies began attacking in successive blows, the German Army had to pull back. It did so largely in good order right up until 11 November, when it still stood in France and Belgium. The Allied Command planned for the war continuing into 1919, when the newly arrived Americans would be ready to take the lead. But the German High Command understood that they could not win. German troops were too thinly spread, propping up their Austrian Turkish and Bulgarian allies and having to occupy huge swathes of the Ukraine and western Russia they had annexed. As those Allies were knocked out of the war, Germany could not defeat France, Britain, and the US on its own. They also realised revolution was on the rise at home and feared it would infect the army. Revolution did infect the Navy when it was ordered to launch a kamikaze attack on the Royal Navy’s North Sea fleet. Mutiny broke out and spread to the whole North Sea and Baltic Fleet. The sailors allied with the dockers and workers of the port cities and sent delegations across Germany. Workers, soldiers and sailors councils were elected which echoed the creation of soviets in Russia. The German High Command decided the game was up but rather than throw in the towel themselves, they handed responsibility over to a new civilian government, having told the Emperor to abdicate and sling his hook into exile in Holland. That government approached the Allies for an Armistice, a halt to fighting pending negotiation of the final peace. After, German generals blamed those politicians for surrender, stabbing them in the back. But they knew they could not win. Better to cut their losses now while they still occupied chunks of France and Belgium. The Allied commanders knew the German Army remained intact and understood an armistice might only bring a temporary end to a war which could resume when Germany recovered. But they faced unrest at home and in the ranks, once word of the German offer got out, why would their troops keep fighting if it was refused. So the armistice was signed. The eventual peace treaty with Germany was nowhere near as draconian as was later painted. In fact it pales in comparison with what would happen in 1945 when the Third Reich was fought to its destruction. The Allies then effectively destroyed the German military elite and enforced a partial demobilisation which holds even today (German governments are happy for Britain and France to carry the military costs for European interventions and wars). The stab in the back was a myth because it concealed the fact that the German High Command backed an end to the fighting. They just let civilians achieve that and then turned on them. The British army had not defeated the German army either. It marched back intact over the Rhine. Large parts of it were then swept up in the revolution; others particularly elite units, officers and NCOs joined right wing paramilitary squads who fought the left, Poles and murdered Jews. Let us now turn to Britain. The sun had never shone on so much territory where the Union flag fluttered as it did in 1919 after the peace treaties had partitioned the world anew. But the British ruling class were well aware that could not mask a relentless decline which continues to this day. Britain in 1914 lagged behind the US and Germany industrially, now it faced the fact that the City of London had been overtaken by Wall Street. Britain was in debt to the US. Its old staple industries of cotton, coal, iron and steel were uncompetitive, lacking investment. Unrest at home seemed to threaten revolution in 1919 and 1920, and while contained, working class discontent never went away in the grim inter war years. In the summer of 1921 the British state and elite had to accept they could no longer rule the majority of Ireland. In Bengal eager Indian nationalists began eagerly reading the accounts published by IRA commanders. Britain no longer even ruled the waves. During the war it had relied on its Japanese ally to hold the Pacific sea routes and even had to get its warships to protect the Mediterranean. Now the Americans, who saw the Japanese as bitter rivals in Asia (China above all) demanded Britain break its alliance with Japan. In hock to the US the British had no choice. In a treaty signed in Washington they had to accept naval parity with the US. As the great and the good assemble in Whitehall on 11 November to mark the end of World War One, they know that despite herculean efforts, the war is still seen in popular eyes as a ghastly bloodbath presided over by generals who could not care about the butcher’s bill. They know too that this was a Pyrrhic victory because it was followed by a further loss of industrial, financial and military power. Both my grandfather’s fought on the Western Front. One became a stretcher bearer and simply never talked about the war, he was traumatised for ever after like so many others. The other volunteered with his two brothers, probably to escape being shale miners. One still lies outside Ypres, killed in July 1917. My grandfather was unemployed until the outbreak of a new war after the mine shut in 1924 (shale mining collapsed). He was bitter about the politicians and their promises of a “Land fit for Heroes.” Come October he would never wear a poppy because it was, as he pointed out, the Earl Haig Appeal, and Earl Haig was Douglas Haig, British commander on the Western Front from 1915 until 1918. Haig he told me was a butcher and he would never wear anything associated with his name. So I will not wear one in his memory and honour. I have visited my grand uncle’s grave. Standing their looking across Flanders and seeing so many other war cemeteries, visiting the battlefield and the excellent museum in Ypres reinforced my belief that this was an imperialist war fought over the division of the globe. It made me thankful too for those Russian and German workers who rose in revolution to ensure that slaughter ended. Today we need to know about that slaughter to grasp what our rulers are capable of and why they can’t be trusted with our planet. Chris Bambery is an author, political activist and commentator, and a supporter of Rise, the radical left wing coalition in Scotland. His books include A People's History of Scotland and The Second World War: A Marxist Analysis. More articles from this author - Scotland: it's time to break from a broken UK - Scotland's election - Huge numbers join Catalonia's general strike for freedom - Civil liberties in Spain? The clampdown against the Catalan independence movement - What’s changing in Scotland? - Flawed transition: why the Spanish state is repressing the Catalan independence movement - Sails and Winds: A Cultural History of Valencia - book review	<urn:uuid:70cd7461-9ab4-41dc-baa9-23f17fe24356>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.counterfire.org/component/content/article?id=19966:world-war-one-was-stupid-tragic-and-futile	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00275.warc.gz	en	0.981708	2,302	3.328125	3	[ -0.27016299962997437, 0.4741518497467041, 0.26205581426620483, -0.07973527908325195, -0.14171692728996277, 0.1657508909702301, -0.341229647397995, 0.11269907653331757, 0.14280067384243011, -0.1204090416431427, 0.12387258559465408, -0.40422576665878296, 0.14986541867256165, 0.71091926097869...	1	World War One was a brutal and unnecessary waste of human life and sowed the seeds for the second war, argues Chris Bambery Combat along the Western Front ceased on 11 November 1918 at 11am. This is the date which is being commemorated as the close of the First World War. In fact, if you look at many British war memorials the dates for the Great War are given as 1914 to 1919. That is because the formal peace treaties were only signed then, in palaces outside Paris. The British kept up their naval blockade of Germany, which had seriously impacted on the civilian population until the peace treaty was signed at Versailles. Fighting did cease in France and Belgium but along what had been the Eastern Front it continued. German irregular units fought against the former territory of the Reich being incorporated into the new state of Poland, and helped defeat revolutionary forces in what became the Baltic States (where the new governments had to turn them out by force of arms). German troops had already been fighting the new Soviet Union in former Czarist Russia. In 1919 troops from Britain, France, the US, Japan and a score of countries, intervened to try and topple the Bolsheviks. They and the White armies they funded and armed failed because the Russian peasantry had been given the land and realised if the counter-revolution won they would lose it. The peace treaties meant the British Empire was geographically ever greater; expanding into what is now Iraq, Palestine and Jordan. But in Iraq, Egypt, and above all Ireland, it faced nationalist rebellions which in the latter case it could not repress. The British had also occupied Istanbul, hoping to control the sea route between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. The Lloyd George government egged on Greece to invade what is now Turkey, but a Turkish nationalist movement, backed by revolutionary Russia, defeated the Greeks and forced a British withdrawal. In the wake of that, Lloyd George, who led a coalition government, was forced from office by his Tory allies. Political polarisation in Europe meant the inter-war years were little more than an armed truce, and the Great Depression would see Germany under Hitler, Mussolini’s Fascist Italy, and Japan, try to rescue their economies by pushing to undo the partition of the world agreed in 1919 for the benefit of the Allies (Italy felt it had been cheated by Britain and France). One great myth developed in Germany among the right wing that the German Army had been stabbed in the back by a conspiracy of Communists, Jews and Liberals, with the German Army undefeated in the field. It is a myth crucial to the rise of Hitler. In recent years another myth has developed among British military historians that in the summer and autumn of 1918 the British army vanquished its German enemy on the Western Front. This has been held up as Britain’s most notable military achievement. That myth was created to counter the view that the British Army had suffered unacceptable losses because of its incompetent commanders – as exemplified in Oh What A Lovely War and Blackadder. In March 1918, the Germans, able to transfer troops from the Eastern Front after forcing a draconian peace on the Bolsheviks, launched a series of offensives. One drove towards the Channel ports and the British commander Haig envisaged a military evacuation back to Britain while his French counterpart, Pétain, pulled back his troops to defend Paris. The British and French governments intervened to stop this and forced the appointment of one single Allied commander, the French Marshal Foch (it took four years to take this step). The Germans attacked again and seemed to threaten Paris but they could not maintain the momentum. Firstly, as they advanced further away from their railway supply lines those supplies could not keep pace, having, as they did, to cross devastated territory. German troops were shocked too at the abundant Allied supply depots they over run. Back home they knew the civilian population was going hungry, in part because of the British naval blockade but, even more so, because of the failings of the German war economy. Unrest was growing on the home front with strikes and protests. Until now the mighty Social Democratic Party had backed the war, with only a small minority around Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht daring to oppose the blood bath. But after the Russian Revolution in October 1917 there was a break away by a section of the party who wanted peace immediately. Germany was moving left. That unrest began to spread into the rear areas of the German Army. When the Allies began attacking in successive blows, the German Army had to pull back. It did so largely in good order right up until 11 November, when it still stood in France and Belgium. The Allied Command planned for the war continuing into 1919, when the newly arrived Americans would be ready to take the lead. But the German High Command understood that they could not win. German troops were too thinly spread, propping up their Austrian Turkish and Bulgarian allies and having to occupy huge swathes of the Ukraine and western Russia they had annexed. As those Allies were knocked out of the war, Germany could not defeat France, Britain, and the US on its own. They also realised revolution was on the rise at home and feared it would infect the army. Revolution did infect the Navy when it was ordered to launch a kamikaze attack on the Royal Navy’s North Sea fleet. Mutiny broke out and spread to the whole North Sea and Baltic Fleet. The sailors allied with the dockers and workers of the port cities and sent delegations across Germany. Workers, soldiers and sailors councils were elected which echoed the creation of soviets in Russia. The German High Command decided the game was up but rather than throw in the towel themselves, they handed responsibility over to a new civilian government, having told the Emperor to abdicate and sling his hook into exile in Holland. That government approached the Allies for an Armistice, a halt to fighting pending negotiation of the final peace. After, German generals blamed those politicians for surrender, stabbing them in the back. But they knew they could not win. Better to cut their losses now while they still occupied chunks of France and Belgium. The Allied commanders knew the German Army remained intact and understood an armistice might only bring a temporary end to a war which could resume when Germany recovered. But they faced unrest at home and in the ranks, once word of the German offer got out, why would their troops keep fighting if it was refused. So the armistice was signed. The eventual peace treaty with Germany was nowhere near as draconian as was later painted. In fact it pales in comparison with what would happen in 1945 when the Third Reich was fought to its destruction. The Allies then effectively destroyed the German military elite and enforced a partial demobilisation which holds even today (German governments are happy for Britain and France to carry the military costs for European interventions and wars). The stab in the back was a myth because it concealed the fact that the German High Command backed an end to the fighting. They just let civilians achieve that and then turned on them. The British army had not defeated the German army either. It marched back intact over the Rhine. Large parts of it were then swept up in the revolution; others particularly elite units, officers and NCOs joined right wing paramilitary squads who fought the left, Poles and murdered Jews. Let us now turn to Britain. The sun had never shone on so much territory where the Union flag fluttered as it did in 1919 after the peace treaties had partitioned the world anew. But the British ruling class were well aware that could not mask a relentless decline which continues to this day. Britain in 1914 lagged behind the US and Germany industrially, now it faced the fact that the City of London had been overtaken by Wall Street. Britain was in debt to the US. Its old staple industries of cotton, coal, iron and steel were uncompetitive, lacking investment. Unrest at home seemed to threaten revolution in 1919 and 1920, and while contained, working class discontent never went away in the grim inter war years. In the summer of 1921 the British state and elite had to accept they could no longer rule the majority of Ireland. In Bengal eager Indian nationalists began eagerly reading the accounts published by IRA commanders. Britain no longer even ruled the waves. During the war it had relied on its Japanese ally to hold the Pacific sea routes and even had to get its warships to protect the Mediterranean. Now the Americans, who saw the Japanese as bitter rivals in Asia (China above all) demanded Britain break its alliance with Japan. In hock to the US the British had no choice. In a treaty signed in Washington they had to accept naval parity with the US. As the great and the good assemble in Whitehall on 11 November to mark the end of World War One, they know that despite herculean efforts, the war is still seen in popular eyes as a ghastly bloodbath presided over by generals who could not care about the butcher’s bill. They know too that this was a Pyrrhic victory because it was followed by a further loss of industrial, financial and military power. Both my grandfather’s fought on the Western Front. One became a stretcher bearer and simply never talked about the war, he was traumatised for ever after like so many others. The other volunteered with his two brothers, probably to escape being shale miners. One still lies outside Ypres, killed in July 1917. My grandfather was unemployed until the outbreak of a new war after the mine shut in 1924 (shale mining collapsed). He was bitter about the politicians and their promises of a “Land fit for Heroes.” Come October he would never wear a poppy because it was, as he pointed out, the Earl Haig Appeal, and Earl Haig was Douglas Haig, British commander on the Western Front from 1915 until 1918. Haig he told me was a butcher and he would never wear anything associated with his name. So I will not wear one in his memory and honour. I have visited my grand uncle’s grave. Standing their looking across Flanders and seeing so many other war cemeteries, visiting the battlefield and the excellent museum in Ypres reinforced my belief that this was an imperialist war fought over the division of the globe. It made me thankful too for those Russian and German workers who rose in revolution to ensure that slaughter ended. Today we need to know about that slaughter to grasp what our rulers are capable of and why they can’t be trusted with our planet. Chris Bambery is an author, political activist and commentator, and a supporter of Rise, the radical left wing coalition in Scotland. His books include A People's History of Scotland and The Second World War: A Marxist Analysis. More articles from this author - Scotland: it's time to break from a broken UK - Scotland's election - Huge numbers join Catalonia's general strike for freedom - Civil liberties in Spain? The clampdown against the Catalan independence movement - What’s changing in Scotland? - Flawed transition: why the Spanish state is repressing the Catalan independence movement - Sails and Winds: A Cultural History of Valencia - book review	2,360	ENGLISH	1
Homesteaders and ranchers were filling up the land west of Mississippi. The black codes restrict the freedom of freedmen because even though they were free they still very restricted they couldn't have as many rights as the whites. They also they weren't allowed to have public meetings or the freedman shall be allowed within the town say Document A. Document A also states that or freedman shall come within the limits of the town of Opelousas without special permission from his employer and who ever broke this law would go to jail and work for two days on public streets or pay a fine of five dollars. In Document B the real end result of sharecropping was that they were very good and they would be even better. The groups the KKK threaten were the African Americans who ran for a government position. The KKK attacked these people African Americans because they didn't agree with them being freedman or freed slaves. These documents help with answer DBQ questions becauses it helps show that the south is rebelling and being childish about the reconstruction. The KKK attacked Abram Colby because he was a former slave who was elected to Georgia state during the Reconstruction. The people that made up the KKK were some first class white men one is a lawyer and one is a doctor and the rest are farmers. The ultimate goal for the KKK was not to get any African Americans elected and getting them to but a Republican ticket and not a Democratic ticket. The cartoons main idea its showing that no one will stand up for him and they are making him buy a Republican ticket even though he wants a Democratic ticket or they will kill him. The first phrase means that were trying to solve the race problem in the south and they were very suspicious of what they were…	<urn:uuid:050ffd31-b554-4354-b11c-2640f86dd0b7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/The-South-Killed-Reconstruction-589327.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00195.warc.gz	en	0.99201	354	3.3125	3	[ -0.364292174577713, 0.0603598915040493, -0.27679985761642456, 0.17920050024986267, 0.17496435344219208, -0.323663592338562, -0.12906287610530853, -0.23390954732894897, -0.43546995520591736, 0.4987949728965759, 0.004793264903128147, 0.3087765872478485, -0.01445419155061245, 0.19704072177410...	1	Homesteaders and ranchers were filling up the land west of Mississippi. The black codes restrict the freedom of freedmen because even though they were free they still very restricted they couldn't have as many rights as the whites. They also they weren't allowed to have public meetings or the freedman shall be allowed within the town say Document A. Document A also states that or freedman shall come within the limits of the town of Opelousas without special permission from his employer and who ever broke this law would go to jail and work for two days on public streets or pay a fine of five dollars. In Document B the real end result of sharecropping was that they were very good and they would be even better. The groups the KKK threaten were the African Americans who ran for a government position. The KKK attacked these people African Americans because they didn't agree with them being freedman or freed slaves. These documents help with answer DBQ questions becauses it helps show that the south is rebelling and being childish about the reconstruction. The KKK attacked Abram Colby because he was a former slave who was elected to Georgia state during the Reconstruction. The people that made up the KKK were some first class white men one is a lawyer and one is a doctor and the rest are farmers. The ultimate goal for the KKK was not to get any African Americans elected and getting them to but a Republican ticket and not a Democratic ticket. The cartoons main idea its showing that no one will stand up for him and they are making him buy a Republican ticket even though he wants a Democratic ticket or they will kill him. The first phrase means that were trying to solve the race problem in the south and they were very suspicious of what they were…	357	ENGLISH	1
Reconstruction; qualifications; disability under 14th Amendment; challenge to legislature's authority to elect; Senate refusal to seat losing candidate if winner disqualified. Memorial presented: Mar. 7, 1871 Referred to committee: Mar. 13, 1871 Committee report: Feb. 28, 1872 Senate vote: April 23, 1872 Result: Abbott not seated Credentials presented: Feb. 5, 1872 Referred to committee: Feb. 5, 1872 Committee report: April 24, 1872 Senate vote: April 24, 1872 Result: Ransom seated As the Reconstruction era waned and the dominance of the Radicals declined, Senate Republicans began increasingly to splinter over the treatment of senators elected from the former Confederate states. This factionalism became particularly apparent during Senate consideration of a contested North Carolina election. New Hampshire native Joseph C. Abbott, a former brigadier general in the Union army and steadfast Republican, settled in North Carolina after the war. When the state first returned to Congress in 1868, he was elected to the United States Senate. A hard-working advocate for North Carolina, particularly for the Wilmington harbor area, Abbott nonetheless had political strength only among the state's black voters. By 1870, white supremacy groups had so far suppressed black suffrage that the state legislature easily chose Zebulon B. Vance (Democrat), who had been the state's governor during the Civil War, over Abbott for the Senate term beginning in March 1871. Statement of the Case Abbott immediately challenged the results of the election, pointing out that Vance was still hampered by political disabilities imposed under the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution because of his support for the Confederacy. Abbott maintained that, if the electors knew that the winning candidate was disqualified from serving in the Senate, then those votes should be voided and the election granted to the person with the next highest count. No credentials were presented for Vance, a North Carolinian who had served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1858 to 1861 and then fought for the Confederacy before being elected governor of the state in 1862. Vance had received a pardon in 1867 under President Andrew Johnson's amnesty program, but the Fourteenth Amendment adopted in 1868 prohibited service in Congress by anyone who had been a member of Congress and then engaged in rebellion against the United States. Vance had not been relieved of this disability at the time of his election. On March 13, 1871, the Senate referred Abbott's complaint to the Committee on Privileges and Elections, together with contests from three other states. Response of the Senate Nearly a year later, on February 28, 1872, a divided committee returned a report recommending that Abbott was not entitled to a seat in the Senate since he had received only a small minority of the votes cast in the state legislature. In the meantime, apparently convinced that Congress would not remove his political disability, Vance had submitted his resignation from the Senate on January 20, 1872. Abbott and his supporters had drawn upon examples in English law applicable to contested elections, in which the votes for an ineligible candidate were not counted and the candidate with the next highest number of votes was declared elected. The committee pointed out, however, that the practice in the United States was to declare such an election void, rather than to grant the seat to a competitor. In addition, the Fourteenth Amendment gave Congress the power to remove the disabilities from an individual elected to office and thus permit him to take his seat. As precedents, the majority report cited such previous Senate qualification cases as those of Albert Gallatin and James Shields to show that, when the Senate ruled the claimants ineligible, it called for a new election rather than giving the election to the defeated candidate. Committee member John A. Logan (Republican-IL) noted that, even in the case of David Yulee where Yulee received half of the votes of the Florida legislature and the other half were blank, the Senate refused to seat Yulee and called for a new election. Yulee had claimed victory because he had a majority of the completed votes, but under a rule of the Florida legislature a majority of all the votes was required to elect. Logan also pointed out that, even if the North Carolina legislators voting for Vance knew he was disqualified, they also knew that Congress had removed the disabilities from the state's governor and several other officials after they were elected, and they could therefore reasonably assume it would do the same for Vance. Even John Pool (Republican), the other North Carolina senator, was under the impression that Congress would remove Vance's disabilities. According to Logan, under the 1866 election law, a candidate must receive a majority of all the votes cast in each house of the legislature, even if some votes were for an ineligible person. Abbott, he declared, had received less than one-third of the votes in the North Carolina house and less than one-fourth of the votes in the senate, and thus clearly had not been elected by the North Carolina legislature. Abbott supporters Matthew R. Carpenter (Republican-WI) and Benjamin F. Rice (Republican-AR) submitted a minority report, asserting that under federal election law a candidate needed only to receive a majority of the votes cast in each house of the legislature rather than the votes of a majority of the legislators present. Thus, if the votes for Vance were disqualified, Abbott, having received a majority of the remaining votes cast in each house, should be considered elected, even without receiving the votes of a majority of the full legislature as required by the 1866 election law. The minority report dismissed as irrelevant the previous qualification cases cited by the majority, because in the Gallatin and Shields cases the legislators voted for the candidates in the belief that they were eligible. The legislators voting for Vance, however, knew that he was ineligible and thus were deliberately throwing away their votes. The minority report therefore recommended that Abbott be seated. The debate continued for several days in April, as complex discussions about the meaning of majority and minority candidates, equal suffrage, blank votes, and voided votes frayed senatorial tempers and further divided the Republicans. Underlying the legal arguments was the strong suspicion by some Republican senators, as George F. Edmunds of Vermont complained, that "the Legislature of North Carolina intended to pronounce an insult upon the people of the United States who did not agree with them in politics by electing the particular person the majority voted for." In fact, Matthew Carpenter cited affidavits stating that North Carolina legislators had heard Democratic and Conservative members declare, "We vote for Vance because his disabilities have not been removed; we have eaten dirt long enough." North Carolina Republican John Pool reinforced this view, reporting that "members were allowed seats in the [legislature] who were notoriously and confessedly under the disability imposed by the fourteenth amendment." Many citizens of the state, he believed, would be delighted to have Abbott seated as a rebuke to the legislature, and a number of Senate Republicans agreed. On April 23, 1872, the Senate finally accepted the committee report, agreeing that, as Joseph Abbott did not have a majority of the votes cast in the North Carolina assembly, he could not claim the seat. The Senate did, however, vote him compensation and mileage for the year he had waited for a decision. In denying the seat to Abbott, the Senate accepted the premise that, if it chose, it could have removed the disabilities of Zebulon Vance after his election, a procedure that had been followed for officials elected by several other southern states. On February 5, 1872, while the Senate was still wrestling with the dilemma of turning out the well-liked and effective Abbott, Matt W. Ransom (Democrat-NC) had appeared with credentials for the disputed seat, having been elected to replace Vance. Unlike Vance, Ransom, a former brigadier general in the Confederate army, had not served in Congress before the war and thus was not hampered by the same disability. The Senate referred his credentials to the Committee on Privileges and Elections. On April 24, 1872, the committee reported that Ransom's credentials were in order. He was immediately seated and granted his pay from the beginning of the term in March 1871. All three of the North Carolina politicians in this case continued to serve in public life. Joseph Abbott, who earlier demonstrated his concern for the harbor at Wilmington, accepted an appointment as inspector of ports under President Rutherford B. Hayes. Abbott died in 1882. Zebulon Vance eventually came to the Senate in 1879 and served until his death in 1894. Matt Ransom remained in the Senate until 1895 and died in 1904. Source: Adapted from Anne M. Butler and Wendy Wolff. United States Senate Election, Expulsion, and Censure Cases, 1793-1990. S. Doc. 103-33. Washington, GPO, 1995.	<urn:uuid:bc4a35d8-409f-4033-8ebf-80728df64f03>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/contested_elections/059Abbott_Vance_Ransom.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00213.warc.gz	en	0.982258	1,831	3.28125	3	[ -0.5387091040611267, 0.1170111820101738, 0.28867220878601074, -0.03690488263964653, -0.3334188759326935, 0.3295561969280243, 0.08204177021980286, 0.21020570397377014, -0.4053197205066681, 0.3337284326553345, 0.3632863461971283, -0.16393595933914185, 0.36627623438835144, 0.04277315363287926...	