Split (1)

train · 729k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
‘A Woman’s Question’ was written in the 19th Century and ‘Valentine’ is a modern poem which was written in the 1990s. This fact is fairly obvious from not only the content of the poems, but the style in which they are written, too. It also affects how the women generally view their relationships. Both show evidence of how society viewed women, and despite the different times in which they lived, they both rebel against traditional ideas of the time in certain ways. Procter and Duffy view their respective relationships very differently. Procter seems to be quite insecure about her partner, and wants to know whether he is going to leave her, and also talks about how she wants him to be completely honest with her. Duffy on the other hand, is very realistic about her relationship and not over-romantic. This does not mean that she does not think love is important; she just does not depend on her partner and does not talk about love using elaborate, romantic phrases. This shows that she has a modern view of love. Although the theme of ‘A Woman’s Question’ is not actually romantic, as Procter spends most of it talking to him about her insecurities, the language she uses in it is quite romantic and ‘flowery’. She calls her partner ‘her Fate’ and is dedicating her entire future to him. Nowadays, although people do marry with the general idea that they will be staying together forever, they may be less inclined to think that their entire fate depended on the other person. In the present day, women’s attitudes have changed the most, as they are more independent. The moods of the two poems are fairly different too. In ‘Valentine’, although the mood is not exactly sombre, it is still fairly serious-Duffy talks about the pain of love (she uses the symbol of the knife to represent this) and does not use romantic language. “Not a cute card or a kissogram”. She does not believe in this kind of love, and seems to consider it to be fake and unrealistic. The time in which she wrote the poem will affect her views on romance, obviously. It would make her more jaded and less idealistic-she looks at love in quite a levelheaded way. The way she uses words expresses this well. The tone of ‘A Woman’s Question’ is quite serious also, as she is acting insecurely about this man. However, this poem expresses feelings in a more loving and devoted manner. As said before, she refers to the man as ‘her fate’. This is partly due to the time in which she lived, as women would have relied a lot more on men. Procter gives the poem rather a negative atmosphere, as she is constantly questioning and talking about ‘pain’ and ‘risk’, and how she would be ’empty’ without him. Procter’s religious beliefs would also be a factor here, as she was a devout Roman Catholic. This would make finding the ‘right’ man even more important, as she could not have sex before marriage, get divorced or have abortions. Her religious beliefs would also be affected by the time in which she lived-a lot more people in the 19th Century were very religious, and would have taken the ideas mentioned above very seriously. While the poems, in some ways, are not so different in content, they are very different in structure and form. ‘A Woman’s Question’ has quite a strict structure and stanzaic form, which makes it fairly rhythmic and easy to listen to. Procter uses rhyming words in every stanza. There is some structure within the stanzas, but it is not a very fixed one. With this, she is perhaps trying to show that love is not particularly stable or concrete and you can’t control it. She is doing this subtly, as it is represented in the way she sets the poem out, instead of actually saying anything in the poem. This could also mean she is showing that she is challenging expectations of the then current time (19th Century) with her poem and her beliefs, and showing this through the stanzaic form. Another way in which Procter challenges expectations is in her use of imperatives. The style of writing in this poem is quite gentle, but there a few commanding phrases, like “Speak now”, which do not fit with the rest of the poem. This effect may surprise the reader, who may have initially thought it was a poem written in a fairly gentle style, e. g. romantic and old-fashioned wording is used. In ‘Valentine’, Duffy does not follow a specific form, and this is referred to as free verse, nor does she use much rhyming language, which means the poem is not very rhythmic. This style could show that it is a more modern poem-less passionate and exaggerated. This could mean that Duffy, too, is challenging expectations, only she does it in a more obvious way. Her view of love is not at all what someone might expect a woman’s to be. She uses a lot of short statements, and imperatives, such as “Take it”. This is also shown in sentences such as “I give you an onion”, “I am trying to be truthful” and “It will blind you with tears”. This shows that she is not unemotional, but she is sensible and realistic. In ‘A Woman’s Question’, Procter uses a lot of very expressive language, and also some quite dramatic language, such as ‘peril’. This works in emphasising how important this relationship is to her, as she says, “Before I peril all for thee”, and “I break all slighter bonds”. This poem is quite easy to listen to and sounds more effective, as you can hear the rhyming couplet in each stanza. The poem is well formed, and she uses fairly interesting and descriptive language (such as ‘Wither’ and ‘Decay’. Both these leave you with a good idea of what she means. ) The poem is also written in the first person to second person, which makes it more direct, and again, easy to listen to. Because it was written in 19th Century, she uses ‘thee’ and ‘thine’, as opposed to ‘you’ and ‘your’, which would be used in a more modern poem. Procter uses some figurative language, which usually represents marriage, as this would have been very important. Some examples are: “Or place my hand in thine” “Withdraw thy hand one day. She uses the idea of joining and breaking hands, which might also make the reader think of the idea of a parent and child-the joining of hands meaning the child is dependant on the parent, and the separation representing being abandoned. It could also represent just the separation of marriage, which is what Procter’s most afraid of. Carol Ann Duffy uses quite a few adjectives in ‘Valentine’, making it a very descriptive poem. A lot of the adjectives she uses are very straightforward and simple, fitting the rest of the poem, such as “fierce”, “cute”, “lethal”, “possessive” and “faithful”. Her language is not as dramatic as Procter’s (perhaps due to the fact, that in the 1990s, losing a lover would not be as great a loss as it would have been in Procter’s time, or at least, we accept it more as part of life now. ), but it is still effective. The entire poem is an ‘extended metaphor’. The onion Duffy is talking about is representing love. It talks about the layers that need peeling off, which Duffy refers to as ‘the careful undressing of love’. Duffy’s style of writing is very modern, and there is no vocabulary that is really pre-20th century. This adds to the realistic element of the poem. It makes the poem easy to listen to in this way, although it does not as sound as rhythmic as ‘A Woman’s Question’. I, personally, prefer ‘Valentine’ by Carol Anne Duffy because I think her style of writing is very direct, and that the poem is easier to read because of the modern style. I find ‘A Woman’s Question’ a bit too romantic, and the vocabulary a little too old-fashioned. I think that ‘A Woman’s Question’ is basically Procter questioning whether her partner is as ready to commit to her ‘Fate’ as she is to his. I do not get the impression that she believes in fate, and everything happening for a reason, which is why she does not want him, if he deserts her, to blame it on ‘fate’. I think she believes in making the future happen for herself, partly because she is making this huge decision for herself, and not leaving it up to him or fate. It may even be an ‘illicit’ or ‘forbidden’ affair, which maybe why she is so worried. Valentine, I think, is more about the different layers of love, and the complexities. Duffy is also questioning whether he’s ready to commit to her, but instead of fixating on this one question, like Procter in ‘A Woman’s Question’, she proceeds to tell him about the bad and good points of love. The end of the poem is not particularly final (it ends with ‘cling to your knife’), as it is in ‘A Woman’s Question’, but instead almost leaves more time for him to make up his mind, almost like she has not finished talking to him. She ends with a statement, but it is not one commanding for him to make his mind up about whether he wants to commit to her.	<urn:uuid:b05466e5-489c-4577-a53c-b1e22f6096ec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://yorkepeninsulaaccommodation.com/womans-question-adelaide-anne-procter-valentine-carol-anne-duffy/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00056.warc.gz	en	0.98552	2,177	3.40625	3	[ 0.16621220111846924, 0.28858351707458496, 0.09726118296384811, 0.23164603114128113, -0.12743248045444489, 0.027186471968889236, 0.1707606017589569, 0.07638071477413177, 0.018994204699993134, -0.27544015645980835, 0.008181421086192131, 0.05323745310306549, 0.16737113893032074, -0.1720973253...	2	‘A Woman’s Question’ was written in the 19th Century and ‘Valentine’ is a modern poem which was written in the 1990s. This fact is fairly obvious from not only the content of the poems, but the style in which they are written, too. It also affects how the women generally view their relationships. Both show evidence of how society viewed women, and despite the different times in which they lived, they both rebel against traditional ideas of the time in certain ways. Procter and Duffy view their respective relationships very differently. Procter seems to be quite insecure about her partner, and wants to know whether he is going to leave her, and also talks about how she wants him to be completely honest with her. Duffy on the other hand, is very realistic about her relationship and not over-romantic. This does not mean that she does not think love is important; she just does not depend on her partner and does not talk about love using elaborate, romantic phrases. This shows that she has a modern view of love. Although the theme of ‘A Woman’s Question’ is not actually romantic, as Procter spends most of it talking to him about her insecurities, the language she uses in it is quite romantic and ‘flowery’. She calls her partner ‘her Fate’ and is dedicating her entire future to him. Nowadays, although people do marry with the general idea that they will be staying together forever, they may be less inclined to think that their entire fate depended on the other person. In the present day, women’s attitudes have changed the most, as they are more independent. The moods of the two poems are fairly different too. In ‘Valentine’, although the mood is not exactly sombre, it is still fairly serious-Duffy talks about the pain of love (she uses the symbol of the knife to represent this) and does not use romantic language. “Not a cute card or a kissogram”. She does not believe in this kind of love, and seems to consider it to be fake and unrealistic. The time in which she wrote the poem will affect her views on romance, obviously. It would make her more jaded and less idealistic-she looks at love in quite a levelheaded way. The way she uses words expresses this well. The tone of ‘A Woman’s Question’ is quite serious also, as she is acting insecurely about this man. However, this poem expresses feelings in a more loving and devoted manner. As said before, she refers to the man as ‘her fate’. This is partly due to the time in which she lived, as women would have relied a lot more on men. Procter gives the poem rather a negative atmosphere, as she is constantly questioning and talking about ‘pain’ and ‘risk’, and how she would be ’empty’ without him. Procter’s religious beliefs would also be a factor here, as she was a devout Roman Catholic. This would make finding the ‘right’ man even more important, as she could not have sex before marriage, get divorced or have abortions. Her religious beliefs would also be affected by the time in which she lived-a lot more people in the 19th Century were very religious, and would have taken the ideas mentioned above very seriously. While the poems, in some ways, are not so different in content, they are very different in structure and form. ‘A Woman’s Question’ has quite a strict structure and stanzaic form, which makes it fairly rhythmic and easy to listen to. Procter uses rhyming words in every stanza. There is some structure within the stanzas, but it is not a very fixed one. With this, she is perhaps trying to show that love is not particularly stable or concrete and you can’t control it. She is doing this subtly, as it is represented in the way she sets the poem out, instead of actually saying anything in the poem. This could also mean she is showing that she is challenging expectations of the then current time (19th Century) with her poem and her beliefs, and showing this through the stanzaic form. Another way in which Procter challenges expectations is in her use of imperatives. The style of writing in this poem is quite gentle, but there a few commanding phrases, like “Speak now”, which do not fit with the rest of the poem. This effect may surprise the reader, who may have initially thought it was a poem written in a fairly gentle style, e. g. romantic and old-fashioned wording is used. In ‘Valentine’, Duffy does not follow a specific form, and this is referred to as free verse, nor does she use much rhyming language, which means the poem is not very rhythmic. This style could show that it is a more modern poem-less passionate and exaggerated. This could mean that Duffy, too, is challenging expectations, only she does it in a more obvious way. Her view of love is not at all what someone might expect a woman’s to be. She uses a lot of short statements, and imperatives, such as “Take it”. This is also shown in sentences such as “I give you an onion”, “I am trying to be truthful” and “It will blind you with tears”. This shows that she is not unemotional, but she is sensible and realistic. In ‘A Woman’s Question’, Procter uses a lot of very expressive language, and also some quite dramatic language, such as ‘peril’. This works in emphasising how important this relationship is to her, as she says, “Before I peril all for thee”, and “I break all slighter bonds”. This poem is quite easy to listen to and sounds more effective, as you can hear the rhyming couplet in each stanza. The poem is well formed, and she uses fairly interesting and descriptive language (such as ‘Wither’ and ‘Decay’. Both these leave you with a good idea of what she means. ) The poem is also written in the first person to second person, which makes it more direct, and again, easy to listen to. Because it was written in 19th Century, she uses ‘thee’ and ‘thine’, as opposed to ‘you’ and ‘your’, which would be used in a more modern poem. Procter uses some figurative language, which usually represents marriage, as this would have been very important. Some examples are: “Or place my hand in thine” “Withdraw thy hand one day. She uses the idea of joining and breaking hands, which might also make the reader think of the idea of a parent and child-the joining of hands meaning the child is dependant on the parent, and the separation representing being abandoned. It could also represent just the separation of marriage, which is what Procter’s most afraid of. Carol Ann Duffy uses quite a few adjectives in ‘Valentine’, making it a very descriptive poem. A lot of the adjectives she uses are very straightforward and simple, fitting the rest of the poem, such as “fierce”, “cute”, “lethal”, “possessive” and “faithful”. Her language is not as dramatic as Procter’s (perhaps due to the fact, that in the 1990s, losing a lover would not be as great a loss as it would have been in Procter’s time, or at least, we accept it more as part of life now. ), but it is still effective. The entire poem is an ‘extended metaphor’. The onion Duffy is talking about is representing love. It talks about the layers that need peeling off, which Duffy refers to as ‘the careful undressing of love’. Duffy’s style of writing is very modern, and there is no vocabulary that is really pre-20th century. This adds to the realistic element of the poem. It makes the poem easy to listen to in this way, although it does not as sound as rhythmic as ‘A Woman’s Question’. I, personally, prefer ‘Valentine’ by Carol Anne Duffy because I think her style of writing is very direct, and that the poem is easier to read because of the modern style. I find ‘A Woman’s Question’ a bit too romantic, and the vocabulary a little too old-fashioned. I think that ‘A Woman’s Question’ is basically Procter questioning whether her partner is as ready to commit to her ‘Fate’ as she is to his. I do not get the impression that she believes in fate, and everything happening for a reason, which is why she does not want him, if he deserts her, to blame it on ‘fate’. I think she believes in making the future happen for herself, partly because she is making this huge decision for herself, and not leaving it up to him or fate. It may even be an ‘illicit’ or ‘forbidden’ affair, which maybe why she is so worried. Valentine, I think, is more about the different layers of love, and the complexities. Duffy is also questioning whether he’s ready to commit to her, but instead of fixating on this one question, like Procter in ‘A Woman’s Question’, she proceeds to tell him about the bad and good points of love. The end of the poem is not particularly final (it ends with ‘cling to your knife’), as it is in ‘A Woman’s Question’, but instead almost leaves more time for him to make up his mind, almost like she has not finished talking to him. She ends with a statement, but it is not one commanding for him to make his mind up about whether he wants to commit to her.	1,982	ENGLISH	1
After ten years of colonial service in the Caribbean, Musgrave was appointed governor of Newfoundland in September, 1864. Unlike his previous appointments, Newfoundland had responsible government and an active colonial assembly. He also found a colony in dire economic straits, containing a destitute population. During his tenure, Musgrave dedicated most of energies towards convincing Newfoundland to remedy this by joining the negotiations with other British North American colonies towards union in what would become the Canadian Confederation. In this project, he was allied with the goals of the colonial office. Despite his efforts, and what seemed like imminent success, Musgrave ultimately failed to move the colonial assembly to accepting terms of union. Canada was proclaimed on 1 July 1867—and Newfoundland would not join Confederation for eighty years. As an entomologist, Musgrave is known for his 1932 work, Bibliography of Australian Entomology. He worked at the Australian Museum, initially as a librarian for a year, before climbing up the ranks to become Assistant Entomologist, and eventually the museum's entomologist, a title later changed to "Curator of Insects and Arachnids". He displayed much knowledge on insects and arachnids; his area of expertise were ticks and poisonous spiders. Musgrave was compiler of all of the Australian Science Abstracts' animal-related articles for around twenty years, until in 1957 when the publication folded. He was also a contributor to the Australian Encyclopaedia (editions 1 and 2).	<urn:uuid:87075761-0fc2-4ca7-9c6e-662348fedc85>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wn.com/Anthony_Musgrave	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00245.warc.gz	en	0.984027	300	3.375	3	[ -0.11758751422166824, 0.3952893316745758, 0.6125510931015015, 0.10200870782136917, -0.025231320410966873, 0.11191543936729431, -0.015141847543418407, 0.15395459532737732, -0.5624565482139587, 0.2835598289966583, 0.25253477692604065, -0.4969499409198761, -0.07232492417097092, 0.192769706249...	1	After ten years of colonial service in the Caribbean, Musgrave was appointed governor of Newfoundland in September, 1864. Unlike his previous appointments, Newfoundland had responsible government and an active colonial assembly. He also found a colony in dire economic straits, containing a destitute population. During his tenure, Musgrave dedicated most of energies towards convincing Newfoundland to remedy this by joining the negotiations with other British North American colonies towards union in what would become the Canadian Confederation. In this project, he was allied with the goals of the colonial office. Despite his efforts, and what seemed like imminent success, Musgrave ultimately failed to move the colonial assembly to accepting terms of union. Canada was proclaimed on 1 July 1867—and Newfoundland would not join Confederation for eighty years. As an entomologist, Musgrave is known for his 1932 work, Bibliography of Australian Entomology. He worked at the Australian Museum, initially as a librarian for a year, before climbing up the ranks to become Assistant Entomologist, and eventually the museum's entomologist, a title later changed to "Curator of Insects and Arachnids". He displayed much knowledge on insects and arachnids; his area of expertise were ticks and poisonous spiders. Musgrave was compiler of all of the Australian Science Abstracts' animal-related articles for around twenty years, until in 1957 when the publication folded. He was also a contributor to the Australian Encyclopaedia (editions 1 and 2).	317	ENGLISH	1
Statement: The Northern, Mid Atlantic, and Southern regions evolved into three distinct societies, although they came from similar backgrounds. Assess the validity of this statement. In our early history, the Northern, Mid Atlantic, and Southern regions all had both become distinct from each other while at the same time shared similar views on religious, political, and economic ideas. All of these regions originated from people coming over from Europe. It seemed that the regions were both distinct and similar and that this statement is a mixed bag. Thefirst factor that played a major role in the early society of the new world was Religion. In the North you had to be either a Puritan or Christian to be accepted in society. If you were against the beliefs of the Northern people, you were kicked out and sent away. This is what brought about the forming of Connecticut by Thomas Hooker and Rhode Island by Roger Williams, both who had been kicked out of Massachusetts due to their not believing in the Puritan lifestyle. These states were mainly inhabited by religious outcasts of Massachusetts. However, in the Mid Atlantic region, one was given more religious freedom. One could practice any Christian religion they wanted. The same was basically true in the South. The one thing all three regions shared was being against non-Christian religions. So it is obvious that religion in the North was distinct from the Mid Atlantic and South with its beliefs even though they all originated from similar backgrounds. This makes the statement partially valid in that there was some distinction but not all three were distinct. Besides religion, political ideas also played a role in the evolution of the three regions. The North was a more politically structured region. It had the Mayflower Compact and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. This shows that it had an early set of rules that everyone had to abide by. The South was also coming along …	<urn:uuid:c59a2d70-bc90-492e-a2ef-1653cba2cf7e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/compare-contrast-of-north-south-and-mid-atlantic-states/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00455.warc.gz	en	0.989432	372	4.1875	4	[ 0.0590585395693779, 0.09001502394676208, 0.010874965228140354, -0.391834020614624, 0.1964680403470993, 0.41236311197280884, -0.11202488839626312, 0.07186714559793472, 0.12938208878040314, -0.031292106956243515, -0.13842743635177612, 0.05450686439871788, -0.0017375744646415114, -0.011520280...	1	Statement: The Northern, Mid Atlantic, and Southern regions evolved into three distinct societies, although they came from similar backgrounds. Assess the validity of this statement. In our early history, the Northern, Mid Atlantic, and Southern regions all had both become distinct from each other while at the same time shared similar views on religious, political, and economic ideas. All of these regions originated from people coming over from Europe. It seemed that the regions were both distinct and similar and that this statement is a mixed bag. Thefirst factor that played a major role in the early society of the new world was Religion. In the North you had to be either a Puritan or Christian to be accepted in society. If you were against the beliefs of the Northern people, you were kicked out and sent away. This is what brought about the forming of Connecticut by Thomas Hooker and Rhode Island by Roger Williams, both who had been kicked out of Massachusetts due to their not believing in the Puritan lifestyle. These states were mainly inhabited by religious outcasts of Massachusetts. However, in the Mid Atlantic region, one was given more religious freedom. One could practice any Christian religion they wanted. The same was basically true in the South. The one thing all three regions shared was being against non-Christian religions. So it is obvious that religion in the North was distinct from the Mid Atlantic and South with its beliefs even though they all originated from similar backgrounds. This makes the statement partially valid in that there was some distinction but not all three were distinct. Besides religion, political ideas also played a role in the evolution of the three regions. The North was a more politically structured region. It had the Mayflower Compact and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. This shows that it had an early set of rules that everyone had to abide by. The South was also coming along …	367	ENGLISH	1
UNIX was originally designed by a handful of programmers, as one of the first operating systems to be created in a high-level programming language, named as C. This meant that it was possible to install it on practically any computer for which a C compiler was available. This feature of natural portability along with its low price made it a prevalent choice among the universities. Due to its benefits of portability, elasticity, and power, UNIX has emerged as an important operating system for workstations. Traditionally, it has been less popular in the personal computer market. UNIX originally developed at AT&T's Bell Labs research center by Ken Thompson, Ritchie, can be explained as a multi-tasking, multi-user computer operating system that is found in different variants.	<urn:uuid:ed1a9b26-18f0-495c-b823-0cbff0dd2ce3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://go4hosting.in/wiki/UNIX	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00333.warc.gz	en	0.980197	160	3.5625	4	[ -0.28374722599983215, -0.04629021883010864, 0.14557571709156036, -0.28280624747276306, -0.11204555630683899, -0.2713170051574707, -0.07378644496202469, 0.27924224734306335, 0.22558735311031342, 0.01960429549217224, 0.040761444717645645, 0.2600015699863434, 0.2507569491863251, -0.2674311995...	2	UNIX was originally designed by a handful of programmers, as one of the first operating systems to be created in a high-level programming language, named as C. This meant that it was possible to install it on practically any computer for which a C compiler was available. This feature of natural portability along with its low price made it a prevalent choice among the universities. Due to its benefits of portability, elasticity, and power, UNIX has emerged as an important operating system for workstations. Traditionally, it has been less popular in the personal computer market. UNIX originally developed at AT&T's Bell Labs research center by Ken Thompson, Ritchie, can be explained as a multi-tasking, multi-user computer operating system that is found in different variants.	150	ENGLISH	1
Who was Genghis Khan? Genghis Khan was born in the early 1160’s (it has been argued between 1162 and 1167, but recently agreement has been made for 1167), the son of the Kiyat-Borjigid chieftain Yisugei. He was named Temujen because, at the time of his birth, his father had captured a Tatar chieftain of the same name. Legend says that the newborn Temujen had a bloodclot in the palm of his hand, an omen that he was destined to be a hero. When Temujen was a boy, his father was poisoned by a group of Tatars, and the Kiyat tribe broke up and scattered, abandoning their chief’s family and leaving Temujen’s mother, Ho’elun, to raise her children alone. Accounts of Temujen glorify him as intelligent, brave, and an adept fighter, even from an early age, and as such a potential threat to the leaders of other tribes of the steppe. As a young man, despite extreme hardships, he repeatedly met perils and endured crises through force of character and willpower. In 1189, after he was elected the new leader of the Kiyat, h Genghis Khan (JENG-gis KON) has what you might call a nasty reputation. More than 700 years after his death, he is still remembered as a very bad guy. His image is that of a barbarian, a notorious villain. Like Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan led thousands of warriors into one battle after another, conquering lands and peoples far beyond his homeland. Both men were brilliant generals who built vast empires. Yet history often remembers Alexander as heroic, and Genghis Khan as bloodthirsty. From his late teens to age thirty-eight in 1200, a Mongol named Temujin (Temüjin) rose as khan over various families. He was a good manager, collecting people of talent. He was vassal to Ong Khan, titular head of a confederacy better organized than other Mongol clans. Temujin joined Ong Khan in a military campaign against Tatars to their east, and following the success of this campaign Ong Khan declared Temujin his adoptive son and heir. Ong Khan’s natural son, Senggum (Senggüm), had been expecting to succeed his father and plotted to assassinate Temujin. Temujin learned of this, and those loyal to Temujin defeated those loyal to Senggum. Temujin was now established as the head of what had been Ong Khan’s coalition. And in 1206, at the age of 42, Temujin took the title Universal Ruler, which translates to Genghis Khan, and he addressed his joyous supporters thanking them for their help and their loyalty. Like peoples elsewhere, Genghis Khan’s subjects saw themselves at the center of th Genghis Khan established the Mongol empire, conquered most of Asia and Europe and rightfully earned the reputation as one of the greatest military leaders of all time. Although he was often called “barbarian,” Genghis Khan achieved his victories through brilliant organization and tactics rather than barbaric behavior.	<urn:uuid:8789f467-cfed-4e97-ac84-d3100284e828>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.experts123.com/q/who-was-genghis-khan.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00305.warc.gz	en	0.98644	681	3.515625	4	[ -0.4987953305244446, 0.8879904747009277, 0.10811534523963928, 0.10759276151657104, -0.8314619064331055, -0.25980454683303833, 0.37524130940437317, -0.05914188176393509, -0.2596145272254944, -0.0969652459025383, 0.08530140668153763, -0.521438479423523, 0.40010035037994385, 0.099129199981689...	2	Who was Genghis Khan? Genghis Khan was born in the early 1160’s (it has been argued between 1162 and 1167, but recently agreement has been made for 1167), the son of the Kiyat-Borjigid chieftain Yisugei. He was named Temujen because, at the time of his birth, his father had captured a Tatar chieftain of the same name. Legend says that the newborn Temujen had a bloodclot in the palm of his hand, an omen that he was destined to be a hero. When Temujen was a boy, his father was poisoned by a group of Tatars, and the Kiyat tribe broke up and scattered, abandoning their chief’s family and leaving Temujen’s mother, Ho’elun, to raise her children alone. Accounts of Temujen glorify him as intelligent, brave, and an adept fighter, even from an early age, and as such a potential threat to the leaders of other tribes of the steppe. As a young man, despite extreme hardships, he repeatedly met perils and endured crises through force of character and willpower. In 1189, after he was elected the new leader of the Kiyat, h Genghis Khan (JENG-gis KON) has what you might call a nasty reputation. More than 700 years after his death, he is still remembered as a very bad guy. His image is that of a barbarian, a notorious villain. Like Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan led thousands of warriors into one battle after another, conquering lands and peoples far beyond his homeland. Both men were brilliant generals who built vast empires. Yet history often remembers Alexander as heroic, and Genghis Khan as bloodthirsty. From his late teens to age thirty-eight in 1200, a Mongol named Temujin (Temüjin) rose as khan over various families. He was a good manager, collecting people of talent. He was vassal to Ong Khan, titular head of a confederacy better organized than other Mongol clans. Temujin joined Ong Khan in a military campaign against Tatars to their east, and following the success of this campaign Ong Khan declared Temujin his adoptive son and heir. Ong Khan’s natural son, Senggum (Senggüm), had been expecting to succeed his father and plotted to assassinate Temujin. Temujin learned of this, and those loyal to Temujin defeated those loyal to Senggum. Temujin was now established as the head of what had been Ong Khan’s coalition. And in 1206, at the age of 42, Temujin took the title Universal Ruler, which translates to Genghis Khan, and he addressed his joyous supporters thanking them for their help and their loyalty. Like peoples elsewhere, Genghis Khan’s subjects saw themselves at the center of th Genghis Khan established the Mongol empire, conquered most of Asia and Europe and rightfully earned the reputation as one of the greatest military leaders of all time. Although he was often called “barbarian,” Genghis Khan achieved his victories through brilliant organization and tactics rather than barbaric behavior.	705	ENGLISH	1
The witch trials of the late 1600's were full of controversy and uncertainty. The Puritan town of Salem was home to most of these trials, and became the center of much attention in 1692. More than a hundred innocent people were found guilty of practicing witchcraft during these times, and our American government forced over a dozen to pay with their lives. The main reasons why the witch trials occurred were conflicts dealing with politics, religion, family, economics, and fears of the citizens. Before the town of Salem became so famous for its trials, its Puritan residents moved from their English homes to escape from religious persecution. There were two groups of people that made up the town: people who wanted to leave the town of Salem, and people who did not. Most of the families who wanted to stay lived closest to the town, and the families who wanted to leave lived further away. The families and people who wished to leave were typically farmers, and lived about eight miles from Salem Town. One of the largest families of farmers was the Putnams. The Putnams were thought of highly in the village, because they owned the most farmland. Since they wanted to separate from the town, they decided to establish their own church in 1689. Rev. Parris was the preacher at the church, and his salary was paid by the local taxes. He had a nine-year-old daughter named Betty, and a twelve year old niece named Abigail Williams. Since they lived so far away from Salem Town, there wasn't much for them to do for recreational purposes. Abigail, Betty, and two other friends decided to form a circle where they would entertain each other with stories. Rev. Parris' slave, Tituba, would sometimes participat... ... middle of paper ... ...th by crushing rocks. Even though the trials were over, there were still lots of people who couldn't pay for their release because they didn't have enough money. The law stated that prisoners had to pay for their food and board before they could be released. Even those who did get out of jail lost all of their land to the government. Our American government made terrible mistakes back in the 1690's. All of the events that took place in Salem are examples of how our legal system reacted from fear and panic rather than from solid evidence. As the fear escalated, innocent individuals were persecuted, abused, and finally killed because they stood up for what they believed in, and refused to go against God and "lie". The Salem Witch Trials should be a sobering reminder to us of how fear can ultimately affect the concept and function of justice within the world. Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - The Salem Witch Trials took place in the summer and into the fall of the year 1692, and during this dark time of American history, over 200 people had been accused of witchcraft and put in jail. Twenty of these accused were executed; nineteen of them were found guilty and were put to death by hanging. One refused to plead guilty, so the villagers tortured him by pressing him with large stones until he died. The Salem Witch Trials was an infamous, scary time period in American history that exhibited the amount of fear people had of the devil and the supernatural; the people of this time period accused, arrested, and executed many innocent people because of this fear, and there are severa... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, Salem] 1060 words (3 pages) - The Salem Witch Trials were a series of gruesome trials that began in Salem Massachusetts in 1692 and lasted until 1693. During that year, more than 200 Salem residents were accused and convicted of witchcraft, 19 of whom were hung for the crime (List of 5…). This was a bloody time for Salem that left many of its citizens broken and scared. Although the main cause for these trials seems to be fear from breaking the Partisan religion, Greed and revenge come in a close second. Not to mention, cold weather and disease which contributed highly to the outcome of the trials.... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, Salem] 738 words (2.1 pages) - Do you want your life resting in the words of your worst enemy. Before the formation of the American legal system, accusations determined outcomes. In the late 1600’s the Puritans in New England were just starting to build civil resolutions to village disputes. A notable conflict was based on their strong belief in the devil and witchcraft creating an atmosphere of fear and suspicion. Instead of seeking justice of those accused of witchcraft, the inexperienced magistrates were led to presume guilt simply because of odd behavior.... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, The Crucible] 1291 words (3.7 pages) - Salem witch trials The Salem Witch Trials were a series of harsh, unconstitutional, and even chaotic trials that killed several innocent people and harmed others. There were several reasons different sources have come up with that are said to have cause in the trials and the way they played out. Some of the reasons that cause the trials to go how they went is the weather, religion, and lust. Through out my research over the topic I learned that the judges in charge of the trials let fear and conspiracy control their judgment in the trials and caused several innocent people to die.... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, The Crucible] 1140 words (3.3 pages) - The Salem witch trials is possibly one of the most controversial events in early American history, where many innocent individuals were wrongly accused of witchcraft. Even though the trials occurred over three hundred years, ago, they still continue to be studied with great interest; however there is still not a conclusion to what truly caused the hysteria. Although the settlers in Salem, Massachusetts were superstitious, they could have prevented the trials from occurring, a possible similarity to our modern judicial system.... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, Jury, Salem] 1131 words (3.2 pages) - In 1692 the town of Salem, Massachusetts was home to one of the most controversial upsets in judicial history. The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions in which several people in colonial Massachusetts were accused of performing witchcraft. The supernatural was a commonplace observance in 17th-century North America. “:Witchcraft cases were hardly unknown in New England in the 1600s—more than a hundred were recorded before 1692—but they were mostly isolated, widely separated in time and space, scattered around the colonies”(Brandt 38).... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, Puritan, Salem] 727 words (2.1 pages) - The Salem Witch Trials began in 1692, and over the course of only one year, over 200 people were accused of witchcraft and 20 were executed. The trials created a panic among the people of Salem as religious leaders and afflicted girls furiously accused their fellow man of witchcraft. At the center of all this chaos stood Abigail Williams and Elizabeth Parris. The girls screamed out in pain, had horrendous fits, and cried that they were being possessed by the devil. Local religious leaders took immediate action against these so-called witches.... [tags: Salem witch trials, Samuel Parris, Schizophrenia] 1362 words (3.9 pages) - The Salem Witch Trials has been a well-known topic and known for how tragic it was and all the wrongful deaths it brought; but what caused all of this to occur. It was a time in which numerous, innocent people (mostly women) were killed because they were believed to be partaking in witchcraft. There are several possible causes as to why the Salem Witch Trials occurred. The Salem Witch Trials stemmed from the belief that Satan is acting in the world, whether it be through giving a disease or recruiting new witches to work for him, kids that were bored and brought it upon themselves to lie that they were witches to have fun, feuds between those in the community, and confessions leading town of... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, Witch-hunt, Salem] 1251 words (3.6 pages) - The Salem Witch Trials is a well-known topic taught in history classes and in English classes. It was a time in which numerous, innocent people (mostly women) were killed because they were believed to be partaking in witchcraft. There are many possible causes as to why the Salem Witch Trials occurred. These known causes stemmed from the belief that Satan is acting in the world whether it be through giving a disease or recruiting new witches to work for him, kids that were bored and brought it upon themselves to lie that they were witches to have fun, and confessions leading town officials to believe that their belief that witchcraft may exist is true since people are coming forward and confe... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, Witch-hunt, Salem] 1246 words (3.6 pages) - In the sixteenth century, witchcraft accusations were more prevalent and somewhat common than they are in modern society. One of the most popular witch hunts of American History of the sixteenth century, that has received popularity amongst modern culture and scholars, was the Salem witch hunts otherwise known as the Salem witch trials of 1692. But, Salem was not the only town in New England that had witch trials in 1692. Richard Godbeer’s book, “Escaping Salem, The Other Witch Hunt of 1692,” is one of the very few books that talks about the other witch trials that took place in New England.... [tags: Witchcraft, Salem witch trials, Witch-hunt, Magic] 967 words (2.8 pages)	<urn:uuid:176e9cef-1c9a-4453-93fb-c71e343f929d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.123helpme.com/salem-witch-trials-preview.asp?id=162670	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00290.warc.gz	en	0.983413	2,005	3.84375	4	[ -0.1053614392876625, 0.4111405611038208, -0.061322905123233795, -0.0664144828915596, -0.02078838273882866, -0.04084337130188942, 0.3187618851661682, -0.2842226028442383, -0.18640995025634766, 0.008428622037172318, -0.286552369594574, 0.09934133291244507, -0.45211613178253174, 0.20544180274...	1	The witch trials of the late 1600's were full of controversy and uncertainty. The Puritan town of Salem was home to most of these trials, and became the center of much attention in 1692. More than a hundred innocent people were found guilty of practicing witchcraft during these times, and our American government forced over a dozen to pay with their lives. The main reasons why the witch trials occurred were conflicts dealing with politics, religion, family, economics, and fears of the citizens. Before the town of Salem became so famous for its trials, its Puritan residents moved from their English homes to escape from religious persecution. There were two groups of people that made up the town: people who wanted to leave the town of Salem, and people who did not. Most of the families who wanted to stay lived closest to the town, and the families who wanted to leave lived further away. The families and people who wished to leave were typically farmers, and lived about eight miles from Salem Town. One of the largest families of farmers was the Putnams. The Putnams were thought of highly in the village, because they owned the most farmland. Since they wanted to separate from the town, they decided to establish their own church in 1689. Rev. Parris was the preacher at the church, and his salary was paid by the local taxes. He had a nine-year-old daughter named Betty, and a twelve year old niece named Abigail Williams. Since they lived so far away from Salem Town, there wasn't much for them to do for recreational purposes. Abigail, Betty, and two other friends decided to form a circle where they would entertain each other with stories. Rev. Parris' slave, Tituba, would sometimes participat... ... middle of paper ... ...th by crushing rocks. Even though the trials were over, there were still lots of people who couldn't pay for their release because they didn't have enough money. The law stated that prisoners had to pay for their food and board before they could be released. Even those who did get out of jail lost all of their land to the government. Our American government made terrible mistakes back in the 1690's. All of the events that took place in Salem are examples of how our legal system reacted from fear and panic rather than from solid evidence. As the fear escalated, innocent individuals were persecuted, abused, and finally killed because they stood up for what they believed in, and refused to go against God and "lie". The Salem Witch Trials should be a sobering reminder to us of how fear can ultimately affect the concept and function of justice within the world. Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - The Salem Witch Trials took place in the summer and into the fall of the year 1692, and during this dark time of American history, over 200 people had been accused of witchcraft and put in jail. Twenty of these accused were executed; nineteen of them were found guilty and were put to death by hanging. One refused to plead guilty, so the villagers tortured him by pressing him with large stones until he died. The Salem Witch Trials was an infamous, scary time period in American history that exhibited the amount of fear people had of the devil and the supernatural; the people of this time period accused, arrested, and executed many innocent people because of this fear, and there are severa... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, Salem] 1060 words (3 pages) - The Salem Witch Trials were a series of gruesome trials that began in Salem Massachusetts in 1692 and lasted until 1693. During that year, more than 200 Salem residents were accused and convicted of witchcraft, 19 of whom were hung for the crime (List of 5…). This was a bloody time for Salem that left many of its citizens broken and scared. Although the main cause for these trials seems to be fear from breaking the Partisan religion, Greed and revenge come in a close second. Not to mention, cold weather and disease which contributed highly to the outcome of the trials.... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, Salem] 738 words (2.1 pages) - Do you want your life resting in the words of your worst enemy. Before the formation of the American legal system, accusations determined outcomes. In the late 1600’s the Puritans in New England were just starting to build civil resolutions to village disputes. A notable conflict was based on their strong belief in the devil and witchcraft creating an atmosphere of fear and suspicion. Instead of seeking justice of those accused of witchcraft, the inexperienced magistrates were led to presume guilt simply because of odd behavior.... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, The Crucible] 1291 words (3.7 pages) - Salem witch trials The Salem Witch Trials were a series of harsh, unconstitutional, and even chaotic trials that killed several innocent people and harmed others. There were several reasons different sources have come up with that are said to have cause in the trials and the way they played out. Some of the reasons that cause the trials to go how they went is the weather, religion, and lust. Through out my research over the topic I learned that the judges in charge of the trials let fear and conspiracy control their judgment in the trials and caused several innocent people to die.... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, The Crucible] 1140 words (3.3 pages) - The Salem witch trials is possibly one of the most controversial events in early American history, where many innocent individuals were wrongly accused of witchcraft. Even though the trials occurred over three hundred years, ago, they still continue to be studied with great interest; however there is still not a conclusion to what truly caused the hysteria. Although the settlers in Salem, Massachusetts were superstitious, they could have prevented the trials from occurring, a possible similarity to our modern judicial system.... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, Jury, Salem] 1131 words (3.2 pages) - In 1692 the town of Salem, Massachusetts was home to one of the most controversial upsets in judicial history. The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions in which several people in colonial Massachusetts were accused of performing witchcraft. The supernatural was a commonplace observance in 17th-century North America. “:Witchcraft cases were hardly unknown in New England in the 1600s—more than a hundred were recorded before 1692—but they were mostly isolated, widely separated in time and space, scattered around the colonies”(Brandt 38).... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, Puritan, Salem] 727 words (2.1 pages) - The Salem Witch Trials began in 1692, and over the course of only one year, over 200 people were accused of witchcraft and 20 were executed. The trials created a panic among the people of Salem as religious leaders and afflicted girls furiously accused their fellow man of witchcraft. At the center of all this chaos stood Abigail Williams and Elizabeth Parris. The girls screamed out in pain, had horrendous fits, and cried that they were being possessed by the devil. Local religious leaders took immediate action against these so-called witches.... [tags: Salem witch trials, Samuel Parris, Schizophrenia] 1362 words (3.9 pages) - The Salem Witch Trials has been a well-known topic and known for how tragic it was and all the wrongful deaths it brought; but what caused all of this to occur. It was a time in which numerous, innocent people (mostly women) were killed because they were believed to be partaking in witchcraft. There are several possible causes as to why the Salem Witch Trials occurred. The Salem Witch Trials stemmed from the belief that Satan is acting in the world, whether it be through giving a disease or recruiting new witches to work for him, kids that were bored and brought it upon themselves to lie that they were witches to have fun, feuds between those in the community, and confessions leading town of... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, Witch-hunt, Salem] 1251 words (3.6 pages) - The Salem Witch Trials is a well-known topic taught in history classes and in English classes. It was a time in which numerous, innocent people (mostly women) were killed because they were believed to be partaking in witchcraft. There are many possible causes as to why the Salem Witch Trials occurred. These known causes stemmed from the belief that Satan is acting in the world whether it be through giving a disease or recruiting new witches to work for him, kids that were bored and brought it upon themselves to lie that they were witches to have fun, and confessions leading town officials to believe that their belief that witchcraft may exist is true since people are coming forward and confe... [tags: Salem witch trials, Witchcraft, Witch-hunt, Salem] 1246 words (3.6 pages) - In the sixteenth century, witchcraft accusations were more prevalent and somewhat common than they are in modern society. One of the most popular witch hunts of American History of the sixteenth century, that has received popularity amongst modern culture and scholars, was the Salem witch hunts otherwise known as the Salem witch trials of 1692. But, Salem was not the only town in New England that had witch trials in 1692. Richard Godbeer’s book, “Escaping Salem, The Other Witch Hunt of 1692,” is one of the very few books that talks about the other witch trials that took place in New England.... [tags: Witchcraft, Salem witch trials, Witch-hunt, Magic] 967 words (2.8 pages)	2,062	ENGLISH	1
The Samba Dance, mostly danced in 2/4 time, arose from a mixture of African and European influences in the 1500’s. The dance is characterized by rapid rhythmic steps and a swaying, rocking motion from the dancers made to lively beats. European colonizers in Latin America brought African slaves who had their unique culture which was expressed mainly through song and dance. Samba emerged as a one-person dance and was mostly done in private since the upper-class Brazilians disapproved of the dance as being obscene. When slavery was abolished it allowed a considerable popularity of the dance, but it was not until the 1920s when the dance became widely accepted. The health benefits of dancing Samba regularly include higher energy levels due to improved circulation, better hip movement and posture.	<urn:uuid:f30ff2b2-3046-4e6a-b3ad-8a52127cf35c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://modernstepsdance.com/samba/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00338.warc.gz	en	0.982711	160	3.640625	4	[ -0.15554623305797577, 0.05068577826023102, 0.5162624716758728, -0.11801450699567795, -0.15798218548297882, -0.05641261860728264, -0.3904145658016205, -0.2380795180797577, 0.3626152276992798, 0.130777046084404, 0.563103437423706, -0.35702407360076904, -0.17412622272968292, -0.01445129606872...	13	The Samba Dance, mostly danced in 2/4 time, arose from a mixture of African and European influences in the 1500’s. The dance is characterized by rapid rhythmic steps and a swaying, rocking motion from the dancers made to lively beats. European colonizers in Latin America brought African slaves who had their unique culture which was expressed mainly through song and dance. Samba emerged as a one-person dance and was mostly done in private since the upper-class Brazilians disapproved of the dance as being obscene. When slavery was abolished it allowed a considerable popularity of the dance, but it was not until the 1920s when the dance became widely accepted. The health benefits of dancing Samba regularly include higher energy levels due to improved circulation, better hip movement and posture.	163	ENGLISH	1
The year was 1923. A war veteran by the name of Adolph Hitler had a plan and if everything went well, he would finally be able to lead his people, the Nazi Party, to rise to power. His plan was a risky one, and if it went wrong, it could cost him everything. His plan? Seize control of Bavarian ruled Munich. At the time, Germany was under a state of severe disrepair. World War I had ended in disaster for the Germans and those who were loyal to Germany could not believe the fact that the German government had surrendered at the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler, like many other nationalists, believed that Germany was a superior force and the idea of surrender caused his blood to boil in anger. He had fought in a war for supremacy, the mere fact that his people were now being forced to deal with the costly reparations and embarrassment of the first war did not rest well with him. A member of the military, he had been quietly sent to infiltrate an organization known as the German Workers Party. These were dangerous nationalists who posed a threat to the Bavarian government at the time due to their ideals. Yet for Hitler, he quickly discovered that he agreed with all of their beliefs. His rise to a position of authority and power within the party didn’t take long at all. He had a goal, a desire to see change in the world and reunify Germany. Hatred for what had happened to his beloved government was deep in his heart and his love of the German people led him to concoct a plan that if successful, would put his Nazi Party in control of what was known as the Weimar Republic. His goals were to ultimately march on Berlin, but his party wasn’t nearly as organized or strong enough for such a task. But he had a plan. His political rival, Gustav von Kahr, had the power of dictatorship over the Bavarian controlled Munich. Kahr was a problem, constantly threatening Hitler’s plans, but he also held a great degree of political clout. Hitler’s plan was a bold one. He would organize his workers to arm up and march on a meeting where Kahr and other members of the ruling triumvirate were present and force them at gunpoint to support a coup. It would be forceful, daring and courageous. If everything went according to plan, Hitler would soon find himself with a stronger level of influence and the whole world would tremble before the National Socialist Party. It was on November 8th, 1923 that Hitler and his people arrived at the Beer Hall, where Kahr was giving a speech. There was a tenseness in the air as they arrived and prepared to do their mission. Hitler brought 600 men whose job was to follow after his directions. He would seize control quickly and violently if necessary. Glancing at one another, the workers were ready for action. This was it. Other members of Hitler’s party were moving elsewhere to take out communications centers. All they needed to do was take control of this beer hall. The beer hall was symbolic of German culture, it was a place for debate, argument and meetings to occur. This historic event would be known as the Beer Hall Putsch, with the word Putsch being German for revolution. Many a beer hall was the home of debate and political thoughts; today was no different. Kahr stood before 3,000 individuals who were listening to him speak. The three ruling members of the Bavarian government were present; they were known collectively as a triumvirate. If Hitler played his cards right, he could force them all to agree to a march against Berlin. The doors burst open as Hitler and his men rushed in, weapons drawn. Chaos ensued as the thousands of individuals began to rabble in surprise at this sudden presence of armed workers. Hitler leapt atop a table and fired a pistol in the air, silencing the crowd. “This hall,” he shouted as he glanced around, “is surrounded by six hundred men. The Revolution has begun! No one here can leave.” This caused a nervous tension to rise within the crowd. Who was this man and why was he here? Hitler then aimed his gun on the leaders of the triumvirate, Kahr included. He quickly suggested that he have a private meeting with them in a side room. The triumvirate complied, perhaps due to the fact that he had boldly claimed that the Nazi party had already seized control of the police barracks and the army. This was, of course, a lie but everyone seemed to believe it. It was this lie that kept the hostages calm, either that or it was just been because Hitler had a heavy machine gun deployed inside of the beer hall. The triumvirate were quickly ushered into a side room where Hitler could have a more private discussion with them. He was excited at this point; they had stormed the entire place quickly and without a hitch. Now all he had to do was convince these three rulers, Kahr, Lossow and Seisser, to support him. With pistol in hand, he made a proposition to them. “I have enough bullets for all four of us,” he told them as he waved it around. “Three for you and one for me, if I fail. If I am not victorious by tomorrow, then I am a dead man!” He alternated between aiming the gun at each of them and even to make his own point, he placed the pistol to his own head, showing that he was serious. Maybe he was showing them he was crazy, but Kahr didn’t seem terribly bothered by it. “You may shoot me now or have someone shoot me, but it doesn’t matter.” Kahr said. The other two, however, were rather quick to agree to support Hitler in his coup. They agreed to support Hitler’s forces and would speak on his behalf to rally up more forces to fight against the oppressive Bavarian government. Eventually Kahr agreed as well. Hitler, caught up in his own grand vision, didn’t consider that perhaps these men’s alliance was mere lip service. He was a visionary caught up in his grand scheme to consider that friendship under compulsion wasn’t friendship at all. In the main hall, the crowd had grown rowdy. They didn’t care for the armed men surrounding them and certainly hated the fact that a machine gun had been set up in the hall as a way to control them. The crowd grumbled and rabbled, but otherwise did nothing. Hitler appeared onstage with the three members of the triumvirate behind him. It was time for a revolution, he told them. The three behind him were in support of such an action and with it was every loyal German’s duty to serve their leaders in taking control of Munich. Hitler’s speech was well received and the triumvirate were quick to give speeches in support of the revolution. It was working! Hitler knew that his plan would go off without a hitch now. All that was left to do was secure some areas of communication so that the government would not be able to organize a counter attack successfully. He had left that up to other members of the party and knew it was only a matter of time before they would succeed. As the night drew to a close, Hitler became too confident about his plan’s success. The response of the crowd had been positive, they had supported him so fiercely after giving such a powerful speech, that the triumvirate had to know that this would be a successful operation. The three men, Kahr, Lossow and Seisser wouldn’t disagree now. Any hesitation would be shattered by this new support, Hitler reasoned, and so he would be free to put his focus elsewhere. Turning to his loyal ally, a General from the 1st World War, Erich Ludendorff, Hitler made mention that he would be leaving the Beer Hall in order to continue organizing his force’s efforts. Ludendorff was to be in control of the situation. But there was a problem: Ludendorff had no idea that there was going to be a coup. He had been retrieved by a few members of the Nazi Party and brought to the Beer Hall after control had been seized. He had not been prepared for a coup. Even though he supported Hitler’s ambitions, it was not something that Ludendorff had properly accounted for. READ MORE: Nazis and America Hitler left the hall behind as he went off to handle a clash that his workers were having with the police. Ludendorff, still trying to get up to speed, was convinced by the triumvirate to allow them to go home. The triumvirate claimed that they were in lockstep with Hitler’s desire for deposing the Bavarian government and promised to rally up their own men to the cause. Ludendorff, not realizing that these men weren’t convinced at all, agreed and allowed them to leave. It was in that moment, the coup ended in miserable failure because with the ruling members now free, they were quick to contact their police forces and order the suppression of the revolution. Hitler returned after that, incredulous to discover that Ludendorff had allowed his political rivals to leave. Hitler was an idealist and while he often had unrealistic expectations and naivety, he wasn’t that naive. He knew in an instant that the coup would fall apart without the triumvirate’s support. The massive rally that he had organized was losing its steam quickly and soon Kahr would publicly denounce Hitler’s plans and organize a counterattack on the Nazi Party. Even though Hitler realized that this was more or less the death knell of his plan to seize control of Munich, he tried to figure something out. The revolutionaries weren’t doing anything and with each passing hour, the odds of success were growing slimmer and slimmer. With this level of pressure, Hitler and Ludendorff came up with a plan. They would march anyway. Ludendorff believed that since he was a war hero and a general of legendary status, no one would dare fire upon them. Hitler agreed with this plan and quickly organized is forces to march toward the center of Munich. This was desperate and while they didn’t have a very comprehensive plan of what to actually do once they got to the center, it didn’t matter. Hitler could feel the opportunity slipping past him and he had to act. His other operators had failed in their respective missions to secure more support and once the Bavarian government organized a sufficient armed response it would all be over. Arm in arm, the Nazi Party marched toward the Bavarian Defense Ministry building. It was a spur of the moment decision, but at this point it didn’t really matter. They marched together in lockstep, armed and ready for violence if it should come to it. The police formed a blockade in the center of the street, armed as well. The party, well over 3,000 people, were ready to continue their march but the police were equally ready to fight back with violence. There was tension, would Hitler’s forces be willing to fight and die here? Would the police just open fire? Ludendorff did not think that they would and demanded that they be allowed entry. The police didn’t move down from their stance. A single gunshot rang out, but it was impossible to tell who fired it. Soon both sides were firing upon one another and Hitler was wounded in the attack. Several Nazi’s were killed and the party scattered, after all they were not a professional army. As they fled in the chaos, Hitler was forced to retreat was well. His glorious attempt at revolution had ended in abject failure after he failed to properly prepare his men for what they would do after they had taken control of the Beer Hall. He was quickly captured by the government after that. He would undergo a trial and would be sentenced to prison, where he would write a book about his experiences. The name of the book? Mein Kampf. Later on, of course, Hitler would rise to power and take control of Germany, but he learned a very valuable lesson during his attempt at a coup. The first lesson was that desire alone wasn’t enough to win him control. His tenacity and naivete had led to a series of tactical errors that cost him his chance at victory. The second lesson was that violence alone wasn’t enough to capture the hearts of men. It wasn’t just control that needed to be established, but loyalty. He made the decision to change his tone. He wouldn’t capture the hearts of the German people through force, but through capturing their hearts and minds with persuasion, control and uniting them against a common foe: the Jews. READ MORE: Erwin Rommel READ MORE: Battle of Stalingrad READ MORE: Joseph Stalin The Beer Hall Putsch of 1923: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/weimar-germany/the-beer-hall-putsch-of-1923/ Hitler’s Beer Hall Putsch: http://history1900s.about.com/cs/thirdreich/a/beerhallputsch.htm Adolph Hitler Attempts A Coup: http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/putsch.htm Beer Hall Putsch: http://totallyhistory.com/beer-hall-putsch/	<urn:uuid:54d0233c-e6c1-4c28-ac0a-fcd13c441848>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historycooperative.org/beer-hall-putz-hitlers-naive-attempt-revolution/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00197.warc.gz	en	0.993054	2,827	3.296875	3	[ -0.3495986759662628, 0.6929299831390381, -0.2002222090959549, 0.1417364478111267, -0.26912784576416016, 0.10147298127412796, 0.16379013657569885, 0.1432316154241562, 0.05305742844939232, -0.16466334462165833, 0.4703444242477417, 0.09041043370962143, 0.36645033955574036, 0.3214595913887024,...	1	The year was 1923. A war veteran by the name of Adolph Hitler had a plan and if everything went well, he would finally be able to lead his people, the Nazi Party, to rise to power. His plan was a risky one, and if it went wrong, it could cost him everything. His plan? Seize control of Bavarian ruled Munich. At the time, Germany was under a state of severe disrepair. World War I had ended in disaster for the Germans and those who were loyal to Germany could not believe the fact that the German government had surrendered at the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler, like many other nationalists, believed that Germany was a superior force and the idea of surrender caused his blood to boil in anger. He had fought in a war for supremacy, the mere fact that his people were now being forced to deal with the costly reparations and embarrassment of the first war did not rest well with him. A member of the military, he had been quietly sent to infiltrate an organization known as the German Workers Party. These were dangerous nationalists who posed a threat to the Bavarian government at the time due to their ideals. Yet for Hitler, he quickly discovered that he agreed with all of their beliefs. His rise to a position of authority and power within the party didn’t take long at all. He had a goal, a desire to see change in the world and reunify Germany. Hatred for what had happened to his beloved government was deep in his heart and his love of the German people led him to concoct a plan that if successful, would put his Nazi Party in control of what was known as the Weimar Republic. His goals were to ultimately march on Berlin, but his party wasn’t nearly as organized or strong enough for such a task. But he had a plan. His political rival, Gustav von Kahr, had the power of dictatorship over the Bavarian controlled Munich. Kahr was a problem, constantly threatening Hitler’s plans, but he also held a great degree of political clout. Hitler’s plan was a bold one. He would organize his workers to arm up and march on a meeting where Kahr and other members of the ruling triumvirate were present and force them at gunpoint to support a coup. It would be forceful, daring and courageous. If everything went according to plan, Hitler would soon find himself with a stronger level of influence and the whole world would tremble before the National Socialist Party. It was on November 8th, 1923 that Hitler and his people arrived at the Beer Hall, where Kahr was giving a speech. There was a tenseness in the air as they arrived and prepared to do their mission. Hitler brought 600 men whose job was to follow after his directions. He would seize control quickly and violently if necessary. Glancing at one another, the workers were ready for action. This was it. Other members of Hitler’s party were moving elsewhere to take out communications centers. All they needed to do was take control of this beer hall. The beer hall was symbolic of German culture, it was a place for debate, argument and meetings to occur. This historic event would be known as the Beer Hall Putsch, with the word Putsch being German for revolution. Many a beer hall was the home of debate and political thoughts; today was no different. Kahr stood before 3,000 individuals who were listening to him speak. The three ruling members of the Bavarian government were present; they were known collectively as a triumvirate. If Hitler played his cards right, he could force them all to agree to a march against Berlin. The doors burst open as Hitler and his men rushed in, weapons drawn. Chaos ensued as the thousands of individuals began to rabble in surprise at this sudden presence of armed workers. Hitler leapt atop a table and fired a pistol in the air, silencing the crowd. “This hall,” he shouted as he glanced around, “is surrounded by six hundred men. The Revolution has begun! No one here can leave.” This caused a nervous tension to rise within the crowd. Who was this man and why was he here? Hitler then aimed his gun on the leaders of the triumvirate, Kahr included. He quickly suggested that he have a private meeting with them in a side room. The triumvirate complied, perhaps due to the fact that he had boldly claimed that the Nazi party had already seized control of the police barracks and the army. This was, of course, a lie but everyone seemed to believe it. It was this lie that kept the hostages calm, either that or it was just been because Hitler had a heavy machine gun deployed inside of the beer hall. The triumvirate were quickly ushered into a side room where Hitler could have a more private discussion with them. He was excited at this point; they had stormed the entire place quickly and without a hitch. Now all he had to do was convince these three rulers, Kahr, Lossow and Seisser, to support him. With pistol in hand, he made a proposition to them. “I have enough bullets for all four of us,” he told them as he waved it around. “Three for you and one for me, if I fail. If I am not victorious by tomorrow, then I am a dead man!” He alternated between aiming the gun at each of them and even to make his own point, he placed the pistol to his own head, showing that he was serious. Maybe he was showing them he was crazy, but Kahr didn’t seem terribly bothered by it. “You may shoot me now or have someone shoot me, but it doesn’t matter.” Kahr said. The other two, however, were rather quick to agree to support Hitler in his coup. They agreed to support Hitler’s forces and would speak on his behalf to rally up more forces to fight against the oppressive Bavarian government. Eventually Kahr agreed as well. Hitler, caught up in his own grand vision, didn’t consider that perhaps these men’s alliance was mere lip service. He was a visionary caught up in his grand scheme to consider that friendship under compulsion wasn’t friendship at all. In the main hall, the crowd had grown rowdy. They didn’t care for the armed men surrounding them and certainly hated the fact that a machine gun had been set up in the hall as a way to control them. The crowd grumbled and rabbled, but otherwise did nothing. Hitler appeared onstage with the three members of the triumvirate behind him. It was time for a revolution, he told them. The three behind him were in support of such an action and with it was every loyal German’s duty to serve their leaders in taking control of Munich. Hitler’s speech was well received and the triumvirate were quick to give speeches in support of the revolution. It was working! Hitler knew that his plan would go off without a hitch now. All that was left to do was secure some areas of communication so that the government would not be able to organize a counter attack successfully. He had left that up to other members of the party and knew it was only a matter of time before they would succeed. As the night drew to a close, Hitler became too confident about his plan’s success. The response of the crowd had been positive, they had supported him so fiercely after giving such a powerful speech, that the triumvirate had to know that this would be a successful operation. The three men, Kahr, Lossow and Seisser wouldn’t disagree now. Any hesitation would be shattered by this new support, Hitler reasoned, and so he would be free to put his focus elsewhere. Turning to his loyal ally, a General from the 1st World War, Erich Ludendorff, Hitler made mention that he would be leaving the Beer Hall in order to continue organizing his force’s efforts. Ludendorff was to be in control of the situation. But there was a problem: Ludendorff had no idea that there was going to be a coup. He had been retrieved by a few members of the Nazi Party and brought to the Beer Hall after control had been seized. He had not been prepared for a coup. Even though he supported Hitler’s ambitions, it was not something that Ludendorff had properly accounted for. READ MORE: Nazis and America Hitler left the hall behind as he went off to handle a clash that his workers were having with the police. Ludendorff, still trying to get up to speed, was convinced by the triumvirate to allow them to go home. The triumvirate claimed that they were in lockstep with Hitler’s desire for deposing the Bavarian government and promised to rally up their own men to the cause. Ludendorff, not realizing that these men weren’t convinced at all, agreed and allowed them to leave. It was in that moment, the coup ended in miserable failure because with the ruling members now free, they were quick to contact their police forces and order the suppression of the revolution. Hitler returned after that, incredulous to discover that Ludendorff had allowed his political rivals to leave. Hitler was an idealist and while he often had unrealistic expectations and naivety, he wasn’t that naive. He knew in an instant that the coup would fall apart without the triumvirate’s support. The massive rally that he had organized was losing its steam quickly and soon Kahr would publicly denounce Hitler’s plans and organize a counterattack on the Nazi Party. Even though Hitler realized that this was more or less the death knell of his plan to seize control of Munich, he tried to figure something out. The revolutionaries weren’t doing anything and with each passing hour, the odds of success were growing slimmer and slimmer. With this level of pressure, Hitler and Ludendorff came up with a plan. They would march anyway. Ludendorff believed that since he was a war hero and a general of legendary status, no one would dare fire upon them. Hitler agreed with this plan and quickly organized is forces to march toward the center of Munich. This was desperate and while they didn’t have a very comprehensive plan of what to actually do once they got to the center, it didn’t matter. Hitler could feel the opportunity slipping past him and he had to act. His other operators had failed in their respective missions to secure more support and once the Bavarian government organized a sufficient armed response it would all be over. Arm in arm, the Nazi Party marched toward the Bavarian Defense Ministry building. It was a spur of the moment decision, but at this point it didn’t really matter. They marched together in lockstep, armed and ready for violence if it should come to it. The police formed a blockade in the center of the street, armed as well. The party, well over 3,000 people, were ready to continue their march but the police were equally ready to fight back with violence. There was tension, would Hitler’s forces be willing to fight and die here? Would the police just open fire? Ludendorff did not think that they would and demanded that they be allowed entry. The police didn’t move down from their stance. A single gunshot rang out, but it was impossible to tell who fired it. Soon both sides were firing upon one another and Hitler was wounded in the attack. Several Nazi’s were killed and the party scattered, after all they were not a professional army. As they fled in the chaos, Hitler was forced to retreat was well. His glorious attempt at revolution had ended in abject failure after he failed to properly prepare his men for what they would do after they had taken control of the Beer Hall. He was quickly captured by the government after that. He would undergo a trial and would be sentenced to prison, where he would write a book about his experiences. The name of the book? Mein Kampf. Later on, of course, Hitler would rise to power and take control of Germany, but he learned a very valuable lesson during his attempt at a coup. The first lesson was that desire alone wasn’t enough to win him control. His tenacity and naivete had led to a series of tactical errors that cost him his chance at victory. The second lesson was that violence alone wasn’t enough to capture the hearts of men. It wasn’t just control that needed to be established, but loyalty. He made the decision to change his tone. He wouldn’t capture the hearts of the German people through force, but through capturing their hearts and minds with persuasion, control and uniting them against a common foe: the Jews. READ MORE: Erwin Rommel READ MORE: Battle of Stalingrad READ MORE: Joseph Stalin The Beer Hall Putsch of 1923: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/weimar-germany/the-beer-hall-putsch-of-1923/ Hitler’s Beer Hall Putsch: http://history1900s.about.com/cs/thirdreich/a/beerhallputsch.htm Adolph Hitler Attempts A Coup: http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/putsch.htm Beer Hall Putsch: http://totallyhistory.com/beer-hall-putsch/	2,735	ENGLISH	1
John Newton wrote the lyrics of “Amazing Grace” in December 1772 when he was 47 years old. At the time, he regarded it as just one more unremarkable hymn among the many hundreds of hymns that he had already written and that he would yet write. Yet, this hymn marked a watershed in his experience that he would not be able to properly speak about publicly for many years. From his childhood, John Newton’s life was totally compartmentalised by the society in which he lived, and there were, in effect, two parallel sides to John Newton in history. - One side of John Newton was the Christian from childhood who loved to read, to think, and to debate; he soon grew to become the churchgoer, the hymn writer, the sermon writer, the worship leader, the preacher, the theological contemplative, the encourager of the flock, and a Christian minister. - The other side of John Newton was, starting from 1748 when he was 23 years old, a ruthless and vicious slave trader who, for five years, cruelly exploited thousands of slaves that he took from Africa’s west coast and then sold in various places across the Americas. To grasp the significance of the hymn “Amazing Grace” and to truly understand the man who wrote that hymn, we need to look back into John Newton’s slave trading years and take a journey into his heart and into his mind, as well as understanding the culture of the day in which John Newton lived. Though a Christian from childhood and not a great lover of alcohol, John Newton excelled in every other sin and over-indulgence that he had the opportunity to fall into, and he had a lot of opportunities. Just two examples: - The churchman that I have already described was also a womanizer who, in his own words, had “eyes full of adultery”. - Newton’s language on board ship was filled with blasphemies and with swearing of the worst kind. Yet, John Newton’s life was also about church on Sundays when he was at home, and it was about a life of wealth and respectability in the Christian community until it was time to once again set sail for the west coast of Africa. There Newton would pick up hundreds of manacled and chained African slaves who were confined to the very bottom of his ship and who had no names – each of them were merely stamped with a number that they were given as they were forced aboard the ship, and they were then herded into the hold. In order to reduce the risk of mutiny by the slaves, they were treated very harshly and they were chained and manacled in the bottom of the ship, and the ship’s guns were constantly pointed down towards those slaves. For those perilous journeys from Africa to the Americas, the slaves were given only contaminated food and contaminated water. The slaves were packed very tightly together and therefore had no room to move down there in the hold where they had no toilets of even the crudest kind and they were lying in their own filth, vomit and disease fluids. Unsurprisingly, diseases like dysentery were rampant among the slaves and many died on the journeys, and their bodies were simply thrown overboard. The death rate among the African slaves on slave ships such as Newton’s was around twenty percent. In many ways, it is surprising that the death toll was not actually much higher. Even the slightest wrong word or misdeed by the slaves would be punished by a severe beating that could leave the slaves permanently injured. Such beatings were often carried out by John Newton himself, and he kept a detailed record of his life on board ship, noting every slave he had beaten and why he had beaten them. John Newton proved himself to be as brutal and as severe a ship master as any slave trader, and he never hesitated to inflict severe pain and extreme suffering on his human cargo in order to maintain order among the slaves. The journey from the west coast of Africa to the Americas was one of thousands of miles that took many weeks and, having finally sold his cargo of African slaves, Newton pointed his ship back towards England and to Liverpool for the long journey home. Once he was back home, John Newton lived in the wealth of his slave trading and he attended church on Sundays, he wrote hymns, he composed sermons, he wrote reflectively and theologically, and he worshipped Jesus. This life went on for five years, and John Newton saw no conflict between the two lives, he saw nothing that caused him to question his way of life, and he even frequently spent the long journeys aboard his ship writing more hymns, writing more sermons, and writing his theological reflections, even as he was beating slaves. We need to understand that, in those days, black Africans (as other slaves) were not regarded as human beings, but were seen as being merely sub-human property that was incapable of being human and were therefore fit only to be slaves that were to be traded for profit and, ultimately, to be disposed of when no longer useful. Slave trading was very common in those days, and it was regarded as a legitimate way of life and as a normal way of making money from the plentiful resource of what was regarded as ‘sub-human property’ that was available in Africa. Many cities in England and Scotland were built on slave trading, and many of their streets and buildings were named after slave locations, slave owners and slave traders. In Liverpool (as in many cities in the UK), slavery was a common and a normal part of life, and the wealth gained from slavery extended into churches where the rich slave traders sat in their own designated pews in the most prestigious of England’s churches. It was not conscience that stopped John Newton from slave trading; it was a stroke in 1753. Unable to master a ship after the stroke, he immersed himself in various churches and he sought to grow in his theological understanding, and it helped that he was living during a time of extraordinary religious revival in England in which he became a rapidly rising star in Liverpool and beyond. Evangelicalism was on the rise across England and the Anglican church was being shaken to its very foundations by this new movement that claimed to be of God and that was sweeping the land. Newton made the most of his rising popularity as he visited many assemblies and many churches, and he attended prayer meetings that were organised by Anglicans, Baptists, Independents, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Methodists and Moravians. Everywhere he went he made his presence felt, and his conversion story was getting well-known across Liverpool and in wider circles. John Newton’s brutal past in slave trading had become a dramatic ‘slave trader to Christian’ conversion story that thrilled his many listeners, even if he kept somewhat quiet about having been a Christian since childhood and therefore was a Christian during the five years of his slave trading. John Newton was changing inside as he was then no longer slave trading and he was also immersed in a Christian culture but the change in him was slow, though those friends who were close to him knew that change was happening. As Paul had written in 2 Corinthians 3:18, Newton was being changed by one degree of glory into another. In April 1764, at the age of 39, John Newton was ordained as the curate of Olney, and he was appointed as priest in June of that same year. In 1772, John Newton wrote “Amazing Grace” because something profound had happened to him that he never really described in words – except in his hymns, and especially so in “Amazing Grace” itself so that, for John Newton, a milestone had been reached. Slavery was so common in those days that Newton’s past was by no means unusual, yet John Newton himself was by this time a new man who had truly been redeemed by the Saviour’s amazing grace. He was growing to be deeply ashamed of the life that he had previously lived as a Christian from childhood yet also as a slave trader for five years who had become wealthy through the slave trading. In 1779, John Newton was offered and accepted the parish of St Mary Woolnoth in London, close to the Bank of England. John Newton was ready for London since he had yearned for such a move for some time, and it seemed that London was ready for him. In London, John Newton had access to an amazingly varied company of worshippers and admirers that included clerics, visitors, MPs, and many others who came to his prayer breakfasts or who sought out his personal counsel. Among those admirers who grew close to the slave trader turned minister John Newton around that time was a certain William Wilberforce. The “Amazing Grace” that had changed John Newton was working in him to begin to make him an outspoken opponent of slavery alongside others like Wilberforce. The rest, as they say, is history. What had happened to John Newton that his life had suddenly changed so radically after five years as a Christian and as a slave trader, and that made him write the words of “Amazing Grace”? Though he did not use this terminology, John Newton had given Jesus the keys of his life. John Newton’s heart had been deeply touched by Jesus and the inner impact on Newton was dramatic and revolutionary. John Newton’s life was no longer compartmentalised and the Jesus that he then knew filled and affected every area of his life, with nothing held back or kept secret. For John Newton, that meant openly confessing about being both a Christian and a slaver trader and realising that the two were not, in fact, compatible. John Newton recognised that black Africans were just as human as he was. History truly was being written. You and I may not be slave traders, but our society and its culture has conditioned us to have lives that are just as deeply compartmentalised as John Newton’s life had been – for example: - Work is secular; church is sacred. - Prayer meetings are sacred; shopping is secular. - “Amazing Grace” is sacred music; the pop charts are secular music. - And so on. We need to have that compartmentalisation of our inner selves demolished, but demolished safely. That began to happen for me when Jesus asked me to give him the keys of my life. When I gave Jesus the keys of my life and my life began to be no longer compartmentalised, what did the end of that inner compartmentalisation for me mean? - My being was love-focused, not sin-focused. - Jesus had the keys to unlock all the secret rooms of my heart in his timing. - Jesus knew my heart and my motives. - I was free from trying to perform better and so able to please God all the more by being myself. - I was able in Christ to focus on my inner being – my identity – instead of focusing on my performance.	<urn:uuid:ae711bb5-dd54-48ba-8617-c63e8ba49321>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://thechrist-centeredlife.com/resources/thought/john-newton-1725-1807/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00273.warc.gz	en	0.993875	2,295	3.640625	4	[ -0.1253053843975067, 0.38715416193008423, 0.23678940534591675, -0.12695392966270447, -0.3324124217033386, 0.1744668334722519, -0.38357049226760864, 0.10761632025241852, -0.21865659952163696, -0.014695188030600548, -0.3004143536090851, 0.20538339018821716, 0.12256567925214767, -0.2397986650...	7	John Newton wrote the lyrics of “Amazing Grace” in December 1772 when he was 47 years old. At the time, he regarded it as just one more unremarkable hymn among the many hundreds of hymns that he had already written and that he would yet write. Yet, this hymn marked a watershed in his experience that he would not be able to properly speak about publicly for many years. From his childhood, John Newton’s life was totally compartmentalised by the society in which he lived, and there were, in effect, two parallel sides to John Newton in history. - One side of John Newton was the Christian from childhood who loved to read, to think, and to debate; he soon grew to become the churchgoer, the hymn writer, the sermon writer, the worship leader, the preacher, the theological contemplative, the encourager of the flock, and a Christian minister. - The other side of John Newton was, starting from 1748 when he was 23 years old, a ruthless and vicious slave trader who, for five years, cruelly exploited thousands of slaves that he took from Africa’s west coast and then sold in various places across the Americas. To grasp the significance of the hymn “Amazing Grace” and to truly understand the man who wrote that hymn, we need to look back into John Newton’s slave trading years and take a journey into his heart and into his mind, as well as understanding the culture of the day in which John Newton lived. Though a Christian from childhood and not a great lover of alcohol, John Newton excelled in every other sin and over-indulgence that he had the opportunity to fall into, and he had a lot of opportunities. Just two examples: - The churchman that I have already described was also a womanizer who, in his own words, had “eyes full of adultery”. - Newton’s language on board ship was filled with blasphemies and with swearing of the worst kind. Yet, John Newton’s life was also about church on Sundays when he was at home, and it was about a life of wealth and respectability in the Christian community until it was time to once again set sail for the west coast of Africa. There Newton would pick up hundreds of manacled and chained African slaves who were confined to the very bottom of his ship and who had no names – each of them were merely stamped with a number that they were given as they were forced aboard the ship, and they were then herded into the hold. In order to reduce the risk of mutiny by the slaves, they were treated very harshly and they were chained and manacled in the bottom of the ship, and the ship’s guns were constantly pointed down towards those slaves. For those perilous journeys from Africa to the Americas, the slaves were given only contaminated food and contaminated water. The slaves were packed very tightly together and therefore had no room to move down there in the hold where they had no toilets of even the crudest kind and they were lying in their own filth, vomit and disease fluids. Unsurprisingly, diseases like dysentery were rampant among the slaves and many died on the journeys, and their bodies were simply thrown overboard. The death rate among the African slaves on slave ships such as Newton’s was around twenty percent. In many ways, it is surprising that the death toll was not actually much higher. Even the slightest wrong word or misdeed by the slaves would be punished by a severe beating that could leave the slaves permanently injured. Such beatings were often carried out by John Newton himself, and he kept a detailed record of his life on board ship, noting every slave he had beaten and why he had beaten them. John Newton proved himself to be as brutal and as severe a ship master as any slave trader, and he never hesitated to inflict severe pain and extreme suffering on his human cargo in order to maintain order among the slaves. The journey from the west coast of Africa to the Americas was one of thousands of miles that took many weeks and, having finally sold his cargo of African slaves, Newton pointed his ship back towards England and to Liverpool for the long journey home. Once he was back home, John Newton lived in the wealth of his slave trading and he attended church on Sundays, he wrote hymns, he composed sermons, he wrote reflectively and theologically, and he worshipped Jesus. This life went on for five years, and John Newton saw no conflict between the two lives, he saw nothing that caused him to question his way of life, and he even frequently spent the long journeys aboard his ship writing more hymns, writing more sermons, and writing his theological reflections, even as he was beating slaves. We need to understand that, in those days, black Africans (as other slaves) were not regarded as human beings, but were seen as being merely sub-human property that was incapable of being human and were therefore fit only to be slaves that were to be traded for profit and, ultimately, to be disposed of when no longer useful. Slave trading was very common in those days, and it was regarded as a legitimate way of life and as a normal way of making money from the plentiful resource of what was regarded as ‘sub-human property’ that was available in Africa. Many cities in England and Scotland were built on slave trading, and many of their streets and buildings were named after slave locations, slave owners and slave traders. In Liverpool (as in many cities in the UK), slavery was a common and a normal part of life, and the wealth gained from slavery extended into churches where the rich slave traders sat in their own designated pews in the most prestigious of England’s churches. It was not conscience that stopped John Newton from slave trading; it was a stroke in 1753. Unable to master a ship after the stroke, he immersed himself in various churches and he sought to grow in his theological understanding, and it helped that he was living during a time of extraordinary religious revival in England in which he became a rapidly rising star in Liverpool and beyond. Evangelicalism was on the rise across England and the Anglican church was being shaken to its very foundations by this new movement that claimed to be of God and that was sweeping the land. Newton made the most of his rising popularity as he visited many assemblies and many churches, and he attended prayer meetings that were organised by Anglicans, Baptists, Independents, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Methodists and Moravians. Everywhere he went he made his presence felt, and his conversion story was getting well-known across Liverpool and in wider circles. John Newton’s brutal past in slave trading had become a dramatic ‘slave trader to Christian’ conversion story that thrilled his many listeners, even if he kept somewhat quiet about having been a Christian since childhood and therefore was a Christian during the five years of his slave trading. John Newton was changing inside as he was then no longer slave trading and he was also immersed in a Christian culture but the change in him was slow, though those friends who were close to him knew that change was happening. As Paul had written in 2 Corinthians 3:18, Newton was being changed by one degree of glory into another. In April 1764, at the age of 39, John Newton was ordained as the curate of Olney, and he was appointed as priest in June of that same year. In 1772, John Newton wrote “Amazing Grace” because something profound had happened to him that he never really described in words – except in his hymns, and especially so in “Amazing Grace” itself so that, for John Newton, a milestone had been reached. Slavery was so common in those days that Newton’s past was by no means unusual, yet John Newton himself was by this time a new man who had truly been redeemed by the Saviour’s amazing grace. He was growing to be deeply ashamed of the life that he had previously lived as a Christian from childhood yet also as a slave trader for five years who had become wealthy through the slave trading. In 1779, John Newton was offered and accepted the parish of St Mary Woolnoth in London, close to the Bank of England. John Newton was ready for London since he had yearned for such a move for some time, and it seemed that London was ready for him. In London, John Newton had access to an amazingly varied company of worshippers and admirers that included clerics, visitors, MPs, and many others who came to his prayer breakfasts or who sought out his personal counsel. Among those admirers who grew close to the slave trader turned minister John Newton around that time was a certain William Wilberforce. The “Amazing Grace” that had changed John Newton was working in him to begin to make him an outspoken opponent of slavery alongside others like Wilberforce. The rest, as they say, is history. What had happened to John Newton that his life had suddenly changed so radically after five years as a Christian and as a slave trader, and that made him write the words of “Amazing Grace”? Though he did not use this terminology, John Newton had given Jesus the keys of his life. John Newton’s heart had been deeply touched by Jesus and the inner impact on Newton was dramatic and revolutionary. John Newton’s life was no longer compartmentalised and the Jesus that he then knew filled and affected every area of his life, with nothing held back or kept secret. For John Newton, that meant openly confessing about being both a Christian and a slaver trader and realising that the two were not, in fact, compatible. John Newton recognised that black Africans were just as human as he was. History truly was being written. You and I may not be slave traders, but our society and its culture has conditioned us to have lives that are just as deeply compartmentalised as John Newton’s life had been – for example: - Work is secular; church is sacred. - Prayer meetings are sacred; shopping is secular. - “Amazing Grace” is sacred music; the pop charts are secular music. - And so on. We need to have that compartmentalisation of our inner selves demolished, but demolished safely. That began to happen for me when Jesus asked me to give him the keys of my life. When I gave Jesus the keys of my life and my life began to be no longer compartmentalised, what did the end of that inner compartmentalisation for me mean? - My being was love-focused, not sin-focused. - Jesus had the keys to unlock all the secret rooms of my heart in his timing. - Jesus knew my heart and my motives. - I was free from trying to perform better and so able to please God all the more by being myself. - I was able in Christ to focus on my inner being – my identity – instead of focusing on my performance.	2,232	ENGLISH	1