10	Reconstruction; qualifications; disability under 14th Amendment; challenge to legislature's authority to elect; Senate refusal to seat losing candidate if winner disqualified. Memorial presented: Mar. 7, 1871 Referred to committee: Mar. 13, 1871 Committee report: Feb. 28, 1872 Senate vote: April 23, 1872 Result: Abbott not seated Credentials presented: Feb. 5, 1872 Referred to committee: Feb. 5, 1872 Committee report: April 24, 1872 Senate vote: April 24, 1872 Result: Ransom seated As the Reconstruction era waned and the dominance of the Radicals declined, Senate Republicans began increasingly to splinter over the treatment of senators elected from the former Confederate states. This factionalism became particularly apparent during Senate consideration of a contested North Carolina election. New Hampshire native Joseph C. Abbott, a former brigadier general in the Union army and steadfast Republican, settled in North Carolina after the war. When the state first returned to Congress in 1868, he was elected to the United States Senate. A hard-working advocate for North Carolina, particularly for the Wilmington harbor area, Abbott nonetheless had political strength only among the state's black voters. By 1870, white supremacy groups had so far suppressed black suffrage that the state legislature easily chose Zebulon B. Vance (Democrat), who had been the state's governor during the Civil War, over Abbott for the Senate term beginning in March 1871. Statement of the Case Abbott immediately challenged the results of the election, pointing out that Vance was still hampered by political disabilities imposed under the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution because of his support for the Confederacy. Abbott maintained that, if the electors knew that the winning candidate was disqualified from serving in the Senate, then those votes should be voided and the election granted to the person with the next highest count. No credentials were presented for Vance, a North Carolinian who had served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1858 to 1861 and then fought for the Confederacy before being elected governor of the state in 1862. Vance had received a pardon in 1867 under President Andrew Johnson's amnesty program, but the Fourteenth Amendment adopted in 1868 prohibited service in Congress by anyone who had been a member of Congress and then engaged in rebellion against the United States. Vance had not been relieved of this disability at the time of his election. On March 13, 1871, the Senate referred Abbott's complaint to the Committee on Privileges and Elections, together with contests from three other states. Response of the Senate Nearly a year later, on February 28, 1872, a divided committee returned a report recommending that Abbott was not entitled to a seat in the Senate since he had received only a small minority of the votes cast in the state legislature. In the meantime, apparently convinced that Congress would not remove his political disability, Vance had submitted his resignation from the Senate on January 20, 1872. Abbott and his supporters had drawn upon examples in English law applicable to contested elections, in which the votes for an ineligible candidate were not counted and the candidate with the next highest number of votes was declared elected. The committee pointed out, however, that the practice in the United States was to declare such an election void, rather than to grant the seat to a competitor. In addition, the Fourteenth Amendment gave Congress the power to remove the disabilities from an individual elected to office and thus permit him to take his seat. As precedents, the majority report cited such previous Senate qualification cases as those of Albert Gallatin and James Shields to show that, when the Senate ruled the claimants ineligible, it called for a new election rather than giving the election to the defeated candidate. Committee member John A. Logan (Republican-IL) noted that, even in the case of David Yulee where Yulee received half of the votes of the Florida legislature and the other half were blank, the Senate refused to seat Yulee and called for a new election. Yulee had claimed victory because he had a majority of the completed votes, but under a rule of the Florida legislature a majority of all the votes was required to elect. Logan also pointed out that, even if the North Carolina legislators voting for Vance knew he was disqualified, they also knew that Congress had removed the disabilities from the state's governor and several other officials after they were elected, and they could therefore reasonably assume it would do the same for Vance. Even John Pool (Republican), the other North Carolina senator, was under the impression that Congress would remove Vance's disabilities. According to Logan, under the 1866 election law, a candidate must receive a majority of all the votes cast in each house of the legislature, even if some votes were for an ineligible person. Abbott, he declared, had received less than one-third of the votes in the North Carolina house and less than one-fourth of the votes in the senate, and thus clearly had not been elected by the North Carolina legislature. Abbott supporters Matthew R. Carpenter (Republican-WI) and Benjamin F. Rice (Republican-AR) submitted a minority report, asserting that under federal election law a candidate needed only to receive a majority of the votes cast in each house of the legislature rather than the votes of a majority of the legislators present. Thus, if the votes for Vance were disqualified, Abbott, having received a majority of the remaining votes cast in each house, should be considered elected, even without receiving the votes of a majority of the full legislature as required by the 1866 election law. The minority report dismissed as irrelevant the previous qualification cases cited by the majority, because in the Gallatin and Shields cases the legislators voted for the candidates in the belief that they were eligible. The legislators voting for Vance, however, knew that he was ineligible and thus were deliberately throwing away their votes. The minority report therefore recommended that Abbott be seated. The debate continued for several days in April, as complex discussions about the meaning of majority and minority candidates, equal suffrage, blank votes, and voided votes frayed senatorial tempers and further divided the Republicans. Underlying the legal arguments was the strong suspicion by some Republican senators, as George F. Edmunds of Vermont complained, that "the Legislature of North Carolina intended to pronounce an insult upon the people of the United States who did not agree with them in politics by electing the particular person the majority voted for." In fact, Matthew Carpenter cited affidavits stating that North Carolina legislators had heard Democratic and Conservative members declare, "We vote for Vance because his disabilities have not been removed; we have eaten dirt long enough." North Carolina Republican John Pool reinforced this view, reporting that "members were allowed seats in the [legislature] who were notoriously and confessedly under the disability imposed by the fourteenth amendment." Many citizens of the state, he believed, would be delighted to have Abbott seated as a rebuke to the legislature, and a number of Senate Republicans agreed. On April 23, 1872, the Senate finally accepted the committee report, agreeing that, as Joseph Abbott did not have a majority of the votes cast in the North Carolina assembly, he could not claim the seat. The Senate did, however, vote him compensation and mileage for the year he had waited for a decision. In denying the seat to Abbott, the Senate accepted the premise that, if it chose, it could have removed the disabilities of Zebulon Vance after his election, a procedure that had been followed for officials elected by several other southern states. On February 5, 1872, while the Senate was still wrestling with the dilemma of turning out the well-liked and effective Abbott, Matt W. Ransom (Democrat-NC) had appeared with credentials for the disputed seat, having been elected to replace Vance. Unlike Vance, Ransom, a former brigadier general in the Confederate army, had not served in Congress before the war and thus was not hampered by the same disability. The Senate referred his credentials to the Committee on Privileges and Elections. On April 24, 1872, the committee reported that Ransom's credentials were in order. He was immediately seated and granted his pay from the beginning of the term in March 1871. All three of the North Carolina politicians in this case continued to serve in public life. Joseph Abbott, who earlier demonstrated his concern for the harbor at Wilmington, accepted an appointment as inspector of ports under President Rutherford B. Hayes. Abbott died in 1882. Zebulon Vance eventually came to the Senate in 1879 and served until his death in 1894. Matt Ransom remained in the Senate until 1895 and died in 1904. Source: Adapted from Anne M. Butler and Wendy Wolff. United States Senate Election, Expulsion, and Censure Cases, 1793-1990. S. Doc. 103-33. Washington, GPO, 1995.	1,950	ENGLISH	1
On the morning of the 10th of November, the KS2 children of Friars Primary School were lucky to have Claire and Peter visit from the Ability Action campaign. It is an organisation which focuses on offering services for disabled people and their families. The day started with an assembly for KS2 with Claire and Peter promoting their new primary school, ‘Everyone is the Same Primary School.’ This fun activity allowed the children to highlight differences among themselves. The idea emerged that it would be boring if everyone was the same! Claire and Peter then spoke to the children about their own disabilities and answered thoughtful and probing questions from the children. They reinforced the idea that everyone has differences – including those we can’t see - and everyone is unique and that this should be celebrated. After the assembly, Year 5 were lucky to take part in a workshop with Claire and Peter to further explore what fairness means and think about what it means to act in a fair way for others - specifically those with disabilities. The children developed their understanding of fairness through a visual and physical voting game where they had to make decisions based around a question on fairness. They were invited to explain and justify themselves clearly. Finally, the children ended by ‘walking a mile in their shoes’ and explaining how they would want people to treat them. They then reflected on how they in turn will ensure they are fair and think about the way they treat other people.	<urn:uuid:a962a251-2245-4a99-8ce5-f7e3876905c8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.friarsprimary.co.uk/single-post/2016/11/10/Ability-Action	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00189.warc.gz	en	0.986637	291	3.390625	3	[ -0.2911597192287445, -0.3754865527153015, 0.1398106813430786, -0.2542736828327179, -0.2471330761909485, 0.24679777026176453, 0.033862240612506866, 0.4331420660018921, 0.09105391055345535, -0.0977931022644043, 0.296351820230484, 0.02157844975590706, -0.03741304203867912, 0.18200485408306122...	9	On the morning of the 10th of November, the KS2 children of Friars Primary School were lucky to have Claire and Peter visit from the Ability Action campaign. It is an organisation which focuses on offering services for disabled people and their families. The day started with an assembly for KS2 with Claire and Peter promoting their new primary school, ‘Everyone is the Same Primary School.’ This fun activity allowed the children to highlight differences among themselves. The idea emerged that it would be boring if everyone was the same! Claire and Peter then spoke to the children about their own disabilities and answered thoughtful and probing questions from the children. They reinforced the idea that everyone has differences – including those we can’t see - and everyone is unique and that this should be celebrated. After the assembly, Year 5 were lucky to take part in a workshop with Claire and Peter to further explore what fairness means and think about what it means to act in a fair way for others - specifically those with disabilities. The children developed their understanding of fairness through a visual and physical voting game where they had to make decisions based around a question on fairness. They were invited to explain and justify themselves clearly. Finally, the children ended by ‘walking a mile in their shoes’ and explaining how they would want people to treat them. They then reflected on how they in turn will ensure they are fair and think about the way they treat other people.	284	ENGLISH	1
The ceasefire talks began on July 10, 1951 and continued until the ceasefire agreement was signed on July 27, 1953. The UN and North Korean forces took on fierce battles even while they were in negotiations for ceasefire. The UN forces carried out military operations as a way to break out of unresolved issues in the process of the ceasefire talks and to force the communists to accept the conditions of ceasefire. Meanwhile, the communist forces took on the battles in a bid to gain control over the ceasefire talks by displaying their military power. As the two sides changed their policies and decided to resolve the issues through dialogue, they came to discuss ceasefire. However, the ceasefire talks broke off several times due to the conflict of interest between the two sides. The Final Attack of Chinese Forces The communist forces carried out an intensive attack with a large number of troops at night of July 13 to cause a serious damage to the South Korean forces and fight against the South Korean government's claim for the advance northward and its opposition to ceasefire. The South Korean forces stood on the defensive as the Chinese forces carried out the human wave attack. However, they continued the counteroffensive and regained about a half of the region they lost during the battle. The Conclusion of Ceasefire Agreement President Lee Seung-man decided not to sign on the ceasefire agreement as he planned to hold the United Nations accountable for the situation after the ceasefire. On July 27, 1953, representatives of the UN forces and the communist forces signed the ceasefire agreement. The ceasefire talks were the longest ever in the world history. Over the course of the ceasefire talks, the two sides held 765 rounds of meetings and finally concluded the agreement two years after the beginning of the talks. However, the ceasefire agreement only brought hostile actions to a halt, which means that the war was on a halt, but technically was not over. Therefore, since the ceasefire agreement in 1953, the Ceasefire Commission, which was established according to the agreement, has monitored whether or not the parties concerned observe the ceasefire agreement.	<urn:uuid:1c227f31-03f3-47b1-a8e7-7a6aad44ef96>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mpva.go.kr/english/front/koreanwar/agreement.do	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00458.warc.gz	en	0.982949	420	3.96875	4	[ -0.752198338508606, 0.356208473443985, 0.20694315433502197, -0.006530343554913998, -0.06352242827415466, 0.20659443736076355, -0.05168357491493225, -0.48888060450553894, -0.11386788636445999, -0.21199074387550354, 0.6299533247947693, -0.32138901948928833, 0.5019460320472717, 0.624285817146...	3	The ceasefire talks began on July 10, 1951 and continued until the ceasefire agreement was signed on July 27, 1953. The UN and North Korean forces took on fierce battles even while they were in negotiations for ceasefire. The UN forces carried out military operations as a way to break out of unresolved issues in the process of the ceasefire talks and to force the communists to accept the conditions of ceasefire. Meanwhile, the communist forces took on the battles in a bid to gain control over the ceasefire talks by displaying their military power. As the two sides changed their policies and decided to resolve the issues through dialogue, they came to discuss ceasefire. However, the ceasefire talks broke off several times due to the conflict of interest between the two sides. The Final Attack of Chinese Forces The communist forces carried out an intensive attack with a large number of troops at night of July 13 to cause a serious damage to the South Korean forces and fight against the South Korean government's claim for the advance northward and its opposition to ceasefire. The South Korean forces stood on the defensive as the Chinese forces carried out the human wave attack. However, they continued the counteroffensive and regained about a half of the region they lost during the battle. The Conclusion of Ceasefire Agreement President Lee Seung-man decided not to sign on the ceasefire agreement as he planned to hold the United Nations accountable for the situation after the ceasefire. On July 27, 1953, representatives of the UN forces and the communist forces signed the ceasefire agreement. The ceasefire talks were the longest ever in the world history. Over the course of the ceasefire talks, the two sides held 765 rounds of meetings and finally concluded the agreement two years after the beginning of the talks. However, the ceasefire agreement only brought hostile actions to a halt, which means that the war was on a halt, but technically was not over. Therefore, since the ceasefire agreement in 1953, the Ceasefire Commission, which was established according to the agreement, has monitored whether or not the parties concerned observe the ceasefire agreement.	433	ENGLISH	1
December 7, 2019, marks the 78th anniversary of the attack on Pearl Harbor. This was a pivotal day in world history, ultimately leading the United States to enter the Second World War. Prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japan participated in a series of invasions into China, believing the only way to solve its economic and demographic problems was to expand into China and take over its import market. This attitude helped create rising tension with the United States, and American officials ultimately responded with economic sanctions and trade embargoes. Although it seemed war was inevitable, the Japanese preempted the American military with a surprise attack targeting Pearl Harbor, which is 2,000 miles from the U.S. mainland and 4,000 miles from Japan. Pearl Harbor is a U.S. naval base located near Honolulu, HI. On a Sunday morning on December 7, 1941, just before 8:00 a.m. local time, Japanese fighter planes descended on the base in a surprise attack. Five additional attacks followed throughout the day. The Japanese managed to destroy nearly 20 American naval vessels, which included eight battleships, and more than 300 airplanes. While the military equipment could ultimately be replaced, the more than 2,400 military personnel and civilians who died paid the ultimate price. It is believed the United States was especially surprised by the attack, as American military leaders felt, if an attack were to take place, it would come from the sea rather than the air. In addition, American intelligence officials were confident that any Japanese attack would take place in one of the European colonies in the South Pacific, such as Singapore or Indochina, which are closer to Japan than Hawaii. Despite devastating Pearl Harbor, all hopes were not lost that day, and the Japanese could not cripple America’s Pacific Fleet. Aircraft carriers were not docked at the base, and the key onshore oil storage, shipyards, repair shops, and docks were left largely intact. From a functional standpoint, the U.S. Navy was able to quickly rebound. However, even 78 years later, the residual emotional effects of the attack continue, particularly among WWII veterans, as well as the family members of those who perished.	<urn:uuid:afe10fb1-e7a6-4829-9036-1be60390d441>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.portsmouth-dailytimes.com/news/43900/remembering-pearl-harbor	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00142.warc.gz	en	0.981712	447	3.5	4	[ -0.085475392639637, 0.026768071576952934, 0.09244541078805923, -0.42629337310791016, 0.3467719852924347, 0.596705973148346, -0.0014478374505415559, 0.388327419757843, -0.055940892547369, -0.11463233083486557, 0.8004133701324463, -0.040982600301504135, 0.06996115297079086, 0.616725385189056...	8	December 7, 2019, marks the 78th anniversary of the attack on Pearl Harbor. This was a pivotal day in world history, ultimately leading the United States to enter the Second World War. Prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japan participated in a series of invasions into China, believing the only way to solve its economic and demographic problems was to expand into China and take over its import market. This attitude helped create rising tension with the United States, and American officials ultimately responded with economic sanctions and trade embargoes. Although it seemed war was inevitable, the Japanese preempted the American military with a surprise attack targeting Pearl Harbor, which is 2,000 miles from the U.S. mainland and 4,000 miles from Japan. Pearl Harbor is a U.S. naval base located near Honolulu, HI. On a Sunday morning on December 7, 1941, just before 8:00 a.m. local time, Japanese fighter planes descended on the base in a surprise attack. Five additional attacks followed throughout the day. The Japanese managed to destroy nearly 20 American naval vessels, which included eight battleships, and more than 300 airplanes. While the military equipment could ultimately be replaced, the more than 2,400 military personnel and civilians who died paid the ultimate price. It is believed the United States was especially surprised by the attack, as American military leaders felt, if an attack were to take place, it would come from the sea rather than the air. In addition, American intelligence officials were confident that any Japanese attack would take place in one of the European colonies in the South Pacific, such as Singapore or Indochina, which are closer to Japan than Hawaii. Despite devastating Pearl Harbor, all hopes were not lost that day, and the Japanese could not cripple America’s Pacific Fleet. Aircraft carriers were not docked at the base, and the key onshore oil storage, shipyards, repair shops, and docks were left largely intact. From a functional standpoint, the U.S. Navy was able to quickly rebound. However, even 78 years later, the residual emotional effects of the attack continue, particularly among WWII veterans, as well as the family members of those who perished.	468	ENGLISH	1
Did you know that Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher is credited for having coined the word “feminism” in 1837? I was surprised that feminism started so far back. When you think of feminism, is your first thought the Suffragettes in the early 1900’s? There were many waves of feminism over the decades and movements that occurred around the world. In the twentieth century, Gloria Steinem was a strong feminist and was politically active to help women advance and be recognized for their skills. I have read so many books, seen television shows and movies where feminism not only didn’t exist but if a female wanted to work at a “man’s” profession she was shunned, disrespectfully treated, and paid far less than her counterpart male. Many of the books emphasized that the woman’s place was in the home and that’s where she should remain while the man worked to earn a living.During World War II, most of the men were at war and the women did all of the male jobs. They worked in factories, assembled guns, and even were pilots. When the men returned home, the women were expected to go back to being housewives, but most of them didn’t want that life style. That led to many difficulties. It started in the late 1940’s and early 1950’s. The transition was so difficult that in the 1950’s and 1960’s, many women were extremely frustrated which led to alcoholism, prescription drug addition, and many billable hours for psychologists and psychiatrists. When you think of feminism today, its almost non existent. Many woman have children, work outside the home, and take care of their families. There were periods of recession when women had an easier time obtaining a job than their husbands, fathers, brothers, and male friends. The old saying “A woman’s place is in the home,” doesn’t really exist anymore. There have been women who have been Prime Ministers such as Margaret Thatcher of the United Kingdom, and currently Angela Merkel of Germany. They are two very strong women. In the Good Gus Series, women are equal. Mary, from May’s Cafe’, works and takes care of her family. Her husband assists her, but she basically runs the business. Doc Moore’s nurse, Joyce, left the UK and traveled alone to Pecos, Texas to begin a new life. That took courage and a great deal of strength. In the books, she is recognized for her skills and abilities. Doc Moore looks at her as his equal. Miss Patty, the school teacher, is also a strongwoman n whose ideas and opinions are valued and respected. As you think about examples for the child or children in your life to show that girls should be respected and have their own success, I hope you will consider a book from the Good Gus Series.	<urn:uuid:9ef27dc5-bff2-4a40-8cd8-0044907d50ac>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.goodgusbooks.com/good-gus/feminism/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00135.warc.gz	en	0.990008	605	3.265625	3	[ 0.025819115340709686, 0.12593381106853485, -0.013379495590925217, 0.031815752387046814, -0.2912229299545288, 0.17016857862472534, 0.06028948724269867, 0.4899478554725647, 0.15554092824459076, -0.27416884899139404, 0.23496663570404053, 0.29886266589164734, 0.10494232177734375, 0.07022436708...	3	Did you know that Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher is credited for having coined the word “feminism” in 1837? I was surprised that feminism started so far back. When you think of feminism, is your first thought the Suffragettes in the early 1900’s? There were many waves of feminism over the decades and movements that occurred around the world. In the twentieth century, Gloria Steinem was a strong feminist and was politically active to help women advance and be recognized for their skills. I have read so many books, seen television shows and movies where feminism not only didn’t exist but if a female wanted to work at a “man’s” profession she was shunned, disrespectfully treated, and paid far less than her counterpart male. Many of the books emphasized that the woman’s place was in the home and that’s where she should remain while the man worked to earn a living.During World War II, most of the men were at war and the women did all of the male jobs. They worked in factories, assembled guns, and even were pilots. When the men returned home, the women were expected to go back to being housewives, but most of them didn’t want that life style. That led to many difficulties. It started in the late 1940’s and early 1950’s. The transition was so difficult that in the 1950’s and 1960’s, many women were extremely frustrated which led to alcoholism, prescription drug addition, and many billable hours for psychologists and psychiatrists. When you think of feminism today, its almost non existent. Many woman have children, work outside the home, and take care of their families. There were periods of recession when women had an easier time obtaining a job than their husbands, fathers, brothers, and male friends. The old saying “A woman’s place is in the home,” doesn’t really exist anymore. There have been women who have been Prime Ministers such as Margaret Thatcher of the United Kingdom, and currently Angela Merkel of Germany. They are two very strong women. In the Good Gus Series, women are equal. Mary, from May’s Cafe’, works and takes care of her family. Her husband assists her, but she basically runs the business. Doc Moore’s nurse, Joyce, left the UK and traveled alone to Pecos, Texas to begin a new life. That took courage and a great deal of strength. In the books, she is recognized for her skills and abilities. Doc Moore looks at her as his equal. Miss Patty, the school teacher, is also a strongwoman n whose ideas and opinions are valued and respected. As you think about examples for the child or children in your life to show that girls should be respected and have their own success, I hope you will consider a book from the Good Gus Series.	593	ENGLISH	1
Introduction and liberations The first possum liberations in 1837 were unsuccessful, but that did not dissuade those who believed in a fur industry. The first possum population was established in 1858 in Southland. From then until 1922, 36 batches of possums were imported. By 1930, these animals and their descendants had been let loose in 450 locations around the country. At first private individuals released possums, but from 1870 until 1921 acclimatisation societies took over the role. By 1921 the government prohibited further liberations, although trappers continued to release them illegally. Hunting and selling skins was regulated until 1946 when, after much debate, it was decided that possums were an environmental pest, and all protection was removed. The first large-scale attempt to control possums was a bounty scheme which ran from 1951 to 1961. Eight million bounties of two shillings and sixpence were paid out for ‘possum tokens’ – the ears and a strip of fur. However, more than 75% of these animals were taken from near farms, picked off roads or caught in other easily accessible places. In the forests, possum numbers continued to grow. Spread of possums In the early 2000s, there were possums in almost all of mainland New Zealand. It is estimated that they occupied about 54% of the country in 1950, 84% by 1963 and 91% by 1980. The last areas colonised were Fiordland and Northland. In the 1960s there were virtually no possums in Northland, but by the mid-1990s there were 10–15 million. Possums have been eradicated from a number of islands, notably Rangitoto, Motutapu, Kāpiti, Whenua Hou/Codfish, Whanganui and Tarakaipa, all of which have outstanding conservation importance. Between 1980 and 1986, 19,612 possums were killed on Kāpiti Island. Bird counts between 1982 and 1988 showed that the density of birds doubled, even though rats were still present. Obviously, possums had played a large part in keeping bird populations low. Early botanist H. B. Kirk did not see the possum as a pest. He wrote in a 1920 government report that he believed the animals could ‘with advantage be liberated in all forest districts except where the forest is fringed by orchards or has plantations of imported trees in the neighbourhood’. 1 Once possum populations started to soar, trappers began to make a living from hunting them. Throughout the 1970s prices were good. They peaked in 1981, when 3.2 million skins were exported. In more accessible areas, hunting reduced possum numbers. The possum fur business is only 1% of the worldwide fur market by value. Traditionally possum fur has been valued for trimming clothes, but since the 1990s prices have been low, forcing hunters out of the industry. Since 1993 the possum-product industry has diversified to use pelts, leather, fibre and meat (sold to Asian countries). Fibre is used by itself to make hats and gloves, or spun with merino wool and made into a soft and luxurious fabric.	<urn:uuid:47d89193-4e88-402d-80d5-7902f45fbe7f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://teara.govt.nz/en/possums/page-2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00371.warc.gz	en	0.983699	666	3.59375	4	[ 0.22839663922786713, -0.018470831215381622, 0.34945833683013916, -0.21819044649600983, 0.2596503496170044, 0.0852259173989296, -0.17286330461502075, -0.14172396063804626, 0.06778571009635925, 0.49981439113616943, 0.17572009563446045, -0.7926644086837769, 0.3802252411842346, 0.2326304316520...	16	Introduction and liberations The first possum liberations in 1837 were unsuccessful, but that did not dissuade those who believed in a fur industry. The first possum population was established in 1858 in Southland. From then until 1922, 36 batches of possums were imported. By 1930, these animals and their descendants had been let loose in 450 locations around the country. At first private individuals released possums, but from 1870 until 1921 acclimatisation societies took over the role. By 1921 the government prohibited further liberations, although trappers continued to release them illegally. Hunting and selling skins was regulated until 1946 when, after much debate, it was decided that possums were an environmental pest, and all protection was removed. The first large-scale attempt to control possums was a bounty scheme which ran from 1951 to 1961. Eight million bounties of two shillings and sixpence were paid out for ‘possum tokens’ – the ears and a strip of fur. However, more than 75% of these animals were taken from near farms, picked off roads or caught in other easily accessible places. In the forests, possum numbers continued to grow. Spread of possums In the early 2000s, there were possums in almost all of mainland New Zealand. It is estimated that they occupied about 54% of the country in 1950, 84% by 1963 and 91% by 1980. The last areas colonised were Fiordland and Northland. In the 1960s there were virtually no possums in Northland, but by the mid-1990s there were 10–15 million. Possums have been eradicated from a number of islands, notably Rangitoto, Motutapu, Kāpiti, Whenua Hou/Codfish, Whanganui and Tarakaipa, all of which have outstanding conservation importance. Between 1980 and 1986, 19,612 possums were killed on Kāpiti Island. Bird counts between 1982 and 1988 showed that the density of birds doubled, even though rats were still present. Obviously, possums had played a large part in keeping bird populations low. Early botanist H. B. Kirk did not see the possum as a pest. He wrote in a 1920 government report that he believed the animals could ‘with advantage be liberated in all forest districts except where the forest is fringed by orchards or has plantations of imported trees in the neighbourhood’. 1 Once possum populations started to soar, trappers began to make a living from hunting them. Throughout the 1970s prices were good. They peaked in 1981, when 3.2 million skins were exported. In more accessible areas, hunting reduced possum numbers. The possum fur business is only 1% of the worldwide fur market by value. Traditionally possum fur has been valued for trimming clothes, but since the 1990s prices have been low, forcing hunters out of the industry. Since 1993 the possum-product industry has diversified to use pelts, leather, fibre and meat (sold to Asian countries). Fibre is used by itself to make hats and gloves, or spun with merino wool and made into a soft and luxurious fabric.	779	ENGLISH	1
Change is something that is ever present in the world and it has been since the beginning of time. Politics and political systems have not by any stretch of the imagination been immune to this. Merriam-Webster simply defines change as making different in some particular. Political change is the shift in institutions, processes, values, leaders, and culture within a political system within a region. Countries have gone through different levels of change through the generations. You can see an interesting comparison when taking a country such as Germany, which has gone through rapid change over the past 150 years through several political systems, sets of values, and institutions compared to a country such as England, which has undergone minimal change in almost 1000 years. The factors that cause the levels of instability and speed at which they occur are many. Again, Germany is a great example of a country to study because of just how much change it has undergone. Since 1871, Germany has been through eight separate government styles and structures. In the latter parts of the 19th century into the 20th century it was an empire. Following the end of the empire, Germany's government structure was the Weimar Republic. This led into possibly the most infamous of all governments, which was the third Reich fascist Nazi dictatorship. This led into one of the most unsettling times of any country not only in Europe, but also, in the world. From 1949-1990 there were concurrent governments in Germany. The west was a blossoming democracy while the east was an oppressive communist regime. This dichotomy, which was the center and poster child of the Cold War, lasted until 1990. At the end of this, Germany finally was reunited as working towards the democratic government that it has today. Buy Political Change Rough Draft essay paper online That kind of change can really make people wonder. Countless political scientists have studied it over the past century trying to figure out what it is that makes a country such as Germany remain in so much turmoil. There have been many theories as to why this has been so. It has been postulated that the reason they have undergone so much change is that they never had their middle class revolution. It has also been argued that Germany is just a "sick nation", and many people argues that Germany as a whole must perish for the good of society. The type of change that occurred To examine the changes on the German political systems one must take them on a case-by-case basis. Each of these regime changes has been different in their very nature. The German Empire, which was a constitutional monarchy in structure, was founded on January 18, 1871. The Germany Empire was brought to an end at the close of the First World War. The Weimar Republic succeeded it. The Weimar Republic was a parliamentary republic. It emerged from the German Revolution that took place in November 1918. The name came from the city that the constitution was drawn up in. No matter the intentions or the drive that was behind the Weimar Republic, many considered it to be doomed from the start. Due to the catastrophic financial burdens of the Treaty of Versailles, the government lapsed into tremendous debt and hyperinflation. Despite a few reformative victories for the government, it never was able to have a transformative effect that could lead to any semblance of stability. The radicalism that the turmoil caused led directly to the regime that replaced the Weimar Republic. Sources of the changes The totalitarian dictatorship of the National Socialist German Workers' Party, or "Nazi" party, is perhaps the most infamous era of government in the past thousand years. The transformation from the Weimar Republic to the Nazi government was one of relative peacefulness. It was started through election into the Reichstag Parliament and eventually the dissolution of parliament. After the dissolution of parliament, Adolf Hitler was officially sworn in as chancellor. After his election, Hitler sought to have uninterrupted totalitarian power and introduced legislation that would eventually lead to this such as the Enabling Act which allowed governmental decisions to be made without the approval of the Reichstag even if they went against the constitution. In this way the change of government was done all within the bounds of the previous government and their regulations. Following the Treaty of Versailles crippling effects of the country as well as the general discontent that overtook Germany post war, the changes offered by the Nazi party represented hope and prosperity to the German people regardless of their means of doing it and their true agenda. For all of the issues Germany had after the war, the Nazi government was able to accomplish much in the way of getting Germany back on track after the crippling effects of the treaty. The government rewrote the laws of the country to benefit Hitler's agenda. Hitler even appointed himself President on top of the position of Chancellor after Paul von Hindenburg's death, gaining even more power and leaving him with true totalitarian powers. Hitler did many things in direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles but was never stopped. Whether it was the rearmament of the Germany military or the retaking of many territories, Germany was building itself back from the oppressive Treaty. Nobody can accuse the Nazi government of lacking ambition as they marched across Europe, heading the start of the Second World War that would eventually lead to it's own demise. Consequences of the changes The close of the Nazi government is obviously most noted by the close of the Second World War. Once again the losing country seen to be at fault, Germany was doomed to be torn up again at the mercy of the victorious side. To begin with the country was split up into four regions, each controlled by one of the four victorious countries Russia, America, France, and England. Eventually France, England, and America merged sections of Germany leaving what was known as West Germany, while the Soviets kept their side, East Germany. This transformation was not the dramatic uprising of powers or hostile takeover of the past. It was seen as an inevitable consequence of once again being the losing side to a war. Post war West became a budding democracy while the East fell under communistic Soviet control. This dichotomy in such a small country, smaller than the size of Texas, is seen as the poster child for the entire Cold War. Military governments were the norm in all German lands in the immediate aftermath of the war. The East fell under a socialist regime that was headed up by the Russians. While by 1949, the government of the British, American and French zones had combined to create West Germany, with it's capital in Bonn. The two sides moved in opposite directions over the coming decades. Eventually by the mid 1980's the West was a prospering democracy and the East was crippled under the reign of the Russians financially and with overall quality of life. When the Berlin wall fell and the East was reunited with the West, there was and still is to an extent a period of attempting to bring the East to par with the west in terms of democracy and capitalism. Through all of the trials and tribulations in the past 150 years however, Germany has gone from the poster child of the Cold War to a poster child of democracy and capitalism and how a country can change it economic and political stars in order to provide a better life for it's citizens. Russia is another example of a country that has undergone a fair amount of changes throughout its history. It has not been as rapid or as dramatic as the changes that have occurred in Germany by any stretch, but the country to this day is far from a stable democracy. The lands that represent Russia have been under various reigns and control throughout history that includes the Mongolians and several small ruling groups due to the vast expanse of land that is Russia. Perhaps an acceptable time to look at the beginning of Russia political transformation is the formation of the Russian Revolution of 1917. Type of change that occurred Prior to the Russia Revolution, Russia had been a tsarist autocracy. The region had undergone many formations and regimes over the thousands of years it has been in existence but the time of Ivan the Terrible is widely recognized as the time when the position of the tsar had grown the most in power and in scope. Under a tsarist autocracy, the tsar is the supreme ruler. He has a large ownership of everything from land to enterprises. The source of the changes In the early 20th century, the Russian people became increasingly dissatisfied with the tsarist rule. Between the embarrassing defeats suffered in the First World War to the defeat In the Russo-Japanese War, things were not performing at a peak level on the international scale. Things inside the borders of Russia were not much better. There was growing dissatisfaction with the living conditions and people such as Rasputin increased the levels of discontent with the current system as it was in place. In a series of bloody revolutions, the country was able to overthrow the final tsar of Russia, Nicholas II. His family and him were then eventually brutally murdered, including his thirteen-year-old son. This was not a smooth transition into a stable government that took place. The Russian Revolution led off the Russian Civil War, which lasted until 1923. The provisional government however, which was a republic by nature with a President and many ministers, only lasted until October of 1917, just a few short months after Nicholas had been abdicated. Consequences of the changes In October of 1917, in a joint effort of the Bolsheviks and the Red Army, overthrew the provisional government and implanted their own in another revolutionary attack. They then implanted their communist government, which became the biggest and most powerful communist government that this world has probably ever seen. With the world being fully entrenched in World War I as well as the internal fighting of Russia, between the Red and White armies, the Bolsheviks attempted to enact a form of wartime communism. This lasted until the White Army was defeated finally. Full-fledged communism, with a complete lack of private industry did not take effect until the country had stabilized from the Civil War and Stalin took office in 1928. This government was both famous and infamous at the exact same time. The quality of life was never of supreme concern to the communist regime. It was made up of several parts. The leader, or first secretary, was the head of the party. There was also the Politburo, the group that made decisions, which was made up of many different groups. There was also the Central Committee, which was essentially the top of the party body, which was in charge of all activities of the party. This governmental regime lasted almost six decades before it began to collapse. Due once again to a poor quality of life, but also the failure of their efforts in Afghanistan and catastrophes such as Chernobyl caused many within Russia to become weary once again with the government in place. These many events lead to the corrosion of the communist government, as it no longer had the support of the people it was governing, and Russians longed for a change. Gorbachev made many attempts at reform to stabilize the government but despite a few minor policy successes, it was largely a failure that was the final straw leading to the collapse of the Soviet Union. The collapse took almost two full years to be complete with many of its constituents breaking off and forming their own independent governments. There was much violence in the times of this change in countries such as Lithuania. A coup d'état was attempted to overthrow Gorbachev made by many members of the Soviet government that lasted three days. It ultimately failed but this led to the even further weakening of his powers. As this had shown up to this point, the change of political systems throughout the former Soviet Union was very heated and drawn out through much area and time. On December 31st of 1991 Russia was officially accepted as the successor to the Soviet Union. The Russian Federation, as it is now known, has undergone change since the collapse of the Soviet Union. It is a government that is riddled with corruption and this has hampered much of the attempts to modernize and democratize the country to the levels of the Western world. The mafia and other groups make the democratization of the country very difficult as well. Despite what the country is considered to be governmentally, it is a subject that is up for much debate as to how we should really classify the Russian government. It has been titled a Federal semi-presidential republic. There is a president but the prime minister appoints him. The prime minister still maintains a vast array of powers and abilities to manipulate the government to follow through with his wishes including the ability to disband the Duma, or legislative body, if his pick for president is denied on three occasions. There are also many ministers in the Russian government, which act to head several departments within the government such as finance and defense. Although the political culture and structure is still riddled with corruption and issues, Russia is considered to be among the four large developing or BRIC countries, along with India, China, and Brazil. The future of the Russian government is one that has a lot of questions, as even the citizenry of the country, who are used to a strong head of state, are not truly unanimous in support of democracy. One thing is for certain though, Russia is a country that has undergone much political change in the past century and that it will continue to grow and change as time moves forward in hopes of moving towards a stabilized democracy as many in the country do still strive for. If these examples of governmental change can prove anything, is it that there is much variation in types, scope, and longevity of political change. There are few specifics that ring true throughout time and between multiple countries and their political changes. There are a few general ideas one can take from just looking at countries such as Germany and Russia. One is that when things get bad enough, a countries electorate can rise up and take the steps it feels necessary to settle the country to be better for all that live there. Revolutions have a powerful effect on government and it can be seen in many countries around the world that often structure the country so as to prevent revolution as much as possible in order to keep the status quo intact. Also, the outside pressures that the geopolitical world around a country exerts can have an enormous effect on what goes on within that country. Often these forces are directly on the government itself, but often it is just the very presence of the outside world that leads to malcontent with government and can cause the needed desire to create change politically in a country. Even as you look at the political climate today in our own country, you can see much of the same things ringing true in our stabilized democracy, which is seen as the end game of political development. Movements such as the Tea Party Express show how grass roots efforts in a short period of time can turn into something, and when you put it on a larger scale of discontent with the government such as seen through different times in Germany, Russia, and to an extent England, the dramatic and lasting effects that it is capable of having. All of these cases across the board in the end show that change is ever present in the world and in government be it an unstable blossoming colonial government or a stabilized and powerful democracy, the world never stops turning and changing, and those that refuse to embrace it, either in government or as a general rule, will collapse. Related Free Politics Essays Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:472fd311-f392-426e-816f-45946168c29a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://exclusivepapers.com/essays/politics/political-change-rough-draft.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00470.warc.gz	en	0.985286	3,112	3.375	3	[ -0.32897207140922546, 0.2503209114074707, 0.5827751159667969, -0.06154610589146614, 0.2155281901359558, 0.4538613557815552, 0.11602841317653656, 0.09092210233211517, -0.06411256641149521, 0.07735683023929596, 0.290708065032959, 0.02471606433391571, 0.05157609283924103, 0.22272755205631256,...	1	Change is something that is ever present in the world and it has been since the beginning of time. Politics and political systems have not by any stretch of the imagination been immune to this. Merriam-Webster simply defines change as making different in some particular. Political change is the shift in institutions, processes, values, leaders, and culture within a political system within a region. Countries have gone through different levels of change through the generations. You can see an interesting comparison when taking a country such as Germany, which has gone through rapid change over the past 150 years through several political systems, sets of values, and institutions compared to a country such as England, which has undergone minimal change in almost 1000 years. The factors that cause the levels of instability and speed at which they occur are many. Again, Germany is a great example of a country to study because of just how much change it has undergone. Since 1871, Germany has been through eight separate government styles and structures. In the latter parts of the 19th century into the 20th century it was an empire. Following the end of the empire, Germany's government structure was the Weimar Republic. This led into possibly the most infamous of all governments, which was the third Reich fascist Nazi dictatorship. This led into one of the most unsettling times of any country not only in Europe, but also, in the world. From 1949-1990 there were concurrent governments in Germany. The west was a blossoming democracy while the east was an oppressive communist regime. This dichotomy, which was the center and poster child of the Cold War, lasted until 1990. At the end of this, Germany finally was reunited as working towards the democratic government that it has today. Buy Political Change Rough Draft essay paper online That kind of change can really make people wonder. Countless political scientists have studied it over the past century trying to figure out what it is that makes a country such as Germany remain in so much turmoil. There have been many theories as to why this has been so. It has been postulated that the reason they have undergone so much change is that they never had their middle class revolution. It has also been argued that Germany is just a "sick nation", and many people argues that Germany as a whole must perish for the good of society. The type of change that occurred To examine the changes on the German political systems one must take them on a case-by-case basis. Each of these regime changes has been different in their very nature. The German Empire, which was a constitutional monarchy in structure, was founded on January 18, 1871. The Germany Empire was brought to an end at the close of the First World War. The Weimar Republic succeeded it. The Weimar Republic was a parliamentary republic. It emerged from the German Revolution that took place in November 1918. The name came from the city that the constitution was drawn up in. No matter the intentions or the drive that was behind the Weimar Republic, many considered it to be doomed from the start. Due to the catastrophic financial burdens of the Treaty of Versailles, the government lapsed into tremendous debt and hyperinflation. Despite a few reformative victories for the government, it never was able to have a transformative effect that could lead to any semblance of stability. The radicalism that the turmoil caused led directly to the regime that replaced the Weimar Republic. Sources of the changes The totalitarian dictatorship of the National Socialist German Workers' Party, or "Nazi" party, is perhaps the most infamous era of government in the past thousand years. The transformation from the Weimar Republic to the Nazi government was one of relative peacefulness. It was started through election into the Reichstag Parliament and eventually the dissolution of parliament. After the dissolution of parliament, Adolf Hitler was officially sworn in as chancellor. After his election, Hitler sought to have uninterrupted totalitarian power and introduced legislation that would eventually lead to this such as the Enabling Act which allowed governmental decisions to be made without the approval of the Reichstag even if they went against the constitution. In this way the change of government was done all within the bounds of the previous government and their regulations. Following the Treaty of Versailles crippling effects of the country as well as the general discontent that overtook Germany post war, the changes offered by the Nazi party represented hope and prosperity to the German people regardless of their means of doing it and their true agenda. For all of the issues Germany had after the war, the Nazi government was able to accomplish much in the way of getting Germany back on track after the crippling effects of the treaty. The government rewrote the laws of the country to benefit Hitler's agenda. Hitler even appointed himself President on top of the position of Chancellor after Paul von Hindenburg's death, gaining even more power and leaving him with true totalitarian powers. Hitler did many things in direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles but was never stopped. Whether it was the rearmament of the Germany military or the retaking of many territories, Germany was building itself back from the oppressive Treaty. Nobody can accuse the Nazi government of lacking ambition as they marched across Europe, heading the start of the Second World War that would eventually lead to it's own demise. Consequences of the changes The close of the Nazi government is obviously most noted by the close of the Second World War. Once again the losing country seen to be at fault, Germany was doomed to be torn up again at the mercy of the victorious side. To begin with the country was split up into four regions, each controlled by one of the four victorious countries Russia, America, France, and England. Eventually France, England, and America merged sections of Germany leaving what was known as West Germany, while the Soviets kept their side, East Germany. This transformation was not the dramatic uprising of powers or hostile takeover of the past. It was seen as an inevitable consequence of once again being the losing side to a war. Post war West became a budding democracy while the East fell under communistic Soviet control. This dichotomy in such a small country, smaller than the size of Texas, is seen as the poster child for the entire Cold War. Military governments were the norm in all German lands in the immediate aftermath of the war. The East fell under a socialist regime that was headed up by the Russians. While by 1949, the government of the British, American and French zones had combined to create West Germany, with it's capital in Bonn. The two sides moved in opposite directions over the coming decades. Eventually by the mid 1980's the West was a prospering democracy and the East was crippled under the reign of the Russians financially and with overall quality of life. When the Berlin wall fell and the East was reunited with the West, there was and still is to an extent a period of attempting to bring the East to par with the west in terms of democracy and capitalism. Through all of the trials and tribulations in the past 150 years however, Germany has gone from the poster child of the Cold War to a poster child of democracy and capitalism and how a country can change it economic and political stars in order to provide a better life for it's citizens. Russia is another example of a country that has undergone a fair amount of changes throughout its history. It has not been as rapid or as dramatic as the changes that have occurred in Germany by any stretch, but the country to this day is far from a stable democracy. The lands that represent Russia have been under various reigns and control throughout history that includes the Mongolians and several small ruling groups due to the vast expanse of land that is Russia. Perhaps an acceptable time to look at the beginning of Russia political transformation is the formation of the Russian Revolution of 1917. Type of change that occurred Prior to the Russia Revolution, Russia had been a tsarist autocracy. The region had undergone many formations and regimes over the thousands of years it has been in existence but the time of Ivan the Terrible is widely recognized as the time when the position of the tsar had grown the most in power and in scope. Under a tsarist autocracy, the tsar is the supreme ruler. He has a large ownership of everything from land to enterprises. The source of the changes In the early 20th century, the Russian people became increasingly dissatisfied with the tsarist rule. Between the embarrassing defeats suffered in the First World War to the defeat In the Russo-Japanese War, things were not performing at a peak level on the international scale. Things inside the borders of Russia were not much better. There was growing dissatisfaction with the living conditions and people such as Rasputin increased the levels of discontent with the current system as it was in place. In a series of bloody revolutions, the country was able to overthrow the final tsar of Russia, Nicholas II. His family and him were then eventually brutally murdered, including his thirteen-year-old son. This was not a smooth transition into a stable government that took place. The Russian Revolution led off the Russian Civil War, which lasted until 1923. The provisional government however, which was a republic by nature with a President and many ministers, only lasted until October of 1917, just a few short months after Nicholas had been abdicated. Consequences of the changes In October of 1917, in a joint effort of the Bolsheviks and the Red Army, overthrew the provisional government and implanted their own in another revolutionary attack. They then implanted their communist government, which became the biggest and most powerful communist government that this world has probably ever seen. With the world being fully entrenched in World War I as well as the internal fighting of Russia, between the Red and White armies, the Bolsheviks attempted to enact a form of wartime communism. This lasted until the White Army was defeated finally. Full-fledged communism, with a complete lack of private industry did not take effect until the country had stabilized from the Civil War and Stalin took office in 1928. This government was both famous and infamous at the exact same time. The quality of life was never of supreme concern to the communist regime. It was made up of several parts. The leader, or first secretary, was the head of the party. There was also the Politburo, the group that made decisions, which was made up of many different groups. There was also the Central Committee, which was essentially the top of the party body, which was in charge of all activities of the party. This governmental regime lasted almost six decades before it began to collapse. Due once again to a poor quality of life, but also the failure of their efforts in Afghanistan and catastrophes such as Chernobyl caused many within Russia to become weary once again with the government in place. These many events lead to the corrosion of the communist government, as it no longer had the support of the people it was governing, and Russians longed for a change. Gorbachev made many attempts at reform to stabilize the government but despite a few minor policy successes, it was largely a failure that was the final straw leading to the collapse of the Soviet Union. The collapse took almost two full years to be complete with many of its constituents breaking off and forming their own independent governments. There was much violence in the times of this change in countries such as Lithuania. A coup d'état was attempted to overthrow Gorbachev made by many members of the Soviet government that lasted three days. It ultimately failed but this led to the even further weakening of his powers. As this had shown up to this point, the change of political systems throughout the former Soviet Union was very heated and drawn out through much area and time. On December 31st of 1991 Russia was officially accepted as the successor to the Soviet Union. The Russian Federation, as it is now known, has undergone change since the collapse of the Soviet Union. It is a government that is riddled with corruption and this has hampered much of the attempts to modernize and democratize the country to the levels of the Western world. The mafia and other groups make the democratization of the country very difficult as well. Despite what the country is considered to be governmentally, it is a subject that is up for much debate as to how we should really classify the Russian government. It has been titled a Federal semi-presidential republic. There is a president but the prime minister appoints him. The prime minister still maintains a vast array of powers and abilities to manipulate the government to follow through with his wishes including the ability to disband the Duma, or legislative body, if his pick for president is denied on three occasions. There are also many ministers in the Russian government, which act to head several departments within the government such as finance and defense. Although the political culture and structure is still riddled with corruption and issues, Russia is considered to be among the four large developing or BRIC countries, along with India, China, and Brazil. The future of the Russian government is one that has a lot of questions, as even the citizenry of the country, who are used to a strong head of state, are not truly unanimous in support of democracy. One thing is for certain though, Russia is a country that has undergone much political change in the past century and that it will continue to grow and change as time moves forward in hopes of moving towards a stabilized democracy as many in the country do still strive for. If these examples of governmental change can prove anything, is it that there is much variation in types, scope, and longevity of political change. There are few specifics that ring true throughout time and between multiple countries and their political changes. There are a few general ideas one can take from just looking at countries such as Germany and Russia. One is that when things get bad enough, a countries electorate can rise up and take the steps it feels necessary to settle the country to be better for all that live there. Revolutions have a powerful effect on government and it can be seen in many countries around the world that often structure the country so as to prevent revolution as much as possible in order to keep the status quo intact. Also, the outside pressures that the geopolitical world around a country exerts can have an enormous effect on what goes on within that country. Often these forces are directly on the government itself, but often it is just the very presence of the outside world that leads to malcontent with government and can cause the needed desire to create change politically in a country. Even as you look at the political climate today in our own country, you can see much of the same things ringing true in our stabilized democracy, which is seen as the end game of political development. Movements such as the Tea Party Express show how grass roots efforts in a short period of time can turn into something, and when you put it on a larger scale of discontent with the government such as seen through different times in Germany, Russia, and to an extent England, the dramatic and lasting effects that it is capable of having. All of these cases across the board in the end show that change is ever present in the world and in government be it an unstable blossoming colonial government or a stabilized and powerful democracy, the world never stops turning and changing, and those that refuse to embrace it, either in government or as a general rule, will collapse. Related Free Politics Essays Most popular orders	3,172	ENGLISH	1
“Art is not a mirror held up to reality, but a hammer with which to shape it” –Bertolt Brecht A crowd gathered when Alton Tobey set up his easel on the Old State House lawn. Insurance company workers on their lunch break watched the painter and his three colleagues as they worked on large posters depicting the fight against fascism in Spain. It was October 11, 1938, and Tobey’s talents were focused on the state of the world, dominated by the rise of Hitler, Mussolini, and Franco in Spain. Tobey had been recruited for the mural painting by Jerome Stavola, an art instructor at the Hartford Federal College. Along with Bob Beebe and Joseph Scarozzo, they were preparing for a major event at Bushnell Memorial Hall to raise funds for the relief ship which would soon leave New York harbor for the beleaguered population of Spain. After a decade of dictatorship, Spanish workers and peasants had, in 1931, elected a progressive Republican government that instituted land reform and the eight-hour day. In response, the country’s right-wing gathered allies within the Army and the Catholic Church and gained critical backing from the fascist leaders of Germany and Italy. Then in 1936, army units revolted against the Republic. Workers were forced to defend their government, often with ill-equipped militias raised within factories. Support for the Republic came from progressives and humanitarians around the world, but the United States refused to defend the democratically elected government of Spain. Until he was called on to publicize the Bushnell fund raiser, Alton Tobey had been busy completing a mural at the Hartford Public Library’s Campfield Branch in the city’s south end. For his subjects, the young artist used the literature of Mark Twain and Harriet Beecher Stowe. Characters from A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court mingled with Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Huck Finn, Tom Sawyer, Simon Legree and Eliza all inhabited the library’s facade. These novels, written by two authors who called Hartford home, provided sharp commentary on the social injustices of their time. Now Tobey used his talent to protest injustice in Spain, using art to help shape the debate over the question of defending the Spanish Republic. He had likely been influenced by Guernica, the painting that depicts the 1937 destruction of a Basque town by German warplanes. Guernica was firebombed by Hitler’s Condor Legion and 1000 civilians died, many of them by machine gun fire from the air as they fled. That same year Pablo Picasso turned this war crime into his masterpiece of outrage and pain. As the crowd at the Old State House grew, so did the dissatisfaction by some of the onlookers over the political content of the murals. Some thought it was communistic; others thought it might be pro-Nazi. Tobey was putting the finishing touches on the scene of a child in a German military uniform when Officer Dooley, who had been directing traffic on Main Street, walked over to the painter to see what the commotion was all about. Instead of allowing the artists to finish, or at least explain what they were doing, Dooley ordered them to stop. The painting was interrupted that day, but the artists’ work continued. Tobey’s colleague Jerome Stavola was soon named to a statewide committee of Italian-Americans who organized protests against Mussolini’s treatment of Jews in Italy. At Bushnell Hall, hundreds of local supporters dug into their pockets to help buy food and medicine for the relief efforts, while they listened to the Spanish ambassador plead for the fate of his people. The commotion caused by Alton Tobey on the State House lawn helped bring the reality of the Spanish fight for freedom into focus for the people of Hartford.	<urn:uuid:21b50614-95bc-41f3-86f2-f46483756177>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shoeleatherhistoryproject.com/2013/05/01/art-is-a-hammer/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00174.warc.gz	en	0.981582	792	3.46875	3	[ -0.016595885157585144, 0.3878607749938965, -0.02156291902065277, 0.17315059900283813, 0.045297108590602875, 0.37521934509277344, -0.14265689253807068, 0.08994965255260468, -0.0780433714389801, -0.316211998462677, -0.03212014213204384, 0.14476847648620605, -0.10906735062599182, 0.4735514819...	13	“Art is not a mirror held up to reality, but a hammer with which to shape it” –Bertolt Brecht A crowd gathered when Alton Tobey set up his easel on the Old State House lawn. Insurance company workers on their lunch break watched the painter and his three colleagues as they worked on large posters depicting the fight against fascism in Spain. It was October 11, 1938, and Tobey’s talents were focused on the state of the world, dominated by the rise of Hitler, Mussolini, and Franco in Spain. Tobey had been recruited for the mural painting by Jerome Stavola, an art instructor at the Hartford Federal College. Along with Bob Beebe and Joseph Scarozzo, they were preparing for a major event at Bushnell Memorial Hall to raise funds for the relief ship which would soon leave New York harbor for the beleaguered population of Spain. After a decade of dictatorship, Spanish workers and peasants had, in 1931, elected a progressive Republican government that instituted land reform and the eight-hour day. In response, the country’s right-wing gathered allies within the Army and the Catholic Church and gained critical backing from the fascist leaders of Germany and Italy. Then in 1936, army units revolted against the Republic. Workers were forced to defend their government, often with ill-equipped militias raised within factories. Support for the Republic came from progressives and humanitarians around the world, but the United States refused to defend the democratically elected government of Spain. Until he was called on to publicize the Bushnell fund raiser, Alton Tobey had been busy completing a mural at the Hartford Public Library’s Campfield Branch in the city’s south end. For his subjects, the young artist used the literature of Mark Twain and Harriet Beecher Stowe. Characters from A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court mingled with Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Huck Finn, Tom Sawyer, Simon Legree and Eliza all inhabited the library’s facade. These novels, written by two authors who called Hartford home, provided sharp commentary on the social injustices of their time. Now Tobey used his talent to protest injustice in Spain, using art to help shape the debate over the question of defending the Spanish Republic. He had likely been influenced by Guernica, the painting that depicts the 1937 destruction of a Basque town by German warplanes. Guernica was firebombed by Hitler’s Condor Legion and 1000 civilians died, many of them by machine gun fire from the air as they fled. That same year Pablo Picasso turned this war crime into his masterpiece of outrage and pain. As the crowd at the Old State House grew, so did the dissatisfaction by some of the onlookers over the political content of the murals. Some thought it was communistic; others thought it might be pro-Nazi. Tobey was putting the finishing touches on the scene of a child in a German military uniform when Officer Dooley, who had been directing traffic on Main Street, walked over to the painter to see what the commotion was all about. Instead of allowing the artists to finish, or at least explain what they were doing, Dooley ordered them to stop. The painting was interrupted that day, but the artists’ work continued. Tobey’s colleague Jerome Stavola was soon named to a statewide committee of Italian-Americans who organized protests against Mussolini’s treatment of Jews in Italy. At Bushnell Hall, hundreds of local supporters dug into their pockets to help buy food and medicine for the relief efforts, while they listened to the Spanish ambassador plead for the fate of his people. The commotion caused by Alton Tobey on the State House lawn helped bring the reality of the Spanish fight for freedom into focus for the people of Hartford.	784	ENGLISH	1