King Tenkamenin was born in what’s now referred to as Ghana and Mali. He is associated with us because his people were one among the primary to make iron of metal tools in West Africa . Ghana was extremely wealthy, often being mentioned because the “Land of Gold.” They controlled the trade route between gold and salt mines and offered protection to the traders in exchange for gold nuggets. The Ghanas received the nuggets and only allowed gold to be traded. additionally to the nuggets they also taxed the salt being traded. Ancient Ghana discovered iron and used it to form simpler tools and weapons. As a result, Ghana became a more powerful empire and had greater control over the trade routes. They also utilized the camel for his or her trading endeavors with other kingdoms. Ghana was influenced by Arab traders and was actually divided into two towns, one being muslim, the opposite housing the king and traditional society. The traditional society was pagan and worshipped idols. However, many of the king’s officials were muslim so arabic writing was wont to record information. Also, arab architecture, like mosques, were present within the muslim town. Although some schools were alive , much of the education was passed down through “griots,” or storytellers. within the evening, people would gather around to listen to the griots and would study their traditions. Ghana produced beautiful fabrics. They used mud to form designs on cloth then they let the sun bake the mud, creating a permanent design within the fabric. They also created many masks and figures. Ancient Ghanians were very wealthy, thanks to their control over Western Africa’s trade. The gold mines were within the south and therefore the salt mines were within the north. Being located between these two was an enormous advantage. apart from taxes, the dominion would gain money through silent bartering. Gold would be left at a special place for traders to require . If ample goods weren’t left in exchange, trade would be stopped. instead of cash in of this, most traders would go away quite enough goods reciprocally . They were afraid that powerful Ghana would close them off. Around the 12th century, a drought hit the dominion . Most of the resources the world trusted , especially gold mining were curtail . The drought had an outsized affect on how the land might be used. What was once a fertile place brimming with cattle, sheep and goats, became dry and dead. Ghana slowly lost all of their trading power. The gold was mined in other places and therefore the economy went elsewhere. Nearby civilizations began to attack the failing empire, starting with the Sosso people. In 1235, the Mali empire officially took over. The country of Ghana reached the peak of its greatness during the reign of Tenkamenin. Though his carefull management of the gold trade across the Sahara into West Africa , Tenkamenin’s empire flourished But his greatest strengh wasn’t in economics, but in governance. Each day Tenkamenin would last out on horseback and hear the issues and concerns of his people, he insisted that nobody be denied an audience which they be allowed to stay in his presence untill satisfied that justice had been done. His principle of democratic Monarchy and non secular tolerance made Tenkamenin reign one among the good models of African rule. Source: HBCU Connect	<urn:uuid:bbae72c5-b573-4c9c-8375-79b3aba8e997>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://cityscrollz.com/3498	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00522.warc.gz	en	0.988863	708	3.6875	4	[ -0.02748793177306652, 0.7575640678405762, 0.04494580253958702, 0.1526273787021637, 0.4594241976737976, -0.23959101736545563, 0.31534624099731445, -0.049260176718235016, -0.47874751687049866, -0.00007237779209390283, -0.12834382057189941, -0.4203365445137024, 0.20467384159564972, 0.06336805...	1	King Tenkamenin was born in what’s now referred to as Ghana and Mali. He is associated with us because his people were one among the primary to make iron of metal tools in West Africa . Ghana was extremely wealthy, often being mentioned because the “Land of Gold.” They controlled the trade route between gold and salt mines and offered protection to the traders in exchange for gold nuggets. The Ghanas received the nuggets and only allowed gold to be traded. additionally to the nuggets they also taxed the salt being traded. Ancient Ghana discovered iron and used it to form simpler tools and weapons. As a result, Ghana became a more powerful empire and had greater control over the trade routes. They also utilized the camel for his or her trading endeavors with other kingdoms. Ghana was influenced by Arab traders and was actually divided into two towns, one being muslim, the opposite housing the king and traditional society. The traditional society was pagan and worshipped idols. However, many of the king’s officials were muslim so arabic writing was wont to record information. Also, arab architecture, like mosques, were present within the muslim town. Although some schools were alive , much of the education was passed down through “griots,” or storytellers. within the evening, people would gather around to listen to the griots and would study their traditions. Ghana produced beautiful fabrics. They used mud to form designs on cloth then they let the sun bake the mud, creating a permanent design within the fabric. They also created many masks and figures. Ancient Ghanians were very wealthy, thanks to their control over Western Africa’s trade. The gold mines were within the south and therefore the salt mines were within the north. Being located between these two was an enormous advantage. apart from taxes, the dominion would gain money through silent bartering. Gold would be left at a special place for traders to require . If ample goods weren’t left in exchange, trade would be stopped. instead of cash in of this, most traders would go away quite enough goods reciprocally . They were afraid that powerful Ghana would close them off. Around the 12th century, a drought hit the dominion . Most of the resources the world trusted , especially gold mining were curtail . The drought had an outsized affect on how the land might be used. What was once a fertile place brimming with cattle, sheep and goats, became dry and dead. Ghana slowly lost all of their trading power. The gold was mined in other places and therefore the economy went elsewhere. Nearby civilizations began to attack the failing empire, starting with the Sosso people. In 1235, the Mali empire officially took over. The country of Ghana reached the peak of its greatness during the reign of Tenkamenin. Though his carefull management of the gold trade across the Sahara into West Africa , Tenkamenin’s empire flourished But his greatest strengh wasn’t in economics, but in governance. Each day Tenkamenin would last out on horseback and hear the issues and concerns of his people, he insisted that nobody be denied an audience which they be allowed to stay in his presence untill satisfied that justice had been done. His principle of democratic Monarchy and non secular tolerance made Tenkamenin reign one among the good models of African rule. Source: HBCU Connect	685	ENGLISH	1
The economy is the complete picture of how money is moving around in the UK. This infographic uses arrows to show the movement of money. Click on the pictures and arrows to explore how the economy works. TIP: When you see a magnifying glass, click on it to zoom in for a more A business is any organisation created to make money by selling products or services. All businesses employ people and pay them wages – they can have anywhere between one and several thousand workers. Businesses must be registered with the government, and pay taxes. Governments collect taxes, and spend them on wages, benefits, goods and services (although not everyone agrees on the best way to spend the money!). The government also makes rules that govern other parts of the economy, such as the minimum hourly wage, or what banks are allowed to do. Most people aged 16-64 earn money through working, and spend it on things they need and want. People can spend their money however they like (as long as it's legal). They must pay a certain amount of tax, and in return they receive government services such as benefits. This type of business makes products. Some, such as farms, mines or oil rigs, gather raw materials. Others are factories that process materials into usable items, such as food, cars or computers. Producers typically sell their products to other businesses rather than to the public. These are businesses that do something for you, rather than provide a product you can touch. Examples include cleaners and plumbers, personal care such as hairdressing, entertainment (for example museums, cinemas or football clubs), transportation, utilities such as electricity or internet access, and money-related services like accounting. Shops, also called retailers, are businesses that buy up products from producers, and sell them on to people. Examples include supermarkets, car showrooms, and online bookshops. Some small businesses, such as bakeries, may make the things they sell, but they rely on producers for their materials. Banks and similar businesses like building societies and credit card companies are a special type of business that lend money to people, businesses and government, and receive payment in the form of interest (as well as getting the loaned amount back). Banks also take deposits, and pay interest to savers. Her Majesty's Revenue & Customs is the department in charge of collecting tax from people and businesses, making sure everyone pays the right amount, and investigating people trying to avoid paying tax. It passes the money it collects on to the Treasury to share out. The Treasury is the government department in charge of deciding how the money is spent, and dividing it up between the other departments. The head of the Treasury is the Chancellor of the Exchequer. Every year, in March, he or she announces the spending plans for the year ahead. The Department for Work and Pensions is the government department in charge of paying benefits. It has the biggest budget of any government department, because paying benefits is such an important part of the government's work. It also sets the rules about who should get benefits. All government departments receive a chunk of money from the Treasury to pay their staff, and spend on products and services. Of the other government departments, the ones that spent the most last year were Health (£117 billion), Education (£67 billion) and Defence (£37 billion). The average cost of owning a cat is more than £1,000 per year! However, cats themselves do not take part in the economy. (As far as we know!) People under the age of 16 spend money in shops, so they pay VAT (Value Added Tax, which is included in the price of purchases). Children don't pay any other taxes or receive benefits, and they’re not allowed full-time jobs. You must be 18 to borrow money from a bank. Private sector workers are people who work for a business that isn't owned or operated by the government. Businesses set their own pay. The top-paid people in business earn much more than they could in the public sector, but there are millions of low-paid jobs in shops and restaurants too. People who work for themselves, rather than for a business or the government, are called self-employed. They get money as payments from other people. Taxi drivers, writers and tradespeople are often self-employed. They can choose the hours they work, and often set their own pay. Adults who don't work include retired people, those who can't find jobs, and people who don't work because they're too sick or because they look after someone full-time. They can claim benefits, but may find it hard to get bank loans if they have no other source of income. Public sector workers are people who work for the government, such as nurses or police officers. Every public sector job comes with a set salary. Public sector workers are paid out of tax money, so anybody can look up how much they earn. Please rotate your device to landscape to play this game.	<urn:uuid:38c120d2-c422-4ddc-bcd1-f483ef9f640e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://rbs.mymoneysense.com/games/How-the-economy-works/index.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00075.warc.gz	en	0.981993	1,032	3.3125	3	[ 0.04905873164534569, -0.1593937873840332, 0.13506823778152466, -0.06552933156490326, 0.47924232482910156, 0.022031115368008614, 0.35921430587768555, -0.17368732392787933, -0.2099531590938568, 0.20226818323135376, 0.11221887171268463, 0.057375021278858185, -0.16566342115402222, -0.137892097...	2	The economy is the complete picture of how money is moving around in the UK. This infographic uses arrows to show the movement of money. Click on the pictures and arrows to explore how the economy works. TIP: When you see a magnifying glass, click on it to zoom in for a more A business is any organisation created to make money by selling products or services. All businesses employ people and pay them wages – they can have anywhere between one and several thousand workers. Businesses must be registered with the government, and pay taxes. Governments collect taxes, and spend them on wages, benefits, goods and services (although not everyone agrees on the best way to spend the money!). The government also makes rules that govern other parts of the economy, such as the minimum hourly wage, or what banks are allowed to do. Most people aged 16-64 earn money through working, and spend it on things they need and want. People can spend their money however they like (as long as it's legal). They must pay a certain amount of tax, and in return they receive government services such as benefits. This type of business makes products. Some, such as farms, mines or oil rigs, gather raw materials. Others are factories that process materials into usable items, such as food, cars or computers. Producers typically sell their products to other businesses rather than to the public. These are businesses that do something for you, rather than provide a product you can touch. Examples include cleaners and plumbers, personal care such as hairdressing, entertainment (for example museums, cinemas or football clubs), transportation, utilities such as electricity or internet access, and money-related services like accounting. Shops, also called retailers, are businesses that buy up products from producers, and sell them on to people. Examples include supermarkets, car showrooms, and online bookshops. Some small businesses, such as bakeries, may make the things they sell, but they rely on producers for their materials. Banks and similar businesses like building societies and credit card companies are a special type of business that lend money to people, businesses and government, and receive payment in the form of interest (as well as getting the loaned amount back). Banks also take deposits, and pay interest to savers. Her Majesty's Revenue & Customs is the department in charge of collecting tax from people and businesses, making sure everyone pays the right amount, and investigating people trying to avoid paying tax. It passes the money it collects on to the Treasury to share out. The Treasury is the government department in charge of deciding how the money is spent, and dividing it up between the other departments. The head of the Treasury is the Chancellor of the Exchequer. Every year, in March, he or she announces the spending plans for the year ahead. The Department for Work and Pensions is the government department in charge of paying benefits. It has the biggest budget of any government department, because paying benefits is such an important part of the government's work. It also sets the rules about who should get benefits. All government departments receive a chunk of money from the Treasury to pay their staff, and spend on products and services. Of the other government departments, the ones that spent the most last year were Health (£117 billion), Education (£67 billion) and Defence (£37 billion). The average cost of owning a cat is more than £1,000 per year! However, cats themselves do not take part in the economy. (As far as we know!) People under the age of 16 spend money in shops, so they pay VAT (Value Added Tax, which is included in the price of purchases). Children don't pay any other taxes or receive benefits, and they’re not allowed full-time jobs. You must be 18 to borrow money from a bank. Private sector workers are people who work for a business that isn't owned or operated by the government. Businesses set their own pay. The top-paid people in business earn much more than they could in the public sector, but there are millions of low-paid jobs in shops and restaurants too. People who work for themselves, rather than for a business or the government, are called self-employed. They get money as payments from other people. Taxi drivers, writers and tradespeople are often self-employed. They can choose the hours they work, and often set their own pay. Adults who don't work include retired people, those who can't find jobs, and people who don't work because they're too sick or because they look after someone full-time. They can claim benefits, but may find it hard to get bank loans if they have no other source of income. Public sector workers are people who work for the government, such as nurses or police officers. Every public sector job comes with a set salary. Public sector workers are paid out of tax money, so anybody can look up how much they earn. Please rotate your device to landscape to play this game.	1,013	ENGLISH	1
Live YouTube Video Feed From Portland Headlight History of the Portland Head Light: The city of Portland took its name from the headland where the lighthouse now stands, but Portland Head is now actually within the present boundaries of the town of Cape Elizabeth. Portland, which was known as Falmouth until 1786, was America’s sixth busiest port by the 1790s. There were no lighthouses on the coast of Maine when 74 merchants petitioned the Massachusetts government (Maine was part of Massachusetts at the time) in 1784 for a light at Portland Head, on the northeast coast of Cape Elizabeth, to mark the entrance to Portland Harbor. The deaths of two people in a 1787 shipwreck at Bangs (now Cushing) Island, near Portland Head, led to the appropriation of $750 for a lighthouse, and construction began. The project was delayed by insufficient funds, and construction didn’t progress until 1790 when Congress appropriated an additional $1,500, after the nation’s lighthouses had been ceded to the federal government. The stone lighthouse was built by local masons Jonathan Bryant and John Nichols. The original plan was for a 58-foot tower, but when it was realized that the light would be blocked from the south it was decided to make the tower 72 feet in height instead. Bryant resigned over the change, and Nichols finished the lighthouse in January 1791. President George Washington approved the appointment of Capt. Joseph Greenleaf, a veteran of the American Revolution, as first keeper. The light went into service on January 10, 1791, with whale oil lamps showing a fixed white light. At first, Greenleaf received no salary as keeper; his payment was the right to fish and farm and to live in the keeper’s house. As early as November 1791, Greenleaf wrote that he couldn’t afford to remain keeper without financial compensation. In a June 1792 letter, he complained of many hardships. During the previous winter, he wrote, the ice on the lantern glass was often so thick that he had to melt it off. In 1793, Greenleaf was granted an annual salary of $160. Greenleaf died of an apparent stroke while in his boat on the Fore River in October 1795. According to the Eastern Argus, he had “faithfully discharged his duty to the satisfaction of those who occupy their business on great waters.” After a short stay by David Duncan, Barzillai Delano, a blacksmith who had lobbied for the appointment when the lighthouse was first built, became keeper in 1796. Delano’s salary of $225 yearly was raised to $300 in 1812, after a petition with 22 signatures was submitted on his behalf. By 1810, the woodwork in the lighthouse and keeper’s house were in poor condition; the woodwork was damp and rotting. Part of the problem was that the keeper was storing a year’s supply of oil in one room, which putting great stress on the floor. Repairs were made, and an oil shed was added. The tower continued to have problems with leaks. In November 1812, the contractor Winslow Lewis offered the opinion that the upper 20 feet of the tower was very poorly built. The lantern, which was only 5 feet in diameter, was also badly constructed. Lewis recommended reducing the tower’s height by 20 feet in height, along with the addition of a new lantern. Lewis carried out these changes in 1813, along with the installation of a system of lamps and reflectors designed by Lewis himself, at a cost of $2,100. About 25 feet of stonework at the top of the tower was removed. The contractor Henry Dyer of Cape Elizabeth built a new keeper’s house in 1816 for $1,175. The one-story stone cottage was 20 by 34 feet, with and comprised two rooms, an attached kitchen, and an attic. The kitchen ell was attached to outbuildings, which, in turn, were joined to the tower. The joining of the house to the tower had been requested in 1809 by Delano, the keeper, who complained that the space between the buildings was often frozen over in winter and that the sea sometimes washed over the area. Barzillai Delano died in 1820; his son, James Delano, later served as keeper from 1854 to 1861. Joshua Freeman, who would become known for his jovial hospitality, became keeper in 1820. Freeman kept a supply of rum and other spirits in a cupboard, and he’d sell it drinks for three cents a glass to visitors who came to fish. The top- shelf liquor was reserved for the local minister.	<urn:uuid:a88e4ebe-5dd1-4094-89a7-77d510e3b9a4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://maine-webcams.com/portland-headlight-webcam/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00257.warc.gz	en	0.989509	979	3.296875	3	[ 0.17055904865264893, -0.012980996631085873, 0.15939748287200928, -0.2737651467323303, -0.05090174451470375, 0.07676705718040466, 0.14251281321048737, -0.019442014396190643, -0.348614364862442, 0.7102603912353516, 0.1655813455581665, -0.15613573789596558, -0.2721468508243561, 0.163300320506...	5	Live YouTube Video Feed From Portland Headlight History of the Portland Head Light: The city of Portland took its name from the headland where the lighthouse now stands, but Portland Head is now actually within the present boundaries of the town of Cape Elizabeth. Portland, which was known as Falmouth until 1786, was America’s sixth busiest port by the 1790s. There were no lighthouses on the coast of Maine when 74 merchants petitioned the Massachusetts government (Maine was part of Massachusetts at the time) in 1784 for a light at Portland Head, on the northeast coast of Cape Elizabeth, to mark the entrance to Portland Harbor. The deaths of two people in a 1787 shipwreck at Bangs (now Cushing) Island, near Portland Head, led to the appropriation of $750 for a lighthouse, and construction began. The project was delayed by insufficient funds, and construction didn’t progress until 1790 when Congress appropriated an additional $1,500, after the nation’s lighthouses had been ceded to the federal government. The stone lighthouse was built by local masons Jonathan Bryant and John Nichols. The original plan was for a 58-foot tower, but when it was realized that the light would be blocked from the south it was decided to make the tower 72 feet in height instead. Bryant resigned over the change, and Nichols finished the lighthouse in January 1791. President George Washington approved the appointment of Capt. Joseph Greenleaf, a veteran of the American Revolution, as first keeper. The light went into service on January 10, 1791, with whale oil lamps showing a fixed white light. At first, Greenleaf received no salary as keeper; his payment was the right to fish and farm and to live in the keeper’s house. As early as November 1791, Greenleaf wrote that he couldn’t afford to remain keeper without financial compensation. In a June 1792 letter, he complained of many hardships. During the previous winter, he wrote, the ice on the lantern glass was often so thick that he had to melt it off. In 1793, Greenleaf was granted an annual salary of $160. Greenleaf died of an apparent stroke while in his boat on the Fore River in October 1795. According to the Eastern Argus, he had “faithfully discharged his duty to the satisfaction of those who occupy their business on great waters.” After a short stay by David Duncan, Barzillai Delano, a blacksmith who had lobbied for the appointment when the lighthouse was first built, became keeper in 1796. Delano’s salary of $225 yearly was raised to $300 in 1812, after a petition with 22 signatures was submitted on his behalf. By 1810, the woodwork in the lighthouse and keeper’s house were in poor condition; the woodwork was damp and rotting. Part of the problem was that the keeper was storing a year’s supply of oil in one room, which putting great stress on the floor. Repairs were made, and an oil shed was added. The tower continued to have problems with leaks. In November 1812, the contractor Winslow Lewis offered the opinion that the upper 20 feet of the tower was very poorly built. The lantern, which was only 5 feet in diameter, was also badly constructed. Lewis recommended reducing the tower’s height by 20 feet in height, along with the addition of a new lantern. Lewis carried out these changes in 1813, along with the installation of a system of lamps and reflectors designed by Lewis himself, at a cost of $2,100. About 25 feet of stonework at the top of the tower was removed. The contractor Henry Dyer of Cape Elizabeth built a new keeper’s house in 1816 for $1,175. The one-story stone cottage was 20 by 34 feet, with and comprised two rooms, an attached kitchen, and an attic. The kitchen ell was attached to outbuildings, which, in turn, were joined to the tower. The joining of the house to the tower had been requested in 1809 by Delano, the keeper, who complained that the space between the buildings was often frozen over in winter and that the sea sometimes washed over the area. Barzillai Delano died in 1820; his son, James Delano, later served as keeper from 1854 to 1861. Joshua Freeman, who would become known for his jovial hospitality, became keeper in 1820. Freeman kept a supply of rum and other spirits in a cupboard, and he’d sell it drinks for three cents a glass to visitors who came to fish. The top- shelf liquor was reserved for the local minister.	1,053	ENGLISH	1
Between April and December 1862, a Confederate prison holding 700 prisoners—most of whom were captured at the Battle of Shiloh—was located near this historical marker, in between the Alabama River and Tallapoosa Street. The building was a cotton depot and only 40 feet wide and 200 feet long. Living conditions were very poor; the men did not have blankets and only the ground or wooden planks to sleep on. Rodents and disease compounded these problems. As a result, almost 200 men died before the prisoners were moved to Tuscaloosa. Prisons during the Civil War were terrible on both sides. There were roughly 674,000 prisoners during the war; 56,000 of them would die of disease, lack of food, and poor living conditions.	<urn:uuid:e36613da-4529-4fc8-b28b-663b32abc5f5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/46613	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00182.warc.gz	en	0.993264	156	3.703125	4	[ -0.47101205587387085, 0.3911004662513733, 0.2289058119058609, 0.21539092063903809, -0.11994948983192444, -0.10051983594894409, 0.06630674004554749, -0.03461106866598129, -0.3887542188167572, -0.15176357328891754, 0.45400089025497437, -0.3691737949848175, 0.12354229390621185, 0.263480007648...	1	Between April and December 1862, a Confederate prison holding 700 prisoners—most of whom were captured at the Battle of Shiloh—was located near this historical marker, in between the Alabama River and Tallapoosa Street. The building was a cotton depot and only 40 feet wide and 200 feet long. Living conditions were very poor; the men did not have blankets and only the ground or wooden planks to sleep on. Rodents and disease compounded these problems. As a result, almost 200 men died before the prisoners were moved to Tuscaloosa. Prisons during the Civil War were terrible on both sides. There were roughly 674,000 prisoners during the war; 56,000 of them would die of disease, lack of food, and poor living conditions.	177	ENGLISH	1
Visit Website Late that night, two trains departed Richmond heading south. The presentation of the Declaration of Independence. After the French and Indian War, the colonists began to think that they were not getting their "rights as freeborn Englishman". This was mainly caused by new taxes the British made the colonies pay to pay for the war. Incolonists in Boston known as the Sons of Liberty got in a fight with British soldiers. This became known as the Boston Massacre. This was known as the Boston Tea Party It argued that the colonies should be free of English rule. This said that they were free and independent statesand were not part of England any more. The Revolutionary War started in at Lexington and Concord. Inan American victory at Yorktown helped by the French led Britain to decide to stop fighting and give up the colonies. It gave almost all the power to the states and very little to the central government. It could not remove Native Americans or the British from the frontiernor could it stop mob uprisings such as Shays' Rebellion. Many of the people who helped write the Constitution, such as Washington, James MadisonAlexander Hamilton and Gouverneur Morriswere among the major thinkers in America at the time. The constitution created a stronger national government that had three branches: In other states, many people did not like the Constitution because it gave more power to the central government and had no bill of rights. This was a set of 10 amendments changesthat limited the government's power and guaranteed rights to the citizens. However, this was not true at first, when only white males who owned property could vote. He defined how a person should act as President and retired after two terms. This was the first American election that was between two political parties. One of the most important things he did as President was to make the Louisiana Purchase from Francewhich made the United States twice as big. This was called the War of Byover three million African-Americans were slaves in the South. Most worked picking cotton on large plantations. Most white people in the South owned no slaves at all. All of these rebellions failed. The South wanted stronger state governments, but the North wanted a stronger central government. Due to the American System, bigger cities and more factories were built. Bythousands of miles of railroads and telegraph lines had been built in the United States, mostly in the Northeast and Midwest. Many factories were built in Northern cities such as Lowell, Massachusetts. Many factory workers were women, and some were children or people from Ireland or Germany. Thousands of people gathered at large religious meetings called revivals. The other was abolitionismwhich tried to end slavery. People such as Harriet Beecher Stowe and William Lloyd Garrison wrote books and newspapers saying that slavery should stop. Byslavery was very rare in the North, but continued in the South. This meant that most married women were expected to stay in the home and raise children. Women who were not married had only a few jobs open to them, such as working in clothing factories and serving as maids. Inmany of these women met and agreed to fight for more rights for women, including voting. He was the first president elected from the Democratic Party. He changed the government in many ways. Since many of his supporters were poor people who had not voted before, he rewarded them with government jobs, which is called "spoils" or "patronage". He saw it as a symbol of Whigs and of powerful American businessmen. They called it the "Tariff of Abominations".The history of the United States is what happened in the past in the United States, By the s, many people were moving to Oregon by wagon, and even more people went west after the California Gold Rush of Many new states were added to the first thirteen, mostly in the Midwest and South before the Civil War and in the West after the. About The California Gold Rush and the Coming of the Civil War. Award-winning historian Leonard L. Richards gives us an authoritative and revealing portrait of an overlooked harbinger of the terrible battle that was to come. When gold was discovered at Sutter’s Mill in , Americans of all stripes saw the potential for both wealth and power. California Gold Rush summary: The California Gold Rush was the largest mass migration in American history since it brought about , people to California. It all started on January 24, , when James W. Marshall found gold . California Gold Rush The election of America Aflame: How the Civil War Created a Nation () excerpt and text search; Guelzo, Allen C. Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War and Reconstruction () pp; cover excerpt and text search; Licht, Walter. Westward Expansion was the 19th-century movement of settlers, agriculture and industry into the American West. Learn about the Louisiana Purchase, manifest destiny, the Gold Rush and more. The Mexican–American War ended on February 3, , although California was a de facto American possession before that. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided for, among other things, the formal transfer of Upper California to the United States. The California Gold Rush began at Sutter's Mill, near Coloma. On January 24, , James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer.	<urn:uuid:8c6c1352-5884-4d54-b06d-b42f40e520d0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wimekimemasu.feelthefish.com/a-history-of-gold-rush-and-civil-war-in-america-1778kp.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00547.warc.gz	en	0.986575	1,094	4	4	[ 0.12208683788776398, -0.10024972259998322, 0.39708006381988525, -0.28938350081443787, -0.20118658244609833, 0.13963159918785095, 0.08864597976207733, -0.07936509698629379, -0.07662410289049149, 0.2829163670539856, 0.10825037956237793, 0.2038121521472931, -0.2231651246547699, 0.138063922524...	1	Visit Website Late that night, two trains departed Richmond heading south. The presentation of the Declaration of Independence. After the French and Indian War, the colonists began to think that they were not getting their "rights as freeborn Englishman". This was mainly caused by new taxes the British made the colonies pay to pay for the war. Incolonists in Boston known as the Sons of Liberty got in a fight with British soldiers. This became known as the Boston Massacre. This was known as the Boston Tea Party It argued that the colonies should be free of English rule. This said that they were free and independent statesand were not part of England any more. The Revolutionary War started in at Lexington and Concord. Inan American victory at Yorktown helped by the French led Britain to decide to stop fighting and give up the colonies. It gave almost all the power to the states and very little to the central government. It could not remove Native Americans or the British from the frontiernor could it stop mob uprisings such as Shays' Rebellion. Many of the people who helped write the Constitution, such as Washington, James MadisonAlexander Hamilton and Gouverneur Morriswere among the major thinkers in America at the time. The constitution created a stronger national government that had three branches: In other states, many people did not like the Constitution because it gave more power to the central government and had no bill of rights. This was a set of 10 amendments changesthat limited the government's power and guaranteed rights to the citizens. However, this was not true at first, when only white males who owned property could vote. He defined how a person should act as President and retired after two terms. This was the first American election that was between two political parties. One of the most important things he did as President was to make the Louisiana Purchase from Francewhich made the United States twice as big. This was called the War of Byover three million African-Americans were slaves in the South. Most worked picking cotton on large plantations. Most white people in the South owned no slaves at all. All of these rebellions failed. The South wanted stronger state governments, but the North wanted a stronger central government. Due to the American System, bigger cities and more factories were built. Bythousands of miles of railroads and telegraph lines had been built in the United States, mostly in the Northeast and Midwest. Many factories were built in Northern cities such as Lowell, Massachusetts. Many factory workers were women, and some were children or people from Ireland or Germany. Thousands of people gathered at large religious meetings called revivals. The other was abolitionismwhich tried to end slavery. People such as Harriet Beecher Stowe and William Lloyd Garrison wrote books and newspapers saying that slavery should stop. Byslavery was very rare in the North, but continued in the South. This meant that most married women were expected to stay in the home and raise children. Women who were not married had only a few jobs open to them, such as working in clothing factories and serving as maids. Inmany of these women met and agreed to fight for more rights for women, including voting. He was the first president elected from the Democratic Party. He changed the government in many ways. Since many of his supporters were poor people who had not voted before, he rewarded them with government jobs, which is called "spoils" or "patronage". He saw it as a symbol of Whigs and of powerful American businessmen. They called it the "Tariff of Abominations".The history of the United States is what happened in the past in the United States, By the s, many people were moving to Oregon by wagon, and even more people went west after the California Gold Rush of Many new states were added to the first thirteen, mostly in the Midwest and South before the Civil War and in the West after the. About The California Gold Rush and the Coming of the Civil War. Award-winning historian Leonard L. Richards gives us an authoritative and revealing portrait of an overlooked harbinger of the terrible battle that was to come. When gold was discovered at Sutter’s Mill in , Americans of all stripes saw the potential for both wealth and power. California Gold Rush summary: The California Gold Rush was the largest mass migration in American history since it brought about , people to California. It all started on January 24, , when James W. Marshall found gold . California Gold Rush The election of America Aflame: How the Civil War Created a Nation () excerpt and text search; Guelzo, Allen C. Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War and Reconstruction () pp; cover excerpt and text search; Licht, Walter. Westward Expansion was the 19th-century movement of settlers, agriculture and industry into the American West. Learn about the Louisiana Purchase, manifest destiny, the Gold Rush and more. The Mexican–American War ended on February 3, , although California was a de facto American possession before that. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided for, among other things, the formal transfer of Upper California to the United States. The California Gold Rush began at Sutter's Mill, near Coloma. On January 24, , James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer.	1,081	ENGLISH	1
Alice Mulenga Lubusha Prophetess Alice Lenshina Mulenga Mubisha was the founder of a powerful African independent church movement at the time of Zambian independence. Beginning as an anti-witchcraft movement, it clashed with the new government when it rejected secular authority. She was born Alice Mulenga Lubusha in 1920 in the Chinsali district of the northern province of Northern Rhodesia. Alice was her baptismal name, while Mulenga was her traditional African name. The name "Lenshina" was a Bemba form of the Latin word "Regina" ("queen"). Lenshina was a baptismal candidate with a Presbyterian mission when she received a series of visions in which she believed that she was taken to heaven and given divine messages instructing her to destroy witchcraft and sorcery. She claimed to have died and been resurrected four times. In 1953 she began a movement called Lumpa (meaning "better than all others" in Bemba) in a town that she renamed Zion. She took the name Lenshina, meaning queen. Despite her claims, a Presbyterian pastor baptized her, an event that seems to have had a profound impact on her intensifying her visions. She and her husband were expelled in 1955, however, and began their preaching mission. Crowds of adherents soon joined them, and by 1959 there was an organized church with ministers and between 50,000 and 100,000 members, most of whom had left either Presbyterian or Catholic missions. Lenshina preached a basically Christian doctrine but with baptism as the only observance. Baptism was a special ceremony administered by Lenshina herself. She attacked witchcraft and sorcery, which placed her in the long tradition of witch eradication movements in Central Africa, but to these she added the condemnation of alcohol and polygamy. The Lumpa composed spirited Bemba hymns, far superior to the wooden translations in use among Protestants and Catholics. The religion gathered its members into villages where the hymns and rejection of traditional religious practices created what she promoted as a new, cleansed society worthy to receive the Savior when He came again. The grand cathedral built at Zion in 1958 has a pillar upon which Jesus Christ was to descend for His second coming.	<urn:uuid:f5eefb38-a5d4-446d-9f16-08eeae80bd37>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://africanhiddenvoices.co.za/ALICE.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00511.warc.gz	en	0.982523	458	3.4375	3	[ -0.41429266333580017, 0.34455323219299316, 0.13939335942268372, 0.519448459148407, -0.42371562123298645, 0.2580665349960327, -0.02294297330081463, -0.09372620284557343, 0.03870260342955589, 0.6196057200431824, 0.2830427885055542, -0.2836272716522217, -0.16258154809474945, 0.016800867393612...	1	Alice Mulenga Lubusha Prophetess Alice Lenshina Mulenga Mubisha was the founder of a powerful African independent church movement at the time of Zambian independence. Beginning as an anti-witchcraft movement, it clashed with the new government when it rejected secular authority. She was born Alice Mulenga Lubusha in 1920 in the Chinsali district of the northern province of Northern Rhodesia. Alice was her baptismal name, while Mulenga was her traditional African name. The name "Lenshina" was a Bemba form of the Latin word "Regina" ("queen"). Lenshina was a baptismal candidate with a Presbyterian mission when she received a series of visions in which she believed that she was taken to heaven and given divine messages instructing her to destroy witchcraft and sorcery. She claimed to have died and been resurrected four times. In 1953 she began a movement called Lumpa (meaning "better than all others" in Bemba) in a town that she renamed Zion. She took the name Lenshina, meaning queen. Despite her claims, a Presbyterian pastor baptized her, an event that seems to have had a profound impact on her intensifying her visions. She and her husband were expelled in 1955, however, and began their preaching mission. Crowds of adherents soon joined them, and by 1959 there was an organized church with ministers and between 50,000 and 100,000 members, most of whom had left either Presbyterian or Catholic missions. Lenshina preached a basically Christian doctrine but with baptism as the only observance. Baptism was a special ceremony administered by Lenshina herself. She attacked witchcraft and sorcery, which placed her in the long tradition of witch eradication movements in Central Africa, but to these she added the condemnation of alcohol and polygamy. The Lumpa composed spirited Bemba hymns, far superior to the wooden translations in use among Protestants and Catholics. The religion gathered its members into villages where the hymns and rejection of traditional religious practices created what she promoted as a new, cleansed society worthy to receive the Savior when He came again. The grand cathedral built at Zion in 1958 has a pillar upon which Jesus Christ was to descend for His second coming.	490	ENGLISH	1
Students with Disabilities Must be Included in Public Schools Billy is physically handicapped and goes to school on a bus that has to pick him up quite early, for he has to go to school an hour away from his home. When Billy is at school, he gets to be in classes with all sorts of children; some are in wheelchairs, like he is, but they are unable to move by themselves, and some can walk, but Billy has a hard time talking to some of those children because they are developmentally younger than he is. All his classmates are his friends, but they never come over to play after school because he lives so far away, and Billy does not have a lot in common with them. Billy likes to play basketball in his driveway and he loves to talk about the latest pop music. There is a school about four blocks away from his house, but professionals in the school system have recommended that Billy not be included in regular classrooms. People who know Billy well would describe him as funny, friendly, smart, and athletic. People who are in charge of making sure Billy has the kind of education he deserves would describe him as having cerebral palsy, conductive hearing loss, and mild dyslexia. Were Billy included in the regular classroom at the school four blocks away, he would be known for who he is and not what he has; I believe the quality of his life would come rightfully before the quantity of adaptations he requires. Inclusion is realistic and necessary, and public schools should implement it as the next logical step in the process of helping students with disabilities. The basic building blocks for inclusion are bringing necessary support services to the student, being in the regular classroom, and being at a nearby school. These things are not rare, and the children who are not in need of special education expect them to be in place. The common argument against inclusion comes from the regular classroom teacher because he or she usually feels that it takes extra time and energy to teach handicapped children alongside typical children. These teachers often lack confidence in their qualifications; therefore, they feel as though they would not be able to teach handicapped children without special training. The purpose behind inclusion is to keep the regular classroom, regular. This means that teachers would have no extra work. Any needed support services are brought to the special needs learner (often in the form of a resource teacher), so class can go as usual, and students like Billy will get extra help from a professional as needed. In the past, segregation was the new and controversial topic in special education. This was the change from institutionalization to public school attendance. Unfortunately, the children still ended up in self-contained classrooms. Norm Kunc, an advocate and researcher of inclusion, humorously terms this type of learning atmosphere "Retarded Immersion," where students are not motivated because they do not have the opportunity...	<urn:uuid:5a013a3f-8b3d-448b-b5e1-f9ccdec90dad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/students-with-disabilities-must-be-included-in-public-schools	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00188.warc.gz	en	0.989119	580	3.453125	3	[ -0.3027482032775879, -0.3940136432647705, 0.7544447183609009, -0.4265686273574829, -0.45900824666023254, 0.26645156741142273, 0.24391941726207733, 0.11398260295391083, 0.14004436135292053, -0.1527799665927887, 0.1318431943655014, 0.18516749143600464, -0.03968486189842224, 0.216074019670486...	1	Students with Disabilities Must be Included in Public Schools Billy is physically handicapped and goes to school on a bus that has to pick him up quite early, for he has to go to school an hour away from his home. When Billy is at school, he gets to be in classes with all sorts of children; some are in wheelchairs, like he is, but they are unable to move by themselves, and some can walk, but Billy has a hard time talking to some of those children because they are developmentally younger than he is. All his classmates are his friends, but they never come over to play after school because he lives so far away, and Billy does not have a lot in common with them. Billy likes to play basketball in his driveway and he loves to talk about the latest pop music. There is a school about four blocks away from his house, but professionals in the school system have recommended that Billy not be included in regular classrooms. People who know Billy well would describe him as funny, friendly, smart, and athletic. People who are in charge of making sure Billy has the kind of education he deserves would describe him as having cerebral palsy, conductive hearing loss, and mild dyslexia. Were Billy included in the regular classroom at the school four blocks away, he would be known for who he is and not what he has; I believe the quality of his life would come rightfully before the quantity of adaptations he requires. Inclusion is realistic and necessary, and public schools should implement it as the next logical step in the process of helping students with disabilities. The basic building blocks for inclusion are bringing necessary support services to the student, being in the regular classroom, and being at a nearby school. These things are not rare, and the children who are not in need of special education expect them to be in place. The common argument against inclusion comes from the regular classroom teacher because he or she usually feels that it takes extra time and energy to teach handicapped children alongside typical children. These teachers often lack confidence in their qualifications; therefore, they feel as though they would not be able to teach handicapped children without special training. The purpose behind inclusion is to keep the regular classroom, regular. This means that teachers would have no extra work. Any needed support services are brought to the special needs learner (often in the form of a resource teacher), so class can go as usual, and students like Billy will get extra help from a professional as needed. In the past, segregation was the new and controversial topic in special education. This was the change from institutionalization to public school attendance. Unfortunately, the children still ended up in self-contained classrooms. Norm Kunc, an advocate and researcher of inclusion, humorously terms this type of learning atmosphere "Retarded Immersion," where students are not motivated because they do not have the opportunity...	576	ENGLISH	1
Between the birth of the new Republic and the advent of the Civil War, a great transformation occurred in domestic labor. This transformation was not a result of inventions that made housework easier but rather of market penetration and the reallocation of tasks within the household. The American colonial farmstead, although never self-sufficient, had been the site of much household production. However, by the 1840s and 1850s the market revolution had taught women that it was to their advantage to buy many mass-produced items (including candles, soap, and cloth) rather than making them at home. Domestic labor was transformed from an integral part of the family economy, producing goods that could be obtained nowhere else, to a vaguely discredited activity that paid no wages. In North and South alike, most middle- and upper-class families, and many farm families, had always had servants, but the nature of servitude was changing as the definition of domestic labor changed. domestic labor in the north In the North the allocation of tasks within the household depended on location and social status. Frontier women, assisted by children, had the most onerous domestic burden, as is evident in documents like the diary of Martha Ballard, a Maine midwife. Their labor was unrelenting and thought to be detrimental to health, with tasks like washing, brewing, or baking consuming entire days' work. Daily cooking required the kindling and tending of fires and the provision of vast amounts of wood—theoretically a man's job that devolved onto women when men were absent. Cooking, laundry, and personal hygiene also required large amounts of water, often carried in from wells some distance from the farmhouse. In addition to these daily tasks, women were responsible for child care, sewing for clothing production and maintenance, animal husbandry, gardening, and seasonal or occasional work, such as candle making, soap making, and butter and cheese making. Although some tasks, like warping looms in preparation for weaving, were farmed out to specialists, frontier households also engaged in spinning and weaving their own cloth, especially if there were teenage daughters at home needing to outfit their own future households. In contrast with toiling farm women, urban middle-class women hired household "helps" to do heavier tasks while they supervised. In the first decades of the Republic, as in the colonial period, many native-born teenagers were sent out to service other households, either as a form of domestic apprenticeship or out of economic need. These young women, who formed emotional bonds with the families they served, coexisted alongside wives of "cottagers" who got paid to help with household work. By the 1820s and 1830s, the stigma of heavy and dirty domestic work, and the appearance of opportunities for factory work and work outside the home, or outwork, led native-born white women to desert domestic jobs. They were replaced by Irish immigrants. Although their work schedules kept them moving from dawn until late in the evening, Irish women were said to prefer domestic work, which enabled them to earn money to pay for the migration of family members, to save money for their old age, and to donate to causes they found worthy. The expectation that a live-in domestic worker would be a member of the household (although not an equal member) did not disappear, despite yawning cultural differences between mistress and maid. Households that were unable to find and keep live-in domestic servants relied on a piecework system, in which women living within their own homes did extra washing, sewing, and other such chores for families in the community. This arrangement allowed women to participate in the cash economy while still retaining autonomy over the way in which these chores were completed. domestic labor in the south Southern domestic labor was organized on a two-track system. Yeoman households without slaves resembled farm households throughout the North, with women still accomplishing much of the household production and heavily weighed down by their tasks. In contrast, in Southern planter households domestic labor was largely carried out by slaves. House servants included not only women but also children who were too young to work as field hands. Slaves worked in Southern households as cooks, provided child care, and even served as wet nurses. Many of these slaves had a double burden, as they were responsible for cooking, sewing, and cleaning within their own households in the slave quarter as well as for the maintenance of the Big House. Plantation mistresses taught the slaves their tasks, superintended their work, and planned household consumption, including the feeding and clothing of the workforce. Like their Northern counterparts, many antebellum Southerners felt that it was more ladylike for women to devolve the heavier tasks of household upkeep onto servants if they could afford to do so. As a result, even yeoman households rented single slave women or children to work at domestic tasks. Hirers had to pay these slaves' owners an annual hiring fee and also provide the slaves with food, shelter, and clothing. Hiring slaves to perform domestic tasks did not necessarily help yeoman families climb the economic ladder by acquiring more land and slaves, but it did help them to feel as though they were higher up in the hierarchical social order of the South. Jeanne Boydston, one of the most prominent historians of domestic labor, has pointed out that as the division between the public world of commerce and the private world of the house became more distinct, women took less pride in, and received less credit for, their unpaid work around the home. At the same time, however, housework done well contributed to the family economy, as when working class women took in boarders and their children scavenged fuel from local docks. Furthermore, for many rural and urban women alike, "domestic labor" meant labor performed for the market within the home, as well as unpaid labor to keep the family economy running. Whether they were shoemakers' wives stitching shoes or rural women plaiting straw hats and straw brooms, women and girls prefigured much of the tenement-based outwork that would characterize the second half of the nineteenth century. Barton, Keith C. "'Good Cooks and Washers': Slave Hiring, Domestic Labor, and the Market in Bourbon County, Kentucky." Journal of American History 84, no. 2 (1997): 436–460. Diner, Hasia R. Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. Izard, Holly V. "The Ward Family and Their 'Helps': Domestic Work, Workers, and Relationships on a New England Farm, 1787–1866." Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 103, no. 1 (1993): 61–91. Stansell, Christine. City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789–1860. New York: Knopf, 1986. Jamie L. Bronstein	<urn:uuid:a0c4a2a2-4efe-480f-873c-56ad95e1a9fc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/domestic-labor	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00466.warc.gz	en	0.980292	1,416	4.09375	4	[ 0.09377598762512207, 0.11287669092416763, 0.3822355270385742, 0.01634802110493183, 0.04197245091199875, 0.005682645831257105, -0.07416559755802155, 0.12164369970560074, -0.5495562553405762, 0.12431535869836807, 0.06928236782550812, 0.15377947688102722, -0.12785343825817108, 0.4102298617362...	3	Between the birth of the new Republic and the advent of the Civil War, a great transformation occurred in domestic labor. This transformation was not a result of inventions that made housework easier but rather of market penetration and the reallocation of tasks within the household. The American colonial farmstead, although never self-sufficient, had been the site of much household production. However, by the 1840s and 1850s the market revolution had taught women that it was to their advantage to buy many mass-produced items (including candles, soap, and cloth) rather than making them at home. Domestic labor was transformed from an integral part of the family economy, producing goods that could be obtained nowhere else, to a vaguely discredited activity that paid no wages. In North and South alike, most middle- and upper-class families, and many farm families, had always had servants, but the nature of servitude was changing as the definition of domestic labor changed. domestic labor in the north In the North the allocation of tasks within the household depended on location and social status. Frontier women, assisted by children, had the most onerous domestic burden, as is evident in documents like the diary of Martha Ballard, a Maine midwife. Their labor was unrelenting and thought to be detrimental to health, with tasks like washing, brewing, or baking consuming entire days' work. Daily cooking required the kindling and tending of fires and the provision of vast amounts of wood—theoretically a man's job that devolved onto women when men were absent. Cooking, laundry, and personal hygiene also required large amounts of water, often carried in from wells some distance from the farmhouse. In addition to these daily tasks, women were responsible for child care, sewing for clothing production and maintenance, animal husbandry, gardening, and seasonal or occasional work, such as candle making, soap making, and butter and cheese making. Although some tasks, like warping looms in preparation for weaving, were farmed out to specialists, frontier households also engaged in spinning and weaving their own cloth, especially if there were teenage daughters at home needing to outfit their own future households. In contrast with toiling farm women, urban middle-class women hired household "helps" to do heavier tasks while they supervised. In the first decades of the Republic, as in the colonial period, many native-born teenagers were sent out to service other households, either as a form of domestic apprenticeship or out of economic need. These young women, who formed emotional bonds with the families they served, coexisted alongside wives of "cottagers" who got paid to help with household work. By the 1820s and 1830s, the stigma of heavy and dirty domestic work, and the appearance of opportunities for factory work and work outside the home, or outwork, led native-born white women to desert domestic jobs. They were replaced by Irish immigrants. Although their work schedules kept them moving from dawn until late in the evening, Irish women were said to prefer domestic work, which enabled them to earn money to pay for the migration of family members, to save money for their old age, and to donate to causes they found worthy. The expectation that a live-in domestic worker would be a member of the household (although not an equal member) did not disappear, despite yawning cultural differences between mistress and maid. Households that were unable to find and keep live-in domestic servants relied on a piecework system, in which women living within their own homes did extra washing, sewing, and other such chores for families in the community. This arrangement allowed women to participate in the cash economy while still retaining autonomy over the way in which these chores were completed. domestic labor in the south Southern domestic labor was organized on a two-track system. Yeoman households without slaves resembled farm households throughout the North, with women still accomplishing much of the household production and heavily weighed down by their tasks. In contrast, in Southern planter households domestic labor was largely carried out by slaves. House servants included not only women but also children who were too young to work as field hands. Slaves worked in Southern households as cooks, provided child care, and even served as wet nurses. Many of these slaves had a double burden, as they were responsible for cooking, sewing, and cleaning within their own households in the slave quarter as well as for the maintenance of the Big House. Plantation mistresses taught the slaves their tasks, superintended their work, and planned household consumption, including the feeding and clothing of the workforce. Like their Northern counterparts, many antebellum Southerners felt that it was more ladylike for women to devolve the heavier tasks of household upkeep onto servants if they could afford to do so. As a result, even yeoman households rented single slave women or children to work at domestic tasks. Hirers had to pay these slaves' owners an annual hiring fee and also provide the slaves with food, shelter, and clothing. Hiring slaves to perform domestic tasks did not necessarily help yeoman families climb the economic ladder by acquiring more land and slaves, but it did help them to feel as though they were higher up in the hierarchical social order of the South. Jeanne Boydston, one of the most prominent historians of domestic labor, has pointed out that as the division between the public world of commerce and the private world of the house became more distinct, women took less pride in, and received less credit for, their unpaid work around the home. At the same time, however, housework done well contributed to the family economy, as when working class women took in boarders and their children scavenged fuel from local docks. Furthermore, for many rural and urban women alike, "domestic labor" meant labor performed for the market within the home, as well as unpaid labor to keep the family economy running. Whether they were shoemakers' wives stitching shoes or rural women plaiting straw hats and straw brooms, women and girls prefigured much of the tenement-based outwork that would characterize the second half of the nineteenth century. Barton, Keith C. "'Good Cooks and Washers': Slave Hiring, Domestic Labor, and the Market in Bourbon County, Kentucky." Journal of American History 84, no. 2 (1997): 436–460. Diner, Hasia R. Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. Izard, Holly V. "The Ward Family and Their 'Helps': Domestic Work, Workers, and Relationships on a New England Farm, 1787–1866." Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 103, no. 1 (1993): 61–91. Stansell, Christine. City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789–1860. New York: Knopf, 1986. Jamie L. Bronstein	1,455	ENGLISH	1
Smartphones these days have a Night-Mode feature that shifts the computer or phone screens to colors which are warmer late at night and help with sleep, but a new study has suggested that it is actually doing the opposite. The University of Manchester conducted a research which found that the blue light that is emitted might not be so bad for the sleep patterns as it was earlier thought. So far, it was commonly thought that the blue light that is emitted from then phones disrupt the circadian rhythm or sleep patterns than the warm colors. This was the basic idea that was implemented for some of the devices including the iPhone and the iPad. The devices automatically shift the display to an orange-yellow tint late in the night. Some of the earlier studies have mentioned that the blue light suppresses melatonin which is a hormone that influences sleep. The new study has given an opposite idea stating that looking at the blue light in the evening and warm light during the day time is more natural. The study was led by Tim brown, who said that the common view is that the blue light has a strongest effect, but the fact is that the blue color is associated with Twilight and has a weaker effect that the white and yellow light. Experiment was conducted by the researchers on mice with the help of the light that was specifically designed to test how different wavelengths had affected the sleep patterns. It was observed that the blue light was less disruptive than they yellow light that had the same brightness. The researchers again confirmed the common belief that lower brightness was less disruptive to sleep. Brown added that their findings suggest that usage of dim and cooler lights in the evening and warm lights during the day time would be more beneficial. But still excess usage of smartphones is anyway harmful for the eyes. Photo Credits: Business insider	<urn:uuid:504becb3-f9d7-4a11-beac-38a234f7da25>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://gadgetherald.com/6738/night-mode-smartphone-feature-warm-lights-might-worse-sleep-patterns/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00367.warc.gz	en	0.982583	356	3.265625	3	[ -0.046751514077186584, 0.3276900351047516, 0.10470788925886154, 0.12724782526493073, 0.34403467178344727, 0.1455879658460617, 0.4731607735157013, -0.023164214566349983, 0.2548920810222626, 0.1646396368741989, -0.06605856865644455, 0.34380042552948, 0.10089469701051712, 0.4409782886505127, ...	2	Smartphones these days have a Night-Mode feature that shifts the computer or phone screens to colors which are warmer late at night and help with sleep, but a new study has suggested that it is actually doing the opposite. The University of Manchester conducted a research which found that the blue light that is emitted might not be so bad for the sleep patterns as it was earlier thought. So far, it was commonly thought that the blue light that is emitted from then phones disrupt the circadian rhythm or sleep patterns than the warm colors. This was the basic idea that was implemented for some of the devices including the iPhone and the iPad. The devices automatically shift the display to an orange-yellow tint late in the night. Some of the earlier studies have mentioned that the blue light suppresses melatonin which is a hormone that influences sleep. The new study has given an opposite idea stating that looking at the blue light in the evening and warm light during the day time is more natural. The study was led by Tim brown, who said that the common view is that the blue light has a strongest effect, but the fact is that the blue color is associated with Twilight and has a weaker effect that the white and yellow light. Experiment was conducted by the researchers on mice with the help of the light that was specifically designed to test how different wavelengths had affected the sleep patterns. It was observed that the blue light was less disruptive than they yellow light that had the same brightness. The researchers again confirmed the common belief that lower brightness was less disruptive to sleep. Brown added that their findings suggest that usage of dim and cooler lights in the evening and warm lights during the day time would be more beneficial. But still excess usage of smartphones is anyway harmful for the eyes. Photo Credits: Business insider	352	ENGLISH	1
Asked in Slavery What are the consequences of slavery? What were the consequences of the declaration of independence? Asked in Abraham Lincoln What are the consequences due to the Lincoln Douglas debates? Some consequences of the debates over slavery between Douglas and Lincoln were that although Lincoln won the slavery rights, Douglas wasn't voted for presidency. Thus leaving him powerless. He wanted to debate the slavery rights with Lincoln, which Lincoln won. Some of Lincoln's consequences were that Lincoln lost the Senate race in 1858. Although on the bright side he won the next time in 1860 for presidency. Why were the Radical Republicans considered radical? The radical wing of the Republican Party were termed as such because of their insistence that slavery be abolished without regard to what the consequences might be. They were in fact abolitionists. Moderate Republicans and moderate Democrats understood that an immediate end to slavery might have unpleasant social and economic consequences. During the US Civil War they demanded that the war was fought to end slavery. Moderates sought to unify the Union first and deal with slavery later. Asked in Mexican-American War What were the political consequences of the Mexican-American War? Asked in Founding Fathers, American Revolution One of the consequences of colonial rhetoric about liberty and rights was? What might have been the consequences of the framers of the Constitution attempting to abolish slavery in 1787? What were Thomas Jefferson's conditions for ending slavery in 1820? Thomas Jefferson had a hand in politics long after his terms as US president ended. In 1820, the Missouri Compromise was being "hammered out' and Jefferson had ideas concerning the Compromise and the ending of slavery. He believed the nation could endure all economic consequences of abolishing slavery. His condition for ending slavery and to avoid all the political and social strife this would cause, meant the colonization of the freed slaves. What was radical Republican in the middle of the 19th century? The Republican Party was created in 1854. Its main objective was to abolish slavery in the US. Among the members of this arty was a group known as radical Republicans. They wanted slavery to be abolished at once no matter what the economic or social consequences might be the result. Moderate Republicans like President Lincoln sought a slower and constitutional solution to gradually abolish slavery. Asked in US Civil War What were the direct consequences of the US Civil War? The direct consequences of the US Civil War were the following: A. Slavery was abolished; B. With the War behind them, the USA could focus on expanding the nation westward; C. A strong military was now part of the establishment; and D. The Southern States were depleted from the War and its rebuilding was an arduous task. What were the consequences of the battle of Atlanta GA? Was the south of slavery against slavery or for slavery? What long lasting consequences did the presidential election of 1860 have on the United States? The US presidential elections of 1860 had long term consequences for the USA. Abraham Lincoln's election led directly to the US Civil War. Lincoln did not start the war and clearly the blame was on the South. Ultimately the war was the spike in the heat of the South, so to speak that led to the abolishment of slavery in the US. Asked in US Civil War What were the causes and consequences of the American Civil War? The main cause for the American Civil War was that the South wanted to keep slavery and the North wanted to abolish slavery. A consequence of the war was that most of the South had to be rebuilt after the war ended. Population in the South was also decreased because many people had to go north to find work.	<urn:uuid:8426550f-6d8a-491e-b3cb-5d7fe93ad267>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_consequences_of_slavery	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00301.warc.gz	en	0.981493	750	3.609375	4	[ -0.21070945262908936, 0.2952922284603119, 0.3959355354309082, 0.06765088438987732, -0.27204495668411255, 0.1237783133983612, 0.06345323473215103, 0.06407828629016876, -0.15198445320129395, -0.050784334540367126, 0.10121311247348785, 0.13489535450935364, -0.22920677065849304, 0.310400664806...	1	Asked in Slavery What are the consequences of slavery? What were the consequences of the declaration of independence? Asked in Abraham Lincoln What are the consequences due to the Lincoln Douglas debates? Some consequences of the debates over slavery between Douglas and Lincoln were that although Lincoln won the slavery rights, Douglas wasn't voted for presidency. Thus leaving him powerless. He wanted to debate the slavery rights with Lincoln, which Lincoln won. Some of Lincoln's consequences were that Lincoln lost the Senate race in 1858. Although on the bright side he won the next time in 1860 for presidency. Why were the Radical Republicans considered radical? The radical wing of the Republican Party were termed as such because of their insistence that slavery be abolished without regard to what the consequences might be. They were in fact abolitionists. Moderate Republicans and moderate Democrats understood that an immediate end to slavery might have unpleasant social and economic consequences. During the US Civil War they demanded that the war was fought to end slavery. Moderates sought to unify the Union first and deal with slavery later. Asked in Mexican-American War What were the political consequences of the Mexican-American War? Asked in Founding Fathers, American Revolution One of the consequences of colonial rhetoric about liberty and rights was? What might have been the consequences of the framers of the Constitution attempting to abolish slavery in 1787? What were Thomas Jefferson's conditions for ending slavery in 1820? Thomas Jefferson had a hand in politics long after his terms as US president ended. In 1820, the Missouri Compromise was being "hammered out' and Jefferson had ideas concerning the Compromise and the ending of slavery. He believed the nation could endure all economic consequences of abolishing slavery. His condition for ending slavery and to avoid all the political and social strife this would cause, meant the colonization of the freed slaves. What was radical Republican in the middle of the 19th century? The Republican Party was created in 1854. Its main objective was to abolish slavery in the US. Among the members of this arty was a group known as radical Republicans. They wanted slavery to be abolished at once no matter what the economic or social consequences might be the result. Moderate Republicans like President Lincoln sought a slower and constitutional solution to gradually abolish slavery. Asked in US Civil War What were the direct consequences of the US Civil War? The direct consequences of the US Civil War were the following: A. Slavery was abolished; B. With the War behind them, the USA could focus on expanding the nation westward; C. A strong military was now part of the establishment; and D. The Southern States were depleted from the War and its rebuilding was an arduous task. What were the consequences of the battle of Atlanta GA? Was the south of slavery against slavery or for slavery? What long lasting consequences did the presidential election of 1860 have on the United States? The US presidential elections of 1860 had long term consequences for the USA. Abraham Lincoln's election led directly to the US Civil War. Lincoln did not start the war and clearly the blame was on the South. Ultimately the war was the spike in the heat of the South, so to speak that led to the abolishment of slavery in the US. Asked in US Civil War What were the causes and consequences of the American Civil War? The main cause for the American Civil War was that the South wanted to keep slavery and the North wanted to abolish slavery. A consequence of the war was that most of the South had to be rebuilt after the war ended. Population in the South was also decreased because many people had to go north to find work.	754	ENGLISH	1
Most studies that involve fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) have often suggested their link to heavy and/or binge drinking, especially in minority and poor populations. It was also considered that the people in Western Europe are relatively more moderate in their consumption of alcohol as compared to their counterparts in the US. But new findings are now indicating that the drinking levels among some women in Italy are as high as many drinkers across the world. Alcohol consumption in Western Europe is generally considered to be more moderate in nature - daily, and with meals - than it is in other countries such as the United States. New research indicates that this may be an "urban myth," and that drinking levels in Italy - as measured by the prevalence of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) in Italian primary schools - are just as high as they are in the new world. Results are published in the September issue of Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research. "Both human and animal studies have shown that heavy and binge drinking are the most highly associated with FAS damage," said Philip A. May, professor of sociology, and family and community medicine, at The University of New Mexico. "A common perception is that daily drinking with meals is less damaging to the fetus, and that this drinking pattern is the norm in Western Europe. While we have still not untangled or answered this relationship, our study results do show that there are individuals in Italy who drink heavily enough to produce a rate of FAS which needs our attention." May, also an epidemiologist is the study's corresponding author. "Prior to this study," said Robert J. Sokol, distinguished professor of obstetrics and gynaecology and Director of the C.S. Mott Centre for Human Growth and Development at Wayne State University, "I don't believe there was a good number for prevalence of FAS in Italy. This says Italy looks like the rest of the world in terms of drinking patterns, and that related birth outcomes are similar amongst the relatively heavily exposed kids." May and his colleagues used a relatively new study method called "active," as opposed to "passive," surveillance. "Active surveillance has not been used very much, especially in schools," explained May, "other than in South Africa and only once before in the U.S., in Washington State. Most studies that gather data on the prevalence of FAS are passive in nature, waiting for children with developmental growth or structural problems to be referred to paediatric, genetic or dysmorphologic specialists. But when we go out and actively search for cases within a mainstream population, we can find up to as many as three times as many children who really do have the disorder." The researchers randomly selected 25 primary schools in two health districts of the Lazio region for examination. Parental permission for a screening process was secured for 543 children (277 males, 266 females), 50 percent of all children enrolled in first-grade classes. A detailed evaluation was carried out on those children who were identified as small for height, weight, and head circumference and/or referred by teachers for suspected learning and behavioural problems. This evaluation addressed: physical growth and dysmorphology, psychological development and behaviour, and prenatal exposure to alcohol and other risk factors for FASD via maternal interviews. A group of children without FASD (n=67) were randomly selected from the same classes as a "control" group. Results indicate that the prevalence of FAS in this province of Italy was 3.7 to 7.4 per 1,000 children, and the prevalence of FASD was 20.3 to 40.5 per 1,000 children. These findings exceed previously published estimates of both FAS and FASD for the western world. "The major message is that even in countries that people believed were free of FAS," said May, "prevalence may be three times higher than what is estimated from previous and comparable clinic-based or passive studies. Certainly FAS prevalence is most likely underestimated in both the U.S. and Western Europe. We need to rethink prevalence rates, and we need to do more active-case ascertainment studies, in school or other population-based studies." He praised in-school studies especially, and their ability to provide a representative cross section of the population, despite their time- and labour-intensive nature and the difficulties of securing administrative and parental approval. Both May and Sokol pointed out that a common problem of gathering data on pregnancy and drinking is that it is typically retrospective in nature. "When you interview well-educated women in the developed world," said May, "they know that drinking and pregnancy don't mix, so their responses tend to reflect a measure of guilt and you may obtain results that are not completely accurate." But the data on maternal drinking that were obtained by May and his colleagues, noted Sokol, were consistent with the levels of FAS and FASD that were also found. "The study asked about the mean number of drinks currently consumed per week, after pregnancy," noted Sokol, "which is probably a surrogate measure for what they were drinking five years previously: 16 drinks among the mothers of the FAS children versus 1.5 drinks among the mothers of the control children. This has nothing to do with light drinking. Previously people might have thought that women in Italy drank differently, but this turns out to not be the case. They drink, apparently at binge levels, and they have kids who have damage." Sokol hopes that future studies will use similar methods to examine different cultures and different ethnic groups. "They brought in world experts to look at the kids," he said, "and you can't do any better than that. They used a very rigorous system of identifying the kids, and the methodology and diagnoses were particularly good. I think that there is value in looking for FAS in different groups in different parts of the world because sooner or later we will find differences in susceptibility based on genetic differences." Meanwhile, said May, "the average reader should continue to heed the U.S. Surgeon General's warning that there is no known safe level of drinking during pregnancy, particularly on a regular basis. We don't want to scare women who may have had a drink or two before they found out they were pregnant that they're going to have children with FAS problems but, to be on the safe side, women should abstain if possible."	<urn:uuid:8affee73-bae3-45bd-85cc-819e9da221eb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.medindia.net/news/view_news_main.asp?x=13753	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00472.warc.gz	en	0.981214	1,327	3.328125	3	[ 0.1128905639052391, 0.21436497569084167, 0.00035053957253694534, 0.1980047971010208, 0.06959611922502518, 0.32038867473602295, 0.0898856595158577, 0.7685468792915344, 0.33434203267097473, 0.06124313920736313, -0.06158093735575676, -0.2251240611076355, -0.10857034474611282, 0.19707459211349...	1	Most studies that involve fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) have often suggested their link to heavy and/or binge drinking, especially in minority and poor populations. It was also considered that the people in Western Europe are relatively more moderate in their consumption of alcohol as compared to their counterparts in the US. But new findings are now indicating that the drinking levels among some women in Italy are as high as many drinkers across the world. Alcohol consumption in Western Europe is generally considered to be more moderate in nature - daily, and with meals - than it is in other countries such as the United States. New research indicates that this may be an "urban myth," and that drinking levels in Italy - as measured by the prevalence of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) in Italian primary schools - are just as high as they are in the new world. Results are published in the September issue of Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research. "Both human and animal studies have shown that heavy and binge drinking are the most highly associated with FAS damage," said Philip A. May, professor of sociology, and family and community medicine, at The University of New Mexico. "A common perception is that daily drinking with meals is less damaging to the fetus, and that this drinking pattern is the norm in Western Europe. While we have still not untangled or answered this relationship, our study results do show that there are individuals in Italy who drink heavily enough to produce a rate of FAS which needs our attention." May, also an epidemiologist is the study's corresponding author. "Prior to this study," said Robert J. Sokol, distinguished professor of obstetrics and gynaecology and Director of the C.S. Mott Centre for Human Growth and Development at Wayne State University, "I don't believe there was a good number for prevalence of FAS in Italy. This says Italy looks like the rest of the world in terms of drinking patterns, and that related birth outcomes are similar amongst the relatively heavily exposed kids." May and his colleagues used a relatively new study method called "active," as opposed to "passive," surveillance. "Active surveillance has not been used very much, especially in schools," explained May, "other than in South Africa and only once before in the U.S., in Washington State. Most studies that gather data on the prevalence of FAS are passive in nature, waiting for children with developmental growth or structural problems to be referred to paediatric, genetic or dysmorphologic specialists. But when we go out and actively search for cases within a mainstream population, we can find up to as many as three times as many children who really do have the disorder." The researchers randomly selected 25 primary schools in two health districts of the Lazio region for examination. Parental permission for a screening process was secured for 543 children (277 males, 266 females), 50 percent of all children enrolled in first-grade classes. A detailed evaluation was carried out on those children who were identified as small for height, weight, and head circumference and/or referred by teachers for suspected learning and behavioural problems. This evaluation addressed: physical growth and dysmorphology, psychological development and behaviour, and prenatal exposure to alcohol and other risk factors for FASD via maternal interviews. A group of children without FASD (n=67) were randomly selected from the same classes as a "control" group. Results indicate that the prevalence of FAS in this province of Italy was 3.7 to 7.4 per 1,000 children, and the prevalence of FASD was 20.3 to 40.5 per 1,000 children. These findings exceed previously published estimates of both FAS and FASD for the western world. "The major message is that even in countries that people believed were free of FAS," said May, "prevalence may be three times higher than what is estimated from previous and comparable clinic-based or passive studies. Certainly FAS prevalence is most likely underestimated in both the U.S. and Western Europe. We need to rethink prevalence rates, and we need to do more active-case ascertainment studies, in school or other population-based studies." He praised in-school studies especially, and their ability to provide a representative cross section of the population, despite their time- and labour-intensive nature and the difficulties of securing administrative and parental approval. Both May and Sokol pointed out that a common problem of gathering data on pregnancy and drinking is that it is typically retrospective in nature. "When you interview well-educated women in the developed world," said May, "they know that drinking and pregnancy don't mix, so their responses tend to reflect a measure of guilt and you may obtain results that are not completely accurate." But the data on maternal drinking that were obtained by May and his colleagues, noted Sokol, were consistent with the levels of FAS and FASD that were also found. "The study asked about the mean number of drinks currently consumed per week, after pregnancy," noted Sokol, "which is probably a surrogate measure for what they were drinking five years previously: 16 drinks among the mothers of the FAS children versus 1.5 drinks among the mothers of the control children. This has nothing to do with light drinking. Previously people might have thought that women in Italy drank differently, but this turns out to not be the case. They drink, apparently at binge levels, and they have kids who have damage." Sokol hopes that future studies will use similar methods to examine different cultures and different ethnic groups. "They brought in world experts to look at the kids," he said, "and you can't do any better than that. They used a very rigorous system of identifying the kids, and the methodology and diagnoses were particularly good. I think that there is value in looking for FAS in different groups in different parts of the world because sooner or later we will find differences in susceptibility based on genetic differences." Meanwhile, said May, "the average reader should continue to heed the U.S. Surgeon General's warning that there is no known safe level of drinking during pregnancy, particularly on a regular basis. We don't want to scare women who may have had a drink or two before they found out they were pregnant that they're going to have children with FAS problems but, to be on the safe side, women should abstain if possible."	1,323	ENGLISH	1
Charlotte E. Ray, the first African American woman to practice law in the United States, was born on January 13, 1850, in New York City, New York. Her father, Reverend Charles Bennett Ray, was a prominent New York abolitionist and minister, who served as pastor of the Bethesda Congregational Church and was the owner of the Colored American, one of the leading African American newspapers of the antebellum era. Her mother, Charlotte Augusta Burroughs Ray, was raised in Savannah, Georgia. Charlotte Ray was the youngest of three girls. Ray spent her first years in New York City, but by 1850 her parents had moved to Washington, D.C., where she entered the Institution for the Education of Colored Youth, the only school in the Washington, D.C. area that allowed African American girls to become pupils. Ray graduated from the institution in 1869 at the age of 19. Howard University, then about four years old, hired her as a teacher for its Preparatory and Normal Department, the part of the university that trained school teachers. Ray, however, was not satisfied with training others to teach. Her ambition instead was to attend the university’s law school. Howard University’s Law School, however, discouraged women from enrolling and Ray was forced to apply under the name “C.E. Ray” to disguise her gender. University officials reluctantly accepted her application and she attended classes while continuing to teach in the Preparatory and Normal Department. Ray matriculated at the law school for three years, from 1869 to 1872 where she concentrated on commercial law. Upon completion of the program in 1872, Ray became the first black woman to graduate from an American law school and receive a law degree. In fact she was only the third American woman of any race to complete law school. Ray achieved another first when on April 23, 1872 she was admitted to the bar in the District of Columbia which had recently removed the word “male” from its requirements. Ray opened her own law office in Washington, D.C. but found it difficult to make a living as an attorney due to racial and gender bias. She returned to New York in 1879 and became a Brooklyn school teacher. By this point, Ray had become an advocate for women’s suffrage. She was a delegate to the 1876 conference of the National Woman’s Suffrage Association. In 1895 Ray joined the newly formed National Association of Colored Women. In 1897 she moved to a suburban community on Long Island, Woodside, New York. Little is known about Ray’s personal life after she returned to New York. In 1886, at the age of 36, she married a man named Fraim, but it is not clear how long the marriage lasted. There were no children. Charlotte E. Ray passed away in Woodside, New York on January 4, 1911.	<urn:uuid:68a4391f-ecd4-4b3e-8a46-7d0e472a9e40>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/ray-charlotte-e-1850-1911/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00472.warc.gz	en	0.982615	601	4.15625	4	[ -0.32857054471969604, 0.04416048526763916, 0.21085627377033234, 0.06172751635313034, -0.3058360517024994, 0.2919112741947174, 0.07506091892719269, -0.12659966945648193, -0.2412581443786621, 0.26842987537384033, -0.09247255325317383, 0.27406442165374756, -0.5022975206375122, 0.3721185326576...	5	Charlotte E. Ray, the first African American woman to practice law in the United States, was born on January 13, 1850, in New York City, New York. Her father, Reverend Charles Bennett Ray, was a prominent New York abolitionist and minister, who served as pastor of the Bethesda Congregational Church and was the owner of the Colored American, one of the leading African American newspapers of the antebellum era. Her mother, Charlotte Augusta Burroughs Ray, was raised in Savannah, Georgia. Charlotte Ray was the youngest of three girls. Ray spent her first years in New York City, but by 1850 her parents had moved to Washington, D.C., where she entered the Institution for the Education of Colored Youth, the only school in the Washington, D.C. area that allowed African American girls to become pupils. Ray graduated from the institution in 1869 at the age of 19. Howard University, then about four years old, hired her as a teacher for its Preparatory and Normal Department, the part of the university that trained school teachers. Ray, however, was not satisfied with training others to teach. Her ambition instead was to attend the university’s law school. Howard University’s Law School, however, discouraged women from enrolling and Ray was forced to apply under the name “C.E. Ray” to disguise her gender. University officials reluctantly accepted her application and she attended classes while continuing to teach in the Preparatory and Normal Department. Ray matriculated at the law school for three years, from 1869 to 1872 where she concentrated on commercial law. Upon completion of the program in 1872, Ray became the first black woman to graduate from an American law school and receive a law degree. In fact she was only the third American woman of any race to complete law school. Ray achieved another first when on April 23, 1872 she was admitted to the bar in the District of Columbia which had recently removed the word “male” from its requirements. Ray opened her own law office in Washington, D.C. but found it difficult to make a living as an attorney due to racial and gender bias. She returned to New York in 1879 and became a Brooklyn school teacher. By this point, Ray had become an advocate for women’s suffrage. She was a delegate to the 1876 conference of the National Woman’s Suffrage Association. In 1895 Ray joined the newly formed National Association of Colored Women. In 1897 she moved to a suburban community on Long Island, Woodside, New York. Little is known about Ray’s personal life after she returned to New York. In 1886, at the age of 36, she married a man named Fraim, but it is not clear how long the marriage lasted. There were no children. Charlotte E. Ray passed away in Woodside, New York on January 4, 1911.	634	ENGLISH	1
Sweden in World War II - across borders In October 1939 Hitler had complained to the Swede Sven Hedin about the media in Finland, Norway and Sweden. He stated that he had no reason to feel any friendship towards countries where the press described him in such negative ways. [s57] What discussions took place within Sweden in the summer of 1940? Sweden had been as unprepared for war as Denmark and Norway. By some reason the Germans had not attacked Sweden. In Sweden, as in many other countries, there were people who sympathized with the nazi politics both openly and more or less in secret. There was also a fright for a German attack on Sweden. The German occupation of Denmark and Norway also meant that they could cut off the shipping between Sweden and the Atlantic Ocean. During the summer of 1940 Germany defeated country after country in western Europe. Germany was allied with Italy. Britain seemed to be the only country that managed to defend itself from German occupation, but for how long? There was a the possibility that Germany would win the war in Europe. During discussions in the Swedish government there were different views of the situation and the future. [s10] What should Sweden do? What could Sweden do?. Already when the war in Scandinavia began and Sweden declared neutrality, Germany had demanded that neutrality also should be applied on expressions of opinions. One reason was that a strong public opinion in Sweden against Germany would make it more difficult for Germany to press the Swedish government to give various forms of support to Germany. Anti-nazi articles in Swedish press was also used to put the Swedish government under pressure. [s10] Long before the German attack on Norway on 9 April 1940, the Publicist Club in Stockholm had invited the president of the Norwegian parliament, C J Hambro, to give a lecture in mid April. Now he had arrived a few days earlier, for unofficial work in Stockholm for the Norwegian government. He was called to a meeting with the Swedish foreign minister who said that he couldn't forbid him to hold the lecture, but told that the Swedish representative in Berlin had been called to Ribbentrop a couple of times - where the German said that it would be seen as an unfriendly act to let the president of the Norwegian parliament hold a public lecture. No lecture was held. Later Hambro was invited to a group of members in the Swedish Riksdag (the Swedish Parliament) for a not public meeting, but - he was called to an official at a higher level than the Swedish foreign minister... No meeting took place. [s01] Hambro also was asked by Norway to give an orientation of the status in Norway via radio. That was not allowed, he was told. Instead the speech was recorded in Stockholm, the record sent to London, and his speech broadcast on BBC 12 April 1940. The text was also printed in the Swedish newspaper "Trots allt" (Despite all). [s01] From the early summer of 1940 the German pressure on Sweden grew. [s10] German political pressure and threaths on Sweden was not known to the common Swedes. This made it difficult for the government to explain some decisions. [s58] The Swedish government exhorted the press not to disturb Swedens relations with Germany. Most of the press used a self-censorship. Some went on to print anti-nazi texts. [s28] When Britain seized four new Swedish destroyers, on the way to Sweden from Italy, the Swedish press did not write about it in capital letters. [s48] After the Norwegian king and government had first legislated their possibility to continue their offices from abroad and then left Norway, the political pressure in Norway from both Norwegian nazis and Germans increased. One way was to dethrone the king. On 18 July 1940 Swedish newspapers told that Norwegians did not want to dethrone king Haakon [s10]. Poems from anti-nazi authors in Norway and Britain could sometimes be read in some Swedish newspapers. [s10] Several Swedish newspapers had issues confiscated during World War II. Another way to stop unwanted newspapers was to ban the transport of them. In 1940 this was used to stop "Trots Allt!" and communist press. [s06] Censorship stopped other things too. In 1940 the Karl Gerhard song "Den ökända hästen från Troja" (The famous horse from Troja) was banned, after complaints from the German embassy in Stockholm. The Charlie Chaplin movie "The Great Dictator" from 1940 was stopped until 1945, due to the delicate relations with Germany. [s06] There were also Swedish newspapers that were more or less pronazi and pro German. Sweden and Germany had signed agreements about courier plane traffic over Sweden, and in general about how to handle planes and crew in case of emergency landings. One result was that info about these events were scarce in Swedish media, and when something was written it was without details like plane types and who were onboard. Nothing were to be written about what happened with the crew and the plane. [s77] Swedish communists and other persons who were seen as unreliable for the nation were handled in special work companies. [s06] It was not easy during the war for correspondents to get fresh news home to their newspapers, with for example prohibited use of telephones and censorship. Telegrams were often used. On 10 September 1941 the Finnish armoured ship Ilmarinen (armed with several Bofors guns of various types) participated in a German naval operation. By some reason there suddenly was a large explosion while the ships were on their way to the operation area, maybe caused by a couple of mines that got tangled in the ships faulty anti-mine device, and Ilmarinen sank. 271 Finnish sailors were killed. Swedish newspapers were the first to publish the news. [s59] The London newspaper "The Apocalypse", written in German language, published an article about German Jews deported to Soviet Union territory under German control. There they were to be killed in some kind of mass murder. "The Times" in London also mentioned this. The information source was a publication from the Swedish Social Democrats. (The deportations had just begun.) [s27] A Norwegian who had been imprisoned in the Norwegian prison Grini wrote an article about the German torture. It was published in several Swedish newspapers in 1942, and 17 of them had issues confiscated [s06]. Another example: in one issue of Göteborgs Handels och Sjöfartstidning one half of a page had no text, only the headline of the article was printed - "In Norwegian prisons and concentration camps" (my translation) [s10]. When the Swedes began to understand more about their situation, and also due to strong foreign and domestic political interests, it was time to be silent in Sweden. Do not talk about industry production, transports and other issues that could be useful for potential enemies. You never know who listens. The phrase "En svensk tiger" (A Swede keeps silent, where the word "tiger" in Swedish means both the animal and the phrase "keeps silent") was published with an illustration of a blue- and yellowstriped tiger. In Trondheim in Norway all Jewish men elder than 14 years were arrested in early October 1942, in mid November all Jews in Norway were ordered to register, and on 26 November 532 Jews were shipped to Germany. This deportation made the headline in many Swedish newspaper the following day, and around the end of 1942 an opinion poll showed that this was the news that influenced the Swedes most in 1942. [s60] In 1943 Arvid Fredborg's book "Bakom stålvallen" ('Behind the steel rampart/bank', my translation) was published. The Berlin correspondent for the Swedish newspaper Svenska Dagbladet wrote among others about the persecution of the Jews and the lack of legal rights of the individual. [s59] At the end of 1943 all confiscations and transport bans for newspapers had been terminated. [s06] On 30 November 1943 1,200 students and teachers at Oslo University were arrested, and were to be sent to Germany. The Swedish foreign minister presented a démarche to the German minister on 1 December, and the text was published on the same day. A sharp answer was given verbally in Berlin on 4 December, and this was also published. On 17 December a Swedish reply to the German message was given in Berlin, published on 18 December. [s60] In 1944 the Swedish supreme commander bans the nazi newspaper Dagsposten from all military messrooms. [s06] Also during the last days of fighting in Berlin, the few remaining Swedish correspondents worked to send news home to Sweden. One correspondent experienced 750 bomb attacks in Berlin, and every morning left a cellar or bunker to try to get reports to the newspaper in Stockholm. One comment was a late war example of Berlin humour: it was then possible to go from the east front to the west front by local tram. [s06] Two Swedish correspondents stayed in Berlin until the fighting was over. Both were captured by Russians. One was released when he arrived to Moscow and put on a train to the border to Finland, while the other had to spend a year in a Soviet prison accused to have fought for Finland against the Red Army and suspected to be a spy later. [s06] 2019-04-07. www.konditori100.se. Text/pictures: Arne Granfoss ©. Prod: AG Informice	<urn:uuid:553c78eb-bba8-4b43-9f59-19366ae43924>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://konditori100.se/SiWW2/sww2sis.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00398.warc.gz	en	0.986096	2,003	3.609375	4	[ -0.07421736419200897, 0.5972443222999573, -0.09552790224552155, 0.12245632708072662, 0.4561983346939087, 0.13795267045497894, -0.27810704708099365, 0.3976913094520569, 0.021389447152614594, -0.02832476608455181, 0.33805227279663086, -0.17601460218429565, 0.3130868077278137, 0.6308844089508...	3	Sweden in World War II - across borders In October 1939 Hitler had complained to the Swede Sven Hedin about the media in Finland, Norway and Sweden. He stated that he had no reason to feel any friendship towards countries where the press described him in such negative ways. [s57] What discussions took place within Sweden in the summer of 1940? Sweden had been as unprepared for war as Denmark and Norway. By some reason the Germans had not attacked Sweden. In Sweden, as in many other countries, there were people who sympathized with the nazi politics both openly and more or less in secret. There was also a fright for a German attack on Sweden. The German occupation of Denmark and Norway also meant that they could cut off the shipping between Sweden and the Atlantic Ocean. During the summer of 1940 Germany defeated country after country in western Europe. Germany was allied with Italy. Britain seemed to be the only country that managed to defend itself from German occupation, but for how long? There was a the possibility that Germany would win the war in Europe. During discussions in the Swedish government there were different views of the situation and the future. [s10] What should Sweden do? What could Sweden do?. Already when the war in Scandinavia began and Sweden declared neutrality, Germany had demanded that neutrality also should be applied on expressions of opinions. One reason was that a strong public opinion in Sweden against Germany would make it more difficult for Germany to press the Swedish government to give various forms of support to Germany. Anti-nazi articles in Swedish press was also used to put the Swedish government under pressure. [s10] Long before the German attack on Norway on 9 April 1940, the Publicist Club in Stockholm had invited the president of the Norwegian parliament, C J Hambro, to give a lecture in mid April. Now he had arrived a few days earlier, for unofficial work in Stockholm for the Norwegian government. He was called to a meeting with the Swedish foreign minister who said that he couldn't forbid him to hold the lecture, but told that the Swedish representative in Berlin had been called to Ribbentrop a couple of times - where the German said that it would be seen as an unfriendly act to let the president of the Norwegian parliament hold a public lecture. No lecture was held. Later Hambro was invited to a group of members in the Swedish Riksdag (the Swedish Parliament) for a not public meeting, but - he was called to an official at a higher level than the Swedish foreign minister... No meeting took place. [s01] Hambro also was asked by Norway to give an orientation of the status in Norway via radio. That was not allowed, he was told. Instead the speech was recorded in Stockholm, the record sent to London, and his speech broadcast on BBC 12 April 1940. The text was also printed in the Swedish newspaper "Trots allt" (Despite all). [s01] From the early summer of 1940 the German pressure on Sweden grew. [s10] German political pressure and threaths on Sweden was not known to the common Swedes. This made it difficult for the government to explain some decisions. [s58] The Swedish government exhorted the press not to disturb Swedens relations with Germany. Most of the press used a self-censorship. Some went on to print anti-nazi texts. [s28] When Britain seized four new Swedish destroyers, on the way to Sweden from Italy, the Swedish press did not write about it in capital letters. [s48] After the Norwegian king and government had first legislated their possibility to continue their offices from abroad and then left Norway, the political pressure in Norway from both Norwegian nazis and Germans increased. One way was to dethrone the king. On 18 July 1940 Swedish newspapers told that Norwegians did not want to dethrone king Haakon [s10]. Poems from anti-nazi authors in Norway and Britain could sometimes be read in some Swedish newspapers. [s10] Several Swedish newspapers had issues confiscated during World War II. Another way to stop unwanted newspapers was to ban the transport of them. In 1940 this was used to stop "Trots Allt!" and communist press. [s06] Censorship stopped other things too. In 1940 the Karl Gerhard song "Den ökända hästen från Troja" (The famous horse from Troja) was banned, after complaints from the German embassy in Stockholm. The Charlie Chaplin movie "The Great Dictator" from 1940 was stopped until 1945, due to the delicate relations with Germany. [s06] There were also Swedish newspapers that were more or less pronazi and pro German. Sweden and Germany had signed agreements about courier plane traffic over Sweden, and in general about how to handle planes and crew in case of emergency landings. One result was that info about these events were scarce in Swedish media, and when something was written it was without details like plane types and who were onboard. Nothing were to be written about what happened with the crew and the plane. [s77] Swedish communists and other persons who were seen as unreliable for the nation were handled in special work companies. [s06] It was not easy during the war for correspondents to get fresh news home to their newspapers, with for example prohibited use of telephones and censorship. Telegrams were often used. On 10 September 1941 the Finnish armoured ship Ilmarinen (armed with several Bofors guns of various types) participated in a German naval operation. By some reason there suddenly was a large explosion while the ships were on their way to the operation area, maybe caused by a couple of mines that got tangled in the ships faulty anti-mine device, and Ilmarinen sank. 271 Finnish sailors were killed. Swedish newspapers were the first to publish the news. [s59] The London newspaper "The Apocalypse", written in German language, published an article about German Jews deported to Soviet Union territory under German control. There they were to be killed in some kind of mass murder. "The Times" in London also mentioned this. The information source was a publication from the Swedish Social Democrats. (The deportations had just begun.) [s27] A Norwegian who had been imprisoned in the Norwegian prison Grini wrote an article about the German torture. It was published in several Swedish newspapers in 1942, and 17 of them had issues confiscated [s06]. Another example: in one issue of Göteborgs Handels och Sjöfartstidning one half of a page had no text, only the headline of the article was printed - "In Norwegian prisons and concentration camps" (my translation) [s10]. When the Swedes began to understand more about their situation, and also due to strong foreign and domestic political interests, it was time to be silent in Sweden. Do not talk about industry production, transports and other issues that could be useful for potential enemies. You never know who listens. The phrase "En svensk tiger" (A Swede keeps silent, where the word "tiger" in Swedish means both the animal and the phrase "keeps silent") was published with an illustration of a blue- and yellowstriped tiger. In Trondheim in Norway all Jewish men elder than 14 years were arrested in early October 1942, in mid November all Jews in Norway were ordered to register, and on 26 November 532 Jews were shipped to Germany. This deportation made the headline in many Swedish newspaper the following day, and around the end of 1942 an opinion poll showed that this was the news that influenced the Swedes most in 1942. [s60] In 1943 Arvid Fredborg's book "Bakom stålvallen" ('Behind the steel rampart/bank', my translation) was published. The Berlin correspondent for the Swedish newspaper Svenska Dagbladet wrote among others about the persecution of the Jews and the lack of legal rights of the individual. [s59] At the end of 1943 all confiscations and transport bans for newspapers had been terminated. [s06] On 30 November 1943 1,200 students and teachers at Oslo University were arrested, and were to be sent to Germany. The Swedish foreign minister presented a démarche to the German minister on 1 December, and the text was published on the same day. A sharp answer was given verbally in Berlin on 4 December, and this was also published. On 17 December a Swedish reply to the German message was given in Berlin, published on 18 December. [s60] In 1944 the Swedish supreme commander bans the nazi newspaper Dagsposten from all military messrooms. [s06] Also during the last days of fighting in Berlin, the few remaining Swedish correspondents worked to send news home to Sweden. One correspondent experienced 750 bomb attacks in Berlin, and every morning left a cellar or bunker to try to get reports to the newspaper in Stockholm. One comment was a late war example of Berlin humour: it was then possible to go from the east front to the west front by local tram. [s06] Two Swedish correspondents stayed in Berlin until the fighting was over. Both were captured by Russians. One was released when he arrived to Moscow and put on a train to the border to Finland, while the other had to spend a year in a Soviet prison accused to have fought for Finland against the Red Army and suspected to be a spy later. [s06] 2019-04-07. www.konditori100.se. Text/pictures: Arne Granfoss ©. Prod: AG Informice	2,095	ENGLISH	1
In 1348, the English people experienced an epidemic of plague – “black death”, which claimed almost a third of the country’s population. Feudal lords, rich merchants and craftsmen faced the problem of shortage of workers and preservation of old wages. To satisfy their interests, royal power in the second half of the XIV century. issued a number of laws known as “working legislation”. All healthy men and women aged 12 to 60 years without their own land and other means of livelihood were forced to work for those who needed it, and for the old fee. For refusal to work under such conditions, a fine, imprisonment and branding with a red-hot iron was established. “Working legislation” and military tax led to a peasant uprising led by the roofer Wat Tyler. The uprising broke out in 1381. Together with Wat Tyler, the uprising of 1381g. headed by John Ball – a priest from York. Since the early 60-ies of the XIV century. he traveled the country, calling for church reform and the establishment of social equality. Among ordinary people, his preaching was especially well-known. “When Adam plowed, and Eve spun, who then was a nobleman?” This expression in the people became winged. Detachments of the rebels thundered the monasteries and estates of the feudal lords, seized grain, livestock and other property, burned documents with a list of peasant duties. The peasants were especially cruel to deal with tax collectors XIV century. Chronicle of the abbey of St. Mary in York about the murder of Wat Tyler and the massacre of insurgent peasants Wat Tyler trustfully approached the King’s suite to hand over the demands of the peasants to him… The Mayor of London… Sword to reproach Woot for the violence… and arrested him… Wat in great irritation caused a mayor with a dagger to hit the stomach. However… the mayor wore chain mail and was not injured, but, like a brave and courageous man, he snatched his sword and responded with a strong blow to his neck and head… After this, the king sent his messengers to various places to grab criminals and punish them to death. And a lot was seized and hanged in London. And many gallows were set then… in other cities and villages… Finally, from the caress of God, the king saw that many of his subordinates were killed and much blood was shed, his heart was filled with pity and he announced forgiveness to them on condition that they are more will never rebel under pain of losing their lives… The uprising led by Wat Tyler had a great influence on the future fate of English society. The royal power made concessions: the taxes and the “working legislation” were somewhat reduced. The process of freeing the peasants from land dependence and accelerating their transfer to cash rents accelerated. Since 1399, the Lancastrian dynasty came to power in England. With the mentally ill Henry VI, the Duke Richard York, a distant relative of the king, advanced his claims to the throne. The coat of arms of the Lancaster was adorned with a scarlet rose, and the coat of arms of York is white, so the bloody thirty-year confrontation between them went down in history as the War of the Roses and the White Roses. Events unfolded in the interests of one, then in the interests of another kind. In the bloody clashes, Yorkies and Lancasters were killed. In one such battle, Richard of York died. At the head of the Yorkshire party was his son Edward. He several times defeated the Lancastrians, captured London and was proclaimed King by the name of Edward IV. However, with his coming to power, the bloodshed increased. Soon the struggle began among the Yorkers themselves. In 1483, Edward IV died suddenly. King was to be his 12-year-old son Edward. However, the power was seized by Richard Gloucester, the brother of the late King Edward IV. He began to rule under the name of Richard III. Prince Edward and his younger brother were imprisoned in the Tower, where the boys were killed. Against Richard III, the Lancastrians and part of the Yorkist barons united. They accused him of usurping power, raised an insurrection against him, and nominated Henry Tudor, a distant relative of the Lancaster. A new pretender to the throne assembled an army in France and landed in England. In 1485, near the town of Bosworth, a decisive battle took place between the forces of Henry Tudor and King Richard III. The army of Richard III was defeated, and he himself was killed. Henry Tudor on the battlefield was proclaimed king. He was crowned under the name of Henry VII. The War of the Roses and the White Roses is over. Henry VII married a representative of the dynasty of York and founded a new royal dynasty – the Tudors. The marriage put an end to the longstanding confrontation between two noble families whose symbols – scarlet and white roses – now adorned one coat of arms.	<urn:uuid:2660806b-af84-43e3-b35a-b2881693828c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.home-task.com/england-in-the-xiv-xv-centuries-the-war-of-the-roses-and-the-white-roses/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00155.warc.gz	en	0.980333	1,040	3.59375	4	[ -0.18360567092895508, 0.16911885142326355, 0.22811725735664368, 0.09257178008556366, 0.21131283044815063, -0.35779309272766113, 0.387667179107666, -0.08339209854602814, -0.1092129722237587, -0.13004648685455322, -0.2371435910463333, -0.0314614363014698, -0.013781804591417313, 0.32056781649...	1	In 1348, the English people experienced an epidemic of plague – “black death”, which claimed almost a third of the country’s population. Feudal lords, rich merchants and craftsmen faced the problem of shortage of workers and preservation of old wages. To satisfy their interests, royal power in the second half of the XIV century. issued a number of laws known as “working legislation”. All healthy men and women aged 12 to 60 years without their own land and other means of livelihood were forced to work for those who needed it, and for the old fee. For refusal to work under such conditions, a fine, imprisonment and branding with a red-hot iron was established. “Working legislation” and military tax led to a peasant uprising led by the roofer Wat Tyler. The uprising broke out in 1381. Together with Wat Tyler, the uprising of 1381g. headed by John Ball – a priest from York. Since the early 60-ies of the XIV century. he traveled the country, calling for church reform and the establishment of social equality. Among ordinary people, his preaching was especially well-known. “When Adam plowed, and Eve spun, who then was a nobleman?” This expression in the people became winged. Detachments of the rebels thundered the monasteries and estates of the feudal lords, seized grain, livestock and other property, burned documents with a list of peasant duties. The peasants were especially cruel to deal with tax collectors XIV century. Chronicle of the abbey of St. Mary in York about the murder of Wat Tyler and the massacre of insurgent peasants Wat Tyler trustfully approached the King’s suite to hand over the demands of the peasants to him… The Mayor of London… Sword to reproach Woot for the violence… and arrested him… Wat in great irritation caused a mayor with a dagger to hit the stomach. However… the mayor wore chain mail and was not injured, but, like a brave and courageous man, he snatched his sword and responded with a strong blow to his neck and head… After this, the king sent his messengers to various places to grab criminals and punish them to death. And a lot was seized and hanged in London. And many gallows were set then… in other cities and villages… Finally, from the caress of God, the king saw that many of his subordinates were killed and much blood was shed, his heart was filled with pity and he announced forgiveness to them on condition that they are more will never rebel under pain of losing their lives… The uprising led by Wat Tyler had a great influence on the future fate of English society. The royal power made concessions: the taxes and the “working legislation” were somewhat reduced. The process of freeing the peasants from land dependence and accelerating their transfer to cash rents accelerated. Since 1399, the Lancastrian dynasty came to power in England. With the mentally ill Henry VI, the Duke Richard York, a distant relative of the king, advanced his claims to the throne. The coat of arms of the Lancaster was adorned with a scarlet rose, and the coat of arms of York is white, so the bloody thirty-year confrontation between them went down in history as the War of the Roses and the White Roses. Events unfolded in the interests of one, then in the interests of another kind. In the bloody clashes, Yorkies and Lancasters were killed. In one such battle, Richard of York died. At the head of the Yorkshire party was his son Edward. He several times defeated the Lancastrians, captured London and was proclaimed King by the name of Edward IV. However, with his coming to power, the bloodshed increased. Soon the struggle began among the Yorkers themselves. In 1483, Edward IV died suddenly. King was to be his 12-year-old son Edward. However, the power was seized by Richard Gloucester, the brother of the late King Edward IV. He began to rule under the name of Richard III. Prince Edward and his younger brother were imprisoned in the Tower, where the boys were killed. Against Richard III, the Lancastrians and part of the Yorkist barons united. They accused him of usurping power, raised an insurrection against him, and nominated Henry Tudor, a distant relative of the Lancaster. A new pretender to the throne assembled an army in France and landed in England. In 1485, near the town of Bosworth, a decisive battle took place between the forces of Henry Tudor and King Richard III. The army of Richard III was defeated, and he himself was killed. Henry Tudor on the battlefield was proclaimed king. He was crowned under the name of Henry VII. The War of the Roses and the White Roses is over. Henry VII married a representative of the dynasty of York and founded a new royal dynasty – the Tudors. The marriage put an end to the longstanding confrontation between two noble families whose symbols – scarlet and white roses – now adorned one coat of arms.	1,037	ENGLISH	1
Tenement housing or a tenement is typically an apartment building, sometimes run down or low standard, that is divided into multiple living areas to fit multiple families. Tenement housing is most often occupied by the poor social class. Tenement Housing in North America Tenement dwellings in North America first became popular in the 19th century in New York City or the surrounding areas. They started off as warehouses that would be split up into multiple rooms for immigrant families and workers, but later (in the 1820’s-1830’s) evolved into 3 and 4 floor buildings with windowless internal rooms. These buildings were a concern to the city because they were prone to fires or building collapses. Communal water taps were placed into what room was left in these buildings, so tenants had to share a lot of their resources with one another. By the late 1800’s, there were reported to have been over 500,000 people living in unhealthy and hazardous tenement housing environments. This was due to the extremely large amount of immigrants that were coming to the New York area for work. Tenement buildings were known to take up almost 90% of the lot that they covered, until an 1867 law that made changes to the space they could occupy. Before this law, buildings could be up to 6 stories high with 18 rooms on each floor, with most rooms not receiving proper ventilation or sunlight. The buildings were not considered to be slums, but were not anything special either. Very poor ventilation would cause extreme heat in the summer, so most tenants would make use of the fire escapes, roofs and sidewalks by sleeping on them. Tenement Housing in Berlin, Germany Berlin, Germany’s second most populous city, has been known to have once been the largest tenement city in the world. Tenement housing with introduced to Berlin during its population increase between 1860 and 1914. Although Berlin housed a large portion of the world’s tenement houses, they were one of few cities that implemented a few safety guidelines early on. Tenement buildings had a maximum floor height of 5 stories. Each building had a courtyard that had to big enough for a fire truck to turn around in. Some buildings in Berlin housed upwards of 2,000 people, requiring a few police officers to keep order in the buildings. A study performed by a Berlin clinic from 1901-1920 found that the living conditions of most tenants were inadequate, with some people living in damp basements and under stairs. A 1962 survey also revealed that 66% of tenants shared staircase toilets and only 19% of families had their own toilet. Tenement housing in Berlin was generally unpleasant, especially during WWII, needless to say that Berlin actually had it better off than most places. Personal View on Tenement Housing In my own opinion, the most challenging thing to deal with if I lived in a tenement housing environment would be sharing the utilities that should be individual necessities to every family. This would include sharing a toilet, bath, heating, and place to sleep. Having to live in a tenement housing environment like the one listed above, including sharing uses that every household should have the right to would be difficult to cope with for me.	<urn:uuid:daae4f38-d9ec-41c0-8091-271a5c78b6d0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hendogscrib.wordpress.com/tenement-housing/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00152.warc.gz	en	0.986579	649	3.59375	4	[ 0.26753830909729004, 0.2057163417339325, 0.08458170294761658, -0.08533025532960892, 0.07671180367469788, 0.6195058822631836, -0.5965880751609802, 0.0698113963007927, 0.159900963306427, -0.2998962104320526, -0.08079581707715988, 0.05697992816567421, -0.13152539730072021, -0.1014287620782852...	3	Tenement housing or a tenement is typically an apartment building, sometimes run down or low standard, that is divided into multiple living areas to fit multiple families. Tenement housing is most often occupied by the poor social class. Tenement Housing in North America Tenement dwellings in North America first became popular in the 19th century in New York City or the surrounding areas. They started off as warehouses that would be split up into multiple rooms for immigrant families and workers, but later (in the 1820’s-1830’s) evolved into 3 and 4 floor buildings with windowless internal rooms. These buildings were a concern to the city because they were prone to fires or building collapses. Communal water taps were placed into what room was left in these buildings, so tenants had to share a lot of their resources with one another. By the late 1800’s, there were reported to have been over 500,000 people living in unhealthy and hazardous tenement housing environments. This was due to the extremely large amount of immigrants that were coming to the New York area for work. Tenement buildings were known to take up almost 90% of the lot that they covered, until an 1867 law that made changes to the space they could occupy. Before this law, buildings could be up to 6 stories high with 18 rooms on each floor, with most rooms not receiving proper ventilation or sunlight. The buildings were not considered to be slums, but were not anything special either. Very poor ventilation would cause extreme heat in the summer, so most tenants would make use of the fire escapes, roofs and sidewalks by sleeping on them. Tenement Housing in Berlin, Germany Berlin, Germany’s second most populous city, has been known to have once been the largest tenement city in the world. Tenement housing with introduced to Berlin during its population increase between 1860 and 1914. Although Berlin housed a large portion of the world’s tenement houses, they were one of few cities that implemented a few safety guidelines early on. Tenement buildings had a maximum floor height of 5 stories. Each building had a courtyard that had to big enough for a fire truck to turn around in. Some buildings in Berlin housed upwards of 2,000 people, requiring a few police officers to keep order in the buildings. A study performed by a Berlin clinic from 1901-1920 found that the living conditions of most tenants were inadequate, with some people living in damp basements and under stairs. A 1962 survey also revealed that 66% of tenants shared staircase toilets and only 19% of families had their own toilet. Tenement housing in Berlin was generally unpleasant, especially during WWII, needless to say that Berlin actually had it better off than most places. Personal View on Tenement Housing In my own opinion, the most challenging thing to deal with if I lived in a tenement housing environment would be sharing the utilities that should be individual necessities to every family. This would include sharing a toilet, bath, heating, and place to sleep. Having to live in a tenement housing environment like the one listed above, including sharing uses that every household should have the right to would be difficult to cope with for me.	689	ENGLISH	1
Rhine meadow camps, Rheinwiesenlager The Rheinwiesenlager (English: Rhine meadow camps), were a group of 19 camps built in the Allied-occupied part of Germany by the U.S. Army to hold captured German soldiers at the close of the Second World War. Officially named Prisoner of War Temporary Enclosures (PWTE), they held between one and almost two million surrendered Wehrmacht personnel from April until September 1945. Prisoners held in the camps were designated Disarmed Enemy Forces not POWs. The decision had been taken in March 1943 by SHAEF commander in chief Dwight D. Eisenhower because of the logistical problems adhering to the Geneva Convention (1929). By not classing the hundreds of thousand of captured troops as POWs, the problems associated with accommodating so many prisoners of war according to international treaties governing their treatment was negated. Sources for German deaths in these camps range from between 3,000 to 10,000 from most sources, but up to 1,000,000 according to scholar James Bacque. Many died from starvation, dehydration and exposure to the weather elements because no structures were built inside the prison compounds. Read more Eisenhower's Rhine Meadows Death Camps Documentary Other Losses is a 1989 book by Canadian writer James Bacque, alleging that U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower intentionally caused the deaths by starvation or exposure of around a million German prisoners of war held in Western internment camps briefly after the Second World War. Other Losses charges that hundreds of thousands of German prisoners that had fled the Eastern front were designated as "Disarmed Enemy Forces" in order to avoid recognition under the Geneva Convention (1929), for the purpose of carrying out their deaths through disease or slow starvation. Other Losses cites documents in the U.S. National Archives and interviews with people who stated they witnessed the events. The book claims that a "method of genocide" was present in the banning of Red Cross inspectors, the returning of food aid, soldier ration policy, and policy regarding shelter building. Stephen Ambrose, a historian enlisted by Eisenhower in efforts to preserve his legacy and counteract criticisms of his presidency, and seven other American historians examined the book soon after its publication and concluded that it was inaccurate and the product of conspiracy theory. Other historians, including the former senior historian of the United States Army Center of Military History, Colonel Ernest F. Fisher, who was involved in the 1945 investigations into the allegations of misconduct by U.S. troops in Germany and who wrote the book's foreword, argue that the claims are accurate. read more Eisenhower's Death Camps The Last Dirty Secret of World War Two by James Bacque Call it callousness, call it reprisal, call it a policy of hostile neglect: a million Germans taken prisoner by Eisenhower's armies died in captivity after the surrender. In the spring of 1945, Adolph Hitler's Third Reich was on the brink of collapse, ground between the Red Army, advancing westward towards Berlin, and the American, British, and Canadian armies, under the overall command of General Dwight Eisenhower, moving eastward over the Rhine. Since the D-Day landings in Normandy the previous June, the westward Allies had won back France and the Low Countries, and some Wehrmacht commanders were already trying to negotiate local surrenders. Other units, though, continued to obey Hitler's orders to fight to the last man. Most systems, including transport, had broken down, and civilians in panic flight fromt he advancing Russians roamed at large. "Hungry and frightened, lying in grain fields within fifty feet of us, awaiting the appropriate time to jump up with their hands in the air"; that's how Captain H. F. McCullough of the 2nd Anti-Tank Regiment Division described the chaos of the German surrender at the end of the Second World War. In a day and a half, according to Field Marshall Bernard Montgomery, 500,000 Germans surrendered to his 21st Army Group in Northern Germany. Soon after V-E Day--May 8, 1945--the British-Canadian catch totalled more that 2 million. Virtually nothing about their treatment survives in the archives in Ottawa or London, but some skimpy evidence from the International Committee of the Red Cross, the armies concerned, and the prisoners themselves indicates that almost all continued in fair health. In any case, most were quickly released and sent home, or else transferred to the French to help in the post-war work of reconstruction. The French army had itself taken fewer than 300,000 prisoners. Like the British and Canadians, the Americans suddenly faced astounding numbers of surrendering German troops: the final tally of prisoners taken by the U.S. army in Europe (excluding Italy and North Africa) was 5.25 million. But the Americans responded very differently. Among the early U.S captives was one Corporal Helmut Liebich, who had been working in an anti-aircraft experimental group at Peenemunde on the Baltic. Liebich was captured by the Americans on April 17, near Gotha in Central Germany. Forty-two years later, he recalled vividly that there were no tents in the Gotha camp, just barbed wire fences around a field soon churned to mud. The prisoners received a small ration of food on the first day but it was then cut in half. In order to get it, they were forced to run a gauntlet. Hunched ocer, they ran between lines of American guards who hit them with sticks as they scurried towards their food. On April 27, they were transferred to the U.S. camp at Heidesheim farther wet, where there was no food at all for days, then very little. Exposed, starved, and thirsty, the men started to die. Liebich saw between ten and thirty bodies a day being dragged out of his section, B, which at first held around 5,200 men.. He saw one prisoner beat another to death to get his piece of bread. One night when it rained, Liebich saw the sides of the holes in which they were sheltered, dug in soft sandy earth, collapse on men who were too weak to struggle out. They smothered before anyone could get to them. Liebich sat down and wept. "I could hardly believe men could be so cruel to each other." Typhus broke out in Heidesheim about the beginning of May. Five days after V-E Day, on May 13, Liebich was transferred to another U.S. POW camp, at Bingen-Rudesheim in the Rhineland near Bad Kreuznach, where he was told that the prisoners numbered somewhere between 200,000 and 400,000, all without shelter, food, water, medicine, or sufficient space. Soon he fell sick with dysentery and typhus. he was moved again, semiconscious and delirious, in an open-topped railway car with about sixty other prisoners: northwest down the Rhine, with a detour through Holland, where the Dutch stood on bridges to smash stones down on the heads of the prisoners. Sometimes the American guards fired warning shots near the Dutch to keep them off. After three nights, his fellow prisoners helped him stagger into the hug camp at Rheinberg, near the border with the Netherlands, again without shelter or food. When a little food finally did arrive, it was rotten. In none of the four camps had Leibich seen any shelter for the prisoners. the death rate in the U.S. Rhineland camps at this point, according to surrviving data from a medical survey, was about thirty per cent per year. A normal death rate for a civilian population in 1945 was between one and two percent. One day in June, through hallucinations of his fever, Liebich saw "the Tommies" coming into the camp. The British had taken over Rheinberg, and that probably saved his life. At this point, Liebich, who is five-foot-ten, weighed 96.8 ponds. According to stories told to this day by other ex-prisoners of Rheinberg, tha last act of the Americans before the British took over was to bulldoze one section level while there were still men living in their holes in the ground. Under the Geneva Convention, three important rights are guaranteed prisoners of war: that they will be fed and sheltered to the same standard as base or depot troops of the Capturing Power; that they can send and receive mail; and that they will be visited by delegates of the International Red Cross (ICRC) who will report in secret on their treatment to a Protecting Power. (In the cas eof Germany, as the government disintegrated in the closing stages of the war, Switzerland had been designated the protecting power.) In fact, German prisoners taken by the U.S. Army at the end of the Second World War were denied these and most other rights by a series of specific decisions and directives stemming mainly from SHAEF--Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force. General Dwight Eisenhower was both supreme commander of SHAEF--all the Allied armies in northwest Europe--and the commanding general of the U.S. forces in the European theatre. He was subject to the Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS) of Britain and the U.S., to the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), and to the policy of the U.S. government, but in the absence of explicit directives--to the contrary or otherwise--ultimate responsibility for the treatment of the German prisoners in American hands lies with him. "God , I hate the Germans," Eisenhower wrote to his wife, Mamie, in September, 1944. Earlier, in front of the British ambassador to Washington, he had said that all the 3,500 or so officers of the German General Staff should be "exterminated." In March, 1945, a message to the Combined Chiefs of Staff signed and initialled by Eisenhower recommended creating a new class of prisoners--Disarmed Enemy Forces, or DEFs--who, unlike Geneva-defined prisoners of war, would not be fed by the army after the surrender of Germany. This would be a direct breach of the Geneva Convention. The message, dated March 10, argues in part: "The additional maintenance commitment entailed by declaring the German Armed Forces prisoners [sic] of war which would necessitate the prevision of rations on a scale equal to that of base troops would prove far beyond the capacity of the Allies even if all German sources were tapped." It ends: "Your approval is requested. Existing plans have been prepared upon this basis." On April 26, 1945, the Combined Chiefs approved the DEF status for prisoners of war in American hands only: the British members had refused to adopt the American plan for their own prisoners. The Combined Chiefs stipulated that the status of disarmed troops be kept secret. By that time, Eisenhower's quartermaster general at SHAEF, General Robert Littlejohn, had already twice reduced rations for prisoners, and a SHAEF message signed "Eisenhower" had reported to General George Marshall, the U.S. Army Chief of staff, that the prisoner pens would provide "no shelter or other comforts...." The problem was not supplies. There was more than enough material stockpiled in Europe to construct prison camp facilities. Eisenhower's special assistant, general Everett Hughes, had visited the huge supply dumps at Naples and Marseille and reported: "More stocks than we can ever use. Stretch as far as eye can see." Food should not have been a problem, either. In the U.S., wheat and corn surpluses were higher than they had ever been, and there was a record crop of potatoes. The army itself had so much food in reserve that when a whole warehouse was dropped from the supply list by accident in England it was not noticed for three months. In addition, the International Red Cross had over 100,000 tons of food in storage in Switzerland. When it tried to send two trainloads of this to the American sector of Germany, U.S. Army Officers turned the trains back, saying their warehouses were already overflowing with ICRC food which they had never distributed. Nonetheless it was through the supply side that the policy of deprivation was carried out. Water, food, tents, space, medicine--everything necessary for the prisoners was kept fatally scarce. Camp Rheinberg, where Corporal Liebich would fetch up in in mid-May, shivering with dysentery and typhus, had no food at all when it was opened on April 17. As in the other big "Rhine meadow" camps, opened by the Americans in mid-April, there were no guard towers, tents, buildings, cooking facilities, water, latrines, or food. George Weiss, at tank repairman who now lives in Toronto, recalls of his camp on the Rhine: "All night we had to sit up jammed against each other. But the lack of water was the worst thing of all. For three and a half days, we had no water at all. We would drink our own urine...." Private Heinz T. (his surname is withheld at his request) had just turned eighteen in hospital when the Americans walked into his ward on April 18. he and all his fellow patients were taken out to the camp at Bad Kreuzpath in the Rhineland, which already held several hundred thousand prisoners. Heinz was wearing only a pair of shorts, shoes, and a shirt. Heinz was far from the youngest in the camp, which also held thousands of displaced German civilians. there were children as young as six among the prisoners, as well as pregnant women, and men over sixty. At the beginning, when trees still grew i the camp, some men managed to cut off limbs to build a fire. the guards ordered the fire put out. In many of the enclosures, it was forbidden to dig holes in the ground for shelter. "All we had to eat was grass," Heinz remembers. Charles von Luttichau was convalescing at home when he decided to surrender voluntarily to US troops about to occupy his house. He was taken to Camp Kripp, on the Rhine near Remagen. "We were kept in crowded barbed wire cages in the open with scarcely any food," he recalled recently. "More than half the days we had no food at all. On the rest, we got a little K ration. I could see from the package that they were giving us one-tenth of the rations that they issued to their own men....I complained to the American camp commander that he was breaking the Geneva Convention, but he just said, 'Forget the Convention. You haven't any rights.' "The latrines were just logs flung over ditches next to the barbed-wire fences. Because of illness, the men had to defecate on the ground. Soon, many of us were too weak to take our trousers off first. So our clothing was infected, and so was the mud where we had to walk and sit and lie down. In these conditions, our men very soon started to die. Within a few days, some of the men who had gone healthy into the camp were dead. I saw our men dragging many bodies to the gate of the camp, where they were thrown loose on top of each other onto trucks, which took them away." Von Luttichau's mother was American and he later emigrated to Washington, D.C., where he became a historian and wrote a military history for the U.S. Army. he was in the Kripp camp for about three months. Wolfgang Iff, who was imprisoned at Rheinberg and still lives in Germany, reports that, in his subsection of perhaps 10,000 prisoners, thirty to fifty bodies were dragged out every day. A member of the burial work party, Iff says he helped haul the dead from his cage out to the gate of the camp, where the bodies were carried by wheel barrow to several big steel garages. there Iff and his team stripped the corpses of clothing, snapped off half of their aluminium dog tag, spread the bodies in layers of fifteen to twenty, with ten shovelfuls of quicklime over each layer till they were stacked a metre high, placed the personal efefcts in a bag for the Americans, then left. Some of the corpses were dead of gangrene following frostbite. (It was an unusually wet, cold spring.) A dozen or more others had grown too weak to cling to the log flung across the ditch for a latrine, and had fallen off and drowned. The conditions in the American camps along the Rhine in late April were observed by two colonels in the U.S. Army Medical Corps, James Mason and Charles Beasley, who described them in a paper published in 1950: "Huddled close together for warmth, behind the barbed wire was a most awesome sight--nearly 100,000 haggard, apathetic, dirty, gaunt, blank-staring med clad in dirty field grey uniforms, and standing ankle-deep in mud....The German Divisions Commander reported that the men had not eaten for at least two days, and the provisions of water was a major problem--yet only 200 yards away was the River Rhine running bankfull." On May 4, 1945, the first German prisoners of war in U.S. hands were transferred to DEF status. The same day, the U.S. war Department banned mail to or from the prisoners. (when the International Committee of the Red Cross suggested a plan for restoring mail in June, it was rejected.) On May 8, V-E Day, the German government was abolished and, simultaneously, the U.S. State Department dismissed Switzerland as the protecting power for the German prisoners. (Prime Minister Mackenzie King of Canada protested to the foreign Office in London the parallel removal of the Swiss as protecting power in British-Canadian camps, but was squelched for his pains.) With this done, the State Department informed the International Red Cross that, since there was no protecting power to report to, there was no longer and point in visiting the camps. From then on, prisoners held by the US Army had no access to any impartial observer, nor could they receive food parcels, clothing, or medicines from any relief agency, or letters from their kin. general George Patton's US Third Army was the only army in the whole European theatre to free significant numbers of captives during ma, saving many of them from probable death. Bothe Omar Bradley and General J.C.H. lee, Commander Communications Zone (Com Z) Europe, ordered a release of prisoners within a week of the war's end, but a SHAEF order signed "Eisenhower" countermanded them on my 15. That same day, according to a minute of their meeting, General Eisenhower and Prime Minister Churchill talked about reducing prisoner rations. Churchill asked for an agreement on the scale of rations for prisoners, because he would soon have to announce cuts in the British meat ration and wanted to make sure that the prisoners "as far as possible...should be fed on those supplies which we could best spare." Eisenhower replied that he had already "given the matter considerable attention," but was planning to re-examine the whole thing to see "whether or not a further ereduction was possible." He told Churchill that POWs had been getting 2,200 calories a day. (The US Army medical Corps considered 2,150 an absolute minimum subsistence level for sedentary adults living under shelter. US troops were issued 4,000 calories a day.) What he did not tell Churchill was that the army was not feeding the DEFs at all, or was feeding them far less than those who still enjoyed prisoner-of-war status. Rations were reduced again soon after this: a direct cut was recorded in the Quartermaster Reports. But indirect cuts were taking place as well. One was the effect of extraordinary gaps between prisoner strength as given on the ration lists and official "on hand" accounts, and between the on-hand counts, and between the on-hand count and the actual number of prisoners in the camps. The meticulous General Lee grew so worried about the discrepancies that he fired off a challenging cable from his headquarters in paris to SHAEF headquarters in Frankfurt: "This Headquarters is having considerable difficulty in establishing adequate basis for requisitioning rations for prisoners of war currently held in Theatre...In response to inquiries from this Headquarters...several varying statements of number of prisoners held in theatre have been published by SHAEF." He then cites the latest SHAEF statement: "Cable...dated 31 May states 1,890,000 prisoners of war and 1,200,000 disarmed German forces on hand. Best available figures at this Headquarters show prisoners of war in ComZ910,980, in ComZ transient enclosures 1,002,422 and in Twelfth Army GP 965,125, making a total of 2,878,537 and an additional 1,000,000 disarmed German forces Germany and Austria." The situation was astounding: Lee was reporting a million or more men in the US Army camps in Europe than SHAEF said it ha don its books. But he was wrestling with the wind: he had to his issue of food on the number of prisoners on hand supplied to him by SHAEF G-3 (Operations). Given the general turmoil, fluctuating and inaccurate tallies were probably inevitable, but more than 1 million captives can actual be seen disappearing between two reports of the Theatre Provost Marshal, issued on the same day, June2. the last in a series of daily reports from the TPM logs 2,870,400 POWs on hand at June 2. The first report of the new weekly series, dated the same day, says that there are only 1,836,000 on hand. At one point in the middle of June, the prisoner strength on the ration list was shown as 1,421,559, while on Lee's and other evidence there were probably almost three times that number. Spreading the rations thinner was one way to guarantee starvation. Another was accomplished by some strange army bookkeeping during June and July. A million prisoners who had been receiving at least some food because of their nominal POW status lost their rights and their food when they were secretly transferred to the DEF status. The shift was made deliberately over many week, with careful attention paid to maintaining plausible balances in SHAEF's weekly POW and DEF reports. (The discrepancy between those "shifted" from POW status during the period from June 2 to July 28 and those "received" in the DEF status is only 0.43 per cent.) The reclassification to DEF did not require any transfer of men to new camps, or involve any new organisation to get German civilians supplies to them. The men stayed where they were. All that happened was that, by the clatter of a typewriter, their skimpy bit of US Army food was stopped. The effect of a policy arranged through accountancy and conveyed by winks and nods--without written orders--was first to mystify, then to frustrate, then to exhaust the middle-rank officers who were responsible for POWs. A colonel in the Quartermaster Section of the advance US fighting units wrote a personal plea to Quartermaster General Robert Littlejohn as early as April 27: "Aside from the 750 tons received from Fifteenth Army, no subsistence has been received nor do I expect any. What desirable Class II and IV (rations) we have received has been entirely at the suffernece of the Armies, upon personbal appeal and has been insignificant in relation to the demands which are being put upon us by the influx of prisoners of war." Rumours of conditions in the camps ran through the US Army. "Boy, those camps were bad news," said Benedict K. Zobrist, a technical sergeant in the Medical Corps. "We were warned to stay as far away as we could." In May and early June of 1945, a team of US Medical Corps doctors did survey some of the Rhineland camps, holding just over 80,000 German POWs. Its report is missing from the appropriate section of the National Archives in Washington, but two secondary sources reproduce some of the findings. The three main killers were diarrhoea and dysentery (treated as one category), cardiac disease, and pneumonia. But, straining medical terminology, the doctors also recorded deaths from "emaciation" and "exhaustion." And their data revealed death rates eighty times as high as any peacetime norm. Only 9.7 percent to fifteen percent of the prisoners had died of causes clearly associated with lack of food, such as emaciation and dehydration, and "exhaustion." But the other diseases, directly attributable to exposure, overcrowding, filth, and lack of sanitation, were undoubtedly exacerbated by starvation. As the report noted, "Exposure, overcrowding of pens and lack of food and sanitary facilities all contributed to these excessive (death) rates." The data, it must be remembered, were taken from the POW camps, not from the DEF camps. By the end of May,1945, more people had already died in the US camps than would die in the atomic blast at Hiroshima. On June 4, 1945, a cable signed "Eisenhower" told Washington that it was "urgently necessary to reduce the number of prisoners at earliest opportunity by discharging all classes of prisoners not likely to be required by Allies." It is hard to understand what prompted this cable. No reason for it is evident in the massive cable traffic that survives the period in the archives in London, Washington, and Abilene, Kansas. And far from ordering Eisenhower to take or hold on to prisoners, the Combined Chiefs' message of April 26 had urged him not to take in any more after V-E Day, even for labour. Nonetheless more than 2 million DEFs were impounded after May 8. During June, Germany was partitioned into zones of occupation and in July, 1945, SHAEF was disbanded. Eisenhower, reverting to his single role as US commanding general in Europe, becoming military governor of the US zone. He continued to keep out Red Cross representatives, and the US Army also informed American relief teams that the zone was closed to them. It was closed to all relief shipments as well--until December, 1945, when a slight relaxation came in to effect. Also starting in July, the Americans turned over between 600,000 and 700,000 German captives to the French to help repair damages done to their country during the war. many of the transferees were in five US camps clustered around Dietersheim, near Mainz, in the section of Germany that had just come under French control. (most of the rest were in US camps in France.) On July 10, a French unit took over Dietersheim and seventeen days later a Captain Julien arrived to assume command. His report survives as part of an army inquiry into a dispute between Julien and his predecessor. In the first camp he entered, he testified to finding muddy ground "people living skeletons," some of whom died as he watched. others huddled under bits of cardboard which they clutched although the July day was hot. Women lying in holes in the ground stared up at him with hunger oedema bulging their bellies in gross parody of pregnancy; old men with long grey hair watched him feebly; children of six or seven with the racoon rings of starvation looked at him from lifeless eyes. Tow German doctors in the "hospital" were trying to care for the dying on the ground under the hot sky, between, the marks of the tent that the Americans had taken with them. Julien, who had fought against the Germans with his regiment, the 3erne Regiment de Tirailleure Algeriens, found himself thinking in horror: "This is just like the photographs of Buchenwald and Dachau." There were 103, 500 people in the five camps round Dietersheim and amongst them Julien's officers counted 32, 640 who could do no work at all. These were released immediately. In all, two-thirds of the prisoners taken over by the French that summer from American camps in Germany and in France were useless for reparations labour. In the camp at Sainte-Marthe, 615 of 700 captives were reported to be unable to work. At Erbiseul near Mons, Belgium, according to a written complaint, twenty-five per cent of the men received by the French were "dechets," or garbage. In July and August, as US Quartermaster Littejohn signalled to Eisenhower in due course, the Army food reserves in Europe grew by thirty-nine percent. On August 4, a one-sentence order signed "Eisenhower" condemned all prisoners of wear still on hand in the US camps to DEF status: "Effective immediately all members of the German forces held in US custody in the American zone of occupation in GERMANY will be considered as disarmed enemy forces and and not as having the status of prisoner of war." No reason was given. Surviving weekly tallies suggest the dual classification was preserved, but, for the POWs now being treated as DEFs, the death rate quadrupled within a few weeks, from .2 percent per week to .8 percent. Long-time DEFs were dying at nearly early five times that rate. the official "Weekly PW and DEF Report" for the week ending Sept 8, 1945, still exists in the US National archives in Washington. It shows an aggregate of 1,056,482 prisoners being held by the US Army in the European theatre, of whom about two-thirds are identified as POWs. the other third--363,587 men--are DEFs. During that one week, 13,051 of them died. In November, 1045, general Eisenhower succeeded George Marshall as US Army chief of staff and returned to the US. In January, 1946, the camps still held significant numbers of captives but the US had wound down its prisoner holdings almost to zero by the end of 1946. the French continued holding hundreds of of thousands through 1946, but gradually reduced the number to nothing by about 1949. During the 1950's, most non-record material relating to the US prison camps was destroyed by the Army. Eisenhower had deplored the Germans' useless defence of the Reich in the last months of the war because of the waste of life. At least ten times as many Germans--undoubtedly 800,000, almost certainly more than 900,000, and quite probably over 1 million--died in the French and American camps as were killed in all the combat on the Western Front in northwest Europe from America's entry into the war in 1941 through to April, 1945. German Generals held at a US-operated prison camp in Germany after World War II. A painted sign reads 'Vive La France' on the side of a building. These military conquerors of Poland, Holland and France perform menial task. A General dries clothes. Generals carry clothes. Major General Eric Fiedler whittles a block of wood. General Alfred Jodl stitches clothes and Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel reads a book. General Siegler reclines partially in bed. Another officer makes a wooden stool and hits the nail with hammer. General Wilhelm List and General Von Liebe play a game with home made cards. A piece of paper reads 'Wilhelm List'. General von Greifendorf, an alumnus of the United States General Staff School, salutes American enlisted soldiers near a prison gate. Location: Germany. Date: 1945. James Bacque published his book Other Losses in 1989 demonstrating that the US Army had secretly put to death 750,000 prisoners of war in 1945. Working from coded American documents with the help of an embedded US Army Senior Historian, Bacque revealed that right after Germany surrendered, General Dwight Eisenhower, later president of the US, ordered that shelter and food be denied to millions of prisoners held in outdoor cages. When rumors of the corpse-laden camps spread to New York Times star journalist Drew Middleton, he covered up for the government and the Times which are still denying the massacre. The Genocide of 1 7 Million German POW's in Eisenhower's Rhine Meadow Death Camps. During World War II, captured service personnel of the axis and allied forces found themselves incarcerated as prisoners of war. This fascinating documentary outlines the treatment and personal experiences of the many millions that were taken captive during the conflict.	<urn:uuid:5787c41f-0611-473f-84f7-b5f36913571d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nosue.org/the-holocaust-german-and-american-law/rhine-meadow-camps/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00238.warc.gz	en	0.982102	6,788	3.71875	4	[ 0.01983514428138733, 0.5907319784164429, -0.10516449064016342, 0.20433783531188965, 0.1120547279715538, -0.027409713715314865, -0.17253310978412628, -0.113803930580616, -0.3113026022911072, -0.30518773198127747, 0.37238115072250366, -0.21197664737701416, 0.212030827999115, 0.77829647064208...	7	Rhine meadow camps, Rheinwiesenlager The Rheinwiesenlager (English: Rhine meadow camps), were a group of 19 camps built in the Allied-occupied part of Germany by the U.S. Army to hold captured German soldiers at the close of the Second World War. Officially named Prisoner of War Temporary Enclosures (PWTE), they held between one and almost two million surrendered Wehrmacht personnel from April until September 1945. Prisoners held in the camps were designated Disarmed Enemy Forces not POWs. The decision had been taken in March 1943 by SHAEF commander in chief Dwight D. Eisenhower because of the logistical problems adhering to the Geneva Convention (1929). By not classing the hundreds of thousand of captured troops as POWs, the problems associated with accommodating so many prisoners of war according to international treaties governing their treatment was negated. Sources for German deaths in these camps range from between 3,000 to 10,000 from most sources, but up to 1,000,000 according to scholar James Bacque. Many died from starvation, dehydration and exposure to the weather elements because no structures were built inside the prison compounds. Read more Eisenhower's Rhine Meadows Death Camps Documentary Other Losses is a 1989 book by Canadian writer James Bacque, alleging that U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower intentionally caused the deaths by starvation or exposure of around a million German prisoners of war held in Western internment camps briefly after the Second World War. Other Losses charges that hundreds of thousands of German prisoners that had fled the Eastern front were designated as "Disarmed Enemy Forces" in order to avoid recognition under the Geneva Convention (1929), for the purpose of carrying out their deaths through disease or slow starvation. Other Losses cites documents in the U.S. National Archives and interviews with people who stated they witnessed the events. The book claims that a "method of genocide" was present in the banning of Red Cross inspectors, the returning of food aid, soldier ration policy, and policy regarding shelter building. Stephen Ambrose, a historian enlisted by Eisenhower in efforts to preserve his legacy and counteract criticisms of his presidency, and seven other American historians examined the book soon after its publication and concluded that it was inaccurate and the product of conspiracy theory. Other historians, including the former senior historian of the United States Army Center of Military History, Colonel Ernest F. Fisher, who was involved in the 1945 investigations into the allegations of misconduct by U.S. troops in Germany and who wrote the book's foreword, argue that the claims are accurate. read more Eisenhower's Death Camps The Last Dirty Secret of World War Two by James Bacque Call it callousness, call it reprisal, call it a policy of hostile neglect: a million Germans taken prisoner by Eisenhower's armies died in captivity after the surrender. In the spring of 1945, Adolph Hitler's Third Reich was on the brink of collapse, ground between the Red Army, advancing westward towards Berlin, and the American, British, and Canadian armies, under the overall command of General Dwight Eisenhower, moving eastward over the Rhine. Since the D-Day landings in Normandy the previous June, the westward Allies had won back France and the Low Countries, and some Wehrmacht commanders were already trying to negotiate local surrenders. Other units, though, continued to obey Hitler's orders to fight to the last man. Most systems, including transport, had broken down, and civilians in panic flight fromt he advancing Russians roamed at large. "Hungry and frightened, lying in grain fields within fifty feet of us, awaiting the appropriate time to jump up with their hands in the air"; that's how Captain H. F. McCullough of the 2nd Anti-Tank Regiment Division described the chaos of the German surrender at the end of the Second World War. In a day and a half, according to Field Marshall Bernard Montgomery, 500,000 Germans surrendered to his 21st Army Group in Northern Germany. Soon after V-E Day--May 8, 1945--the British-Canadian catch totalled more that 2 million. Virtually nothing about their treatment survives in the archives in Ottawa or London, but some skimpy evidence from the International Committee of the Red Cross, the armies concerned, and the prisoners themselves indicates that almost all continued in fair health. In any case, most were quickly released and sent home, or else transferred to the French to help in the post-war work of reconstruction. The French army had itself taken fewer than 300,000 prisoners. Like the British and Canadians, the Americans suddenly faced astounding numbers of surrendering German troops: the final tally of prisoners taken by the U.S. army in Europe (excluding Italy and North Africa) was 5.25 million. But the Americans responded very differently. Among the early U.S captives was one Corporal Helmut Liebich, who had been working in an anti-aircraft experimental group at Peenemunde on the Baltic. Liebich was captured by the Americans on April 17, near Gotha in Central Germany. Forty-two years later, he recalled vividly that there were no tents in the Gotha camp, just barbed wire fences around a field soon churned to mud. The prisoners received a small ration of food on the first day but it was then cut in half. In order to get it, they were forced to run a gauntlet. Hunched ocer, they ran between lines of American guards who hit them with sticks as they scurried towards their food. On April 27, they were transferred to the U.S. camp at Heidesheim farther wet, where there was no food at all for days, then very little. Exposed, starved, and thirsty, the men started to die. Liebich saw between ten and thirty bodies a day being dragged out of his section, B, which at first held around 5,200 men.. He saw one prisoner beat another to death to get his piece of bread. One night when it rained, Liebich saw the sides of the holes in which they were sheltered, dug in soft sandy earth, collapse on men who were too weak to struggle out. They smothered before anyone could get to them. Liebich sat down and wept. "I could hardly believe men could be so cruel to each other." Typhus broke out in Heidesheim about the beginning of May. Five days after V-E Day, on May 13, Liebich was transferred to another U.S. POW camp, at Bingen-Rudesheim in the Rhineland near Bad Kreuznach, where he was told that the prisoners numbered somewhere between 200,000 and 400,000, all without shelter, food, water, medicine, or sufficient space. Soon he fell sick with dysentery and typhus. he was moved again, semiconscious and delirious, in an open-topped railway car with about sixty other prisoners: northwest down the Rhine, with a detour through Holland, where the Dutch stood on bridges to smash stones down on the heads of the prisoners. Sometimes the American guards fired warning shots near the Dutch to keep them off. After three nights, his fellow prisoners helped him stagger into the hug camp at Rheinberg, near the border with the Netherlands, again without shelter or food. When a little food finally did arrive, it was rotten. In none of the four camps had Leibich seen any shelter for the prisoners. the death rate in the U.S. Rhineland camps at this point, according to surrviving data from a medical survey, was about thirty per cent per year. A normal death rate for a civilian population in 1945 was between one and two percent. One day in June, through hallucinations of his fever, Liebich saw "the Tommies" coming into the camp. The British had taken over Rheinberg, and that probably saved his life. At this point, Liebich, who is five-foot-ten, weighed 96.8 ponds. According to stories told to this day by other ex-prisoners of Rheinberg, tha last act of the Americans before the British took over was to bulldoze one section level while there were still men living in their holes in the ground. Under the Geneva Convention, three important rights are guaranteed prisoners of war: that they will be fed and sheltered to the same standard as base or depot troops of the Capturing Power; that they can send and receive mail; and that they will be visited by delegates of the International Red Cross (ICRC) who will report in secret on their treatment to a Protecting Power. (In the cas eof Germany, as the government disintegrated in the closing stages of the war, Switzerland had been designated the protecting power.) In fact, German prisoners taken by the U.S. Army at the end of the Second World War were denied these and most other rights by a series of specific decisions and directives stemming mainly from SHAEF--Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force. General Dwight Eisenhower was both supreme commander of SHAEF--all the Allied armies in northwest Europe--and the commanding general of the U.S. forces in the European theatre. He was subject to the Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS) of Britain and the U.S., to the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), and to the policy of the U.S. government, but in the absence of explicit directives--to the contrary or otherwise--ultimate responsibility for the treatment of the German prisoners in American hands lies with him. "God , I hate the Germans," Eisenhower wrote to his wife, Mamie, in September, 1944. Earlier, in front of the British ambassador to Washington, he had said that all the 3,500 or so officers of the German General Staff should be "exterminated." In March, 1945, a message to the Combined Chiefs of Staff signed and initialled by Eisenhower recommended creating a new class of prisoners--Disarmed Enemy Forces, or DEFs--who, unlike Geneva-defined prisoners of war, would not be fed by the army after the surrender of Germany. This would be a direct breach of the Geneva Convention. The message, dated March 10, argues in part: "The additional maintenance commitment entailed by declaring the German Armed Forces prisoners [sic] of war which would necessitate the prevision of rations on a scale equal to that of base troops would prove far beyond the capacity of the Allies even if all German sources were tapped." It ends: "Your approval is requested. Existing plans have been prepared upon this basis." On April 26, 1945, the Combined Chiefs approved the DEF status for prisoners of war in American hands only: the British members had refused to adopt the American plan for their own prisoners. The Combined Chiefs stipulated that the status of disarmed troops be kept secret. By that time, Eisenhower's quartermaster general at SHAEF, General Robert Littlejohn, had already twice reduced rations for prisoners, and a SHAEF message signed "Eisenhower" had reported to General George Marshall, the U.S. Army Chief of staff, that the prisoner pens would provide "no shelter or other comforts...." The problem was not supplies. There was more than enough material stockpiled in Europe to construct prison camp facilities. Eisenhower's special assistant, general Everett Hughes, had visited the huge supply dumps at Naples and Marseille and reported: "More stocks than we can ever use. Stretch as far as eye can see." Food should not have been a problem, either. In the U.S., wheat and corn surpluses were higher than they had ever been, and there was a record crop of potatoes. The army itself had so much food in reserve that when a whole warehouse was dropped from the supply list by accident in England it was not noticed for three months. In addition, the International Red Cross had over 100,000 tons of food in storage in Switzerland. When it tried to send two trainloads of this to the American sector of Germany, U.S. Army Officers turned the trains back, saying their warehouses were already overflowing with ICRC food which they had never distributed. Nonetheless it was through the supply side that the policy of deprivation was carried out. Water, food, tents, space, medicine--everything necessary for the prisoners was kept fatally scarce. Camp Rheinberg, where Corporal Liebich would fetch up in in mid-May, shivering with dysentery and typhus, had no food at all when it was opened on April 17. As in the other big "Rhine meadow" camps, opened by the Americans in mid-April, there were no guard towers, tents, buildings, cooking facilities, water, latrines, or food. George Weiss, at tank repairman who now lives in Toronto, recalls of his camp on the Rhine: "All night we had to sit up jammed against each other. But the lack of water was the worst thing of all. For three and a half days, we had no water at all. We would drink our own urine...." Private Heinz T. (his surname is withheld at his request) had just turned eighteen in hospital when the Americans walked into his ward on April 18. he and all his fellow patients were taken out to the camp at Bad Kreuzpath in the Rhineland, which already held several hundred thousand prisoners. Heinz was wearing only a pair of shorts, shoes, and a shirt. Heinz was far from the youngest in the camp, which also held thousands of displaced German civilians. there were children as young as six among the prisoners, as well as pregnant women, and men over sixty. At the beginning, when trees still grew i the camp, some men managed to cut off limbs to build a fire. the guards ordered the fire put out. In many of the enclosures, it was forbidden to dig holes in the ground for shelter. "All we had to eat was grass," Heinz remembers. Charles von Luttichau was convalescing at home when he decided to surrender voluntarily to US troops about to occupy his house. He was taken to Camp Kripp, on the Rhine near Remagen. "We were kept in crowded barbed wire cages in the open with scarcely any food," he recalled recently. "More than half the days we had no food at all. On the rest, we got a little K ration. I could see from the package that they were giving us one-tenth of the rations that they issued to their own men....I complained to the American camp commander that he was breaking the Geneva Convention, but he just said, 'Forget the Convention. You haven't any rights.' "The latrines were just logs flung over ditches next to the barbed-wire fences. Because of illness, the men had to defecate on the ground. Soon, many of us were too weak to take our trousers off first. So our clothing was infected, and so was the mud where we had to walk and sit and lie down. In these conditions, our men very soon started to die. Within a few days, some of the men who had gone healthy into the camp were dead. I saw our men dragging many bodies to the gate of the camp, where they were thrown loose on top of each other onto trucks, which took them away." Von Luttichau's mother was American and he later emigrated to Washington, D.C., where he became a historian and wrote a military history for the U.S. Army. he was in the Kripp camp for about three months. Wolfgang Iff, who was imprisoned at Rheinberg and still lives in Germany, reports that, in his subsection of perhaps 10,000 prisoners, thirty to fifty bodies were dragged out every day. A member of the burial work party, Iff says he helped haul the dead from his cage out to the gate of the camp, where the bodies were carried by wheel barrow to several big steel garages. there Iff and his team stripped the corpses of clothing, snapped off half of their aluminium dog tag, spread the bodies in layers of fifteen to twenty, with ten shovelfuls of quicklime over each layer till they were stacked a metre high, placed the personal efefcts in a bag for the Americans, then left. Some of the corpses were dead of gangrene following frostbite. (It was an unusually wet, cold spring.) A dozen or more others had grown too weak to cling to the log flung across the ditch for a latrine, and had fallen off and drowned. The conditions in the American camps along the Rhine in late April were observed by two colonels in the U.S. Army Medical Corps, James Mason and Charles Beasley, who described them in a paper published in 1950: "Huddled close together for warmth, behind the barbed wire was a most awesome sight--nearly 100,000 haggard, apathetic, dirty, gaunt, blank-staring med clad in dirty field grey uniforms, and standing ankle-deep in mud....The German Divisions Commander reported that the men had not eaten for at least two days, and the provisions of water was a major problem--yet only 200 yards away was the River Rhine running bankfull." On May 4, 1945, the first German prisoners of war in U.S. hands were transferred to DEF status. The same day, the U.S. war Department banned mail to or from the prisoners. (when the International Committee of the Red Cross suggested a plan for restoring mail in June, it was rejected.) On May 8, V-E Day, the German government was abolished and, simultaneously, the U.S. State Department dismissed Switzerland as the protecting power for the German prisoners. (Prime Minister Mackenzie King of Canada protested to the foreign Office in London the parallel removal of the Swiss as protecting power in British-Canadian camps, but was squelched for his pains.) With this done, the State Department informed the International Red Cross that, since there was no protecting power to report to, there was no longer and point in visiting the camps. From then on, prisoners held by the US Army had no access to any impartial observer, nor could they receive food parcels, clothing, or medicines from any relief agency, or letters from their kin. general George Patton's US Third Army was the only army in the whole European theatre to free significant numbers of captives during ma, saving many of them from probable death. Bothe Omar Bradley and General J.C.H. lee, Commander Communications Zone (Com Z) Europe, ordered a release of prisoners within a week of the war's end, but a SHAEF order signed "Eisenhower" countermanded them on my 15. That same day, according to a minute of their meeting, General Eisenhower and Prime Minister Churchill talked about reducing prisoner rations. Churchill asked for an agreement on the scale of rations for prisoners, because he would soon have to announce cuts in the British meat ration and wanted to make sure that the prisoners "as far as possible...should be fed on those supplies which we could best spare." Eisenhower replied that he had already "given the matter considerable attention," but was planning to re-examine the whole thing to see "whether or not a further ereduction was possible." He told Churchill that POWs had been getting 2,200 calories a day. (The US Army medical Corps considered 2,150 an absolute minimum subsistence level for sedentary adults living under shelter. US troops were issued 4,000 calories a day.) What he did not tell Churchill was that the army was not feeding the DEFs at all, or was feeding them far less than those who still enjoyed prisoner-of-war status. Rations were reduced again soon after this: a direct cut was recorded in the Quartermaster Reports. But indirect cuts were taking place as well. One was the effect of extraordinary gaps between prisoner strength as given on the ration lists and official "on hand" accounts, and between the on-hand counts, and between the on-hand count and the actual number of prisoners in the camps. The meticulous General Lee grew so worried about the discrepancies that he fired off a challenging cable from his headquarters in paris to SHAEF headquarters in Frankfurt: "This Headquarters is having considerable difficulty in establishing adequate basis for requisitioning rations for prisoners of war currently held in Theatre...In response to inquiries from this Headquarters...several varying statements of number of prisoners held in theatre have been published by SHAEF." He then cites the latest SHAEF statement: "Cable...dated 31 May states 1,890,000 prisoners of war and 1,200,000 disarmed German forces on hand. Best available figures at this Headquarters show prisoners of war in ComZ910,980, in ComZ transient enclosures 1,002,422 and in Twelfth Army GP 965,125, making a total of 2,878,537 and an additional 1,000,000 disarmed German forces Germany and Austria." The situation was astounding: Lee was reporting a million or more men in the US Army camps in Europe than SHAEF said it ha don its books. But he was wrestling with the wind: he had to his issue of food on the number of prisoners on hand supplied to him by SHAEF G-3 (Operations). Given the general turmoil, fluctuating and inaccurate tallies were probably inevitable, but more than 1 million captives can actual be seen disappearing between two reports of the Theatre Provost Marshal, issued on the same day, June2. the last in a series of daily reports from the TPM logs 2,870,400 POWs on hand at June 2. The first report of the new weekly series, dated the same day, says that there are only 1,836,000 on hand. At one point in the middle of June, the prisoner strength on the ration list was shown as 1,421,559, while on Lee's and other evidence there were probably almost three times that number. Spreading the rations thinner was one way to guarantee starvation. Another was accomplished by some strange army bookkeeping during June and July. A million prisoners who had been receiving at least some food because of their nominal POW status lost their rights and their food when they were secretly transferred to the DEF status. The shift was made deliberately over many week, with careful attention paid to maintaining plausible balances in SHAEF's weekly POW and DEF reports. (The discrepancy between those "shifted" from POW status during the period from June 2 to July 28 and those "received" in the DEF status is only 0.43 per cent.) The reclassification to DEF did not require any transfer of men to new camps, or involve any new organisation to get German civilians supplies to them. The men stayed where they were. All that happened was that, by the clatter of a typewriter, their skimpy bit of US Army food was stopped. The effect of a policy arranged through accountancy and conveyed by winks and nods--without written orders--was first to mystify, then to frustrate, then to exhaust the middle-rank officers who were responsible for POWs. A colonel in the Quartermaster Section of the advance US fighting units wrote a personal plea to Quartermaster General Robert Littlejohn as early as April 27: "Aside from the 750 tons received from Fifteenth Army, no subsistence has been received nor do I expect any. What desirable Class II and IV (rations) we have received has been entirely at the suffernece of the Armies, upon personbal appeal and has been insignificant in relation to the demands which are being put upon us by the influx of prisoners of war." Rumours of conditions in the camps ran through the US Army. "Boy, those camps were bad news," said Benedict K. Zobrist, a technical sergeant in the Medical Corps. "We were warned to stay as far away as we could." In May and early June of 1945, a team of US Medical Corps doctors did survey some of the Rhineland camps, holding just over 80,000 German POWs. Its report is missing from the appropriate section of the National Archives in Washington, but two secondary sources reproduce some of the findings. The three main killers were diarrhoea and dysentery (treated as one category), cardiac disease, and pneumonia. But, straining medical terminology, the doctors also recorded deaths from "emaciation" and "exhaustion." And their data revealed death rates eighty times as high as any peacetime norm. Only 9.7 percent to fifteen percent of the prisoners had died of causes clearly associated with lack of food, such as emaciation and dehydration, and "exhaustion." But the other diseases, directly attributable to exposure, overcrowding, filth, and lack of sanitation, were undoubtedly exacerbated by starvation. As the report noted, "Exposure, overcrowding of pens and lack of food and sanitary facilities all contributed to these excessive (death) rates." The data, it must be remembered, were taken from the POW camps, not from the DEF camps. By the end of May,1945, more people had already died in the US camps than would die in the atomic blast at Hiroshima. On June 4, 1945, a cable signed "Eisenhower" told Washington that it was "urgently necessary to reduce the number of prisoners at earliest opportunity by discharging all classes of prisoners not likely to be required by Allies." It is hard to understand what prompted this cable. No reason for it is evident in the massive cable traffic that survives the period in the archives in London, Washington, and Abilene, Kansas. And far from ordering Eisenhower to take or hold on to prisoners, the Combined Chiefs' message of April 26 had urged him not to take in any more after V-E Day, even for labour. Nonetheless more than 2 million DEFs were impounded after May 8. During June, Germany was partitioned into zones of occupation and in July, 1945, SHAEF was disbanded. Eisenhower, reverting to his single role as US commanding general in Europe, becoming military governor of the US zone. He continued to keep out Red Cross representatives, and the US Army also informed American relief teams that the zone was closed to them. It was closed to all relief shipments as well--until December, 1945, when a slight relaxation came in to effect. Also starting in July, the Americans turned over between 600,000 and 700,000 German captives to the French to help repair damages done to their country during the war. many of the transferees were in five US camps clustered around Dietersheim, near Mainz, in the section of Germany that had just come under French control. (most of the rest were in US camps in France.) On July 10, a French unit took over Dietersheim and seventeen days later a Captain Julien arrived to assume command. His report survives as part of an army inquiry into a dispute between Julien and his predecessor. In the first camp he entered, he testified to finding muddy ground "people living skeletons," some of whom died as he watched. others huddled under bits of cardboard which they clutched although the July day was hot. Women lying in holes in the ground stared up at him with hunger oedema bulging their bellies in gross parody of pregnancy; old men with long grey hair watched him feebly; children of six or seven with the racoon rings of starvation looked at him from lifeless eyes. Tow German doctors in the "hospital" were trying to care for the dying on the ground under the hot sky, between, the marks of the tent that the Americans had taken with them. Julien, who had fought against the Germans with his regiment, the 3erne Regiment de Tirailleure Algeriens, found himself thinking in horror: "This is just like the photographs of Buchenwald and Dachau." There were 103, 500 people in the five camps round Dietersheim and amongst them Julien's officers counted 32, 640 who could do no work at all. These were released immediately. In all, two-thirds of the prisoners taken over by the French that summer from American camps in Germany and in France were useless for reparations labour. In the camp at Sainte-Marthe, 615 of 700 captives were reported to be unable to work. At Erbiseul near Mons, Belgium, according to a written complaint, twenty-five per cent of the men received by the French were "dechets," or garbage. In July and August, as US Quartermaster Littejohn signalled to Eisenhower in due course, the Army food reserves in Europe grew by thirty-nine percent. On August 4, a one-sentence order signed "Eisenhower" condemned all prisoners of wear still on hand in the US camps to DEF status: "Effective immediately all members of the German forces held in US custody in the American zone of occupation in GERMANY will be considered as disarmed enemy forces and and not as having the status of prisoner of war." No reason was given. Surviving weekly tallies suggest the dual classification was preserved, but, for the POWs now being treated as DEFs, the death rate quadrupled within a few weeks, from .2 percent per week to .8 percent. Long-time DEFs were dying at nearly early five times that rate. the official "Weekly PW and DEF Report" for the week ending Sept 8, 1945, still exists in the US National archives in Washington. It shows an aggregate of 1,056,482 prisoners being held by the US Army in the European theatre, of whom about two-thirds are identified as POWs. the other third--363,587 men--are DEFs. During that one week, 13,051 of them died. In November, 1045, general Eisenhower succeeded George Marshall as US Army chief of staff and returned to the US. In January, 1946, the camps still held significant numbers of captives but the US had wound down its prisoner holdings almost to zero by the end of 1946. the French continued holding hundreds of of thousands through 1946, but gradually reduced the number to nothing by about 1949. During the 1950's, most non-record material relating to the US prison camps was destroyed by the Army. Eisenhower had deplored the Germans' useless defence of the Reich in the last months of the war because of the waste of life. At least ten times as many Germans--undoubtedly 800,000, almost certainly more than 900,000, and quite probably over 1 million--died in the French and American camps as were killed in all the combat on the Western Front in northwest Europe from America's entry into the war in 1941 through to April, 1945. German Generals held at a US-operated prison camp in Germany after World War II. A painted sign reads 'Vive La France' on the side of a building. These military conquerors of Poland, Holland and France perform menial task. A General dries clothes. Generals carry clothes. Major General Eric Fiedler whittles a block of wood. General Alfred Jodl stitches clothes and Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel reads a book. General Siegler reclines partially in bed. Another officer makes a wooden stool and hits the nail with hammer. General Wilhelm List and General Von Liebe play a game with home made cards. A piece of paper reads 'Wilhelm List'. General von Greifendorf, an alumnus of the United States General Staff School, salutes American enlisted soldiers near a prison gate. Location: Germany. Date: 1945. James Bacque published his book Other Losses in 1989 demonstrating that the US Army had secretly put to death 750,000 prisoners of war in 1945. Working from coded American documents with the help of an embedded US Army Senior Historian, Bacque revealed that right after Germany surrendered, General Dwight Eisenhower, later president of the US, ordered that shelter and food be denied to millions of prisoners held in outdoor cages. When rumors of the corpse-laden camps spread to New York Times star journalist Drew Middleton, he covered up for the government and the Times which are still denying the massacre. The Genocide of 1 7 Million German POW's in Eisenhower's Rhine Meadow Death Camps. During World War II, captured service personnel of the axis and allied forces found themselves incarcerated as prisoners of war. This fascinating documentary outlines the treatment and personal experiences of the many millions that were taken captive during the conflict.	7,019	ENGLISH	1