Topic one discussed the role of social class specifically seen through the interaction of Bayardo San Román with Xius. There were four classes in Columbia: upper class, middle class, lower class and the masses. Since Bayardo’s father had a high military status he inherited not only his wealth but status in society. Bayardo, because of his surplus of money, is an example of someone associated with “old wealth” upper class. With such surplus brings respect. By having an understanding of the power of Bayardo’s social class I understand why his interaction with Xius turned out the way it did. It was the societal norm that the lower class respect the upper class. Since Bayardo was of the elite class he ultimately used his money to pave his way. Societal norm dictated that Xius would be obligated to give respect to Bayardo. Bayardo’s social class permitted him to have the upper hand in the situation. Without his social class leverage and money advantages it was unlikely that he would of ended up with Xius’ house.Topic two discussed machismo and how it relates to honor. Machismo is a key part of Chronicle of a Death Foretold and is exhibited best through the Vicario brothers killing of Santiago. The brothers did not necessarily want to kill Santiago but their masculine pride caused them to defend their family. The brothers decided to kill Santiago in order to restore honor to the family. A perfect representation of being manly and protecting/defending your family. The definition of machismo. I understand that machismo is the reason for why the male characters are so concerned with keeping or restoring honor. Without bringing honor to the family name the men would be seen as weak and not manly. If the brothers were killed in the process of attempting to kill Santiago they would be awarded the status of honor regardless of the outcome. If no effort was made to kill him they would of been perceived as disgracing their family’s name and would be considered weak. The presence of machismo makes the Vicario brothers feel that they have to be extremely assertive, powerful, and overall masculine in order to prove superiority. By proving superiority to women and other men they bring honor to their family.	<urn:uuid:163d4962-c39e-455b-bb43-5794061500c4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://casgcmcri.org/topic-so-concerned-with-keeping-or-restoring-honor-without/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00197.warc.gz	en	0.981213	453	3.609375	4	[ 0.07849541306495667, 0.39341527223587036, 0.097806416451931, -0.8128383755683899, 0.047961313277482986, -0.03646330535411835, 0.4495261013507843, 0.1802564561367035, -0.05591932684183121, -0.4022091031074524, 0.11330831050872803, -0.04142982140183449, 0.13934461772441864, 0.236865386366844...	9	Topic one discussed the role of social class specifically seen through the interaction of Bayardo San Román with Xius. There were four classes in Columbia: upper class, middle class, lower class and the masses. Since Bayardo’s father had a high military status he inherited not only his wealth but status in society. Bayardo, because of his surplus of money, is an example of someone associated with “old wealth” upper class. With such surplus brings respect. By having an understanding of the power of Bayardo’s social class I understand why his interaction with Xius turned out the way it did. It was the societal norm that the lower class respect the upper class. Since Bayardo was of the elite class he ultimately used his money to pave his way. Societal norm dictated that Xius would be obligated to give respect to Bayardo. Bayardo’s social class permitted him to have the upper hand in the situation. Without his social class leverage and money advantages it was unlikely that he would of ended up with Xius’ house.Topic two discussed machismo and how it relates to honor. Machismo is a key part of Chronicle of a Death Foretold and is exhibited best through the Vicario brothers killing of Santiago. The brothers did not necessarily want to kill Santiago but their masculine pride caused them to defend their family. The brothers decided to kill Santiago in order to restore honor to the family. A perfect representation of being manly and protecting/defending your family. The definition of machismo. I understand that machismo is the reason for why the male characters are so concerned with keeping or restoring honor. Without bringing honor to the family name the men would be seen as weak and not manly. If the brothers were killed in the process of attempting to kill Santiago they would be awarded the status of honor regardless of the outcome. If no effort was made to kill him they would of been perceived as disgracing their family’s name and would be considered weak. The presence of machismo makes the Vicario brothers feel that they have to be extremely assertive, powerful, and overall masculine in order to prove superiority. By proving superiority to women and other men they bring honor to their family.	442	ENGLISH	1
Asbestos was widely used in the space race becauses of its unique properties of .The reason asbestos was so heavily used is because it has a rather remarkable ability to resist heat, caustic chemicals, fire, and electricity and light weight. There are a lot of reasons that is important when building a rocket. Rockets are typically fueled with highly corrosive and toxic chemicals. Asbestos was used to prevent fuel leaks and damage to other parts of the ships. Asbestos was also used as a component in early ablative heat shields. An ablative heat shield consists of an aluminium honeycomb that was filled by hand with a layer of resin, each cell was checked and X rayed to ensure consistency and integrity the outer surface of which is heated to a gas, which then carries the heat away by convection temperatures up to 2300 celsius were experienced during re entry . Such shields were used on the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft. The space shuttle used asbestos as well in its components although a thermal soak heat shield was used to manage re entry temperatures similar to the apollo missions ,it is said that the challenger disaster could have been averted if asbestos was used in the sealant around the failed O ring which caused the disaster .Asbestos was used on later space shuttle missions to ensure the same components did not fail again .	<urn:uuid:f6f3d8ac-0dd3-4e7f-ad03-83ba397985a1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.coastalasbestosremoval.com.au/2017/03/13/asbestos-and-the-space-race/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00086.warc.gz	en	0.983111	270	3.75	4	[ -0.37593933939933777, 0.3182242214679718, 0.05298636108636856, -0.218769371509552, -0.022652247920632362, 0.1004556342959404, 0.657929003238678, 0.35773614048957825, -0.508173942565918, -0.25127115845680237, 0.13312885165214539, -0.41364333033561707, -0.10944857448339462, 0.406781136989593...	10	Asbestos was widely used in the space race becauses of its unique properties of .The reason asbestos was so heavily used is because it has a rather remarkable ability to resist heat, caustic chemicals, fire, and electricity and light weight. There are a lot of reasons that is important when building a rocket. Rockets are typically fueled with highly corrosive and toxic chemicals. Asbestos was used to prevent fuel leaks and damage to other parts of the ships. Asbestos was also used as a component in early ablative heat shields. An ablative heat shield consists of an aluminium honeycomb that was filled by hand with a layer of resin, each cell was checked and X rayed to ensure consistency and integrity the outer surface of which is heated to a gas, which then carries the heat away by convection temperatures up to 2300 celsius were experienced during re entry . Such shields were used on the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft. The space shuttle used asbestos as well in its components although a thermal soak heat shield was used to manage re entry temperatures similar to the apollo missions ,it is said that the challenger disaster could have been averted if asbestos was used in the sealant around the failed O ring which caused the disaster .Asbestos was used on later space shuttle missions to ensure the same components did not fail again .	272	ENGLISH	1
Although the presidency of Andrew Jackson could be described as cynical and selfish due to actions against Native Americans and anti-slavery movements, Jackson accomplished many important milestones during his time in office and helped resolve the Nullification Crisis in South Carolina . Over the course of his eight years as president, but not limited to, Jackson helped redefine the Democratic Party, strived to create a better government for the common man, resolve the nullification crisis in South Carolina, removed the National Bank of the United States, and lead the relocation of Native Americans. Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767 to Andrew and Elizabeth Jackson in Waxhaw, South Carolina. His parents had emigrated from Ireland two years prior and his father had died just before he was born. His mother had hoped for Andrew to become a minister for the Presbyterian Church, but the job didn’t seem to fit the rebellious teen. At the age of thirteen, Jackson enlisted illegally to fight the British in the Revolutionary War. In 1781, while only in his mid-teens, Jackson and his brother Robert had been captured in the Carolinas by British Soldiers and contracted smallpox while in prison. After they had been released, Robert died and Andrew fortunately survived. Shortly after, his mother contracted cholera and died, leaving Jackson an Ryder 2orphan. Luckily for Jackson, he received inheritance money from a relative in Ireland. With the money, Jackson finished schooling and took up a job as a schoolteacher. In 1784, Jackson decided to become an attorney at the age of seventeen, so he moved to Salisbury, North Carolina and studied law with the most prominent lawyers in the state. Three years later he obtained his license that allowed him to practice law in North Carolina counties. Jackson also briefly served in the House of Representatives and Senate for Tennessee before resigning. When John McNairy, one of Jackson’s mentors was elected Superior Court Judge of the Western District, McNairy nominated Jackson to the district’s prosecuting attorney. In 1788, Jackson moved to Nashville and met his future wife Rachel Donelson Robards. Jackson continued practicing law until 1802 when he was elected General of the Tennessee Militia. On June 18, 1812, Congress declared war on Great Britain, which was the beginning of the War of 1812. In December of 1812, President Madison ordered Jackson to command 1,500 troops to defend New Orleans, but was later called back in March of 1813 due to the threat not being imminent. Jackson lead the army back to Tennessee through hostile Indian lands and earned the nickname Old Hickory. After winning the Creek War, Jackson was promoted to General in the U.S. Army. Jackson led an attack against the British in New Orleans and caused them to withdraw from Louisiana. In 1818 Jackson invaded Spanish Florida which lead to the United States having ownership of Florida. Jackson’s controversial but prestigious and highly successful military career lead to a bid for presidency of the United States. In 1822, Tennessee nominated him as a candidate for president and he shortly became a Senator for Tennessee in 1823. Jackson won the popular vote in 1824, but did not receive enough electoral votes and John Quincy Adams was elected. Four years later, Jackson Ryder 3lead a campaign against the corruption in government and was elected to be the seventh President of the United States in 1828. From the beginning of his presidency, Jackson aimed to remove corruption and many elitists feared that Jackson would fire everyone with government jobs and replace them with his colleagues. Jackson fired ten percent of government officers due to them being corrupt or opposing Jackson and was credited with the principle of rotation in office. Additionally, before Jackson, presidents had only demonstrated the veto on legislation that was deemed unconstitutional. Jackson changed this idea by vetoing a road bill that was very costly and not beneficial. This allowed Jackson to control spending which led to him paying off the nation’s debt, the only time in history it had occurred. Jackson had also demonstrated the first pocket veto. Jackson and Congress had dismal success working together, as Jackson was a very stubborn man and vetoed twelve bills in total, more than the previous presidents combined. The one major bill that Congress passed was the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which was arguably his most controversial moment in office. Jackson passed the Tariff of 1832 to please southerners after Adams passed the Tariff of 1832, which Southerners called the Tariff of Abominations because it favored the industry in the north. The tariff passed by Jackson did not fulfill the demands of the south, which lead to the Nullification Crisis in South Carolina. The crisis was solved with the Force Bill, which allowed Jackson to use military force to enforce the federal tariffs and then later the Compromise Tariff of 1833. Ryder 4One of Jackson’s main goals as president was to eliminate the Bank of the United States, as he feared the bank had too much power and could ruin the economy. Chartered in 1816, the Bank of the United States held the country’s money, made loans, and regulated currency. The government held stocks in the bank and in the early years, corruption filled the bank and resulted in economic difficulties. Jackson vetoed the bank, and the action was very popular among the population. Jackson also succeeded in foreign policy as, despite his military past, was very passive and led to an expansion in American trade. Jackson wanted to buy Texas from Mexico, vowing not to take any land by force, but Texas won its independence in 1836 and didn’t want to interfere with Mexico. With all successes comes failures, and the Indian Removal Act of 1831 proved to be costly to his legacy. Jackson sent Native American Tribes west of the Mississippi River as he argued that assimilating the two cultures couldn’t be worked out. He recognized that whites were interested in their lands and didn’t want it to lead to conflict. Even though Jackson thought it was for the greater good, the act turned out to be deadly for the tribes. One of the most impactful controversies during Jackson’s presidency didn’t even directly relate to him or his actions. Right before he took office, his friend and Secretary of War, John Eaton, married the controversial Margaret Timberlake. Many superior people in Washington disliked her for past. Jackson defended his friend, which was known as the Eaton Affair and caused his cabinet members to turn on him, but Jackson fired them all in 1831, excluding the Postmaster General. As mentioned before, the Indian Removal Act of 1831 caused great controversy between opposing groups and Congress, but the votes prevailed. The Native Ryder 5American Tribes had been warned by Thomas Jefferson to adapt to white culture and they did all they could, but in the end they had no say and were forced to vacate their homes. Other controversies include Jackson’s use of the veto, which some viewed as an abuse of power, and when France delayed payments to the U.S. that they had agreed on in 1831, which almost caused a war before Great Britain helped resolve the issue. Andrew Jackson’s presidency can be looked back at and it can be determined that there were almost no national security issues, but Jackson himself viewed the Bank of the United States as a threat to national security due to investors and stockholders being of foreign allegiances to other governments, which he feared could cause an economic collapse. Due to his high tempe as well, the issue with France and the indemnities that they had failed to pay almost caused a war to preserve American honor. Near his final days of his presidency, the first assassination attempt on a current U.S. president happened and was drawn out by Richard Lawrence, who was an American house painter. He attempted to shoot Jackson but his attempt failed. Jackson was always for the common man, and despite his controversial actions, his goal of his presidency was to remove the corruptness of the government and make the system more democratic. Jackson was a man of the people, and although may be viewed as one of the most controversial presidents of all time, the people stood with him as he had one of the deepest marks on the presidency. Andrew Jackson was anything but a normal president. From fighting in the Revolutionary War with his brothers underage, to being an orphan, to getting into law and then later politics, to Ryder 6later becoming the seventh president of the United States of America, Andrew Jackson’s life wasn’t a fairy tale nor tragedy, but a highly unpredictable success story. Jackson changed the executive branch in terms of power, and like all of American history, was built on controversy. Jackson gave the president powers never used before and helped cease secession efforts in the south. He was the only president to pay off the nation’s debt as he used veto powers to control spending. Sadly, the relocation of Native Americans can only leave us the unanswerable question of what could have been.	<urn:uuid:15202d85-1367-4051-a9c9-01e9e43c4f68>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://scientifictimes.org/although-a-minister-for-the-presbyterian-church-but-the/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00144.warc.gz	en	0.987372	1,822	4.28125	4	[ -0.2768136262893677, 0.45724064111709595, 0.6180537343025208, -0.28790271282196045, 0.05366106331348419, 0.20036131143569946, 0.028033778071403503, -0.15088295936584473, -0.11285945028066635, 0.06780126690864563, 0.20287829637527466, 0.14044500887393951, 0.11226233839988708, 0.067787095904...	1	Although the presidency of Andrew Jackson could be described as cynical and selfish due to actions against Native Americans and anti-slavery movements, Jackson accomplished many important milestones during his time in office and helped resolve the Nullification Crisis in South Carolina . Over the course of his eight years as president, but not limited to, Jackson helped redefine the Democratic Party, strived to create a better government for the common man, resolve the nullification crisis in South Carolina, removed the National Bank of the United States, and lead the relocation of Native Americans. Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767 to Andrew and Elizabeth Jackson in Waxhaw, South Carolina. His parents had emigrated from Ireland two years prior and his father had died just before he was born. His mother had hoped for Andrew to become a minister for the Presbyterian Church, but the job didn’t seem to fit the rebellious teen. At the age of thirteen, Jackson enlisted illegally to fight the British in the Revolutionary War. In 1781, while only in his mid-teens, Jackson and his brother Robert had been captured in the Carolinas by British Soldiers and contracted smallpox while in prison. After they had been released, Robert died and Andrew fortunately survived. Shortly after, his mother contracted cholera and died, leaving Jackson an Ryder 2orphan. Luckily for Jackson, he received inheritance money from a relative in Ireland. With the money, Jackson finished schooling and took up a job as a schoolteacher. In 1784, Jackson decided to become an attorney at the age of seventeen, so he moved to Salisbury, North Carolina and studied law with the most prominent lawyers in the state. Three years later he obtained his license that allowed him to practice law in North Carolina counties. Jackson also briefly served in the House of Representatives and Senate for Tennessee before resigning. When John McNairy, one of Jackson’s mentors was elected Superior Court Judge of the Western District, McNairy nominated Jackson to the district’s prosecuting attorney. In 1788, Jackson moved to Nashville and met his future wife Rachel Donelson Robards. Jackson continued practicing law until 1802 when he was elected General of the Tennessee Militia. On June 18, 1812, Congress declared war on Great Britain, which was the beginning of the War of 1812. In December of 1812, President Madison ordered Jackson to command 1,500 troops to defend New Orleans, but was later called back in March of 1813 due to the threat not being imminent. Jackson lead the army back to Tennessee through hostile Indian lands and earned the nickname Old Hickory. After winning the Creek War, Jackson was promoted to General in the U.S. Army. Jackson led an attack against the British in New Orleans and caused them to withdraw from Louisiana. In 1818 Jackson invaded Spanish Florida which lead to the United States having ownership of Florida. Jackson’s controversial but prestigious and highly successful military career lead to a bid for presidency of the United States. In 1822, Tennessee nominated him as a candidate for president and he shortly became a Senator for Tennessee in 1823. Jackson won the popular vote in 1824, but did not receive enough electoral votes and John Quincy Adams was elected. Four years later, Jackson Ryder 3lead a campaign against the corruption in government and was elected to be the seventh President of the United States in 1828. From the beginning of his presidency, Jackson aimed to remove corruption and many elitists feared that Jackson would fire everyone with government jobs and replace them with his colleagues. Jackson fired ten percent of government officers due to them being corrupt or opposing Jackson and was credited with the principle of rotation in office. Additionally, before Jackson, presidents had only demonstrated the veto on legislation that was deemed unconstitutional. Jackson changed this idea by vetoing a road bill that was very costly and not beneficial. This allowed Jackson to control spending which led to him paying off the nation’s debt, the only time in history it had occurred. Jackson had also demonstrated the first pocket veto. Jackson and Congress had dismal success working together, as Jackson was a very stubborn man and vetoed twelve bills in total, more than the previous presidents combined. The one major bill that Congress passed was the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which was arguably his most controversial moment in office. Jackson passed the Tariff of 1832 to please southerners after Adams passed the Tariff of 1832, which Southerners called the Tariff of Abominations because it favored the industry in the north. The tariff passed by Jackson did not fulfill the demands of the south, which lead to the Nullification Crisis in South Carolina. The crisis was solved with the Force Bill, which allowed Jackson to use military force to enforce the federal tariffs and then later the Compromise Tariff of 1833. Ryder 4One of Jackson’s main goals as president was to eliminate the Bank of the United States, as he feared the bank had too much power and could ruin the economy. Chartered in 1816, the Bank of the United States held the country’s money, made loans, and regulated currency. The government held stocks in the bank and in the early years, corruption filled the bank and resulted in economic difficulties. Jackson vetoed the bank, and the action was very popular among the population. Jackson also succeeded in foreign policy as, despite his military past, was very passive and led to an expansion in American trade. Jackson wanted to buy Texas from Mexico, vowing not to take any land by force, but Texas won its independence in 1836 and didn’t want to interfere with Mexico. With all successes comes failures, and the Indian Removal Act of 1831 proved to be costly to his legacy. Jackson sent Native American Tribes west of the Mississippi River as he argued that assimilating the two cultures couldn’t be worked out. He recognized that whites were interested in their lands and didn’t want it to lead to conflict. Even though Jackson thought it was for the greater good, the act turned out to be deadly for the tribes. One of the most impactful controversies during Jackson’s presidency didn’t even directly relate to him or his actions. Right before he took office, his friend and Secretary of War, John Eaton, married the controversial Margaret Timberlake. Many superior people in Washington disliked her for past. Jackson defended his friend, which was known as the Eaton Affair and caused his cabinet members to turn on him, but Jackson fired them all in 1831, excluding the Postmaster General. As mentioned before, the Indian Removal Act of 1831 caused great controversy between opposing groups and Congress, but the votes prevailed. The Native Ryder 5American Tribes had been warned by Thomas Jefferson to adapt to white culture and they did all they could, but in the end they had no say and were forced to vacate their homes. Other controversies include Jackson’s use of the veto, which some viewed as an abuse of power, and when France delayed payments to the U.S. that they had agreed on in 1831, which almost caused a war before Great Britain helped resolve the issue. Andrew Jackson’s presidency can be looked back at and it can be determined that there were almost no national security issues, but Jackson himself viewed the Bank of the United States as a threat to national security due to investors and stockholders being of foreign allegiances to other governments, which he feared could cause an economic collapse. Due to his high tempe as well, the issue with France and the indemnities that they had failed to pay almost caused a war to preserve American honor. Near his final days of his presidency, the first assassination attempt on a current U.S. president happened and was drawn out by Richard Lawrence, who was an American house painter. He attempted to shoot Jackson but his attempt failed. Jackson was always for the common man, and despite his controversial actions, his goal of his presidency was to remove the corruptness of the government and make the system more democratic. Jackson was a man of the people, and although may be viewed as one of the most controversial presidents of all time, the people stood with him as he had one of the deepest marks on the presidency. Andrew Jackson was anything but a normal president. From fighting in the Revolutionary War with his brothers underage, to being an orphan, to getting into law and then later politics, to Ryder 6later becoming the seventh president of the United States of America, Andrew Jackson’s life wasn’t a fairy tale nor tragedy, but a highly unpredictable success story. Jackson changed the executive branch in terms of power, and like all of American history, was built on controversy. Jackson gave the president powers never used before and helped cease secession efforts in the south. He was the only president to pay off the nation’s debt as he used veto powers to control spending. Sadly, the relocation of Native Americans can only leave us the unanswerable question of what could have been.	1,868	ENGLISH	1
English UK » Adyghe 36 [щэкIырэ хырэ] 36 [shhjekIyrje hyrje] The development of languageWhy we speak with each other is clear. We want to exchange ideas and understand each other. How exactly language originated, on the other hand, is less clear. Various theories exist about this. What's certain is that language is a very old phenomenon. Certain physical traits were a prerequisite for speaking. They were necessary in order for us to form sounds. People as far back as the Neanderthals had the ability to apply their voice. In this way, they could distinguish themselves from animals. Additionally, a loud, firm voice was important for defense. A person could threaten or frighten enemies with it. Back then, tools had already been made and fire had been discovered. This knowledge had to be passed along somehow. Speech was also important for hunting in groups. As early as 2 million years ago there was a simple understanding among people. The first linguistic elements were signs and gestures. But people wanted to be able to communicate in the dark too. More importantly, they also had the need to talk to each other without looking. Therefore, the voice developed, and it replaced the gestures. Language in today's sense is at least 50,000 years old. When Homo sapiens left Africa, they distributed language around the world. The languages separated from each other in the different regions. That is to say, various language families came into being. However, they only contained the fundamentals of language systems. The first languages were much less complex than languages today. They were further developed through grammar, phonology and semantics. It could be said that different languages have different solutions. But the problem was always the same: How do I show what I'm thinking? Brazilian _______ is counted among the Romance languages. It arose from European _______. It travelled as far as South America long ago through ******al's colonial politics. Today Brazil is the largest _______-speaking nation in the world. Approximately 190 million people speak Brazilian _______ as their native language. The language has great influence in other South American countries too. There is even a hybrid language that contains _______ and Spanish. Earlier, Brazil tended to use European _______. Starting in the 1930s, a new awareness awakened within Brazilian culture. Brazilians were proud of their language and wanted to accentuate its peculiarities. There were, however, repeated efforts to keep the two languages together. For example, an agreement has since been made over a common orthography. Today the biggest difference between the two forms is in the pronunciation. The Brazilian vocabulary also contains a few "Indianisms" that are absent in Europe. Discover this exciting language - it is one of the most important in the world!	<urn:uuid:db863b79-cfa6-4b40-8c95-54595cb2cda4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.50languages.com/phrasebook/lesson/en/ad/36/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00505.warc.gz	en	0.981039	584	3.703125	4	[ -0.2600853443145752, -0.12938842177391052, 0.16243045032024384, -0.007343873381614685, -0.3723972737789154, 0.023834459483623505, 0.06689427047967911, 0.1136220172047615, -0.06280915439128876, -0.13746768236160278, 0.19730576872825623, -0.44866958260536194, 0.035871610045433044, 0.34299606...	1	English UK » Adyghe 36 [щэкIырэ хырэ] 36 [shhjekIyrje hyrje] The development of languageWhy we speak with each other is clear. We want to exchange ideas and understand each other. How exactly language originated, on the other hand, is less clear. Various theories exist about this. What's certain is that language is a very old phenomenon. Certain physical traits were a prerequisite for speaking. They were necessary in order for us to form sounds. People as far back as the Neanderthals had the ability to apply their voice. In this way, they could distinguish themselves from animals. Additionally, a loud, firm voice was important for defense. A person could threaten or frighten enemies with it. Back then, tools had already been made and fire had been discovered. This knowledge had to be passed along somehow. Speech was also important for hunting in groups. As early as 2 million years ago there was a simple understanding among people. The first linguistic elements were signs and gestures. But people wanted to be able to communicate in the dark too. More importantly, they also had the need to talk to each other without looking. Therefore, the voice developed, and it replaced the gestures. Language in today's sense is at least 50,000 years old. When Homo sapiens left Africa, they distributed language around the world. The languages separated from each other in the different regions. That is to say, various language families came into being. However, they only contained the fundamentals of language systems. The first languages were much less complex than languages today. They were further developed through grammar, phonology and semantics. It could be said that different languages have different solutions. But the problem was always the same: How do I show what I'm thinking? Brazilian _______ is counted among the Romance languages. It arose from European _______. It travelled as far as South America long ago through ******al's colonial politics. Today Brazil is the largest _______-speaking nation in the world. Approximately 190 million people speak Brazilian _______ as their native language. The language has great influence in other South American countries too. There is even a hybrid language that contains _______ and Spanish. Earlier, Brazil tended to use European _______. Starting in the 1930s, a new awareness awakened within Brazilian culture. Brazilians were proud of their language and wanted to accentuate its peculiarities. There were, however, repeated efforts to keep the two languages together. For example, an agreement has since been made over a common orthography. Today the biggest difference between the two forms is in the pronunciation. The Brazilian vocabulary also contains a few "Indianisms" that are absent in Europe. Discover this exciting language - it is one of the most important in the world!	584	ENGLISH	1