Louisa May Alcott, or more commonly known as the author of the classic novel, Little Women, was born on November 29th, 1832 at Germantown, Pennsylvania. She was the second of four daughters born to Bronson and Abigail “Abba” Alcott. She had an older sister named Anna, and two younger sisters: Elizabeth and May. Through her writing and her novels, she managed to create a name for herself and achieve financial security for her family. She was truly a successful American author. Though the Alcott girls, including Louisa, never received any sort of formal education, they were taught by their father. The family’s friendship with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau provided many opportunities as well. For example, Emerson allowed Louisa full access to his library. Louisa grew up at the Wayside Inn during a period called the “American Renaissance”. The era was defined with major literary figures and philosophers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Nathaniel Hawthorne. Also in this era were women such as Margaret Fuller, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Lucretia Mott. Louisa also admired women writers such as Rebecca Harding Davis, the author of Life in the Iron Mills. Louisa described her delight in meeting with Davis in one of her many diary entries. Growing up, Louisa’s family moved frequently. In 1834, the family moved to Boston, where Bronson established the Temple School. The Temple School was a transcendentalist institution that failed in 1838 when it was attacked as ‘religiously unorthodox’. Afterwards, the family moved to Concord, Massachusetts. During the years of 1849 to 1852, the Alcotts lived at various addresses in Boston. Eventually, when the rest of her family returned to Concord, Louisa decided to remain in Boston. The frequent changes in her environment did not inhibit Louisa’s writing. Even as a child, Louisa had a talent for writing. She has a vivid imagination, and was constantly encouraged by her father. She wrote often, and sisters would act out Louisa’s stories for friends. It wasn’t until early adulthood, however, that officially marked the start of Alcott’s writing career. At the age of sixteen, Alcott produced a collection of fairy tales called Flower Fables. Though it wasn’t published until 1854, Flower Fables was one of her earliest works. She produced her own income by writing stories to submit to magazines, as well as doing a variety of jobs, from tailoring to housekeeping. The stories that she wrote were both sentimental and sensational, and were published in magazines such as Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper and The Flag of Our Union under the pseudonym of A. M. Barnard. She also spent much of her time writing Gothic Romances – stories with sensational plots, romantic settings, and horrifying themes. The year of 1858 marked many important events and changes in Louisa’s life. The events included the death of Louisa’s beloved sister, Elizabeth “Lizzie” Alcott. More joyous things included the marriage of May Alcott to Ernest Nieriker. Now, Louisa, at the age of 25, decided to finally return to her family, now currently residing at the Orchard House in Concord. It is the Alcott’s first permanent home, and it is there that the family would spend the rest of their lives. Louisa, however, still spent much of her time in Boston, where she continued to write. When the Civil War started, Alcott wanted to contribute to the war efforts. In 1862, she enlisted as a nurse at the Union Hotel Hospital. Yet, within six weeks, she returned home after contracting typhoid. She was treated with a toxic mercury compound that was commonly used at that time. While she did recover, the effect of the compound permanently weakened her. Louisa never fully recovered. Her experiences were published in 1863 in a book, Hospital Sketches. It was a collection of letters to her family during the six weeks that she served as one of Dorothea Dix’s nurses. Moods, Alcott’s first acknowledged novel, was published in 1864. Like Hospital Sketches, it was a book intended for adult audience. The novel was about a girl who married a man whom she was fond of, but not loved. After its publication, Louisa traveled through Europe by working as a lady’s companion. The idea of Little Women came to be after the Civil War. In the September of 1867, Thomas Niles, Louisa’s publisher, urged her to write a ‘girl’s story’. At this time, Alcott was working as an editor at Merry’s Museum, an illustrated children’s magazine. She had no problems writing the Little Women. Though she did it reluctantly, it was finished in six weeks. It was published in 1868, and gained great success almost instantly. By transforming Anna, Elizabeth, May, and herself into Meg, Beth, Amy, and Jo March, Alcott managed to captivate thousands of girls with a story about her own family life. After the success of the first Little Women volume, Alcott wrote a second volume to Little Women in a mere two months. She published it as Little Women or, Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy, Part Second in 1869. The success for the book allowed Alcott to travel to Europe in 1870. The success of Little Women finally achieved the financial success she had long craved (“Alcott, Louisa May (1832–1888). ). She became a respected and successful novelist, and in 1870, her work was in demand. Sequels soon followed: Little Men, published in 1871, and Jo’s Boys, published in 1886. Aunt Jo’s Scrap Bag, Eight Cousins, and A Garland for Girls were successful as well. While her works for children became very popular, her adult novels, such as Work, and A Modern Mephistopheles, were less so. Even with the success, Alcott never stopped doing what she loved most: writing. The year of 1877 marked the death of Louisa’s beloved mother, Abigail May Alcott. My duty is done, and now I shall be glad to follow her. My only comfort is that I could make her last years comfortable, and lift off the burden she had carried so bravely all these years,” she recorded in her journal (Kort). Louisa looked up to her mother, and Abigail was the emotional anchor for the Alcott family. After Bronson’s stroke in 1882, Alcott moved to Louisburg Square with him. Also living there were her elder sister Anna (a widow by that time); Anna’s two sons; and Louisa (May Alcott Nieriker’s daughter, whose mother died in 1879). On March 4th, Bronson Alcott died, and Alcott died two days later, supposedly of the long term effects of mercury poisoning, from when she contracted typhoid. She was buried in Concord’s Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in the family’s plot. During her lifetime, she wrote over 270 different works, and most memorably, Little Women. She never stopped writing. When she was young and well, she wrote almost feverishly. Even when she got sick, she never stopped writing. It was not until her death that she finally put her pen down. Even so, her stories lived on in our hearts.	<urn:uuid:5e0bf3f9-55c7-492c-bbf6-ba91d0baaac5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lagas.org/louisa-may-alcott/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00541.warc.gz	en	0.987525	1,595	3.53125	4	[ 0.20235052704811096, -0.06548160314559937, 0.37205758690834045, 0.10843658447265625, -0.40646424889564514, 0.21026310324668884, -0.2696782350540161, 0.2051706463098526, -0.10545201599597931, 0.15426088869571686, 0.2782507538795471, 0.09662099182605743, 0.23096710443496704, 0.17060108482837...	3	Louisa May Alcott, or more commonly known as the author of the classic novel, Little Women, was born on November 29th, 1832 at Germantown, Pennsylvania. She was the second of four daughters born to Bronson and Abigail “Abba” Alcott. She had an older sister named Anna, and two younger sisters: Elizabeth and May. Through her writing and her novels, she managed to create a name for herself and achieve financial security for her family. She was truly a successful American author. Though the Alcott girls, including Louisa, never received any sort of formal education, they were taught by their father. The family’s friendship with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau provided many opportunities as well. For example, Emerson allowed Louisa full access to his library. Louisa grew up at the Wayside Inn during a period called the “American Renaissance”. The era was defined with major literary figures and philosophers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Nathaniel Hawthorne. Also in this era were women such as Margaret Fuller, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Lucretia Mott. Louisa also admired women writers such as Rebecca Harding Davis, the author of Life in the Iron Mills. Louisa described her delight in meeting with Davis in one of her many diary entries. Growing up, Louisa’s family moved frequently. In 1834, the family moved to Boston, where Bronson established the Temple School. The Temple School was a transcendentalist institution that failed in 1838 when it was attacked as ‘religiously unorthodox’. Afterwards, the family moved to Concord, Massachusetts. During the years of 1849 to 1852, the Alcotts lived at various addresses in Boston. Eventually, when the rest of her family returned to Concord, Louisa decided to remain in Boston. The frequent changes in her environment did not inhibit Louisa’s writing. Even as a child, Louisa had a talent for writing. She has a vivid imagination, and was constantly encouraged by her father. She wrote often, and sisters would act out Louisa’s stories for friends. It wasn’t until early adulthood, however, that officially marked the start of Alcott’s writing career. At the age of sixteen, Alcott produced a collection of fairy tales called Flower Fables. Though it wasn’t published until 1854, Flower Fables was one of her earliest works. She produced her own income by writing stories to submit to magazines, as well as doing a variety of jobs, from tailoring to housekeeping. The stories that she wrote were both sentimental and sensational, and were published in magazines such as Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper and The Flag of Our Union under the pseudonym of A. M. Barnard. She also spent much of her time writing Gothic Romances – stories with sensational plots, romantic settings, and horrifying themes. The year of 1858 marked many important events and changes in Louisa’s life. The events included the death of Louisa’s beloved sister, Elizabeth “Lizzie” Alcott. More joyous things included the marriage of May Alcott to Ernest Nieriker. Now, Louisa, at the age of 25, decided to finally return to her family, now currently residing at the Orchard House in Concord. It is the Alcott’s first permanent home, and it is there that the family would spend the rest of their lives. Louisa, however, still spent much of her time in Boston, where she continued to write. When the Civil War started, Alcott wanted to contribute to the war efforts. In 1862, she enlisted as a nurse at the Union Hotel Hospital. Yet, within six weeks, she returned home after contracting typhoid. She was treated with a toxic mercury compound that was commonly used at that time. While she did recover, the effect of the compound permanently weakened her. Louisa never fully recovered. Her experiences were published in 1863 in a book, Hospital Sketches. It was a collection of letters to her family during the six weeks that she served as one of Dorothea Dix’s nurses. Moods, Alcott’s first acknowledged novel, was published in 1864. Like Hospital Sketches, it was a book intended for adult audience. The novel was about a girl who married a man whom she was fond of, but not loved. After its publication, Louisa traveled through Europe by working as a lady’s companion. The idea of Little Women came to be after the Civil War. In the September of 1867, Thomas Niles, Louisa’s publisher, urged her to write a ‘girl’s story’. At this time, Alcott was working as an editor at Merry’s Museum, an illustrated children’s magazine. She had no problems writing the Little Women. Though she did it reluctantly, it was finished in six weeks. It was published in 1868, and gained great success almost instantly. By transforming Anna, Elizabeth, May, and herself into Meg, Beth, Amy, and Jo March, Alcott managed to captivate thousands of girls with a story about her own family life. After the success of the first Little Women volume, Alcott wrote a second volume to Little Women in a mere two months. She published it as Little Women or, Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy, Part Second in 1869. The success for the book allowed Alcott to travel to Europe in 1870. The success of Little Women finally achieved the financial success she had long craved (“Alcott, Louisa May (1832–1888). ). She became a respected and successful novelist, and in 1870, her work was in demand. Sequels soon followed: Little Men, published in 1871, and Jo’s Boys, published in 1886. Aunt Jo’s Scrap Bag, Eight Cousins, and A Garland for Girls were successful as well. While her works for children became very popular, her adult novels, such as Work, and A Modern Mephistopheles, were less so. Even with the success, Alcott never stopped doing what she loved most: writing. The year of 1877 marked the death of Louisa’s beloved mother, Abigail May Alcott. My duty is done, and now I shall be glad to follow her. My only comfort is that I could make her last years comfortable, and lift off the burden she had carried so bravely all these years,” she recorded in her journal (Kort). Louisa looked up to her mother, and Abigail was the emotional anchor for the Alcott family. After Bronson’s stroke in 1882, Alcott moved to Louisburg Square with him. Also living there were her elder sister Anna (a widow by that time); Anna’s two sons; and Louisa (May Alcott Nieriker’s daughter, whose mother died in 1879). On March 4th, Bronson Alcott died, and Alcott died two days later, supposedly of the long term effects of mercury poisoning, from when she contracted typhoid. She was buried in Concord’s Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in the family’s plot. During her lifetime, she wrote over 270 different works, and most memorably, Little Women. She never stopped writing. When she was young and well, she wrote almost feverishly. Even when she got sick, she never stopped writing. It was not until her death that she finally put her pen down. Even so, her stories lived on in our hearts.	1,590	ENGLISH	1
Mariposa County, California was founded by pioneers of Yosemite Valley, miners and loggers by Americans who came to California during the Gold Rush. In 1849, Sonoran Miners, that were part of the original 49ers, helped establish the busy town of Agua Fria, California, which was made as the county seat of Mariposa. After a flood destroyed the log cabin courthouse at Agua Fria in 1851, the town of Mariposa was made as the next county seat. The town of Mariposa was named after the clusters of butterflies the Spanish saw at at Mariposa Creek in 1806 and the name “Mariposa” is Spanish and Portuguese for buttery. Explorer John C. Frémont was one of the first American landowner of part of the lands within Mariposa County after buying the title from the land from a Mexican resident.	<urn:uuid:48f79771-1bff-4fc7-8994-03c30ca3d294>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hamiltonhistoricalrecords.com/2020/01/09/the-founding-of-mariposa-county-california/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00009.warc.gz	en	0.982569	184	3.5625	4	[ 0.09435603767633438, -0.10650812834501266, 0.03286545351147652, -0.13480138778686523, 0.1035381481051445, 0.0670899972319603, 0.19214783608913422, -0.14724251627922058, 0.13693782687187195, -0.005190140567719936, -0.040687114000320435, -0.3641860783100128, 0.004179861396551132, 0.220165058...	11	Mariposa County, California was founded by pioneers of Yosemite Valley, miners and loggers by Americans who came to California during the Gold Rush. In 1849, Sonoran Miners, that were part of the original 49ers, helped establish the busy town of Agua Fria, California, which was made as the county seat of Mariposa. After a flood destroyed the log cabin courthouse at Agua Fria in 1851, the town of Mariposa was made as the next county seat. The town of Mariposa was named after the clusters of butterflies the Spanish saw at at Mariposa Creek in 1806 and the name “Mariposa” is Spanish and Portuguese for buttery. Explorer John C. Frémont was one of the first American landowner of part of the lands within Mariposa County after buying the title from the land from a Mexican resident.	192	ENGLISH	1
Are you ready to find out even more about how our roads came to be? Just continue reading below! John McAdam was the first ‘modern’ road builder and gave his name to the Macadam surface in the 1800s. His brilliant innovation was realising that roads did not need massive stone foundations. By ensuring that the top stone surface was made with stones smaller than the tyre width he innovated a smoother running surface, but there was still a dust problem. Eventually, someone took the top surface and mixed it with tar and leaving us with a tarmacadam road, that’s tarmac to you and me. Thanks to the introduction of tarmacadam roads we had a road on which our vehicles could perform their different functions. But as we moved into towns and cities we needed to something to separate people from the road. For this, we used the raised pavement. Pavements have been around since Roman times but began to play a necessary role as our towns and cities became busier with vehicles. To protect the edge a solid granite kerb was added. In fact, if you look at a kerb you will most likely see black tyre marks upon it, visible proof of the job the kerb does in defending the pavement! Stay tuned for more on how our roads came to be.	<urn:uuid:6982e416-b0d2-419a-b6d0-b402202e3501>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.driving-pro.com/roads-part-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00017.warc.gz	en	0.985922	271	3.65625	4	[ -0.25169292092323303, 0.3160184621810913, 0.5859566926956177, 0.36600714921951294, -0.11360356211662292, 0.29055672883987427, 0.24925042688846588, 0.1660878211259842, -0.43785226345062256, 0.05139544606208801, -0.12062466889619827, -0.6538991928100586, -0.11186238378286362, 0.2390777319669...	8	Are you ready to find out even more about how our roads came to be? Just continue reading below! John McAdam was the first ‘modern’ road builder and gave his name to the Macadam surface in the 1800s. His brilliant innovation was realising that roads did not need massive stone foundations. By ensuring that the top stone surface was made with stones smaller than the tyre width he innovated a smoother running surface, but there was still a dust problem. Eventually, someone took the top surface and mixed it with tar and leaving us with a tarmacadam road, that’s tarmac to you and me. Thanks to the introduction of tarmacadam roads we had a road on which our vehicles could perform their different functions. But as we moved into towns and cities we needed to something to separate people from the road. For this, we used the raised pavement. Pavements have been around since Roman times but began to play a necessary role as our towns and cities became busier with vehicles. To protect the edge a solid granite kerb was added. In fact, if you look at a kerb you will most likely see black tyre marks upon it, visible proof of the job the kerb does in defending the pavement! Stay tuned for more on how our roads came to be.	266	ENGLISH	1
One of my favorite activities when teaching Hellenistic warfare is to have students try to draw the siege engine that Polybius describes for the siege of Syracuse. The passage is below. I think its a useful way to build students ability to visual and engage with the text they are reading. Anyway. I’ve been wanting a Republican period image of a sambuca for many years to add to the lesson plan. And Lo! The musical instrument appears as control mark on the Papius series. I could get really obsessed with the Papius symbols. Must resist today. 4 1 Meanwhile Marcellus was attacking Achradina from the sea with sixty quinqueremes, each of which was full of men armed with bows, slings, and javelins, meant to repulse those fighting from the battlements. 2 He had also eight quinqueremes from which the oars had been removed, the starboard oars from some and the larboard ones from others. These were lashed together two and two, on their dismantled sides, and pulling with the oars on their outer sides they brought up to the wall the so‑called “sambucae.” 3 These engines are constructed as follows. 4 A ladder was made four feet broad and of a height equal to that of the wall when planted at the proper distance. Each side was furnished with a breastwork, and it was covered in by a screen at a considerable height. It was then laid flat upon those sides of the ships which were in contact and protruding a considerable distance beyond the prow. 5 At the top of the masts there are pulleys with ropes, and when they are about to use it, they attach the ropes to the top of the ladder, and men standing at the stern pull them by means of the pulleys, while others stand on the prow, and supporting the engine with props, assure its being safely raised. After this the towers on both the outer sides of the ships bring them close to shore, and they now endeavour to set the engine I have described up against the wall. 8 At the summit of the ladder there is a platform protected on three sides by wicker screens, on which four men mount and face the enemy resisting the efforts of those who from the battlements try to prevent the Sambuca from being set up against the wall. 9 As soon as they have set it up and are on a higher level than the wall, these men pull down the wicker screens on each side of the platform and mount the battlements or towers,10 while the rest follow them through theSambuca which is held firm by the ropes attached to both ships. 11 The construction was appropriately called a Sambuca, for when it is raised the shape of the ship and ladder together is just like the musical instrument. Boston MFA 09.12	<urn:uuid:0daf5006-12bc-4c96-9bb2-7ecca53b9fc8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://livyarrow.org/2014/06/14/sambuca-siege-engine-and-musical-instrument/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00456.warc.gz	en	0.981606	583	3.515625	4	[ -0.239286869764328, 0.22002676129341125, 0.3523218631744385, -0.3614283800125122, -0.6040612459182739, -0.1094791516661644, -0.029502902179956436, 0.5132027864456177, -0.2334393709897995, -0.2451130449771881, -0.16865740716457367, -0.40164458751678467, -0.1326640248298645, 0.10469638556241...	16	One of my favorite activities when teaching Hellenistic warfare is to have students try to draw the siege engine that Polybius describes for the siege of Syracuse. The passage is below. I think its a useful way to build students ability to visual and engage with the text they are reading. Anyway. I’ve been wanting a Republican period image of a sambuca for many years to add to the lesson plan. And Lo! The musical instrument appears as control mark on the Papius series. I could get really obsessed with the Papius symbols. Must resist today. 4 1 Meanwhile Marcellus was attacking Achradina from the sea with sixty quinqueremes, each of which was full of men armed with bows, slings, and javelins, meant to repulse those fighting from the battlements. 2 He had also eight quinqueremes from which the oars had been removed, the starboard oars from some and the larboard ones from others. These were lashed together two and two, on their dismantled sides, and pulling with the oars on their outer sides they brought up to the wall the so‑called “sambucae.” 3 These engines are constructed as follows. 4 A ladder was made four feet broad and of a height equal to that of the wall when planted at the proper distance. Each side was furnished with a breastwork, and it was covered in by a screen at a considerable height. It was then laid flat upon those sides of the ships which were in contact and protruding a considerable distance beyond the prow. 5 At the top of the masts there are pulleys with ropes, and when they are about to use it, they attach the ropes to the top of the ladder, and men standing at the stern pull them by means of the pulleys, while others stand on the prow, and supporting the engine with props, assure its being safely raised. After this the towers on both the outer sides of the ships bring them close to shore, and they now endeavour to set the engine I have described up against the wall. 8 At the summit of the ladder there is a platform protected on three sides by wicker screens, on which four men mount and face the enemy resisting the efforts of those who from the battlements try to prevent the Sambuca from being set up against the wall. 9 As soon as they have set it up and are on a higher level than the wall, these men pull down the wicker screens on each side of the platform and mount the battlements or towers,10 while the rest follow them through theSambuca which is held firm by the ropes attached to both ships. 11 The construction was appropriately called a Sambuca, for when it is raised the shape of the ship and ladder together is just like the musical instrument. Boston MFA 09.12	597	ENGLISH	1
The Treaty of Versailles was the treaty that made peace between the countries involved in World War 1. These countries included Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany and United States of America. In the treaty, Germany lost a lot of land, which made a big blow on their empire. Germany’s ambry was limited to 100,000 troops, as the French were scared of being invaded from the border. Also the Rhineland zone, where the Rhine River flows, was demilitarized, so would not invade France. Also they lost land to Poland, the new country made from the U. S. S. R and Germany. They were given access to the sea through the Polish Corridor and were given access to a good trading port called Danzig. This made Germany even angrier, and upset. The German navy was limited to 6 battle ships, 6 cruisers, 12 torpedo-boats and 12 destroyers. Germany could not import/export weapons and poison gas, armoured cars, armed aircraft and blockade on ships were prohibited. Also, the Saar, place rich in coal was given to France to look after for 15 years. Germany had to take the full blame for the war and had to pay 226 billion gold marks. It was later reduced to 132 billion, which nowadays, is ? 284 billion. The conference included David Lloyd-George, Georges Clemenceau, Woodrow Wilson and Vittorio Orlando. Friedrich Ebert also attended, but was humiliated and made to stand up during the whole conference. What the Germans really resented was article 231 of the Treaty, which said Germany had to take full blame for the war. Cite this page Why Was Germany Unhappy with the Treaty of Versailles. (2016, Dec 25). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/why-was-germany-unhappy-with-the-treaty-of-versailles-essay	<urn:uuid:5646a480-6f37-4b75-a8b7-6b08c9117d4a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/why-was-germany-unhappy-with-the-treaty-of-versailles-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00194.warc.gz	en	0.981064	404	3.671875	4	[ -0.27290746569633484, 0.43727871775627136, -0.034650567919015884, -0.0842360183596611, 0.13132745027542114, -0.19888857007026672, -0.013187479227781296, 0.19054199755191803, -0.059925276786088943, -0.20271626114845276, 0.33479243516921997, -0.38734859228134155, -0.00837128609418869, 0.8208...	1	The Treaty of Versailles was the treaty that made peace between the countries involved in World War 1. These countries included Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany and United States of America. In the treaty, Germany lost a lot of land, which made a big blow on their empire. Germany’s ambry was limited to 100,000 troops, as the French were scared of being invaded from the border. Also the Rhineland zone, where the Rhine River flows, was demilitarized, so would not invade France. Also they lost land to Poland, the new country made from the U. S. S. R and Germany. They were given access to the sea through the Polish Corridor and were given access to a good trading port called Danzig. This made Germany even angrier, and upset. The German navy was limited to 6 battle ships, 6 cruisers, 12 torpedo-boats and 12 destroyers. Germany could not import/export weapons and poison gas, armoured cars, armed aircraft and blockade on ships were prohibited. Also, the Saar, place rich in coal was given to France to look after for 15 years. Germany had to take the full blame for the war and had to pay 226 billion gold marks. It was later reduced to 132 billion, which nowadays, is ? 284 billion. The conference included David Lloyd-George, Georges Clemenceau, Woodrow Wilson and Vittorio Orlando. Friedrich Ebert also attended, but was humiliated and made to stand up during the whole conference. What the Germans really resented was article 231 of the Treaty, which said Germany had to take full blame for the war. Cite this page Why Was Germany Unhappy with the Treaty of Versailles. (2016, Dec 25). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/why-was-germany-unhappy-with-the-treaty-of-versailles-essay	417	ENGLISH	1
The history of saffron stretches all the way back to the late Bronze Age and back then it had numerous uses just as it does today. Saffron consists of the dried stigmas of the crocus flower and was used in the Middle East as a spice, dye and as perfume. In ancient Rome, Romans used saffron to perfume their baths. In the Henry VIII’s court, women used saffron to color their hair until the king forbade it. The prohibition on saffron-colored hair was due to the king’s fear that a shortage would keep the spice from reaching his table. Saffron was so prized that in 15th century Germany, merchants who adulterated it were burned at the stake.	<urn:uuid:cc9d9ef8-2719-4aee-966a-fda586038cbb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.spiceography.com/page/114/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00146.warc.gz	en	0.986807	155	3.390625	3	[ -0.20294320583343506, 0.39223504066467285, -0.06908844411373138, 0.30492153763771057, 0.2677310109138489, 0.17950426042079926, 0.35968726873397827, -0.16305546462535858, -0.6330309510231018, -0.3052293658256531, 0.26842331886291504, -0.11717777699232101, 0.16049282252788544, 0.402685880661...	1	The history of saffron stretches all the way back to the late Bronze Age and back then it had numerous uses just as it does today. Saffron consists of the dried stigmas of the crocus flower and was used in the Middle East as a spice, dye and as perfume. In ancient Rome, Romans used saffron to perfume their baths. In the Henry VIII’s court, women used saffron to color their hair until the king forbade it. The prohibition on saffron-colored hair was due to the king’s fear that a shortage would keep the spice from reaching his table. Saffron was so prized that in 15th century Germany, merchants who adulterated it were burned at the stake.	151	ENGLISH	1
Jonathan Swift, of English descent, was born on November 30, 1667 in Dublin, Ireland. Before moving to England at the age of 22 to work as secretary to a government diplomat, Swift went to school at Trinity College in Ireland. For some period of time starting in 1694, he even served in the Anglican Church. Soon, however, he began his career as a writer, satirizing religious, political and even educational institutions. One of his first literary ambitions was to defend the party he had recently joined-the Tories. Later, he wrote in defense of the Irish community, particularly in his pamphlet, A Modest Proposal , a biting satire on English-Irish relations, which helped him become a champion of the Irish people. His most famous work, Gulliver's Travels, was published in 1726 anonymously. Swift died on October 19, 1745, suffering both from extreme loneliness and probable lunacy.	<urn:uuid:2c823d1c-0956-4068-8da3-9966e3375fec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.novelguide.com/a-modest-proposal/biography	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00479.warc.gz	en	0.994309	186	3.375	3	[ -0.10013571381568909, -0.013766251504421234, 0.34599384665489197, -0.21530498564243317, -0.1736852526664734, 0.2841067314147949, 0.2922331988811493, -0.11094355583190918, -0.09760687500238419, -0.43405914306640625, -0.3009169399738312, -0.010128420777618885, 0.11069236695766449, 0.18180464...	4	Jonathan Swift, of English descent, was born on November 30, 1667 in Dublin, Ireland. Before moving to England at the age of 22 to work as secretary to a government diplomat, Swift went to school at Trinity College in Ireland. For some period of time starting in 1694, he even served in the Anglican Church. Soon, however, he began his career as a writer, satirizing religious, political and even educational institutions. One of his first literary ambitions was to defend the party he had recently joined-the Tories. Later, he wrote in defense of the Irish community, particularly in his pamphlet, A Modest Proposal , a biting satire on English-Irish relations, which helped him become a champion of the Irish people. His most famous work, Gulliver's Travels, was published in 1726 anonymously. Swift died on October 19, 1745, suffering both from extreme loneliness and probable lunacy.	206	ENGLISH	1
Virginia Woolf's "A Room of One's Own" is a representation of twentieth-century feminist thought. It explores the history of women in literature through an unconventional and highly provocative investigation of the social and material conditions required for the writing of literature. These conditions -leisure time, privacy, and financial independence- are particularly relevant to understanding the situation of women in the literary tradition because women, historically, have been uniformly deprived of those basic prerequisites. . The journey through Women and Fiction is a complicated one in part, because the subject is open to various meanings. Woolf distinguishes several of them. "Women and Fiction" could mean: "Women and what they are like", "Women and the Fiction they create.", and "Women and the fiction that is written about them." Throughout the text, it should be noted that Woolf will often consider these themes, as she says, "inextricably mixed together." She will do so especially through the lens of fictional personal experience, most memorably with the description of two imaginary meals, one at a women's college, the other at a men's. At the women's college, she says, "Dinner was not good.'" It consisted of plain soup, beef, cabbages, and potatoes, followed by prunes and custard. "The water jug was liberally passed around." The situation at the men's college was quite different. Here there was . sole and partridges "with all their retinue of sauces and salads," "meanwhile the glasses had flushed yellow and flushed crimson; had been emptied; had been filled." Good food and drink, Woolf suggests, appropriately accompany rational discourse and they are emblematic of the material conditions that support education. The difference between the two meals, this is to say, symbolizes the difference between the educational opportunities that have existed for men and for women. And these differences have a notable effect on the capacity to produce fiction, since later on Woolf will note that a formal education is almost always the possession of great writers - but for most of history women were excluded from most formal education.	<urn:uuid:c616fcd3-c0e6-4f88-b773-8977c6b179e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/6843.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00365.warc.gz	en	0.98214	429	3.484375	3	[ 0.19927988946437836, 0.1328532099723816, 0.2346620410680771, 0.36271125078201294, -0.18566611409187317, 0.07168889790773392, -0.2054862380027771, 0.10859262943267822, 0.1298399716615677, -0.23120816051959991, -0.11394120752811432, -0.15737497806549072, -0.052555978298187256, -0.14025339484...	3	Virginia Woolf's "A Room of One's Own" is a representation of twentieth-century feminist thought. It explores the history of women in literature through an unconventional and highly provocative investigation of the social and material conditions required for the writing of literature. These conditions -leisure time, privacy, and financial independence- are particularly relevant to understanding the situation of women in the literary tradition because women, historically, have been uniformly deprived of those basic prerequisites. . The journey through Women and Fiction is a complicated one in part, because the subject is open to various meanings. Woolf distinguishes several of them. "Women and Fiction" could mean: "Women and what they are like", "Women and the Fiction they create.", and "Women and the fiction that is written about them." Throughout the text, it should be noted that Woolf will often consider these themes, as she says, "inextricably mixed together." She will do so especially through the lens of fictional personal experience, most memorably with the description of two imaginary meals, one at a women's college, the other at a men's. At the women's college, she says, "Dinner was not good.'" It consisted of plain soup, beef, cabbages, and potatoes, followed by prunes and custard. "The water jug was liberally passed around." The situation at the men's college was quite different. Here there was . sole and partridges "with all their retinue of sauces and salads," "meanwhile the glasses had flushed yellow and flushed crimson; had been emptied; had been filled." Good food and drink, Woolf suggests, appropriately accompany rational discourse and they are emblematic of the material conditions that support education. The difference between the two meals, this is to say, symbolizes the difference between the educational opportunities that have existed for men and for women. And these differences have a notable effect on the capacity to produce fiction, since later on Woolf will note that a formal education is almost always the possession of great writers - but for most of history women were excluded from most formal education.	424	ENGLISH	1
Isadora Duncan was a famous dancer who brought a new kind of dance to the world. She danced out the feelings from deep in her heart. Unlike other dancers in the late nineteenth century, Isadora Duncan danced with flowing motion. She was not a ballerina, and did not like to watch ballet dancers, with their stiff bodies and unnatural pointe shoes. At first she was not liked, but as time went on, Isadora Duncan became a dance revolutionist people all over the world will never forget. Angela Isadora Duncan was born, one of four, on May 26,1877 in San Francisco, California. Her mother, Dora Duncan, was a piano teacher, and her father, Joseph Duncan was a banker, journalist, and poet. Her parents were both well educated, charming, and an altogether happy couple. However, their marriage fell apart soon after Isadora’s birth. After the divorce, Dora was left with little money to support her four children; Augastin, Raymond, Elizabeth, and Isadora. She gave her music lessons, but still was not bringing in enough money to keep living in the same house. The family began moving from one apartment to another, learning to leave each one a day before the bills came around. Isadora started school at the age of five. In the late nineteenth century, students were expected to sit still during school, memorizing and reciting their lessons. To Isadora this was “irritating and meaningless.” She hated school. She said later in her autobiography that her real education came on the nights when Isadora and her siblings would dance to her mother’s music and learn about what they were interested in — literature and music. Isadora was told as a child that she would have to learn to depend on herself to get what she needed in life. So as Isadora grew older, she began to understand her family’s financial condition and was eager to help. She and her sister Elizabeth began baby-sitting to help the family. To keep their charges busy, they taught them how to dance. The dance lessons were mostly just telling them to wave their arms in the air, but it kept them busy and raised money for the family. In those days, when dancing was first popular, “nice” women wore clothing from chin to toe, not showing any skin. However, new kinds of dance were surfacing that allowed the “nicest” women to take of their corsets and not have to pretend to have a perfect figure. More and more women began dancing, inspiring Isadora to help her family by working as a dance instructor. She knew how to dance from all the practice she got from dancing at home to their mother’s piano music, but she had not yet taken any dancing lessons. Her mother saved up enough money for her to participate in a small dance school, but Isadora disliked her teacher. He made her dance in pointe shoes, which Isadora found painful, ugly, and unnatural.In ballet, everything has a specific step or a traditional pose. Ballerinas dance with stiff bodies, without freedom of movement. This went against the way Isadora liked to dance. She quit her schooling after three lessons. Although her own dance lessons had not gone well, she quit her academic schooling, and started her business. Her neighbors had noticed her gracefulness and began sending their children to be her students. Pretty soon, word got around and Isadora was teaching some of the wealthy girls of San Francisco. Her classes eventually grew so large that Isadora found that her own dance lessons had indeed been unnecessary. One day, when Isadora was sixteen, her father came back to their apartment with good news.He felt badly about leaving his family with practically nothing, when he had plenty of money to himself. He bought the family a giant mansion with a tennis court, dancing rooms, a barn and a windmill. Then he left, never to be seen by his family again. Elizabeth and Isadora started a dance school and Raymond and Augastin made the barn into a theater. To the Duncan children this must have been a dream. They began to perform together for small audiences in the barn, and eventually started a tour of Northern California. The reviews were a mixed bag, and soon their fortune failed. However, during that time Isadora learned to be independent. She believed she could go on performing without her family. She had a dream of leaving San Francisco to tour the country with an acting group. But her first audition was not good. She was told that her work was no good for a theater; that it was much more fitting for a church. But Isadora would not be let down. She made up her mind to go to Chicago with her mother, and Dora Duncan agreed. They would leave for Chicago in mid-1895, leaving the rest of the family behind. They arrived in Chicago with little more than a trunk. Without any income, Dora Duncan and her daughter were soon left homeless. Disappointed that she was again poor, Isadora went out looking for a job. Eventually, she found work. The manager of a Masonic Temple Roof Garden decided to hire her on the condition she would make her dancing livelier. Although he made Isadora wear a “frilly” dress, she took the job. She made $50 her first week, but then refused to sign a long – term contract. She auditioned for many theater groups in Chicago, but got the same reaction she had on her first audition. Her fortune changed, however, when Augastin Daly’s theater group came to town. She auditioned for him, and he accepted her art, giving her a small part in a pantomime he would present in New York that fall. In October of that year she went to New York City, excited about finally being able to share her art with a real paying audience. However, when she arrived and took the part, she was again disappointed. Pantomime did not allow speaking, and as far as she was concerned, was neither acting nor dancing, and therefore was not part of the dream she had hoped for in New York. She stayed with the group for a year, traveling to England where they performed in London.When they returned to New York, Isadora quit dancing for the theater group. While traveling with the group, she had begun to take interest in the music of Ethelbert Woodridge Nevin. One day, while Isadora was choreographing, Nevin, who was working in a nearby studio, heard his music being played and came bursting into the room. He watched how beautiful Isadora’s dances were, and decided to play concerts with her. They played their concerts at Carnegie Hall, and after getting excellent reviews, began receiving invitations to play at the homes of many wealthy families. But the income from all this was very low, and was barely enough to support Isadora and her mother. Isadora began to think she could do better than New York. She dreamed of England, but did not have nearly enough money to go there. Using her creativity and cleverness, she remembered the wealthy families she had given concerts for, and went to them for money. Eventually she got enough money, and again her mother agreed to go with her, on the condition that they bring along her siblings, Elizabeth and Raymond. They arrived in England with virtually no money. After living in poor areas of London for a few weeks, Isadora saw an article in a newspaper about a wealthy woman entertaining in her home. Isadora was looking for work, and visited the woman. The woman decided to have her perform for a group of her friends. She was a big hit, and following this performance, Isadora received many invitations to perform at the social events of other wealthy women of the area. On one occasion Isadora performed at the home of one of the members of Parliament. Many people came to this event, including people of royalty such as the Price of Whales and people interested in art such as the artist Charles Hall. Isadora wore a few yards of curtain veiling and found that the people who watched her surprisingly did not comment on her attire. The ordinary people who watched her made comments like “How pretty” and “Thank you very much,” while artists who watched her described her as beautiful and fluent. Isadora was disappointed by the reaction of those who did not find her an emotional dancer, but was proud to have finally found fans. Though Isadora was finally doing well, Elizabeth and Raymond Duncan found nothing but boredom. Elizabeth went back to the United States in hopes she could find something to do. Raymond set out for Paris, with his mother and Isadora soon to follow.When they arrived in Paris, Isadora was immediately invited to perform, once again, in the homes of wealthy families. It was at these performances that Isadora made friendships with singer Mary Desti and painter Eugne Carrire.Her new friends gave her a feeling that she could be carefree, and because of this, she began to look further into the techniques of dance. She enjoyed doing dance exercises that encouraged freedom of movement, and did not like sudden starts and stops. In her dancing, she showed the audience her emotions, such as fear or love. This is the way modern dance is approached. The modern dancer expresses his or her feelings in their movements.Isadora Duncan was the first to ever show that kind of grace in dancing. She said in her autobiography, “I am not a dancer. I am here to make you listen to the music.” And indeed, that is what she did. Not only did she show her own emotions, but she also acted out in dance steps the story and feelings of the music. After living in Paris for 3 months, Isadora’s brother Augastine Duncan and his wife and children came to Paris. He encouraged his family to come to Athens, Greece with him, and they excitedly agreed. When the family arrived in Greece, they thought for a long while that they would stay there forever, studying about the Greeks and dancing in the Greek temples. But, unfortunately, because they had no income, they were soon left homeless. The Duncan family decided to go to Berlin, Germany where many performances were being held showing different talents and arts. They figured with the many talents their family had alone, at least one of them would find work.When they arrived, Isadora was the one who got the job they had hoped for.She began holding weekly receptions at her home, and finally started gaining some income. For the first time in her whole life, Isadora Duncan was happy, but still wanted more. She wanted to once again take up the profession of a dance instructor, starting her own dance school. At the end of 1904 Isadora bought a house in Grnewald, Germany, and with the help of her mother and her sister, she transformed the small villa into a dancing school. Isadora did not want rich students, for they had other opportunities to be exposed to art. She wanted to teach poor children, to give them something new that they might otherwise not have. She was able to clothe, house, feed, and educate her students free of charge, by only having a group of twenty students at a time. When one left, a new child came in to replace her.There were only six students who stayed at the Grnewald school for the entire time it was running. Later these six students were named the “Isadorables.” It was at the same time Isadora started her school that she met Edward Gordon Craig, the son of actress Ellen Terry. They had a lot in common, and they fell in love immediately.After about three months of heart-felt love and teaching, Isadora found she was pregnant. Her first-born child was born on September 26, 1905. She and Craig named their baby Deirdre. As eager as Isadora was to get back to her dancing, she stayed at home with Deirdre for a few weeks until she realized that her bank account was getting low. With the expenses of the baby, the school, and an empty schedule ahead, things did not look good for Duncan. She thought quickly, and decided to take her “Isadorables” on a dance tour, hoping to receive government funding for her school. However, it did not go well, and when Isadora returned home from the tour she found that Craig had left her. Looking for reassurance after her recent loss of Craig, she left her family behind and traveled to the United States for the first time in the nine years. Indeed, it was in New York City that she found reassurance. It was there that President Theodore Roosevelt praised her and pronounced her as “world-renowned for her courage and beauty.” It was there that she also met Paris Singer, the wealthy son of a member of the British Parliament. She made a strong friendship with him, which led up to the birth of Isadora’s second child. Isadora’s son was born on May 1, 1910. She and Singer named their son Patrick. She went to Paris with her children in 1913. It was not soon after they arrived that the biggest tragedy of Isadora’s life took place. One day while Isadora was choreographing, Paris Singer came bursting into her studio with horrible news. Her children had died in a terrible car accident that had ended in the Seine River. The children had drowned trapped in their limousine. This was a tragedy Isadora Duncan would not overcome very easily. Her children had been her number one priority from the day each was born. Now they were gone, and to her, there seemed nothing left to live for. After months of sorrow and pain over the loss of Deirdre and Patrick, Isadora finally was able to get a hold of herself. After losing her children, she had begun to care about starving and sick children around the world. Her first destination when she was ready to move on with her life was Albania, where she mothered and performed for starving children. She stayed there for a year, until she felt obliged to return once again to her “Isadorables”. Singer’s wealth was able to buy Isadora a larger school of dance in Bellevue.Isadora went, with her “Isadorables” to the new school in Bellevue, and remained there through yet another pregnancy. However, this time Isadora’s baby died shortly after birth. At this point in her life, Isadora was constantly depressed, lonely, and full of sorrow.She had brought three lives into the world, only to have them die in childhood.She gave up her most recent school to the French to use for battered veterans of World War I. Isadora decided that the best way to forget what was making her depressed was to abandon her romance and concentrate on her art. She went once again to New York city with only her “Isadorables,” knowing they would find somewhere to perform. Indeed, as soon as they got there they were greeted with warm welcome and given plenty of places to perform, one of which was the Metropolitan.Isadora had so much fun on this trip, that she decided she would legally adopt her six “Isadorables.” With the adoption papers signed, the girls’ names were changed to the Isadora Duncan Dancers. They left the United States forever and with barely enough money, the small family started out for Moscow where they would start yet another Isadora Duncan school of dance.Isadora and her girls were happy there. They had everything they wanted; a beautiful place to dance, a family, and just enough money to support themselves. They lived in this spot for five years, until once again Isadora Duncan was penniless. She and her girls went to Paris, knowing for sure they would get the same, if not better response as they did in New York. They got what they had been looking for when they arrived, and immediately began giving concerts to overflowing theaters. Isadora Duncan never lived beyond that trip to Paris, for she died on September 14, 1927 after having dinner with her life-long friend, Mary Desti. After dinner, she hopped into a Bugatti sports car with the agent from the car company. She was wearing a long, elegant, red scarf, and as Mary Desti looked on in horror, that scarf got caught in the axis of the spinning wheel and strangled Isadora Duncan to death. More than ten thousand people gathered at the cemetery to watch Isadora Duncan’s ashes be place next to her children’s in their memorial. Even people who had watched her dance decades before came to the solemn service. To all these people Isadora Duncan meant something. She brought into the world the idea of teaching young children how to dance. Even though she knew they would not all become professional dancers, she felt that a feeling of rhythm and freedom of movement were important for one to have. She was the first to ever express her personal emotions in her public dancing. She always wore revealing clothes, often whatever she could find around her house. If you ever see a young child on a stage twirling and leaping to the words of her own feelings, they are there because Isadora Duncan danced.	<urn:uuid:ed14ad70-13d2-4b43-9e27-a74633d2326d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://guidedcollective.com/isadora-duncan-idea/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00208.warc.gz	en	0.992405	3,653	3.328125	3	[ 0.010282197035849094, -0.5709432363510132, 0.19438721239566803, -0.021018296480178833, -0.09255499392747879, 0.24889259040355682, 0.07308080792427063, -0.11161096394062042, -0.055715806782245636, 0.11459173262119293, 0.3642929196357727, 0.2806442975997925, 0.00742728915065527, 0.4035204946...	5	Isadora Duncan was a famous dancer who brought a new kind of dance to the world. She danced out the feelings from deep in her heart. Unlike other dancers in the late nineteenth century, Isadora Duncan danced with flowing motion. She was not a ballerina, and did not like to watch ballet dancers, with their stiff bodies and unnatural pointe shoes. At first she was not liked, but as time went on, Isadora Duncan became a dance revolutionist people all over the world will never forget. Angela Isadora Duncan was born, one of four, on May 26,1877 in San Francisco, California. Her mother, Dora Duncan, was a piano teacher, and her father, Joseph Duncan was a banker, journalist, and poet. Her parents were both well educated, charming, and an altogether happy couple. However, their marriage fell apart soon after Isadora’s birth. After the divorce, Dora was left with little money to support her four children; Augastin, Raymond, Elizabeth, and Isadora. She gave her music lessons, but still was not bringing in enough money to keep living in the same house. The family began moving from one apartment to another, learning to leave each one a day before the bills came around. Isadora started school at the age of five. In the late nineteenth century, students were expected to sit still during school, memorizing and reciting their lessons. To Isadora this was “irritating and meaningless.” She hated school. She said later in her autobiography that her real education came on the nights when Isadora and her siblings would dance to her mother’s music and learn about what they were interested in — literature and music. Isadora was told as a child that she would have to learn to depend on herself to get what she needed in life. So as Isadora grew older, she began to understand her family’s financial condition and was eager to help. She and her sister Elizabeth began baby-sitting to help the family. To keep their charges busy, they taught them how to dance. The dance lessons were mostly just telling them to wave their arms in the air, but it kept them busy and raised money for the family. In those days, when dancing was first popular, “nice” women wore clothing from chin to toe, not showing any skin. However, new kinds of dance were surfacing that allowed the “nicest” women to take of their corsets and not have to pretend to have a perfect figure. More and more women began dancing, inspiring Isadora to help her family by working as a dance instructor. She knew how to dance from all the practice she got from dancing at home to their mother’s piano music, but she had not yet taken any dancing lessons. Her mother saved up enough money for her to participate in a small dance school, but Isadora disliked her teacher. He made her dance in pointe shoes, which Isadora found painful, ugly, and unnatural.In ballet, everything has a specific step or a traditional pose. Ballerinas dance with stiff bodies, without freedom of movement. This went against the way Isadora liked to dance. She quit her schooling after three lessons. Although her own dance lessons had not gone well, she quit her academic schooling, and started her business. Her neighbors had noticed her gracefulness and began sending their children to be her students. Pretty soon, word got around and Isadora was teaching some of the wealthy girls of San Francisco. Her classes eventually grew so large that Isadora found that her own dance lessons had indeed been unnecessary. One day, when Isadora was sixteen, her father came back to their apartment with good news.He felt badly about leaving his family with practically nothing, when he had plenty of money to himself. He bought the family a giant mansion with a tennis court, dancing rooms, a barn and a windmill. Then he left, never to be seen by his family again. Elizabeth and Isadora started a dance school and Raymond and Augastin made the barn into a theater. To the Duncan children this must have been a dream. They began to perform together for small audiences in the barn, and eventually started a tour of Northern California. The reviews were a mixed bag, and soon their fortune failed. However, during that time Isadora learned to be independent. She believed she could go on performing without her family. She had a dream of leaving San Francisco to tour the country with an acting group. But her first audition was not good. She was told that her work was no good for a theater; that it was much more fitting for a church. But Isadora would not be let down. She made up her mind to go to Chicago with her mother, and Dora Duncan agreed. They would leave for Chicago in mid-1895, leaving the rest of the family behind. They arrived in Chicago with little more than a trunk. Without any income, Dora Duncan and her daughter were soon left homeless. Disappointed that she was again poor, Isadora went out looking for a job. Eventually, she found work. The manager of a Masonic Temple Roof Garden decided to hire her on the condition she would make her dancing livelier. Although he made Isadora wear a “frilly” dress, she took the job. She made $50 her first week, but then refused to sign a long – term contract. She auditioned for many theater groups in Chicago, but got the same reaction she had on her first audition. Her fortune changed, however, when Augastin Daly’s theater group came to town. She auditioned for him, and he accepted her art, giving her a small part in a pantomime he would present in New York that fall. In October of that year she went to New York City, excited about finally being able to share her art with a real paying audience. However, when she arrived and took the part, she was again disappointed. Pantomime did not allow speaking, and as far as she was concerned, was neither acting nor dancing, and therefore was not part of the dream she had hoped for in New York. She stayed with the group for a year, traveling to England where they performed in London.When they returned to New York, Isadora quit dancing for the theater group. While traveling with the group, she had begun to take interest in the music of Ethelbert Woodridge Nevin. One day, while Isadora was choreographing, Nevin, who was working in a nearby studio, heard his music being played and came bursting into the room. He watched how beautiful Isadora’s dances were, and decided to play concerts with her. They played their concerts at Carnegie Hall, and after getting excellent reviews, began receiving invitations to play at the homes of many wealthy families. But the income from all this was very low, and was barely enough to support Isadora and her mother. Isadora began to think she could do better than New York. She dreamed of England, but did not have nearly enough money to go there. Using her creativity and cleverness, she remembered the wealthy families she had given concerts for, and went to them for money. Eventually she got enough money, and again her mother agreed to go with her, on the condition that they bring along her siblings, Elizabeth and Raymond. They arrived in England with virtually no money. After living in poor areas of London for a few weeks, Isadora saw an article in a newspaper about a wealthy woman entertaining in her home. Isadora was looking for work, and visited the woman. The woman decided to have her perform for a group of her friends. She was a big hit, and following this performance, Isadora received many invitations to perform at the social events of other wealthy women of the area. On one occasion Isadora performed at the home of one of the members of Parliament. Many people came to this event, including people of royalty such as the Price of Whales and people interested in art such as the artist Charles Hall. Isadora wore a few yards of curtain veiling and found that the people who watched her surprisingly did not comment on her attire. The ordinary people who watched her made comments like “How pretty” and “Thank you very much,” while artists who watched her described her as beautiful and fluent. Isadora was disappointed by the reaction of those who did not find her an emotional dancer, but was proud to have finally found fans. Though Isadora was finally doing well, Elizabeth and Raymond Duncan found nothing but boredom. Elizabeth went back to the United States in hopes she could find something to do. Raymond set out for Paris, with his mother and Isadora soon to follow.When they arrived in Paris, Isadora was immediately invited to perform, once again, in the homes of wealthy families. It was at these performances that Isadora made friendships with singer Mary Desti and painter Eugne Carrire.Her new friends gave her a feeling that she could be carefree, and because of this, she began to look further into the techniques of dance. She enjoyed doing dance exercises that encouraged freedom of movement, and did not like sudden starts and stops. In her dancing, she showed the audience her emotions, such as fear or love. This is the way modern dance is approached. The modern dancer expresses his or her feelings in their movements.Isadora Duncan was the first to ever show that kind of grace in dancing. She said in her autobiography, “I am not a dancer. I am here to make you listen to the music.” And indeed, that is what she did. Not only did she show her own emotions, but she also acted out in dance steps the story and feelings of the music. After living in Paris for 3 months, Isadora’s brother Augastine Duncan and his wife and children came to Paris. He encouraged his family to come to Athens, Greece with him, and they excitedly agreed. When the family arrived in Greece, they thought for a long while that they would stay there forever, studying about the Greeks and dancing in the Greek temples. But, unfortunately, because they had no income, they were soon left homeless. The Duncan family decided to go to Berlin, Germany where many performances were being held showing different talents and arts. They figured with the many talents their family had alone, at least one of them would find work.When they arrived, Isadora was the one who got the job they had hoped for.She began holding weekly receptions at her home, and finally started gaining some income. For the first time in her whole life, Isadora Duncan was happy, but still wanted more. She wanted to once again take up the profession of a dance instructor, starting her own dance school. At the end of 1904 Isadora bought a house in Grnewald, Germany, and with the help of her mother and her sister, she transformed the small villa into a dancing school. Isadora did not want rich students, for they had other opportunities to be exposed to art. She wanted to teach poor children, to give them something new that they might otherwise not have. She was able to clothe, house, feed, and educate her students free of charge, by only having a group of twenty students at a time. When one left, a new child came in to replace her.There were only six students who stayed at the Grnewald school for the entire time it was running. Later these six students were named the “Isadorables.” It was at the same time Isadora started her school that she met Edward Gordon Craig, the son of actress Ellen Terry. They had a lot in common, and they fell in love immediately.After about three months of heart-felt love and teaching, Isadora found she was pregnant. Her first-born child was born on September 26, 1905. She and Craig named their baby Deirdre. As eager as Isadora was to get back to her dancing, she stayed at home with Deirdre for a few weeks until she realized that her bank account was getting low. With the expenses of the baby, the school, and an empty schedule ahead, things did not look good for Duncan. She thought quickly, and decided to take her “Isadorables” on a dance tour, hoping to receive government funding for her school. However, it did not go well, and when Isadora returned home from the tour she found that Craig had left her. Looking for reassurance after her recent loss of Craig, she left her family behind and traveled to the United States for the first time in the nine years. Indeed, it was in New York City that she found reassurance. It was there that President Theodore Roosevelt praised her and pronounced her as “world-renowned for her courage and beauty.” It was there that she also met Paris Singer, the wealthy son of a member of the British Parliament. She made a strong friendship with him, which led up to the birth of Isadora’s second child. Isadora’s son was born on May 1, 1910. She and Singer named their son Patrick. She went to Paris with her children in 1913. It was not soon after they arrived that the biggest tragedy of Isadora’s life took place. One day while Isadora was choreographing, Paris Singer came bursting into her studio with horrible news. Her children had died in a terrible car accident that had ended in the Seine River. The children had drowned trapped in their limousine. This was a tragedy Isadora Duncan would not overcome very easily. Her children had been her number one priority from the day each was born. Now they were gone, and to her, there seemed nothing left to live for. After months of sorrow and pain over the loss of Deirdre and Patrick, Isadora finally was able to get a hold of herself. After losing her children, she had begun to care about starving and sick children around the world. Her first destination when she was ready to move on with her life was Albania, where she mothered and performed for starving children. She stayed there for a year, until she felt obliged to return once again to her “Isadorables”. Singer’s wealth was able to buy Isadora a larger school of dance in Bellevue.Isadora went, with her “Isadorables” to the new school in Bellevue, and remained there through yet another pregnancy. However, this time Isadora’s baby died shortly after birth. At this point in her life, Isadora was constantly depressed, lonely, and full of sorrow.She had brought three lives into the world, only to have them die in childhood.She gave up her most recent school to the French to use for battered veterans of World War I. Isadora decided that the best way to forget what was making her depressed was to abandon her romance and concentrate on her art. She went once again to New York city with only her “Isadorables,” knowing they would find somewhere to perform. Indeed, as soon as they got there they were greeted with warm welcome and given plenty of places to perform, one of which was the Metropolitan.Isadora had so much fun on this trip, that she decided she would legally adopt her six “Isadorables.” With the adoption papers signed, the girls’ names were changed to the Isadora Duncan Dancers. They left the United States forever and with barely enough money, the small family started out for Moscow where they would start yet another Isadora Duncan school of dance.Isadora and her girls were happy there. They had everything they wanted; a beautiful place to dance, a family, and just enough money to support themselves. They lived in this spot for five years, until once again Isadora Duncan was penniless. She and her girls went to Paris, knowing for sure they would get the same, if not better response as they did in New York. They got what they had been looking for when they arrived, and immediately began giving concerts to overflowing theaters. Isadora Duncan never lived beyond that trip to Paris, for she died on September 14, 1927 after having dinner with her life-long friend, Mary Desti. After dinner, she hopped into a Bugatti sports car with the agent from the car company. She was wearing a long, elegant, red scarf, and as Mary Desti looked on in horror, that scarf got caught in the axis of the spinning wheel and strangled Isadora Duncan to death. More than ten thousand people gathered at the cemetery to watch Isadora Duncan’s ashes be place next to her children’s in their memorial. Even people who had watched her dance decades before came to the solemn service. To all these people Isadora Duncan meant something. She brought into the world the idea of teaching young children how to dance. Even though she knew they would not all become professional dancers, she felt that a feeling of rhythm and freedom of movement were important for one to have. She was the first to ever express her personal emotions in her public dancing. She always wore revealing clothes, often whatever she could find around her house. If you ever see a young child on a stage twirling and leaping to the words of her own feelings, they are there because Isadora Duncan danced.	3,514	ENGLISH	1
We bring you eight facts about the Tudor monarch Mary I, the first queen regnant of England… Mary I was declared illegitimate by her father, Henry VIII The only surviving child of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, Mary I was effectively bastardised when her father divorced her mother in order to marry Anne Boleyn. Henry VIII claimed that the marriage had been incestuous and illegal, as Catherine had been married to his late brother, Arthur. Following the birth of Mary’s half-sister, Elizabeth (the future Elizabeth I), in September 1533, an Act of Parliament declared the 17-year-old Mary illegitimate and removed her from the succession to the throne (though she was reinstated by the 1543 Third Act of Succession and by Henry’s will). Mary was denied access to her mother, who had been sent by Henry to live away from court, and never saw her again. Mary I remained a devout Catholic Mary was later named heir to the throne after her younger half-brother Edward – but only after she had agreed to recognise their father as head of the church. Nevertheless, Mary remained a devout Catholic. She and her brother had a tempestuous relationship as they differed greatly in their religious views. When, aged nine, Edward VI inherited the throne in 1547 and confronted Mary’s Catholicism, she declared that she would rather lay her head on a block than forsake her faith. Mary was the orchestrator of an extraordinary coup d’état The first queen to rule England in her own right (rather than a queen through marriage to a king), Mary acceded the throne following her brother’s death in July 1553 in what Anna Whitelock describes as “an extraordinary coup d’état”. Edward had written Mary out of the succession and instead named his Protestant cousin Lady Jane Grey as heir to the throne, but Mary enjoyed widespread popular support and days later, on 19 July, she was proclaimed queen. Writing for BBC History Magazine in December 2014, Anna Whitelock argued: “The scale of [Mary’s] achievement is often overlooked. Mary had led the only successful revolt against central government in 16th-century England. She had eluded capture, mobilised a counter-coup and, in the moment of crisis, proved courageous, decisive and politically adept.” Mary I is remembered as a bloody queen Mary I is remembered for attempting to reverse the Reformation and return England to Catholicism. As her reign progressed, Mary “grew more and more fervent in her desire”: she restored papal supremacy, abandoned the title of Supreme Head of the Church and reintroduced Roman Catholic bishops. Mary also famously revived old heresy laws to secure the religious conversion of the country – heresy being a treasonable offence. Over the next three-and-a-half years, hundreds of Protestants – most accounts say around 300 – were burned at the stake. Mary I suffered a ‘phantom pregnancy’ Aged 37 and unmarried when she ascended the throne, Mary knew that in order to prevent her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth from succeeding her, she needed to marry and produce an heir. Mary’s decision in July 1554 to marry Philip of Spain, who in 1556 was to inherit that nation’s throne from his father, Charles V, was “politically expedient”, says Anna Whitelock. In her December 2014 article written for BBC History Magazine, Whitelock wrote: “The marriage treaty was as ‘favourable as possible for the interest and security and even the grandeur of England’, with Mary’s legal rights as queen preserved and Spanish influence kept to a minimum.” In January 1554 Mary faced – and later defeated – a Protestant rebellion led by landowner Thomas Wyatt that aimed to prevent the match with Philip. Wyatt was later executed at Tower Hill. Mary imprisoned her half-sister Elizabeth at the Tower of London in 1554, suspecting her of involvement in Wyatt’s plot against her. Elizabeth was later released into house arrest in the country. A peculiar episode in Mary’s reign was her phantom pregnancy of 1555. On 30 April “bells rang, bonfires were lit and there were celebrations in the street, following news that Mary I had given birth to a healthy son. But in reality there was no boy, and eventually all hope of a child died out.” The marriage was childless and Philip eventually deserted Mary, spending most of his time in Europe. Mary I was a highly impressive queen Historians have long focused on the negative aspects of Mary’s five-year reign, branding her a religious bigot and a military failure, but in recent years Mary has been largely reappraised. Anna Whitelock says: “Mary’s accession had changed the rules of the game, and the nature of this new feminised politics was yet to be defined, yet in many respects Mary proved more than equal to the task. Decisions over the details of the practice and power of a queen regnant became precedents for the future. In April 1554 Mary’s parliament passed the Act for Regal Power, which enshrined in law that queens held power as ‘fully, wholly and absolutely’ as their male predecessors, thereby establishing the gender-free authority of the crown.” Mary also restructured the economy and reorganised the militia, rebuilt the navy and successfully managed her parliament. By securing the throne, Mary ensured that the crown continued along the legal line of Tudor succession. Mary I was not such a military failure Mary is remembered for her unsuccessful war against France that led to the loss of Calais, England’s last possession in France, in January 1558. But before the loss of Calais, Mary enjoyed military successes. For example, in August 1557 English and Spanish forces captured Saint-Quentin, an action in which some 3,000 French troops were killed and 7,000 captured, including their commander Anne de Montmorency, the constable of France. Mary I is buried in Westminster Abbey Mary died on 17 November 1558, possibly from cancer, leaving the crown to her half-sister Elizabeth. Mary is buried beneath Elizabeth I in Westminster Abbey. King James I arranged for Elizabeth I to be dug up from elsewhere in the abbey three years after her death and moved into Mary’s grave. This article was first published by HistoryExtra in February 2016	<urn:uuid:0abf2e4b-1338-4ffb-98f2-8a63250a1c3a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyextra.com/period/tudor/mary-i-bloody-facts-life-death-legacy-illiegitimate-henry-viii/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00501.warc.gz	en	0.983122	1,359	3.4375	3	[ -0.20250535011291504, 0.04699556529521942, 0.432672381401062, -0.23915785551071167, -0.23011580109596252, 0.2758532166481018, 0.09742063283920288, -0.15975509583950043, 0.7126108407974243, 0.33214709162712097, -0.6343789100646973, -0.5203366279602051, -0.24041034281253815, 0.18347519636154...	6	We bring you eight facts about the Tudor monarch Mary I, the first queen regnant of England… Mary I was declared illegitimate by her father, Henry VIII The only surviving child of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, Mary I was effectively bastardised when her father divorced her mother in order to marry Anne Boleyn. Henry VIII claimed that the marriage had been incestuous and illegal, as Catherine had been married to his late brother, Arthur. Following the birth of Mary’s half-sister, Elizabeth (the future Elizabeth I), in September 1533, an Act of Parliament declared the 17-year-old Mary illegitimate and removed her from the succession to the throne (though she was reinstated by the 1543 Third Act of Succession and by Henry’s will). Mary was denied access to her mother, who had been sent by Henry to live away from court, and never saw her again. Mary I remained a devout Catholic Mary was later named heir to the throne after her younger half-brother Edward – but only after she had agreed to recognise their father as head of the church. Nevertheless, Mary remained a devout Catholic. She and her brother had a tempestuous relationship as they differed greatly in their religious views. When, aged nine, Edward VI inherited the throne in 1547 and confronted Mary’s Catholicism, she declared that she would rather lay her head on a block than forsake her faith. Mary was the orchestrator of an extraordinary coup d’état The first queen to rule England in her own right (rather than a queen through marriage to a king), Mary acceded the throne following her brother’s death in July 1553 in what Anna Whitelock describes as “an extraordinary coup d’état”. Edward had written Mary out of the succession and instead named his Protestant cousin Lady Jane Grey as heir to the throne, but Mary enjoyed widespread popular support and days later, on 19 July, she was proclaimed queen. Writing for BBC History Magazine in December 2014, Anna Whitelock argued: “The scale of [Mary’s] achievement is often overlooked. Mary had led the only successful revolt against central government in 16th-century England. She had eluded capture, mobilised a counter-coup and, in the moment of crisis, proved courageous, decisive and politically adept.” Mary I is remembered as a bloody queen Mary I is remembered for attempting to reverse the Reformation and return England to Catholicism. As her reign progressed, Mary “grew more and more fervent in her desire”: she restored papal supremacy, abandoned the title of Supreme Head of the Church and reintroduced Roman Catholic bishops. Mary also famously revived old heresy laws to secure the religious conversion of the country – heresy being a treasonable offence. Over the next three-and-a-half years, hundreds of Protestants – most accounts say around 300 – were burned at the stake. Mary I suffered a ‘phantom pregnancy’ Aged 37 and unmarried when she ascended the throne, Mary knew that in order to prevent her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth from succeeding her, she needed to marry and produce an heir. Mary’s decision in July 1554 to marry Philip of Spain, who in 1556 was to inherit that nation’s throne from his father, Charles V, was “politically expedient”, says Anna Whitelock. In her December 2014 article written for BBC History Magazine, Whitelock wrote: “The marriage treaty was as ‘favourable as possible for the interest and security and even the grandeur of England’, with Mary’s legal rights as queen preserved and Spanish influence kept to a minimum.” In January 1554 Mary faced – and later defeated – a Protestant rebellion led by landowner Thomas Wyatt that aimed to prevent the match with Philip. Wyatt was later executed at Tower Hill. Mary imprisoned her half-sister Elizabeth at the Tower of London in 1554, suspecting her of involvement in Wyatt’s plot against her. Elizabeth was later released into house arrest in the country. A peculiar episode in Mary’s reign was her phantom pregnancy of 1555. On 30 April “bells rang, bonfires were lit and there were celebrations in the street, following news that Mary I had given birth to a healthy son. But in reality there was no boy, and eventually all hope of a child died out.” The marriage was childless and Philip eventually deserted Mary, spending most of his time in Europe. Mary I was a highly impressive queen Historians have long focused on the negative aspects of Mary’s five-year reign, branding her a religious bigot and a military failure, but in recent years Mary has been largely reappraised. Anna Whitelock says: “Mary’s accession had changed the rules of the game, and the nature of this new feminised politics was yet to be defined, yet in many respects Mary proved more than equal to the task. Decisions over the details of the practice and power of a queen regnant became precedents for the future. In April 1554 Mary’s parliament passed the Act for Regal Power, which enshrined in law that queens held power as ‘fully, wholly and absolutely’ as their male predecessors, thereby establishing the gender-free authority of the crown.” Mary also restructured the economy and reorganised the militia, rebuilt the navy and successfully managed her parliament. By securing the throne, Mary ensured that the crown continued along the legal line of Tudor succession. Mary I was not such a military failure Mary is remembered for her unsuccessful war against France that led to the loss of Calais, England’s last possession in France, in January 1558. But before the loss of Calais, Mary enjoyed military successes. For example, in August 1557 English and Spanish forces captured Saint-Quentin, an action in which some 3,000 French troops were killed and 7,000 captured, including their commander Anne de Montmorency, the constable of France. Mary I is buried in Westminster Abbey Mary died on 17 November 1558, possibly from cancer, leaving the crown to her half-sister Elizabeth. Mary is buried beneath Elizabeth I in Westminster Abbey. King James I arranged for Elizabeth I to be dug up from elsewhere in the abbey three years after her death and moved into Mary’s grave. This article was first published by HistoryExtra in February 2016	1,352	ENGLISH	1
This is a unique surviving Aboriginal ceremonial carving. It was made in the mid-nineteenth century by people who lived around the Murray and Loddon Rivers in northern Victoria. John Hunter Kerr, a Scotsman who settled near the Loddon people, joined them in some activities, participating in hunting expeditions and observing certain ceremonies. He collected the etching along with a range of other objects and also took some photographs. The carving was made from the bark of a River Red Gum and has a painted design in red ochre and white clay. It represents the silhouette of an emu. It was carried by a dancer in a dance ceremony that Kerr witnessed. He described how the dancer 'imitated the gait of the bird, while the others danced around'. Kerr exhibited his Loddon collection at the Melbourne Exhibition in October 1854. It was then sent to another exhibition in Paris but when that closed it was dispersed and mostly lost. The emu was acquired by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in London and transferred to the British Museum in 1880.	<urn:uuid:fbbf8c96-9f9e-4137-a551-80b3da5cafed>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/bark-carving-representing-an-emu/sQGmIjhh0PGqgQ	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00399.warc.gz	en	0.987677	217	3.359375	3	[ -0.11132076382637024, 0.24453376233577728, 0.7241415977478027, 0.3005427122116089, 0.08498071879148483, -0.1896122843027115, -0.039071764796972275, 0.21755078434944153, -0.5363581776618958, 0.10177641361951828, -0.030473999679088593, -0.6314923763275146, -0.1789032518863678, 0.122756175696...	2	This is a unique surviving Aboriginal ceremonial carving. It was made in the mid-nineteenth century by people who lived around the Murray and Loddon Rivers in northern Victoria. John Hunter Kerr, a Scotsman who settled near the Loddon people, joined them in some activities, participating in hunting expeditions and observing certain ceremonies. He collected the etching along with a range of other objects and also took some photographs. The carving was made from the bark of a River Red Gum and has a painted design in red ochre and white clay. It represents the silhouette of an emu. It was carried by a dancer in a dance ceremony that Kerr witnessed. He described how the dancer 'imitated the gait of the bird, while the others danced around'. Kerr exhibited his Loddon collection at the Melbourne Exhibition in October 1854. It was then sent to another exhibition in Paris but when that closed it was dispersed and mostly lost. The emu was acquired by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in London and transferred to the British Museum in 1880.	224	ENGLISH	1
This week I have continued using the same composing idea suggested by our Reading Recovery tutor. (See previous post.) The students have adapted very well, and some of them anticipate that I will ask them to select 3 words from one of their books. They make comments such as “That would be a good ‘special’ word”. Here are some examples from the past week: Dad threw the ball and Jack hit the ball. That was good. Billy likes bread and he is hungry. The bread was for the ducks. Sam said, “Please stay with me”. Bingo did not run away. Billy said he likes walking to school with Jack. Mum said, “You will be 5 on your birthday”. Baby Bear sang, “Honey for tea”. He said, “The honey is gone”. Baby Bear said he is lost. Baby Bear said, “Boo!” when he was hiding in a little tree house. An acorn fell down on Chicken Licken’s head and then Duck-Luck came along. Max was going to be a wolf but his throat felt sore. Grandad did it. The Billy Goat Gruff butted the troll off the bridge into the water. The troll went down the river to a farm to eat the vegetables and fruit. So far the students have been able to view their 3 chosen words on a small whiteboard. FYI, mean (a familiar word) was used to write eat, and car (a familiar word) was used to write farm.	<urn:uuid:a8add785-ff3a-4810-8efe-f60a3f3e951d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://msfielding.global2.vic.edu.au/2017/06/11/more-writing-examples/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00007.warc.gz	en	0.985011	336	3.71875	4	[ -0.46062171459198, -0.2726231515407562, -0.2644442915916443, -0.3303045928478241, -0.16637597978115082, -0.23827853798866272, 0.2801736891269684, 0.19510093331336975, -0.2978099584579468, -0.13175629079341888, -0.04447915405035019, -0.21503977477550507, -0.03793425112962723, -0.12347885221...	1	This week I have continued using the same composing idea suggested by our Reading Recovery tutor. (See previous post.) The students have adapted very well, and some of them anticipate that I will ask them to select 3 words from one of their books. They make comments such as “That would be a good ‘special’ word”. Here are some examples from the past week: Dad threw the ball and Jack hit the ball. That was good. Billy likes bread and he is hungry. The bread was for the ducks. Sam said, “Please stay with me”. Bingo did not run away. Billy said he likes walking to school with Jack. Mum said, “You will be 5 on your birthday”. Baby Bear sang, “Honey for tea”. He said, “The honey is gone”. Baby Bear said he is lost. Baby Bear said, “Boo!” when he was hiding in a little tree house. An acorn fell down on Chicken Licken’s head and then Duck-Luck came along. Max was going to be a wolf but his throat felt sore. Grandad did it. The Billy Goat Gruff butted the troll off the bridge into the water. The troll went down the river to a farm to eat the vegetables and fruit. So far the students have been able to view their 3 chosen words on a small whiteboard. FYI, mean (a familiar word) was used to write eat, and car (a familiar word) was used to write farm.	306	ENGLISH	1