This essay will describe and analyse Plato’s ideas regarding political organisation, including democracy as well as other ’imperfect societies’, and examine whether these ideas have any relevance nowadays. Plato – one of the greatest and most influential of all Western philosophers – was born c. 427 bc in Athens and died in 347 bc. He came from a family which was aristocratic, rich and distinguished on both sides. Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of natural philosophy, science, and Western philosophy. The major achievements of Plato were a large collection of philosophical writings and the foundation of the Academy, which was the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Plato’s written philosophy is always cast in dramatic form – either a dialogue or a monologue sometimes reporting others’ dialogues. Plato was inspired by Socrates as the ideal figure of philosopher and was much influenced by his thinking. In the dialogues Plato never speaks in his own voice; instead Socrates is mostly the main figure. There is also considerable controversy as to how exactly his writings are to be interpreted. Reading Plato’s dialogues, however, one must remember, that he was writing within a different political and cultural context, thus in some respect Plato’s political thinking might seen alien to us. The Greek world of Plato’s time was divided into small, independent, warring city-states (polis). In the direct Athenian-style democracies, every citizen had the right and the duty to participate directly in the decision-making processes. Citizens were exclusively adult males who had been born in Athens. Citizenship was not granted to women, slaves or resident aliens; in Athens there were probably about 30,000 citizens (out of 250,000 inhabitants). The Athenian democracy had two distinguishing features: firstly the allotment (selection by lot) of ordinary citizens to government offices and courts, and secondarily the Assembly of all the citizens. While most of the officers, magistrates or judges were allotted, the generals (strategoi) and a few other officers were elected. The Assembly, which actually took decisions, voted on all major issues and passed laws. When it met, about once a week, every citizen could have his say, speaking for as long as he liked – until people got bored and pulled him off the platform (Smith, 2005, pp. 61-67). However perhaps only 5,000 out of all citizens would regularly attend the meetings as some citizens, who were living outside Athens could not take part because of the distance they would have to cover. Solution for this problem was delegating a representative from each village who would take care of their interests. In 399 bc when a democratic court voted by a large majority of its 501 members for Socrates’ execution when he was brought before them by a private individual on a charge of impiety, Plato came to the conclusion that all existing governments were bad and that no one could take part in political life and retain his integrity under existing conditions (Rowe, 1995, pp. 19-20). Socrates execution was the main factor in Plato’s final decision not to take the kind of active role in politics, which might have been expected from somebody in his status. His disillusionment with contemporary politics increased as he came to know better the man active in public life and saw more clearly the instability of the laws and customs of his own an other cities. He decided that politics needed expert rulers, who should not come to it merely by accident, but must be carefully selected and that only philosophical reflection could enable one to see what was right and just in both public and private life.	<urn:uuid:c2d3813e-cf0b-4e33-8ff4-4b3f23f2a048>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://m.hausarbeiten.de/document/159842	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00085.warc.gz	en	0.987294	750	3.703125	4	[ -0.15721482038497925, 0.41077151894569397, 0.38593003153800964, -0.44959402084350586, -0.7009576559066772, 0.0973983034491539, 0.2388349175453186, 0.7418442964553833, 0.02715083584189415, -0.08872759342193604, -0.43180209398269653, 0.1922706663608551, 0.3421664834022522, 0.4057574868202209...	3	This essay will describe and analyse Plato’s ideas regarding political organisation, including democracy as well as other ’imperfect societies’, and examine whether these ideas have any relevance nowadays. Plato – one of the greatest and most influential of all Western philosophers – was born c. 427 bc in Athens and died in 347 bc. He came from a family which was aristocratic, rich and distinguished on both sides. Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of natural philosophy, science, and Western philosophy. The major achievements of Plato were a large collection of philosophical writings and the foundation of the Academy, which was the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Plato’s written philosophy is always cast in dramatic form – either a dialogue or a monologue sometimes reporting others’ dialogues. Plato was inspired by Socrates as the ideal figure of philosopher and was much influenced by his thinking. In the dialogues Plato never speaks in his own voice; instead Socrates is mostly the main figure. There is also considerable controversy as to how exactly his writings are to be interpreted. Reading Plato’s dialogues, however, one must remember, that he was writing within a different political and cultural context, thus in some respect Plato’s political thinking might seen alien to us. The Greek world of Plato’s time was divided into small, independent, warring city-states (polis). In the direct Athenian-style democracies, every citizen had the right and the duty to participate directly in the decision-making processes. Citizens were exclusively adult males who had been born in Athens. Citizenship was not granted to women, slaves or resident aliens; in Athens there were probably about 30,000 citizens (out of 250,000 inhabitants). The Athenian democracy had two distinguishing features: firstly the allotment (selection by lot) of ordinary citizens to government offices and courts, and secondarily the Assembly of all the citizens. While most of the officers, magistrates or judges were allotted, the generals (strategoi) and a few other officers were elected. The Assembly, which actually took decisions, voted on all major issues and passed laws. When it met, about once a week, every citizen could have his say, speaking for as long as he liked – until people got bored and pulled him off the platform (Smith, 2005, pp. 61-67). However perhaps only 5,000 out of all citizens would regularly attend the meetings as some citizens, who were living outside Athens could not take part because of the distance they would have to cover. Solution for this problem was delegating a representative from each village who would take care of their interests. In 399 bc when a democratic court voted by a large majority of its 501 members for Socrates’ execution when he was brought before them by a private individual on a charge of impiety, Plato came to the conclusion that all existing governments were bad and that no one could take part in political life and retain his integrity under existing conditions (Rowe, 1995, pp. 19-20). Socrates execution was the main factor in Plato’s final decision not to take the kind of active role in politics, which might have been expected from somebody in his status. His disillusionment with contemporary politics increased as he came to know better the man active in public life and saw more clearly the instability of the laws and customs of his own an other cities. He decided that politics needed expert rulers, who should not come to it merely by accident, but must be carefully selected and that only philosophical reflection could enable one to see what was right and just in both public and private life.	770	ENGLISH	1
Saint Jerome Emiliani, Priest, 1481–1537 February 8—Optional Memorial Liturgical Color: White (Purple if Lenten Weekday) Patron Saint of orphans and abandoned children He was forever grateful after surviving an encounter with death In the year 1202, a wealthy young Italian man joined the cavalry of his town’s militia. The inexperienced soldiers went into battle against a neighboring town’s larger force and were obliterated. Most of the retreating soldiers were run through with lances and left for dead in the mud. But at least one was spared. He was an aristocrat wearing fine clothes and new, expensive armor. He was worth taking hostage for ransom. The captive suffered in a dark, miserable prison for a full year before his father made the payment for his release. He returned to his hometown a changed man. That town was Assisi. That man was Francis. Today’s saint, Jerome Emiliani, endured much the same. He was a soldier in the city state of Venice and was appointed the commander of a fortress. In a battle against a league of city states, the fortress fell and Jerome was imprisoned. A heavy chain was wrapped around his neck, hands, and feet, and fastened to a huge chunk of marble in an underground prison. He was forgotten, alone, and treated like an animal in the gloom of a dungeon. This was the pivot point. He repented of his godless life. He prayed. He dedicated himself to the Madonna. And then, somehow, he escaped, chains in hand, and fled to a nearby city. He walked through the doors of the local church and headed to the front to fulfill a fresh vow. He slowly approached a much venerated Virgin and placed his chains on the altar before her. He knelt, bowed his head, and prayed. His life was about to begin again. Some pivot points can turn a life’s straight line into a right angle. Other lives change slowly, bending like an arc over a long span of years. The deprivations endured by Saint Francis of Assisi and Saint Jerome Emiliani occurred suddenly. These men were comfortable, had money, and were supported by family and friends. Then, shockingly, they were naked, alone, and chained. Saint Jerome could have despaired in his imprisonment. Many people do. He could have rejected God, understood his sufferings as a sign of God’s disfavor, become bitter, and given up. Instead, he persevered. His imprisonment was a purification. He gave his suffering purpose. Once free, he was like a man born anew, grateful that the heavy prison chains no longer weighed down his body to the floor. Once he started sprinting away from that prison fortress, it was like Saint Jerome never stopped running. He studied, was ordained a priest, and travelled throughout Northern Italy founding orphanages, hospitals, and homes for abandoned children, fallen women, and outcasts of all kinds. Exercising his priestly ministry in a Europe newly split by Protestant heresies, Jerome also wrote perhaps the first question-and-answer catechism in order to inculcate Catholic doctrine in his charges. Like so many saints, he seemed to be everywhere at once, caring for everyone except himself. While tending to the sick, he became infected and died in 1537, a martyr to generosity. He was, naturally, the kind of man who attracted followers. They eventually formed into a religious Congregation and received ecclesiastical approbation in 1540. Saint Jerome was canonized in 1767 and named the Patron Saint of orphans and abandoned children in 1928. His life hinged on one pivot. It is a lesson. Emotional, physical, or psychological suffering, when conquered or controlled, can be a prelude to intense gratitude and generosity. No one walks down the street more free than a former hostage. No one enjoys a warm, comfortable bed like someone who once slept on asphalt. No one gulps a breath of fresh morning air quite like someone who has just heard from the doctor that the cancer is gone. Saint Jerome never lost the wonder and gratitude that filled his heart at the moment of his liberation. All was new. All was young. The world was his. And he would place all his power and energy in God’s service because he was a survivor. Saint Jerome Emiliani, you overcame confinement to live a fruitful life dedicated to God and man. Help all who are confined in any way—physically, financially, emotionally, spiritually, or psychologically—to overcome whatever binds them and to live a life without bitterness.	<urn:uuid:88270ccf-8af9-48d7-923a-2c6bba3c5d8b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mycatholic.life/saints/saints-of-the-liturgical-year/february-8-saint-jerome-emiliani-priest/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00345.warc.gz	en	0.986018	955	3.375	3	[ -0.22733169794082642, 0.24107110500335693, 0.1795930117368698, -0.10310884565114975, -0.4654269218444824, -0.22008292376995087, 0.1467471718788147, 0.26110178232192993, 0.49498945474624634, -0.04936771094799042, -0.11054841428995132, 0.03244750201702118, 0.3383781909942627, 0.4746283888816...	1	Saint Jerome Emiliani, Priest, 1481–1537 February 8—Optional Memorial Liturgical Color: White (Purple if Lenten Weekday) Patron Saint of orphans and abandoned children He was forever grateful after surviving an encounter with death In the year 1202, a wealthy young Italian man joined the cavalry of his town’s militia. The inexperienced soldiers went into battle against a neighboring town’s larger force and were obliterated. Most of the retreating soldiers were run through with lances and left for dead in the mud. But at least one was spared. He was an aristocrat wearing fine clothes and new, expensive armor. He was worth taking hostage for ransom. The captive suffered in a dark, miserable prison for a full year before his father made the payment for his release. He returned to his hometown a changed man. That town was Assisi. That man was Francis. Today’s saint, Jerome Emiliani, endured much the same. He was a soldier in the city state of Venice and was appointed the commander of a fortress. In a battle against a league of city states, the fortress fell and Jerome was imprisoned. A heavy chain was wrapped around his neck, hands, and feet, and fastened to a huge chunk of marble in an underground prison. He was forgotten, alone, and treated like an animal in the gloom of a dungeon. This was the pivot point. He repented of his godless life. He prayed. He dedicated himself to the Madonna. And then, somehow, he escaped, chains in hand, and fled to a nearby city. He walked through the doors of the local church and headed to the front to fulfill a fresh vow. He slowly approached a much venerated Virgin and placed his chains on the altar before her. He knelt, bowed his head, and prayed. His life was about to begin again. Some pivot points can turn a life’s straight line into a right angle. Other lives change slowly, bending like an arc over a long span of years. The deprivations endured by Saint Francis of Assisi and Saint Jerome Emiliani occurred suddenly. These men were comfortable, had money, and were supported by family and friends. Then, shockingly, they were naked, alone, and chained. Saint Jerome could have despaired in his imprisonment. Many people do. He could have rejected God, understood his sufferings as a sign of God’s disfavor, become bitter, and given up. Instead, he persevered. His imprisonment was a purification. He gave his suffering purpose. Once free, he was like a man born anew, grateful that the heavy prison chains no longer weighed down his body to the floor. Once he started sprinting away from that prison fortress, it was like Saint Jerome never stopped running. He studied, was ordained a priest, and travelled throughout Northern Italy founding orphanages, hospitals, and homes for abandoned children, fallen women, and outcasts of all kinds. Exercising his priestly ministry in a Europe newly split by Protestant heresies, Jerome also wrote perhaps the first question-and-answer catechism in order to inculcate Catholic doctrine in his charges. Like so many saints, he seemed to be everywhere at once, caring for everyone except himself. While tending to the sick, he became infected and died in 1537, a martyr to generosity. He was, naturally, the kind of man who attracted followers. They eventually formed into a religious Congregation and received ecclesiastical approbation in 1540. Saint Jerome was canonized in 1767 and named the Patron Saint of orphans and abandoned children in 1928. His life hinged on one pivot. It is a lesson. Emotional, physical, or psychological suffering, when conquered or controlled, can be a prelude to intense gratitude and generosity. No one walks down the street more free than a former hostage. No one enjoys a warm, comfortable bed like someone who once slept on asphalt. No one gulps a breath of fresh morning air quite like someone who has just heard from the doctor that the cancer is gone. Saint Jerome never lost the wonder and gratitude that filled his heart at the moment of his liberation. All was new. All was young. The world was his. And he would place all his power and energy in God’s service because he was a survivor. Saint Jerome Emiliani, you overcame confinement to live a fruitful life dedicated to God and man. Help all who are confined in any way—physically, financially, emotionally, spiritually, or psychologically—to overcome whatever binds them and to live a life without bitterness.	957	ENGLISH	1
Charged Particle Sources Did You know? Prisms have been used for hundreds of years to study the properties and composition of light. Near the beginning of the Enlightenment, Isaac Newton used equilateral prisms to conduct some of the most famous of these experiments. At the time of his work, it was commonly known that white light entering prisms would appear to become multi-colored as it passed through and exited the glass. However, many people believed that this occurred because the prism itself was “polluting” or coloring the light. Through careful experimentation and the use of several prisms, Newton was able to demonstrate that this effect actually existed because white light was actually a mixture of several distinct colors that were separated by the prism.	<urn:uuid:648981b8-6edc-4107-a6fc-3ebb1a47b510>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.findlight.net/optics/prisms/equilateral-prisms	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00118.warc.gz	en	0.987307	151	3.671875	4	[ -0.4639095664024353, -0.13684752583503723, 0.1959247887134552, -0.16811896860599518, -0.20613734424114227, 0.1543755829334259, 0.7745401263237, 0.1530037522315979, -0.004221969284117222, 0.33630838990211487, -0.14770211279392242, -0.12051663547754288, -0.25583896040916443, 0.32090884447097...	1	Charged Particle Sources Did You know? Prisms have been used for hundreds of years to study the properties and composition of light. Near the beginning of the Enlightenment, Isaac Newton used equilateral prisms to conduct some of the most famous of these experiments. At the time of his work, it was commonly known that white light entering prisms would appear to become multi-colored as it passed through and exited the glass. However, many people believed that this occurred because the prism itself was “polluting” or coloring the light. Through careful experimentation and the use of several prisms, Newton was able to demonstrate that this effect actually existed because white light was actually a mixture of several distinct colors that were separated by the prism.	145	ENGLISH	1
Books are known for teaching lessons. In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain satirically presents the situation of how people of different color were treated unjustly, while at the same time amusing his readers. Isn’t it ironic that the character that grows on you most is Jim, the black runaway slave, who society looks down upon most during the time period of this book? Jim is treated poorly as a slave and as a person. For one, he is separated from his parents and children amongst different slave owners. On top of this, he is about to be sold for $800 to another owner even more far away from his family, which leads to his escape. Despite these situations, he remains a loyal, loving, father-like figure, and most importantly, he remains a great friend to Huckleberry. Society, even today, often puts children down by saying that they do not contain values. Well, Huck closes the door to this statement. Whenever Huck is challenged to make a decision on impact concerning the safety of Jim, such as the incident when the men are looking for blacks, his heart always seems to pilot him to the direction of Jim’s benefit, even though almost all of the rest of society would object to his decisions during this period of time. You can also see Huck’s distress and sorrow for the fact that Jim has to buy his family back in order to see them again. This absolutely breaks Huck’s heart. Back in the 1800s, blacks were considered property, and whites were always the superior race. In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain purposely makes Jim the best character in the book, in that he is the most compassionate, caring, and most appreciated by Huck, the main character in the book. At the same time he makes Pap, the white dead-beat father of Huck, the most detested, disrespected, low down character of this book. Twain causes his readers to contemplate of how foolish it is that a person can be judged on his outside appearance, rather than who the individual is on the inside. In conclusion, the lesson to be taught by Mark Twain is that people often pre-judge others based on their exterior and not what counts on the interior. He does this satirically by making Jim an irresistibly lovable character because of how deep his feelings are, making the reader feel these insights as well. This is a lesson that can unquestionably be applied in today’s world as well.	<urn:uuid:651a9224-e955-4ae5-a685-0bf1ffeea5d9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://aero-net.org/the-advantures-of-huck-fin/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00048.warc.gz	en	0.986533	507	3.796875	4	[ -0.30095887184143066, 0.2050316035747528, 0.1594773828983307, -0.1338297724723816, -0.4440807104110718, 0.12395386397838593, 0.5901670455932617, -0.14823943376541138, -0.21808722615242004, 0.13679316639900208, 0.20527805387973785, -0.22036464512348175, -0.03886890411376953, 0.4259724020957...	2	Books are known for teaching lessons. In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain satirically presents the situation of how people of different color were treated unjustly, while at the same time amusing his readers. Isn’t it ironic that the character that grows on you most is Jim, the black runaway slave, who society looks down upon most during the time period of this book? Jim is treated poorly as a slave and as a person. For one, he is separated from his parents and children amongst different slave owners. On top of this, he is about to be sold for $800 to another owner even more far away from his family, which leads to his escape. Despite these situations, he remains a loyal, loving, father-like figure, and most importantly, he remains a great friend to Huckleberry. Society, even today, often puts children down by saying that they do not contain values. Well, Huck closes the door to this statement. Whenever Huck is challenged to make a decision on impact concerning the safety of Jim, such as the incident when the men are looking for blacks, his heart always seems to pilot him to the direction of Jim’s benefit, even though almost all of the rest of society would object to his decisions during this period of time. You can also see Huck’s distress and sorrow for the fact that Jim has to buy his family back in order to see them again. This absolutely breaks Huck’s heart. Back in the 1800s, blacks were considered property, and whites were always the superior race. In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain purposely makes Jim the best character in the book, in that he is the most compassionate, caring, and most appreciated by Huck, the main character in the book. At the same time he makes Pap, the white dead-beat father of Huck, the most detested, disrespected, low down character of this book. Twain causes his readers to contemplate of how foolish it is that a person can be judged on his outside appearance, rather than who the individual is on the inside. In conclusion, the lesson to be taught by Mark Twain is that people often pre-judge others based on their exterior and not what counts on the interior. He does this satirically by making Jim an irresistibly lovable character because of how deep his feelings are, making the reader feel these insights as well. This is a lesson that can unquestionably be applied in today’s world as well.	504	ENGLISH	1
Even before Henry VIII’s sister Margaret had her sixth birthday, their father, Henry VII, had thought that a marriage between his eldest daughter and James IV of Scotland was a way to end Scottish uprisings. James V of Scotland had been their only surviving legitimate heir and he in turn had married Mary of Guise, from France. Their daughter Mary was born on 8th December 1542 and six days later, she had become the Queen of the Scots on the death of her father. At 5 years old, Mary had been betrothed to the infant French dauphin, Francis, and with the agreement in place, she was sent to France to spend the next eleven years of her life in readiness to enter the French Court as queen consort. Vivacious and beautiful, Mary had a wonderful childhood with the best available education in languages, poetry, horsemanship, needlework and music. By 16, she was a cultured married woman with the world at her feet and at 17, Mary had become Queen Consort of France and Queen of Scotland and she was more importantly, legitimate. One year later, the French king was dead and her husband Francis was crowned King of France. With Mary Tudor dead and her cousin Elizabeth on the English throne, you can be sure Mary Queen of Scots watched England with mounting interest. In those brutal and uncertain days, we can only assume she was waiting for the right moment to step forward and stake her claim. As Elizabeth took the throne of England, the eyes of Europe were also watching and waiting. Everyone knew that Mary Queen of Scots had a far better right to the throne than Elizabeth. At this time in history, there were three women who held power in England, Scotland and France: Elizabeth in England, Mary in France and Mary of Guise, her mother, in Scotland. And with the force of France behind her, Mary stood a good chance of gaining it. Then her world slowly began to fall apart. Her mother died and three months later, her young husband died of an ear infection. She can be forgiven for thinking that France had turned its back on her by sending her back to Scotland and she can be forgiven for thinking that England had gone too far when they refused her request to dock in London on her way to Scotland from France. Putting aside the fact that she had a legitimate right to contest the English throne, and some would have stated that her claim was an even better one than Elizabeth’s claim, her cousin should have at least awarded her a certain level of courtesy, given her plight and predicament. Inevitably, with the snub, Mary had no choice but to return to Scotland by another longer and more dangerous route. With news that Mary was on her way home, Scottish Catholics were rejoicing that their ruler, who had declared herself a fervent Catholic, would soon be back in Scotland to take matters in hand. While Mary had been in France and after her mother’s death, Scotland had been under the control of her illegitimate half-brother James Stewart, who was also the leader of the local Protestant group. Local sporadic fighting had broken out but things had settled down a little with news of Mary’s imminent arrival. Mary seems to have been prone to making mistakes, and before too long, she’d made her first big one. She trusted her half-brother. It’s true James Stewart said all the right things to Mary. He offered his undying support and he gave the appearance of steadfast loyalty. But words are just words and appearances can be deceptive. Unfortunately for Mary, she would find that out the hard way. So instead of dismissing James, she kept him on as her chief advisor. Not only that, she made him the 1st Earl of Moray. Sometimes your worst enemies come disguised as family members. Then she made her next big mistake. She married her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Henry Stuart carried his own claim to the English throne through Margaret Tudor, Henry VIII’s elder sister. After the death of Margaret’s first husband James IV, she had married Archibald Douglas, Earl of Angus. From that marriage, there was one surviving daughter who in turn delivered a baby boy - Henry Stuart Lord Darnley. As a descendant of a daughter of James II of Scotland as well, Darnley was in the front of the line for the throne of Scotland and a good chance for the English throne to boot, which is more than likely what he had in mind in the first place. Mary had briefly met her cousin in February 1561 when she was still mourning her husband Francis. Darnley’s parents, the Earl and Countess of Lennox, had sent him to France to ostensibly extend their condolences but in the back of their minds there was hope that a potential match could be arranged between their son and Mary. Nothing came of the visit but the seed had been planted. When the two met again in February of 1565, Mary fell in love with him. And Darnley had plenty to offer. Three years younger than her, he was brought up conscious of his status and inheritance. He was well educated speaking Latin, Scottish Gaelic, English and French and he excelled in singing, lute playing and dancing. He was strong, virile and athletic, a good horseman with a passion for hawking and hunting and he had a sound knowledge of weapons. Who could forgive Mary for snapping him up before someone else did? The marriage both infuriated Queen Elizabeth and made her very nervous. It was, after all, the marriage between her two strongest claimants to the English throne and Darnley was the natural choice for many of Elizabeth’s enemies because he was male, English born and a Catholic. But the marriage had gone ahead without her permission, (Darnley was after all an English subject), and it was unforgivable. But Elizabeth need not have worried. With all of Darnley’s accomplishments, he would have been a real catch except for one major flaw. He had a mean, violent streak in him, which was aggravated by his drinking problem. It’s no wonder this impulsive marriage was a disaster from the beginning. With literally a world of choices at Mary’s feet, Mary had chosen to marry an arrogant man with a drinking problem who soon began making demands to be recognised as the co-sovereign of Scotland as well as having the right to keep the Scottish throne for himself … if he outlived her. Mary must have had an inkling of the significance of the suggestion and the ominous overtones because she adamantly and constantly refused his request. Apparently, she was smarter than she was given credit for. But her refusals put great strains on the already unsteady marriage and all too soon, Mary realised she was pregnant. With news of her pregnancy, Darnley decided the honeymoon was definitely over. It meant the child would be in front of him in the queue to the throne and more than likely, he would never become the king. And now for the magic words: as long as the child was his and as long as the child lived. It’s pretty safe to consider the possibility that the throne was all he ever wanted from the beginning. But with that option taken away from him, he had to come up with an alternative plan. Months before, Mary had employed a secretary by the name of David Rizzio, who was himself a descendent of a noble Italian family. As her secretary, David was in close and regular contact with Mary, which must have sparked the idea into Darnley’s head. What if he could convince everyone that Rizzio was really the father of Mary’s child? Over the ensuing months, the thought grew and festered in Darnley’s head until it all came to a head when Mary was seven months pregnant. The plan to murder Rizzo and potentially harm Mary was a complex one full of ‘ifs’ but Darnley decided to put it into action on 9th March 1566 anyway. Together with some of his supporters, Darnley was hoping that if Rizzio died, it would have such a traumatic impact on Mary and that it would result in a miscarriage and would ultimately damage her health permanently. If she became ill and if that illness resulted in her slow death before the baby was born, and if the baby died as well, then Scotland would be forced to hand the crown over to him as her husband. As I said, complex and iffy. It would seem Mary had no idea of the ideas running through her husband’s mind. On 9th March, as she and her secretary were bent over, intent on a document, Darnley, Lord Ruthven and her half-brother Earl of Moray burst into the room demanding that Rizzio leave immediately with them under arrest. There was very little she could do at seven months into her pregnancy but she valiantly stood her ground at gunpoint with Rizzio cowardly hiding behind her skirts as she tried to protect him. The hysterical screams of both Mary and Rizzio echoed through the palace and into the dark streets of Edinburgh. Many of the locals were warming themselves in the taverns when they heard bloodcurdling screams coming from Holyrood Castle. It was enough to send most of them pouring out of taverns with makeshift weapons and running to the castle. With a gun held to her side, Mary was told to go to the window and dismiss them. In the uproar, Rizzio was stabbed an alleged 56 times and then thrown down the main staircase and stripped of his jewels before people were able to crash through the main door to help them. Needless to say, the marriage was over. After the rather botched attempt on his wife’s life, Darnley knew he’d have to suffer the consequences of the fiasco sooner or later, so before they could relieve him of his head, he fled. In England, Elizabeth was horrified by the news filtering back from Scotland. When Mary delivered a baby boy two months later, naming him James in memory of her father, Elizabeth’s horror turned to resignation. You see by then, England had almost resigned themselves to the fact that Elizabeth would never produce an heir. One year after that, when Elizabeth heard that Darnley had suffered a rather sudden and unfortunate death, resignation turned to suspicion. And then she heard the rest of the story. Mary had made her next big mistake. The scandalous story was that Darnley had been recovering from a bout of smallpox when two explosions rocked the foundation of Kirk O’Field where he was staying. Later on, the explosions were attributed to two barrels of gunpowder placed in the small room under his sleeping quarters. Dressed only in his nightshirt, Darnley had fled from his bedchamber but was later found dead outside, murdered, not from the explosions as originally suspected, but apparently smothered since there were no visible signs of violence on his body. Suspicion quickly fell on a rather close friend of Mary, the Earl of Bothwell, whose shoes had been discovered at the scene of the crime. Now you don’t have to be a rocket scientist to join the dots together here when only three months later, Mary and Bothwell announced their marriage. Bothwell had obtained a quickie divorce from his first wife twelve days beforehand and the happy twosome had married in secret. Put that with the shoes left rather stupidly near the crime scene and you have no doubt in anyone’s mind who had planted the gunpowder and killed Darnley. An unpopular and quarrelsome man, the Orkney born nobleman, Bothwell, seems to have appeared when he visited Mary at the French Court in the autumn of 1560. He supported Mary’s mother, Mary of Guise, in Scotland and together with 24 followers, he took 6000 crowns of English money destined to be used against Mary of Guise at an ambush near Haddington on Halloween 1559. After her death, he appears to be no more than a troublesome nobleman at court, (although he was obviously smitten with Mary), until the Darnley murder when he showed his true colours. He was acquitted of any wrong doing in a trial on 12th April 1567 and a rumour circulated that he would marry Mary. That is until eight bishops, nine earls, and seven Lords of Parliament put their signatures to what became known as the Ainslie Tavern Bond, declaring that Mary should marry a native-born subject and they handed it confidently and smugly to Bothwell. Four days later, while Mary was on the road from Linlithgow Palace to Edinburgh, Bothwell suddenly appeared with 800 men and assured Mary that danger awaited her in Edinburgh. She was to come with him to his castle at Dunbar, out of harm’s way. It appears Mary agreed to accompany him and arrived at Dunbar at midnight where she was taken prisoner by Bothwell and allegedly raped. Bothwell’s reasoning was that this would secure his marriage to her (although whether she was a willing accomplice or an unwilling victim remains a controversial issue.) On 12th May, Mary created him Duke of Orkney and Marquess of Fife and three days later they were married at Holyrood. In England, Elizabeth was livid as the updates filtered back to her. It wasn’t just Elizabeth who was adding two and two together, the Scottish nobles were doing the same thing as well. As the realisation suddenly hit them that Mary was probably involved in Darnley’s murder, they knew a decision had to be made. And you can believe that her half-brother, James Stewart, played a major part in making that momentous decision. Without too much delay, a council informed Mary that she would have to abdicate in favour of her 1-year-old son James. Coincidently, they said, her half-brother had helpfully and willingly stepped forward and nominated himself as Regent and the nobles had already accepted his generous offer. As a finishing touch, they informed Mary that after she abdicated, she was then to be imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle ready for the charge of murder to be heard in a court of law. There was nothing she could do, they informed her. It was a done deal. By this time, Bothwell had seen the writing on the wall. He’d fled after one final embrace from Mary, leaving her to face the music alone. Bothwell was never seen again but reports filtered back over the years that he had been imprisoned in Denmark and was slowly going insane. Still reeling from the desertion of her new husband, Mary miscarried a set of twins. From somewhere deep in her soul, despite her immense grief, Mary must have been determined that her rights as queen should, and would, be restored. Inside a month, she had lost a husband and a set of twins: she was not about to lose her throne as well. Loch Leven Castle was actually a grey stone house with small windows that barely kept out the cold winds that blew across the water. Outside was a narrow strip of scrubland and further still was the lake that took half an hour for a strong man to row to the mainland. When the weather turned foul, the strip submerged and the waves lashed the stones of the perimeter wall. It was a hard prison from which escape and endurance seemed impossible. For someone like Mary who had been raised in a glittering court in France surrounded by priceless jewels and gorgeous clothes, attending banquets and plays, it was beyond hell to endure. The boredom would have driven her almost insane. During her time in the prison, she constantly declared that her abdication had been forced upon her under the threat of death and most of Scotland believed her. And she continually plotted her escape. It took Mary almost a year to accomplish, but on 2nd May 1568, with the help of George Douglas, the handsome half-brother of Sir William Douglas, owner of Loch Leven, she escaped. Whether she granted George certain ‘favours’ more than mere kisses, (if you know what I mean), is unknown but I would assume that anything more would have been risky with her already besmirched reputation. But then again, she had made some terrible blunders up until then so anything was possible. In any case, Mary’s supporters smuggled her out and whisked her away, hoping to reach the safety of Dumbarton Castle. News of Mary’s imprisonment had not been popular with the Scots in the first place so when word circulated that she had escaped, the news was widely welcomed. With an escort of 50 supporters led by Lord Hamilton, she rode in to Lanarkshire to join up with many more nobles who were willing to take up the fight with her and within a few days; she had managed to gather 6,000 men. With this sizable army standing at the ready behind her, plus the assistance of eight earls, nine bishops, eighteen lords, twelve abbots and nearly one hundred barons, the council was more than willing to pass a ruling that the Earl of Moray’s actions had indeed been treasonable. They say the road to death is a long march full of terrors and Mary had every intention of dodging that horrific end to her story. One of the ways to do that was to avoid battle at all cost. Her plan was to retire to Dumbarton Castle while expected reinforcements came from the north to help and with this added strength, she was certain she could take back the country by degrees from her half-brother. With the full intention of temporarily bypassing Moray, Mary rode to Rutherglen Castle intending to pass on the north side of the Clyde estuary to avoid a direct confrontation with him. She had no wish to ride into a trap so until she had a full army at her disposal, she had to err on the side of caution. Unlike Mary, Moray wasn’t about to give up without a serious fight. His plan was to draw up his army close to the village several miles south of Glasgow, well within the city limits, and attack at the moment when Mary would least expect it. One of his commanders noted Mary’s movements and he ordered his musketeers to stand ready behind each of the horsemen hiding among some cottages, hedges and gardens bordering a narrow lane through which Mary’s army needed to pass. Moray would lead the rest of the army across a nearby bridge. Moray’s army had only just established themselves when Mary’s army advanced through the village. The battle was on. Mary’s commander, Lord Argyll, had very little military skills so he hoped to simply push Moray aside by sheer force of numbers. As Lord Hamilton advanced slowly, Mary remained safe and secure at the rear. All was going to plan until Hamilton was met with fire from the musketeers and it was as if the world exploded in an almighty crash of metal. Many in the front were killed but Hamilton determinedly pushed on through the mayhem, finally reaching the top of a hill. What he saw frightened him. The enemy had totally blocked them off and they were advancing quickly. What happened next has happened many times throughout history. Both armies collided in a forest of spears so thick, it is said that if anyone had thrown their discharged pistols at the enemy, the weapons would have come to rest on top of the shafts rather than falling to the ground. Forty-five minutes later, the Battle of Langside was over. As the cries of screaming men and horses reached her, Mary watched in abject horror as over 300 of her men were slaughtered. Feathered shafts protruded from bodies, limbs had been hacked off and the smell of blood hung heavily in the air. As dreadful as it was, if Moray had not called a halt to the fighting, it was certain the count would have been much higher. But if Mary had been in danger before, her capture at this crucial moment would certainly have been her final chapter. In a panic and with an escort, Mary fled across bleak windswept moorland, burning bridges behind her to slow pursuit, in an attempt to reach Dumbarton Castle. But then suddenly, she changed direction and turned south, heading towards a magnificent Gothic church by the name of Dundrennan Abbey on the south coast of Scotland. We can only assume she believed the Abbey seemed more reachable and safe. From there she could head for England and be out of harm’s way. After all the mistakes Mary had made, this one turned out to be the worst. She would never see Scotland again. In Mary’s mind, the only choice she had was to throw herself on Elizabeth’s mercy. And Elizabeth may have initially been tempted to do exactly that and take her cousin in. Especially when she remembered the night she’d refused Mary permission to dock in London on her way back to Scotland from France after the death of her French husband. That night, it was as if God had unleashed a powerful, vengeful storm following her refusal and the result had been that St Pauls Cathedral had been reduced to ashes, burnt to the ground and in ruins. But with this horrific memory came doubt. The old Mary had been dangerous enough but this new Mary was more dangerous and treacherous to Elizabeth than the one she’d sent that letter to years ago. This new Mary seemed out of control. Could she even be trusted? If there was one thing we can be certain of is that Elizabeth would have remembered the past mangled generations of her dynasty. She would have remembered the stories of how her grandfather, Henry VII, had kissed the ground reverently as he invaded England before slaughtering Richard III and she would have remembered the stories of his tyranny. She certainly would have remembered that her father had excelled at disposing of anyone who stood in his way. Her own mother had been one of those disposable people. And I’m sure it would have been those same horrific memories that made Elizabeth hesitate and finally resist her government’s advice. Beheading traitors was one thing, but beheading someone of royal blood, more to the point her own cousin, was something she could not bring herself to do. All you had to do was look at how the War of the Roses has turned out if you were in any sort of doubt. For a woman and a queen who had suffered first-hand at her family’s brutality, there seemed only one option available to her. Rather than risk temporarily sheltering Mary and then returning her to Scotland at a later time with an English army, or even sending her back to France, Elizabeth imprisoned Mary in Carlisle Castle and then one month later, moved her a little further away from the Scottish border to Bolton Castle.	<urn:uuid:017ba955-b605-45e9-8f17-06375e4b76c1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.vikingstovirgin.com/single-post/2017/10/30/Mary-Queen-of-Scots---Part-I	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00464.warc.gz	en	0.990798	4,759	3.515625	4	[ -0.5104596614837646, 0.23306792974472046, 0.3594183325767517, -0.3919905424118042, -0.19894392788410187, -0.09202378243207932, -0.07801620662212372, 0.03029754012823105, 0.4879671633243561, -0.04025665670633316, -0.2220713496208191, -0.3102077543735504, 0.08805143088102341, 0.0819765552878...	4	Even before Henry VIII’s sister Margaret had her sixth birthday, their father, Henry VII, had thought that a marriage between his eldest daughter and James IV of Scotland was a way to end Scottish uprisings. James V of Scotland had been their only surviving legitimate heir and he in turn had married Mary of Guise, from France. Their daughter Mary was born on 8th December 1542 and six days later, she had become the Queen of the Scots on the death of her father. At 5 years old, Mary had been betrothed to the infant French dauphin, Francis, and with the agreement in place, she was sent to France to spend the next eleven years of her life in readiness to enter the French Court as queen consort. Vivacious and beautiful, Mary had a wonderful childhood with the best available education in languages, poetry, horsemanship, needlework and music. By 16, she was a cultured married woman with the world at her feet and at 17, Mary had become Queen Consort of France and Queen of Scotland and she was more importantly, legitimate. One year later, the French king was dead and her husband Francis was crowned King of France. With Mary Tudor dead and her cousin Elizabeth on the English throne, you can be sure Mary Queen of Scots watched England with mounting interest. In those brutal and uncertain days, we can only assume she was waiting for the right moment to step forward and stake her claim. As Elizabeth took the throne of England, the eyes of Europe were also watching and waiting. Everyone knew that Mary Queen of Scots had a far better right to the throne than Elizabeth. At this time in history, there were three women who held power in England, Scotland and France: Elizabeth in England, Mary in France and Mary of Guise, her mother, in Scotland. And with the force of France behind her, Mary stood a good chance of gaining it. Then her world slowly began to fall apart. Her mother died and three months later, her young husband died of an ear infection. She can be forgiven for thinking that France had turned its back on her by sending her back to Scotland and she can be forgiven for thinking that England had gone too far when they refused her request to dock in London on her way to Scotland from France. Putting aside the fact that she had a legitimate right to contest the English throne, and some would have stated that her claim was an even better one than Elizabeth’s claim, her cousin should have at least awarded her a certain level of courtesy, given her plight and predicament. Inevitably, with the snub, Mary had no choice but to return to Scotland by another longer and more dangerous route. With news that Mary was on her way home, Scottish Catholics were rejoicing that their ruler, who had declared herself a fervent Catholic, would soon be back in Scotland to take matters in hand. While Mary had been in France and after her mother’s death, Scotland had been under the control of her illegitimate half-brother James Stewart, who was also the leader of the local Protestant group. Local sporadic fighting had broken out but things had settled down a little with news of Mary’s imminent arrival. Mary seems to have been prone to making mistakes, and before too long, she’d made her first big one. She trusted her half-brother. It’s true James Stewart said all the right things to Mary. He offered his undying support and he gave the appearance of steadfast loyalty. But words are just words and appearances can be deceptive. Unfortunately for Mary, she would find that out the hard way. So instead of dismissing James, she kept him on as her chief advisor. Not only that, she made him the 1st Earl of Moray. Sometimes your worst enemies come disguised as family members. Then she made her next big mistake. She married her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Henry Stuart carried his own claim to the English throne through Margaret Tudor, Henry VIII’s elder sister. After the death of Margaret’s first husband James IV, she had married Archibald Douglas, Earl of Angus. From that marriage, there was one surviving daughter who in turn delivered a baby boy - Henry Stuart Lord Darnley. As a descendant of a daughter of James II of Scotland as well, Darnley was in the front of the line for the throne of Scotland and a good chance for the English throne to boot, which is more than likely what he had in mind in the first place. Mary had briefly met her cousin in February 1561 when she was still mourning her husband Francis. Darnley’s parents, the Earl and Countess of Lennox, had sent him to France to ostensibly extend their condolences but in the back of their minds there was hope that a potential match could be arranged between their son and Mary. Nothing came of the visit but the seed had been planted. When the two met again in February of 1565, Mary fell in love with him. And Darnley had plenty to offer. Three years younger than her, he was brought up conscious of his status and inheritance. He was well educated speaking Latin, Scottish Gaelic, English and French and he excelled in singing, lute playing and dancing. He was strong, virile and athletic, a good horseman with a passion for hawking and hunting and he had a sound knowledge of weapons. Who could forgive Mary for snapping him up before someone else did? The marriage both infuriated Queen Elizabeth and made her very nervous. It was, after all, the marriage between her two strongest claimants to the English throne and Darnley was the natural choice for many of Elizabeth’s enemies because he was male, English born and a Catholic. But the marriage had gone ahead without her permission, (Darnley was after all an English subject), and it was unforgivable. But Elizabeth need not have worried. With all of Darnley’s accomplishments, he would have been a real catch except for one major flaw. He had a mean, violent streak in him, which was aggravated by his drinking problem. It’s no wonder this impulsive marriage was a disaster from the beginning. With literally a world of choices at Mary’s feet, Mary had chosen to marry an arrogant man with a drinking problem who soon began making demands to be recognised as the co-sovereign of Scotland as well as having the right to keep the Scottish throne for himself … if he outlived her. Mary must have had an inkling of the significance of the suggestion and the ominous overtones because she adamantly and constantly refused his request. Apparently, she was smarter than she was given credit for. But her refusals put great strains on the already unsteady marriage and all too soon, Mary realised she was pregnant. With news of her pregnancy, Darnley decided the honeymoon was definitely over. It meant the child would be in front of him in the queue to the throne and more than likely, he would never become the king. And now for the magic words: as long as the child was his and as long as the child lived. It’s pretty safe to consider the possibility that the throne was all he ever wanted from the beginning. But with that option taken away from him, he had to come up with an alternative plan. Months before, Mary had employed a secretary by the name of David Rizzio, who was himself a descendent of a noble Italian family. As her secretary, David was in close and regular contact with Mary, which must have sparked the idea into Darnley’s head. What if he could convince everyone that Rizzio was really the father of Mary’s child? Over the ensuing months, the thought grew and festered in Darnley’s head until it all came to a head when Mary was seven months pregnant. The plan to murder Rizzo and potentially harm Mary was a complex one full of ‘ifs’ but Darnley decided to put it into action on 9th March 1566 anyway. Together with some of his supporters, Darnley was hoping that if Rizzio died, it would have such a traumatic impact on Mary and that it would result in a miscarriage and would ultimately damage her health permanently. If she became ill and if that illness resulted in her slow death before the baby was born, and if the baby died as well, then Scotland would be forced to hand the crown over to him as her husband. As I said, complex and iffy. It would seem Mary had no idea of the ideas running through her husband’s mind. On 9th March, as she and her secretary were bent over, intent on a document, Darnley, Lord Ruthven and her half-brother Earl of Moray burst into the room demanding that Rizzio leave immediately with them under arrest. There was very little she could do at seven months into her pregnancy but she valiantly stood her ground at gunpoint with Rizzio cowardly hiding behind her skirts as she tried to protect him. The hysterical screams of both Mary and Rizzio echoed through the palace and into the dark streets of Edinburgh. Many of the locals were warming themselves in the taverns when they heard bloodcurdling screams coming from Holyrood Castle. It was enough to send most of them pouring out of taverns with makeshift weapons and running to the castle. With a gun held to her side, Mary was told to go to the window and dismiss them. In the uproar, Rizzio was stabbed an alleged 56 times and then thrown down the main staircase and stripped of his jewels before people were able to crash through the main door to help them. Needless to say, the marriage was over. After the rather botched attempt on his wife’s life, Darnley knew he’d have to suffer the consequences of the fiasco sooner or later, so before they could relieve him of his head, he fled. In England, Elizabeth was horrified by the news filtering back from Scotland. When Mary delivered a baby boy two months later, naming him James in memory of her father, Elizabeth’s horror turned to resignation. You see by then, England had almost resigned themselves to the fact that Elizabeth would never produce an heir. One year after that, when Elizabeth heard that Darnley had suffered a rather sudden and unfortunate death, resignation turned to suspicion. And then she heard the rest of the story. Mary had made her next big mistake. The scandalous story was that Darnley had been recovering from a bout of smallpox when two explosions rocked the foundation of Kirk O’Field where he was staying. Later on, the explosions were attributed to two barrels of gunpowder placed in the small room under his sleeping quarters. Dressed only in his nightshirt, Darnley had fled from his bedchamber but was later found dead outside, murdered, not from the explosions as originally suspected, but apparently smothered since there were no visible signs of violence on his body. Suspicion quickly fell on a rather close friend of Mary, the Earl of Bothwell, whose shoes had been discovered at the scene of the crime. Now you don’t have to be a rocket scientist to join the dots together here when only three months later, Mary and Bothwell announced their marriage. Bothwell had obtained a quickie divorce from his first wife twelve days beforehand and the happy twosome had married in secret. Put that with the shoes left rather stupidly near the crime scene and you have no doubt in anyone’s mind who had planted the gunpowder and killed Darnley. An unpopular and quarrelsome man, the Orkney born nobleman, Bothwell, seems to have appeared when he visited Mary at the French Court in the autumn of 1560. He supported Mary’s mother, Mary of Guise, in Scotland and together with 24 followers, he took 6000 crowns of English money destined to be used against Mary of Guise at an ambush near Haddington on Halloween 1559. After her death, he appears to be no more than a troublesome nobleman at court, (although he was obviously smitten with Mary), until the Darnley murder when he showed his true colours. He was acquitted of any wrong doing in a trial on 12th April 1567 and a rumour circulated that he would marry Mary. That is until eight bishops, nine earls, and seven Lords of Parliament put their signatures to what became known as the Ainslie Tavern Bond, declaring that Mary should marry a native-born subject and they handed it confidently and smugly to Bothwell. Four days later, while Mary was on the road from Linlithgow Palace to Edinburgh, Bothwell suddenly appeared with 800 men and assured Mary that danger awaited her in Edinburgh. She was to come with him to his castle at Dunbar, out of harm’s way. It appears Mary agreed to accompany him and arrived at Dunbar at midnight where she was taken prisoner by Bothwell and allegedly raped. Bothwell’s reasoning was that this would secure his marriage to her (although whether she was a willing accomplice or an unwilling victim remains a controversial issue.) On 12th May, Mary created him Duke of Orkney and Marquess of Fife and three days later they were married at Holyrood. In England, Elizabeth was livid as the updates filtered back to her. It wasn’t just Elizabeth who was adding two and two together, the Scottish nobles were doing the same thing as well. As the realisation suddenly hit them that Mary was probably involved in Darnley’s murder, they knew a decision had to be made. And you can believe that her half-brother, James Stewart, played a major part in making that momentous decision. Without too much delay, a council informed Mary that she would have to abdicate in favour of her 1-year-old son James. Coincidently, they said, her half-brother had helpfully and willingly stepped forward and nominated himself as Regent and the nobles had already accepted his generous offer. As a finishing touch, they informed Mary that after she abdicated, she was then to be imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle ready for the charge of murder to be heard in a court of law. There was nothing she could do, they informed her. It was a done deal. By this time, Bothwell had seen the writing on the wall. He’d fled after one final embrace from Mary, leaving her to face the music alone. Bothwell was never seen again but reports filtered back over the years that he had been imprisoned in Denmark and was slowly going insane. Still reeling from the desertion of her new husband, Mary miscarried a set of twins. From somewhere deep in her soul, despite her immense grief, Mary must have been determined that her rights as queen should, and would, be restored. Inside a month, she had lost a husband and a set of twins: she was not about to lose her throne as well. Loch Leven Castle was actually a grey stone house with small windows that barely kept out the cold winds that blew across the water. Outside was a narrow strip of scrubland and further still was the lake that took half an hour for a strong man to row to the mainland. When the weather turned foul, the strip submerged and the waves lashed the stones of the perimeter wall. It was a hard prison from which escape and endurance seemed impossible. For someone like Mary who had been raised in a glittering court in France surrounded by priceless jewels and gorgeous clothes, attending banquets and plays, it was beyond hell to endure. The boredom would have driven her almost insane. During her time in the prison, she constantly declared that her abdication had been forced upon her under the threat of death and most of Scotland believed her. And she continually plotted her escape. It took Mary almost a year to accomplish, but on 2nd May 1568, with the help of George Douglas, the handsome half-brother of Sir William Douglas, owner of Loch Leven, she escaped. Whether she granted George certain ‘favours’ more than mere kisses, (if you know what I mean), is unknown but I would assume that anything more would have been risky with her already besmirched reputation. But then again, she had made some terrible blunders up until then so anything was possible. In any case, Mary’s supporters smuggled her out and whisked her away, hoping to reach the safety of Dumbarton Castle. News of Mary’s imprisonment had not been popular with the Scots in the first place so when word circulated that she had escaped, the news was widely welcomed. With an escort of 50 supporters led by Lord Hamilton, she rode in to Lanarkshire to join up with many more nobles who were willing to take up the fight with her and within a few days; she had managed to gather 6,000 men. With this sizable army standing at the ready behind her, plus the assistance of eight earls, nine bishops, eighteen lords, twelve abbots and nearly one hundred barons, the council was more than willing to pass a ruling that the Earl of Moray’s actions had indeed been treasonable. They say the road to death is a long march full of terrors and Mary had every intention of dodging that horrific end to her story. One of the ways to do that was to avoid battle at all cost. Her plan was to retire to Dumbarton Castle while expected reinforcements came from the north to help and with this added strength, she was certain she could take back the country by degrees from her half-brother. With the full intention of temporarily bypassing Moray, Mary rode to Rutherglen Castle intending to pass on the north side of the Clyde estuary to avoid a direct confrontation with him. She had no wish to ride into a trap so until she had a full army at her disposal, she had to err on the side of caution. Unlike Mary, Moray wasn’t about to give up without a serious fight. His plan was to draw up his army close to the village several miles south of Glasgow, well within the city limits, and attack at the moment when Mary would least expect it. One of his commanders noted Mary’s movements and he ordered his musketeers to stand ready behind each of the horsemen hiding among some cottages, hedges and gardens bordering a narrow lane through which Mary’s army needed to pass. Moray would lead the rest of the army across a nearby bridge. Moray’s army had only just established themselves when Mary’s army advanced through the village. The battle was on. Mary’s commander, Lord Argyll, had very little military skills so he hoped to simply push Moray aside by sheer force of numbers. As Lord Hamilton advanced slowly, Mary remained safe and secure at the rear. All was going to plan until Hamilton was met with fire from the musketeers and it was as if the world exploded in an almighty crash of metal. Many in the front were killed but Hamilton determinedly pushed on through the mayhem, finally reaching the top of a hill. What he saw frightened him. The enemy had totally blocked them off and they were advancing quickly. What happened next has happened many times throughout history. Both armies collided in a forest of spears so thick, it is said that if anyone had thrown their discharged pistols at the enemy, the weapons would have come to rest on top of the shafts rather than falling to the ground. Forty-five minutes later, the Battle of Langside was over. As the cries of screaming men and horses reached her, Mary watched in abject horror as over 300 of her men were slaughtered. Feathered shafts protruded from bodies, limbs had been hacked off and the smell of blood hung heavily in the air. As dreadful as it was, if Moray had not called a halt to the fighting, it was certain the count would have been much higher. But if Mary had been in danger before, her capture at this crucial moment would certainly have been her final chapter. In a panic and with an escort, Mary fled across bleak windswept moorland, burning bridges behind her to slow pursuit, in an attempt to reach Dumbarton Castle. But then suddenly, she changed direction and turned south, heading towards a magnificent Gothic church by the name of Dundrennan Abbey on the south coast of Scotland. We can only assume she believed the Abbey seemed more reachable and safe. From there she could head for England and be out of harm’s way. After all the mistakes Mary had made, this one turned out to be the worst. She would never see Scotland again. In Mary’s mind, the only choice she had was to throw herself on Elizabeth’s mercy. And Elizabeth may have initially been tempted to do exactly that and take her cousin in. Especially when she remembered the night she’d refused Mary permission to dock in London on her way back to Scotland from France after the death of her French husband. That night, it was as if God had unleashed a powerful, vengeful storm following her refusal and the result had been that St Pauls Cathedral had been reduced to ashes, burnt to the ground and in ruins. But with this horrific memory came doubt. The old Mary had been dangerous enough but this new Mary was more dangerous and treacherous to Elizabeth than the one she’d sent that letter to years ago. This new Mary seemed out of control. Could she even be trusted? If there was one thing we can be certain of is that Elizabeth would have remembered the past mangled generations of her dynasty. She would have remembered the stories of how her grandfather, Henry VII, had kissed the ground reverently as he invaded England before slaughtering Richard III and she would have remembered the stories of his tyranny. She certainly would have remembered that her father had excelled at disposing of anyone who stood in his way. Her own mother had been one of those disposable people. And I’m sure it would have been those same horrific memories that made Elizabeth hesitate and finally resist her government’s advice. Beheading traitors was one thing, but beheading someone of royal blood, more to the point her own cousin, was something she could not bring herself to do. All you had to do was look at how the War of the Roses has turned out if you were in any sort of doubt. For a woman and a queen who had suffered first-hand at her family’s brutality, there seemed only one option available to her. Rather than risk temporarily sheltering Mary and then returning her to Scotland at a later time with an English army, or even sending her back to France, Elizabeth imprisoned Mary in Carlisle Castle and then one month later, moved her a little further away from the Scottish border to Bolton Castle.	4,698	ENGLISH	1
Granville Tailer Woods was the first African-American to become a mechanical and electrical engineer. He was also an inventor who held more than 60 patents. Born on April 23, 1856 in Columbus, Ohio to poor parents, his family could not initially afford to send him to college. But he still was able to the needed skills to become a machinist and blacksmith when he worked as an apprentice in a local machine shop. Later, he was able to attend college and studied mechanical and electrical engineering there. Upon graduation, he became an entrepreneur and worked as an electrical engineer and inventor. He started out working in Ohio, but in 1892 he moved his facilities to New York City. His work is credited for making publication transportation systems throughout the United States safer and better. For example, he invented and patented tunnel construction for the electric railroad system. Another one of his notable inventions was an improved telephone transmitter that combined the telephone and telegraph. He later sold the patents and rights to this device to the American Bell Telephone Company, which was later acquired by AT&T. He also invented the multiplex telegraph. Thomas Edison, had been working on a similar invention and once tried to claim that he was the original creator of it. But when Edison took Woods to court over the matter, he was defeated and Woods was awarded the patent. Edison was not the only one who tried to claim Woods' inventions as his own, so he often had difficulties in enjoying his success. Sadly, he died on January 30, 1910 in New York City. Today, few people talk about his contributions, and his legacy is hardly even mentioned in public school textbooks.	<urn:uuid:202c041d-c2c1-464a-b93c-d2adab6e64f6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.lividtee.com/blogs/who-is/the-first-black-electrical-engineer-who-owned-more-than-60-patents	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00326.warc.gz	en	0.99566	341	3.5	4	[ -0.1314602941274643, 0.30583783984184265, 0.035976510494947433, -0.23425234854221344, -0.7697752714157104, -0.11544066667556763, 0.25566327571868896, 0.17465144395828247, -0.07716117799282074, 0.2652110159397125, -0.02157074213027954, -0.19715653359889984, -0.20989865064620972, 0.269877135...	8	Granville Tailer Woods was the first African-American to become a mechanical and electrical engineer. He was also an inventor who held more than 60 patents. Born on April 23, 1856 in Columbus, Ohio to poor parents, his family could not initially afford to send him to college. But he still was able to the needed skills to become a machinist and blacksmith when he worked as an apprentice in a local machine shop. Later, he was able to attend college and studied mechanical and electrical engineering there. Upon graduation, he became an entrepreneur and worked as an electrical engineer and inventor. He started out working in Ohio, but in 1892 he moved his facilities to New York City. His work is credited for making publication transportation systems throughout the United States safer and better. For example, he invented and patented tunnel construction for the electric railroad system. Another one of his notable inventions was an improved telephone transmitter that combined the telephone and telegraph. He later sold the patents and rights to this device to the American Bell Telephone Company, which was later acquired by AT&T. He also invented the multiplex telegraph. Thomas Edison, had been working on a similar invention and once tried to claim that he was the original creator of it. But when Edison took Woods to court over the matter, he was defeated and Woods was awarded the patent. Edison was not the only one who tried to claim Woods' inventions as his own, so he often had difficulties in enjoying his success. Sadly, he died on January 30, 1910 in New York City. Today, few people talk about his contributions, and his legacy is hardly even mentioned in public school textbooks.	348	ENGLISH	1