Sir Francis Drake combined several roles, from pirate to sea captain, privateer to explorer. He perhaps typifies the ‘entrepreneurial’ spirit of the Elizabethan Age at the birth of the first English and subsequently British Empire. One of his most daring exploits was a successful circumnavigation of the earth from 1577 to 1580. He set off with just five ships, including the Pelican which he was on board. He did soon include another ship, however, under the captaincy of a Portuguese, Nuno da Silva, who knew well some of the sea routes around the Americas. To Elizabeth and the English, Drake was a hero, a continual threat to the Spanish fleets and their gold. To the Spanish, however, he was often referred to as ‘El Draco’, or the Dragon, also probably because of his warlike and privateering exploits in the Spanish Main. copyright Francis Barker 2019	<urn:uuid:362c97e1-cd92-4638-9a88-cc50f67008f7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://francisbarkerart.com/2019/12/13/on-this-day-1577-francis-drake-sets-off-on-his-circumnavigation-of-earth/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00474.warc.gz	en	0.98551	193	3.6875	4	[ -0.23118260502815247, 0.10025881975889206, 0.6244028210639954, -0.5778869390487671, -0.4409109950065613, -0.5605653524398804, 0.5065307021141052, 0.26303887367248535, -0.25154271721839905, -0.18004673719406128, -0.047098465263843536, -0.6123223900794983, -0.2927645742893219, 0.227246940135...	5	Sir Francis Drake combined several roles, from pirate to sea captain, privateer to explorer. He perhaps typifies the ‘entrepreneurial’ spirit of the Elizabethan Age at the birth of the first English and subsequently British Empire. One of his most daring exploits was a successful circumnavigation of the earth from 1577 to 1580. He set off with just five ships, including the Pelican which he was on board. He did soon include another ship, however, under the captaincy of a Portuguese, Nuno da Silva, who knew well some of the sea routes around the Americas. To Elizabeth and the English, Drake was a hero, a continual threat to the Spanish fleets and their gold. To the Spanish, however, he was often referred to as ‘El Draco’, or the Dragon, also probably because of his warlike and privateering exploits in the Spanish Main. copyright Francis Barker 2019	191	ENGLISH	1
Sir Edward Coke ( “cook”, formerly ; 1 February 1552 – 3 September 1634) was an English barrister, judge, and politician who is considered to be the greatest jurist of the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras.Born into an upper-class family, Coke was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, before leaving to study at the Inner Temple, where he was called to the Bar on 20 April 1578. As a barrister he took part in several notable cases, including Slade’s Case, before earning enough political favour to be elected to Parliament, where he served first as Solicitor General and then as Speaker of the House of Commons. Following a promotion to Attorney General he led the prosecution in several notable cases, including those against Robert Devereux, Sir Walter Raleigh, and the Gunpowder Plot conspirators. As a reward for his services he was first knighted and then made Chief Justice of the Common Pleas. As Chief Justice, Coke restricted the use of the ex officio (Star Chamber) oath and, in the Case of Proclamations and Dr. Bonham’s Case, declared the King to be subject to the law, and the laws of Parliament to be void if in violation of “common right and reason”. These actions eventually led to his transfer to the Chief Justiceship of the King’s Bench, where it was felt he could do less damage. Coke then successively restricted the definition of treason and declared a royal letter illegal, leading to his dismissal from the bench on 14 November 1616. With no chance of regaining his judicial posts, he instead returned to Parliament, where he swiftly became a leading member of the opposition. During his time as a Member of Parliament he wrote and campaigned for the Statute of Monopolies, which substantially restricted the ability of the monarch to grant patents, and authored and was instrumental in the passage of the Petition of Right, a document considered one of the three crucial constitutional documents of England, along with Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689. Coke is best known in modern times for his Institutes, described by John Rutledge as “almost the foundations of our law”, and his Reports, which have been called “perhaps the single most influential series of named reports”. Historically, he was a highly influential judge; within England and Wales, his statements and works were used to justify the right to silence, while the Statute of Monopolies is considered to be one of the first actions in the conflict between Parliament and monarch that led to the English Civil War. In America, Coke’s decision in Dr. Bonham’s Case was used to justify the voiding of both the Stamp Act 1765 and writs of assistance, which led to the American War of Independence; after the establishment of the United States his decisions and writings profoundly influenced the Third and Fourth amendments to the United States Constitution while necessitating the Sixteenth.	<urn:uuid:4d9ac2f2-83c5-448c-81ed-66840034408d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://goodquotes.me/authors/edward-coke/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00283.warc.gz	en	0.983566	615	3.578125	4	[ -0.3984503149986267, -0.05517284572124481, 0.4398133158683777, -0.14433899521827698, -0.07800164818763733, -0.008089889772236347, 0.8648977279663086, -0.2758306860923767, -0.26658397912979126, 0.17148274183273315, -0.7338771820068359, -0.25425994396209717, -0.18638956546783447, 0.209037065...	2	Sir Edward Coke ( “cook”, formerly ; 1 February 1552 – 3 September 1634) was an English barrister, judge, and politician who is considered to be the greatest jurist of the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras.Born into an upper-class family, Coke was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, before leaving to study at the Inner Temple, where he was called to the Bar on 20 April 1578. As a barrister he took part in several notable cases, including Slade’s Case, before earning enough political favour to be elected to Parliament, where he served first as Solicitor General and then as Speaker of the House of Commons. Following a promotion to Attorney General he led the prosecution in several notable cases, including those against Robert Devereux, Sir Walter Raleigh, and the Gunpowder Plot conspirators. As a reward for his services he was first knighted and then made Chief Justice of the Common Pleas. As Chief Justice, Coke restricted the use of the ex officio (Star Chamber) oath and, in the Case of Proclamations and Dr. Bonham’s Case, declared the King to be subject to the law, and the laws of Parliament to be void if in violation of “common right and reason”. These actions eventually led to his transfer to the Chief Justiceship of the King’s Bench, where it was felt he could do less damage. Coke then successively restricted the definition of treason and declared a royal letter illegal, leading to his dismissal from the bench on 14 November 1616. With no chance of regaining his judicial posts, he instead returned to Parliament, where he swiftly became a leading member of the opposition. During his time as a Member of Parliament he wrote and campaigned for the Statute of Monopolies, which substantially restricted the ability of the monarch to grant patents, and authored and was instrumental in the passage of the Petition of Right, a document considered one of the three crucial constitutional documents of England, along with Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689. Coke is best known in modern times for his Institutes, described by John Rutledge as “almost the foundations of our law”, and his Reports, which have been called “perhaps the single most influential series of named reports”. Historically, he was a highly influential judge; within England and Wales, his statements and works were used to justify the right to silence, while the Statute of Monopolies is considered to be one of the first actions in the conflict between Parliament and monarch that led to the English Civil War. In America, Coke’s decision in Dr. Bonham’s Case was used to justify the voiding of both the Stamp Act 1765 and writs of assistance, which led to the American War of Independence; after the establishment of the United States his decisions and writings profoundly influenced the Third and Fourth amendments to the United States Constitution while necessitating the Sixteenth.	616	ENGLISH	1
Some consider art as useless subject that does not teach us anything; only consider art as the entertainment. But arts could be very beneficial to us, it teaches us lesson such as history and culture, and allow us to feel the same feeling that artist felt. The main value of the arts is to teach us about the world around us. There are many meanings in the arts. The work of arts includes all the aspect of our society. The arts can express many feelings that we could not feel without it. There is countless emotions that human can feel. We may feel some but not all with out help of arts. Leonardo da Vinci is known for his paintings, one of the art works is called Mona Lisa. This work of art is just a painting of the woman without any artistic perspective. But it is not just a painting of a woman, because if it was we could not feel mysterious feeling. By looking at the Mona Lisa that Leonardo loved which took four years to finish; we can feel his will to finish this painting with perfection, we can feel is love toward this woman, and we can feel his sadness that come from the fact that she is already someone’s wife. Like this, we could feel the emotions that we might not have felt without work of arts. Arts teach us about the human emotions. The music is one of many subjects of arts, and it is most popular one. There are people that listen to music just to party, but some music has meaning and teaches us history. For example R&B music; this music is originated from the African American that was enslaved by white people. They sang this song to relieve the pain or sing about the pain they felt. By listening to this kind of music, we can learn about the pain they felt and know the history when they were suppressed and enslaved. We can keep reminded that the enslaving people is bad thing and painful experience that we should not let anyone feel. Music teaches us about the history and also the emotions of creator of the music. There might be a people that think art is useless and meaningless, but it is a fact that arts possess meaning and teaches us about the world. By looking at the work of art we can feel what artist wants us to feel, we can learn the history, and we can learn the culture of time period when artist lived or place where art originated from. Also, we can see what kind of emotions that people felt during the time period of when art was created. The art is shows every human can feel, and we must learn from it.	<urn:uuid:213a9a66-3945-4d67-9b6a-5e6d8b49263a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studymode.com/essays/Art-Is-It-Important-Or-Not-63820393.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00471.warc.gz	en	0.985687	521	3.265625	3	[ 0.11789450794458389, 0.007575612515211105, 0.4031136631965637, 0.08787468820810318, -0.49279284477233887, 0.3569261431694031, 0.3840101957321167, -0.08372412621974945, 0.12910157442092896, -0.09772756695747375, 0.3343890905380249, -0.06496050208806992, 0.06040042266249657, 0.58210062980651...	1	Some consider art as useless subject that does not teach us anything; only consider art as the entertainment. But arts could be very beneficial to us, it teaches us lesson such as history and culture, and allow us to feel the same feeling that artist felt. The main value of the arts is to teach us about the world around us. There are many meanings in the arts. The work of arts includes all the aspect of our society. The arts can express many feelings that we could not feel without it. There is countless emotions that human can feel. We may feel some but not all with out help of arts. Leonardo da Vinci is known for his paintings, one of the art works is called Mona Lisa. This work of art is just a painting of the woman without any artistic perspective. But it is not just a painting of a woman, because if it was we could not feel mysterious feeling. By looking at the Mona Lisa that Leonardo loved which took four years to finish; we can feel his will to finish this painting with perfection, we can feel is love toward this woman, and we can feel his sadness that come from the fact that she is already someone’s wife. Like this, we could feel the emotions that we might not have felt without work of arts. Arts teach us about the human emotions. The music is one of many subjects of arts, and it is most popular one. There are people that listen to music just to party, but some music has meaning and teaches us history. For example R&B music; this music is originated from the African American that was enslaved by white people. They sang this song to relieve the pain or sing about the pain they felt. By listening to this kind of music, we can learn about the pain they felt and know the history when they were suppressed and enslaved. We can keep reminded that the enslaving people is bad thing and painful experience that we should not let anyone feel. Music teaches us about the history and also the emotions of creator of the music. There might be a people that think art is useless and meaningless, but it is a fact that arts possess meaning and teaches us about the world. By looking at the work of art we can feel what artist wants us to feel, we can learn the history, and we can learn the culture of time period when artist lived or place where art originated from. Also, we can see what kind of emotions that people felt during the time period of when art was created. The art is shows every human can feel, and we must learn from it.	513	ENGLISH	1
How people lived related with how people worked, and vice versa. Worn-out workers grew enervated and slow, making the workplace very dangerous. Thus, Christians, in Europe, got divided into- Catholics and Protestants. The History Guide, n. Homes were small and the streets were very cramped. Children as young as six years old worked in mines and factories for as long as fourteen to sixteen hours a day. Children would have worked in fields and along side the women in the dark, damp iron and coal mines. Coal was an abundant natural resource in Britain, and due to the rising costs of timber from the scarcity of trees, it came to be used in domestic hearths during the British Industrial Revolution Musson, p Only the poorest of women were hustlers. Death rates increased greatly as the number of factories increased. Poor and orphaned children were forced to work in the factories. Obviously, a large amount of innovation in machine technology had to occur for this to happen, and the British Industrial Revolution is marked by several significant inventions. Diseases spread even more since villages in the feudal age were permanent, close communities. Both ways led to extreme exhaustion. They became governesses, seamstresses and factory workers. However, studies have found a slow but systematic social reorganization of land holdings from peasant-owned strips to consolidated units called "enclosures". They carried coal in heavy baskets or in wagons. Peasants were bound to their lord for marital consent as well. However, food was still expensive, especially meat. They broke away from the Catholic church and formed the Protestant churches as the result. Many of these workers lived in country areas, and although some were also farmers, many worked full-time at their small part of the textile trade Musson, p So many people were moving to the city that homes had to be made quickly in order to provide housing for them. Both ways led to extreme exhaustion. The atmosphere was very dark and dreary. They had to work at least two to three full days of labor a week. Roofs were thatched so they were easily destroyed. The reconquest of Sicily from Arab control in the early 11th century, and contact both peaceful and bellicose with the Umayyad caliphate in Spain, which had been captured by Islam in the 8th century and was eventually reconquered inwere crucial to this.Jun 15, · Luca explains history: The Industrial Revolution vs The Renaissance. Making school projects fun! Inspired by Minute Physics. Share, Use and be inspired. Renaissance into the Industrial Revolution Royalty maintained its grip on bread making throughout the Renaissance. Laws for the production and sale of flour and bread reached new heights byprimarily due to the demand for bread and the availability of grain. One example of this is the changes between the Renaissance period and Industrial Revolution. Each era had their own social classes: the higher class of the royalty and nobles, middle class of the merchants and bourgeoisie, and lower class of peasants and servants. The Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement that peaked during the 15 th and 16 th centuries, though most historians would agree that it really began in the 14 th, with antecedents. The Renaissance and Industrial Revolution were both times of great human achievements over the preceding ages. They were similar in many ways but very different in others. This web site provides information on these two important time periods and their impact on history. Analysis. Jan 09, · The Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement that peaked during the 15 th and 16 th centuries, though most historians would agree that it .Download	<urn:uuid:9c6b6ad5-d710-48f3-a15f-de2d19fde3b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://rehipoj.bistroriviere.com/the-renaissance-vs-the-industrial-revolution-28270du.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00302.warc.gz	en	0.985498	742	3.359375	3	[ -0.03641483560204506, 0.4195288419723511, 0.3164425194263458, 0.14982350170612335, 0.20613503456115723, -0.01471327617764473, -0.20022329688072205, -0.0905190110206604, -0.319930762052536, 0.022608138620853424, -0.16707228124141693, -0.1265413463115692, -0.17096152901649475, 0.014168813824...	1	How people lived related with how people worked, and vice versa. Worn-out workers grew enervated and slow, making the workplace very dangerous. Thus, Christians, in Europe, got divided into- Catholics and Protestants. The History Guide, n. Homes were small and the streets were very cramped. Children as young as six years old worked in mines and factories for as long as fourteen to sixteen hours a day. Children would have worked in fields and along side the women in the dark, damp iron and coal mines. Coal was an abundant natural resource in Britain, and due to the rising costs of timber from the scarcity of trees, it came to be used in domestic hearths during the British Industrial Revolution Musson, p Only the poorest of women were hustlers. Death rates increased greatly as the number of factories increased. Poor and orphaned children were forced to work in the factories. Obviously, a large amount of innovation in machine technology had to occur for this to happen, and the British Industrial Revolution is marked by several significant inventions. Diseases spread even more since villages in the feudal age were permanent, close communities. Both ways led to extreme exhaustion. They became governesses, seamstresses and factory workers. However, studies have found a slow but systematic social reorganization of land holdings from peasant-owned strips to consolidated units called "enclosures". They carried coal in heavy baskets or in wagons. Peasants were bound to their lord for marital consent as well. However, food was still expensive, especially meat. They broke away from the Catholic church and formed the Protestant churches as the result. Many of these workers lived in country areas, and although some were also farmers, many worked full-time at their small part of the textile trade Musson, p So many people were moving to the city that homes had to be made quickly in order to provide housing for them. Both ways led to extreme exhaustion. The atmosphere was very dark and dreary. They had to work at least two to three full days of labor a week. Roofs were thatched so they were easily destroyed. The reconquest of Sicily from Arab control in the early 11th century, and contact both peaceful and bellicose with the Umayyad caliphate in Spain, which had been captured by Islam in the 8th century and was eventually reconquered inwere crucial to this.Jun 15, · Luca explains history: The Industrial Revolution vs The Renaissance. Making school projects fun! Inspired by Minute Physics. Share, Use and be inspired. Renaissance into the Industrial Revolution Royalty maintained its grip on bread making throughout the Renaissance. Laws for the production and sale of flour and bread reached new heights byprimarily due to the demand for bread and the availability of grain. One example of this is the changes between the Renaissance period and Industrial Revolution. Each era had their own social classes: the higher class of the royalty and nobles, middle class of the merchants and bourgeoisie, and lower class of peasants and servants. The Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement that peaked during the 15 th and 16 th centuries, though most historians would agree that it really began in the 14 th, with antecedents. The Renaissance and Industrial Revolution were both times of great human achievements over the preceding ages. They were similar in many ways but very different in others. This web site provides information on these two important time periods and their impact on history. Analysis. Jan 09, · The Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement that peaked during the 15 th and 16 th centuries, though most historians would agree that it .Download	743	ENGLISH	1
William Gilbert Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Childhood And Early Life Physician, physicist, and philosopher William Gilbert was born on the 24 May 1544 in Colchester, Essex, England. William Gilbert was educated at St John’s College at the University of Cambridge obtaining a B.A. in 1561. He went on to study for an M.A. (1569) and was awarded a doctorate in 1569 and became a senior fellow of St John’s College. Rise To Fame Once qualified William Gilbert started practicing medicine in London. He was a member of the Royal College of Physicians and was later appointed the President of the Royal College of Physicians. Then in 1600, he was made Queen Elizabeth I’s court physician. Experiments And Discovery His theories on magnetism were published in his book, De Magnete in 1600. This book, written in Latin, dealt with what was known about magnetic phenomena as well as his extensive research. William Gilbert had conducted many experiments as he sought to understand magnetism and the compass. He worked with compass makers, ship’s captains and other in his experiments using a free moving needle and a spherical magnetic lodestone. He discovered that one could create from metals by rubbing with a magnet. During his experiments, he made the connection between magnetic forces and the rotation of the earth. His theory that the earth had its magnetism provided the basis of geomagnetism. William Gilbert also put forward the idea that the Earth was not the center of the universe and theorized that it was a magnetic planet with north and south poles. Awards And Achievements William Gilbert was the first to show the difference between magnetic and static electricity. He was also the first person to explain how a magnetic compass works and he coined the term electricity. At the time of its publication, De Magenta was seen as a milestone in physics and was read by Galileo. William Gilbert continued with his experiments as he attempted to prove the magnetism of the planet becoming the first to use the experimental scientific method. William Gilbert never married or had children and died on the 30 November 1603. Philip Showalter Hench	<urn:uuid:81150c49-d504-466f-b464-c354863d2df9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/william-gilbert/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00204.warc.gz	en	0.984259	464	3.28125	3	[ -0.31778764724731445, 0.22127164900302887, 0.7738547325134277, -0.12113646417856216, -0.6259760856628418, -0.11560898274183273, 0.7317264676094055, 0.0025076675228774548, 0.07217779755592346, -0.32911667227745056, 0.0886186733841896, -0.4214549660682678, 0.3442011773586273, 0.1832473129034...	1	William Gilbert Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Childhood And Early Life Physician, physicist, and philosopher William Gilbert was born on the 24 May 1544 in Colchester, Essex, England. William Gilbert was educated at St John’s College at the University of Cambridge obtaining a B.A. in 1561. He went on to study for an M.A. (1569) and was awarded a doctorate in 1569 and became a senior fellow of St John’s College. Rise To Fame Once qualified William Gilbert started practicing medicine in London. He was a member of the Royal College of Physicians and was later appointed the President of the Royal College of Physicians. Then in 1600, he was made Queen Elizabeth I’s court physician. Experiments And Discovery His theories on magnetism were published in his book, De Magnete in 1600. This book, written in Latin, dealt with what was known about magnetic phenomena as well as his extensive research. William Gilbert had conducted many experiments as he sought to understand magnetism and the compass. He worked with compass makers, ship’s captains and other in his experiments using a free moving needle and a spherical magnetic lodestone. He discovered that one could create from metals by rubbing with a magnet. During his experiments, he made the connection between magnetic forces and the rotation of the earth. His theory that the earth had its magnetism provided the basis of geomagnetism. William Gilbert also put forward the idea that the Earth was not the center of the universe and theorized that it was a magnetic planet with north and south poles. Awards And Achievements William Gilbert was the first to show the difference between magnetic and static electricity. He was also the first person to explain how a magnetic compass works and he coined the term electricity. At the time of its publication, De Magenta was seen as a milestone in physics and was read by Galileo. William Gilbert continued with his experiments as he attempted to prove the magnetism of the planet becoming the first to use the experimental scientific method. William Gilbert never married or had children and died on the 30 November 1603. Philip Showalter Hench	467	ENGLISH	1
Periodization refers to the categorization of the past into discrete, quantified blocks of time with a name. Periodization helps make study of history and its analysis thereof easier to comprehend. Periodization produces convenient terms for time with stable characteristics. Nevertheless, it is difficult to be precise with the beginning and ending of particular periods. All systems of periodization are arbitrary. However, without periods, past time would be scattered and imprecise. There would be no proper framework to help geographers and historians in understanding periods. Periodization helps people understand urbanization of Europe in a great way. In his book Streetlife: The Untold History of Europe’s Twentieth Century, Leif Jerram illustrates how street life began in Europe. He mentions that man began to settle down and farm 10,000 years ago. The author states that people started to move to cities in 1830 beginning with Britain and Belgium. This movement later became a major contributor to growth of cities. The writer gives a chronological transformation of Europe and provides specific dates on when these events were happening. Periodization helps determine the exact dates when something started happening thus giving history a factual perspective that makes it easier to read and understand. Leif says that the scale and rate of change was enormous starting with Britain. It is mentioned in his book that a such city as Manchester was already a modest provincial town in 1800. In this period, its population was about 75000 people. By 1900, the town had grown to house a population of 2,117,000. On the other hand, Birmingham had grown from a population of 71000 people in 1800 to 1,483,000 people in 1900. In this context, Leif does not only shows the historical figures of population in the cities but also provides readers with the times when the population stood at these figures. Leif helps see the transformation and growth by comparing different time periods. For instance, it is evident that there is an exponentil growth in population in just 100 years. Therefore, it is possible to calculate the rate of growth between 1800 and 1900. This helps historians and geographers have the mental image of how growth in these cities happened. It is also possible to compare the cities between these time frames and predict what would happen 100 years from now. Leif says that there was a transformation in everyday life between 1890 and 1970. The transformation touched many aspects of Europe such as politics, lives of women, sexual identities, people’s assumptions and their perspectives. In addition, Leif talks about politics in the cities between 1890 and 1900. During this time, progressive parties of the twentieth century were formed. This helps readers understand that the growth of cities was not just in physical terms and population-wise. People also started having different political ideologies during this time. Periodization also helps identify the roles of women in Europe during the period of urbanization. Leif emphasizes that women were not concerned with things that enhance the status of a woman in the today’s world such as university education, occupying senior positions in leadership in private sector and government. In fact, women took part in campaigns to prevent other women from going to university and taking high profile jobs. However, for the first time during this period, factories brought women together in dynamic ways. This ended in conflict between working class men and women, which was the characteristic of the century. In such a way, periodization helps see and understand the changing position of women in the society. It can be noted that over at the start of World War 1, many women were happy to remain at home. The rights of women were also unstable during this time. Women were humiliated for having shaven heads in Paris. Some were raped in the presence of hundreds of thousands in Berlin, Warsaw and Budapest. These events took place between 1945 and 1946. Raping of women in former Yugoslavia in the 1990s also underscores this development. The great Cultural Revolution in Europe also impacted the field of sport. Football was a popular sport during this time. However, sport was rarely played in Europe until the late 1880s. People also did not watch the sport. Most sports such as cricket were a preserve of rich people. It required whole days to be set aside for people to watch. In the late 1880s, temporal requirements for football were established. Newton Heath Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Club went professional and started paying in 1892. Rules of football were also formulated in the 1860s. Elite private schools started putting more emphasis on sports. Sports were seen as a critical ingredient in character formation. In the 1840s-1850s, this “character formation” could be more or less compared to battle grounds. Custom Essay Writing Service Passing was rare in football. In the period between 1880s and 1890s, passing evolved. Working class men mastered the game in the mid-1880s. Football became popular in primary and secondary schools, and as these players left university later to work across Britain, they encouraged playing of football at the Sunday schools where they were patrons. As the Sunday school boys grew up, they popularized the game amongst working-class men. In the 1890s, the virtuoso one-on-one dribbling English game merged with the Scottish passing game and produced something similar to the modern football. In this period, goalkeepers and defences were formalized as norms. Hacking and other violent traditions in football were outlawed. From 1900 to 1910, football started to be the sports that we know today. It was played in almost every major city in Europe and Latin America. In addition, by 1900, stadia were being constructed in Britain at Crystal Palace in London and throughout the northern industrial cities. By 1920s, stadia were being constructed in other European cities for purposes of playing football. Building of stadia transformed football into an entertainment business from a participatory event. In Moscow, football was played on fenced off fields to keep spectators from entering.	<urn:uuid:68d99b3d-a2d3-4e37-85c0-883381184dd3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://grand-essays.com/free-essays/history/periodization-and-cultural-revolution-in-europe	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00345.warc.gz	en	0.983759	1,214	3.71875	4	[ -0.13887786865234375, -0.09883294999599457, 0.35836780071258545, 0.10329387336969376, -0.32508140802383423, -0.13963162899017334, -0.188188835978508, -0.007133699022233486, 0.1323704719543457, 0.1918889880180359, 0.1772478073835373, -0.24026167392730713, 0.11941972374916077, 0.378150463104...	5	Periodization refers to the categorization of the past into discrete, quantified blocks of time with a name. Periodization helps make study of history and its analysis thereof easier to comprehend. Periodization produces convenient terms for time with stable characteristics. Nevertheless, it is difficult to be precise with the beginning and ending of particular periods. All systems of periodization are arbitrary. However, without periods, past time would be scattered and imprecise. There would be no proper framework to help geographers and historians in understanding periods. Periodization helps people understand urbanization of Europe in a great way. In his book Streetlife: The Untold History of Europe’s Twentieth Century, Leif Jerram illustrates how street life began in Europe. He mentions that man began to settle down and farm 10,000 years ago. The author states that people started to move to cities in 1830 beginning with Britain and Belgium. This movement later became a major contributor to growth of cities. The writer gives a chronological transformation of Europe and provides specific dates on when these events were happening. Periodization helps determine the exact dates when something started happening thus giving history a factual perspective that makes it easier to read and understand. Leif says that the scale and rate of change was enormous starting with Britain. It is mentioned in his book that a such city as Manchester was already a modest provincial town in 1800. In this period, its population was about 75000 people. By 1900, the town had grown to house a population of 2,117,000. On the other hand, Birmingham had grown from a population of 71000 people in 1800 to 1,483,000 people in 1900. In this context, Leif does not only shows the historical figures of population in the cities but also provides readers with the times when the population stood at these figures. Leif helps see the transformation and growth by comparing different time periods. For instance, it is evident that there is an exponentil growth in population in just 100 years. Therefore, it is possible to calculate the rate of growth between 1800 and 1900. This helps historians and geographers have the mental image of how growth in these cities happened. It is also possible to compare the cities between these time frames and predict what would happen 100 years from now. Leif says that there was a transformation in everyday life between 1890 and 1970. The transformation touched many aspects of Europe such as politics, lives of women, sexual identities, people’s assumptions and their perspectives. In addition, Leif talks about politics in the cities between 1890 and 1900. During this time, progressive parties of the twentieth century were formed. This helps readers understand that the growth of cities was not just in physical terms and population-wise. People also started having different political ideologies during this time. Periodization also helps identify the roles of women in Europe during the period of urbanization. Leif emphasizes that women were not concerned with things that enhance the status of a woman in the today’s world such as university education, occupying senior positions in leadership in private sector and government. In fact, women took part in campaigns to prevent other women from going to university and taking high profile jobs. However, for the first time during this period, factories brought women together in dynamic ways. This ended in conflict between working class men and women, which was the characteristic of the century. In such a way, periodization helps see and understand the changing position of women in the society. It can be noted that over at the start of World War 1, many women were happy to remain at home. The rights of women were also unstable during this time. Women were humiliated for having shaven heads in Paris. Some were raped in the presence of hundreds of thousands in Berlin, Warsaw and Budapest. These events took place between 1945 and 1946. Raping of women in former Yugoslavia in the 1990s also underscores this development. The great Cultural Revolution in Europe also impacted the field of sport. Football was a popular sport during this time. However, sport was rarely played in Europe until the late 1880s. People also did not watch the sport. Most sports such as cricket were a preserve of rich people. It required whole days to be set aside for people to watch. In the late 1880s, temporal requirements for football were established. Newton Heath Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Club went professional and started paying in 1892. Rules of football were also formulated in the 1860s. Elite private schools started putting more emphasis on sports. Sports were seen as a critical ingredient in character formation. In the 1840s-1850s, this “character formation” could be more or less compared to battle grounds. Custom Essay Writing Service Passing was rare in football. In the period between 1880s and 1890s, passing evolved. Working class men mastered the game in the mid-1880s. Football became popular in primary and secondary schools, and as these players left university later to work across Britain, they encouraged playing of football at the Sunday schools where they were patrons. As the Sunday school boys grew up, they popularized the game amongst working-class men. In the 1890s, the virtuoso one-on-one dribbling English game merged with the Scottish passing game and produced something similar to the modern football. In this period, goalkeepers and defences were formalized as norms. Hacking and other violent traditions in football were outlawed. From 1900 to 1910, football started to be the sports that we know today. It was played in almost every major city in Europe and Latin America. In addition, by 1900, stadia were being constructed in Britain at Crystal Palace in London and throughout the northern industrial cities. By 1920s, stadia were being constructed in other European cities for purposes of playing football. Building of stadia transformed football into an entertainment business from a participatory event. In Moscow, football was played on fenced off fields to keep spectators from entering.	1,326	ENGLISH	1
The Vikings Invade England (History in a Nutshell No.5) When we hear the name Viking there is a temptation to think of images of huge, blond-headed and red-bearded, horn-helmeted individuals raiding in massed numbers up and down the coast of Britain. Well, some of that is absolutely true, but certainly they did not wear horned or winged helmets as was fancifully supposed in Victorian times. Initially, they often did not even invade in massed numbers, and normally they landed a few ships and raided and disappeared quickly. However, pitched battles were fought eventually against them by the English, and their raids did become much larger, until they became a threat to Christian civilization in England. But this comes later in our account. To begin with, there was no massed, planned invasion at all. What does Viking even mean? Well, the word was never used by the people of the day, and the English principally referred to them as the Danes, as the majority of them came from Denmark. Others though, were from Norway and Sweden. The word Viking basically means a sea-rover, pirate or freebooter. To go a Viking, is basically to go on a raid of pillage and plunder. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle called these raiders "black men" because they wore black leather armour for the most part, rather like ancient forerunners of Hell's Angels with long beards, tattoos and dark clothing studded with metal as additional armour. The First Assaults We do not know precisely when the Viking raids on the English coast began, but the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives us the first date as 789 AD, when King Offa of Mercia was Bretwalda, or High King of the English. Four years later, in 793 the Danes returned, and destroyed the church of St. Cuthbert on Holy Island, or Lindisfarne, on the Northumbrian coast. In the following year the Vikings returned, but the English defeated them and put their chieftain, or king to death. The Danes that managed to escape took a terrible tale back with them and this left the coasts of England safe for around 40 years. In the year 829 AD Egbert was crowned King of Wessex. King Offa of Mercia had died in the year 796 and since that time, Mercia had gradually lost much of its power and prestige. Wessex, meanwhile, was on the ascent. At this time, the churches and monasteries of England were great storehouses of wealth and riches. Under Catholic England, those who had any wealth to give, gave it to the church as a means of absolution from their sins and to buy their way into Heaven. The Vikings were fully aware of just how much wealth they could gain from raids on these churches and monasteries, and indeed, this store of wealth was likely to be the prime motivator for many of the Vikings who came over to England in their longships. In addition, there were still in the island discontented Britons, those Celtic descendants who had wanted to get rid of the Anglo-Saxons. Some of these Celtic bands living in Western England joined with the Vikings and fought against Egbert. However, Egbert proved victorious against them. In 836 he died, and the crown of Wessex passed to his son, Ethelwulf. The Rise of Wessex The Danes were now becoming increasingly emboldened, and sailed up the Thames in London and pillaged the city. They also attacked Rochester and Canterbury. They had already burned Paris and ravaged the coasts along the Mediterranean. Against this new and more dangerous onslaught, the kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia united against this common foe. Ethelbert's eldest son, Athelstan, the king of Kent, had assisted him in the defeat of the Danish raids. Ethelbert had other sons too, in order of age, being Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred and Alfred, the latter being born in the year 849. All of them would become King of Wessex in turn, and Alfred would later be known as The Great, the only English monarch to ever have such an appellation. In the year 865 "a great heathen army" as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle puts it, arrived in East Anglia. Their leader was the terrible Ivar the Boneless, so named due to being born with deformed and crippled legs. He was one of the sons of Ragnar Lothbrok, who had been killed by the king of Northumbria by being thrown into a pit of snakes, and Ivar was seeking bloody revenge. The latter means of execution seems almost doubtful, as the only poisonous snakes in England are adders, and they mostly do not kill. However, perhaps if enough of them were gathered in one place such as a pit, they might suffice to kill a man. In the year 866 Ivar and his Vikings besieged the city of York. A battle was fought and the Vikings emerged as the victors. This victory over the English was followed in 869 by the conquest of East Anglia, accomplished by the brothers of Ivar, namely Halfdane (or Halfdan) Hingwar and Hubba (or Ubba). The king of the East Anglians, Edmund, was savagely murdered and subsequently made a saint. All that stood against the Danes now was the remaining kingdom of Wessex. At this time, the king of Wessex was Alfred's brother Ethelred. Both he and Alfred, now a young man of 22 years old, fought several battles against the Danish invaders. In January of the year 871, the English fought and defeated the Danes at the battle of Ashdown in Berkshire, Wessex. But it was young Prince Alfred who won the day, losing patience with his older brother Ethelred, who was busy at prayer before the battle commenced. It was said of Alfred, by the monk Asser, that Alfred charged the Vikings with his army "like a wild boar." The English had the disadvantage of having to climb uphill where the Danes held a high point. Fighting in those days was generally carried out on foot by both sides, and horses were only used to carry men and provisions into battle for the most part. An old hawthorn tree grew alone in that place, and the battle was mostly fought around it. The Danes were thoroughly routed, and the English pursued them as they fled back to Reading where they held camp. All through the night the Danes were chased and slaughtered, leaving bodies strewn across the countryside. This battle was of particular importance, because at this point, only Wessex stood against the might of the Viking forces. If the Danes had won at Ashdown, the entire country would have been overtaken by them and paganism would most likely have dominated Christian England. So religious belief and practice in England was held in the balance by this decisive battle. In the same year, just after Easter, Ethelred died of wounds inflicted in the battle of Ashdown, and a second Danish army was currently invading. Prince Alfred now became king of Wessex. His father and all of his brothers were dead. He stood alone, with his council of advisors and clergymen, (known as the Witan) whilst Northumbria and Mercia collapsed under Viking subjugation. Only Christian Wessex remained. Historically, according to the records provided by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, it appears that although the English were sometimes able to defeat the Danes or Vikings, such as at Ashdown, there were times when they were unable to do so, and the Danes would occupy some part of the land and set up camp. Negotiations with the English then went ahead, and the Danes demanded to be paid in Danegeld, which means that the English had to give them silver and gold to keep the peace. However, being ever treacherous and greedy, the Danes nearly always broke their faith with the English and made more raids, clearly thinking that they could gain more booty by conquest than by negotiation. Apart from that, the Viking culture was such that glory and success in battle was considered heroic and necessary to their pagan beliefs in gods of warfare and chaos. In these early days of Alfred's reign, he too, like the kings of Northumbria and Mercia, paid the Danegeld to buy some time whilst he strengthened his army. In those days, warriors did not form a regular force of professional men at arms who could be called upon at any time. These men were farmers mostly, and had fields and animals to tend to, so men were raised to go on campaign for only short periods of a few months and then they returned home. Such companies of armed men were known as the fyrd, an Anglo-Saxon term for a levy of troops. There was no 'standing army' as such. The Danes however, engaged in battle for a living, and as part of their culture. This was the marked difference between the two opposing forces. A New Kind of King The challenge for King Alfred now, was how to maintain his forces as a viable opposition to the Danes, and to improve upon their fighting skills and tactics, both on land and at sea. Above all, he was a Christian king, with a deeply held reverence for his faith and a magnanimous love for his people. It was Alfred who would finally have The Bible translated into English so that it could be read by all who could read the mother tongue (this is the Old English of the Anglo-Saxons) and he promoted learning and scholarship throughout the land, inviting many learned foreigners from other countries to sit in his court. Alfred read widely, he translated, and he studied, with an insatiable craving for knowledge and learning. He was both warrior (the Wild Boar) and scholar. Yet, the heathen menace was growing relentlessly as more Vikings poured into the small island of Britain. What could possibly stem such a tide? © 2018 S P Austen	<urn:uuid:5a4ccab3-c5ba-49ef-a5fc-cc474c52f6fa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hubpages.com/education/The-Vikings-Invade-England-History-in-a-Nutshell-No5	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00281.warc.gz	en	0.989435	2,085	3.5	4	[ 0.12552335858345032, 0.08786599338054657, 0.15172821283340454, -0.02007782831788063, 0.11205646395683289, -0.11745314300060272, -0.19768503308296204, 0.16394555568695068, 0.16556936502456665, 0.05698572099208832, 0.33957043290138245, -0.554387092590332, 0.10803552716970444, -0.123701527714...	1	The Vikings Invade England (History in a Nutshell No.5) When we hear the name Viking there is a temptation to think of images of huge, blond-headed and red-bearded, horn-helmeted individuals raiding in massed numbers up and down the coast of Britain. Well, some of that is absolutely true, but certainly they did not wear horned or winged helmets as was fancifully supposed in Victorian times. Initially, they often did not even invade in massed numbers, and normally they landed a few ships and raided and disappeared quickly. However, pitched battles were fought eventually against them by the English, and their raids did become much larger, until they became a threat to Christian civilization in England. But this comes later in our account. To begin with, there was no massed, planned invasion at all. What does Viking even mean? Well, the word was never used by the people of the day, and the English principally referred to them as the Danes, as the majority of them came from Denmark. Others though, were from Norway and Sweden. The word Viking basically means a sea-rover, pirate or freebooter. To go a Viking, is basically to go on a raid of pillage and plunder. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle called these raiders "black men" because they wore black leather armour for the most part, rather like ancient forerunners of Hell's Angels with long beards, tattoos and dark clothing studded with metal as additional armour. The First Assaults We do not know precisely when the Viking raids on the English coast began, but the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives us the first date as 789 AD, when King Offa of Mercia was Bretwalda, or High King of the English. Four years later, in 793 the Danes returned, and destroyed the church of St. Cuthbert on Holy Island, or Lindisfarne, on the Northumbrian coast. In the following year the Vikings returned, but the English defeated them and put their chieftain, or king to death. The Danes that managed to escape took a terrible tale back with them and this left the coasts of England safe for around 40 years. In the year 829 AD Egbert was crowned King of Wessex. King Offa of Mercia had died in the year 796 and since that time, Mercia had gradually lost much of its power and prestige. Wessex, meanwhile, was on the ascent. At this time, the churches and monasteries of England were great storehouses of wealth and riches. Under Catholic England, those who had any wealth to give, gave it to the church as a means of absolution from their sins and to buy their way into Heaven. The Vikings were fully aware of just how much wealth they could gain from raids on these churches and monasteries, and indeed, this store of wealth was likely to be the prime motivator for many of the Vikings who came over to England in their longships. In addition, there were still in the island discontented Britons, those Celtic descendants who had wanted to get rid of the Anglo-Saxons. Some of these Celtic bands living in Western England joined with the Vikings and fought against Egbert. However, Egbert proved victorious against them. In 836 he died, and the crown of Wessex passed to his son, Ethelwulf. The Rise of Wessex The Danes were now becoming increasingly emboldened, and sailed up the Thames in London and pillaged the city. They also attacked Rochester and Canterbury. They had already burned Paris and ravaged the coasts along the Mediterranean. Against this new and more dangerous onslaught, the kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia united against this common foe. Ethelbert's eldest son, Athelstan, the king of Kent, had assisted him in the defeat of the Danish raids. Ethelbert had other sons too, in order of age, being Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred and Alfred, the latter being born in the year 849. All of them would become King of Wessex in turn, and Alfred would later be known as The Great, the only English monarch to ever have such an appellation. In the year 865 "a great heathen army" as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle puts it, arrived in East Anglia. Their leader was the terrible Ivar the Boneless, so named due to being born with deformed and crippled legs. He was one of the sons of Ragnar Lothbrok, who had been killed by the king of Northumbria by being thrown into a pit of snakes, and Ivar was seeking bloody revenge. The latter means of execution seems almost doubtful, as the only poisonous snakes in England are adders, and they mostly do not kill. However, perhaps if enough of them were gathered in one place such as a pit, they might suffice to kill a man. In the year 866 Ivar and his Vikings besieged the city of York. A battle was fought and the Vikings emerged as the victors. This victory over the English was followed in 869 by the conquest of East Anglia, accomplished by the brothers of Ivar, namely Halfdane (or Halfdan) Hingwar and Hubba (or Ubba). The king of the East Anglians, Edmund, was savagely murdered and subsequently made a saint. All that stood against the Danes now was the remaining kingdom of Wessex. At this time, the king of Wessex was Alfred's brother Ethelred. Both he and Alfred, now a young man of 22 years old, fought several battles against the Danish invaders. In January of the year 871, the English fought and defeated the Danes at the battle of Ashdown in Berkshire, Wessex. But it was young Prince Alfred who won the day, losing patience with his older brother Ethelred, who was busy at prayer before the battle commenced. It was said of Alfred, by the monk Asser, that Alfred charged the Vikings with his army "like a wild boar." The English had the disadvantage of having to climb uphill where the Danes held a high point. Fighting in those days was generally carried out on foot by both sides, and horses were only used to carry men and provisions into battle for the most part. An old hawthorn tree grew alone in that place, and the battle was mostly fought around it. The Danes were thoroughly routed, and the English pursued them as they fled back to Reading where they held camp. All through the night the Danes were chased and slaughtered, leaving bodies strewn across the countryside. This battle was of particular importance, because at this point, only Wessex stood against the might of the Viking forces. If the Danes had won at Ashdown, the entire country would have been overtaken by them and paganism would most likely have dominated Christian England. So religious belief and practice in England was held in the balance by this decisive battle. In the same year, just after Easter, Ethelred died of wounds inflicted in the battle of Ashdown, and a second Danish army was currently invading. Prince Alfred now became king of Wessex. His father and all of his brothers were dead. He stood alone, with his council of advisors and clergymen, (known as the Witan) whilst Northumbria and Mercia collapsed under Viking subjugation. Only Christian Wessex remained. Historically, according to the records provided by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, it appears that although the English were sometimes able to defeat the Danes or Vikings, such as at Ashdown, there were times when they were unable to do so, and the Danes would occupy some part of the land and set up camp. Negotiations with the English then went ahead, and the Danes demanded to be paid in Danegeld, which means that the English had to give them silver and gold to keep the peace. However, being ever treacherous and greedy, the Danes nearly always broke their faith with the English and made more raids, clearly thinking that they could gain more booty by conquest than by negotiation. Apart from that, the Viking culture was such that glory and success in battle was considered heroic and necessary to their pagan beliefs in gods of warfare and chaos. In these early days of Alfred's reign, he too, like the kings of Northumbria and Mercia, paid the Danegeld to buy some time whilst he strengthened his army. In those days, warriors did not form a regular force of professional men at arms who could be called upon at any time. These men were farmers mostly, and had fields and animals to tend to, so men were raised to go on campaign for only short periods of a few months and then they returned home. Such companies of armed men were known as the fyrd, an Anglo-Saxon term for a levy of troops. There was no 'standing army' as such. The Danes however, engaged in battle for a living, and as part of their culture. This was the marked difference between the two opposing forces. A New Kind of King The challenge for King Alfred now, was how to maintain his forces as a viable opposition to the Danes, and to improve upon their fighting skills and tactics, both on land and at sea. Above all, he was a Christian king, with a deeply held reverence for his faith and a magnanimous love for his people. It was Alfred who would finally have The Bible translated into English so that it could be read by all who could read the mother tongue (this is the Old English of the Anglo-Saxons) and he promoted learning and scholarship throughout the land, inviting many learned foreigners from other countries to sit in his court. Alfred read widely, he translated, and he studied, with an insatiable craving for knowledge and learning. He was both warrior (the Wild Boar) and scholar. Yet, the heathen menace was growing relentlessly as more Vikings poured into the small island of Britain. What could possibly stem such a tide? © 2018 S P Austen	2,105	ENGLISH	1
Joseph Renville Story Joseph Renville Story The County was named for Joseph Renville Jr. The Renville family had immigrated from France to the Quebec area circa 1655. Joseph Renville Sr. was part of a Canadian brigade that canoed from the St. Lawrence River through the great lakes to the upper branches of the Mississippi River and then downstream to the Indian Village, Kaposia. The village was located south of St Paul at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers. Joseph Renville Jr. was born in 1779 to Joseph Renville (Rainville) Senior and a Dakota woman of the Kaposia band at the Trempealeau Mountain on the Mississippi River. Renville Jr. was raised in the Indian village until the age of ten. Renville Sr. then traveled with Renville Jr. to the French Canadian Territory where he was placed in the care of a Catholic priest to receive an education. Renville Jr. returned to the Dakota area about 6 years later after his father died. Renville Jr. was very much in demand as an interpreter, voyageur, and was hired by a British officer to be a fur trader. He was identified as a brave by the Dakota people and he purchased a wife of the royal Sioux family of Little Crow. During the war of 1812, he enlisted and became an officer of the British army and led members of the Sioux tribe. In 1822, after the defeat of the British, Renville pursued fur trading and established the Columbia Fur Company. The company was later sold to the American Fur Company of New York. The director, John Astor, of the American Fur Company retained Renville as the “coureur des bois” defined as a woodsman, fur trader, and one who learned the trades and practices of the native people. This new opportunity led Renville and his family to Lac qui Parle, “the Lake that Speaks”, where he established a trading post built inside a stockade on the lower east end of the lake. The stockade became known as Fort Renville. The Congressional Act of 1816 regulated trade with American Indians and required that traders had to be U.S. citizens, so Renville became a citizen. Fort Renville included living quarters for Renville and his family along with housing for people known as Renville’s soldiers. The enclosed area was also home to sheep, a herd of cattle and several horses. He introduced farming practices to the local residents such as the planting of small grains and the cultivation of corn which kept them from starving. In 1835, Renville met Rev. T.S. Williamson who was looking for a spot to begin a mission. Williamson accepted an offer from Renville that resulted in the founding of the Lac qui Parle Sioux Mission. This relationship led to the translation of portions of the bible and hymns from French to the Sioux language, which in turn was used at the Mission for weekly services. Joseph Renville Jr. died in 1846 after becoming ill with influenza. Renville is remembered for his many contributions as a community leader, family man, business leader, fur trader, translator, and his hospitality for Minnesota and especially Southwestern Minnesota citizens.	<urn:uuid:6eda8cd0-1c56-4369-b433-cd8966469dc6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.renvillecountymn.com/about_us/county_history/renville_county_150th_anniversary/joseph_renville_story.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00056.warc.gz	en	0.981207	661	3.40625	3	[ -0.0026203212328255177, -0.045034512877464294, 0.09933097660541534, -0.22644412517547607, -0.23172783851623535, 0.008926011621952057, 0.35331711173057556, 0.7139323949813843, -0.44362008571624756, 0.22565697133541107, 0.05362080782651901, -0.041236430406570435, 0.39534878730773926, 0.38392...	5	Joseph Renville Story Joseph Renville Story The County was named for Joseph Renville Jr. The Renville family had immigrated from France to the Quebec area circa 1655. Joseph Renville Sr. was part of a Canadian brigade that canoed from the St. Lawrence River through the great lakes to the upper branches of the Mississippi River and then downstream to the Indian Village, Kaposia. The village was located south of St Paul at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers. Joseph Renville Jr. was born in 1779 to Joseph Renville (Rainville) Senior and a Dakota woman of the Kaposia band at the Trempealeau Mountain on the Mississippi River. Renville Jr. was raised in the Indian village until the age of ten. Renville Sr. then traveled with Renville Jr. to the French Canadian Territory where he was placed in the care of a Catholic priest to receive an education. Renville Jr. returned to the Dakota area about 6 years later after his father died. Renville Jr. was very much in demand as an interpreter, voyageur, and was hired by a British officer to be a fur trader. He was identified as a brave by the Dakota people and he purchased a wife of the royal Sioux family of Little Crow. During the war of 1812, he enlisted and became an officer of the British army and led members of the Sioux tribe. In 1822, after the defeat of the British, Renville pursued fur trading and established the Columbia Fur Company. The company was later sold to the American Fur Company of New York. The director, John Astor, of the American Fur Company retained Renville as the “coureur des bois” defined as a woodsman, fur trader, and one who learned the trades and practices of the native people. This new opportunity led Renville and his family to Lac qui Parle, “the Lake that Speaks”, where he established a trading post built inside a stockade on the lower east end of the lake. The stockade became known as Fort Renville. The Congressional Act of 1816 regulated trade with American Indians and required that traders had to be U.S. citizens, so Renville became a citizen. Fort Renville included living quarters for Renville and his family along with housing for people known as Renville’s soldiers. The enclosed area was also home to sheep, a herd of cattle and several horses. He introduced farming practices to the local residents such as the planting of small grains and the cultivation of corn which kept them from starving. In 1835, Renville met Rev. T.S. Williamson who was looking for a spot to begin a mission. Williamson accepted an offer from Renville that resulted in the founding of the Lac qui Parle Sioux Mission. This relationship led to the translation of portions of the bible and hymns from French to the Sioux language, which in turn was used at the Mission for weekly services. Joseph Renville Jr. died in 1846 after becoming ill with influenza. Renville is remembered for his many contributions as a community leader, family man, business leader, fur trader, translator, and his hospitality for Minnesota and especially Southwestern Minnesota citizens.	668	ENGLISH	1
Have you ever wondered where the names of calendar months came from? Interestingly, the ancient Romans year had only ten months with their year beginning in March and ending in December. The months of January and February were added by Numa Pompilius around 700 BCE. At this time, he also changed the beginning of the year to January. This article focuses on the naming of the months and the meaning of their names. March was always the beginning of the year in ancient Rome due to its association with the Spring season. At this time, the wars ceased and the celebration between the old and the New Year began. The celebration was referred to as the Festival of Mars. March was named Martius after Mars, the god of war. There are three theories based on the origin of the name “April.” Some sources say that April originated from a Latin word for “second” since it was the second month in the 10-month ancient Roman calendar. Other sources claim that the word originated from Latin word “aperire” which translates to “open” since buds and flowers opened around this time. Still, others believe that the name originated from the Greek goddess of love, Aphrodite. Although may is a commonly used verb, it is not related to the month of May. The month is associated with goddess Maia. Maia is not as prominent as other gods and godesses with months named in their honor. In Greek mythology, Maia was the mother of Hermes and the Atlas’ daughter and was considered as one who nurtures and goddess of the earth. She is sometimes referred to as the goddess of growth or the goddess of spring. June has been a popular wedding month in the history of Rome. The month is named after the Juno who was ancient Roman goddess and was related to Jupiter. Juno was the queen of the gods of the Roman Pantheon and the goddess of wedding and marriage. Juno was once referred to as mid-summer month and is identified with the Greek goddess of family and childbirth known as Hera. July is the first month named after a person who lived at some point in history. Known as Caesar’s month, July was named in honor of Julius Caesar following his death in 44 BCE. Caesar was born in July. Before, the month was referred to as Quintilis which was borrowed from the English word “Quintile” meaning fifth, as it was the 5th month in the 10-month Roman calendar. August became the second month to be named after an individual. It was named in honor of Augustus who was the first Roman emperor. Augustus had in the 8 BCE. Previously, August was referred to as “Sixtillia” which is a Latin word for “sixth” as it was the sixth month in the 10-month calendar. September follows from Quintilis and Sixtillia months. It was the seventh month of the ancient Roman calendar. September comes from a Latin word “Septem” which translates to seven. It was often referred to as “September mensis” in Latin, meaning the seventh month. September had 30 days but Numa changed the days to 29. Julius restored the months to 30 days. October was the eighth month in the 10-month ancient Roman calendar. The month was named after a Latin word “Octo” which means “eight.” A suffix “ber” was added to the added to the adjective “octo” to form the word October. October has always had 31 days, unlike other months that have had their days changed either by Julius or Numa. From “Octa,” the eighth month, came the “Novem,” the ninth month to continue the naming of months after numbers. “Novem” is a Latin word for nine. November was considered a frightening month by the ancient Romans. It was characterized by gloominess, disasters, and grayness, especially in the northern hemisphere. December is the 12th month of the Gregorian calendar and the 10th in the ancient Roman calendar. In either of the calendars’, it marks the end of the year. The name December comes from the Latin word “decem” which means “ten.” Initially, December had 30 days which were increased to 31 days by Julius. Although December is a festive month in most parts of the world, it was not so in Ancient Rome. March was considered the month of celebration. The month of January was added to the 10-month Roman calendar by Numa Pompilius around 700 BCE. At this time, he also changed the beginning of the year to January. January, also referred to as Januari in Middle English and Januarius in Latin, was named after a Roman god called Janus. Janus was the god who was in charge of the doors, gates, and fresh starts which was appropriate for the New Year. The god is often depicted by two faces looking in the opposite direction. One face looks forward and the other backward as is often the case in the New Year when people take time to reflect on the past year as they also plan for the New Year. The month of February was added to the 10-month Roman calendar by Numa Pompilius around 700 BCE. February is an old Latin word for Februa, the name of a feast for purification which took place on the 15th of the month. The festival may have had a Sabin origin. February had 28 days until 450 BCE when the days changed to 23 or 24. Later, Julius decided that the month would have 29 days every four years and 28 otherwise. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:d93adbde-22ba-4009-afa3-9ab9045ac7fd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-the-calendar-months-named-after.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00004.warc.gz	en	0.987158	1,252	3.671875	4	[ -0.23258881270885468, 0.3084512948989868, 0.35412195324897766, 0.3374321460723877, -0.6036850810050964, -0.09698779881000519, 0.03577475622296333, 0.2103899121284485, 0.3267059922218323, 0.11648494750261307, 0.34134262800216675, -0.06716238707304001, 0.0028830484952777624, 0.04869224131107...	3	Have you ever wondered where the names of calendar months came from? Interestingly, the ancient Romans year had only ten months with their year beginning in March and ending in December. The months of January and February were added by Numa Pompilius around 700 BCE. At this time, he also changed the beginning of the year to January. This article focuses on the naming of the months and the meaning of their names. March was always the beginning of the year in ancient Rome due to its association with the Spring season. At this time, the wars ceased and the celebration between the old and the New Year began. The celebration was referred to as the Festival of Mars. March was named Martius after Mars, the god of war. There are three theories based on the origin of the name “April.” Some sources say that April originated from a Latin word for “second” since it was the second month in the 10-month ancient Roman calendar. Other sources claim that the word originated from Latin word “aperire” which translates to “open” since buds and flowers opened around this time. Still, others believe that the name originated from the Greek goddess of love, Aphrodite. Although may is a commonly used verb, it is not related to the month of May. The month is associated with goddess Maia. Maia is not as prominent as other gods and godesses with months named in their honor. In Greek mythology, Maia was the mother of Hermes and the Atlas’ daughter and was considered as one who nurtures and goddess of the earth. She is sometimes referred to as the goddess of growth or the goddess of spring. June has been a popular wedding month in the history of Rome. The month is named after the Juno who was ancient Roman goddess and was related to Jupiter. Juno was the queen of the gods of the Roman Pantheon and the goddess of wedding and marriage. Juno was once referred to as mid-summer month and is identified with the Greek goddess of family and childbirth known as Hera. July is the first month named after a person who lived at some point in history. Known as Caesar’s month, July was named in honor of Julius Caesar following his death in 44 BCE. Caesar was born in July. Before, the month was referred to as Quintilis which was borrowed from the English word “Quintile” meaning fifth, as it was the 5th month in the 10-month Roman calendar. August became the second month to be named after an individual. It was named in honor of Augustus who was the first Roman emperor. Augustus had in the 8 BCE. Previously, August was referred to as “Sixtillia” which is a Latin word for “sixth” as it was the sixth month in the 10-month calendar. September follows from Quintilis and Sixtillia months. It was the seventh month of the ancient Roman calendar. September comes from a Latin word “Septem” which translates to seven. It was often referred to as “September mensis” in Latin, meaning the seventh month. September had 30 days but Numa changed the days to 29. Julius restored the months to 30 days. October was the eighth month in the 10-month ancient Roman calendar. The month was named after a Latin word “Octo” which means “eight.” A suffix “ber” was added to the added to the adjective “octo” to form the word October. October has always had 31 days, unlike other months that have had their days changed either by Julius or Numa. From “Octa,” the eighth month, came the “Novem,” the ninth month to continue the naming of months after numbers. “Novem” is a Latin word for nine. November was considered a frightening month by the ancient Romans. It was characterized by gloominess, disasters, and grayness, especially in the northern hemisphere. December is the 12th month of the Gregorian calendar and the 10th in the ancient Roman calendar. In either of the calendars’, it marks the end of the year. The name December comes from the Latin word “decem” which means “ten.” Initially, December had 30 days which were increased to 31 days by Julius. Although December is a festive month in most parts of the world, it was not so in Ancient Rome. March was considered the month of celebration. The month of January was added to the 10-month Roman calendar by Numa Pompilius around 700 BCE. At this time, he also changed the beginning of the year to January. January, also referred to as Januari in Middle English and Januarius in Latin, was named after a Roman god called Janus. Janus was the god who was in charge of the doors, gates, and fresh starts which was appropriate for the New Year. The god is often depicted by two faces looking in the opposite direction. One face looks forward and the other backward as is often the case in the New Year when people take time to reflect on the past year as they also plan for the New Year. The month of February was added to the 10-month Roman calendar by Numa Pompilius around 700 BCE. February is an old Latin word for Februa, the name of a feast for purification which took place on the 15th of the month. The festival may have had a Sabin origin. February had 28 days until 450 BCE when the days changed to 23 or 24. Later, Julius decided that the month would have 29 days every four years and 28 otherwise. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	1,242	ENGLISH	1
I'd like to know whether many or much should be used in the following: a. A whale could weigh as much / many as two tons. b. The company bought as much / many as two tons of cotton. I'd appreciate your help. The difference between as much and as many is basically the same as the difference between less or fewer. If you are referring to something that you can count, for example a number of people or animals, you would use "as many". There are not as many red squirrels as there used to be. There are fewer squirrels than there used to be. But if you are referring to a quantity of something which is not countable, for example, a quantity of water or other liquid, you would use "as much". There is not as much water in the lake as there used to be. There is less water in the lake than there used to be. Just remember that if a quantity of something is grouped into containers, or by some other collective means that you can count - for example glasses of water then you use the appropriate language for the collective noun. Finally though, when referring to measurements of something, as in your example of weight, you should use the appropriate language for the thing that you are measuring. A whale could weigh as much as two tons. This is correct because you can't "count" weight. You measure it. The same goes for your other example: The company bought as much as two tons of cotton. This is for the same reason that you can't "count" cotton and you can't "count" weight; but if the cotton came in boxes it would be different: The company bought as many as two boxes of cotton. Because you can count boxes.	<urn:uuid:4d797b00-b002-432f-9b05-daeb2ef2036a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ell.stackexchange.com/questions/186284/as-much-many-as	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00167.warc.gz	en	0.985808	371	3.4375	3	[ -0.0026183915324509144, -0.46832072734832764, -0.22874215245246887, -0.26314637064933777, -0.22678039968013763, 0.09386060386896133, 0.6333433985710144, 0.14082597196102142, 0.30750253796577454, 0.004049558192491531, 0.1432606428861618, -0.5990938544273376, 0.2184099406003952, 0.1673417687...	1	I'd like to know whether many or much should be used in the following: a. A whale could weigh as much / many as two tons. b. The company bought as much / many as two tons of cotton. I'd appreciate your help. The difference between as much and as many is basically the same as the difference between less or fewer. If you are referring to something that you can count, for example a number of people or animals, you would use "as many". There are not as many red squirrels as there used to be. There are fewer squirrels than there used to be. But if you are referring to a quantity of something which is not countable, for example, a quantity of water or other liquid, you would use "as much". There is not as much water in the lake as there used to be. There is less water in the lake than there used to be. Just remember that if a quantity of something is grouped into containers, or by some other collective means that you can count - for example glasses of water then you use the appropriate language for the collective noun. Finally though, when referring to measurements of something, as in your example of weight, you should use the appropriate language for the thing that you are measuring. A whale could weigh as much as two tons. This is correct because you can't "count" weight. You measure it. The same goes for your other example: The company bought as much as two tons of cotton. This is for the same reason that you can't "count" cotton and you can't "count" weight; but if the cotton came in boxes it would be different: The company bought as many as two boxes of cotton. Because you can count boxes.	353	ENGLISH	1
This passage also explores the feelings of the narrator and of the cruel treatment she receives from her Aunt and her cousin. In providing a detailed description of John Reed, the narrator succeeds in creating contrast between her and John Reed in both appearance and behavior. The narrator’s description of John Reed indicates to the reader that he is an overly-pampered child. This becomes evident when we realize that John’s mother had taken him out of school because of his delicate health’ which his school master believed was due to the over consumption of sweetmeats and cakes.’ However his mother turned a deaf ear to the school master’s opinion and was certain that John’s condition resulted because of him pining after home.’ John Reed is also portrayed as a heartless, inhumane and cruel boy who not only insults the young narrator not only verbally, but also physically. John had no affection for his mother or his sisters’ and bore a strong resentment for the narrator because he felt that he was superior to the narrator who was an orphan and had no money. John is also viewed as a disgusting boy with poor manners. Large and stout with dingy and unwholesome skin [and with] thick lineaments in a spacious visage, [John Reed] had heavy limbs and large extremities’. His habit of gorging himself at the table made him bilious and obese. The narrator explains the relationship between her and John Reed as that of immense fear. Every morsel of flesh on [the narrator’s] bones shrank when [John Reed] came near’ because she was bewildered by the terror that he inspired. Unfortunately, for the narrator she had no shelter from John’s constant bullying; neither from the servants nor her aunt who being an irresponsible adult, was ‘blind and deaf on that subject.’ Furthermore, the narrator demonstrates the relationship between herself and John Reed as that of habitual obedience’. She was so accustomed to John Reed’s abuse that she knew he would strike soon’ but even she was taken aback by his sudden and strong blow. He explains that she was hit because she was rude to her Aunt a while ago, hid behind the curtains and for having the look in her eyes’. It is here that the reader derives the image of the narrator, literally serving as John’s punch bag. Unable to resist, run away or strike back, the narrator calmly accepts all the insults and the blows which accompany them. She had become so accustomed to John Reed’s abuse [that she] never had any idea of replying to it’ concentrating only on enduring the blow which would certainly follow the insult.’	<urn:uuid:e1c6ae0c-6d5d-4331-929c-52c8fb074183>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freebooksummary.com/john-reed	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00057.warc.gz	en	0.987271	565	3.5	4	[ -0.06747454404830933, 0.450992226600647, 0.36457592248916626, 0.1647639125585556, -0.3216921389102936, -0.02849920280277729, 0.12413148581981659, 0.002959533827379346, 0.10171891748905182, -0.26566267013549805, -0.03681228682398796, -0.05671696364879608, 0.22718678414821625, 0.203562662005...	1	This passage also explores the feelings of the narrator and of the cruel treatment she receives from her Aunt and her cousin. In providing a detailed description of John Reed, the narrator succeeds in creating contrast between her and John Reed in both appearance and behavior. The narrator’s description of John Reed indicates to the reader that he is an overly-pampered child. This becomes evident when we realize that John’s mother had taken him out of school because of his delicate health’ which his school master believed was due to the over consumption of sweetmeats and cakes.’ However his mother turned a deaf ear to the school master’s opinion and was certain that John’s condition resulted because of him pining after home.’ John Reed is also portrayed as a heartless, inhumane and cruel boy who not only insults the young narrator not only verbally, but also physically. John had no affection for his mother or his sisters’ and bore a strong resentment for the narrator because he felt that he was superior to the narrator who was an orphan and had no money. John is also viewed as a disgusting boy with poor manners. Large and stout with dingy and unwholesome skin [and with] thick lineaments in a spacious visage, [John Reed] had heavy limbs and large extremities’. His habit of gorging himself at the table made him bilious and obese. The narrator explains the relationship between her and John Reed as that of immense fear. Every morsel of flesh on [the narrator’s] bones shrank when [John Reed] came near’ because she was bewildered by the terror that he inspired. Unfortunately, for the narrator she had no shelter from John’s constant bullying; neither from the servants nor her aunt who being an irresponsible adult, was ‘blind and deaf on that subject.’ Furthermore, the narrator demonstrates the relationship between herself and John Reed as that of habitual obedience’. She was so accustomed to John Reed’s abuse that she knew he would strike soon’ but even she was taken aback by his sudden and strong blow. He explains that she was hit because she was rude to her Aunt a while ago, hid behind the curtains and for having the look in her eyes’. It is here that the reader derives the image of the narrator, literally serving as John’s punch bag. Unable to resist, run away or strike back, the narrator calmly accepts all the insults and the blows which accompany them. She had become so accustomed to John Reed’s abuse [that she] never had any idea of replying to it’ concentrating only on enduring the blow which would certainly follow the insult.’	526	ENGLISH	1
Delegation in organizations is the assignment of any responsibility or authority to another person (normally from a manager to a subordinate) to carry out specific activities, such as starting on proper tires during a wet race. It is one of the core concepts of management leadership. \|This economics-related article is a stub. You can help Wikiquote by expanding it.\| - Delegation is the dynamics of management; it is the process a manager follows in dividing the work assigned to him so that he performs that part which only he, because of his unique organizational placement, can perform effectively, and so that he can get others to help him with what remains. How can he best share his burden? First, he must entrust to others the performance of part of the work he would otherwise have to do himself; secondly, he must provide a means of checking up on the work that is done for him to ensure that it is done as he wishes. - If he wants to get others to help him, the manager must first divide his work. If he requires his subordinate to perform the work as he would do it himself, the manager must entrust him with part of the rights and powers he otherwise would have to exercise himself to get that work done. If the subordinate needs to spend money, hire people, use materials or equipment, the manager must permit him to do so or the subordinate cannot perform the work. - Delegation means that he will concern himself with the results of their activities and not with the details of their day-to-day performance. This requires a degree of confidence in them which enables him to accept certain risks. Unless he takes these risks there will be no delegation. - Douglas McGregor (1960.2006), The Human Side of Enterprise, Annotated Edition p. 220 - If a man divides the whole of his work into two branches and delegates his responsibility, freely and properly, to two experienced heads of branches he will not have enough to do. The occasions when they would have to refer to him would be too few to keep him fully occupied. If he delegates to three heads he will be kept fairly busy whilst six heads of branches will give most bosses a ten hours' day. Those data are the results of centuries of the experiences of soldiers.	<urn:uuid:a059f69d-0318-4bda-be5a-20b571a214c4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikiquote.org/wiki/Delegate	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00049.warc.gz	en	0.983523	466	3.375	3	[ -0.008269057609140873, -0.14089462161064148, 0.04622795432806015, -0.34677502512931824, -0.06530492752790451, -0.1077038124203682, 0.8783903121948242, -0.03733966499567032, 0.03231174871325493, -0.04792611300945282, 0.1594790369272232, -0.22558046877384186, 0.14911878108978271, 0.393446922...	4	Delegation in organizations is the assignment of any responsibility or authority to another person (normally from a manager to a subordinate) to carry out specific activities, such as starting on proper tires during a wet race. It is one of the core concepts of management leadership. \|This economics-related article is a stub. You can help Wikiquote by expanding it.\| - Delegation is the dynamics of management; it is the process a manager follows in dividing the work assigned to him so that he performs that part which only he, because of his unique organizational placement, can perform effectively, and so that he can get others to help him with what remains. How can he best share his burden? First, he must entrust to others the performance of part of the work he would otherwise have to do himself; secondly, he must provide a means of checking up on the work that is done for him to ensure that it is done as he wishes. - If he wants to get others to help him, the manager must first divide his work. If he requires his subordinate to perform the work as he would do it himself, the manager must entrust him with part of the rights and powers he otherwise would have to exercise himself to get that work done. If the subordinate needs to spend money, hire people, use materials or equipment, the manager must permit him to do so or the subordinate cannot perform the work. - Delegation means that he will concern himself with the results of their activities and not with the details of their day-to-day performance. This requires a degree of confidence in them which enables him to accept certain risks. Unless he takes these risks there will be no delegation. - Douglas McGregor (1960.2006), The Human Side of Enterprise, Annotated Edition p. 220 - If a man divides the whole of his work into two branches and delegates his responsibility, freely and properly, to two experienced heads of branches he will not have enough to do. The occasions when they would have to refer to him would be too few to keep him fully occupied. If he delegates to three heads he will be kept fairly busy whilst six heads of branches will give most bosses a ten hours' day. Those data are the results of centuries of the experiences of soldiers.	462	ENGLISH	1
Immigrant stories: Glenwood Springs man’s father came to the U.S.A. from China as a paper son Nearly all immigrant groups have experienced discrimination in America, but none have experienced it as dramatically as the Chinese. In 1882 the United States established the Chinese Exclusion Act and for the next 60 years, the Chinese were the only ethnic group in the world that could not freely immigrate to the United States. But the resourceful Chinese immigrant community devised a way around this injustice. They created “paper sons.” Here Calvin Lee describes his father’s experience as a “paper son” immigrating to America.Lee: I was born in San Francisco. My parents were both born in China, the southern part of China in the 1920s. When my father was 12 years old, the United States of America was known as “gim-san,” Gold Mountain. The Chinese believed that you came over here, picked gold off the streets and became wealthy, sending money back to the relatives in China or returning to China a wealthy person. However, at that time, there was a quota. The Chinese were the first people that the immigration service in America put a quota on. The U.S. government and the American people were afraid of the Chinese. The Chinese were seen as the “yellow peril.” Americans were afraid that they were going to be overrun by the Chinese, and so there was a permit system. Only a few people had a permit to come over. So when my father was 12, his family paid a family who had a permit $1,500 to allow my father to pretend to be their son. And since he was not their real son, in China he was known as a “paper son”, a son by paper only. That family’s last name was Lee, and that’s why my last name is Lee. It is not my real last name. My father’s real last name in China was Yee. The paper family wrote out a 10-page notebook of their biography for my father to take with him on the boat. He had to memorize their story because he was going to be interrogated by immigration services when he arrived. And sure enough, when he arrived from China in San Francisco Bay he was confined to a barracks and interrogated for three months. They finally released him into San Francisco, where he lived with his half brother and worked in the shipyard. During World War II, he helped build battleships for the Navy. Start a dialogue, stay on topic and be civil. If you don't follow the rules, your comment may be deleted.	<urn:uuid:1087636a-0457-4598-8965-f59def82aefe>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.postindependent.com/news/immigrant-stories-glenwood-springs-mans-father-came-to-the-u-s-a-from-china-as-a-paper-son/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00377.warc.gz	en	0.993886	552	3.34375	3	[ 0.11588302254676819, 0.163884699344635, -0.05062706395983696, -0.24946561455726624, 0.017809124663472176, 0.3373950123786926, 0.19069702923297882, -0.2863501012325287, -0.21284909546375275, 0.020699517801404, 0.532703161239624, 0.535740852355957, 0.1415797472000122, 0.17247571051120758, ...	1	Immigrant stories: Glenwood Springs man’s father came to the U.S.A. from China as a paper son Nearly all immigrant groups have experienced discrimination in America, but none have experienced it as dramatically as the Chinese. In 1882 the United States established the Chinese Exclusion Act and for the next 60 years, the Chinese were the only ethnic group in the world that could not freely immigrate to the United States. But the resourceful Chinese immigrant community devised a way around this injustice. They created “paper sons.” Here Calvin Lee describes his father’s experience as a “paper son” immigrating to America.Lee: I was born in San Francisco. My parents were both born in China, the southern part of China in the 1920s. When my father was 12 years old, the United States of America was known as “gim-san,” Gold Mountain. The Chinese believed that you came over here, picked gold off the streets and became wealthy, sending money back to the relatives in China or returning to China a wealthy person. However, at that time, there was a quota. The Chinese were the first people that the immigration service in America put a quota on. The U.S. government and the American people were afraid of the Chinese. The Chinese were seen as the “yellow peril.” Americans were afraid that they were going to be overrun by the Chinese, and so there was a permit system. Only a few people had a permit to come over. So when my father was 12, his family paid a family who had a permit $1,500 to allow my father to pretend to be their son. And since he was not their real son, in China he was known as a “paper son”, a son by paper only. That family’s last name was Lee, and that’s why my last name is Lee. It is not my real last name. My father’s real last name in China was Yee. The paper family wrote out a 10-page notebook of their biography for my father to take with him on the boat. He had to memorize their story because he was going to be interrogated by immigration services when he arrived. And sure enough, when he arrived from China in San Francisco Bay he was confined to a barracks and interrogated for three months. They finally released him into San Francisco, where he lived with his half brother and worked in the shipyard. During World War II, he helped build battleships for the Navy. Start a dialogue, stay on topic and be civil. If you don't follow the rules, your comment may be deleted.	539	ENGLISH	1
Anne Greene 1650 Anne Greene was born in 1628 in Oxfordshire. As a young woman of 22, she was employed as a scullery maid in the household of Sir Thomas Reade. While working as a maid she was raped by the teenage grandson of her employer. A pregnancy resulted and varying accounts put her going into labor either four or six months into the pregnancy. Her child was still born. This might have been the end of her tragic story had she been born in another time. However, the year was 1650 and Anne was subjected to the Infanticide Act of 1624. Under this act, if a mother was unwed and gave birth to a stillborn child, she was required to produce a witness. If the unwed mother could not provide a witness to prove the child was dead at birth, she was presumed guilty. Anne miscarried while working and buried the tiny stillborn baby near a cesspit. Anne tried to move on but the body was discovered and she was put on trial. With no evidence to her innocence, she was found guilty and sentenced to hang. On December 14, she was hanged. During this period hangings, often when wrong and people were left to suffer slow painful deaths. Sometimes a person would survive a hanging and then be need to be hanged again. So, Anne requested that her friends beat her and pull on her body to try speed up her demise. Finally, the young woman was deemed dead and was cut down. Her body was dispatched to a surgeon and researcher at Oxford for study. The following day the coffin was opened and the woman was found to be breathing. The surgeon attempted to revive the woman with hot cordials and warm enemas. Within a few days, she fully recovered. During this time Thomas Reade, Anne Greene’s employer and the chief prosecutor had died. This left the surgeon with an opportunity to beseech the courts to spare the woman. He said that an examination proved the infant was too small to survive and even garnered a midwife to bear witness to the death. Therefore, Anne Greene was exonerated and went on to marry have three children before dying in childbirth in 1665. Her story became popularized as an act of God saving an innocent woman. The surgeon used the “resurrection” to bring attention and admiration to Oxford and their Experimentalist Club.	<urn:uuid:fa8bdcf5-f9c1-48cc-8057-babf6d474dbf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historycollection.co/back-dead-8-unbelievable-resurrections-throughout-history/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00545.warc.gz	en	0.990727	484	3.65625	4	[ 0.03189806267619133, 0.031756576150655746, 0.17579592764377594, 0.03620871156454086, -0.17476525902748108, -0.3010903596878052, 0.12342627346515656, -0.008416940458118916, 0.11491316556930542, 0.5709787011146545, -0.1314711719751358, -0.4553452432155609, -0.2721322178840637, 0.527798175811...	2	Anne Greene 1650 Anne Greene was born in 1628 in Oxfordshire. As a young woman of 22, she was employed as a scullery maid in the household of Sir Thomas Reade. While working as a maid she was raped by the teenage grandson of her employer. A pregnancy resulted and varying accounts put her going into labor either four or six months into the pregnancy. Her child was still born. This might have been the end of her tragic story had she been born in another time. However, the year was 1650 and Anne was subjected to the Infanticide Act of 1624. Under this act, if a mother was unwed and gave birth to a stillborn child, she was required to produce a witness. If the unwed mother could not provide a witness to prove the child was dead at birth, she was presumed guilty. Anne miscarried while working and buried the tiny stillborn baby near a cesspit. Anne tried to move on but the body was discovered and she was put on trial. With no evidence to her innocence, she was found guilty and sentenced to hang. On December 14, she was hanged. During this period hangings, often when wrong and people were left to suffer slow painful deaths. Sometimes a person would survive a hanging and then be need to be hanged again. So, Anne requested that her friends beat her and pull on her body to try speed up her demise. Finally, the young woman was deemed dead and was cut down. Her body was dispatched to a surgeon and researcher at Oxford for study. The following day the coffin was opened and the woman was found to be breathing. The surgeon attempted to revive the woman with hot cordials and warm enemas. Within a few days, she fully recovered. During this time Thomas Reade, Anne Greene’s employer and the chief prosecutor had died. This left the surgeon with an opportunity to beseech the courts to spare the woman. He said that an examination proved the infant was too small to survive and even garnered a midwife to bear witness to the death. Therefore, Anne Greene was exonerated and went on to marry have three children before dying in childbirth in 1665. Her story became popularized as an act of God saving an innocent woman. The surgeon used the “resurrection” to bring attention and admiration to Oxford and their Experimentalist Club.	498	ENGLISH	1
Imagine a 25-year-old who took on an empire, left an indelible mark on tribal rights across the country and was seen as a mystic and folk hero for hundreds of thousands. Few would have achieved so much in so short a time and it’s not surprising then that Birsa Munda’s portrait hangs proudly in India’s parliament. From the Munda tribe that still dominates the Chotanagpur Plateau region in present-day Jharkhand was Birsa. He successfully rallied people across this region to take on the British attempts to grab land in the late 19th century. The Mundas followed Sarnaism, rooted in an animistic faith. Through centuries, they inhabited fertile lands in the region which were used for cultivation. In order to take their land, the British connived with local Zamindars, and tried to force them into bonded labour. It was then that Birsa came into the limelight. Born in November 1875, Birsa was a lively little boy who herded sheep and played the flute. He began his education at a German-missionaries-run school, but had to drop out, when he questioned the Jesuits’ attitude towards the Munda sardars. He returned home to Chalkad, where he came under the influence of a Vaishnav monk and began practising as a healer, leading people to believe in him as a mystic with magical powers. Under the influence of a Vaishnav monk, Birsa Munda came to be known as a mystic with magical powers By this time, the East India Company had swallowed up two-thirds of India and were well on track to take over the Chotanagpur area. As part of their full takeover, they began tightening the screws on freedom. They introduced laws which disallowed the tribes from freely grazing their sheep or cattle and from collecting firewood from their own forest land. Additionally, they assigned the land-buying dikus the rights to the land that the tribal community considered common property. In 1895, the locals turned to Birsa, whom they referred to as Dharti Abba (Father of the Earth), for help. As part of his strategy to reclaim land, Birsa persuaded his followers not to plant rice, claiming that his powers would generate the crop instead. He also declared that a fire from heaven would destroy the outsiders and the Mundas who would not gather around to support him would perish. Thus, about 6000 tribals set up a hill-top camp along with Birsa, which attracted the attention of the colonial authorities. The British viewed this as an act of resistance against them and immediately arrested Birsa, aiming to reduce his increasing influence. Birsa Munda rallied his followers declaring that a fire from heaven would destroy the outsiders By holding him in captivity, the British sought to ‘explode the myth of Birsa’s divinity and to kill the faith.’ However, the two years of imprisonment only made him more determined. After his release in 1897, Birsa began a campaign of revivalism, which invoked the sovereignty of his ancestors and demanded autonomous control over their land. The slogan was ’Sirmare Firun Raja Jai’ or ‘Victory To The Ancestral Kings.’ The Munda revolt led by Birsa, called Ulgulan or the great tumult, started in 1899. A series of concerted attacks were unleashed on the British using guerrilla warfare tactics. Mundas with bows, arrows and slingshots attacked police officers and set fire to property. The Ulgulan involved a series of concerted attacks using guerrilla warfare tactics, with bows, arrows and slingshots However, the rebellion did not last long and within a few days, the British attacked the warriors assembled at Dumbari Hills, killing hundreds of them with indiscriminate firing and Birsa was captured again a few months later. While in jail, Birsa’s health deteriorated and he died on 9th June 1900. He was only 25 years old. Birsa’s untimely death and the trial that followed of the 300 other Mundas who had been arrested, became national news, and the struggle forced the British to enact the landmark Chotanagpur Tenancy Act in 1908, which restricted the transfer of Adivasi land to non-Adivasis. A hundred years later, the law still holds and the many tribals across India have Birsa to thank, for allowing them to hold on to their ancestral land. ABOUT LIVE HISTORY INDIA	<urn:uuid:bac361a4-af14-470f-9c92-06155ca8e5f7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.livehistoryindia.com/history-daily/2018/07/26/birsa-munda	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00519.warc.gz	en	0.98099	951	3.3125	3	[ 0.008170697838068008, 0.39866816997528076, 0.3862517178058624, 0.05737829580903053, -0.5064496994018555, -0.1431751549243927, 0.3667841851711273, -0.08561033010482788, -0.09944364428520203, 0.02159755863249302, -0.017452050000429153, -0.7114550471305847, -0.045252472162246704, 0.1166707426...	1	Imagine a 25-year-old who took on an empire, left an indelible mark on tribal rights across the country and was seen as a mystic and folk hero for hundreds of thousands. Few would have achieved so much in so short a time and it’s not surprising then that Birsa Munda’s portrait hangs proudly in India’s parliament. From the Munda tribe that still dominates the Chotanagpur Plateau region in present-day Jharkhand was Birsa. He successfully rallied people across this region to take on the British attempts to grab land in the late 19th century. The Mundas followed Sarnaism, rooted in an animistic faith. Through centuries, they inhabited fertile lands in the region which were used for cultivation. In order to take their land, the British connived with local Zamindars, and tried to force them into bonded labour. It was then that Birsa came into the limelight. Born in November 1875, Birsa was a lively little boy who herded sheep and played the flute. He began his education at a German-missionaries-run school, but had to drop out, when he questioned the Jesuits’ attitude towards the Munda sardars. He returned home to Chalkad, where he came under the influence of a Vaishnav monk and began practising as a healer, leading people to believe in him as a mystic with magical powers. Under the influence of a Vaishnav monk, Birsa Munda came to be known as a mystic with magical powers By this time, the East India Company had swallowed up two-thirds of India and were well on track to take over the Chotanagpur area. As part of their full takeover, they began tightening the screws on freedom. They introduced laws which disallowed the tribes from freely grazing their sheep or cattle and from collecting firewood from their own forest land. Additionally, they assigned the land-buying dikus the rights to the land that the tribal community considered common property. In 1895, the locals turned to Birsa, whom they referred to as Dharti Abba (Father of the Earth), for help. As part of his strategy to reclaim land, Birsa persuaded his followers not to plant rice, claiming that his powers would generate the crop instead. He also declared that a fire from heaven would destroy the outsiders and the Mundas who would not gather around to support him would perish. Thus, about 6000 tribals set up a hill-top camp along with Birsa, which attracted the attention of the colonial authorities. The British viewed this as an act of resistance against them and immediately arrested Birsa, aiming to reduce his increasing influence. Birsa Munda rallied his followers declaring that a fire from heaven would destroy the outsiders By holding him in captivity, the British sought to ‘explode the myth of Birsa’s divinity and to kill the faith.’ However, the two years of imprisonment only made him more determined. After his release in 1897, Birsa began a campaign of revivalism, which invoked the sovereignty of his ancestors and demanded autonomous control over their land. The slogan was ’Sirmare Firun Raja Jai’ or ‘Victory To The Ancestral Kings.’ The Munda revolt led by Birsa, called Ulgulan or the great tumult, started in 1899. A series of concerted attacks were unleashed on the British using guerrilla warfare tactics. Mundas with bows, arrows and slingshots attacked police officers and set fire to property. The Ulgulan involved a series of concerted attacks using guerrilla warfare tactics, with bows, arrows and slingshots However, the rebellion did not last long and within a few days, the British attacked the warriors assembled at Dumbari Hills, killing hundreds of them with indiscriminate firing and Birsa was captured again a few months later. While in jail, Birsa’s health deteriorated and he died on 9th June 1900. He was only 25 years old. Birsa’s untimely death and the trial that followed of the 300 other Mundas who had been arrested, became national news, and the struggle forced the British to enact the landmark Chotanagpur Tenancy Act in 1908, which restricted the transfer of Adivasi land to non-Adivasis. A hundred years later, the law still holds and the many tribals across India have Birsa to thank, for allowing them to hold on to their ancestral land. ABOUT LIVE HISTORY INDIA	949	ENGLISH	1
The majority of people in the world dislike monopolies. People do not like monopolies because they are allocatively inefficient and because they produce less than consumers want. John D. Rockefeller was a good example of a monopolist from 1880 to 1911. Most people in that time period did not like his company, Standard Oil, and wished for an end to it (micheloud). In 1870, J. D. Rockefeller started the Standard Oil Company. Soon after the birth of this company, Rockefeller began to horizontally integrate other refineries into his company. This was not enough for Rockefeller. He wanted control over the whole industry so he proceeded to vertically integrate other companies including companies having to do with extraction, transport, retail, marketing, and research. Within a relatively short amount of time, Rockefeller obtained all of the components needed not only for creating the refined oil but for shipping it as well. The only things that were missing from his giant conglomerate of companies from the oil industry were insignificant considering that now Standard Oil was virtually the only buyer (micheloud). In order to keep his monopoly intact he used the railroads to keep updates on all oil shipped through the railroad companies. In order for the railroads to work for him, they had to give him detailed reports on all oil shipped though them. Standard Oil also made sure they were keeping these reports correct by placing spies (Micheloud). Another way Rockefeller maintained his monopoly was by dictating the prices that he wished to pay for the crude oil. At this time, he was the only buyer so the oil men had to sell at dirt-cheap prices or go out of business (micheloud). When Standard oil obtained the low prices for oil and from the railroads, it became “the lowest cost refiner in the world”(Micheloud) and made it easier for him to sustain his monopoly. This gave Rockefeller the leverage he needed to raise a war on any given market and so he did. Rockefeller would lower prices in a certain area selectively to choke any competitors out of the business. As part of his integration of other companies into his own, he would either attempt to purchase these companies at forty percent of their value as capital or eventually gave in to extreme pressures. There was no choice for most of the companies at the time; it was either sell or go out of business (micheloud). Eventually his rein began to end with The Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890. “The law forbids every contract, scheme, deal, and conspiracy to restrain trade (micheloud).” It also forbids conspirations to secure a monopoly of a given industry. Eleven years later the Supreme Court found that Standard Oil was in violation of The Sherman Antitrust Act. Standard oil was forced to dissolve into thirty-four separate companies (micheloud). One reason for disliking Monopolies like Standard oil is because they are allocatively inefficient. This means that the monopoly is preventing resources from being placed in the most proficient manner. This is depicted in figure 1 (Slavin). Another reason that most people do not like monopolies like Rockefeller’s is because they produce less than what the consumers want. Thus by restricting the supply, the monopolist has raised the price. This is seen in figure 2(Slavin). People hate monopolies for good reasons. They are too powerful in all aspects of their being. John D. Rockefeller was an extremely powerful monopolist. He trampled over all of his competition until the separation of Standard oil. Thus, the dissolving of his company was a great achievement for America. Now, no one will ever have to deal with a monopolist’s vicious overpowering of smaller companies.	<urn:uuid:6cf1ce12-8771-4f0c-894a-513f550c42b1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://clikngo.com/the-greatest-oil-man-essay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00439.warc.gz	en	0.980048	759	3.4375	3	[ -0.32987749576568604, 0.2109786868095398, 0.10100337862968445, -0.08995229005813599, -0.20577895641326904, -0.152663454413414, 0.15803050994873047, 0.23813602328300476, -0.19687898457050323, 0.04026743769645691, 0.06808165460824966, 0.4275580048561096, 0.3939688801765442, 0.223665446043014...	2	The majority of people in the world dislike monopolies. People do not like monopolies because they are allocatively inefficient and because they produce less than consumers want. John D. Rockefeller was a good example of a monopolist from 1880 to 1911. Most people in that time period did not like his company, Standard Oil, and wished for an end to it (micheloud). In 1870, J. D. Rockefeller started the Standard Oil Company. Soon after the birth of this company, Rockefeller began to horizontally integrate other refineries into his company. This was not enough for Rockefeller. He wanted control over the whole industry so he proceeded to vertically integrate other companies including companies having to do with extraction, transport, retail, marketing, and research. Within a relatively short amount of time, Rockefeller obtained all of the components needed not only for creating the refined oil but for shipping it as well. The only things that were missing from his giant conglomerate of companies from the oil industry were insignificant considering that now Standard Oil was virtually the only buyer (micheloud). In order to keep his monopoly intact he used the railroads to keep updates on all oil shipped through the railroad companies. In order for the railroads to work for him, they had to give him detailed reports on all oil shipped though them. Standard Oil also made sure they were keeping these reports correct by placing spies (Micheloud). Another way Rockefeller maintained his monopoly was by dictating the prices that he wished to pay for the crude oil. At this time, he was the only buyer so the oil men had to sell at dirt-cheap prices or go out of business (micheloud). When Standard oil obtained the low prices for oil and from the railroads, it became “the lowest cost refiner in the world”(Micheloud) and made it easier for him to sustain his monopoly. This gave Rockefeller the leverage he needed to raise a war on any given market and so he did. Rockefeller would lower prices in a certain area selectively to choke any competitors out of the business. As part of his integration of other companies into his own, he would either attempt to purchase these companies at forty percent of their value as capital or eventually gave in to extreme pressures. There was no choice for most of the companies at the time; it was either sell or go out of business (micheloud). Eventually his rein began to end with The Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890. “The law forbids every contract, scheme, deal, and conspiracy to restrain trade (micheloud).” It also forbids conspirations to secure a monopoly of a given industry. Eleven years later the Supreme Court found that Standard Oil was in violation of The Sherman Antitrust Act. Standard oil was forced to dissolve into thirty-four separate companies (micheloud). One reason for disliking Monopolies like Standard oil is because they are allocatively inefficient. This means that the monopoly is preventing resources from being placed in the most proficient manner. This is depicted in figure 1 (Slavin). Another reason that most people do not like monopolies like Rockefeller’s is because they produce less than what the consumers want. Thus by restricting the supply, the monopolist has raised the price. This is seen in figure 2(Slavin). People hate monopolies for good reasons. They are too powerful in all aspects of their being. John D. Rockefeller was an extremely powerful monopolist. He trampled over all of his competition until the separation of Standard oil. Thus, the dissolving of his company was a great achievement for America. Now, no one will ever have to deal with a monopolist’s vicious overpowering of smaller companies.	760	ENGLISH	1
Washington's officers and French allies disagreed with this and suggested an alternative. They suggested that their forces move south from their camp and strike the British forces at Yorktown, Virginia. The army there was commanded by General Lord Charles Cornwallis. General Washington went along with this and disguised his movements to make it look like to Clinton that he was going to attack New York, having his men build army camps within view of New York and also making fake plans to attack and letting the British grab hold of them to give them the false impression that he was heading towards them. A French fleet was ordered down to the Chesapeake Bay to cut off Cornwallis's forces. The fleet battled it out with a British fleet at the Battle of the Capes and won control of the Chesapeake Bay. From there a blockade was established and by September, Washington and his joint force of around 18,000 American and French troops had arrived ready to fight the 8,300 British troops at Yorktown. The British had fortified Yorktown with ten small forts called redoubts. By late September, the Continental and French forces began digging in for a siege. Not to long after that, they began firing their artillery at the British guns, knocking them out by October 11th. Cornwallis asked Clinton for reinforcements, but they never came in time, only leaving after Cornwallis had surrendered. On October 11, the Americans and French drew closer to the British lines, establishing a second trench line and moving their guns up. They charged the British lines at redoubts 9 and 10 on the night of October 14th, taking both in 30 minutes. By October 17th, Cornwallis knew that there was no hope for a British victory. He sent a drummer boy signaling the British surrender to Washington and his forces. The official ceremony took place two days later on the 19th. This was the last military engagement of the American Revolutionary War. Peace terms would not be settled for another two years.	<urn:uuid:cebfa39e-460f-46fb-90d8-2dc15216d0a2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/78437	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00471.warc.gz	en	0.989465	396	3.640625	4	[ -0.3202345669269562, 0.2458912581205368, 0.2803367078304291, -0.11643698811531067, -0.22488640248775482, 0.023511648178100586, -0.09674602001905441, -0.005563216749578714, 0.16361792385578156, -0.13156229257583618, 0.16971178352832794, 0.058223627507686615, -0.004751819185912609, 0.1858855...	1	Washington's officers and French allies disagreed with this and suggested an alternative. They suggested that their forces move south from their camp and strike the British forces at Yorktown, Virginia. The army there was commanded by General Lord Charles Cornwallis. General Washington went along with this and disguised his movements to make it look like to Clinton that he was going to attack New York, having his men build army camps within view of New York and also making fake plans to attack and letting the British grab hold of them to give them the false impression that he was heading towards them. A French fleet was ordered down to the Chesapeake Bay to cut off Cornwallis's forces. The fleet battled it out with a British fleet at the Battle of the Capes and won control of the Chesapeake Bay. From there a blockade was established and by September, Washington and his joint force of around 18,000 American and French troops had arrived ready to fight the 8,300 British troops at Yorktown. The British had fortified Yorktown with ten small forts called redoubts. By late September, the Continental and French forces began digging in for a siege. Not to long after that, they began firing their artillery at the British guns, knocking them out by October 11th. Cornwallis asked Clinton for reinforcements, but they never came in time, only leaving after Cornwallis had surrendered. On October 11, the Americans and French drew closer to the British lines, establishing a second trench line and moving their guns up. They charged the British lines at redoubts 9 and 10 on the night of October 14th, taking both in 30 minutes. By October 17th, Cornwallis knew that there was no hope for a British victory. He sent a drummer boy signaling the British surrender to Washington and his forces. The official ceremony took place two days later on the 19th. This was the last military engagement of the American Revolutionary War. Peace terms would not be settled for another two years.	415	ENGLISH	1
Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below. John Calvin was born July 10, 1509, about the time Martin Luther was learning the doctrine of salvation by faith alone in an Augustinian monastery in Germany. By the time he experienced what he described as conversion in 1530 or 1531, the Reformation was well-established in Germany, many of the German electors being already Protestant. Even after his conversion, of which very little is known, Calvin did not officially leave the Roman Catholic Church. In 1533 he went to Paris to attend the College Royal. He was friends with Nicolas Cop, the rector, who was sympathetic to the Reformation, though the college itself was not. The rector was scheduled to deliver an inaugural address on November 1, 1533, and he asked John Calvin to prepare it. Cop intended to call for reformation within the Roman Catholic Church. Calvin, through Nicolas Cop, declared that day: As you may imagine, that address was not well-received! The faculty was incensed. Cop fled immediately to Basel in Switzerland. John Calvin himself climbed out a window by tying sheets together, costumed himself as a vinedresser, then walked out of the city with a hoe on his shoulder. His room was searched, and all his papers were seized. He spent most of the next year in Angouleme, France, under the protection of Queen Marguerite of Navarre. It is at this point that we can say that John Calvin was no longer Catholic. On May 4, 1534 he resigned all ecclesiastical favors granted him as a scholar. His stay in France had to come to an end, however, due to an event in which his role is unknown. It is possible he had nothing to do with it. On the morning of October 19, 1534, the king of France awoke to find a poster on the door of the royal chamber at Fontainebleu, where he was staying. The poster called the mass a blasphemous denial of the one, all-sufficient sacrifice of Christ and referred to the pope and "all his vermin" as servants of the antichrist. Similar posters were put up all over Paris, and, quite naturally, persecution arose immediately. No one knows whether John Calvin played any part in this, but he decided it would be a good time to leave France, going to Basel to be with Nicolas Cop in January of 1535. In Basel he published his first edition of Institutes of the Christian Religion, his opus magnum, and one of the most influential works in Christian history. This first edition came out in March of 1536, though it was edited and expanded many times during Calvin's life. Calvin is known most for his work in Geneva, which began later in 1536, but we should delay that story to discuss Institutes. The publication of John Calvin's Institutes brought immediate praise among the reformers. Martin Bucer, one of the most respected of the Swiss reformers, wrote: The Roman Catholics had an equally strong but opposite reaction. They called it "the Koran and Talmud of heresy," and it was ordered burned throughout France and Switzerland. To this day, it is one of the most respected Christian writing among Protestants, and it is revered by those churches that still call themselves Reformed. Dr. Karl von Hase, a German theologian of the 19th century, called it "the grandest scientific justification of Augustinianism, full of religious depth with inexorable consistency of thought" (Kirschengeschichte, as quoted and translated by Schaff, ibid., ch. 79). John Calvin's theology runs much deeper than the 5 tenets of Calvinism. Institutes is published today in up to four volumes and runs around 1500 pages long in its English translation; however, the 5 tenets of Calvinism are by far his most well-known, and thus most controversial, teaching. These main teachings of Calvinism are summed up in the acronym TULIP. The letters represent these teachings: This is the teaching that man is "totally" depraved. This means that we are so depraved that we cannot even choose to believe in Christ. We can believe only if God gives us grace to believe. God chooses those he will saved based on no reason whatsoever except his sovereign choice. There is no value in us or our deeds that influence that choice. Jesus only died for the elect. He did not die for the lost. If God chooses you, you will respond. No one resists God's grace. Those who are chosen will be saved. If God chooses you to be saved, obviously you will continue to the end. Those who do not continue to the end of their lives only looked like they had grace, they didn't really have it. Basically, John Calvin took the idea of justification apart from works and made it justification apart even from the will. He took God's choice to the extreme, and he removed all choice of man. This is not a real surprise. Martin Luther had already gone this route with his book The Bondage of the Will. It was an idea that he picked up from Augustine of Hippo, the great 4th century bishop. Augustine teaches doctrines very similar to TULIP in his work A Treatise on the Predestination of the Saints. In fact, his teaching is similar enough that had he not preceded John Calvin, he could be called a Calvinist. However, he had not always believed these doctrines! Before Augustine—and then only in his later years, when we was bishop of Hippo—the hopeless condemnation of the lost, with no opportunity for salvation because they are not elect, cannot be found. It is entirely possible that this doctrine of Augustine's was a reaction to the heretic Pelagius, who taught that man could be saved by his own free will, choosing to live holy and in obedience to God apart from God's grace. Augustine opposed him first with the historical teaching of the Church, that all men are called by God through the Gospel to a salvation wrought and empowered by the Spirit of God. Later, thinking through the issue of free will and grace, he used Scripture to convince himself, contrary to the historical teaching of the church, that the lost had no opportunity to be saved because they were not chosen! Augustine, then, came to these things in response to Pelagianism. These doctrines then sat untouched until Martin Luther revived them and passed them on to John Calvin, who passed them on to the world. I promised to return to John Calvin's story. Besides the theology that he promulgated through The Institutes of the Christian Religion, it is his rule in Geneva, Switzerland that is most remembered. It is a detailed story, and I am afraid we will have to limit ourselves to the highlights. Calvin was simply passing through Geneva in July of 1536, intending to stay only a night. William Farel, however, who had been working tirelessly—and effectively—to bring the Reformation to Geneva, had other ideas. On May 21, he had gotten the city council to publicly introduce the Reformation. Now, he pleaded with John Calvin to help him give it birth. Did I say pleaded? That word is too weak! When cajoling and pleading did not work, he threatened Calvin with the wrath of Almighty God if he "preferred his studies to the work of the Lord, and his own interest to the cause of Christ" (Schaff, ibid., sec. 81). So Calvin stayed. He and Farel set about cleaning up Geneva. Like most cities that require its citizens to be "Christians," very few of Geneva's citizens actually lived like Christians. Prostitution was actually sanctioned by the council, and vice abounded. The priests, as was typical of medieval Catholicism, had neglected to teach the citizens anything of Christ, the Scriptures, or obedience to the faith. John Calvin, Farel, and a reformer named Courald set about to rectify this. They wrote up a confession of faith, developed a catechism to instruct the people, preached five times on Sunday and several times throughout the week, and asked the council to pass laws forbidding immoral habits and gambling and requiring church attendance. These things the council did, but the reformers had asked them as well to grant the right of excommunication to the spiritual leaders of the city. Because the Roman Catholics had abused this power, the reformers asked that trusted citizens be appointed to oversee the matters of admonishment and church discipline. But because the Roman Catholics had abused this power, neither the council nor the citizenry was willing to grant this right to the Protestants, either. When the council required all citizens to publicly affirm the confession drawn up by the reformers, the people began to stir. The council was maintained by elections, and on Feb. 3, 1538 an "anti-clerical" party managed to win a majority of council seats. At the time the nearby city of Bern had also gone reformed, but they were not near so radical. Before Calvin had ever arrived, Farel had gotten the council to ban all holidays but Sunday, and citizens were punished if they were found with any relics of popery, such as a rosary. The new council decided to pattern itself after Bern. They still set a curfew for the city, and they banned lewd songs in the streets, but they removed the requirement to swear to the new confession. It wasn't sufficient for the reformers. They preached vehemently against the vices of the people, and they publicly condemned the council for not taking a stronger stand. Courauld, in fact, was so bold and so offensive in his speech that he was first forbidden to preach, then imprisoned, then banished, despite the protests of both Farel and John Calvin. This did not frighten or even slow down Farel or Calvin. They spoke up all the louder. Calvin dared to call the council the devil's council. The people began to threaten them, even pounding on their doors at night. John Calvin wasn't moved. When he and Farel were ordered to celebrate communion at Easter with unleavened bread the way the church in Bern did, they refused to grant communion, claiming rampant debauchery and insubordination. Swords were drawn and the reformers were shouted down when they announced this in the service, and within two days the council had deposed and banished them. Calvin rejoiced at the persecution, and the people rejoiced publicly over their new freedom. Communion was administered the following week by new pastors. William Farel was immediately beckoned to Neuchatel, where he had worked before. It was several months before Martin Bucer, lead reformer in the city of Strassburg, sent for John Calvin to join in the work there. Strassburg is a beautiful, fortressed city, a part of Germany then and France today. With the peaceable Martin Bucer lading it, it had proven to be a bridge between Lutheranism and Zwinglianism, at that time the only two branches of the Reformation, one German and one Swiss. It was only later that John Calvin's leadership in Geneva and his Institutes would lead to a third branch. John Calvin arrived in Strassburg in September, 1538. It would prove to be preparation for the rest of his life. Bucer taught him some tolerance and graciousness, at least until he was in full control of Geneva, and he got to know the Lutherans, gaining an appreciation for them, and possibly a knowledge of predestination which would come to be known as Calvinism. The original confession of Geneva, drawn up by John Calvin and William Farel, had contained no mention of predestination. It is mentioned by the historian Philip Schaff that Calvin had the freedom to enforce the church discipline that he had been unable to enforce at Geneva. Discipline was as important to him, he says, as doctrine was to Luther (ibid., sec. 86). The discipline may have been strong, involving excommunication, but it was not strict. The first person who was banned from the communion table had avoided church meetings for a month and fallen into gross immorality. This is hardly a harsh requirement! No wonder John Calvin insisted on it. Surely anyone wanting to build a church is going to want to keep the openly immoral from the communion table! Calvin built up a large church there in Strassburg, preaching four times weekly, including twice on Sundays. He converted many anabaptists, and he was well-respected by his congregation. Interestingly enough, when he returned it 1556 he was greeted warmly but forbidden to preach, as the congregation had become thoroughly Lutheran. Because Calvin did not preach "consubstantiation," the doctrine that Christ's actual body and blood is in some way in the bread and wine of communion, his teaching was no longer welcome. While in Strassburg, he released the second edition of Institutes, and he also wrote a commentary on Romans. He would become one of the most prolific Reformation authors, though no one could match the tireless pen of Martin Luther. John Calvin married Idelette de Bure in August of 1540. He was 31 at the time, and the story surrounding his marriage is quite interesting. Calvin delayed marriage partly to prevent the Roman Catholic Church from accusing him of leaving them in order to get a woman. Later, when he did decide to marry—at the urging of friends who felt he needed help at home—he stated that he would not choose a wife based on earthly beauty. In a letter to Farel from 1539, he described the attributes of the woman of his dreams: "chaste, obliging, not fastidious, economical, patient, careful for my health." Apparently his friends were trying to seek out a wife for him, but when Farel read these qualifications, he gave up. He knew of no such woman. In February of 1540 he mentions that a noble woman had proposed to him, quite rich, but he could not go through with it because she did not speak his language (!) and he was worried she would be too concerned with family and education. Philip Schaff suggests that the proposal was probably made through Martin Bucer because the woman was from Strassburg, thus a German speaker. Calvin spoke French and Latin (and learned Greek and Hebrew as well for Bible study). In March of 1540, he had his brother send a woman who had agreed to marry him. That fell through for unknown reasons. Finally, he married a woman of his own congregation, a widow of a man that he hand converted from anabaptism. Schaff states that she had "several children." Others suggest that she had two children. Wikipedia cites two recent biographies, by Bernard Cottret and T.H.L. Parker, for that information. Calvin spoke very little of his home life, unlike Martin Luther, so after much research it appears to me that no one knows the gender of the children that Idelette de Bure brought to their marriage. In fact, there is question as to how many children John Calvin and Idelette had after their marriage. Certainly he had an infant son that died in 1542. Some biographies, however, suggest that he had three children. The other two, they say, were daughters who also died in infancy. Schaff says this is a mistake. Dr. Jules Bonnet published a collection of letters by John Calvin, and included is a letter to Viret, the Genevan reformer, commenting on the death of an infant daughter. Schaff says this is impossible because in Responsio ad Balduini Convitia, written in 1561, Calvin mentions that God had given him a little son, then taken him away. There is no mention of any other children. Further, Nicolas Colladon, a friend of John Calvin's later in Geneva, wrote in his biography that Idolette had but one son from John Calvin. A great precursor to the story of John Calvin's return to Geneva is his controversy with Cardinal Sadolet. Each side wrote only one letter, but even the excerpts from Calvin's letter are so powerful that they comprise the best defense of the Protestant Reformation that I have ever seen. Things had not gone well after Calvin had been banished from Geneva, which is something he had predicted. It took only a year for his opponents to split into factions. The people, happy to throw off the yoke of both Christ and the reformers, degraded into rampant immorality. It was so bad that historian Philip Schaff reports, "Persons went naked through the streets to the sound of drums and fifes" (ibid., sec. 93). The council began to think they had made a mistake, and in 1540 they began to court Calvin, asking him to return. This turned out to be a huge issue, and everyone had opinions. Martin Bucer in Basel spoke up, at various points taking both sides. William Farel assailed Calvin without retreat, calling for his return to Geneva, and even warned him to remember Jonah. Philip Melancthon, Martin Luther's sidekick, had become friends with Calvin in Germany and was heartsick at the thought of his return to Switzerland. The issue was the importance of the cities. Both were crossroads, sitting near the border of France, Switzerland and Germany. Strassburg spoke German; Geneva spoke French. The former was seen as more crucial to the Reformation, the latter was thought to provide hope for the spread of the Reformation to France, where it had been cruelly put down. Needless to say, after much debate and negotiotian, John Calvin returned to Geneva. The one point he steadfastly required is that church discipline be allowed. John Calvin did not want to take over the work in Geneva alone. He tried to secure the services of William Farel or Peter Viret. Both were needed elsewhere, however, Farel in in Neuchatel and Viret in Lausanne. Just as a matter of interest, these 3 Swiss Reformers, of whom only Peter (actually, Pierre) Viret was actually Swiss, were among the most noted in their day. Theodore Beza, who would become Calvin's successor at Geneva, said of them that Calvin was the most learned of the Reformers, Farel the most forceful, and Viret the most gentle. John Calvin was only 32 when he returned to Geneva. He had Farel to turn to on a regular basis, but otherwise the work was completely his. It was not minor: It would be a rocky road. Imagine trying to run a church that everyone was required to be in. It was unavoidable that he would make many enemies, especially with the kind of discipline that he was trying to maintain in Geneva. The next 23 years would be filled with trials and battles, more within Geneva than even outside of it. Peter Viret was with him at the beginning. Geneva had managed to secure him at the end of 1540, a few months before Calvin returned. He stayed with Calvin for a year before he had to return to Lausanne. This was of inestimable comfort to Calvin. But Calvin was wise enough not to do it alone. Viret had written him in Strassburg telling him that if he did not come, then Viret would have to perish or leave. The work, he said, was utterly overwhelming. The only way it could be different for John Calvin was for him to administrate better, and he did. First he secured the cooperation of the councils of Geneva. He went to the councils with an "ecclesiastical order," which was basically a charter for the church. His willingness to compromise secured the acceptance of the ordinances, and they were approved by all 3 of Geneva's councils and the people. His humility through all this was extraordinary. He avoided, purposely, taking vengeance on his defeated enemies or even denouncing them from the pulpit: What a great attitude! Thus securing the cooperation of government and people, he went to work on getting help for his labors. By 1544, just three years after he arrived, he had a dozen pastors. He also trained a number of evangelists. The work in Geneva had begun in earnest. This page is going to be too long, but this is a great story! John Calvin had a lot of trouble with those pastors he put to work in Geneva … a lot of trouble. I'll let him describe it: That was from a letter to Melancthon in February, 1543. That was almost two years after his return. Before that, he complained even more about these pastors. In a letter to Basel begging to keep Peter Viret for a while, written in March, 1542, he says: It wasn't all bad. He adds in the letter to Melancthon: Late in 1541, he was asked to help draft a new set of laws along with the four "syndics," who were the highest leaders in Geneva and members of both the larger and smaller councils. These laws concerned everything down to the roles of firemen and watcmen on the wall. Later, in the 1560's, these would be revised again by John Calvin's friend, Germain Colladon. Despite his influence with the councils, John Calvin never held political office. And while he was consulted on major decisions, he did not regularly appear before the council. He has been called the pope of Geneva, but it would not be accurate to call him the civil head of Geneva. His greatest influence was theological. He debated heretics in print, wrote letters of advice to many from around Europe who consulted him, and preached almost daily. Visitors flocked from Germany, France, Italy, and Spain to hear him, and eventually there was even a Spanish-speaking congregation in Geneva. Farel and Viret continued to appear in Geneva from time to time, and together they became the most influential teachers of their time with the exception of Philip Melancthon in Germany. There was a tie between state and church in John Calvin's Geneva. Calvin taught, and the government agreed, that they were to "cherish and support the external worship of God, the true doctrine of religion, to defend the constitution of the church … " (Schaff, vol. VIII, ch. 13, sec. 101). There was really nothing unusual about this. Freedom of religion would have to wait at least two centuries to be found anywhere in the world. In a state with no freedom of religion, there will be no freedom of press, either. Geneva's press law forbad "popish, heretical, and infidel publications" (ibid.). On the other hand, their press law called for privileged initial publication of new translations of the Scripture. As a result, it was in Geneva in 1551 that Robert Stephen, after being censored in Paris, published the first New Testament containing verse divisions as we have them today. The "Geneva Bible" was also published there in 1560, and it was the primary English translation in Europe for more than 50 years until being displaced by the King James Bible in the early 1600's. My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1!	<urn:uuid:5d31f02d-5c59-4399-bae3-c67a1faa30a3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.christian-history.org/john-calvin.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00410.warc.gz	en	0.98874	4,860	3.40625	3	[ -0.314139187335968, 0.41309303045272827, 0.04757780209183693, -0.03181669861078262, 0.1544022262096405, -0.10598209500312805, -0.41504520177841187, 0.13586807250976562, 0.31224411725997925, 0.4077797830104828, -0.29228076338768005, -0.036211080849170685, 0.055550578981637955, 0.07664722204...	1	Christian-History.org does not receive any personally identifiable information from the search bar below. John Calvin was born July 10, 1509, about the time Martin Luther was learning the doctrine of salvation by faith alone in an Augustinian monastery in Germany. By the time he experienced what he described as conversion in 1530 or 1531, the Reformation was well-established in Germany, many of the German electors being already Protestant. Even after his conversion, of which very little is known, Calvin did not officially leave the Roman Catholic Church. In 1533 he went to Paris to attend the College Royal. He was friends with Nicolas Cop, the rector, who was sympathetic to the Reformation, though the college itself was not. The rector was scheduled to deliver an inaugural address on November 1, 1533, and he asked John Calvin to prepare it. Cop intended to call for reformation within the Roman Catholic Church. Calvin, through Nicolas Cop, declared that day: As you may imagine, that address was not well-received! The faculty was incensed. Cop fled immediately to Basel in Switzerland. John Calvin himself climbed out a window by tying sheets together, costumed himself as a vinedresser, then walked out of the city with a hoe on his shoulder. His room was searched, and all his papers were seized. He spent most of the next year in Angouleme, France, under the protection of Queen Marguerite of Navarre. It is at this point that we can say that John Calvin was no longer Catholic. On May 4, 1534 he resigned all ecclesiastical favors granted him as a scholar. His stay in France had to come to an end, however, due to an event in which his role is unknown. It is possible he had nothing to do with it. On the morning of October 19, 1534, the king of France awoke to find a poster on the door of the royal chamber at Fontainebleu, where he was staying. The poster called the mass a blasphemous denial of the one, all-sufficient sacrifice of Christ and referred to the pope and "all his vermin" as servants of the antichrist. Similar posters were put up all over Paris, and, quite naturally, persecution arose immediately. No one knows whether John Calvin played any part in this, but he decided it would be a good time to leave France, going to Basel to be with Nicolas Cop in January of 1535. In Basel he published his first edition of Institutes of the Christian Religion, his opus magnum, and one of the most influential works in Christian history. This first edition came out in March of 1536, though it was edited and expanded many times during Calvin's life. Calvin is known most for his work in Geneva, which began later in 1536, but we should delay that story to discuss Institutes. The publication of John Calvin's Institutes brought immediate praise among the reformers. Martin Bucer, one of the most respected of the Swiss reformers, wrote: The Roman Catholics had an equally strong but opposite reaction. They called it "the Koran and Talmud of heresy," and it was ordered burned throughout France and Switzerland. To this day, it is one of the most respected Christian writing among Protestants, and it is revered by those churches that still call themselves Reformed. Dr. Karl von Hase, a German theologian of the 19th century, called it "the grandest scientific justification of Augustinianism, full of religious depth with inexorable consistency of thought" (Kirschengeschichte, as quoted and translated by Schaff, ibid., ch. 79). John Calvin's theology runs much deeper than the 5 tenets of Calvinism. Institutes is published today in up to four volumes and runs around 1500 pages long in its English translation; however, the 5 tenets of Calvinism are by far his most well-known, and thus most controversial, teaching. These main teachings of Calvinism are summed up in the acronym TULIP. The letters represent these teachings: This is the teaching that man is "totally" depraved. This means that we are so depraved that we cannot even choose to believe in Christ. We can believe only if God gives us grace to believe. God chooses those he will saved based on no reason whatsoever except his sovereign choice. There is no value in us or our deeds that influence that choice. Jesus only died for the elect. He did not die for the lost. If God chooses you, you will respond. No one resists God's grace. Those who are chosen will be saved. If God chooses you to be saved, obviously you will continue to the end. Those who do not continue to the end of their lives only looked like they had grace, they didn't really have it. Basically, John Calvin took the idea of justification apart from works and made it justification apart even from the will. He took God's choice to the extreme, and he removed all choice of man. This is not a real surprise. Martin Luther had already gone this route with his book The Bondage of the Will. It was an idea that he picked up from Augustine of Hippo, the great 4th century bishop. Augustine teaches doctrines very similar to TULIP in his work A Treatise on the Predestination of the Saints. In fact, his teaching is similar enough that had he not preceded John Calvin, he could be called a Calvinist. However, he had not always believed these doctrines! Before Augustine—and then only in his later years, when we was bishop of Hippo—the hopeless condemnation of the lost, with no opportunity for salvation because they are not elect, cannot be found. It is entirely possible that this doctrine of Augustine's was a reaction to the heretic Pelagius, who taught that man could be saved by his own free will, choosing to live holy and in obedience to God apart from God's grace. Augustine opposed him first with the historical teaching of the Church, that all men are called by God through the Gospel to a salvation wrought and empowered by the Spirit of God. Later, thinking through the issue of free will and grace, he used Scripture to convince himself, contrary to the historical teaching of the church, that the lost had no opportunity to be saved because they were not chosen! Augustine, then, came to these things in response to Pelagianism. These doctrines then sat untouched until Martin Luther revived them and passed them on to John Calvin, who passed them on to the world. I promised to return to John Calvin's story. Besides the theology that he promulgated through The Institutes of the Christian Religion, it is his rule in Geneva, Switzerland that is most remembered. It is a detailed story, and I am afraid we will have to limit ourselves to the highlights. Calvin was simply passing through Geneva in July of 1536, intending to stay only a night. William Farel, however, who had been working tirelessly—and effectively—to bring the Reformation to Geneva, had other ideas. On May 21, he had gotten the city council to publicly introduce the Reformation. Now, he pleaded with John Calvin to help him give it birth. Did I say pleaded? That word is too weak! When cajoling and pleading did not work, he threatened Calvin with the wrath of Almighty God if he "preferred his studies to the work of the Lord, and his own interest to the cause of Christ" (Schaff, ibid., sec. 81). So Calvin stayed. He and Farel set about cleaning up Geneva. Like most cities that require its citizens to be "Christians," very few of Geneva's citizens actually lived like Christians. Prostitution was actually sanctioned by the council, and vice abounded. The priests, as was typical of medieval Catholicism, had neglected to teach the citizens anything of Christ, the Scriptures, or obedience to the faith. John Calvin, Farel, and a reformer named Courald set about to rectify this. They wrote up a confession of faith, developed a catechism to instruct the people, preached five times on Sunday and several times throughout the week, and asked the council to pass laws forbidding immoral habits and gambling and requiring church attendance. These things the council did, but the reformers had asked them as well to grant the right of excommunication to the spiritual leaders of the city. Because the Roman Catholics had abused this power, the reformers asked that trusted citizens be appointed to oversee the matters of admonishment and church discipline. But because the Roman Catholics had abused this power, neither the council nor the citizenry was willing to grant this right to the Protestants, either. When the council required all citizens to publicly affirm the confession drawn up by the reformers, the people began to stir. The council was maintained by elections, and on Feb. 3, 1538 an "anti-clerical" party managed to win a majority of council seats. At the time the nearby city of Bern had also gone reformed, but they were not near so radical. Before Calvin had ever arrived, Farel had gotten the council to ban all holidays but Sunday, and citizens were punished if they were found with any relics of popery, such as a rosary. The new council decided to pattern itself after Bern. They still set a curfew for the city, and they banned lewd songs in the streets, but they removed the requirement to swear to the new confession. It wasn't sufficient for the reformers. They preached vehemently against the vices of the people, and they publicly condemned the council for not taking a stronger stand. Courauld, in fact, was so bold and so offensive in his speech that he was first forbidden to preach, then imprisoned, then banished, despite the protests of both Farel and John Calvin. This did not frighten or even slow down Farel or Calvin. They spoke up all the louder. Calvin dared to call the council the devil's council. The people began to threaten them, even pounding on their doors at night. John Calvin wasn't moved. When he and Farel were ordered to celebrate communion at Easter with unleavened bread the way the church in Bern did, they refused to grant communion, claiming rampant debauchery and insubordination. Swords were drawn and the reformers were shouted down when they announced this in the service, and within two days the council had deposed and banished them. Calvin rejoiced at the persecution, and the people rejoiced publicly over their new freedom. Communion was administered the following week by new pastors. William Farel was immediately beckoned to Neuchatel, where he had worked before. It was several months before Martin Bucer, lead reformer in the city of Strassburg, sent for John Calvin to join in the work there. Strassburg is a beautiful, fortressed city, a part of Germany then and France today. With the peaceable Martin Bucer lading it, it had proven to be a bridge between Lutheranism and Zwinglianism, at that time the only two branches of the Reformation, one German and one Swiss. It was only later that John Calvin's leadership in Geneva and his Institutes would lead to a third branch. John Calvin arrived in Strassburg in September, 1538. It would prove to be preparation for the rest of his life. Bucer taught him some tolerance and graciousness, at least until he was in full control of Geneva, and he got to know the Lutherans, gaining an appreciation for them, and possibly a knowledge of predestination which would come to be known as Calvinism. The original confession of Geneva, drawn up by John Calvin and William Farel, had contained no mention of predestination. It is mentioned by the historian Philip Schaff that Calvin had the freedom to enforce the church discipline that he had been unable to enforce at Geneva. Discipline was as important to him, he says, as doctrine was to Luther (ibid., sec. 86). The discipline may have been strong, involving excommunication, but it was not strict. The first person who was banned from the communion table had avoided church meetings for a month and fallen into gross immorality. This is hardly a harsh requirement! No wonder John Calvin insisted on it. Surely anyone wanting to build a church is going to want to keep the openly immoral from the communion table! Calvin built up a large church there in Strassburg, preaching four times weekly, including twice on Sundays. He converted many anabaptists, and he was well-respected by his congregation. Interestingly enough, when he returned it 1556 he was greeted warmly but forbidden to preach, as the congregation had become thoroughly Lutheran. Because Calvin did not preach "consubstantiation," the doctrine that Christ's actual body and blood is in some way in the bread and wine of communion, his teaching was no longer welcome. While in Strassburg, he released the second edition of Institutes, and he also wrote a commentary on Romans. He would become one of the most prolific Reformation authors, though no one could match the tireless pen of Martin Luther. John Calvin married Idelette de Bure in August of 1540. He was 31 at the time, and the story surrounding his marriage is quite interesting. Calvin delayed marriage partly to prevent the Roman Catholic Church from accusing him of leaving them in order to get a woman. Later, when he did decide to marry—at the urging of friends who felt he needed help at home—he stated that he would not choose a wife based on earthly beauty. In a letter to Farel from 1539, he described the attributes of the woman of his dreams: "chaste, obliging, not fastidious, economical, patient, careful for my health." Apparently his friends were trying to seek out a wife for him, but when Farel read these qualifications, he gave up. He knew of no such woman. In February of 1540 he mentions that a noble woman had proposed to him, quite rich, but he could not go through with it because she did not speak his language (!) and he was worried she would be too concerned with family and education. Philip Schaff suggests that the proposal was probably made through Martin Bucer because the woman was from Strassburg, thus a German speaker. Calvin spoke French and Latin (and learned Greek and Hebrew as well for Bible study). In March of 1540, he had his brother send a woman who had agreed to marry him. That fell through for unknown reasons. Finally, he married a woman of his own congregation, a widow of a man that he hand converted from anabaptism. Schaff states that she had "several children." Others suggest that she had two children. Wikipedia cites two recent biographies, by Bernard Cottret and T.H.L. Parker, for that information. Calvin spoke very little of his home life, unlike Martin Luther, so after much research it appears to me that no one knows the gender of the children that Idelette de Bure brought to their marriage. In fact, there is question as to how many children John Calvin and Idelette had after their marriage. Certainly he had an infant son that died in 1542. Some biographies, however, suggest that he had three children. The other two, they say, were daughters who also died in infancy. Schaff says this is a mistake. Dr. Jules Bonnet published a collection of letters by John Calvin, and included is a letter to Viret, the Genevan reformer, commenting on the death of an infant daughter. Schaff says this is impossible because in Responsio ad Balduini Convitia, written in 1561, Calvin mentions that God had given him a little son, then taken him away. There is no mention of any other children. Further, Nicolas Colladon, a friend of John Calvin's later in Geneva, wrote in his biography that Idolette had but one son from John Calvin. A great precursor to the story of John Calvin's return to Geneva is his controversy with Cardinal Sadolet. Each side wrote only one letter, but even the excerpts from Calvin's letter are so powerful that they comprise the best defense of the Protestant Reformation that I have ever seen. Things had not gone well after Calvin had been banished from Geneva, which is something he had predicted. It took only a year for his opponents to split into factions. The people, happy to throw off the yoke of both Christ and the reformers, degraded into rampant immorality. It was so bad that historian Philip Schaff reports, "Persons went naked through the streets to the sound of drums and fifes" (ibid., sec. 93). The council began to think they had made a mistake, and in 1540 they began to court Calvin, asking him to return. This turned out to be a huge issue, and everyone had opinions. Martin Bucer in Basel spoke up, at various points taking both sides. William Farel assailed Calvin without retreat, calling for his return to Geneva, and even warned him to remember Jonah. Philip Melancthon, Martin Luther's sidekick, had become friends with Calvin in Germany and was heartsick at the thought of his return to Switzerland. The issue was the importance of the cities. Both were crossroads, sitting near the border of France, Switzerland and Germany. Strassburg spoke German; Geneva spoke French. The former was seen as more crucial to the Reformation, the latter was thought to provide hope for the spread of the Reformation to France, where it had been cruelly put down. Needless to say, after much debate and negotiotian, John Calvin returned to Geneva. The one point he steadfastly required is that church discipline be allowed. John Calvin did not want to take over the work in Geneva alone. He tried to secure the services of William Farel or Peter Viret. Both were needed elsewhere, however, Farel in in Neuchatel and Viret in Lausanne. Just as a matter of interest, these 3 Swiss Reformers, of whom only Peter (actually, Pierre) Viret was actually Swiss, were among the most noted in their day. Theodore Beza, who would become Calvin's successor at Geneva, said of them that Calvin was the most learned of the Reformers, Farel the most forceful, and Viret the most gentle. John Calvin was only 32 when he returned to Geneva. He had Farel to turn to on a regular basis, but otherwise the work was completely his. It was not minor: It would be a rocky road. Imagine trying to run a church that everyone was required to be in. It was unavoidable that he would make many enemies, especially with the kind of discipline that he was trying to maintain in Geneva. The next 23 years would be filled with trials and battles, more within Geneva than even outside of it. Peter Viret was with him at the beginning. Geneva had managed to secure him at the end of 1540, a few months before Calvin returned. He stayed with Calvin for a year before he had to return to Lausanne. This was of inestimable comfort to Calvin. But Calvin was wise enough not to do it alone. Viret had written him in Strassburg telling him that if he did not come, then Viret would have to perish or leave. The work, he said, was utterly overwhelming. The only way it could be different for John Calvin was for him to administrate better, and he did. First he secured the cooperation of the councils of Geneva. He went to the councils with an "ecclesiastical order," which was basically a charter for the church. His willingness to compromise secured the acceptance of the ordinances, and they were approved by all 3 of Geneva's councils and the people. His humility through all this was extraordinary. He avoided, purposely, taking vengeance on his defeated enemies or even denouncing them from the pulpit: What a great attitude! Thus securing the cooperation of government and people, he went to work on getting help for his labors. By 1544, just three years after he arrived, he had a dozen pastors. He also trained a number of evangelists. The work in Geneva had begun in earnest. This page is going to be too long, but this is a great story! John Calvin had a lot of trouble with those pastors he put to work in Geneva … a lot of trouble. I'll let him describe it: That was from a letter to Melancthon in February, 1543. That was almost two years after his return. Before that, he complained even more about these pastors. In a letter to Basel begging to keep Peter Viret for a while, written in March, 1542, he says: It wasn't all bad. He adds in the letter to Melancthon: Late in 1541, he was asked to help draft a new set of laws along with the four "syndics," who were the highest leaders in Geneva and members of both the larger and smaller councils. These laws concerned everything down to the roles of firemen and watcmen on the wall. Later, in the 1560's, these would be revised again by John Calvin's friend, Germain Colladon. Despite his influence with the councils, John Calvin never held political office. And while he was consulted on major decisions, he did not regularly appear before the council. He has been called the pope of Geneva, but it would not be accurate to call him the civil head of Geneva. His greatest influence was theological. He debated heretics in print, wrote letters of advice to many from around Europe who consulted him, and preached almost daily. Visitors flocked from Germany, France, Italy, and Spain to hear him, and eventually there was even a Spanish-speaking congregation in Geneva. Farel and Viret continued to appear in Geneva from time to time, and together they became the most influential teachers of their time with the exception of Philip Melancthon in Germany. There was a tie between state and church in John Calvin's Geneva. Calvin taught, and the government agreed, that they were to "cherish and support the external worship of God, the true doctrine of religion, to defend the constitution of the church … " (Schaff, vol. VIII, ch. 13, sec. 101). There was really nothing unusual about this. Freedom of religion would have to wait at least two centuries to be found anywhere in the world. In a state with no freedom of religion, there will be no freedom of press, either. Geneva's press law forbad "popish, heretical, and infidel publications" (ibid.). On the other hand, their press law called for privileged initial publication of new translations of the Scripture. As a result, it was in Geneva in 1551 that Robert Stephen, after being censored in Paris, published the first New Testament containing verse divisions as we have them today. The "Geneva Bible" was also published there in 1560, and it was the primary English translation in Europe for more than 50 years until being displaced by the King James Bible in the early 1600's. My newest book, Rome's Audacious Claim, was released December 1!	4,907	ENGLISH	1
This term, Year 5 visited Kenilworth Castle which was famously gifted to Robert Dudley by Elizabeth I. First built in the 1120s, and a royal castle for most of its history, it was expanded by King John, John of Gaunt and Henry V. Over the years it has played host to many important and royal visitors and so the staff of St Andrew’s felt very at home in the lavish surroundings. The children learnt a lot about why castles are built and enjoyed exploring the grounds and ruins as well as Leicester’s Gate House. The views from the top of the stone walls were phenomenal because we could see for miles and miles around. he 1120s and a royal castle for most of its history, it was expanded by King John, John of Gaunt and Henry V. In 1563 Elizabeth I granted it to her favourite, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, who converted the castle into a lavish palace fit to entertain his queen. Although the castle’s fortifications were dismantled in 1650, many of the buildings remain unaltered since Elizabeth I’s reign	<urn:uuid:77152cbc-3f0b-46d7-946a-fb897f07284d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.standrews.northants.sch.uk/year-5-visit-kenilworth-castle/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00501.warc.gz	en	0.986055	225	3.390625	3	[ -0.4412974715232849, 0.07048963755369186, 0.7458339929580688, 0.2960715889930725, -0.10612939298152924, 0.16577009856700897, 0.47492480278015137, -0.39847853779792786, 0.008287379518151283, -0.11516810208559036, -0.2450268268585205, -0.1754440814256668, 0.05708228424191475, 0.0059807258658...	13	This term, Year 5 visited Kenilworth Castle which was famously gifted to Robert Dudley by Elizabeth I. First built in the 1120s, and a royal castle for most of its history, it was expanded by King John, John of Gaunt and Henry V. Over the years it has played host to many important and royal visitors and so the staff of St Andrew’s felt very at home in the lavish surroundings. The children learnt a lot about why castles are built and enjoyed exploring the grounds and ruins as well as Leicester’s Gate House. The views from the top of the stone walls were phenomenal because we could see for miles and miles around. he 1120s and a royal castle for most of its history, it was expanded by King John, John of Gaunt and Henry V. In 1563 Elizabeth I granted it to her favourite, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, who converted the castle into a lavish palace fit to entertain his queen. Although the castle’s fortifications were dismantled in 1650, many of the buildings remain unaltered since Elizabeth I’s reign	231	ENGLISH	1
“As individual fingers we can easily be broken, but all together we make a mighty fist.” The Black Hills region of South Dakota spreads for 125 miles from north to south and for 65 miles from east to west. Ponderosa pines and aspens grow clinging to the steep limestone cliffs. Creeks and rivers flow through the valleys and ravines. White tail deer and wild turkey inhabit this paradise on Earth. The Sioux tribe had lived here long before prospectors and miners invaded the region. The Sioux believed that the Great Spirit inhabited this land. The Sioux, with the help of the Cheyenne, fought fiercely for their homeland, but they lost. Their Great Spirit led them into bloody battles and helped them to survive starvation, limitation of their freedom and the humiliation of been forced to live on reservations. Chiefs Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, Dull Knife, and Little Wolf were real heroes and each of them had outstanding traits of character. But they all have common traits such as courage, wisdom and the desire and the will to sacrifice themselves for the sake of their people. Crazy Horse was brave and generous, courteous and modest, handsome and full of grace. His father trained him in horsemanship and hunting skills since his early childhood. Crazy Horse loved horses and after he came of age and became a warrior, he won every battle he fought. By the age of 21 he became a leader of his band of warriors and was respected for his courage. He was not a man of words, but a man of deeds. When he was sixteen, he participated in his first battle against the Gros Ventres. He followed a brave Lakota warrior, Hump, into battle. When a horse under Hump was killed, Crazy Horse, in spite of a hail of arrows, helped Hump to get onto his own horse and carried him into safety. Hump praised Crazy Horse for saving his life and thus established his reputation as a fearless warrior. They became close friends in spite of a difference in age and were called “the grizzly and his cub.” When Crazy Horse was 21 he was chosen to lead an attack on woodchoppers in order to lure soldiers from Fort Phil Kearny. Meanwhile, 600 Sioux were waiting in ambush. The strategic maneuver was a success and many older chiefs, including Sitting Bull, recognized him as a war leader, who is able to face danger with courage and composure. When pursuing his enemies he rarely killed them, but more often just struck them with a stick. On June 25, 1876 Colonel Custer made a surprise attack on a Lakota village. At that time, the villagers were participating in games and festivities. Teepees were spread for three miles along the bank of the Little Bighorn River. The Indians were caught by surprise when they suddenly saw soldiers across the river to the south of the village. There was panic among the villagers. Women snatched their children, older folks sang prayers, and horses ran around. Crazy Horse headed to confront the troops on the southern end of the village. But then he saw more soldiers across the river to the north of the village. It looked like a dangerous situation. The village was doomed to be surrounded. Crazy Horse reckoned the situation in a moment and led his warriors to intercept Custer’s troops on the northern side. He cutoff Custer and his soldiers from a ford in the river. Lakota warriors were followed by Cheyenne braves. They surrounded Custer and his soldiers from three sides and killed them all. Sitting Bull with his band and Cheyenne attacked the U.S. troops on the southern side. The Indians did not know how many soldiers were surrounding their village, but Crazy Horse made the right decision and won the battle. He outsmarted one of the most talented and brave military leaders of the Civil War. During the winter, with less and less buffalo to be hunted on the plains, the Lakota and the Cheyenne were starving. Finally, after the continued urging of friendly Indians, sent to Crazy Horse by the U.S. authorities, he and several thousand Indians, most of them Sioux, surrendered at Fort Robinson, in Nebraska in July 1877. They still hoped that the U.S. government would address their complaints. Meanwhile, Spotted Tail was appointed by General Crook as a Sioux tribal chief. But the valor of Crazy Horse and his respect among Indians made Spotted Tail jealous. Spotted Tail told General Crook that Crazy Horse was plotting to murder him during a council meeting and to start a new war. General Crook did not show up for the meeting and sent an officer instead. Friends of Crazy Horse learned about the vile rumors and warned him about the conspiracy against him. But Crazy Horse ignored the danger as he usually did. In fact, he could easily start a new rebellion but since he surrendered he kept his word and remained peaceful. One day he took his sick wife to her parents’ home and a party of scouts was sent after him. He was riding back with his friends and his supporters surrounded him and were shouting and singing. They made it impossible to apprehend and arrest Crazy Horse. However, he told them to stay calm because in his mind “it was cowardice to show bravery among his own tribesmen.” He believed that his surrender, peaceful conduct, and honest intentions would guarantee him protection. Captain Lea, urged him to come to headquarters, explain his intentions and disperse false rumors but it was too late. When Crazy Horse approached the military camp and dismounted he was guarded by two men. They walked towards a guardhouse. His cousin, Touch-the-Cloud, who walked ahead, realized that they wanted to take him prisoner. He exclaimed: “Brother, they want to put you in prison.” Crazy Horse tried to break free but was mortally stabbed in the back with a bayonet by a soldier. He died that night, mourned by his father and buried somewhere in the Badlands, so that the “pale faced” could not anymore defile him. He was only 33 years old. Sitting Bull was born and raised before the conflicts with white people started and when Sioux were on friendly terms with them. In fact, only a few French Canadian fur traders, such as Picotte, Choteau, Larpeneur, and Primeau reached the Unkpapa Sioux tribe which resided on the banks of Missouri River. The fur traders established friendly relationships with the Sioux and Sitting Bull personally knew them. The fur trade thrived and both parties benefited from it. Sitting Bull’s father, Jumping Buffalo, was a brave and prominent leader. During a battle with a hostile band of Crow, he mortally wounded the Crow’s chief. He was very seriously wounded too and died shortly after the battle. Jumping Buffalo owned a herd of ponies and Sitting Bull liked to ride them a lot. Sitting Bull got his name, when he was a boy. Boys usually had a hunt for buffalo calves after their fathers’ buffalo hunt was over. Sitting Bull and his friends were pursuing calves on their pretend hunt, when one big calf charged toward Sitting Bull. His pony threw him to the ground but Sitting Bull did not get scared even though the calf was about to stomp on him. He grabbed the calf by the ears and managed to subdue him into a sitting position. All his friends cheered him and gave him the name “Sitting Bull.” Sitting Bull was fearless, stubborn, sarcastic and quick witted. Once he made up his mind it was almost impossible to make him to change it. “Inside of me there are two dogs. One is mean and evil and the other is good and they fight each other all the time. When asked which one wins I answer, the one I feed the most.” During a battle with Assiniboine Indians he took a boy captive, saving his life. He adopted him and treated him like a brother. Later in his life Sitting Bull became a patriotic speaker, who was able to unite, to inspire, and lead his people. His adopted brother proudly fought in his place during battles. In 1863 Sitting Bull supported Sioux, who were considered outlaws and who fled from Minnesota. They killed many white settlers after enduring lots of injustice and were seeking refuge and help with the Unkpapa people. Subsequently, many fugitives and outlaws, including two half-breed instigators of rebellions in Canada, found shelter with Sitting Bull’s tribe. After listening to their stories of mistreatment and discrimination, Sitting Bull became very wary towards Americans. Over the years Sitting Bull became more and more resentful and distrustful towards the white people, as more land had been taken away from Indians. After the treaty was signed in 1868, which granted the Sioux indisputable rights for their land, his attitudes changed. Together with other chiefs, such as Red Cloud and Spotted Tail he went to Washington D.C. and met with President Grant in the White House. When this treaty was broken he was deeply disappointed and spoke with his tribe about white people’s greed for gold, broken promises, and their hypocrisy. The Sioux, as a nation, had completely different values, such as appreciation for the land they lived on. The way, which white people lived and his values could not be reconciled. When the last treaty was broken Sitting Bull took up arms to protect his homeland, the Black Hills, the Bighorn Mountains and the hunting grounds, which Lakota shared with Cheyenne. He made patriotic speeches to his tribesmen and led them into battle. “Hear me people: We have now to deal with another race – small and feeble when our fathers first met them, but now great and overbearing. Strangely enough they have a mind to till the soil and the love of possession is a disease with them. These people have made many rules that the rich may break but the poor may not. They take their tithes from the poor and weak to support the rich and those who rule.” After the battle on the Little Bighorn River, Sitting Bull led his people to Canada, where they got refuge, but not food. Buffalo were almost all hunted out and his people were starving. Finally Sitting Bull with the rest of his band surrendered at the Fort Buford agency in North Dakota in 1881. “For us, warriors are not what you think of as warriors. The warrior is not someone who fights, because no one has the right to take another life. The warrior, for us, is one who sacrifices himself for the good of others. His task is to take care of the elderly, the defenseless, those who can not provide for themselves, and above all, the children, the future of humanity.” He hoped for freedom and justice for his people. An invitation to Washington D.C. on behalf of President Grant was still open to him. Instead he was arrested and put in prison. Later, authorities gave him to “Buffalo Bill” Cody to perform in Bill’s “Wild West Show.” After a few years with the Buffalo Bill show Sitting Bull settled in the Standing Rock Reservation in North Dakota where the rest of his band lived. In 1890 a religious movement called “Ghost Dance” was started by a half-breed Indian in Nevada, who considered himself a prophet. This movement became popular among different Indian tribes in many reservations, including Standing Rock. When asked by authorities, ghost dancers did not want to give away the name of the prophet. The authorities suspected Siting Bull as an instigator because he had never been obedient. On December 15, 1890, early in the morning, a group of local police, backed by U.S. troops came to his home. Not suspecting anything, Sitting Bull went out and saw that his home was surrounded by the police. His adopted brother shot a lieutenant, who apprehended Sitting Bull, and the shot started a fight. As a result, six policemen and six Sioux were killed, including Sitting Bull, his adopted brother and his young son Crow Foot. “I wish it to be remembered that I was the last man of my tribe to surrender my rifle.” Two great Cheyenne chiefs, Dull Knife and Little Wolf, led the Cheyenne into battles to support the Sioux in their fight for their common hunting grounds, the Black Hills and the Bighorn Mountains. The Sioux decided to fight for their land to death. In 1876 the Cheyenne were forced to move to Oklahoma where malaria and malnutrition killed many of them. Both chiefs led the Cheyenne on a great escape from Oklahoma to Dakota. The army pursued them during their march and they fought back while keeping their pace. But the Cheyenne tried to be ahead of the troops to avoid fights and bloodshed as much as possible. A band led by Little Wolf settled in Sand Hills and enjoyed an undisturbed peaceful life and an abundance of game for hunting for a while. Later they moved to Montana and then to Pine Ridge. Finally, they were forced to move to Lane Deer, Montana. Dull Knife, after he and his band split with Little Wolf at Running Water, headed towards the Red Cloud agency. He and his people were captured near Fort Robinson, Nebraska and all men were imprisoned. The women managed to smuggle guns, ammunition and knifes into prison, hidden in clothing and moccasins. When the men broke from prison, women with children joined them. They decided to die together. They fought till the last bullet was shot and then stood up in the open. Most of them were killed. Dull Knife escaped with his family and made a run to the Sioux Pine Ridge agency in South Dakota. Eventually, he settled in the Cheyenne Reservation in Rosebud Valley and died in 1883. The ownership of the Black Hills region is still in dispute. There are no valid records of purchase of this region by the U.S. government from the Sioux tribe. There is only an Act as of February, 1877 according to which the land was taken away from Indians. The Sioux started a legal battle in 1920. In 1980, the Supreme Court ruled that the Sioux Nation would receive $ 106 million from the U.S. Government. The Sioux, however, refused to take money and stated that the decision of the Supreme Court is invalid on the basis of misrepresentation. They never signed a contract with a lawyer, who represented them in the Supreme Court. The money, designated to pay the Sioux for their land, is in a fund, collecting interest. But the Sioux don’t want to touch this money. They want their land back. In 2009 Barak Obama supported their decision to take back their land. The Sioux Nation and other tribes met with representatives of the United Nations. In 2012 the U.N. recommended that the U.S. government give back some of the land to the Native Americans. This includes the Black Hills region. What do you think? Will the Sioux get the Black Hills back? How would Deadwood look like if the land changes ownership? Legends of America. Kathy Weiser. 2017 Indian Heroes and Great Chieftains. Charles A. Eastman 1939. Edited by Kathy Weiser in 1918 The author Charles Eastman worked as a doctor at the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. He was half Sioux and knew many of the chiefs personally. He graduated with a medical degree from Boston University School of Medicine in 1890 and began working in the Pine Ridge Reservation.	<urn:uuid:5439f9ae-e1fd-4743-af04-ed6f7626942f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://travelhummingbirds.wordpress.com/2019/08/23/native-american-heroes-in-the-history-of-the-black-hills/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00352.warc.gz	en	0.988607	3,234	3.265625	3	[ -0.148539736866951, 0.16074560582637787, 0.20898103713989258, -0.20988541841506958, -0.22441601753234863, -0.22649064660072327, 0.24513468146324158, 0.06554962694644928, -0.3806551694869995, -0.3251868486404419, 0.24206280708312988, -0.11588218808174133, 0.32743579149246216, 0.220355451107...	2	“As individual fingers we can easily be broken, but all together we make a mighty fist.” The Black Hills region of South Dakota spreads for 125 miles from north to south and for 65 miles from east to west. Ponderosa pines and aspens grow clinging to the steep limestone cliffs. Creeks and rivers flow through the valleys and ravines. White tail deer and wild turkey inhabit this paradise on Earth. The Sioux tribe had lived here long before prospectors and miners invaded the region. The Sioux believed that the Great Spirit inhabited this land. The Sioux, with the help of the Cheyenne, fought fiercely for their homeland, but they lost. Their Great Spirit led them into bloody battles and helped them to survive starvation, limitation of their freedom and the humiliation of been forced to live on reservations. Chiefs Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, Dull Knife, and Little Wolf were real heroes and each of them had outstanding traits of character. But they all have common traits such as courage, wisdom and the desire and the will to sacrifice themselves for the sake of their people. Crazy Horse was brave and generous, courteous and modest, handsome and full of grace. His father trained him in horsemanship and hunting skills since his early childhood. Crazy Horse loved horses and after he came of age and became a warrior, he won every battle he fought. By the age of 21 he became a leader of his band of warriors and was respected for his courage. He was not a man of words, but a man of deeds. When he was sixteen, he participated in his first battle against the Gros Ventres. He followed a brave Lakota warrior, Hump, into battle. When a horse under Hump was killed, Crazy Horse, in spite of a hail of arrows, helped Hump to get onto his own horse and carried him into safety. Hump praised Crazy Horse for saving his life and thus established his reputation as a fearless warrior. They became close friends in spite of a difference in age and were called “the grizzly and his cub.” When Crazy Horse was 21 he was chosen to lead an attack on woodchoppers in order to lure soldiers from Fort Phil Kearny. Meanwhile, 600 Sioux were waiting in ambush. The strategic maneuver was a success and many older chiefs, including Sitting Bull, recognized him as a war leader, who is able to face danger with courage and composure. When pursuing his enemies he rarely killed them, but more often just struck them with a stick. On June 25, 1876 Colonel Custer made a surprise attack on a Lakota village. At that time, the villagers were participating in games and festivities. Teepees were spread for three miles along the bank of the Little Bighorn River. The Indians were caught by surprise when they suddenly saw soldiers across the river to the south of the village. There was panic among the villagers. Women snatched their children, older folks sang prayers, and horses ran around. Crazy Horse headed to confront the troops on the southern end of the village. But then he saw more soldiers across the river to the north of the village. It looked like a dangerous situation. The village was doomed to be surrounded. Crazy Horse reckoned the situation in a moment and led his warriors to intercept Custer’s troops on the northern side. He cutoff Custer and his soldiers from a ford in the river. Lakota warriors were followed by Cheyenne braves. They surrounded Custer and his soldiers from three sides and killed them all. Sitting Bull with his band and Cheyenne attacked the U.S. troops on the southern side. The Indians did not know how many soldiers were surrounding their village, but Crazy Horse made the right decision and won the battle. He outsmarted one of the most talented and brave military leaders of the Civil War. During the winter, with less and less buffalo to be hunted on the plains, the Lakota and the Cheyenne were starving. Finally, after the continued urging of friendly Indians, sent to Crazy Horse by the U.S. authorities, he and several thousand Indians, most of them Sioux, surrendered at Fort Robinson, in Nebraska in July 1877. They still hoped that the U.S. government would address their complaints. Meanwhile, Spotted Tail was appointed by General Crook as a Sioux tribal chief. But the valor of Crazy Horse and his respect among Indians made Spotted Tail jealous. Spotted Tail told General Crook that Crazy Horse was plotting to murder him during a council meeting and to start a new war. General Crook did not show up for the meeting and sent an officer instead. Friends of Crazy Horse learned about the vile rumors and warned him about the conspiracy against him. But Crazy Horse ignored the danger as he usually did. In fact, he could easily start a new rebellion but since he surrendered he kept his word and remained peaceful. One day he took his sick wife to her parents’ home and a party of scouts was sent after him. He was riding back with his friends and his supporters surrounded him and were shouting and singing. They made it impossible to apprehend and arrest Crazy Horse. However, he told them to stay calm because in his mind “it was cowardice to show bravery among his own tribesmen.” He believed that his surrender, peaceful conduct, and honest intentions would guarantee him protection. Captain Lea, urged him to come to headquarters, explain his intentions and disperse false rumors but it was too late. When Crazy Horse approached the military camp and dismounted he was guarded by two men. They walked towards a guardhouse. His cousin, Touch-the-Cloud, who walked ahead, realized that they wanted to take him prisoner. He exclaimed: “Brother, they want to put you in prison.” Crazy Horse tried to break free but was mortally stabbed in the back with a bayonet by a soldier. He died that night, mourned by his father and buried somewhere in the Badlands, so that the “pale faced” could not anymore defile him. He was only 33 years old. Sitting Bull was born and raised before the conflicts with white people started and when Sioux were on friendly terms with them. In fact, only a few French Canadian fur traders, such as Picotte, Choteau, Larpeneur, and Primeau reached the Unkpapa Sioux tribe which resided on the banks of Missouri River. The fur traders established friendly relationships with the Sioux and Sitting Bull personally knew them. The fur trade thrived and both parties benefited from it. Sitting Bull’s father, Jumping Buffalo, was a brave and prominent leader. During a battle with a hostile band of Crow, he mortally wounded the Crow’s chief. He was very seriously wounded too and died shortly after the battle. Jumping Buffalo owned a herd of ponies and Sitting Bull liked to ride them a lot. Sitting Bull got his name, when he was a boy. Boys usually had a hunt for buffalo calves after their fathers’ buffalo hunt was over. Sitting Bull and his friends were pursuing calves on their pretend hunt, when one big calf charged toward Sitting Bull. His pony threw him to the ground but Sitting Bull did not get scared even though the calf was about to stomp on him. He grabbed the calf by the ears and managed to subdue him into a sitting position. All his friends cheered him and gave him the name “Sitting Bull.” Sitting Bull was fearless, stubborn, sarcastic and quick witted. Once he made up his mind it was almost impossible to make him to change it. “Inside of me there are two dogs. One is mean and evil and the other is good and they fight each other all the time. When asked which one wins I answer, the one I feed the most.” During a battle with Assiniboine Indians he took a boy captive, saving his life. He adopted him and treated him like a brother. Later in his life Sitting Bull became a patriotic speaker, who was able to unite, to inspire, and lead his people. His adopted brother proudly fought in his place during battles. In 1863 Sitting Bull supported Sioux, who were considered outlaws and who fled from Minnesota. They killed many white settlers after enduring lots of injustice and were seeking refuge and help with the Unkpapa people. Subsequently, many fugitives and outlaws, including two half-breed instigators of rebellions in Canada, found shelter with Sitting Bull’s tribe. After listening to their stories of mistreatment and discrimination, Sitting Bull became very wary towards Americans. Over the years Sitting Bull became more and more resentful and distrustful towards the white people, as more land had been taken away from Indians. After the treaty was signed in 1868, which granted the Sioux indisputable rights for their land, his attitudes changed. Together with other chiefs, such as Red Cloud and Spotted Tail he went to Washington D.C. and met with President Grant in the White House. When this treaty was broken he was deeply disappointed and spoke with his tribe about white people’s greed for gold, broken promises, and their hypocrisy. The Sioux, as a nation, had completely different values, such as appreciation for the land they lived on. The way, which white people lived and his values could not be reconciled. When the last treaty was broken Sitting Bull took up arms to protect his homeland, the Black Hills, the Bighorn Mountains and the hunting grounds, which Lakota shared with Cheyenne. He made patriotic speeches to his tribesmen and led them into battle. “Hear me people: We have now to deal with another race – small and feeble when our fathers first met them, but now great and overbearing. Strangely enough they have a mind to till the soil and the love of possession is a disease with them. These people have made many rules that the rich may break but the poor may not. They take their tithes from the poor and weak to support the rich and those who rule.” After the battle on the Little Bighorn River, Sitting Bull led his people to Canada, where they got refuge, but not food. Buffalo were almost all hunted out and his people were starving. Finally Sitting Bull with the rest of his band surrendered at the Fort Buford agency in North Dakota in 1881. “For us, warriors are not what you think of as warriors. The warrior is not someone who fights, because no one has the right to take another life. The warrior, for us, is one who sacrifices himself for the good of others. His task is to take care of the elderly, the defenseless, those who can not provide for themselves, and above all, the children, the future of humanity.” He hoped for freedom and justice for his people. An invitation to Washington D.C. on behalf of President Grant was still open to him. Instead he was arrested and put in prison. Later, authorities gave him to “Buffalo Bill” Cody to perform in Bill’s “Wild West Show.” After a few years with the Buffalo Bill show Sitting Bull settled in the Standing Rock Reservation in North Dakota where the rest of his band lived. In 1890 a religious movement called “Ghost Dance” was started by a half-breed Indian in Nevada, who considered himself a prophet. This movement became popular among different Indian tribes in many reservations, including Standing Rock. When asked by authorities, ghost dancers did not want to give away the name of the prophet. The authorities suspected Siting Bull as an instigator because he had never been obedient. On December 15, 1890, early in the morning, a group of local police, backed by U.S. troops came to his home. Not suspecting anything, Sitting Bull went out and saw that his home was surrounded by the police. His adopted brother shot a lieutenant, who apprehended Sitting Bull, and the shot started a fight. As a result, six policemen and six Sioux were killed, including Sitting Bull, his adopted brother and his young son Crow Foot. “I wish it to be remembered that I was the last man of my tribe to surrender my rifle.” Two great Cheyenne chiefs, Dull Knife and Little Wolf, led the Cheyenne into battles to support the Sioux in their fight for their common hunting grounds, the Black Hills and the Bighorn Mountains. The Sioux decided to fight for their land to death. In 1876 the Cheyenne were forced to move to Oklahoma where malaria and malnutrition killed many of them. Both chiefs led the Cheyenne on a great escape from Oklahoma to Dakota. The army pursued them during their march and they fought back while keeping their pace. But the Cheyenne tried to be ahead of the troops to avoid fights and bloodshed as much as possible. A band led by Little Wolf settled in Sand Hills and enjoyed an undisturbed peaceful life and an abundance of game for hunting for a while. Later they moved to Montana and then to Pine Ridge. Finally, they were forced to move to Lane Deer, Montana. Dull Knife, after he and his band split with Little Wolf at Running Water, headed towards the Red Cloud agency. He and his people were captured near Fort Robinson, Nebraska and all men were imprisoned. The women managed to smuggle guns, ammunition and knifes into prison, hidden in clothing and moccasins. When the men broke from prison, women with children joined them. They decided to die together. They fought till the last bullet was shot and then stood up in the open. Most of them were killed. Dull Knife escaped with his family and made a run to the Sioux Pine Ridge agency in South Dakota. Eventually, he settled in the Cheyenne Reservation in Rosebud Valley and died in 1883. The ownership of the Black Hills region is still in dispute. There are no valid records of purchase of this region by the U.S. government from the Sioux tribe. There is only an Act as of February, 1877 according to which the land was taken away from Indians. The Sioux started a legal battle in 1920. In 1980, the Supreme Court ruled that the Sioux Nation would receive $ 106 million from the U.S. Government. The Sioux, however, refused to take money and stated that the decision of the Supreme Court is invalid on the basis of misrepresentation. They never signed a contract with a lawyer, who represented them in the Supreme Court. The money, designated to pay the Sioux for their land, is in a fund, collecting interest. But the Sioux don’t want to touch this money. They want their land back. In 2009 Barak Obama supported their decision to take back their land. The Sioux Nation and other tribes met with representatives of the United Nations. In 2012 the U.N. recommended that the U.S. government give back some of the land to the Native Americans. This includes the Black Hills region. What do you think? Will the Sioux get the Black Hills back? How would Deadwood look like if the land changes ownership? Legends of America. Kathy Weiser. 2017 Indian Heroes and Great Chieftains. Charles A. Eastman 1939. Edited by Kathy Weiser in 1918 The author Charles Eastman worked as a doctor at the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota. He was half Sioux and knew many of the chiefs personally. He graduated with a medical degree from Boston University School of Medicine in 1890 and began working in the Pine Ridge Reservation.	3,219	ENGLISH	1