The ancient Egyptians believed that when a person died, they would return to an afterlife. They thought that the body needed to be preserved so that the person could return. When an important ancient Egyptian died and was mummified, they took all their major organs out of their bodies. These organs were the liver, intestines, lungs and stomach. They were put in 4 canopic jars for protection. The canopic jars had different lids with animal or human head shapes on them. The heart was left in the body and not placed in a jar. Each canopic jar was made to honour the four sons of Horus. Imsety had the head of a human and protected the liver. Qebehsenuef had the head of a falcon and protected the intestines. Hapi had the head of a baboon and protected the lungs. Duamutef had the head of a jackal and protected the stomach. The jars were placed in a special chest that were put into the tomb with the mummy. Canopic jars were usually made out of limestone.	<urn:uuid:6c083313-e471-4d7b-8a45-dcb2b7aa53e7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://primaryleap.co.uk/activity/canopic-jars	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00383.warc.gz	en	0.990013	223	3.640625	4	[ -0.31667977571487427, 0.5076709985733032, 0.37379947304725647, -0.12822674214839935, -0.4185357391834259, -0.2533726096153259, 1.077150583267212, 0.14140646159648895, -0.3203495144844055, 0.032723311334848404, -0.1501699537038803, -0.7849119901657104, -0.14421521127223969, 0.17601870000362...	2	The ancient Egyptians believed that when a person died, they would return to an afterlife. They thought that the body needed to be preserved so that the person could return. When an important ancient Egyptian died and was mummified, they took all their major organs out of their bodies. These organs were the liver, intestines, lungs and stomach. They were put in 4 canopic jars for protection. The canopic jars had different lids with animal or human head shapes on them. The heart was left in the body and not placed in a jar. Each canopic jar was made to honour the four sons of Horus. Imsety had the head of a human and protected the liver. Qebehsenuef had the head of a falcon and protected the intestines. Hapi had the head of a baboon and protected the lungs. Duamutef had the head of a jackal and protected the stomach. The jars were placed in a special chest that were put into the tomb with the mummy. Canopic jars were usually made out of limestone.	220	ENGLISH	1
Gymnast Melanie Coleman died two days after an accident that occurred during a routine practice on uneven bars. She suffered from a fatal spinal cord injury, according to source. Although this tragic event labeled a freak accident, women tend to suffer from a higher risk of head, neck and spinal cord injuries. Female athletes achieve equivalent or better accolades that male athletes do, and are just as strong as men in their respective sports. However, women tend to suffer from a higher risk of getting seriously injured from sports due to their anatomy and social standards. However, including both genders, it can be acceptable to lose a few pounds if there is self-motivation behind it. When coaches force their athletes to lose weight for their sport it can decrease energy and muscle mass, which can go against the intended purpose and overall lower performance. In extreme cases, it can cause self-esteem issues which can have deadly outcomes such as eating disorders. “No athlete should ever be forced to lose weight, when someone is forced to lose weight, it can not only be physically damaging such as losing muscle mass, but mentally too, the athlete could develop eating disorders trying to please their coaches, and overall won't increase their performance”Anatomy teacher Tammy Sensibaugh said. Many women are faced with social standards of what they need to do to be successful in a sport, such as a coach forcing them to lose weight. For example, Mary Cain, a track athlete atthe University of Portland, had a coach who forced her to get thinner and thinner, ignoring her acts of self-harm when she was at a Nike Oregon Project, which is an elite training group that promotes American long-distance running according to people.com. “Women have less muscle mass, more body fat and higher estrogen levels, which reduces stiffness in the ligaments. Although those factors improve flexibility, it decreases power and can make the ligaments more prone to an injury,'' Sensibaugh said. Junior volleyball player London Davis faced a serious injury to the ligaments in her thumb during a volleyball game. She had to go through reconstruction surgery along with many months is physical therapy. “It had to take a long time to heal because the surgery was a reconstruction surgery which is so complex, but through lots of rest and physical therapy I was able to get better,” Davis said. Although there are some freak accidents that come without anyone expecting it, it is essential to make sure processes are followed to help reduce the likeliness of an injury occurring. “To help reduce injury, make sure to eat healthy, stay hydrated, get enough sleep and maintain a regular sleep pattern. Going to see the trainer as soon as an injury happens is also important,” health teacher Ginger Frye said. Many athletes create various diets that fits them best for the sport they play and have strict fitness routines like running and weight lifting to help with building strength, which can reduce the vulnerability of the body to injuries. “I had a really bad injury with my shoulder a few years ago. I was out for many months, and it affected the way I played. That led me to do other activities to strengthen my body so I do not get hurt like that again like running and weightlifting,” senior tennis player Erin Storrer said.	<urn:uuid:a6dbac07-0197-4874-ab3b-7addc1338c1f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.oohscourier.com/single-post/2019/12/13/The-female-experience-Greater-dangers-posed-for-women-in-sports	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00399.warc.gz	en	0.984078	681	3.328125	3	[ 0.14774897694587708, -0.23899242281913757, 0.4899181127548218, -0.172907292842865, -0.4513922929763794, 0.6882532238960266, 0.149412602186203, 0.5713351368904114, 0.28591811656951904, -0.13805782794952393, -0.0013828291557729244, -0.44038814306259155, 0.05806400254368782, 0.223015442490577...	4	Gymnast Melanie Coleman died two days after an accident that occurred during a routine practice on uneven bars. She suffered from a fatal spinal cord injury, according to source. Although this tragic event labeled a freak accident, women tend to suffer from a higher risk of head, neck and spinal cord injuries. Female athletes achieve equivalent or better accolades that male athletes do, and are just as strong as men in their respective sports. However, women tend to suffer from a higher risk of getting seriously injured from sports due to their anatomy and social standards. However, including both genders, it can be acceptable to lose a few pounds if there is self-motivation behind it. When coaches force their athletes to lose weight for their sport it can decrease energy and muscle mass, which can go against the intended purpose and overall lower performance. In extreme cases, it can cause self-esteem issues which can have deadly outcomes such as eating disorders. “No athlete should ever be forced to lose weight, when someone is forced to lose weight, it can not only be physically damaging such as losing muscle mass, but mentally too, the athlete could develop eating disorders trying to please their coaches, and overall won't increase their performance”Anatomy teacher Tammy Sensibaugh said. Many women are faced with social standards of what they need to do to be successful in a sport, such as a coach forcing them to lose weight. For example, Mary Cain, a track athlete atthe University of Portland, had a coach who forced her to get thinner and thinner, ignoring her acts of self-harm when she was at a Nike Oregon Project, which is an elite training group that promotes American long-distance running according to people.com. “Women have less muscle mass, more body fat and higher estrogen levels, which reduces stiffness in the ligaments. Although those factors improve flexibility, it decreases power and can make the ligaments more prone to an injury,'' Sensibaugh said. Junior volleyball player London Davis faced a serious injury to the ligaments in her thumb during a volleyball game. She had to go through reconstruction surgery along with many months is physical therapy. “It had to take a long time to heal because the surgery was a reconstruction surgery which is so complex, but through lots of rest and physical therapy I was able to get better,” Davis said. Although there are some freak accidents that come without anyone expecting it, it is essential to make sure processes are followed to help reduce the likeliness of an injury occurring. “To help reduce injury, make sure to eat healthy, stay hydrated, get enough sleep and maintain a regular sleep pattern. Going to see the trainer as soon as an injury happens is also important,” health teacher Ginger Frye said. Many athletes create various diets that fits them best for the sport they play and have strict fitness routines like running and weight lifting to help with building strength, which can reduce the vulnerability of the body to injuries. “I had a really bad injury with my shoulder a few years ago. I was out for many months, and it affected the way I played. That led me to do other activities to strengthen my body so I do not get hurt like that again like running and weightlifting,” senior tennis player Erin Storrer said.	649	ENGLISH	1
Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,315 pages of information and 220,557 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them. William Symington (1764-1831) was a Scottish engineer and inventor, and the builder of what has been described as 'the first practical steamboat'. It was an ingenious design, and was subjected to testing, but it was a prototype, not intended as a working steam boat. 1764 Symington was born in Leadhills, South Lanarkshire to a family he described as being "respectable but not wealthy." His father worked as a practical mechanic at the Leadhills mines. Although his parents intended for him to enter the ministry, he intended to use his good education to make a career as an engineer. 1784 William Symington conceived the idea of steam being applied to propelling carriages, and made a working model, but soon gave it up, and nothing was ever after heard of the project 1785 Joined his brother George in his attempts to build a steam engine at Wanlockhead, Dumfriesshire. 1786 While there, he impressed the manager of a local mining company, Gilbert Meason, so much that he was sent to the University of Edinburgh to spend a few months attending science lectures. 1786 Built a steam carriage that was exhibited in Edinburgh that year. 1787 By the time William joined his brother, George had already succeeded in building the second engine using James Watt's design to be built in Scotland. William Symington quickly saw a way to marry the efficiency of the Watt engine with the simplicity of that devised by Thomas Newcomen. Encouraged by Gilbert Meason, Symington demonstrated the practicality of his idea and his improved atmospheric engine was patented in 1787. When Watt sent someone to make a sketch of how this new engine worked, he discovered that the steam was condensed under a second piston and this was then pushed down when fresh steam entered the cylinder, forcing out the condensate. The power piston worked by the atmospheric pressure acting on the vacuum created by the condensing steam. After its completion, Symington drew up a prospectus outlining the advantages of his invention, and this was circulated by Meason and his influential friends. Later, Symington intended to carry out a trial in order to show than an engine would work on a boat without the boat catching fire. The vessel chosen for this experiment had been built in 1785 as a pleasure boat. It was agreed that Symington would install an engine and connect it to the paddle wheels. See 'Symington's First Marine Engine' below. 1788 The trial finally took place on a loch near Dumfries on October 14, 1788. The trial was said to have been a success. Later accounts would say that the boat went at 5mph and that Robert Burns was on board. However, if Burns was present, he failed to mention it in a letter he wrote on that day or in any of his verse. Certainly, the local minister and his son were on board and the latter reported the trial to Robert Cleland of Glasgow, who wrote that the trial failed and the boat had to be helped by hand cranks. The experiment did ultimately demonstrate, however, that a steam engine would work on a boat. 1789 After the successful demonstration of a steam engine on a boat, a larger engine was commissioned that would be tried in a boat on the Forth and Clyde Canal. The parts for the engine were ordered and an engine similar to that used previously, but a lot larger, was erected on another twin hull paddle boat. It was 60ft long. The first trial, on December 2, 1789, was unsuccessful because the paddle wheels were not up to the task and began to break up when an increase in speed was attempted. However, Patrick Miller, the patron of the venture, did sanction repairs and, on December 26 and 27, more successful trials were done. Although Symington is best remembered for his contribution to steam powered vessels, he also built successful engines for mines and mills. The first of these was built on a mine in Wanlockhead. This was followed by engines in Sanquhar, and then in London. 1789 Symington advertised the advantages of his 'New Patent Steam Engine', as installed at Wanlockhead. It had a 36" bore cylinder with 8 ft stroke, making 14 strokes per minute. 'By a new, but simple method of condensation, this power is produced, without alternately heating and cooling the cylinder, as in the old engine.' Old engines could be converted 'at little more than the expence of the addition of a small addition to the bottom of their present cylinders.' 1792 He built a large pumping engine that James Watt was also considered for. In the same year, he built an engine for the colliery of James Bruce. This marked a move to live near Falkirk and, later, a place as engine consultant for the Carron Co. 1793 He developed a crank drive with a crosshead above the cylinder, and built such an engine to wind coal from one of Bruce's pits. his engine proved very successful and about fifteen were built. There are firm references to thirty-two engines built by Symington up until 1808, and passing mention of several more. It was Thomas, Lord Dundas who would motivate further steamboat trials. This was because he had extensive business interests on the east and west coasts and was governor of the Forth and Clyde Canal Company. Therefore, the canal was essential to his business, and steam power could speed up the movement of vessels through the canal. It helped progress that the Dundas family were one of the most powerful families of the late 18th century. 1800 At a meeting of company directors on June 5, 1800, Dundas brought up the idea of having a Captain Schank boat worked by a steam engine provided by Symington. The directors immediately agreed that this was a good idea. 1801 A diagram of Symington's engine shows an engine driving a forward wheel (or two wheels, one on either side) within the hull. The boat was built by Alexander Hart at Grangemouth and was tested on the River Carron in June 1801, when it moved with ease. However, it was less successful on the canal and was rejected by the committee. 1801 By 1800, Watt's patent had expired, so Symington set about the task of building a horizontal engine. He got a patent for his design in 1801. This design was ahead of its time because other engineers believed that it would not work. It was not widely accepted until 1825. Since the Canal Company had not been satisfied with the first boat, Lord Dundas gave Symington his support for the building of a second boat. Therefore, a model of the new boat was shown to Dundas and was named after one of his daughters in an attempt to secure his interest. The hull of the boat was made by John Allan to Symington's direction and the Carron Co made the engine. 1803 The Charlotte Dundas was first sailed on January 4, with Lord Dundas and some of his friends and relatives on board. The crowd were pleased with what they saw, but Symington wanted to make improvements and another more ambitious trial was made on March 28. On this occasion, the steamboat towed two loaded vessels through the canal, covering 18 1/2 miles in 9 1/2 hours. The Charlotte Dundas therefore became the first boat to do more than just move itself, but the Canal Company did not wish to pursue the construction of another vessel. Symington was further upset when a scheme to build tug boats for the Duke of Bridgewater collapsed when the Duke died a few days before the trial was due to take place. 1794 As well as an engine builder, Symington was a colliery manager, also known as a 'viewer'. His first appointment in this capacity was in 1794 when the Trustees asked him to take over on James Bruce's death. His salary for this was £100 per annum and a house on the estate. This appointment ended in 1800 when Symington took over management of the Grange colliery near Bo'ness. William Cadell was behind Symington at this job. In 1804, he joined a local businessman in a partnership intended to manage the Callendar Colliery at Falkirk. A new pump was needed there and this allowed Symington to develop what he called a 'lifting engine'. He may have built one of these for the Wanlockhead mines in 1819. The Callendar venture ended badly, however, and, in a dispute at the High Court in Edinburgh that lasted until 1810, Symington lost. Due to Patrick Miller's unwillingness to pursue the potential of the 1789 trial, the loss of interest from Lord Dundas and the proceedings at the High Court, Symington was left out-of-pocket. 1827 Letter from Symington going into great detail about his life and inventions. In 1829, in ill health and in debt, Symington and his wife moved to London to live with their daughter and her husband. 1831 March 22nd. Died. Civil Engineer and a native of Leadhills, Scotland 'and the first who successfully propelled vessels by the power of steam.'. He was buried in St. Botulph's churchyard. In 1890, a bust was unveiled in Edinburgh, in what is now the National Museum, in memory of the great engineer. Next Sunday, March 22nd, at St. Botolph’s, Aldgate, E.C., a memorial service will be held to mark the centenary of the death of William Symington (1763-1831), whose efforts to introduce navigation by steam in this country failed only of complete realisation by untoward circumstances. His story has often been told and, like that of many another inventor, it is a sad one. His father was engaged as a mechanic in the Wanlockhead Lead Mines, Dumfriesshire, and assisted in the erection there of a Watt pumping, engine in 1779. The boy was brought up in this atmosphere, and although intended for the ministry, showed his bent by making a model of a steam road carriage. Mr. Gilbert Meason, one of the proprietors of the mines, took the model to Edinburgh and there it attracted the attention of Patrick Miller, a banker of that city, who had been making extended experiments with double and treble-hulled boats manually propelled by paddle wheels. Through the liberality of Mr. Meason Symington attended classes at the College in 1786 and was introduced to Mr. Miller, with the result that the latter commissioned him to make an engine for one of his double-hulled boats. The engine was of the construction patented by Symington on June 5th, 1787. It had two vertical cylinders, and rotative motion was obtained indirectly by chains and ratchets. The boat, 25ft. long, was supplied with cylinders 4in. diameter by 18in. stroke, and plied successfully on the loch at Dalswinton, Dumfriesshire, Miller’s country seat, on October 14th, 1788. By a train of circumstances too long to relate the engine was preserved and is now in the Science Museum, South Kensington. Encouraged by this success, Symington, a year later, at Miller’s expense, built and engined a slightly larger boat for the Forth and Clyde Canal. Somewhat better results were obtained, but Miller, satisfied, to use his own words, “ that Mr. Symington’s steam engine is the most improper of all steam engines for giving motion to a vessel ”—and he was not far wrong, only there was nothing more “ proper ” available— abandoned the project and Symington had no means with which to prosecute the subject alone. So he went on erecting his patented engine for pumping purposes in London, Leeds, and elsewhere, but was stopped by Boulton and Watt for infringement anil dill not revert to the subject of steam navigation till 1801, when Thomas, Lord Dundas of Kerse, a Governor of the Forth and Clyde Canal, commissioned him to built a tugboat as a substitute for horse haulage on the canal. As a result of his matured consideration of this problem, he designed a new typo of horizontal double-acting engine directly driving the paddle wheel by a crank ; this he patented on October 14th, 1801. Its simplicity and its superiority for the purpose over the then established beam engine is evident at u glance. The tugboat, 56ft. long, built at Grangemouth and named “ Charlotte Dundas,” after his lordship’s daughter, was equipped with this engine, with a cylinder 22in. diameter by 4ft. stroke, driving a paddle wheel in a recess in the stern and much resembling the stern-wheeler of to-day. The tug underwent successful trials, but Lord Dundas failed to persuade the committee of the proprietors to allow it to be used, as they feared that the wash of the paddle wheel would erode the banks of the canal. In the meantime his lordship, having got Symington to make a model of the steamboat, introduced him to the great Duke of Bridgewater, so famous for his improvements in canal navigation. The latter, sceptical at first, became convinced of the usefulness of the steamboat and ordered eight similar vessels for his canal. Misfortune again doggeil Symington’s footsteps, for the Duke died on March 3rd, 1803, and his executors refused to go on with the scheme. It is said that this decision and that of the Canal Committee reached Symington simultaneously. Had the Duke lived, we should have seen inland steam navigation established four yearn before Robert Fulton succeeded on the river Hudson in America. More important than that, we should have had in use half a century earlier an engine superior to his and to that of his successors. David Napier, the great marine engineer, said of it in 1860 that it was “ superior in construction to [that of] many steamers of the present day.” Symington, disheartened and dispirited, resumed his stationary engine practice, for the Watt patent had expired, but we hear little of him afterwards. In 1824, following the lead of Cartwright, Crompton and others, he tried to get a compassionate allowance from Government, but all he received was one sum of £100 and another of £50. Indeed, for the last few years of his life he was entirely dependent for support on his son-in-law, who resided in Burr-street, near St. Katharine’s Docks. Here the inventor, having lived to see steam navigation extended to all parts of the world, died on March 22nd, 1831, and was buried in the churchyard of St. Botolph’s, but exactly where is not known. The parallel with Trevithick’s case, two years later, is sufficiently striking. A contemporary portrait by D. O. Hill, R.S.A., is in the Science Museum, and a bust cut in 1890 is in the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh. On May 26th, 1903, Sir Marcus Samuel, Lord Mayor of London —afterwards Lord Bearsted—unveiled a beautiful tablet to Symington, the cost of which he had borne, in the church. On this tablet, after the memorial service on Sunday next, the 22nd instant, the Institute of Marine Engineers anil the Newcomen Society for the Study of the History of Engineering and Technology, will lay chaplets “ for a remembrance.” All engineers who can do so are invited to take part." This was a small atmospheric engine of 4" bore. To obtain rotative motion to the two paddles, two cylinders were provided, acting alternately. The two piston rods are interconnected by a pitch chain wrapped round a large brass wheel. Chains went from this wheel to turn the paddles using ratchet wheels. Connected to the axle of the central chain wheel is a smaller wheel, to which a pair of pitch chains is connected, and these are attached to a weighted vertical rod which works the steam valves by means of cross bars acting on levers. Symington aimed to obtain the benefit of a separate condenser without infringing Watt's patent, by having the condenser and air pumps in the bottom of the cylinders, so that condensation was not effected in 'vessels distinct from .... the cylinders'.. Watt thought differently, and obtained an injunction against Symington, but the engine was built anyway. After Patrick Miller died, the first engine passed to his son, who neglected it, and eventually sold it for scrap to an Edinburgh plumber. He scrapped the wooden frame and separated the ferrous and non-ferrous components, but died before they were disposed of. The parts were purchased on behalf of Bennet Woodcroft, with a view to lending them to the Patent Museum. Woodcroft commissioned John Penn and Co of Greenwich to rebuild the engine with a variety of new components, including the wooden frame (for which there were no drawings), new chains and ratchet gear, new wrought iron piston rods to suit the original pistons, crossheads, guide rods, some valve gear components, new wrought iron tank, and numerous other items. The full extent of replacement items was specified by Woodcroft in 1855, and can be found in 'The Engineer' The cylinders were cast in brass by George Watt of Low Calton, Edinburgh, in 1788. The reconstructed engine is, or was, on display in the London Science Museum (see photos), allowing the quality of the detail design to be appreciated. The importance of the physical presence of this engine is enhanced by the fact that there seems to be little published information on the detailed design and construction of this pioneering machine. The photographs show how the valve operating gear is arranged such that opening the steam admission valve of one cylinder opens the condenser admission valve of the opposite cylinder. Not visible in the photos, but just discernable on the isometric drawing, is a small rocking beam with arch heads, located beneath the cylinders to work the air pumps. The drawing and accompanying description were published in 'Engineering' in 1877 Although it is sometimes described as the first practical marine steam engine, it was clearly intended as an experimental engine. Its durability in working conditions, and its serviceability, are open to question. 'Mr Editor, - In your impression of last week's Herald, viz., the Thursday edition, I observed notice of the old pumping engine at Kinnaird, erected by Mr William Symington, which interested me very much. When a boy, I used to be often there, and many a time have I gone into the cylinder along with my playmates, and descended and ascended with the piston, while the engine was in motion, till we were tired of it. I have seen six of us in at once. This was quite a common thing with the boys there nearly forty years ago. I should have liked very much had the writer of the notice referred to, given a description of the engine, and the mode of her operations, as, I believe, very few now-a-days know anything of Symington's engine. I think it would have been interesting to many of your readers. When I read the notice, I was astonished at the immense quantity of water said to be pumped per day but I cannot help thinking that, in this matter, there is a mistake. Surely it has been guessed, not calculated. In order to satisfy myself, I filled a small cylinder with water, and weighed it, then calculated according to the length of the stroke, and diameter the working barrel, as given in the notice, and I find that she does not raise any more than 1018 tons per day, if she does that. Be this as it may, as one interested in the old engine, I have taken the trouble of making a few calculations in connection with her operations, &c., which may, perhaps, amuse those who know something of her. During the seventy years she has wrought, she cannot have made fewer than 257,544,000 strokes, which, at 7½ feet, gives 365,829 miles, which is nearly equal to fifteen times round the globe. During the same period, she cannot have consumed less than 255,000 tons of coal dross, which, at 1s 8d per ton, amounts to £21,250. Supposing calculation of the quantity of water pumped per day to be correct, she cannot have raised less during the time referred to than 26,009,900 tons of water. Now, if we convert this into gallons, it gives us 5,826,217,600, which would fill the Forth and Clyde Canal from end to end nearly four times. Hoping I have not trespassed by taking too much of your columns, or tired the patience of your readers, -I am, &c., A Kinnaird Bairn.'	<urn:uuid:ad0d6390-4026-4c66-9a1d-c68fbf3c78d9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gracesguide.co.uk/William_Symington	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00392.warc.gz	en	0.98506	4,385	3.34375	3	[ -0.15584908425807953, -0.04171571508049965, 0.45038583874702454, -0.2347109317779541, 0.006712842732667923, -0.10034898668527603, -0.1554429531097412, 0.0858520120382309, -0.33562523126602173, -0.07638928294181824, -0.383442223072052, -0.34935933351516724, -0.06198699772357941, 0.113930024...	1	Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,315 pages of information and 220,557 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them. William Symington (1764-1831) was a Scottish engineer and inventor, and the builder of what has been described as 'the first practical steamboat'. It was an ingenious design, and was subjected to testing, but it was a prototype, not intended as a working steam boat. 1764 Symington was born in Leadhills, South Lanarkshire to a family he described as being "respectable but not wealthy." His father worked as a practical mechanic at the Leadhills mines. Although his parents intended for him to enter the ministry, he intended to use his good education to make a career as an engineer. 1784 William Symington conceived the idea of steam being applied to propelling carriages, and made a working model, but soon gave it up, and nothing was ever after heard of the project 1785 Joined his brother George in his attempts to build a steam engine at Wanlockhead, Dumfriesshire. 1786 While there, he impressed the manager of a local mining company, Gilbert Meason, so much that he was sent to the University of Edinburgh to spend a few months attending science lectures. 1786 Built a steam carriage that was exhibited in Edinburgh that year. 1787 By the time William joined his brother, George had already succeeded in building the second engine using James Watt's design to be built in Scotland. William Symington quickly saw a way to marry the efficiency of the Watt engine with the simplicity of that devised by Thomas Newcomen. Encouraged by Gilbert Meason, Symington demonstrated the practicality of his idea and his improved atmospheric engine was patented in 1787. When Watt sent someone to make a sketch of how this new engine worked, he discovered that the steam was condensed under a second piston and this was then pushed down when fresh steam entered the cylinder, forcing out the condensate. The power piston worked by the atmospheric pressure acting on the vacuum created by the condensing steam. After its completion, Symington drew up a prospectus outlining the advantages of his invention, and this was circulated by Meason and his influential friends. Later, Symington intended to carry out a trial in order to show than an engine would work on a boat without the boat catching fire. The vessel chosen for this experiment had been built in 1785 as a pleasure boat. It was agreed that Symington would install an engine and connect it to the paddle wheels. See 'Symington's First Marine Engine' below. 1788 The trial finally took place on a loch near Dumfries on October 14, 1788. The trial was said to have been a success. Later accounts would say that the boat went at 5mph and that Robert Burns was on board. However, if Burns was present, he failed to mention it in a letter he wrote on that day or in any of his verse. Certainly, the local minister and his son were on board and the latter reported the trial to Robert Cleland of Glasgow, who wrote that the trial failed and the boat had to be helped by hand cranks. The experiment did ultimately demonstrate, however, that a steam engine would work on a boat. 1789 After the successful demonstration of a steam engine on a boat, a larger engine was commissioned that would be tried in a boat on the Forth and Clyde Canal. The parts for the engine were ordered and an engine similar to that used previously, but a lot larger, was erected on another twin hull paddle boat. It was 60ft long. The first trial, on December 2, 1789, was unsuccessful because the paddle wheels were not up to the task and began to break up when an increase in speed was attempted. However, Patrick Miller, the patron of the venture, did sanction repairs and, on December 26 and 27, more successful trials were done. Although Symington is best remembered for his contribution to steam powered vessels, he also built successful engines for mines and mills. The first of these was built on a mine in Wanlockhead. This was followed by engines in Sanquhar, and then in London. 1789 Symington advertised the advantages of his 'New Patent Steam Engine', as installed at Wanlockhead. It had a 36" bore cylinder with 8 ft stroke, making 14 strokes per minute. 'By a new, but simple method of condensation, this power is produced, without alternately heating and cooling the cylinder, as in the old engine.' Old engines could be converted 'at little more than the expence of the addition of a small addition to the bottom of their present cylinders.' 1792 He built a large pumping engine that James Watt was also considered for. In the same year, he built an engine for the colliery of James Bruce. This marked a move to live near Falkirk and, later, a place as engine consultant for the Carron Co. 1793 He developed a crank drive with a crosshead above the cylinder, and built such an engine to wind coal from one of Bruce's pits. his engine proved very successful and about fifteen were built. There are firm references to thirty-two engines built by Symington up until 1808, and passing mention of several more. It was Thomas, Lord Dundas who would motivate further steamboat trials. This was because he had extensive business interests on the east and west coasts and was governor of the Forth and Clyde Canal Company. Therefore, the canal was essential to his business, and steam power could speed up the movement of vessels through the canal. It helped progress that the Dundas family were one of the most powerful families of the late 18th century. 