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 Apr 1891 – 6 Dec 1956) BIOGRAPHIES, 17 Apr 2017 The Phule-Ambedkar Tradition: Working for Social Uplift in India 17 Apr 2017 – Many sections of contemporary India face injustice, victimization and inequalities, especially the economically poor. In addition, Dalits or the lower castes face social and economic discrimination. Similarly, the tribal populations (Adivasis) face not only poverty and oppression but also displacement from their homes and villages as a result of the various development activities going on – building of roads, railway lines, mining activities, construction of hospitals or dams etc which force them to be displaced from their homes. Although there are government policies for poverty alleviation and rehabilitation of both the Dalits as well as the Adivasis, the benefits of these policies do not reach these affected populations or if they do, they only reach small sections of these populations. On a positive note, we know that some well meaning and dedicated persons are troubled by the discrimination faced by the lower caste peoples and decide to do something to ameliorate their conditions. Among the many stalwarts such as Gokhale and Bal Tilak that Maharashtra produced in the 19th and 20th centuries Jotirao Phule and B R Ambedkar stand out for their understanding of the problems of depressed classes of Indians (now known as Dalits) and the concerted efforts made by both for their emancipation and upliftment. They not only wrote extensively on these issues but struggled and worked tirelessly to improve their lot. Their thrust was on making people aware of the discrimination faced by Dalits and emphasised the role of education towards this end. Both struggled for justice and equality of the oppressed peoples of India and are today recognised for their crusading spirit against the discrimination and victimisation suffered by them. Their determination and struggle is generally termed as The Phule-Ambedkar Tradition. Although Jotirao Phule (1827-1890) and B R Ambedkar (1891-1956) lived in different times which are at least two generations apart, there are many similarities as well as some differences both in their lives and in their approach to the problem of untouchability that they struggled against. However, Phule today is known as a regional leader while Ambedkar enjoys national status. The house Ambedkar lived in London has been acquired by the Govt. of India and a memorial is to be established there. Several statues of Ambedkar have been built and centres about his life and work are running in various places in India. A library named after him has been instituted in Symbiosis College in Pune. Phule’s statues also adorn some regions of Maharashtra including an inspiring one in Pune University now renamed as Savitribai Phule University after Jotirao Phule’s wife. Jotirao Phule studied only up to class X from a local Scottish Mission High School in 1847. On the other hand, Ambedkar graduated from Bombay University and studied economics and obtained his Ph.D. degrees both from London School of Economics (1923) and Columbia University (1927). He also studied law and was called to the Bar by Gray’s Inn. The educational backgrounds of the two are reflected in the fact that Phule wrote his books and representations and other propaganda material in Marathi language and Ambedkar in English. Phule’s family was largely illiterate but his grandfather and father prospered economically by selling flowers for weddings and other religious events. Since his father Govindrao served as a florist under the last of the Peshwa rulers in Poona, the family began to be called Phule and prospered economically and socially. Jotirao saw oppression — social and economic that lower castes (called shudras or atishudras) faced regularly. He himself faced humiliation when he went to attend the marriage of a Brahmin friend of his. This led him to try to understand why these lower castes people were facing injustice and neglect and subsequently to work for their emancipation. Since his father was reasonably successful Jotirao did not face any financial difficulties. This and his love for education motivated him to establish a girls’ school in 1848 for the depressed classes – (present word is Dalit or Harijan as Gandhi called them). Jotirao first taught his wife and then both of them started teaching the children in this school. His father Govindrao was unhappy with his son’s activities and afraid that this would cause social unrest in his upper caste community. He asked his son to leave his home. Jotirao determined to continue his efforts for spreading education among the atishudras. Despite the opposition and threats to his life, he opened another school for all castes in 1851 and another in 1855 for working people. He also allowed the Dalits to take water from the water tank in his house despite the risk he was facing from the bhadralok (the upper castes). Another revolutionary action taken by him a few years later was his campaign for widow remarriage. Jotirao continued with several other activities in line with his conviction of uplifting the Dalits. He wrote an essay Shivaji Powada, and another serious work against slavery called Gulamgiri in 1873. He established Satyashodak Samaj (Society for Seekers of Truth). He also stressed the importance of prohibition. But for Phule education was of prime importance. He firmly believed that education would lead to wisdom and enlightenment that is essential for bringing about social justice and equality especially for the downtrodden people including women. For these efforts he was nominated to the Municipal Council of Poona in 1876. Considering that he had faced severe opposition to his activities for the promotion of welfare of the oppressed people, it was a grand gesture by the Poona Council to publicly confer on him the title of Mahatma in 1888. Not only was he working and agitating for values that Gandhi subsequently followed it is amazing that he also was conferred the same honor as Gandhi. Jotirao’s health began to fail. But he continued writing; the last book that he wrote Sarvaajanik Satya Dharma Pustak (Book of True Faith) was published a year after his death in 1890. What was Phule’s attitude towards the British rulers? He was strongly opposed to the behaviour of the Poona Brahmins towards the lower castes. In his own simplistic way based on his limited understanding of the British rule, Phule felt that the condition of Dalits under the British would be better since they could get job opportunities to work in factories and in the British army. The economy was opening up in that period and many untouchables were able to escape the tyranny of the village by availing of these opportunities. They felt that their lives were less oppressive under British than under the local administration. Since Jotirao had studied under a Missionary school and felt that his ideas had developed as a result of his schooling, he felt that education was the best instrument for the emancipation of the lower castes. B R Ambedkar had seen the oppression faced by the lower castes–the so called untouchables–first hand in his place of birth in Mhow in MP. He was aware of the struggles of Phule to bring about social justice and liberation of the oppressed masses of Maharashtra and was inspired by Phule’s writings on the subject. Subsequently he wrote extensively about the injustice and discrimination faced by the lower castes whom he called Dalits. Being a good student Ambedkar did well in his studies and also received a scholarship to continue higher education both in India and abroad. He returned to India although he got a few offers to stay on in England or USA after completing his doctoral theses from these universities. Soon after his return in 1927 he started agitating against untouchability by public movements to allow the untouchables to use the common water wells and to draw water from the main water tank. He also led movements to allow these people to enter Hindu temples. The local pundits opposed this movement asserting that this was ordained by the ancient Hindu text Manusmriti, Ambedkar vehemently opposed the teaching of this text. He also criticized the philosophy of Hinduism through his prolific writings and speeches. He wrote a small booklet on this topic that clearly stated why he opposed Hinduism. According to him “India is still par excellence a land of idolatry. There is idolatry in religion and in politics. Heroes and hero worship is a hard if unfortunate fact in India’s political life. Hero worship is demoralizing for the devotee and dangerous for the country”. Ambedkar started thinking of leaving this faith and converting to some other religion. He first thought of Sikhism but ultimately he along with his followers converted to Buddhism in Nagpur in October 1956. He finished writing a manuscript on the new faith The Buddha and His Dhamma but soon after that died in December 1956. Like Phule, Ambedkar has also written several books and pamphlets on the issue of discrimination and injustice suffered by Dalits and other depressed peoples. One of his important books on the subject is Annihilation of Caste (1939). He also started a society called Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha to propoagate his views and to bring about changes in peoples’ minds. He stressed social freedom for Dalits and said “So long as you do not achieve social liberty, whatever freedom is provided by the law is of no avail to you.” The depressed classes are now divided into SCs (Dalits) and STs (Scheduled Tribes). These people have been provided many benefits by the Indian government including reservations in all elections and in education, Father of the Constitution Today Ambedkar enjoys a cult position in the Indian society by his unrelenting efforts at working for justice and respect for the Dalit community and by his forceful writing. But more significant is the fact that he was Chairman of the drafting Committee of the Indian constitution that has through several articles provided legal framework for the benefit of the SCs and STs (Dalit community and the Scheduled tribes). Many people accord him the status of Father of the Constitution.Many Indian politicians and scholars openly adore him and his policies and have built several statues and memorials in his name. There are also a few universities named after him. He was posthumously awarded India’s highest civilian award of Bharat Ratna in 1990. Both his birth centenary in 1991 and his 125th anniversary in 2016 were celebrated with enthusiasm by the government of India and by his numerous followers. His birth anniversary (14 April) is celebrated as Ambedkar Jayanti. Ambedkar’s legacy continues to evolve in India. The 126th anniversary (14 April 2017) was celebrated by the President, Prime Minister of India and other dignitaries with great solemnity and fervour. To conclude we can say that the Indian government understands what needs to be done for the emancipation and welfare of our large population in terms of meeting basic needs of food, shelter, education, healthcare, employment and has framed suitable laws and provisions towards this end. Despite the innumerable difficulties, our government is leaving no stone unturned in involving the cross section of our people, including our aspiring youth to come together for the benefit of all. In the words of our Prime Minister “Sabka saath, sabka vikas (One and all, development for all”. Dr Ravi P Bhatia is a member of the TRANSCEND Network for Peace, Development and Environment, an educationist and peace researcher. Retired professor, Delhi University. firstname.lastname@example.org This article originally appeared on Transcend Media Service (TMS) on 17 Apr 2017. Anticopyright: Editorials and articles originated on TMS may be freely reprinted, disseminated, translated and used as background material, provided an acknowledgement and link to the source, TMS: Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 Apr 1891 – 6 Dec 1956), is included. Thank you. This work is licensed under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License. Click here to go to the current weekly digest or pick another article:	<urn:uuid:19012fa9-1ca0-4736-a587-4bd3a6026838>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.transcend.org/tms/2017/04/bhimrao-ramji-ambedkar-14-apr-1891-6-dec-1956/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00512.warc.gz	en	0.983477	2,581	3.796875	4	[ 0.28443092107772827, 0.5517539978027344, -0.13314419984817505, -0.10975299030542374, -0.37524861097335815, -0.007848268374800682, -0.20214757323265076, -0.09102368354797363, 0.0756080374121666, -0.0002985128667205572, -0.027273280546069145, -0.6301929950714111, -0.1542566418647766, 0.38237...	1	Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 Apr 1891 – 6 Dec 1956) BIOGRAPHIES, 17 Apr 2017 The Phule-Ambedkar Tradition: Working for Social Uplift in India 17 Apr 2017 – Many sections of contemporary India face injustice, victimization and inequalities, especially the economically poor. In addition, Dalits or the lower castes face social and economic discrimination. Similarly, the tribal populations (Adivasis) face not only poverty and oppression but also displacement from their homes and villages as a result of the various development activities going on – building of roads, railway lines, mining activities, construction of hospitals or dams etc which force them to be displaced from their homes. Although there are government policies for poverty alleviation and rehabilitation of both the Dalits as well as the Adivasis, the benefits of these policies do not reach these affected populations or if they do, they only reach small sections of these populations. On a positive note, we know that some well meaning and dedicated persons are troubled by the discrimination faced by the lower caste peoples and decide to do something to ameliorate their conditions. Among the many stalwarts such as Gokhale and Bal Tilak that Maharashtra produced in the 19th and 20th centuries Jotirao Phule and B R Ambedkar stand out for their understanding of the problems of depressed classes of Indians (now known as Dalits) and the concerted efforts made by both for their emancipation and upliftment. They not only wrote extensively on these issues but struggled and worked tirelessly to improve their lot. Their thrust was on making people aware of the discrimination faced by Dalits and emphasised the role of education towards this end. Both struggled for justice and equality of the oppressed peoples of India and are today recognised for their crusading spirit against the discrimination and victimisation suffered by them. Their determination and struggle is generally termed as The Phule-Ambedkar Tradition. Although Jotirao Phule (1827-1890) and B R Ambedkar (1891-1956) lived in different times which are at least two generations apart, there are many similarities as well as some differences both in their lives and in their approach to the problem of untouchability that they struggled against. However, Phule today is known as a regional leader while Ambedkar enjoys national status. The house Ambedkar lived in London has been acquired by the Govt. of India and a memorial is to be established there. Several statues of Ambedkar have been built and centres about his life and work are running in various places in India. A library named after him has been instituted in Symbiosis College in Pune. Phule’s statues also adorn some regions of Maharashtra including an inspiring one in Pune University now renamed as Savitribai Phule University after Jotirao Phule’s wife. Jotirao Phule studied only up to class X from a local Scottish Mission High School in 1847. On the other hand, Ambedkar graduated from Bombay University and studied economics and obtained his Ph.D. degrees both from London School of Economics (1923) and Columbia University (1927). He also studied law and was called to the Bar by Gray’s Inn. The educational backgrounds of the two are reflected in the fact that Phule wrote his books and representations and other propaganda material in Marathi language and Ambedkar in English. Phule’s family was largely illiterate but his grandfather and father prospered economically by selling flowers for weddings and other religious events. Since his father Govindrao served as a florist under the last of the Peshwa rulers in Poona, the family began to be called Phule and prospered economically and socially. Jotirao saw oppression — social and economic that lower castes (called shudras or atishudras) faced regularly. He himself faced humiliation when he went to attend the marriage of a Brahmin friend of his. This led him to try to understand why these lower castes people were facing injustice and neglect and subsequently to work for their emancipation. Since his father was reasonably successful Jotirao did not face any financial difficulties. This and his love for education motivated him to establish a girls’ school in 1848 for the depressed classes – (present word is Dalit or Harijan as Gandhi called them). Jotirao first taught his wife and then both of them started teaching the children in this school. His father Govindrao was unhappy with his son’s activities and afraid that this would cause social unrest in his upper caste community. He asked his son to leave his home. Jotirao determined to continue his efforts for spreading education among the atishudras. Despite the opposition and threats to his life, he opened another school for all castes in 1851 and another in 1855 for working people. He also allowed the Dalits to take water from the water tank in his house despite the risk he was facing from the bhadralok (the upper castes). Another revolutionary action taken by him a few years later was his campaign for widow remarriage. Jotirao continued with several other activities in line with his conviction of uplifting the Dalits. He wrote an essay Shivaji Powada, and another serious work against slavery called Gulamgiri in 1873. He established Satyashodak Samaj (Society for Seekers of Truth). He also stressed the importance of prohibition. But for Phule education was of prime importance. He firmly believed that education would lead to wisdom and enlightenment that is essential for bringing about social justice and equality especially for the downtrodden people including women. For these efforts he was nominated to the Municipal Council of Poona in 1876. Considering that he had faced severe opposition to his activities for the promotion of welfare of the oppressed people, it was a grand gesture by the Poona Council to publicly confer on him the title of Mahatma in 1888. Not only was he working and agitating for values that Gandhi subsequently followed it is amazing that he also was conferred the same honor as Gandhi. Jotirao’s health began to fail. But he continued writing; the last book that he wrote Sarvaajanik Satya Dharma Pustak (Book of True Faith) was published a year after his death in 1890. What was Phule’s attitude towards the British rulers? He was strongly opposed to the behaviour of the Poona Brahmins towards the lower castes. In his own simplistic way based on his limited understanding of the British rule, Phule felt that the condition of Dalits under the British would be better since they could get job opportunities to work in factories and in the British army. The economy was opening up in that period and many untouchables were able to escape the tyranny of the village by availing of these opportunities. They felt that their lives were less oppressive under British than under the local administration. Since Jotirao had studied under a Missionary school and felt that his ideas had developed as a result of his schooling, he felt that education was the best instrument for the emancipation of the lower castes. B R Ambedkar had seen the oppression faced by the lower castes–the so called untouchables–first hand in his place of birth in Mhow in MP. He was aware of the struggles of Phule to bring about social justice and liberation of the oppressed masses of Maharashtra and was inspired by Phule’s writings on the subject. Subsequently he wrote extensively about the injustice and discrimination faced by the lower castes whom he called Dalits. Being a good student Ambedkar did well in his studies and also received a scholarship to continue higher education both in India and abroad. He returned to India although he got a few offers to stay on in England or USA after completing his doctoral theses from these universities. Soon after his return in 1927 he started agitating against untouchability by public movements to allow the untouchables to use the common water wells and to draw water from the main water tank. He also led movements to allow these people to enter Hindu temples. The local pundits opposed this movement asserting that this was ordained by the ancient Hindu text Manusmriti, Ambedkar vehemently opposed the teaching of this text. He also criticized the philosophy of Hinduism through his prolific writings and speeches. He wrote a small booklet on this topic that clearly stated why he opposed Hinduism. According to him “India is still par excellence a land of idolatry. There is idolatry in religion and in politics. Heroes and hero worship is a hard if unfortunate fact in India’s political life. Hero worship is demoralizing for the devotee and dangerous for the country”. Ambedkar started thinking of leaving this faith and converting to some other religion. He first thought of Sikhism but ultimately he along with his followers converted to Buddhism in Nagpur in October 1956. He finished writing a manuscript on the new faith The Buddha and His Dhamma but soon after that died in December 1956. Like Phule, Ambedkar has also written several books and pamphlets on the issue of discrimination and injustice suffered by Dalits and other depressed peoples. One of his important books on the subject is Annihilation of Caste (1939). He also started a society called Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha to propoagate his views and to bring about changes in peoples’ minds. He stressed social freedom for Dalits and said “So long as you do not achieve social liberty, whatever freedom is provided by the law is of no avail to you.” The depressed classes are now divided into SCs (Dalits) and STs (Scheduled Tribes). These people have been provided many benefits by the Indian government including reservations in all elections and in education, Father of the Constitution Today Ambedkar enjoys a cult position in the Indian society by his unrelenting efforts at working for justice and respect for the Dalit community and by his forceful writing. But more significant is the fact that he was Chairman of the drafting Committee of the Indian constitution that has through several articles provided legal framework for the benefit of the SCs and STs (Dalit community and the Scheduled tribes). Many people accord him the status of Father of the Constitution.Many Indian politicians and scholars openly adore him and his policies and have built several statues and memorials in his name. There are also a few universities named after him. He was posthumously awarded India’s highest civilian award of Bharat Ratna in 1990. Both his birth centenary in 1991 and his 125th anniversary in 2016 were celebrated with enthusiasm by the government of India and by his numerous followers. His birth anniversary (14 April) is celebrated as Ambedkar Jayanti. Ambedkar’s legacy continues to evolve in India. The 126th anniversary (14 April 2017) was celebrated by the President, Prime Minister of India and other dignitaries with great solemnity and fervour. To conclude we can say that the Indian government understands what needs to be done for the emancipation and welfare of our large population in terms of meeting basic needs of food, shelter, education, healthcare, employment and has framed suitable laws and provisions towards this end. Despite the innumerable difficulties, our government is leaving no stone unturned in involving the cross section of our people, including our aspiring youth to come together for the benefit of all. In the words of our Prime Minister “Sabka saath, sabka vikas (One and all, development for all”. Dr Ravi P Bhatia is a member of the TRANSCEND Network for Peace, Development and Environment, an educationist and peace researcher. Retired professor, Delhi University. firstname.lastname@example.org This article originally appeared on Transcend Media Service (TMS) on 17 Apr 2017. Anticopyright: Editorials and articles originated on TMS may be freely reprinted, disseminated, translated and used as background material, provided an acknowledgement and link to the source, TMS: Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 Apr 1891 – 6 Dec 1956), is included. Thank you. This work is licensed under a CC BY-NC 4.0 License. Click here to go to the current weekly digest or pick another article:	2,624	ENGLISH	1
The Republican Roman army largely covers the period from the end of the Samnite Wars (290 BC) through to the end of the Social War (88 BC), with the main conflict of this time being referred to as the Punic Wars. Fought between Rome and Carthage from 264 BC to 146 BC, they were probably the largest wars that had ever taken place at that time. The expanding Roman Republic, initially via Sicily (which at that time was a cultural melting pot) led to a conflict of interest with Carthage. Rome being the dominant power of the Western Mediterranean was a rapidly growing in power throughout Italy, but it lacked the naval power of Carthage. By the end of the third Punic War, after more than a hundred years of fighting, Rome had conquered the empire of Carthage, completely destroyed the city, and become the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean.	<urn:uuid:2d27f5bc-316d-4988-83b7-14a3023d43fe>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://darkhorsehobbies.com/10mm-ancient-republican-roman-gaming-miniatures-557	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00537.warc.gz	en	0.980091	179	3.6875	4	[ -0.08519072085618973, 0.40717586874961853, 0.5719369053840637, -0.2093375325202942, -0.49901077151298523, -0.19008859992027283, -0.13999715447425842, 0.46458253264427185, -0.019080113619565964, -0.2975728213787079, 0.14113391935825348, -0.7233641147613525, 0.25610682368278503, 0.5772051811...	9	The Republican Roman army largely covers the period from the end of the Samnite Wars (290 BC) through to the end of the Social War (88 BC), with the main conflict of this time being referred to as the Punic Wars. Fought between Rome and Carthage from 264 BC to 146 BC, they were probably the largest wars that had ever taken place at that time. The expanding Roman Republic, initially via Sicily (which at that time was a cultural melting pot) led to a conflict of interest with Carthage. Rome being the dominant power of the Western Mediterranean was a rapidly growing in power throughout Italy, but it lacked the naval power of Carthage. By the end of the third Punic War, after more than a hundred years of fighting, Rome had conquered the empire of Carthage, completely destroyed the city, and become the most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean.	192	ENGLISH	1
One approved the Fenian invasion of Canada, the other brought peace to Northern Ireland, and both were impeached. The only two American presidents to be impeached until Donald Trump was, coincidentally, the two most involved of any American presidents in the issue of an American role in Ireland. Bill Clinton, of course, ignored the advice of the Washington establishment and many in his own party and plunged right into creating American involvement in the Irish peace process soon after taking office in 1992. He succeeded in spectacular fashion. The ultimate prize, the Good Friday Agreement of 1998, ended the conflict and was negotiated by Clinton’s peace emissary George Mitchell. A hundred and thirty years earlier, another southern politician had attempted to intervene in Ireland. Like Clinton, he saw political advantage in appealing to the Irish American vote. Andrew Johnson, Abraham Lincoln’s successor, had long been known as a supporter and defender of Catholicism when the governor of Tennessee, which ran counter to the prevailing sentiments about the Catholic religion. This made him popular with the Irish who were feeling the brunt of the anti-Catholic sentiment and suffering violence at the hands of the Know-Nothings, the vigilante wing of the Republican Party. Though Johnson was a Democrat, Lincoln had picked him as his Vice President in 1864 to help with the massive task of reconstruction in the south and to attract Catholics like the Irish. Lincoln had the wrong man. Though Johnson courageously opposed secession, he did not do so for any love of African Americans. In fact, he hated them and did his best, once he took over from Lincoln, to undermine their freedom so recently attained. White massacres of innocent black people went unpunished, the newly formed Ku Klux Klan came into being, rabidly anti-Black state overseers were appointed and Johnson became a hero in the old racist confederacy. The Radical Republican wing of the GOP hated Johnson for his vitriolic racism and immediately began to consider impeachment. The midterm elections in 1866 looked large for Johson, who was determined to be elected in his own right and further his supremacist vision of the South. Irish Americans constituted a key swing vote in the 1866 midterm elections and Johnson made every effort to reach out to them. In the aftermath of the Civil War, thousands of discharged Irish veterans decided an invasion of Canada to win back Ireland was the quickest way to ensure a free Ireland. June 1, 1866, was the date set for the invasion They found significant support. Britain, which governed Canada, had made clear its antagonism towards the union and support for the confederacy on the grounds that secession would weaken, if not finish off, upstart American influence. In the White House, Johnson was briefed on the imminent invasion which was reported in local papers in Buffalo, New York, where the Fenians had gathered even before the incursion began. Johnson anxious to win over Irish American voters, reportedly stated that the U.S. would "acknowledge accomplished facts," in the words of historian William D'Arcy when he was informed by the Fenian delegation about the group's vague intentions to seize territory in Canada. No official stance, however, was committed to writing. Still, if the Fenian invasion had somehow succeeded instead of fizzling out, it is quite likely Johnson would have approved. As it was the small Fenian force was hopelessly outgunned despite winning the first initial battle. Johnson lost heavily in the midterms and the Irish card no longer mattered. Instead, like Clinton generations later, he focused on saving himself from impeachment and removal from office. He survived in his senate trial by one vote.	<urn:uuid:e04790bc-6b8e-4894-bc57-48da17d56328>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.irishcentral.com/opinion/niallodowd/pro-irish-presidents-impeached	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00038.warc.gz	en	0.981703	754	3.265625	3	[ -0.16978994011878967, 0.2646487355232239, 0.34166043996810913, 0.14167898893356323, -0.30170953273773193, 0.09853935986757278, 0.4572559893131256, -0.30794212222099304, -0.16333869099617004, 0.06254306435585022, 0.0024823863059282303, 0.21153917908668518, 0.12158933281898499, 0.35802644491...	9	One approved the Fenian invasion of Canada, the other brought peace to Northern Ireland, and both were impeached. The only two American presidents to be impeached until Donald Trump was, coincidentally, the two most involved of any American presidents in the issue of an American role in Ireland. Bill Clinton, of course, ignored the advice of the Washington establishment and many in his own party and plunged right into creating American involvement in the Irish peace process soon after taking office in 1992. He succeeded in spectacular fashion. The ultimate prize, the Good Friday Agreement of 1998, ended the conflict and was negotiated by Clinton’s peace emissary George Mitchell. A hundred and thirty years earlier, another southern politician had attempted to intervene in Ireland. Like Clinton, he saw political advantage in appealing to the Irish American vote. Andrew Johnson, Abraham Lincoln’s successor, had long been known as a supporter and defender of Catholicism when the governor of Tennessee, which ran counter to the prevailing sentiments about the Catholic religion. This made him popular with the Irish who were feeling the brunt of the anti-Catholic sentiment and suffering violence at the hands of the Know-Nothings, the vigilante wing of the Republican Party. Though Johnson was a Democrat, Lincoln had picked him as his Vice President in 1864 to help with the massive task of reconstruction in the south and to attract Catholics like the Irish. Lincoln had the wrong man. Though Johnson courageously opposed secession, he did not do so for any love of African Americans. In fact, he hated them and did his best, once he took over from Lincoln, to undermine their freedom so recently attained. White massacres of innocent black people went unpunished, the newly formed Ku Klux Klan came into being, rabidly anti-Black state overseers were appointed and Johnson became a hero in the old racist confederacy. The Radical Republican wing of the GOP hated Johnson for his vitriolic racism and immediately began to consider impeachment. The midterm elections in 1866 looked large for Johson, who was determined to be elected in his own right and further his supremacist vision of the South. Irish Americans constituted a key swing vote in the 1866 midterm elections and Johnson made every effort to reach out to them. In the aftermath of the Civil War, thousands of discharged Irish veterans decided an invasion of Canada to win back Ireland was the quickest way to ensure a free Ireland. June 1, 1866, was the date set for the invasion They found significant support. Britain, which governed Canada, had made clear its antagonism towards the union and support for the confederacy on the grounds that secession would weaken, if not finish off, upstart American influence. In the White House, Johnson was briefed on the imminent invasion which was reported in local papers in Buffalo, New York, where the Fenians had gathered even before the incursion began. Johnson anxious to win over Irish American voters, reportedly stated that the U.S. would "acknowledge accomplished facts," in the words of historian William D'Arcy when he was informed by the Fenian delegation about the group's vague intentions to seize territory in Canada. No official stance, however, was committed to writing. Still, if the Fenian invasion had somehow succeeded instead of fizzling out, it is quite likely Johnson would have approved. As it was the small Fenian force was hopelessly outgunned despite winning the first initial battle. Johnson lost heavily in the midterms and the Irish card no longer mattered. Instead, like Clinton generations later, he focused on saving himself from impeachment and removal from office. He survived in his senate trial by one vote.	757	ENGLISH	1
The plant genus Trichilia (Meliaceae) as occurring in continental Africa was revised taxonomically. Eighteen species were distinguished. Each species was illustrated with a detailed drawing and distribution maps were given of each species in Africa.Botanical descriptions were made and supplemented with ecological and biological data, historical information and miscellaneous notes relevant to botanical research in its widest sense.The flowers in Trichilia were found to be most probably unisexual. Some problems of plant geography were indicated and some were solved. Amendments were made in the taxonomy of this very large, pantropical genus.Trichilia was shown to be of some importance because of its wood and because of its occurrence as a wide spread component of tropical high forest.The work was based on field observations, the study of herbarium material and on literature. The revision filled a long-standing gap in information on Trichilia. There are no comments yet. You can post the first one! Post a comment Please log in to use this service. Login as Wageningen University & Research user or guest user in upper right hand corner of this page.	<urn:uuid:f99e95d2-daa8-4098-b860-b8f54e415570>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/525734	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00444.warc.gz	en	0.980541	231	3.3125	3	[ 0.4158269464969635, 0.17947585880756378, 0.12298614531755447, -0.11400358378887177, 0.43404534459114075, -0.029603376984596252, -0.09498972445726395, 0.2540970742702484, -0.2996516227722168, 0.27132463455200195, 0.2262239307165146, -0.7392061352729797, 0.04150499030947685, -0.1994699984788...	1	The plant genus Trichilia (Meliaceae) as occurring in continental Africa was revised taxonomically. Eighteen species were distinguished. Each species was illustrated with a detailed drawing and distribution maps were given of each species in Africa.Botanical descriptions were made and supplemented with ecological and biological data, historical information and miscellaneous notes relevant to botanical research in its widest sense.The flowers in Trichilia were found to be most probably unisexual. Some problems of plant geography were indicated and some were solved. Amendments were made in the taxonomy of this very large, pantropical genus.Trichilia was shown to be of some importance because of its wood and because of its occurrence as a wide spread component of tropical high forest.The work was based on field observations, the study of herbarium material and on literature. The revision filled a long-standing gap in information on Trichilia. There are no comments yet. You can post the first one! Post a comment Please log in to use this service. Login as Wageningen University & Research user or guest user in upper right hand corner of this page.	222	ENGLISH	1
Kin Groups and Descent. Descent was bilateral with Social weight tending to favor patrilateral ties. Consanguineal and, perhaps, affinal kin were grouped in what have been referred to as kin congregations who worshiped their own tutelar deity at their group religious structure, referred to as a marae. Primogeniture was important in ranking within the kin congregation. While women were excluded from the marae of the large kin congregations, that was not always true for marae of smaller kin congregations. Kinship Terminology. The term matahiapo was applied to firstborn as well as all representatives of a family stock descended in the line of the firstborn. Teina was used to distinguish younger brothers, sisters, and cousins who were not matahiapo; otherwise, the Hawaiian type of kinship terminology was used.	<urn:uuid:b9c29dba-7def-4e91-835b-3b0a7a78f131>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.everyculture.com/Oceania/Tahiti-Kinship.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00220.warc.gz	en	0.986022	174	3.515625	4	[ 0.13674117624759674, 0.4033030867576599, -0.16907070577144623, -0.13320639729499817, -0.4586825370788574, 0.06188509613275528, -0.14789991080760956, 0.11164180189371109, 0.17810718715190887, 0.05475563928484917, 0.13298475742340088, -0.6238421201705933, 0.5840863585472107, 0.37877571582794...	2	Kin Groups and Descent. Descent was bilateral with Social weight tending to favor patrilateral ties. Consanguineal and, perhaps, affinal kin were grouped in what have been referred to as kin congregations who worshiped their own tutelar deity at their group religious structure, referred to as a marae. Primogeniture was important in ranking within the kin congregation. While women were excluded from the marae of the large kin congregations, that was not always true for marae of smaller kin congregations. Kinship Terminology. The term matahiapo was applied to firstborn as well as all representatives of a family stock descended in the line of the firstborn. Teina was used to distinguish younger brothers, sisters, and cousins who were not matahiapo; otherwise, the Hawaiian type of kinship terminology was used.	173	ENGLISH	1
Suffragette Emily Davison, jockey Herbert Jones, and Anmer, a horse owned by the King of England, lie on the track at the Epsom racecourse in England on June 4, 1913. Emily Wilding Davison was a militant fighter for women’s rights. Her tactics included breaking windows, throwing stones, setting fire to postboxes and, on three occasions, hiding overnight in the Palace of Westminster and going on hunger strikes seven times and was force-fed on forty-nine occasions. She was also a staunch socialist passionate Christian. In March 1909 she was arrested for the first time for leading a march of 21 women to see the prime minister. The march ended in a fracas with police, in which Davison was locked up for "assaulting the police in the execution of their duty" and sent to prison for a month. In July of 1909, Davison was arrested again for interrupting a public meeting from which women were barred, held by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George; she was sentenced to two months for obstruction. She went on hunger strike and was released after five and a half days. Following the first episode of forced feeding while in prison, and to prevent a repeat of the experience, Davison barricaded herself in her cell using her bed and a stool and refused to allow the prison authorities to enter. They broke one of the window panes to the cell and turned a fire hose on her for 15 minutes while attempting to force the door open. By the time the door was opened, the cell was six inches deep in water. She was taken to the prison hospital where she was warmed by hot water bottles. She was force-fed shortly afterward and released after eight days. Davison sued the prison authorities for the using the hose and in January 1910, she was awarded 40 shillings in damages. She was arrested again in September the same year for throwing stones to break windows at a political meeting. Sent to Strangeways prison for two months, she again went on a hunger strike and was released after two and a half days. Davison was arrested again in early October 1909, while preparing to throw a stone at the cabinet minister Sir Walter Runciman and was charged with attempted assault but released. In April 1910 Davison decided to gain entry to the floor of the House of Commons to ask h about the vote for women. She entered the Palace of Westminster with other members of the public and hid in the heating system overnight. On a trip from her hiding place to find water, she was arrested by a policeman, but not prosecuted. Shortly afterward she broke several windows in the Crown Office in parliament. She was arrested and sentenced to a month in prison, went on hunger strike again and was force-fed for eight days before being released. In December 1911 she was arrested for arson on the postbox outside parliament and admitted to setting fire to two others. Sentenced to six months in Holloway Prison. In June of 1912, she and other suffragette inmates barricaded themselves in their cells and went on hunger strike; the authorities broke down the cell doors and force-fed the strikers. Following the force-feeding, Davison decided to jump from one of the interior balconies of the prison. She cracked two vertebrae and badly injured her head. In November 1912 Davison was arrested for a final time, for attacking a Baptist minister with a horsewhip; she had mistaken the man for Lloyd George. She was sentenced to ten days' imprisonment and released early following a four-day hunger strike On the day in June 1913 that she was killed, Davison had run out on the track, perhaps to attach a women’s suffrage flag or banner to the kings horse and was literally run over. After colliding with Anmer, Davison collapsed unconscious on the track. The horse went over, but then rose, completing the race without a jockey. Davison died of her injuries a few days later; (fracture of the base of the skull) The horse and jockey were fine, although Jones did suffer a concussion. The incident was captured on three newsreel cameras and showed that the 40-year-old Davison, was not, as assumed at the time it happened, attempting to pull down Anmer, the royal racehorse, but was reaching up to attach a suffragette scarf to its bridle. Davison’s position before she stepped out on to the track would have given her a clear view of the oncoming race, contrary to the argument that she ran out recklessly to kill herself. At the inquest into Davison's death the coroner decided that, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, Davison had not committed suicide. The coroner also decided that, although she had waited until she could see the horses, "from the evidence it was clear that the woman did not make for His Majesty's horse in particular". A procession of 5,000 suffragettes and their supporters accompanied her coffin and 50,000 people lined the route through London as she was taken to be buried.	<urn:uuid:b5acc38d-d00d-4774-a579-b0f13cd2b3ee>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://mywriterssite.blogspot.com/2019_11_17_archive.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00422.warc.gz	en	0.986796	1,053	3.46875	3	[ -0.25493818521499634, 0.29320228099823, 0.17188405990600586, 0.3033221662044525, -0.06750188022851944, 0.30745261907577515, -0.021517567336559296, 0.2439095675945282, 0.20001640915870667, 0.24496951699256897, -0.048844870179891586, -0.1688355952501297, 0.035700395703315735, 0.0882638543844...	1	Suffragette Emily Davison, jockey Herbert Jones, and Anmer, a horse owned by the King of England, lie on the track at the Epsom racecourse in England on June 4, 1913. Emily Wilding Davison was a militant fighter for women’s rights. Her tactics included breaking windows, throwing stones, setting fire to postboxes and, on three occasions, hiding overnight in the Palace of Westminster and going on hunger strikes seven times and was force-fed on forty-nine occasions. She was also a staunch socialist passionate Christian. In March 1909 she was arrested for the first time for leading a march of 21 women to see the prime minister. The march ended in a fracas with police, in which Davison was locked up for "assaulting the police in the execution of their duty" and sent to prison for a month. In July of 1909, Davison was arrested again for interrupting a public meeting from which women were barred, held by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George; she was sentenced to two months for obstruction. She went on hunger strike and was released after five and a half days. Following the first episode of forced feeding while in prison, and to prevent a repeat of the experience, Davison barricaded herself in her cell using her bed and a stool and refused to allow the prison authorities to enter. They broke one of the window panes to the cell and turned a fire hose on her for 15 minutes while attempting to force the door open. By the time the door was opened, the cell was six inches deep in water. She was taken to the prison hospital where she was warmed by hot water bottles. She was force-fed shortly afterward and released after eight days. Davison sued the prison authorities for the using the hose and in January 1910, she was awarded 40 shillings in damages. She was arrested again in September the same year for throwing stones to break windows at a political meeting. Sent to Strangeways prison for two months, she again went on a hunger strike and was released after two and a half days. Davison was arrested again in early October 1909, while preparing to throw a stone at the cabinet minister Sir Walter Runciman and was charged with attempted assault but released. In April 1910 Davison decided to gain entry to the floor of the House of Commons to ask h about the vote for women. She entered the Palace of Westminster with other members of the public and hid in the heating system overnight. On a trip from her hiding place to find water, she was arrested by a policeman, but not prosecuted. Shortly afterward she broke several windows in the Crown Office in parliament. She was arrested and sentenced to a month in prison, went on hunger strike again and was force-fed for eight days before being released. In December 1911 she was arrested for arson on the postbox outside parliament and admitted to setting fire to two others. Sentenced to six months in Holloway Prison. In June of 1912, she and other suffragette inmates barricaded themselves in their cells and went on hunger strike; the authorities broke down the cell doors and force-fed the strikers. Following the force-feeding, Davison decided to jump from one of the interior balconies of the prison. She cracked two vertebrae and badly injured her head. In November 1912 Davison was arrested for a final time, for attacking a Baptist minister with a horsewhip; she had mistaken the man for Lloyd George. She was sentenced to ten days' imprisonment and released early following a four-day hunger strike On the day in June 1913 that she was killed, Davison had run out on the track, perhaps to attach a women’s suffrage flag or banner to the kings horse and was literally run over. After colliding with Anmer, Davison collapsed unconscious on the track. The horse went over, but then rose, completing the race without a jockey. Davison died of her injuries a few days later; (fracture of the base of the skull) The horse and jockey were fine, although Jones did suffer a concussion. The incident was captured on three newsreel cameras and showed that the 40-year-old Davison, was not, as assumed at the time it happened, attempting to pull down Anmer, the royal racehorse, but was reaching up to attach a suffragette scarf to its bridle. Davison’s position before she stepped out on to the track would have given her a clear view of the oncoming race, contrary to the argument that she ran out recklessly to kill herself. At the inquest into Davison's death the coroner decided that, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, Davison had not committed suicide. The coroner also decided that, although she had waited until she could see the horses, "from the evidence it was clear that the woman did not make for His Majesty's horse in particular". A procession of 5,000 suffragettes and their supporters accompanied her coffin and 50,000 people lined the route through London as she was taken to be buried.	1,089	ENGLISH	1
Editor's note: This is a new installment in Joy Odom's ongoing series on the Georgia Land Lottery. For preceding installments, click the history icon on the home page, or "columns," then "history," in the navigator above. For much of the information I have used in this article, credit must go to Mr..Paul Vance, the Dade County native and lover of history who annotated the 1850 census on which this article is based. Our county in 1850 was, not surprisingly, very agricultural and not very diverse. There were 1,246 white males here and 1,286 females for a total of 2,532. Adding the 148 slaves present, the total population was 2,680. In the mid-1800s in the United States, many of the northern states had begun to move heavily into manufacturing with the result that large cities were being formed in those areas with movements toward factory and shop work for the populace. But in Dade County, as in most of the South, the world consisted of small towns and farming communities and almost everyone farmed for a living. The cultural differences that developed between the two sections of the country as a result of this variation in lifestyles was already contributing to the schism that would result in the Civil War only a few years later. The Compromise of 1850, passed by Congress in the hope of avoiding war, had been signed into law about the time the U.S. Census was taken in 1850, so these differences were very much evident and on the minds of people across the country. In 1850, there were 235 farms in Dade. If that doesn’t seem like a large number for a population of 2,532, remember that there was little or no technology to agriculture in those days and everything was done by hand. It took a huge number of people to work a farm of sufficient size to support a family and maybe have a bit left to sell for profit. A look at the census shows exactly how families made this happen. It’s not at all unusual to find families made up of parents and 10 or more children, or of parents, their younger children, and one or more older married children who also lived with them and helped work the farm. In those days, you didn’t hire field hands - you raised them! The census also furnished a rundown of the crops people grew and how much they produced. Some of this data was not surprising: 147,849 bushels of corn, 17,965 bushels of oats, 2, 098 bushels of wheat--all food crops for people and animals, so very necessary. But I was amazed to also see 2,826 pounds of wool, 645 pounds of cheese, 4,510 pounds of honey and beeswax, 4,773 pounds of tobacco (which I thought was almost totally confined to south Georgia because of the growing requirements) and 63 pounds of rice. If you know anything about the requirements for growing rice, that’s a real eye-opener! Also interesting was the fact that Dade farmers grew 3,276 bushels of Irish potatoes but 12,257 of sweet potatoes. It didn’t take Dade farmers long to figure out that this is sweet potato country! In terms of the social services available in the county, they were relatively few. There were seven schools with seven teachers and 250 pupils. As you can tell, these were one-room schools where teachers taught all grade levels and the older kids helped the younger ones as the teacher worked with other groups. These were the old ”3R” schools, sometimes called “blab schools” because the children were encouraged to recite their lessons out loud. The schools taught just the basics of what folks thought was necessary to get along in the world at that time--a no-frills education. This is a picture of the old Trenton Academy. It was a "subscription" school. Attendance was paid for by the family of the student and the students often boarded in Trenton. This school was one of the first things incorporated in the city of Trenton. The original school was a log structure on the same spot. It was located near the current Masonic Lodge and the Trenton United Methodist Church. Another school listed on the census was designated an “academy,” which suggests to me that perhaps the academic standards might have been a bit higher--maybe including a little literature, some higher math, et cetera. But since there was one teacher for 60 pupils at the academy, I’m not sure how that poor instructor would have been able to achieve such goals. Of course, many children of that day got no formal education at all. There was no state school system and parents had to get together and set up schools, hire teachers and provide buildings themselves. Many could not afford this cost, so their children remained uneducated. Dade County in 1850 had one library; it was called a “Sunday School Library” which probably means it was housed in one of the local churches. It contained a total of 100 volumes which would have been very impressive at the time. It’s heartening to see that we have come a long way regarding schools and libraries since 1850! Note: Paul Vance was not a citizen of Dade but of Oklahoma. He was related to many old families in Dade and did graduate work in history at Georgia State. His graduate work and much of his other research related to Dade County and his countless genealogical connections. When last heard from he was in very poor health in the Southwest and residing with his great-grandchildren. Next time: Who was here in 1850 --where did they come from and what did they do?	<urn:uuid:f60a0192-903b-488f-99d6-05b8ca89300d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dadeplanet.com/single-post/2020/01/13/Dade-County-in-1850-Some-Surprises	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00129.warc.gz	en	0.988042	1,197	3.296875	3	[ -0.2406051754951477, 0.061513178050518036, 0.15637563169002533, -0.15778926014900208, 0.18918442726135254, -0.13785284757614136, -0.13123756647109985, -0.2158980816602707, -0.15436947345733643, 0.1023922935128212, 0.07122260332107544, 0.08774277567863464, -0.030411487445235252, 0.506613016...	3	Editor's note: This is a new installment in Joy Odom's ongoing series on the Georgia Land Lottery. For preceding installments, click the history icon on the home page, or "columns," then "history," in the navigator above. For much of the information I have used in this article, credit must go to Mr..Paul Vance, the Dade County native and lover of history who annotated the 1850 census on which this article is based. Our county in 1850 was, not surprisingly, very agricultural and not very diverse. There were 1,246 white males here and 1,286 females for a total of 2,532. Adding the 148 slaves present, the total population was 2,680. In the mid-1800s in the United States, many of the northern states had begun to move heavily into manufacturing with the result that large cities were being formed in those areas with movements toward factory and shop work for the populace. But in Dade County, as in most of the South, the world consisted of small towns and farming communities and almost everyone farmed for a living. The cultural differences that developed between the two sections of the country as a result of this variation in lifestyles was already contributing to the schism that would result in the Civil War only a few years later. The Compromise of 1850, passed by Congress in the hope of avoiding war, had been signed into law about the time the U.S. Census was taken in 1850, so these differences were very much evident and on the minds of people across the country. In 1850, there were 235 farms in Dade. If that doesn’t seem like a large number for a population of 2,532, remember that there was little or no technology to agriculture in those days and everything was done by hand. It took a huge number of people to work a farm of sufficient size to support a family and maybe have a bit left to sell for profit. A look at the census shows exactly how families made this happen. It’s not at all unusual to find families made up of parents and 10 or more children, or of parents, their younger children, and one or more older married children who also lived with them and helped work the farm. In those days, you didn’t hire field hands - you raised them! The census also furnished a rundown of the crops people grew and how much they produced. Some of this data was not surprising: 147,849 bushels of corn, 17,965 bushels of oats, 2, 098 bushels of wheat--all food crops for people and animals, so very necessary. But I was amazed to also see 2,826 pounds of wool, 645 pounds of cheese, 4,510 pounds of honey and beeswax, 4,773 pounds of tobacco (which I thought was almost totally confined to south Georgia because of the growing requirements) and 63 pounds of rice. If you know anything about the requirements for growing rice, that’s a real eye-opener! Also interesting was the fact that Dade farmers grew 3,276 bushels of Irish potatoes but 12,257 of sweet potatoes. It didn’t take Dade farmers long to figure out that this is sweet potato country! In terms of the social services available in the county, they were relatively few. There were seven schools with seven teachers and 250 pupils. As you can tell, these were one-room schools where teachers taught all grade levels and the older kids helped the younger ones as the teacher worked with other groups. These were the old ”3R” schools, sometimes called “blab schools” because the children were encouraged to recite their lessons out loud. The schools taught just the basics of what folks thought was necessary to get along in the world at that time--a no-frills education. This is a picture of the old Trenton Academy. It was a "subscription" school. Attendance was paid for by the family of the student and the students often boarded in Trenton. This school was one of the first things incorporated in the city of Trenton. The original school was a log structure on the same spot. It was located near the current Masonic Lodge and the Trenton United Methodist Church. Another school listed on the census was designated an “academy,” which suggests to me that perhaps the academic standards might have been a bit higher--maybe including a little literature, some higher math, et cetera. But since there was one teacher for 60 pupils at the academy, I’m not sure how that poor instructor would have been able to achieve such goals. Of course, many children of that day got no formal education at all. There was no state school system and parents had to get together and set up schools, hire teachers and provide buildings themselves. Many could not afford this cost, so their children remained uneducated. Dade County in 1850 had one library; it was called a “Sunday School Library” which probably means it was housed in one of the local churches. It contained a total of 100 volumes which would have been very impressive at the time. It’s heartening to see that we have come a long way regarding schools and libraries since 1850! Note: Paul Vance was not a citizen of Dade but of Oklahoma. He was related to many old families in Dade and did graduate work in history at Georgia State. His graduate work and much of his other research related to Dade County and his countless genealogical connections. When last heard from he was in very poor health in the Southwest and residing with his great-grandchildren. Next time: Who was here in 1850 --where did they come from and what did they do?	1,238	ENGLISH	1
The bombing of Kure and surrounding areas by United States and British naval aircraft in late July 1945 led to the sinking of most of the surviving large warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). The United States Third Fleet's attacks on Kure Naval Arsenal and nearby ports on 24, 25, and 28 July sank an aircraft carrier, three battleships, five cruisers, and several smaller warships. During the same period the British Pacific Fleet attacked other targets in the Inland Sea region and sank two escort ships and several smaller vessels as well as damaging an escort carrier. In July 1945 the IJN's remaining large warships were concentrated near the major naval base of Kure. The ships were effectively immobilized due to fuel shortages and were being used only as stationary anti-aircraft batteries. Admiral John S. McCain, Sr., the commander of the Fast Carrier Task Force, strongly opposed attacking Kure as he and his staff believed that the ships only posed a minor threat. In his memoirs Admiral Halsey gave four reasons for why he attacked Kure despite McCain's objections. Firstly, he believed that the attack would boost US morale and retaliate for the Attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, secondly it would ensure that the Japanese could not disrupt the planned Soviet invasion of Hokkaido, thirdly it would prevent Japan from using its fleet as a bargaining point to secure better peace terms and finally that he had been ordered to conduct the attack by his superior officer, Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz. Despite operating as a task group of the US Third Fleet, the British Pacific Fleet was excluded from the attack on Kure so that Britain would not be able to claim a part in destroying the Japanese fleet. The BPF was instead used to attack airfields and the port of Osaka. Kure had been subjected to several major attacks by B-29 Superfortress bombers of the United States Army Air Forces in 1945, prior to the US Navy's attack in late July. The Hiro Naval Aircraft Factory was successfully bombed on 5 May, naval mines were laid in the approaches to the port on 30 March and 5 May and 40 percent of the city was destroyed in a major air raid on 1 July. The Third Fleet's attack against Kure began on 24 July. US carrier aircraft flew 1,747 sorties on this day against Japanese targets. The attacks were successful, and resulted in the sinking of aircraft carrier Amagi, and the cruiser Ōyodo, which at this time was acting as the Combined Fleet's flagship. The battleships Hyūga, Ise, and Haruna, the heavy cruisers Tone and Aoba, and the old armored training cruisers Iwate and Izumo were all heavily damaged and settled in shallow water. The shallow anchorage precluded the use of torpedos. The US aircraft attempted to reduce their losses from the large number of anti-aircraft guns in the area by the use of variable time-fused bombs. US strikes against Kure resumed on 28 July and resulted in the further damaging of the battleships Ise and Haruna, and the heavy cruiser Aoba. The aircraft carrier Katsuragi which had largely escaped attack in the earlier raid, and the unserviceable light aircraft carrier Ryūhō were attacked, with Katsuragi suffering heavy damage. These air strikes were among the largest conducted by the US Navy during the war, and were the most destructive of shipping. The USAAF also launched an attack of the Japanese ships at Kure on 28 July. This raid was made up of 79 B-24 Liberators based on Okinawa. Four bomb hits were made upon the beached cruiser Aoba. The bomb strikes further damaged the vessel, and caused her stern to be broken off. The raid suffered the loss of two B-24s shot down and 14 others suffered damage. Allied losses included 102 aircrew and 133 planes lost in combat or accidents during the attacks. These losses were higher than those suffered by the Third Fleet in most of its operations, and were the result of the heavy anti-aircraft defences around Kure. The Allied attacks on Kure and the inland sea left the Nagato at Yokosuka as the only remaining capital ship in Japan's inventory. The destruction of her battleships and heavy cruisers at Kure was seen by British official historian Stephen Roskill as avenging the losses suffered by the United States at Pearl Harbor. The attacks allowed the Soviet Pacific Fleet to operate without fear of interdiction in the Sea of Japan.	<urn:uuid:748c7006-7481-451e-bd96-671e0f548561>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://military.wikia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Kure_(July_1945)	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00546.warc.gz	en	0.982574	923	3.59375	4	[ -0.033592209219932556, 0.06390239298343658, 0.009170975536108017, -0.4143106937408447, 0.4901348948478699, 0.21085259318351746, -0.03152340278029442, 0.4027906060218811, -0.19930359721183777, -0.05678928643465042, 0.0917230099439621, -0.18536067008972168, -0.08585384488105774, 0.3606912493...	1	The bombing of Kure and surrounding areas by United States and British naval aircraft in late July 1945 led to the sinking of most of the surviving large warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). The United States Third Fleet's attacks on Kure Naval Arsenal and nearby ports on 24, 25, and 28 July sank an aircraft carrier, three battleships, five cruisers, and several smaller warships. During the same period the British Pacific Fleet attacked other targets in the Inland Sea region and sank two escort ships and several smaller vessels as well as damaging an escort carrier. In July 1945 the IJN's remaining large warships were concentrated near the major naval base of Kure. The ships were effectively immobilized due to fuel shortages and were being used only as stationary anti-aircraft batteries. Admiral John S. McCain, Sr., the commander of the Fast Carrier Task Force, strongly opposed attacking Kure as he and his staff believed that the ships only posed a minor threat. In his memoirs Admiral Halsey gave four reasons for why he attacked Kure despite McCain's objections. Firstly, he believed that the attack would boost US morale and retaliate for the Attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, secondly it would ensure that the Japanese could not disrupt the planned Soviet invasion of Hokkaido, thirdly it would prevent Japan from using its fleet as a bargaining point to secure better peace terms and finally that he had been ordered to conduct the attack by his superior officer, Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz. Despite operating as a task group of the US Third Fleet, the British Pacific Fleet was excluded from the attack on Kure so that Britain would not be able to claim a part in destroying the Japanese fleet. The BPF was instead used to attack airfields and the port of Osaka. Kure had been subjected to several major attacks by B-29 Superfortress bombers of the United States Army Air Forces in 1945, prior to the US Navy's attack in late July. The Hiro Naval Aircraft Factory was successfully bombed on 5 May, naval mines were laid in the approaches to the port on 30 March and 5 May and 40 percent of the city was destroyed in a major air raid on 1 July. The Third Fleet's attack against Kure began on 24 July. US carrier aircraft flew 1,747 sorties on this day against Japanese targets. The attacks were successful, and resulted in the sinking of aircraft carrier Amagi, and the cruiser Ōyodo, which at this time was acting as the Combined Fleet's flagship. The battleships Hyūga, Ise, and Haruna, the heavy cruisers Tone and Aoba, and the old armored training cruisers Iwate and Izumo were all heavily damaged and settled in shallow water. The shallow anchorage precluded the use of torpedos. The US aircraft attempted to reduce their losses from the large number of anti-aircraft guns in the area by the use of variable time-fused bombs. US strikes against Kure resumed on 28 July and resulted in the further damaging of the battleships Ise and Haruna, and the heavy cruiser Aoba. The aircraft carrier Katsuragi which had largely escaped attack in the earlier raid, and the unserviceable light aircraft carrier Ryūhō were attacked, with Katsuragi suffering heavy damage. These air strikes were among the largest conducted by the US Navy during the war, and were the most destructive of shipping. The USAAF also launched an attack of the Japanese ships at Kure on 28 July. This raid was made up of 79 B-24 Liberators based on Okinawa. Four bomb hits were made upon the beached cruiser Aoba. The bomb strikes further damaged the vessel, and caused her stern to be broken off. The raid suffered the loss of two B-24s shot down and 14 others suffered damage. Allied losses included 102 aircrew and 133 planes lost in combat or accidents during the attacks. These losses were higher than those suffered by the Third Fleet in most of its operations, and were the result of the heavy anti-aircraft defences around Kure. The Allied attacks on Kure and the inland sea left the Nagato at Yokosuka as the only remaining capital ship in Japan's inventory. The destruction of her battleships and heavy cruisers at Kure was seen by British official historian Stephen Roskill as avenging the losses suffered by the United States at Pearl Harbor. The attacks allowed the Soviet Pacific Fleet to operate without fear of interdiction in the Sea of Japan.	976	ENGLISH	1
Impressionism was a movement that occurred in both art and poetry. It was a time in which the people broke from the traditional standards or styles. They wanted to bring new ways of expressing their ideas to their societies. These ideas were seen through subjects of interest, such as art and poetry. Claude Monet’s Woman with a Parasol: Madame Monet and Her Son and William Butler Yeats’s “The Wild Swans at Coole” both characterize important aspects of the Impressionist Age. The word “impressionism” is mostly associated with the artistic movement. The first time this term was used with reference to art was when one writer was speaking of a painting by Claude Monet, called Impression: Sunrise (1872, Musee Marmottan, Paris). The term was first officially used in 1877 (“Impressionism”). The artists of this movement were characterized as impressionists because of their simplified works (“Monet, Claude Oscar”). They were part of a group in which the artists shared similar styles and techniques between 1867 and 1886. Some of the important artists were Monet, Renoir, Pisarro, Sisley, Morisot, as well as a few others (Pioch). Monet and Renoir both painted scenes of La Grenouillere. Their work signified the beginning of this new age of art (Mataev). The Impressionist Movement grew because these painters wanted a different style, a new technique, and paintings with more unique subjects. The popular paintings of the time were all approved by the Academie des Beaux Arts. The standard type of paintings that were most commonly approved included a scale of tones for forming shapes and blacks and browns for making shadows. These classical paintings were realistic, usually of scenes indoors. Impressionists turned from this traditional art and began to paint their subjects outside, using unarranged light. These paintings were more spur-of-the-moment type, and appeared less realistically (“Impressionism”). There are certain characteristics that set impressionist art apart from all other styles of art. Impressionists, both in art and poetry, portrayed great images of their subjects by using their styles or techniques. They often captured scenes with vivid color, with great light effects, and with motion (Sporre 525). The impressionist painters tried to view their subjects not as what they really were, but as different areas of color, shapes and light. They commonly used quick, free brush strokes of non-detailed spots of color. This method created a lively appearance (Sporre 527). Impressionists did not mix their colors, as the earlier artists had done.	<urn:uuid:2d269874-9cb7-4123-be6e-3c3d0e1d8bff>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nsucurrent.com/the-impressionist-movement/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00005.warc.gz	en	0.981792	567	4.375	4	[ 0.2645854949951172, 0.03573709726333618, 0.2606857419013977, 0.29352515935897827, -0.33281412720680237, 0.2858775854110718, 0.3249165415763855, -0.07829469442367554, -0.1256307065486908, -0.17939119040966034, -0.0006707877619192004, 0.09543858468532562, 0.09018763899803162, 0.2510142922401...	2	Impressionism was a movement that occurred in both art and poetry. It was a time in which the people broke from the traditional standards or styles. They wanted to bring new ways of expressing their ideas to their societies. These ideas were seen through subjects of interest, such as art and poetry. Claude Monet’s Woman with a Parasol: Madame Monet and Her Son and William Butler Yeats’s “The Wild Swans at Coole” both characterize important aspects of the Impressionist Age. The word “impressionism” is mostly associated with the artistic movement. The first time this term was used with reference to art was when one writer was speaking of a painting by Claude Monet, called Impression: Sunrise (1872, Musee Marmottan, Paris). The term was first officially used in 1877 (“Impressionism”). The artists of this movement were characterized as impressionists because of their simplified works (“Monet, Claude Oscar”). They were part of a group in which the artists shared similar styles and techniques between 1867 and 1886. Some of the important artists were Monet, Renoir, Pisarro, Sisley, Morisot, as well as a few others (Pioch). Monet and Renoir both painted scenes of La Grenouillere. Their work signified the beginning of this new age of art (Mataev). The Impressionist Movement grew because these painters wanted a different style, a new technique, and paintings with more unique subjects. The popular paintings of the time were all approved by the Academie des Beaux Arts. The standard type of paintings that were most commonly approved included a scale of tones for forming shapes and blacks and browns for making shadows. These classical paintings were realistic, usually of scenes indoors. Impressionists turned from this traditional art and began to paint their subjects outside, using unarranged light. These paintings were more spur-of-the-moment type, and appeared less realistically (“Impressionism”). There are certain characteristics that set impressionist art apart from all other styles of art. Impressionists, both in art and poetry, portrayed great images of their subjects by using their styles or techniques. They often captured scenes with vivid color, with great light effects, and with motion (Sporre 525). The impressionist painters tried to view their subjects not as what they really were, but as different areas of color, shapes and light. They commonly used quick, free brush strokes of non-detailed spots of color. This method created a lively appearance (Sporre 527). Impressionists did not mix their colors, as the earlier artists had done.	556	ENGLISH	1
Nepal's history dates back to the time of the Gopalas and Mahishapalas who are believed to have been the earliest rulers of the valley with their capital at Matatirtha, the south-west corner of Kathmandu Valley. They were ousted by the Kirantis around the 7th or 8th Century B.C. The Kirantis are said to have ruled the valley for many centuries following their victory. Their famous King Yalumber is even mentioned in the ‘Mahabharata’ as he is said to have led his troops to the epic battle. Then around 300 A.D. the Lichhavis arrived from northern India and overthrew the Kirantis. One of the legacies of the Lichhavis is the Changu Narayan Temple near Bhaktapur, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (Culture), which dates back to the 4th Century. In the early 7th Century, their King Amshuvarma, married off his daughter Bhrikuti to the famous Tibetan King Tsong Tsen Gampo, thus establishing good relations with Tibet. The Lichhavis brought art and architecture to the valley but the golden age of creativity arrived in 1200 A.D after the Mallas conquered them. During their 550 year rule, the Mallas built remarkable temples and artistically designed palaces with picturesque squares filled with woodcarvings and metal works. It was also during their rule that the valley society and the cities became well organized; spectacular religious festivals were introduced and literature, music, art and drama were encouraged. After the death of King Yaksha Malla, the valley was divided into three kingdoms: Kathmandu (Kantipur), Bhaktapur (Bhadgaon) and Patan (Lalitpur). At the time, Nepal as we know it today was divided into 46 independent principalities. One among these was the kingdom of Gorkha ruled by a Shah king. Much of Kathmandu Valley’s history around this time was recorded by Capuchin friars from Italy who lived in the valley on their way in and out of Tibet. An ambitious Gorkha King named Prithvi Narayan Shah embarked on a conquering mission that led to the defeat of all the kingdoms in the valley including Kirtipur.by 1769. Instead of annexing the newly acquired states to his kingdom of Gorkha, Prithvi Narayan decided to move his capital to Kathmandu, thus establishing the Shah dynasty which ruled unified Nepal from the late 18th century to 2008. The Gorkha state dates back to 1559 when Dravya Shah established his kingdom in a land predominated by Gurung and Magar people. During the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Gorkha kingdom was slowly expanding, conquering some neighbouring states while forging alliances with others. Eventually it was Prithvi Narayan Shah who led his troops to the Kathmandu Valley. After a long struggle, he defeated all the valley kings and established his palace in Kathmandu leaving Gorkha for good. Recognizing the threat of the British Raj in India, he banished European missionaries from the country and for more than a century, Nepal remained closed to the outside world. During the mid-19th Century Jung Bahadur Rana rose to power as Nepal’s first Prime Minister, becoming more powerful than the Shah King he was supposed to serve under. The king became a mere figurehead and Jung Bahadur started a hereditary reign of the Rana Prime Ministers that lasted for 104 years. In 1950, the Ranas were overthrown in an uprising to bring democracy in the country with strong support from the-then monarch of Nepal, King Tribhuvan. Soon after the overthrow of the Ranas, King Tribhuvan was reinstated as the Head of the State. In early 1959, Tribhuvan’s son King Mahendra issued a new constitution, and the first democratic elections for a national assembly were held. The Nepali Congress Party was victorious and their leader, Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala (popularly known as B.P.) formed a government and served as Prime Minister. But this government didn’t last long as King Mahendra decided to dissolve Parliament in 1960, and introduced a one party ‘Panchayat’ rule. The Panchayat system lasted until 1990, when a popular people’s movement led by the political parties that had been banned by the government which until then had been known as ‘His Majesty’s Government’, gave way to democracy. The long struggle paid off when King Birendra accepted constitutional reforms and established a multiparty parliament with himself as the Head of State and an executive Prime Minister under him. In May 1991, Nepal held its first parliamentary elections. In February 1996, the Maoist parties declared a People’s War against monarchy and the elected government. Then on 1st June 2001, a horrific tragedy wiped out the entire royal family of Nepal including King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya along with most of their closest relatives. With only King Birendra’s brother, Gyanendra and his family surviving, he was crowned king. King Gyanendra abided by the elected government’s rule for a short time, but then dismissed the elected Parliament to wield absolute power. In April 2006, another People’s Movement was launched jointly by the democratic parties focusing on Kathmandu, which led to a 19-day curfew imposed by the king. With the movement not cowering down and ignoring even the curfew, King Gyanendra eventually relinquished his power and reinstated Parliament. On 21st November 2006, Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala and Maoist Chairman Prachanda signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) 2006, committing to democracy and peace for the progress of the country and people. The king was removed and the decade long Maoist war on the state came to an end. A Constituent Assembly election was held on 10th April 2008. And on 28th May 2008, the newly elected Constituent Assembly declared Nepal a Federal Democratic Republic, abolishing the 240 year-old monarchy. Nepal today has a President as Head of State and a constitutionally elected Prime Minister heading the Government.	<urn:uuid:dac13516-5687-48f5-ae41-8425541eed5b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.welcomenepal.com/plan-your-trip/history.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00358.warc.gz	en	0.980902	1,301	3.3125	3	[ 0.05918252840638161, 0.5690671801567078, 0.27485892176628113, 0.03881806507706642, -0.7269582748413086, 0.08435707539319992, 0.21677236258983612, -0.18743576109409332, 0.03752036392688751, 0.16946007311344147, -0.013784471899271011, -0.5085510015487671, 0.2692633867263794, 0.16164730489253...	9	Nepal's history dates back to the time of the Gopalas and Mahishapalas who are believed to have been the earliest rulers of the valley with their capital at Matatirtha, the south-west corner of Kathmandu Valley. They were ousted by the Kirantis around the 7th or 8th Century B.C. The Kirantis are said to have ruled the valley for many centuries following their victory. Their famous King Yalumber is even mentioned in the ‘Mahabharata’ as he is said to have led his troops to the epic battle. Then around 300 A.D. the Lichhavis arrived from northern India and overthrew the Kirantis. One of the legacies of the Lichhavis is the Changu Narayan Temple near Bhaktapur, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (Culture), which dates back to the 4th Century. In the early 7th Century, their King Amshuvarma, married off his daughter Bhrikuti to the famous Tibetan King Tsong Tsen Gampo, thus establishing good relations with Tibet. The Lichhavis brought art and architecture to the valley but the golden age of creativity arrived in 1200 A.D after the Mallas conquered them. During their 550 year rule, the Mallas built remarkable temples and artistically designed palaces with picturesque squares filled with woodcarvings and metal works. It was also during their rule that the valley society and the cities became well organized; spectacular religious festivals were introduced and literature, music, art and drama were encouraged. After the death of King Yaksha Malla, the valley was divided into three kingdoms: Kathmandu (Kantipur), Bhaktapur (Bhadgaon) and Patan (Lalitpur). At the time, Nepal as we know it today was divided into 46 independent principalities. One among these was the kingdom of Gorkha ruled by a Shah king. Much of Kathmandu Valley’s history around this time was recorded by Capuchin friars from Italy who lived in the valley on their way in and out of Tibet. An ambitious Gorkha King named Prithvi Narayan Shah embarked on a conquering mission that led to the defeat of all the kingdoms in the valley including Kirtipur.by 1769. Instead of annexing the newly acquired states to his kingdom of Gorkha, Prithvi Narayan decided to move his capital to Kathmandu, thus establishing the Shah dynasty which ruled unified Nepal from the late 18th century to 2008. The Gorkha state dates back to 1559 when Dravya Shah established his kingdom in a land predominated by Gurung and Magar people. During the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Gorkha kingdom was slowly expanding, conquering some neighbouring states while forging alliances with others. Eventually it was Prithvi Narayan Shah who led his troops to the Kathmandu Valley. After a long struggle, he defeated all the valley kings and established his palace in Kathmandu leaving Gorkha for good. Recognizing the threat of the British Raj in India, he banished European missionaries from the country and for more than a century, Nepal remained closed to the outside world. During the mid-19th Century Jung Bahadur Rana rose to power as Nepal’s first Prime Minister, becoming more powerful than the Shah King he was supposed to serve under. The king became a mere figurehead and Jung Bahadur started a hereditary reign of the Rana Prime Ministers that lasted for 104 years. In 1950, the Ranas were overthrown in an uprising to bring democracy in the country with strong support from the-then monarch of Nepal, King Tribhuvan. Soon after the overthrow of the Ranas, King Tribhuvan was reinstated as the Head of the State. In early 1959, Tribhuvan’s son King Mahendra issued a new constitution, and the first democratic elections for a national assembly were held. The Nepali Congress Party was victorious and their leader, Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala (popularly known as B.P.) formed a government and served as Prime Minister. But this government didn’t last long as King Mahendra decided to dissolve Parliament in 1960, and introduced a one party ‘Panchayat’ rule. The Panchayat system lasted until 1990, when a popular people’s movement led by the political parties that had been banned by the government which until then had been known as ‘His Majesty’s Government’, gave way to democracy. The long struggle paid off when King Birendra accepted constitutional reforms and established a multiparty parliament with himself as the Head of State and an executive Prime Minister under him. In May 1991, Nepal held its first parliamentary elections. In February 1996, the Maoist parties declared a People’s War against monarchy and the elected government. Then on 1st June 2001, a horrific tragedy wiped out the entire royal family of Nepal including King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya along with most of their closest relatives. With only King Birendra’s brother, Gyanendra and his family surviving, he was crowned king. King Gyanendra abided by the elected government’s rule for a short time, but then dismissed the elected Parliament to wield absolute power. In April 2006, another People’s Movement was launched jointly by the democratic parties focusing on Kathmandu, which led to a 19-day curfew imposed by the king. With the movement not cowering down and ignoring even the curfew, King Gyanendra eventually relinquished his power and reinstated Parliament. On 21st November 2006, Prime Minister Girija Prasad Koirala and Maoist Chairman Prachanda signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) 2006, committing to democracy and peace for the progress of the country and people. The king was removed and the decade long Maoist war on the state came to an end. A Constituent Assembly election was held on 10th April 2008. And on 28th May 2008, the newly elected Constituent Assembly declared Nepal a Federal Democratic Republic, abolishing the 240 year-old monarchy. Nepal today has a President as Head of State and a constitutionally elected Prime Minister heading the Government.	1,368	ENGLISH	1