1800 At a meeting of company directors on June 5, 1800, Dundas brought up the idea of having a Captain Schank boat worked by a steam engine provided by Symington. The directors immediately agreed that this was a good idea. 1801 A diagram of Symington's engine shows an engine driving a forward wheel (or two wheels, one on either side) within the hull. The boat was built by Alexander Hart at Grangemouth and was tested on the River Carron in June 1801, when it moved with ease. However, it was less successful on the canal and was rejected by the committee. 1801 By 1800, Watt's patent had expired, so Symington set about the task of building a horizontal engine. He got a patent for his design in 1801. This design was ahead of its time because other engineers believed that it would not work. It was not widely accepted until 1825. Since the Canal Company had not been satisfied with the first boat, Lord Dundas gave Symington his support for the building of a second boat. Therefore, a model of the new boat was shown to Dundas and was named after one of his daughters in an attempt to secure his interest. The hull of the boat was made by John Allan to Symington's direction and the Carron Co made the engine. 1803 The Charlotte Dundas was first sailed on January 4, with Lord Dundas and some of his friends and relatives on board. The crowd were pleased with what they saw, but Symington wanted to make improvements and another more ambitious trial was made on March 28. On this occasion, the steamboat towed two loaded vessels through the canal, covering 18 1/2 miles in 9 1/2 hours. The Charlotte Dundas therefore became the first boat to do more than just move itself, but the Canal Company did not wish to pursue the construction of another vessel. Symington was further upset when a scheme to build tug boats for the Duke of Bridgewater collapsed when the Duke died a few days before the trial was due to take place. 1794 As well as an engine builder, Symington was a colliery manager, also known as a 'viewer'. His first appointment in this capacity was in 1794 when the Trustees asked him to take over on James Bruce's death. His salary for this was £100 per annum and a house on the estate. This appointment ended in 1800 when Symington took over management of the Grange colliery near Bo'ness. William Cadell was behind Symington at this job. In 1804, he joined a local businessman in a partnership intended to manage the Callendar Colliery at Falkirk. A new pump was needed there and this allowed Symington to develop what he called a 'lifting engine'. He may have built one of these for the Wanlockhead mines in 1819. The Callendar venture ended badly, however, and, in a dispute at the High Court in Edinburgh that lasted until 1810, Symington lost. Due to Patrick Miller's unwillingness to pursue the potential of the 1789 trial, the loss of interest from Lord Dundas and the proceedings at the High Court, Symington was left out-of-pocket. 1827 Letter from Symington going into great detail about his life and inventions. In 1829, in ill health and in debt, Symington and his wife moved to London to live with their daughter and her husband. 1831 March 22nd. Died. Civil Engineer and a native of Leadhills, Scotland 'and the first who successfully propelled vessels by the power of steam.'. He was buried in St. Botulph's churchyard. In 1890, a bust was unveiled in Edinburgh, in what is now the National Museum, in memory of the great engineer. Next Sunday, March 22nd, at St. Botolph’s, Aldgate, E.C., a memorial service will be held to mark the centenary of the death of William Symington (1763-1831), whose efforts to introduce navigation by steam in this country failed only of complete realisation by untoward circumstances. His story has often been told and, like that of many another inventor, it is a sad one. His father was engaged as a mechanic in the Wanlockhead Lead Mines, Dumfriesshire, and assisted in the erection there of a Watt pumping, engine in 1779. The boy was brought up in this atmosphere, and although intended for the ministry, showed his bent by making a model of a steam road carriage. Mr. Gilbert Meason, one of the proprietors of the mines, took the model to Edinburgh and there it attracted the attention of Patrick Miller, a banker of that city, who had been making extended experiments with double and treble-hulled boats manually propelled by paddle wheels. Through the liberality of Mr. Meason Symington attended classes at the College in 1786 and was introduced to Mr. Miller, with the result that the latter commissioned him to make an engine for one of his double-hulled boats. The engine was of the construction patented by Symington on June 5th, 1787. It had two vertical cylinders, and rotative motion was obtained indirectly by chains and ratchets. The boat, 25ft. long, was supplied with cylinders 4in. diameter by 18in. stroke, and plied successfully on the loch at Dalswinton, Dumfriesshire, Miller’s country seat, on October 14th, 1788. By a train of circumstances too long to relate the engine was preserved and is now in the Science Museum, South Kensington. Encouraged by this success, Symington, a year later, at Miller’s expense, built and engined a slightly larger boat for the Forth and Clyde Canal. Somewhat better results were obtained, but Miller, satisfied, to use his own words, “ that Mr. Symington’s steam engine is the most improper of all steam engines for giving motion to a vessel ”—and he was not far wrong, only there was nothing more “ proper ” available— abandoned the project and Symington had no means with which to prosecute the subject alone. So he went on erecting his patented engine for pumping purposes in London, Leeds, and elsewhere, but was stopped by Boulton and Watt for infringement anil dill not revert to the subject of steam navigation till 1801, when Thomas, Lord Dundas of Kerse, a Governor of the Forth and Clyde Canal, commissioned him to built a tugboat as a substitute for horse haulage on the canal. As a result of his matured consideration of this problem, he designed a new typo of horizontal double-acting engine directly driving the paddle wheel by a crank ; this he patented on October 14th, 1801. Its simplicity and its superiority for the purpose over the then established beam engine is evident at u glance. The tugboat, 56ft. long, built at Grangemouth and named “ Charlotte Dundas,” after his lordship’s daughter, was equipped with this engine, with a cylinder 22in. diameter by 4ft. stroke, driving a paddle wheel in a recess in the stern and much resembling the stern-wheeler of to-day. The tug underwent successful trials, but Lord Dundas failed to persuade the committee of the proprietors to allow it to be used, as they feared that the wash of the paddle wheel would erode the banks of the canal. In the meantime his lordship, having got Symington to make a model of the steamboat, introduced him to the great Duke of Bridgewater, so famous for his improvements in canal navigation. The latter, sceptical at first, became convinced of the usefulness of the steamboat and ordered eight similar vessels for his canal. Misfortune again doggeil Symington’s footsteps, for the Duke died on March 3rd, 1803, and his executors refused to go on with the scheme. It is said that this decision and that of the Canal Committee reached Symington simultaneously. Had the Duke lived, we should have seen inland steam navigation established four yearn before Robert Fulton succeeded on the river Hudson in America. More important than that, we should have had in use half a century earlier an engine superior to his and to that of his successors. David Napier, the great marine engineer, said of it in 1860 that it was “ superior in construction to [that of] many steamers of the present day.” Symington, disheartened and dispirited, resumed his stationary engine practice, for the Watt patent had expired, but we hear little of him afterwards. In 1824, following the lead of Cartwright, Crompton and others, he tried to get a compassionate allowance from Government, but all he received was one sum of £100 and another of £50. Indeed, for the last few years of his life he was entirely dependent for support on his son-in-law, who resided in Burr-street, near St. Katharine’s Docks. Here the inventor, having lived to see steam navigation extended to all parts of the world, died on March 22nd, 1831, and was buried in the churchyard of St. Botolph’s, but exactly where is not known. The parallel with Trevithick’s case, two years later, is sufficiently striking. A contemporary portrait by D. O. Hill, R.S.A., is in the Science Museum, and a bust cut in 1890 is in the Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh. On May 26th, 1903, Sir Marcus Samuel, Lord Mayor of London —afterwards Lord Bearsted—unveiled a beautiful tablet to Symington, the cost of which he had borne, in the church. On this tablet, after the memorial service on Sunday next, the 22nd instant, the Institute of Marine Engineers anil the Newcomen Society for the Study of the History of Engineering and Technology, will lay chaplets “ for a remembrance.” All engineers who can do so are invited to take part." This was a small atmospheric engine of 4" bore. To obtain rotative motion to the two paddles, two cylinders were provided, acting alternately. The two piston rods are interconnected by a pitch chain wrapped round a large brass wheel. Chains went from this wheel to turn the paddles using ratchet wheels. Connected to the axle of the central chain wheel is a smaller wheel, to which a pair of pitch chains is connected, and these are attached to a weighted vertical rod which works the steam valves by means of cross bars acting on levers. Symington aimed to obtain the benefit of a separate condenser without infringing Watt's patent, by having the condenser and air pumps in the bottom of the cylinders, so that condensation was not effected in 'vessels distinct from .... the cylinders'.. Watt thought differently, and obtained an injunction against Symington, but the engine was built anyway. After Patrick Miller died, the first engine passed to his son, who neglected it, and eventually sold it for scrap to an Edinburgh plumber. He scrapped the wooden frame and separated the ferrous and non-ferrous components, but died before they were disposed of. The parts were purchased on behalf of Bennet Woodcroft, with a view to lending them to the Patent Museum. Woodcroft commissioned John Penn and Co of Greenwich to rebuild the engine with a variety of new components, including the wooden frame (for which there were no drawings), new chains and ratchet gear, new wrought iron piston rods to suit the original pistons, crossheads, guide rods, some valve gear components, new wrought iron tank, and numerous other items. The full extent of replacement items was specified by Woodcroft in 1855, and can be found in 'The Engineer' The cylinders were cast in brass by George Watt of Low Calton, Edinburgh, in 1788. The reconstructed engine is, or was, on display in the London Science Museum (see photos), allowing the quality of the detail design to be appreciated. The importance of the physical presence of this engine is enhanced by the fact that there seems to be little published information on the detailed design and construction of this pioneering machine. The photographs show how the valve operating gear is arranged such that opening the steam admission valve of one cylinder opens the condenser admission valve of the opposite cylinder. Not visible in the photos, but just discernable on the isometric drawing, is a small rocking beam with arch heads, located beneath the cylinders to work the air pumps. The drawing and accompanying description were published in 'Engineering' in 1877 Although it is sometimes described as the first practical marine steam engine, it was clearly intended as an experimental engine. Its durability in working conditions, and its serviceability, are open to question. 'Mr Editor, - In your impression of last week's Herald, viz., the Thursday edition, I observed notice of the old pumping engine at Kinnaird, erected by Mr William Symington, which interested me very much. When a boy, I used to be often there, and many a time have I gone into the cylinder along with my playmates, and descended and ascended with the piston, while the engine was in motion, till we were tired of it. I have seen six of us in at once. This was quite a common thing with the boys there nearly forty years ago. I should have liked very much had the writer of the notice referred to, given a description of the engine, and the mode of her operations, as, I believe, very few now-a-days know anything of Symington's engine. I think it would have been interesting to many of your readers. When I read the notice, I was astonished at the immense quantity of water said to be pumped per day but I cannot help thinking that, in this matter, there is a mistake. Surely it has been guessed, not calculated. In order to satisfy myself, I filled a small cylinder with water, and weighed it, then calculated according to the length of the stroke, and diameter the working barrel, as given in the notice, and I find that she does not raise any more than 1018 tons per day, if she does that. Be this as it may, as one interested in the old engine, I have taken the trouble of making a few calculations in connection with her operations, &c., which may, perhaps, amuse those who know something of her. During the seventy years she has wrought, she cannot have made fewer than 257,544,000 strokes, which, at 7½ feet, gives 365,829 miles, which is nearly equal to fifteen times round the globe. During the same period, she cannot have consumed less than 255,000 tons of coal dross, which, at 1s 8d per ton, amounts to £21,250. Supposing calculation of the quantity of water pumped per day to be correct, she cannot have raised less during the time referred to than 26,009,900 tons of water. Now, if we convert this into gallons, it gives us 5,826,217,600, which would fill the Forth and Clyde Canal from end to end nearly four times. Hoping I have not trespassed by taking too much of your columns, or tired the patience of your readers, -I am, &c., A Kinnaird Bairn.'	4,567	ENGLISH	1
WWI and the following civil war ensured that by the time Lenin came into power officially, many ingredients, including meat, were already limited. A variety of fish had been commonplace before the Revolution; however, in post-Revolutionary Russia, fish was no longer seen as a proper meat. Despite this, the government turned to it to see them through tough times. An example of this was herring, which was considered to be the perfect accompaniment to a vodka shot or, if thrown in with some boiled potatoes and onions, was the basis of a quick and simple dinner. They were also cheap and in fairly stable supply. To combat early meat shortages, the government introduced ‘fish days’ on Thursdays in state-run canteens. A day’s menu could include herring salad served with herring soup and fried herring as the main course. The State also made propaganda posters promoting the consumption of herring, and it was used in recipes across state organisations including schools. In 1939, the party created the position of the People’s Commissioner for Fisheries, which oversaw the fishing industry and production chain. The first official in this position, Polina Zhemchuzhina, realised that tinned fish could be the solution to food shortages if the fishing production chain ran smoothly from start to finish. Zhemchuzhina established canneries near fishing ports, mainly around Murmansk and the Far East. The influx of industry in these remote communities and villages saw a boom in the fishing trade. By the time WWII broke out in the USSR, it was estimated there were about 55 types of canned fish available. Another attempt at promoting the consumption of fish was during Khrushchev‘s reign in the 1960s, when dire food shortages once again plagued the Soviet state. Access to dietary mainstays, such as cured meats, cheese and freshwater fish was becoming sporadic. Once again, the government looked to marine life, specifically squid, to pull them out of their predicament. Squid was a solution to the hake, sea bass and bluefish that proved to be unpopular among the masses in the mid-’60s. While squid catches were unreliable, the animal proved to be versatile and easy to store. It could be dried, frozen or tinned, and people could buy it stuffed in oil, in mollusc goulash, or smoked. It was also easily used in a salad thrown together at home. As a result, it became a popular ingredient. In the 1970s, during even more food shortages, cod liver emerged as a coveted ingredient. The government trialled a scheme where workers would buy a hamper of rare and luxury items twice a month or before a celebration, such as New Year’s. The items in the hamper were put together randomly, often with little cohesiveness or consideration to the buyer’s needs and preferences. If the buyer was lucky, they would find a rare tin of cod liver that was appreciated for its nutritional value and taste. Despite some of the successes with promoting fish and marine animals as food, the government had some failings, too. The state unsuccessfully tried to introduce whale sausage, spat pâté (which was made from the ground-up waste product and leftovers from spat tinning factories), and various fishes that came deep frozen and unfilleted and so required thawing, then gutting at home.	<urn:uuid:cafb617c-1d00-44d1-bf95-3bac40cb1a49>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://theculturetrip.com/europe/russia/articles/why-fish-is-so-important-to-russian-cuisine/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00367.warc.gz	en	0.984663	704	3.265625	3	[ -0.43430614471435547, -0.10638146102428436, 0.01854807324707508, -0.2148650586605072, 0.07801574468612671, -0.10161349922418594, 0.15838024020195007, 0.11911213397979736, -0.8027397394180298, -0.08738941699266434, 0.03909904509782791, -0.16463303565979004, 0.2608509361743927, 0.40566155314...	3	WWI and the following civil war ensured that by the time Lenin came into power officially, many ingredients, including meat, were already limited. A variety of fish had been commonplace before the Revolution; however, in post-Revolutionary Russia, fish was no longer seen as a proper meat. Despite this, the government turned to it to see them through tough times. An example of this was herring, which was considered to be the perfect accompaniment to a vodka shot or, if thrown in with some boiled potatoes and onions, was the basis of a quick and simple dinner. They were also cheap and in fairly stable supply. To combat early meat shortages, the government introduced ‘fish days’ on Thursdays in state-run canteens. A day’s menu could include herring salad served with herring soup and fried herring as the main course. The State also made propaganda posters promoting the consumption of herring, and it was used in recipes across state organisations including schools. In 1939, the party created the position of the People’s Commissioner for Fisheries, which oversaw the fishing industry and production chain. The first official in this position, Polina Zhemchuzhina, realised that tinned fish could be the solution to food shortages if the fishing production chain ran smoothly from start to finish. Zhemchuzhina established canneries near fishing ports, mainly around Murmansk and the Far East. The influx of industry in these remote communities and villages saw a boom in the fishing trade. By the time WWII broke out in the USSR, it was estimated there were about 55 types of canned fish available. Another attempt at promoting the consumption of fish was during Khrushchev‘s reign in the 1960s, when dire food shortages once again plagued the Soviet state. Access to dietary mainstays, such as cured meats, cheese and freshwater fish was becoming sporadic. Once again, the government looked to marine life, specifically squid, to pull them out of their predicament. Squid was a solution to the hake, sea bass and bluefish that proved to be unpopular among the masses in the mid-’60s. While squid catches were unreliable, the animal proved to be versatile and easy to store. It could be dried, frozen or tinned, and people could buy it stuffed in oil, in mollusc goulash, or smoked. It was also easily used in a salad thrown together at home. As a result, it became a popular ingredient. In the 1970s, during even more food shortages, cod liver emerged as a coveted ingredient. The government trialled a scheme where workers would buy a hamper of rare and luxury items twice a month or before a celebration, such as New Year’s. The items in the hamper were put together randomly, often with little cohesiveness or consideration to the buyer’s needs and preferences. If the buyer was lucky, they would find a rare tin of cod liver that was appreciated for its nutritional value and taste. Despite some of the successes with promoting fish and marine animals as food, the government had some failings, too. The state unsuccessfully tried to introduce whale sausage, spat pâté (which was made from the ground-up waste product and leftovers from spat tinning factories), and various fishes that came deep frozen and unfilleted and so required thawing, then gutting at home.	702	ENGLISH	1
A snack is a portion of food, often smaller than a regular meal, generally eaten between meals. Snacks come in a variety of forms including packaged snack foods and other processed foods, as well as items made from fresh ingredients at home. Traditionally, snacks are prepared from ingredients commonly available in the home. Often cold cuts, fruit, leftovers, nuts, sandwiches, and the like are used as snacks. The Dagwood sandwich was originally the humorous result of a cartoon character's desire for large snacks. With the spread of convenience stores, packaged snack foods became a significant business. Snack foods are typically designed to be portable, quick, and satisfying. Processed snack foods, as one form of convenience food, are designed to be less perishable, more durable, and more portable than prepared foods. They often contain substantial amounts of sweeteners, preservatives, and appealing ingredients such as chocolate, peanuts, and specially-designed flavors (such as flavored potato chips). Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century but is often applied to music that is older than that. Some types of folk music are also called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted orally, or as music with unknown composers. It has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles. One meaning often given is that of old songs, with no known composers; another is music that has been transmitted and evolved by a process of oral transmission or performed by custom over a long period of time. Starting in the mid-20th century a new form of popular folk music evolved from traditional folk music. This process and period is called the (second) folk revival and reached a zenith in the 1960s. This form of music is sometimes called contemporary folk music or folk revival music to distinguish it from earlier folk forms. Smaller similar revivals have occurred elsewhere in the world at other times, but the term folk music has typically not been applied to the new music created during those revivals. This type of folk music also includes fusion genres such as folk rock, folk metal, electric folk, and others. While contemporary folk music is a genre generally distinct from traditional folk music, in English it shares the same name, and it often shares the same performers and venues as traditional folk music. Even individual songs may be a blend of the two.	<urn:uuid:2c1cd9f0-6590-43c3-bf26-161ad3cc0308>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ro.wn.com/Ethnic_Snack_Now	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00553.warc.gz	en	0.982614	499	3.28125	3	[ 0.0797448605298996, -0.19618050754070282, 0.31483566761016846, -0.2768822908401489, 0.31182655692100525, 0.08094903826713562, 0.06600677222013474, -0.21372337639331818, -0.36456865072250366, -0.3321388363838196, -0.12661194801330566, -0.09275269508361816, 0.01928396336734295, -0.2571330070...	1	A snack is a portion of food, often smaller than a regular meal, generally eaten between meals. Snacks come in a variety of forms including packaged snack foods and other processed foods, as well as items made from fresh ingredients at home. Traditionally, snacks are prepared from ingredients commonly available in the home. Often cold cuts, fruit, leftovers, nuts, sandwiches, and the like are used as snacks. The Dagwood sandwich was originally the humorous result of a cartoon character's desire for large snacks. With the spread of convenience stores, packaged snack foods became a significant business. Snack foods are typically designed to be portable, quick, and satisfying. Processed snack foods, as one form of convenience food, are designed to be less perishable, more durable, and more portable than prepared foods. They often contain substantial amounts of sweeteners, preservatives, and appealing ingredients such as chocolate, peanuts, and specially-designed flavors (such as flavored potato chips). Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century but is often applied to music that is older than that. Some types of folk music are also called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted orally, or as music with unknown composers. It has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles. One meaning often given is that of old songs, with no known composers; another is music that has been transmitted and evolved by a process of oral transmission or performed by custom over a long period of time. Starting in the mid-20th century a new form of popular folk music evolved from traditional folk music. This process and period is called the (second) folk revival and reached a zenith in the 1960s. This form of music is sometimes called contemporary folk music or folk revival music to distinguish it from earlier folk forms. Smaller similar revivals have occurred elsewhere in the world at other times, but the term folk music has typically not been applied to the new music created during those revivals. This type of folk music also includes fusion genres such as folk rock, folk metal, electric folk, and others. While contemporary folk music is a genre generally distinct from traditional folk music, in English it shares the same name, and it often shares the same performers and venues as traditional folk music. Even individual songs may be a blend of the two.	498	ENGLISH	1
Brendan Behan Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Brendan Behan is revered in Ireland for his contribution in the revival of the Irish literature. He used poetry and theater to aid the Irish revolutionary war against the British. Brendan Francis Behan was born on February 9, 1923, in Dublin Ireland. His parents, Stephen and Kathleen Behan were in the middle class working society. His parents introduced him to the Irish nationalist movement in his childhood. Behan dropped out of the local Catholic school at the age of 14. He was employed as a painter. Brendan Behan joined the Irish revolutionary movement when he barely ten years. Even then, he was increasingly active in the underground operations of the IRA. IRA was the anti-British revolutionary movement. Two years later in 1939, he was arrested in Liverpool, England after a sabotage mission. Since he was underage, Behan was sent to children reforming school in Borstal. He was released after three years. Behan returned to Dublin upon his release. The IRA increased its sabotage missions during the WW2. In 1942, Brendan Behan was arrested again for attempting to kill two British police officers. He was tried and jailed for 14 years. He was barely 20 years old. Behan gained back his freedom in 1946 under a blanket amnesty given by the British. The following year, he was arrested and convicted of aiding a prisoner to escape. He served a brief jail term and was released. Due to continued involvement in the revolution, Behan was deported to France in 1952. Brendan Behan started to write while in prison. In the IRA, he met several Irish literary luminaries. They encouraged him to join the Dubin literature movement. Its main agenda was to use literature as a medium of advancing the revolution. His early writings were short political stories. Borstal Boy was one of them. After his return to Dublin from France, Behan started writing dramatized plays. Owing to the sensitive content, his plays were turned down in Britain. He perfected his plays in his native Irish language. He rebranded himself by working for local media stations. His popularity grew as more people appreciated his work. In 1954, Brendan Behan published his play The Quare Fellow. It was set in the backdrop of Mountjoy Prison in Dublin. The play was widely acclaimed and ran at the Pike Theater for over six months. The Quare Fellow was again rehearsed and played at the Broadway Theater in New York a few years later. He released another play The Hostage in 1958. Four years later he published Brendan Behan’s Island. In 1963, he produced Hold Your Hour and Have Another. The following year, he released Brendan Behan’s, New York. Later after his death, his three books we republished. These were Confessions of An Irish Rebel, the Scaperer, and After The Wake. Brendan Behan was a satiric comedian and playwright. His style was comical with hard-hitting facts. He made people laugh while passing on his political messages. This style of production made him the most admired literary figure in Dublin. Brendan Behan's obsession with liquor started in his childhood. He used to go on drinking outings with his grandmother. His rough upbringing also contributed immensely to this vice. Doctors advised him to quit alcohol after being diagnosed with diabetes. He ignored the medical advice. Behan was hospitalized several times due to poor health. Alcoholism took the better of him. He appeared on live television shows heavily drunk. Some of his fans shunned his plays due to his alcoholic reputation. He was married to Beatrice Salkeld for nine years. This was from 1955 to 1964. They had a daughter. Brendan Behan died on March 20, 1964. The IRA recognized his revolution input. During his funeral, Behan was treated with full military honors. His influence was felt beyond the Irish borders. In the US, his plays were widely accepted at the New York Broadway Theater. He was invited to attend the swearing-in ceremony of US president John Fitzgerald Kennedy. Kennedy was the first Irish American Catholic to be elected president of the USA. Behan eventually declined to attend. He gave no official reason. Behan had little formal education. He was a heavy drinker. Despite these shortcomings, he managed to contribute to the socio-cultural and political state of his native Ireland. At his death, Behan had six plays and seven books.	<urn:uuid:c4437c14-7f02-48e7-975a-0d0a5df84388>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/brendan-behan/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00340.warc.gz	en	0.991525	928	3.34375	3	[ 0.0950150340795517, 0.31370657682418823, 0.1874072104692459, -0.08600252121686935, -0.36140117049217224, 0.3099200129508972, 0.4154015779495239, -0.28410273790359497, -0.2002992480993271, -0.15409712493419647, -0.22483330965042114, -0.24139249324798584, 0.07761318981647491, 0.3144594132900...	8	Brendan Behan Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Brendan Behan is revered in Ireland for his contribution in the revival of the Irish literature. He used poetry and theater to aid the Irish revolutionary war against the British. Brendan Francis Behan was born on February 9, 1923, in Dublin Ireland. His parents, Stephen and Kathleen Behan were in the middle class working society. His parents introduced him to the Irish nationalist movement in his childhood. Behan dropped out of the local Catholic school at the age of 14. He was employed as a painter. Brendan Behan joined the Irish revolutionary movement when he barely ten years. Even then, he was increasingly active in the underground operations of the IRA. IRA was the anti-British revolutionary movement. Two years later in 1939, he was arrested in Liverpool, England after a sabotage mission. Since he was underage, Behan was sent to children reforming school in Borstal. He was released after three years. Behan returned to Dublin upon his release. The IRA increased its sabotage missions during the WW2. In 1942, Brendan Behan was arrested again for attempting to kill two British police officers. He was tried and jailed for 14 years. He was barely 20 years old. Behan gained back his freedom in 1946 under a blanket amnesty given by the British. The following year, he was arrested and convicted of aiding a prisoner to escape. He served a brief jail term and was released. Due to continued involvement in the revolution, Behan was deported to France in 1952. Brendan Behan started to write while in prison. In the IRA, he met several Irish literary luminaries. They encouraged him to join the Dubin literature movement. Its main agenda was to use literature as a medium of advancing the revolution. His early writings were short political stories. Borstal Boy was one of them. After his return to Dublin from France, Behan started writing dramatized plays. Owing to the sensitive content, his plays were turned down in Britain. He perfected his plays in his native Irish language. He rebranded himself by working for local media stations. His popularity grew as more people appreciated his work. In 1954, Brendan Behan published his play The Quare Fellow. It was set in the backdrop of Mountjoy Prison in Dublin. The play was widely acclaimed and ran at the Pike Theater for over six months. The Quare Fellow was again rehearsed and played at the Broadway Theater in New York a few years later. He released another play The Hostage in 1958. Four years later he published Brendan Behan’s Island. In 1963, he produced Hold Your Hour and Have Another. The following year, he released Brendan Behan’s, New York. Later after his death, his three books we republished. These were Confessions of An Irish Rebel, the Scaperer, and After The Wake. Brendan Behan was a satiric comedian and playwright. His style was comical with hard-hitting facts. He made people laugh while passing on his political messages. This style of production made him the most admired literary figure in Dublin. Brendan Behan's obsession with liquor started in his childhood. He used to go on drinking outings with his grandmother. His rough upbringing also contributed immensely to this vice. Doctors advised him to quit alcohol after being diagnosed with diabetes. He ignored the medical advice. Behan was hospitalized several times due to poor health. Alcoholism took the better of him. He appeared on live television shows heavily drunk. Some of his fans shunned his plays due to his alcoholic reputation. He was married to Beatrice Salkeld for nine years. This was from 1955 to 1964. They had a daughter. Brendan Behan died on March 20, 1964. The IRA recognized his revolution input. During his funeral, Behan was treated with full military honors. His influence was felt beyond the Irish borders. In the US, his plays were widely accepted at the New York Broadway Theater. He was invited to attend the swearing-in ceremony of US president John Fitzgerald Kennedy. Kennedy was the first Irish American Catholic to be elected president of the USA. Behan eventually declined to attend. He gave no official reason. Behan had little formal education. He was a heavy drinker. Despite these shortcomings, he managed to contribute to the socio-cultural and political state of his native Ireland. At his death, Behan had six plays and seven books.	971	ENGLISH	1

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.