Children are constantly awash in a world of brightly colored toys and clothing designed to pique their visual interest from their infancy through childhood. Learning to differentiate between these shades is a huge developmental milestone, but when do toddlers learn colors? It feels essential that they recognize their bright red overalls as bright red, or that marker they've been sleeping with for three weeks as the perfect shade of yellow, right? Like almost all of the major developmental milestones, it will happen in its own time, but there is a range that is considered average. Board-certified developmental and behavioral pediatrician Dr. Eboni Hollier from Houston, Texas tells Romper, "Around 18 months of age, many toddlers begin to recognize colors." That's not to say that they're suddenly going to be strolling through Target with you, demanding that you buy them the turquoise socks instead of the green ones (that comes later). Hollier says, "It is typically a bit later that toddlers are able to name colors. Most children can name at least one color by the age of 3 years." Even between my own children, there was a pretty vast difference between when they each learned their colors. My son was able to group and name colors from the moment he developed the language to do so. Meanwhile, my daughter took her time, and instead of naming colors would group them together. Even at a very early age, she had a hierarchy of colors that she liked. (Turquoise and purple: yay. Green and orange: get thee away.) She was almost 3 before she found the words for them. Since then, my life has been an expensive comedy of errors due to her excessive need for everything to match head-to-foot, but other than that, she had no problems catching up with her brother. Hollier says that's because "the time that many children experience a 'language explosion' is between 18 to 30 months of age," and that it "is a great time to begin teaching many concepts, including colors." Melanie Hartmann, a former Head Start assessment psychologist, agrees with Hollier, telling Romper that most children "begin to name their first colors by 2.5 years of age" during that language explosion. If they learn to differentiate and name colors a little later than that, it doesn't mean that it's time to worry. Researchers wrote in Scientific American that, inevitably, parents want to compare their children to others, and if they notice that their children aren't developing as swiftly as others, they worry that there is something wrong. But it couldn't be further from the truth. While it is the case that if your child is falling outside average parameters there might be cause for concern (such as color blindness or a language delay), most of the time, it's nothing to worry about. Color identification, according to the article, is a unique monster. Where there are ways to help children speak a little sooner, read a little sooner, learn math a little more quickly, Scientific American wrote that there is no way to move this along. It has to do with the complex system of how children learn words and language, as well as develop the visual acuity required to learn to differentiate between each color. It can be influenced by myriad factors, including languages spoken in the house, and the culture and community in which children are raised. The concept is so difficult that it makes sense that children would need time to figure it all out. It is easy to believe that noting and noticing color differences is intuitive and natural, but that's not the case. If you're worried about your child, definitely talk to their pediatrician, but chances are, it's all fine, and you, too, will be figuring out how to special order soccer socks in just the right shade of banana yellow to match their jersey. Dr. Eboni Hollier, Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrician Melanie Hartmann, former Head Start assessment psychologist	<urn:uuid:1716ff67-1602-447d-aaaf-9bee8302d88d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.romper.com/p/when-do-toddlers-learn-colors-experts-say-theres-not-a-hard-rule-19437581	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00425.warc.gz	en	0.980696	808	3.53125	4	[ -0.334845632314682, -0.15891993045806885, 0.014741262421011925, 0.08664632588624954, -0.35745328664779663, 0.39345043897628784, 0.1748264878988266, -0.04878251999616623, -0.16447827219963074, -0.07915213704109192, 0.437073290348053, 0.16379839181900024, 0.13859324157238007, 0.4394800364971...	7	Children are constantly awash in a world of brightly colored toys and clothing designed to pique their visual interest from their infancy through childhood. Learning to differentiate between these shades is a huge developmental milestone, but when do toddlers learn colors? It feels essential that they recognize their bright red overalls as bright red, or that marker they've been sleeping with for three weeks as the perfect shade of yellow, right? Like almost all of the major developmental milestones, it will happen in its own time, but there is a range that is considered average. Board-certified developmental and behavioral pediatrician Dr. Eboni Hollier from Houston, Texas tells Romper, "Around 18 months of age, many toddlers begin to recognize colors." That's not to say that they're suddenly going to be strolling through Target with you, demanding that you buy them the turquoise socks instead of the green ones (that comes later). Hollier says, "It is typically a bit later that toddlers are able to name colors. Most children can name at least one color by the age of 3 years." Even between my own children, there was a pretty vast difference between when they each learned their colors. My son was able to group and name colors from the moment he developed the language to do so. Meanwhile, my daughter took her time, and instead of naming colors would group them together. Even at a very early age, she had a hierarchy of colors that she liked. (Turquoise and purple: yay. Green and orange: get thee away.) She was almost 3 before she found the words for them. Since then, my life has been an expensive comedy of errors due to her excessive need for everything to match head-to-foot, but other than that, she had no problems catching up with her brother. Hollier says that's because "the time that many children experience a 'language explosion' is between 18 to 30 months of age," and that it "is a great time to begin teaching many concepts, including colors." Melanie Hartmann, a former Head Start assessment psychologist, agrees with Hollier, telling Romper that most children "begin to name their first colors by 2.5 years of age" during that language explosion. If they learn to differentiate and name colors a little later than that, it doesn't mean that it's time to worry. Researchers wrote in Scientific American that, inevitably, parents want to compare their children to others, and if they notice that their children aren't developing as swiftly as others, they worry that there is something wrong. But it couldn't be further from the truth. While it is the case that if your child is falling outside average parameters there might be cause for concern (such as color blindness or a language delay), most of the time, it's nothing to worry about. Color identification, according to the article, is a unique monster. Where there are ways to help children speak a little sooner, read a little sooner, learn math a little more quickly, Scientific American wrote that there is no way to move this along. It has to do with the complex system of how children learn words and language, as well as develop the visual acuity required to learn to differentiate between each color. It can be influenced by myriad factors, including languages spoken in the house, and the culture and community in which children are raised. The concept is so difficult that it makes sense that children would need time to figure it all out. It is easy to believe that noting and noticing color differences is intuitive and natural, but that's not the case. If you're worried about your child, definitely talk to their pediatrician, but chances are, it's all fine, and you, too, will be figuring out how to special order soccer socks in just the right shade of banana yellow to match their jersey. Dr. Eboni Hollier, Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrician Melanie Hartmann, former Head Start assessment psychologist	802	ENGLISH	1
Squanto Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Birth Place : Squanto was born circa 1585. He also goes by the name Tisquantum. Squanto came from the Native American Patuxet tribe. He is famous for his role as an interpreter and guide between the Mayflower Pilgrims and the native people of Southern England. Squanto took up the position when the two populations settled at his former village. In 1614, Squanto found himself in Spain after Thomas Hunt, an English explorer had kidnapped and sold him. Scholarly sources say that Squanto reined as one the few captives that had a focus on education and evangelism. Squanto would later travel back to his homeland and find his whole community wiped out by an epidemic infection. Squanto was born circa 1585. Very little is known about Squanto's life prior to his engagement with the Europeans. Although he is believed to have to have gone into the hands of his captors in his twenties or thirties. Sources say that Squanto's capture by Captain George Weymouth took place around 1605. George had the orders of Plymouth Company owner Sir Ferdinando Gorges Weymouth to traverse the coast of Maine. It is during this scouting that Squanto alongside four other Penobscots got into the hands of his captors. An Interpreter For The Pilgrims In 1614, after Squanto had mastered the English language, he traveled back to his homeland. He was in the company of English explorer John Smith, probably as a guide. It is then that Thomas Hunt, a British explorer captured Squanto and sold him in Spain as a slave. Squanto managed to escape from slavery and returned home in 1620. Unfortunately, he found his tribe wiped out by smallpox. As a result, he had to live with the nearby tribe, Wampanoags. Squanto's role as an interpreter came in March 1621 mainly because he could speak English. For close to twenty months, he worked as an advisor, guide and a translator who lived with the Pilgrims. Squanto died circa November 1622 in Chatham, Massachusetts. His death came as a result of a fever. During this time, he was working as a guide for Governor William Bradford. Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo Vasco da Gama Edward Hammond Hargraves Henry Morton Stanley	<urn:uuid:6b25bcf7-b6c9-4b75-b03a-bc961d18093c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/squanto/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00466.warc.gz	en	0.988195	506	3.5	4	[ 0.265178918838501, 0.21420718729496002, 0.5742964744567871, -0.17237913608551025, 0.036046117544174194, -0.32378485798835754, 0.3625502288341522, 0.08306490629911423, -0.191103994846344, -0.17261791229248047, -0.14445410668849945, -0.5574095249176025, 0.15466228127479553, 0.378668069839477...	1	Squanto Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Birth Place : Squanto was born circa 1585. He also goes by the name Tisquantum. Squanto came from the Native American Patuxet tribe. He is famous for his role as an interpreter and guide between the Mayflower Pilgrims and the native people of Southern England. Squanto took up the position when the two populations settled at his former village. In 1614, Squanto found himself in Spain after Thomas Hunt, an English explorer had kidnapped and sold him. Scholarly sources say that Squanto reined as one the few captives that had a focus on education and evangelism. Squanto would later travel back to his homeland and find his whole community wiped out by an epidemic infection. Squanto was born circa 1585. Very little is known about Squanto's life prior to his engagement with the Europeans. Although he is believed to have to have gone into the hands of his captors in his twenties or thirties. Sources say that Squanto's capture by Captain George Weymouth took place around 1605. George had the orders of Plymouth Company owner Sir Ferdinando Gorges Weymouth to traverse the coast of Maine. It is during this scouting that Squanto alongside four other Penobscots got into the hands of his captors. An Interpreter For The Pilgrims In 1614, after Squanto had mastered the English language, he traveled back to his homeland. He was in the company of English explorer John Smith, probably as a guide. It is then that Thomas Hunt, a British explorer captured Squanto and sold him in Spain as a slave. Squanto managed to escape from slavery and returned home in 1620. Unfortunately, he found his tribe wiped out by smallpox. As a result, he had to live with the nearby tribe, Wampanoags. Squanto's role as an interpreter came in March 1621 mainly because he could speak English. For close to twenty months, he worked as an advisor, guide and a translator who lived with the Pilgrims. Squanto died circa November 1622 in Chatham, Massachusetts. His death came as a result of a fever. During this time, he was working as a guide for Governor William Bradford. Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo Vasco da Gama Edward Hammond Hargraves Henry Morton Stanley	520	ENGLISH	1
· Rajas of Mahajanapadas: (i) They became rajas by performing very big sacrifices where people accepted their supremacy. (ii) They had capital city, which were fortified. They also had large armies. Rajas in Rigveda: (i) The rulers was chosen by the jana i.e., the people. (ii) They did not have a capital city, places, armies. Also, they did not collect taxes. Enrich Your Learning: The sixteen Mahajanapadas · The Mahajanapadas were a set of sixteen kingdoms that existed in ancient India. · When the tribes (janas) of the late Vedic period decided to form their own territorial communities, it eventually gave rise to new and permanent areas of settlements called ‘states’ or ‘janapadas.’ · Some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas. · Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti were amongst the most important mahajanapadas. · While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies, where power was shared by a number of men, often collectively called rajas. · Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to such ganas. · The Vajji sangha, the rajas probably controlled resources such as land collectively. · Although their histories are often difficult to reconstruct due to the lack of sources, some of these states lasted for nearly a thousand years. · Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified. · Maintaining these fortified cities as well as providing for incipient armies and bureaucracies required resources. · Rulers were advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders and artisans. · Raids on neighbouring states were recognised as a legitimate means of acquiring wealth. · Gradually, some states acquired standing armies and maintained regular bureaucracies. Others continued to depend on militia, recruited, more often than not, from the peasantry.	<urn:uuid:7bdeda52-fcb0-4068-b7d3-f0c3baca092f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.iastoppers.com/day54-static-flash-cards-revision-70-days-war-plan/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00380.warc.gz	en	0.984979	460	4.03125	4	[ -0.04424383118748665, 0.5148117542266846, 0.11854767054319382, -0.07160021364688873, -0.04425670579075813, -0.00594570254907012, 0.3388864994049072, -0.12406875193119049, 0.2971731424331665, 0.3036380112171173, -0.008391223847866058, -0.3888871371746063, 0.14243365824222565, 0.414380162954...	2	· Rajas of Mahajanapadas: (i) They became rajas by performing very big sacrifices where people accepted their supremacy. (ii) They had capital city, which were fortified. They also had large armies. Rajas in Rigveda: (i) The rulers was chosen by the jana i.e., the people. (ii) They did not have a capital city, places, armies. Also, they did not collect taxes. Enrich Your Learning: The sixteen Mahajanapadas · The Mahajanapadas were a set of sixteen kingdoms that existed in ancient India. · When the tribes (janas) of the late Vedic period decided to form their own territorial communities, it eventually gave rise to new and permanent areas of settlements called ‘states’ or ‘janapadas.’ · Some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas. · Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti were amongst the most important mahajanapadas. · While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies, where power was shared by a number of men, often collectively called rajas. · Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to such ganas. · The Vajji sangha, the rajas probably controlled resources such as land collectively. · Although their histories are often difficult to reconstruct due to the lack of sources, some of these states lasted for nearly a thousand years. · Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified. · Maintaining these fortified cities as well as providing for incipient armies and bureaucracies required resources. · Rulers were advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders and artisans. · Raids on neighbouring states were recognised as a legitimate means of acquiring wealth. · Gradually, some states acquired standing armies and maintained regular bureaucracies. Others continued to depend on militia, recruited, more often than not, from the peasantry.	430	ENGLISH	1
By: Dr Sahib Mustaqim Bleher Moses is usually seen as the liberator as well as the law-giver for the Israelites. However, like all lives, his life is complex. There are numerous lessons and sources of inspiration in his teaching and actions, starting from his early days before he was even called to the Prophethood, until his final days when the Promised Land was barred to him and his people for their persistent disobedience. And [mention, O Muhammad], when Moses said to his people, “O my people, remember the favor of Allah upon you when He appointed among you prophets and made you possessors and gave you that which He had not given anyone among the worlds. O my people, enter the Holy Land which Allah has assigned to you and do not turn back [from fighting in Allah ‘s cause] and [thus] become losers.” They said, “O Moses, indeed within it is a people of tyrannical strength, and indeed, we will never enter it until they leave it; but if they leave it, then we will enter.” Said two men from those who feared [to disobey] upon whom Allah had bestowed favor, “Enter upon them through the gate, for when you have entered it, you will be predominant. And upon Allah rely, if you should be believers.” They said, “O Moses, indeed we will not enter it, ever, as long as they are within it; so go, you and your Lord, and fight. Indeed, we are remaining right here.” [Moses] said, “My Lord, indeed I do not possess except myself and my brother, so part us from the defiantly disobedient people.” [Allah] said, “Then indeed, it is forbidden to them for forty years [in which] they will wander throughout the land. So do not grieve over the defiantly disobedient people.” (Al-Ma’idah 5:20-26) Naturally, a brief treatise on the life of a great person like him must be limited to only some aspects chosen as relevant either for providing a better overview or some more interesting details whose importance is not merely historic but retains validity up to our own time. Moses grew up as the privileged young man destined to be a future ruler. Yet, he did identify with his people, either consciously through an understanding of his origins, or unwittingly through a more general sense of justice. When witnessing a fight between an Israelite and an Egyptian, he takes sides and helps the Israelite. The blow he gives the Egyptian was so powerful that it killed him, bringing immediate trouble to a remorseful Moses who did not expect his interference in the rights and wrongs of a dispute to have such lasting consequences. And he entered the city at a time of inattention by its people and found therein two men fighting: one from his faction and one from among his enemy. And the one from his faction called for help to him against the one from his enemy, so Moses struck him and [unintentionally] killed him. [Moses] said, “This is from the work of Satan. Indeed, he is a manifest, misleading enemy.” He said, “My Lord, indeed I have wronged myself, so forgive me,” and He forgave him. Indeed, He is the Forgiving, the Merciful. (Al-Qasas 28:15-16) It must have been a time of general turmoil in Egyptian society, for the very next day he encounters the man he saved involved in another quarrel and once again asking for his help. Moses hesitates and then, helped by the urging of third parties, decides to leave the city altogether, realizing that he would otherwise be tracked down and asked to account for what he had done. And he became inside the city fearful and anticipating [exposure], when suddenly the one who sought his help the previous day cried out to him [once again]. Moses said to him, “Indeed, you are an evident, [persistent] deviator.” And when he wanted to strike the one who was an enemy to both of them, he said, “O Moses, do you intend to kill me as you killed someone yesterday? You only want to be a tyrant in the land and do not want to be of the amenders.” And a man came from the farthest end of the city, running. He said, “O Moses, indeed the eminent ones are conferring over you [intending] to kill you, so leave [the city]; indeed, I am to you of the sincere advisors.” So he left it, fearful and anticipating [apprehension]. He said, “My Lord, save me from the wrongdoing people.” (Al-Qasas 28:18-21) A refugee and fugitive from a justice he knew would not be in his favor, Moses travelled as far as Midian, a territory around where Jordan and Saudi Arabia meet today and which was the home of another Prophet, Jethro (Shu’aib) from whom Moses would learn much to equip him for his eventual return to Egypt. At his arrival at Midian, a hungry and tired Moses felt compassion for two shepherd girls who had difficulty getting their flock to the watering place amidst all the male shepherds, so he offered to carry out that task for them. In return, their father invited him to his home where, after listening to his story, he offered him employment for a set number of years and marriage to one of his daughters. And when he came to the well of Madyan, he found there a crowd of people watering [their flocks], and he found aside from them two women driving back [their flocks]. He said, “What is your circumstance?” They said, “We do not water until the shepherds dispatch [their flocks]; and our father is an old man.” So he watered [their flocks] for them; then he went back to the shade and said, “My Lord, indeed I am, for whatever good You would send down to me, in need.” Then one of the two women came to him walking with shyness. She said, “Indeed, my father invites you that he may reward you for having watered for us.” So when he came to him and related to him the story, he said, “Fear not. You have escaped from the wrongdoing people.” One of the women said, “O my father, hire him. Indeed, the best one you can hire is the strong and the trustworthy.” He said, “Indeed, I wish to wed you one of these, my two daughters, on [the condition] that you serve me for eight years; but if you complete ten, it will be [as a favor] from you. And I do not wish to put you in difficulty. You will find me, if Allah wills, from among the righteous. (Al-Qasas 28:23-27)	<urn:uuid:3778c66f-d633-40f0-8e81-7ed7fb76401f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.islam.com.kw/moses-jesus-muhammad-three-men-one-mission-part-2-7/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00521.warc.gz	en	0.98444	1,496	3.546875	4	[ -0.502637505531311, 0.4821007251739502, -0.24114666879177094, -0.24284280836582184, -0.4194332957267761, -0.25695475935935974, 0.7932272553443909, -0.22709661722183228, -0.06973741948604584, 0.34948259592056274, -0.11928991973400116, -0.17760716378688812, 0.2612529993057251, 0.012184709310...	6	By: Dr Sahib Mustaqim Bleher Moses is usually seen as the liberator as well as the law-giver for the Israelites. However, like all lives, his life is complex. There are numerous lessons and sources of inspiration in his teaching and actions, starting from his early days before he was even called to the Prophethood, until his final days when the Promised Land was barred to him and his people for their persistent disobedience. And [mention, O Muhammad], when Moses said to his people, “O my people, remember the favor of Allah upon you when He appointed among you prophets and made you possessors and gave you that which He had not given anyone among the worlds. O my people, enter the Holy Land which Allah has assigned to you and do not turn back [from fighting in Allah ‘s cause] and [thus] become losers.” They said, “O Moses, indeed within it is a people of tyrannical strength, and indeed, we will never enter it until they leave it; but if they leave it, then we will enter.” Said two men from those who feared [to disobey] upon whom Allah had bestowed favor, “Enter upon them through the gate, for when you have entered it, you will be predominant. And upon Allah rely, if you should be believers.” They said, “O Moses, indeed we will not enter it, ever, as long as they are within it; so go, you and your Lord, and fight. Indeed, we are remaining right here.” [Moses] said, “My Lord, indeed I do not possess except myself and my brother, so part us from the defiantly disobedient people.” [Allah] said, “Then indeed, it is forbidden to them for forty years [in which] they will wander throughout the land. So do not grieve over the defiantly disobedient people.” (Al-Ma’idah 5:20-26) Naturally, a brief treatise on the life of a great person like him must be limited to only some aspects chosen as relevant either for providing a better overview or some more interesting details whose importance is not merely historic but retains validity up to our own time. Moses grew up as the privileged young man destined to be a future ruler. Yet, he did identify with his people, either consciously through an understanding of his origins, or unwittingly through a more general sense of justice. When witnessing a fight between an Israelite and an Egyptian, he takes sides and helps the Israelite. The blow he gives the Egyptian was so powerful that it killed him, bringing immediate trouble to a remorseful Moses who did not expect his interference in the rights and wrongs of a dispute to have such lasting consequences. And he entered the city at a time of inattention by its people and found therein two men fighting: one from his faction and one from among his enemy. And the one from his faction called for help to him against the one from his enemy, so Moses struck him and [unintentionally] killed him. [Moses] said, “This is from the work of Satan. Indeed, he is a manifest, misleading enemy.” He said, “My Lord, indeed I have wronged myself, so forgive me,” and He forgave him. Indeed, He is the Forgiving, the Merciful. (Al-Qasas 28:15-16) It must have been a time of general turmoil in Egyptian society, for the very next day he encounters the man he saved involved in another quarrel and once again asking for his help. Moses hesitates and then, helped by the urging of third parties, decides to leave the city altogether, realizing that he would otherwise be tracked down and asked to account for what he had done. And he became inside the city fearful and anticipating [exposure], when suddenly the one who sought his help the previous day cried out to him [once again]. Moses said to him, “Indeed, you are an evident, [persistent] deviator.” And when he wanted to strike the one who was an enemy to both of them, he said, “O Moses, do you intend to kill me as you killed someone yesterday? You only want to be a tyrant in the land and do not want to be of the amenders.” And a man came from the farthest end of the city, running. He said, “O Moses, indeed the eminent ones are conferring over you [intending] to kill you, so leave [the city]; indeed, I am to you of the sincere advisors.” So he left it, fearful and anticipating [apprehension]. He said, “My Lord, save me from the wrongdoing people.” (Al-Qasas 28:18-21) A refugee and fugitive from a justice he knew would not be in his favor, Moses travelled as far as Midian, a territory around where Jordan and Saudi Arabia meet today and which was the home of another Prophet, Jethro (Shu’aib) from whom Moses would learn much to equip him for his eventual return to Egypt. At his arrival at Midian, a hungry and tired Moses felt compassion for two shepherd girls who had difficulty getting their flock to the watering place amidst all the male shepherds, so he offered to carry out that task for them. In return, their father invited him to his home where, after listening to his story, he offered him employment for a set number of years and marriage to one of his daughters. And when he came to the well of Madyan, he found there a crowd of people watering [their flocks], and he found aside from them two women driving back [their flocks]. He said, “What is your circumstance?” They said, “We do not water until the shepherds dispatch [their flocks]; and our father is an old man.” So he watered [their flocks] for them; then he went back to the shade and said, “My Lord, indeed I am, for whatever good You would send down to me, in need.” Then one of the two women came to him walking with shyness. She said, “Indeed, my father invites you that he may reward you for having watered for us.” So when he came to him and related to him the story, he said, “Fear not. You have escaped from the wrongdoing people.” One of the women said, “O my father, hire him. Indeed, the best one you can hire is the strong and the trustworthy.” He said, “Indeed, I wish to wed you one of these, my two daughters, on [the condition] that you serve me for eight years; but if you complete ten, it will be [as a favor] from you. And I do not wish to put you in difficulty. You will find me, if Allah wills, from among the righteous. (Al-Qasas 28:23-27)	1,448	ENGLISH	1
Mob Victim : One Of The Untold Stories Lynching is an act of violence that took place in great numbers from the era of slavery to the times of the civil rights movements. The Webster s definition of lynch is to execute, extrasensory perception by hanging, without due process of law. Many innocent lives were taken because of the hatred that was accepted during the time that lynching was occurring at large. Between 1882 and 1900 more than a thousand people in the South were killed by whites who took the law into their own hands. Lynchings peaked 1892, and in all years the overwhelming majority of victims were black men, (Hodes 176). These victims had not always done something wrong or committed a heinous crime, the charge could have been wholly fabricated, and they were accused of many things. Acting suspiciously, gambling, quarreling, adultery, grave robbing, race hatred; race troubles, aiding a murderer, rape, arguing with a white man, resisting a mob, inflammatory language, informing, slander, being obnoxious, courting a white woman, throwing stones, demanding respect, mistaken identity, unpopularity, voodoism, trying to vote, and voting for the wrong party are just a few of the unjust reasons where whites felt it was their place to take the law into their own hands. Many mob victims were young black men who may have shown insufficient caution in avoiding situations that older blacks might have perceived as dangerous, (Brundage 81). The young men may have been able to avoid some of the situations that brought their lives to a premature end, but that does not mean that lynching should have been accepted. Lynching was a community event, notices might be printed in local papers, rail road companies might add extra cars or run special trains, and children might be given the day off from school to attend, (Hodes 176). Whites made lynchings a common activity for the average white family. The mobs, which were the murderers, made sure that the public heard the most vicious story about the victim in order to insure that there was no person that believed the act was unjust. These lynchings were held in public settings, in the public s eye, but there are missing records for lynched victims because the cause of death was recorded as unknown. Even as the newspapers published detailed accounts from the mouths of eyewitnesses, the coroner or his jury would name the cause of death as at the hands of persons unknown, (177). These victims soon became statistics, just numbers and dead bodies, which is why there are only documents about certain lynch incidents. The lynching of John Henry Williams is one of the murders that are not intensely researched, but Lois Mailou Jones took the time to represent his lynching in the remarkable piece entitled Mob Victim. In 1945 Lois Mailou Jones painted Mob Victim. It is a representation of the lynching of John Henry Williams, which occurred June 24, 1921. John Henry Williams is one of thousands of lynch victims. Williams was lynched for unknown reason and unjust severity. To be lynched may have included many severe things beyond being hung. The method of murder might include mutilation, castration, skinning, roasting, burning, hanging, and shooting, (177). Williams sang Nearer My God To Thee, a spiritual, while he was being tortured and about to be burned alive. Jones happened to come across a man on U Street in Washington, D.C. in shabby clothes with a certain look on his face. She was searching for a model for the Mob Victim and this man embodied the look that she wanted as well as the story of his brother John Henry Williams. This man witnessed the lynching of his brother by their boss man and posed as his brother for Jones painting. In order to capture the emotion of the model Jones uses many short strokes of watercolors. There is a great use of red, blue, yellow and green in the painting that mixes well to give the subject s skin a bronzed brown color which many African-Americans can relate with, instead of the subject being extremely black as many early paintings of black people are. This painting depicts Williams before the lynching occurs, so, if one did not know that a lynch victim is the purpose of the painting, one may believe that it is a head shot of a regular black man that is old and worried. The expression on Williams face is one that no one would forget. This impressive masterpiece, Mob Victim, would have never been completed if Lois Mailou Jones did not follow her passion for art. Lois Mailou Jones was born in Boston, Massachusetts, 1905. She studied at a plethora of schools, which included the Boston Normal Art School, the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Columbia University Teachers College and the Academie Julien in Paris. These are only a few of her educational triumphs. Jones attended the High School of Practical Arts in Boston where she was the art editor of the magazine. During her high school years Jones received a scholarship to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts vocational drawing class. From this point she was awarded a scholarship to go to the Boston Museum school of Fine Arts, where she majored in design. She later received a graduate scholarship for the Designers Art School of Boston to do textile designing for cretonnes. She also studied at the Massachusetts College of Art. From her design education she was able to become a drape designer for a large New York companies such as F.A. Foster Company and Schumacher s of New York, which baffled white store owners when she would stop in their store to point out her own design. The white people were unable to grasp the idea that a black woman could make such wonderful designs. This was reason enough for Jones to notice that she was not getting the recognition that she deserved, but the only possible way for her to receive her recognition was for her to paint. In 1929 she attended a lecture given by Charlotte Hawkins Brown, the founder of Palmer Memorial Institute, a junior college in Sedalia, North Carolina. She convinced Brown to allow her to start an art department at Palmer Memorial Institute. At Palmer, Jones did not only follow her dreams of spreading art by teaching art, she had many other jobs as well. Jones was the art teacher, the basketball coach, the folk dance teacher, and on Sunday she was the pianist for Sunday school. One year later James Vernon Herring, chairman and founder of the Department of Art at Howard University in Washington, D.C., recruited Jones to teach. Teaching at Howard University allowed her more time as a painter. The only obstacle in her way was her race. Her work was being rejected because of her race so she began entering her pieces incognito. She either shipped her paintings or had a white friend to drop them off. Even then, when her paintings won awards, the award was retracted when Jones showed up to accept it because of her race. As a result, she kept her background a secret and accumulated competitive awards from the National Academy of Design, the Philadelphia Academy and the Corcoran Gallery. Meta Warrick Fuller, a friend in Martha s Vineyard, where Jones spent her vacations enjoying nature, informed her that her work would be greatly appreciated abroad, where color would not hold her back. She was only 17 when she received this advice, but she remembered it when it came time for her first sabbatical at Howard University in 1937. She decided to travel to France. She received a General Education Board fellowship from Howard University to study at the Academie Julien in Paris. The scholarship took care of all her expenses, from tuition to studio rental. There, her work was received for showings at the Salon des Artistes Francais as well as exhibits at the Galerie de Paris. In Paris she mainly painted traditional French subjects, but one day she decided that she needed to be painting subjects that would be most important to her career. Jones would take her sketchbook to the museums and galleries to study the African masks and sculptures. Her painting Les Fetiches is considered by Jones to be a study of African Masks and quite abstract a portrayal, (Oda 1). Now this piece is in the permanent collection of the National Museum of American Art. When she returned to Howard University she met Dr. Alain Locke and he expressed to her that she needed to do more paintings about her heritage. This suggestion brought about her idea for Mob Victim. Mob Victim introduced her Alain Locke period. She remained at Howard University for 47 years. Throughout the decades she began traveling her first stop was Haiti, where she met and married Haitian artist Vergniaud Pierre-Noel in 1953. He died in 1982. By 1954 she was acknowledged and honored by the Washington Society of Artists as well as the Washington Watercolor Association. She began taking trips to Africa in 1969 and in 1970 she re-introduced her design sensibilities that she used when she was a student. She noticed that Haiti never lost their ties with mother Africa and she felt the same, which is reflected, in her international pan-African culture inspired works. The Diaspora is one piece of these inspired works, which she was honored for at New York City College. The Women s Caucus honored her for outstanding achievement as a woman artist for Art in 1986. It took time for Lois Mailou Jones work to be recognized, but the wait was worth it. Her work may be found in the Metropolitan Museum, Hirshborn Museum, the National Portrait Gallery, the Brooklyn Museum, Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the National Museum of American Art, and The Great Blacks in Wax Museum. Her former students have excelled in art because of her teachings and inspiration. These former students include print maker and sculptor Elizabeth Catlett, painters Malkia Roberts, Martha Jackson-Jarvis, Hiamatha Brown, Peter Robinson and Robert Freemen; painters/educators David Driskell and Mary Lovelace O Neil; and installation artists Houston Conwill and Rose Powhatan. Unfortunately Lois Mailou Jones died June 9, 1998 at the age of 92, but through her remarkable works and distinguished students, her creative spirit will carry on. Mob Victim by Lois Mailou Jones brings history and art together. This is something people will admire for years to come. Although times of lynching were not happy ones the African-American culture must continue to move forward towards a better day. It is best not to be so bitter and dwell on the past. The Memorial To The Martyrs Of Lynching, at The Great Blacks in Wax Museum, which is displayed in marble stone under Mob Victim, expresses this idea very eloquently. The memorial reads, As you leave this memorial, do not leave in despair. Think not of our suffering but of what we could have been liberators, builders, sages, or prophets, leading our people to the dawning of a new day. Most importantly, think of the unfinished work that you-the living-still must do, (The Great Blacks in Wax Museum). The power that those whom are living have is much greater than the hatred the living can store in their hearts from the past. Oda, Ken. Lois Mailou Jones On the Joys and Frustrations of Recognition Deferred accessed 11/29/00. Lois Mailou Jones and Her Former Students: An American Legacy accessed 11/29/00. Webster s II New Riverside Dictionary. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996.	<urn:uuid:fee35538-edcf-4058-ae28-f8805590e26c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://essay.ua-referat.com/Mob_Victim	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00287.warc.gz	en	0.980913	2,355	4.09375	4	[ 0.028245065361261368, -0.03427628427743912, 0.1670725792646408, 0.06987426429986954, 0.03840213268995285, -0.0384289026260376, 0.41668465733528137, -0.08742727339267731, 0.35907360911369324, 0.049689874053001404, 0.4858395755290985, 0.040624722838401794, -0.38201528787612915, -0.0452596470...	1	Mob Victim : One Of The Untold Stories Lynching is an act of violence that took place in great numbers from the era of slavery to the times of the civil rights movements. The Webster s definition of lynch is to execute, extrasensory perception by hanging, without due process of law. Many innocent lives were taken because of the hatred that was accepted during the time that lynching was occurring at large. Between 1882 and 1900 more than a thousand people in the South were killed by whites who took the law into their own hands. Lynchings peaked 1892, and in all years the overwhelming majority of victims were black men, (Hodes 176). These victims had not always done something wrong or committed a heinous crime, the charge could have been wholly fabricated, and they were accused of many things. Acting suspiciously, gambling, quarreling, adultery, grave robbing, race hatred; race troubles, aiding a murderer, rape, arguing with a white man, resisting a mob, inflammatory language, informing, slander, being obnoxious, courting a white woman, throwing stones, demanding respect, mistaken identity, unpopularity, voodoism, trying to vote, and voting for the wrong party are just a few of the unjust reasons where whites felt it was their place to take the law into their own hands. Many mob victims were young black men who may have shown insufficient caution in avoiding situations that older blacks might have perceived as dangerous, (Brundage 81). The young men may have been able to avoid some of the situations that brought their lives to a premature end, but that does not mean that lynching should have been accepted. Lynching was a community event, notices might be printed in local papers, rail road companies might add extra cars or run special trains, and children might be given the day off from school to attend, (Hodes 176). Whites made lynchings a common activity for the average white family. The mobs, which were the murderers, made sure that the public heard the most vicious story about the victim in order to insure that there was no person that believed the act was unjust. These lynchings were held in public settings, in the public s eye, but there are missing records for lynched victims because the cause of death was recorded as unknown. Even as the newspapers published detailed accounts from the mouths of eyewitnesses, the coroner or his jury would name the cause of death as at the hands of persons unknown, (177). These victims soon became statistics, just numbers and dead bodies, which is why there are only documents about certain lynch incidents. The lynching of John Henry Williams is one of the murders that are not intensely researched, but Lois Mailou Jones took the time to represent his lynching in the remarkable piece entitled Mob Victim. In 1945 Lois Mailou Jones painted Mob Victim. It is a representation of the lynching of John Henry Williams, which occurred June 24, 1921. John Henry Williams is one of thousands of lynch victims. Williams was lynched for unknown reason and unjust severity. To be lynched may have included many severe things beyond being hung. The method of murder might include mutilation, castration, skinning, roasting, burning, hanging, and shooting, (177). Williams sang Nearer My God To Thee, a spiritual, while he was being tortured and about to be burned alive. Jones happened to come across a man on U Street in Washington, D.C. in shabby clothes with a certain look on his face. She was searching for a model for the Mob Victim and this man embodied the look that she wanted as well as the story of his brother John Henry Williams. This man witnessed the lynching of his brother by their boss man and posed as his brother for Jones painting. In order to capture the emotion of the model Jones uses many short strokes of watercolors. There is a great use of red, blue, yellow and green in the painting that mixes well to give the subject s skin a bronzed brown color which many African-Americans can relate with, instead of the subject being extremely black as many early paintings of black people are. This painting depicts Williams before the lynching occurs, so, if one did not know that a lynch victim is the purpose of the painting, one may believe that it is a head shot of a regular black man that is old and worried. The expression on Williams face is one that no one would forget. This impressive masterpiece, Mob Victim, would have never been completed if Lois Mailou Jones did not follow her passion for art. Lois Mailou Jones was born in Boston, Massachusetts, 1905. She studied at a plethora of schools, which included the Boston Normal Art School, the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Columbia University Teachers College and the Academie Julien in Paris. These are only a few of her educational triumphs. Jones attended the High School of Practical Arts in Boston where she was the art editor of the magazine. During her high school years Jones received a scholarship to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts vocational drawing class. From this point she was awarded a scholarship to go to the Boston Museum school of Fine Arts, where she majored in design. She later received a graduate scholarship for the Designers Art School of Boston to do textile designing for cretonnes. She also studied at the Massachusetts College of Art. From her design education she was able to become a drape designer for a large New York companies such as F.A. Foster Company and Schumacher s of New York, which baffled white store owners when she would stop in their store to point out her own design. The white people were unable to grasp the idea that a black woman could make such wonderful designs. This was reason enough for Jones to notice that she was not getting the recognition that she deserved, but the only possible way for her to receive her recognition was for her to paint. In 1929 she attended a lecture given by Charlotte Hawkins Brown, the founder of Palmer Memorial Institute, a junior college in Sedalia, North Carolina. She convinced Brown to allow her to start an art department at Palmer Memorial Institute. At Palmer, Jones did not only follow her dreams of spreading art by teaching art, she had many other jobs as well. Jones was the art teacher, the basketball coach, the folk dance teacher, and on Sunday she was the pianist for Sunday school. One year later James Vernon Herring, chairman and founder of the Department of Art at Howard University in Washington, D.C., recruited Jones to teach. Teaching at Howard University allowed her more time as a painter. The only obstacle in her way was her race. Her work was being rejected because of her race so she began entering her pieces incognito. She either shipped her paintings or had a white friend to drop them off. Even then, when her paintings won awards, the award was retracted when Jones showed up to accept it because of her race. As a result, she kept her background a secret and accumulated competitive awards from the National Academy of Design, the Philadelphia Academy and the Corcoran Gallery. Meta Warrick Fuller, a friend in Martha s Vineyard, where Jones spent her vacations enjoying nature, informed her that her work would be greatly appreciated abroad, where color would not hold her back. She was only 17 when she received this advice, but she remembered it when it came time for her first sabbatical at Howard University in 1937. She decided to travel to France. She received a General Education Board fellowship from Howard University to study at the Academie Julien in Paris. The scholarship took care of all her expenses, from tuition to studio rental. There, her work was received for showings at the Salon des Artistes Francais as well as exhibits at the Galerie de Paris. In Paris she mainly painted traditional French subjects, but one day she decided that she needed to be painting subjects that would be most important to her career. Jones would take her sketchbook to the museums and galleries to study the African masks and sculptures. Her painting Les Fetiches is considered by Jones to be a study of African Masks and quite abstract a portrayal, (Oda 1). Now this piece is in the permanent collection of the National Museum of American Art. When she returned to Howard University she met Dr. Alain Locke and he expressed to her that she needed to do more paintings about her heritage. This suggestion brought about her idea for Mob Victim. Mob Victim introduced her Alain Locke period. She remained at Howard University for 47 years. Throughout the decades she began traveling her first stop was Haiti, where she met and married Haitian artist Vergniaud Pierre-Noel in 1953. He died in 1982. By 1954 she was acknowledged and honored by the Washington Society of Artists as well as the Washington Watercolor Association. She began taking trips to Africa in 1969 and in 1970 she re-introduced her design sensibilities that she used when she was a student. She noticed that Haiti never lost their ties with mother Africa and she felt the same, which is reflected, in her international pan-African culture inspired works. The Diaspora is one piece of these inspired works, which she was honored for at New York City College. The Women s Caucus honored her for outstanding achievement as a woman artist for Art in 1986. It took time for Lois Mailou Jones work to be recognized, but the wait was worth it. Her work may be found in the Metropolitan Museum, Hirshborn Museum, the National Portrait Gallery, the Brooklyn Museum, Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the National Museum of American Art, and The Great Blacks in Wax Museum. Her former students have excelled in art because of her teachings and inspiration. These former students include print maker and sculptor Elizabeth Catlett, painters Malkia Roberts, Martha Jackson-Jarvis, Hiamatha Brown, Peter Robinson and Robert Freemen; painters/educators David Driskell and Mary Lovelace O Neil; and installation artists Houston Conwill and Rose Powhatan. Unfortunately Lois Mailou Jones died June 9, 1998 at the age of 92, but through her remarkable works and distinguished students, her creative spirit will carry on. Mob Victim by Lois Mailou Jones brings history and art together. This is something people will admire for years to come. Although times of lynching were not happy ones the African-American culture must continue to move forward towards a better day. It is best not to be so bitter and dwell on the past. The Memorial To The Martyrs Of Lynching, at The Great Blacks in Wax Museum, which is displayed in marble stone under Mob Victim, expresses this idea very eloquently. The memorial reads, As you leave this memorial, do not leave in despair. Think not of our suffering but of what we could have been liberators, builders, sages, or prophets, leading our people to the dawning of a new day. Most importantly, think of the unfinished work that you-the living-still must do, (The Great Blacks in Wax Museum). The power that those whom are living have is much greater than the hatred the living can store in their hearts from the past. Oda, Ken. Lois Mailou Jones On the Joys and Frustrations of Recognition Deferred accessed 11/29/00. Lois Mailou Jones and Her Former Students: An American Legacy accessed 11/29/00. Webster s II New Riverside Dictionary. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996.	2,427	ENGLISH	1
Hajj literally means ‘to set out for a place’. Islamicly, however, it refers to the annual pilgrimage that Muslims make to Makkah with the intention of performing certain religious rites in accordance with the method prescribed by the Prophet Muhammad, may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him. Hajj and its rites were first ordained by God in the time of the Prophet Abraham and he was the one who was entrusted by God to build the Kaaba - the House of God - along with his son Ishmael at Makkah. God described the Kaaba and its building as follows: “And remember when We showed Abraham the site of the [Sacred] House [saying]: Associate not anything [in worship with Me and purify My House for those who circumambulate it [i.e. perform Tawaaf] and those who stand up for prayer and those who bow down and make prostration [in prayer etc.].” (Quran 22:26) After building the Kaaba, Abraham would come to Makkah to perform Hajj every year, and after his death, this practice was continued by his son. However, gradually with the passage of time, both the form and the goal of the Hajj rites were changed. As idolatry spread throughout Arabia, the Kaaba lost its purity and idols were placed inside it. Its walls became covered with poems and paintings, including one of Jesus and his mother Maryand. Eventually over 360 idols came to be placed around the Kaaba. During the Hajj period itself, the atmosphere around the sacred precincts of the Kaaba was like a circus. Men and women would go round the Kaaba naked, arguing that they should present themselves before God in the same condition they were born. Their prayer became devoid of all sincere remembrance of God and was instead reduced to a series of hand clapping, whistling and the blowing of horns. Even the Hajj call was distorted by them with the following additions: “No one is Your partner except one who is permitted by you. You are his Master and the Master of what he possesses.” Sacrifices were also made in the name of God. However, the blood of the sacrificed animals was poured onto the walls of the Kaaba and the flesh was hung from pillars around the Kaaba, in the belief that God demanded the flesh and blood of these animals. Singing, drinking, adultery and other acts of immorality was rife amongst the pilgrims and the poetry competitions, which were held, were a major part of the whole Hajj event. In these competitions, poets would praise the bravery and splendor of their own tribesmen and tell exaggerated tales of the cowardice and miserliness of other tribes. Competitions in generosity were also staged where the chief of each tribe would set up huge cauldrons and feed the pilgrims, only so that they could become well-known for their extreme generosity. Thus the people had totally abandoned the teachings of their forefather and leader Abraham. The House that he had made pure for the worship of God alone, had been totally desecrated by the pagans and the rites which he had established were completely distorted by them. This sad state of affairs continued for nearly two and a half thousand years. But then after this long period, the time came for the supplication of Abraham to be answered: “Our Lord! Send amongst them a Messenger of their own, who shall recite unto them your verses and instruct them in the book and the Wisdom and sanctify them. Verily you are the All-Mighty, the All-Wise.” (Quran 2:129) Sure enough, a man by the name of Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullaah was born in the very city that Abraham had made this supplication centuries earlier. For twenty-three years, the Prophet Muhammad spread the message of monotheism - the same message that Abraham and all the other Prophets came with - and established the law of God upon the land. He expended every effort into making the word of God supreme and his victory over falsehood culminated in the smashing of the idols inside the Kaaba which once again became the universal centre for the worshippers of the one True God. Not only did the Prophet rid the Kaaba of all its impurities, but he also reinstated all the rites of Hajj which were established by God’s Permission, in the time of Abraham. Specific injunctions in the Quran were revealed in order to eliminate all the false rites which had become rampant in the pre-Islamic period. All indecent and shameful acts were strictly banned in God’s statement: “There is to be no lewdness nor wrangles during Hajj.” (Quran 2:197) Competitions among poets in the exaltations of their forefathers and their tribesmen’s’ achievements were all stopped. Instead, God told them: “And when you have completed your rites [of Hajj] then remember God as you remember your forefathers; nay with a more vigorous remembrance.” (Quran 2:200) Competitions in generosity were also prohibited. Of course, the feeding of the poor pilgrims was still encouraged as this was done in the time of Abraham, but God commanded that the slaughtering of the animals which was done for this purpose should be done seeking the pleasure of God rather than fame and the praise of the people. He said: “So mention the name of God over these animals when they are drawn up in lines. Then, when they are drawn on their sides [after the slaughter], eat thereof and feed the beggar who does not ask, and the beggar who asks.” (Quran 22:36) As for the deplorable practice of spattering blood of the sacrificed animals on the walls of the Kaaba and hanging their flesh on altars, then God clearly informed them that: “It is neither their meat nor their blood that reaches God, but it is Taqwaa (piety) from you that reaches Him.” (Quran 22:37) The Prophet, may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him, also put a stop to the practice of circling the Kaaba in a state of nudity and the argument that the pagans put forward to justify this ritual was sharply rebutted in God’s question: “Say: Who has forbidden the adornment [i.e. clothes] given by God which He has produced for His Slaves?” (Quran 7:32) Another custom which was prohibited through the Quran was that of setting off for Hajj without taking any provisions for the journey. In the pre-Islamic period, some people who claimed righteousness, having total dependency on God, would travel to perform Hajj begging food the whole journey. They considered this form of behavior a sign of piety and an indication of how much faith they had in God. However God told mankind that to have sufficient provisions for the journey was one of the preconditions for making Hajj. He said: “And take a provision [with you] for the journey, but the best provision is piety.” (Quran 2:197) In this way, all the pre-Islamic practices, which were based in ignorance, were abolished and Hajj was once more made a model of piety, fear of God, purity, simplicity and austerity. Now, when the pilgrims reached the Kaaba, they no longer found the carnivals and the frolic and frivolity that had once occupied the minds of the pilgrims there before. Now, there was the remembrance of God at every step and every action and every sacrifice was devoted to Him alone. It was this kind of Hajj that was worthy of the reward of paradise, as the Prophet said:	<urn:uuid:ebda474d-badf-4ade-8611-ab8af0c7cfc6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.miqatumrah.com/blog/history-of-hajj.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00260.warc.gz	en	0.984182	1,633	3.34375	3	[ -0.11063870042562485, 0.44300439953804016, -0.055219367146492004, 0.09917052090167999, -0.2639225721359253, 0.18211743235588074, 0.21728041768074036, -0.05633771792054176, 0.2683986723423004, 0.06114806979894638, 0.207210972905159, -0.40774255990982056, -0.021939720958471298, 0.24361452460...	1	Hajj literally means ‘to set out for a place’. Islamicly, however, it refers to the annual pilgrimage that Muslims make to Makkah with the intention of performing certain religious rites in accordance with the method prescribed by the Prophet Muhammad, may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him. Hajj and its rites were first ordained by God in the time of the Prophet Abraham and he was the one who was entrusted by God to build the Kaaba - the House of God - along with his son Ishmael at Makkah. God described the Kaaba and its building as follows: “And remember when We showed Abraham the site of the [Sacred] House [saying]: Associate not anything [in worship with Me and purify My House for those who circumambulate it [i.e. perform Tawaaf] and those who stand up for prayer and those who bow down and make prostration [in prayer etc.].” (Quran 22:26) After building the Kaaba, Abraham would come to Makkah to perform Hajj every year, and after his death, this practice was continued by his son. However, gradually with the passage of time, both the form and the goal of the Hajj rites were changed. As idolatry spread throughout Arabia, the Kaaba lost its purity and idols were placed inside it. Its walls became covered with poems and paintings, including one of Jesus and his mother Maryand. Eventually over 360 idols came to be placed around the Kaaba. During the Hajj period itself, the atmosphere around the sacred precincts of the Kaaba was like a circus. Men and women would go round the Kaaba naked, arguing that they should present themselves before God in the same condition they were born. Their prayer became devoid of all sincere remembrance of God and was instead reduced to a series of hand clapping, whistling and the blowing of horns. Even the Hajj call was distorted by them with the following additions: “No one is Your partner except one who is permitted by you. You are his Master and the Master of what he possesses.” Sacrifices were also made in the name of God. However, the blood of the sacrificed animals was poured onto the walls of the Kaaba and the flesh was hung from pillars around the Kaaba, in the belief that God demanded the flesh and blood of these animals. Singing, drinking, adultery and other acts of immorality was rife amongst the pilgrims and the poetry competitions, which were held, were a major part of the whole Hajj event. In these competitions, poets would praise the bravery and splendor of their own tribesmen and tell exaggerated tales of the cowardice and miserliness of other tribes. Competitions in generosity were also staged where the chief of each tribe would set up huge cauldrons and feed the pilgrims, only so that they could become well-known for their extreme generosity. Thus the people had totally abandoned the teachings of their forefather and leader Abraham. The House that he had made pure for the worship of God alone, had been totally desecrated by the pagans and the rites which he had established were completely distorted by them. This sad state of affairs continued for nearly two and a half thousand years. But then after this long period, the time came for the supplication of Abraham to be answered: “Our Lord! Send amongst them a Messenger of their own, who shall recite unto them your verses and instruct them in the book and the Wisdom and sanctify them. Verily you are the All-Mighty, the All-Wise.” (Quran 2:129) Sure enough, a man by the name of Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullaah was born in the very city that Abraham had made this supplication centuries earlier. For twenty-three years, the Prophet Muhammad spread the message of monotheism - the same message that Abraham and all the other Prophets came with - and established the law of God upon the land. He expended every effort into making the word of God supreme and his victory over falsehood culminated in the smashing of the idols inside the Kaaba which once again became the universal centre for the worshippers of the one True God. Not only did the Prophet rid the Kaaba of all its impurities, but he also reinstated all the rites of Hajj which were established by God’s Permission, in the time of Abraham. Specific injunctions in the Quran were revealed in order to eliminate all the false rites which had become rampant in the pre-Islamic period. All indecent and shameful acts were strictly banned in God’s statement: “There is to be no lewdness nor wrangles during Hajj.” (Quran 2:197) Competitions among poets in the exaltations of their forefathers and their tribesmen’s’ achievements were all stopped. Instead, God told them: “And when you have completed your rites [of Hajj] then remember God as you remember your forefathers; nay with a more vigorous remembrance.” (Quran 2:200) Competitions in generosity were also prohibited. Of course, the feeding of the poor pilgrims was still encouraged as this was done in the time of Abraham, but God commanded that the slaughtering of the animals which was done for this purpose should be done seeking the pleasure of God rather than fame and the praise of the people. He said: “So mention the name of God over these animals when they are drawn up in lines. Then, when they are drawn on their sides [after the slaughter], eat thereof and feed the beggar who does not ask, and the beggar who asks.” (Quran 22:36) As for the deplorable practice of spattering blood of the sacrificed animals on the walls of the Kaaba and hanging their flesh on altars, then God clearly informed them that: “It is neither their meat nor their blood that reaches God, but it is Taqwaa (piety) from you that reaches Him.” (Quran 22:37) The Prophet, may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him, also put a stop to the practice of circling the Kaaba in a state of nudity and the argument that the pagans put forward to justify this ritual was sharply rebutted in God’s question: “Say: Who has forbidden the adornment [i.e. clothes] given by God which He has produced for His Slaves?” (Quran 7:32) Another custom which was prohibited through the Quran was that of setting off for Hajj without taking any provisions for the journey. In the pre-Islamic period, some people who claimed righteousness, having total dependency on God, would travel to perform Hajj begging food the whole journey. They considered this form of behavior a sign of piety and an indication of how much faith they had in God. However God told mankind that to have sufficient provisions for the journey was one of the preconditions for making Hajj. He said: “And take a provision [with you] for the journey, but the best provision is piety.” (Quran 2:197) In this way, all the pre-Islamic practices, which were based in ignorance, were abolished and Hajj was once more made a model of piety, fear of God, purity, simplicity and austerity. Now, when the pilgrims reached the Kaaba, they no longer found the carnivals and the frolic and frivolity that had once occupied the minds of the pilgrims there before. Now, there was the remembrance of God at every step and every action and every sacrifice was devoted to Him alone. It was this kind of Hajj that was worthy of the reward of paradise, as the Prophet said:	1,603	ENGLISH	1
Religion played a central role in Spartan society in the ancient world. In addition to being well known for their fierce fighting force, Spartans were well known amongst other Greek city-states for their devotion and serious attitude towards religion and the gods. Because of their strict devotion to religious practises, they were often mocked by other Greek states. The gods were to be obeyed completely and were to be respected completely by all Spartans, though in theory, this relationship between the Spartans and the gods was believed to have been based on mutual respect. Religion was seen as a way of combining the gods with everyday social and political/governmental aspects of Spartan society, so much so …show more content… News of the death is carried by riders all over the country, and women go the rounds of the capital beating cauldrons. This is the signal for two people, one man and one woman, from every citizen’s household to put on mourning – which they are compelled to do under penalty of heavy fine. At the king’s funeral, thousands of Laconians are forced to attend and show great signs of grief. If the king was killed in battle, a statue is made in his honour which is placed at his burial. Burials of Spartans were held within the city, unlike that of most other Greek city states such as Athens who buried their citizens outside the city. This was done in Sparta to encourage its people not to fear death, but embrace it. In conclusion, this essay has demonstrated the importance of religion in Spartan society. Examples have been provided along with written sources from ancient writers identifying Spartan	<urn:uuid:ababfef6-ba6c-4d6b-ad2c-591024a4c836>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Religion-Death-and-Burial-in-Spartan-Society-PKQNYXUWAA.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00549.warc.gz	en	0.98999	326	3.9375	4	[ 0.060627810657024384, 0.5598899126052856, 0.22643139958381653, -0.5942305326461792, -0.1971181333065033, 0.04826119542121887, 0.4168582856655121, 0.3951485753059387, -0.03449301794171333, -0.14845655858516693, -0.5813537836074829, -0.3176323473453522, 0.08230726420879364, 0.174200817942619...	1	Religion played a central role in Spartan society in the ancient world. In addition to being well known for their fierce fighting force, Spartans were well known amongst other Greek city-states for their devotion and serious attitude towards religion and the gods. Because of their strict devotion to religious practises, they were often mocked by other Greek states. The gods were to be obeyed completely and were to be respected completely by all Spartans, though in theory, this relationship between the Spartans and the gods was believed to have been based on mutual respect. Religion was seen as a way of combining the gods with everyday social and political/governmental aspects of Spartan society, so much so …show more content… News of the death is carried by riders all over the country, and women go the rounds of the capital beating cauldrons. This is the signal for two people, one man and one woman, from every citizen’s household to put on mourning – which they are compelled to do under penalty of heavy fine. At the king’s funeral, thousands of Laconians are forced to attend and show great signs of grief. If the king was killed in battle, a statue is made in his honour which is placed at his burial. Burials of Spartans were held within the city, unlike that of most other Greek city states such as Athens who buried their citizens outside the city. This was done in Sparta to encourage its people not to fear death, but embrace it. In conclusion, this essay has demonstrated the importance of religion in Spartan society. Examples have been provided along with written sources from ancient writers identifying Spartan	323	ENGLISH	1
In July 1938, in a speech to farmers at Kettering, Neville Chamberlain said there was “no need to encourage the greatest output of food at home because ample supplies would continue from overseas in the event of war.” Secretly, however, as early as 1933, plans had already been made to control prices, wages and profits in the event of a major war. The government was building on experiences gained in the second half of the Great War, and their aims were two-fold: to increase the fertility of the land by maintaining livestock production and planning to plough up grassland immediately war was declared, so that the supply of human and animal foodstuffs could be increased very rapidly. It was also proposed that War Emergency Committees be set up to oversee wartime needs. Local people had been selected to run these committees, though they were not aware of it at the time. In 1936, therefore grants had become available for drainage and subsidies were introduced for fertiliser and this led in the war years to a doubling of the quantity of potash and phosphate applied to the fields. A wheat subsidy which was already in place had been extended to barley and oats. By 1939, there was also a payment of £2 an acre for every acre ploughed up between May and September 1939. The aim was to have two million acres of grassland ploughed in time for the 1940 harvest. Key occupations were to be reserved so there was an adequate labour force and preparations were in place to recruit for the Women’s Land Army, which had been an important force even in the First World War. Lady Denman, whom we have met in her guise as organiser of the WI, was put in charge of organising and recruiting for the WLA and this she went about with her usual ferocious tenacity. She was convinced of the importance of her work, as during the First World War the country had had only three weeks’ supply of food left when the harvest failed in 1917. She was determined this would not happen if she could help it. “The Land Army fights in the fields. It is in the fields of Britain that the most critical battle of the war may well be fought and won,” she declared in 1939. The WLA was formed on 1st June 1939 and two groups of land girls were trained and ready for work by the time war was declared in September 1939. Life in the Elsfield during the war years is described in two very different ways. One is by Ann Paton, who gives a child’s eye view of the times, while the second is an account by Helena Deneke written for an Oxfordshire Women’s Institute competition. These two main sources are supplemented by the recollections of Arthur Phipps and George Hambidge. Anne Paton’s account Anne offers a direct way into the everyday activities, the sounds, smells and colour of her life in Elsfield acutely observed and dedicated to her grandparents. She was the eldest of six children, who lived at School Cottage with their parents Bessie and Ben Jones. Her grandparents lived in one of the thatched cottages at the other end of the village and Anne and her sister spent a good deal of time there. Her grandparents’ cottage, rented from Mr Willis at Forest Farm, was small. It had two bedrooms, a sitting room, a scullery and an outside toilet where the coal and wood were stored. It was very dark so they had to use a candle and as it was not a water closet it was, as Anne ruefully comments, rather smelly. There were some very good things about the place, however. “My grandparents had a big garden and a good sized vegetable patch which had everything you could grow: flowers, plums, apples, redcurrants, blackcurrants, gooseberries and strawberries. My grandma made jam and bottled fruit. Can you imagine the smell in the kitchen? I would love to open the larder just to sniff, it was so good. Jams, pickles, meat, mint cakes and spices. It was just my idea of heaven, so mouth-watering.” Living in the little cottage were not only her grandparents but her great grandma Hallett and Anne provides a graphic picture of Nan Hallett getting ready for bed: “I often stayed the night with my grandparents. I loved this. My sister and I would enjoy an evening by the fireside when it was winter. Our supper was a cup of cocoa, very dark cocoa, and a biscuit, while the older ones had bread and a slither of cheese. My Nan Hallett used to say, ‘By gum, I enjoyed that!’ No-one stayed up later than ten o’clock. We were packed off to bed at 9.30. We had to go upstairs by candle light which was a bit spooky. Nan’s bed was a big bed with a brass head with a deep, deep mattress with large pillows and a large eiderdown. My Nan always had a stone hot water bottle in the bed, wrapped around it was her night gown. She felt the cold and always wore a shawl. The water in the bottle was for her morning wash. Great Gran would come to bed, puffing up the stairs with her candle to light her way, flickering and causing shadows to dance on the walls. With childish fear, my sister Pat and I would dive under the covers as quickly as possible. Great Gran would then start undressing. Knitted jumper and long black skirt, always a pinny over her clothes, beautiful white slip and then her stays as she called them in which she had pockets to carry her money on a journey. These were boned and laced to pull her in and keep her warm. Underneath she wore ‘coms’ (combinations) an all in one vest and pants to the ankle. What an ordeal that was! After this a beautiful nightgown pulled over her head with a big sigh of relief. Her next duty was her long white hair and when she had finished she would take the loose hair from her comb and twist it round her finger, then pop it in a pot.” The Phipps family outside 2 Terraced Cottages Anne then goes on to describe her Nan’s chest of drawers. One drawer was full of “every article under the sun”: lozenges, hankies, chocolate, soap, hairpins, scent, lavender bags “and the odd packet of cigarettes – Players or Woodbines – which she had been given. She would sometimes keep these and wrap them up as presents for some of the men at Christmas.” Both Nan Hallett and her daughter Mrs Phipps worked in the kitchen at the Manor for Lady Tweedsmuir, and though loving towards the children, Nan Hallett was not so nice to her son-in-law who smoked a pipe, which she disliked. Grandpa Phipps worked on the farm and would walk to work everyday, hands behind his back and his boots ringing on the road from the steel tips on his boots. He always seemed deep in thought but the children knew he carried peppermints with him. “We would tap on his shoulder and say, ‘Peppy, Gramp, peppy!’ and he would give us one. He only had a few a week which was his ration so really we were a bit naughty to ask,” Anne explained. The cooking for his dinner was done on a range open fire and in the oven was a rice pudding or a pie. After this he would smoke a pipe and then set off back to work. He walked up and down six times a day to work. “He had some nasty jobs to do like emptying the toilet bucket in a hole dug by him,” Anne added. It was less idyllic at home, where her parents struggled to bring up their six children with very little money. Being the eldest, Anne was the one to be kept off school to help her mother when she was pregnant and when the babies were little. She helped with the washing which was a heavy job made doubly difficult for Bessie, who suffered so badly from ecxema that by the end of wash day her hands were cracked and bleeding. On a Monday morning, they would fill the copper with water fetched from a pump shared by three houses, bucket by bucket. Once filled, it was then lit by wood and paper, then coal to heat the water. It was Anne’s job to turn the mangle after rinsing the clothes in cold water, then she would hang out the washing. Bessie, like many of the people of Elsfield, made very good use of her bicycle. As a girl on leaving school, she had cycled to Woodstock to the glove factory and, when her children were little, she fetched the shopping from Marston on her bike. For Anne’s parents, it was always a struggle to make ends meet. Sometimes they were in debt to the grocer but Bessie’s sister Joan was in the Land Army based at Church Farm so she could sometimes provide them with eggs and milk and occasionally meat. At one time or another, they kept pigs, geese, chickens and ducks and once, Ben tried breeding rabbits but this was a disappointment. His garden was his pride and joy but he would never sell anything though his vegetables and flowers were the best in the village. Fuel was also a problem, as not only had School Cottage, with its stone floors, to be heated but so did all the water they needed for washing. “In the winter we used to be outside sawing wood by hurricane lamp and it was hard work. My feet would be frozen and I had to jump up and down to keep warm,” says Anne. Coal was expensive and in short supply and Bessie could only afford a little at a time so wood was kept for the copper so they could have a bath on Sunday. “The water was ladled in and out by bucket and put into the tin bath. Very hard work and we had to take turns in the water, small ones first. Being older I hated this,” was Anne’s comment. When war broke out, Ben joined the RAF and drove a ‘Queen Mary’, a big vehicle which was for carrying aircraft and which could sometimes be seen parked outside the school. Anne describes the free time she had with affection: “Our days off school were happy ones and sometimes my Auntie Audrey would spend quite a bit of time with us. When her father was hay making, we would take his tea to him in a basket with sandwiches and cake and a bottle of cold tea. My Nan would put enough in for us too. We used to love this. After tea, we would help the men load the hay cart and afterwards we would stroke the horse before riding on the cart home.” She and Audrey also liked to play in Woodeaton Wood, which was the nearest woodland to her grandparents’ house. “It had a cart track through the middle like a cross road. In the summer it was grown over with a carpet of lush green grass. You could not see the other end so we would skip singing “The wonderful wizard of Oz”. This was a special place as there are lots of wild flowers in there – orchids, primroses, dog roses, bluebells , violets and many trees with honeysuckle growing up the trunks. One day we were walking back up the field when I saw a piece of rope or so I thought but it was a snake. My Auntie shouted just in time as I was just about to pick it up. I was so scared!” Audrey Phipps as an adult The war did impinge on one occasion when Anne was returning from the farm with a jug of milk. She had reached the church when she heard a rumbling noise. She jumped up on the bank as a convoy of tanks went past on their way to the Otmoor bombing range. “I could hardly breathe as I thought the Germans had arrived and I ran home screaming to my mother,” said Anne. Anne was only seven when that happened but later, when the war was over and normal life was beginning to be resumed she joined the G.F.S – the Girls’ Friendly Society. They met at the Vicarage and were taught to crochet and embroider and said prayers and sang. It was a quiet and peaceful way of life. “We would all go to Sunday school and Church. Sunday evenings we would get together with another family, the Maltbys, and go for walks through the fields with our dogs and catch up on the gossip”. According to Anne’s account of her life in Elsfield, the major event of the year was Christmas. It demonstrates how the difficulties of life in wartime and the lack of money, though it must have been a cause of concern for the adults, did not diminish the pleasure the children experienced. “There was no money to spare so when my Dad finished work he would come home at dinner time on Christmas Eve, then my mother would go shopping. It was a long job and I will never know how she carried it all on her bike. As it grew dark we would make tea and wait till mum came home. Everyone was so excited. It was only then did the cake get iced and presents wrapped up when the little ones were in bed. We always had a real tree. My Dad saw to this and then he would dress it with real candles and cotton wool and barley sugar sticks and little odds and ends. It was so pretty. All the decorations were made by hand, we made our paper chains from pretty paper or sometimes plain white paper until we could afford to buy some real ones. Our house smelled so good with all the cooking preparation. My Nans would have saved a pudding from the year before and it was given as a present or some tinned fruit, which was hard to get. Anyway, Christmas Day was great being a big family. My Dad was good at making wooden toys for us so we were lucky.” The customs from earlier in the century were still carried on. On Christmas Eve all the boys and girls in the village would gather by the school and start carol singing. The most important call was at the Manor House, where Lady Tweedsmuir had gathered all her family. The group of children would go in and sing to them all. The carol singers were given food and a warm drink to take them on their way and when they reached the end of the village it was late so they would walk back just in time for bed. Audrey Phipps, who married George Hambidge. Miss Deneke’s Account of the War Years Miss Deneke’s account of the war years is factual and detailed and shows how the world events which were unfolding impacted on village life. She first of all sketches out the recent changes in the landscape: towards Kidlington there is a new granary for drying corn erected for wartime needs. A thick column of smoke rises from the ground near Bletchington because of the growth of the cement works and Woodeaton Manor has been taken over by the BBC’s pay department. They have built offices in the stables and have adapted the house. “The BBC has evacuated itself to Oxfordshire,” she says. She gives a brief description of Elsfield in 1939: There are 25 cottages, a school and six more sizeable houses: The Manor, Hill Farm, Church Farm, the Vicarage, Home Farm and Forest Farm. “A half decayed huge tree opposite the Manor serves as a trysting place and a notice board”. This is long gone though the cottage beside where it used to stand is called ‘Tree Cottage’. The postal service is affected. Mrs Hambidge has run the post office and shop but “owing to failing health and to regulations since the war demanding too large a number of registered customers Mrs Hambidge has had to forego her licence”. (Every family had to be registered with a supplier of groceries and Mrs Hambidge must have felt unable to cope with all the extra paperwork entailed.) The Post Office has been closed down and the post is deposited in Beckley. Mrs Colwell bicycles to fetch letters and delivers to Stow Wood and Elsfield. Eva Beatrice Aste née Leggatt Miss Deneke recounts how when the wireless announced that Germany had invaded Poland, Mrs Phipps was standing, broom in hand, in the passage at Church Farm. Joan (Phipps) and Mrs Brown, the farmer’s wife, were there. “They stopped to listen”, says Miss Deneke, “and knew they would soon be for it”. The announcement on the radio that war had been declared had a similar effect on Mrs Aste, wife of the vicar, who later said that the announcement had imprinted on her memory every single item of furniture in the room she was in. Miss Deneke was acutely conscious of the changes the war would bring. She calls the war “a change that divides a past age sharply from an age that is to come”, which may be why she felt the need to record in such detail and with such loving care how Elsfield was affected. She makes the point that the war has scattered the people of Elsfield far and wide. They have met with a wide variety of people and they will be changed by their experiences, so much so that they may find it difficult to resume their former lives. She lists who left Elsfield and describes how the village mobilised for war. Frank Sharpe had already joined the RAF when war was declared and unfortunately died of a throat infection in Canada. “Our only loss”. Ben Jones joined up before telling his wife what he intended to do. He and Dennis Lafford were sent to Iceland where Dennis took photographs which showed a bleak landscape opened up, said Dennis, by the Americans who had built beautiful roads. Dennis brought home two beautiful sheepskins of the long-haired Icelandic sheep which are now laid across the foot of the beds in his parents’ cottage. Hubert Webb joined the RASC and was in Greece, Crete, Egypt and Syria, Gerald Colwell was in Canada. Richard Morbey took part in the D day landings and was in Holland. John Buchan Junior was with the Hudson Bay Co. and went to Sicily, Italy and Holland. William was in the RAF, Alastair was in the Canadian Army. “It was with pleasure and surprise that we recognised his photograph published in several newspapers where a young Canadian officer was seen with Gen. Montgomery” writes Miss Deneke. Rev Aste and Eva Beatrice Aste née Leggatt on honeymoon Mr Merry and Mr Chaulk were called for home defence and sent to guard the petrol dump at Islip. Betty Webb and Joan Phipps joined the land army. Joan worked at Church Farm but Betty worked outside Elsfield. At the Land Army Rally at Blenheim in 1943 Betty’s shallots won a prize. Dorothy Lafford was stationed with the NAAFI at Kidlington then Abingdon and later at Brize Norton. Rev Aste, Mr Butcher, and Mr Hambidge became ARP (Air Raid Precaution) members. Special constables were Mr Allam, Mr Brown, Mr Lafford senior and Mr Watts. The special constables patrolled in pairs. Miss Deneke knows how hard this extra work was for people whose work for the war effort was the all important one of keeping up food production. “When many alerts came it was hard work for men who had to be up at 5 am for milking”. Not only the people were affected but the land had to be adapted to the needs of wartime. 590 acres towards the Washbrook and elsewhere were ploughed up and planted with corn and grass to make better grazing for animals. Potatoes were also grown and these were picked by women and children, most of them going to the Army. A War Agricultural Committee was formed, whose Elsfield representative was Mr Watts of Hill Farm, the biggest employer in the village, and this organisation helped with advice and the loan of machinery. During the course of the war men were imported to work on the land. Some Czechs lodged at Forest Farm and later there were Italian POWs, who lifted mangolds and helped with drainage, as well as dredging the river. Vegetable gardens were also important. In 1944, Mrs Phipps won a prize for her garden, and milk from the farms went to Oxford. Late on in the war on her return to England, Lady Tweedsmuir distributed seeds sent from Canada. There was, of course, a blackout. Everyone had to be careful because a light could be seen for miles – across Otmoor. One night, Mrs Webb heard a great thundering on the door. She was frightened and when she opened it and saw a man in uniform, even more frightened. She thought she might be in trouble because of showing a light, though she had been careful. However the man was a despatch rider and was very grateful that there had been a sliver of light creeping out from the bottom of her door. He had been completely lost in the dark. She gave him a cup of tea which he drank with relish, then set off again. She closed the door behind him and put a mat over the bottom of the door to keep the light in. School Cottage with the telephone box to the right In September 1940, during the Battle of Britain, there was an invasion alert. Mr Lafford was called by Mr Watts on the telephone in the kiosk next to the school and told there was danger of an invasion. Mr Lafford ran to the Vicarage to tell the vicar, who along with his wife ran across to the church and began to ring the bells. On that occasion, road blocks were manned at either end of the village all Saturday night and all day Sunday until the danger was past. The observation post was manned and if the Germans had invaded, there were 17 men who had been prepared to die for King and Country. Mr Watts was so thankful that the Battle of Britain was won that he sold a ram and gave the proceeds to the Red Cross. There was a barrier on the road from Elsfield to Marston before the junction with the Woodeaton road. On one occasion, Miss Deneke was challenged to show her identity card by the person manning the barricade. She was most surprised as, in general, every body knew everybody else. The road barriers were made from ladders mounted on a bicycle wheel at one end and fixed to a post at the other. This made them easy to wheel across and block the road, though how effective they would have been in stopping a tank is debatable. Sergeant Taylor was in charge of the Home Guard in Elsfield. They had no proper rifles at first but made do with poles and shot guns. They had bunk beds in the reading room at the school and kept watch at either end of the village, two of the men keeping watch at the northern end of the village so they could see over Otmoor and another two at the Oxford end of the village looking towards Headington. They would be on watch for two hours at a stretch. At the end of two hours, one of them would go and wake the next man by banging on his window with a prop. Unfortunately, one time they banged a bit too hard and the window broke. Pinker and Bedding were no. 1 patrol and operated between the observation hut (in the field next to the King Charles Oak) and the north road block. No. 2 patrol was Lt. Corp. Hambidge and Private Boolyer on high ground in the East looking towards Headington. Their job was to look out for enemy aircraft and enemy agents. There were three sections which made up a platoon: Elsfield, Beckley and Woodeaton. When they did acquire guns, the Browning automatic was manned by Corporal Watts and Privates Pinker and Millington. The Tommy gun was manned by Corporal Maltby. Private Maltby was the dispatch rider and Private Hayes was at the telephone kiosk. He would transmit messages to Private Lafford who would act as runner. The others stayed at their stations where they had a days’ supply of rations, gas masks, eye shades, ointment and field dressings. Fortunately, there was no invasion but the war did impinge on village life in a dramatic way. Mr Morse found an Anson plane in Woodeaton Wood. It had been there about two days and the pilot was dead. One German plane crashed on Otmoor and all six crew were killed and in 1945, an American Liberator got into difficulties over Headington: the men bailed out and the plane crashed at Forest Farm. When Mrs Merry and Mrs Phipps were cycling near Islip a bomb fell there, missing the petrol dump but destroying a house and killing some pigs. The shock of the blast blew Mrs Merry and Mrs Phipps off their bicycles. In 1943, Miss Parsons was called upon to provide accommodation for a Canadian Searchlight Company which was stationed in the village for two months. They cooked their meals on Miss Parsons’ oil stove in her dining room. Miss Parsons, determined to do her duty though she was now well on in her eighties, was also prevailed on to help with evacuees. As Oxfordshire was perceived as a relatively safe place from German bombing, arrangements were made to evacuate children from London. In the early months of the war, Miss Deneke was appointed billeting officer for these children. They were prepared to receive five children. A group of Elsfield residents waited by the old tree (at Tree Cottage) prepared to take them to Mrs Chaulk, Mrs Brown and Mrs Webb, who had all agreed to take a child or two, depending on spare bedrooms. They waited all afternoon, having been told that the children would arrive in the early afternoon. The bus did not come till six pm, driven by a surly driver. A biggish boy of 14 went to Mrs Webb, two little girls to Mrs Chaulk. Miss Deneke asked where the other three children were. The driver jerked his head in the direction of Church Farm. Miss Deneke hurried in that direction and was confronted by an outraged Mrs Brown guarding the gate. She had agreed to take two school age children but had been left with “a most unprepossessing little mother with one baby in her arms, another clinging to her skirts and in the advanced stages of expecting a third”. Mrs Brown refused to take them in, which Miss Deneke could understand, given the busy life led by a farmer’s wife. Miss Parsons agreed to take them in on a temporary basis. There was no antenatal clinic in Elsfield and no transport to get the mother to one, so she was eventually found a billet at Horspath and moved there. The mother had cried all the time – her unemployed husband had looked after the children and she didn’t know how. She didn’t understand why the lady had told her to leave London. She went home before long, but Miss Parsons had had a distressing time and her good spare room mattress was spoilt. The whole affair had shocked and outraged her. Mrs Webb’s boy proved too much for her. He was too old for Elsfield school and was transferred to Horspath where his school was billeted along with his teacher. Mrs Chaulk cleaned the heads of the little girls and got them some extra clothes. She got fond of them and thought she had established a relationship with the parents, but they turned up one day and took the children back to London without even saying thank you. Elsfield had received the wrong set of children and the reason was that Great Western Railways had muddled up the trains and sent the children destined for Oxfordshire to Bristol and the Bristol train to Oxford. The children they should have had landed in Weston Super Mare. Food rationing became an all important feature of life in wartime. It was introduce in January 1940 and gave equal shares of eggs, milk, bacon, ham, butter and sugar to everyone. Meat was rationed from March 1940 and in July tea, margerine and cooking fats were added to the list. In 1941, cheese and preserves were added and dried fruit, tinned goods and cerealswere also rationed. Food parcels, often from Canada, provided welcome additional food. Agricultural workers were allowed extra cheese and other foodstuffs at harvest and hay-making time and milk and eggs, being produced in the village, were more easily come by for Elsfield residents than for townsfolk. The WI was asked to co-operate with the Government. Food Advice Service. Mrs Bartlett, the treasurer, undertook to distribute recipes. Mrs Phipps became secretary of the WI Produce Guild and when a government scheme made 4d meat pies available in the countryside outside rations, she distributed them over a period of four and a half years. The government gave extra sugar to the WI so they could preserve fruit. This was done in Miss Parsons’ kitchen at Home Farm. In 1940, they made 1,193 and a half jars of jam and bottled 380 jars of fruit. In 1941, they made 399 lbs of jam and 105 bottles of fruit. The jam was collected by the Co-op for sale to their registered customers. The WI continued tea at its monthly meetings. Lady Tweedsmuir’s impassioned plea not to drop these, because of their social importance, “even if you have to drink cold water and gnaw a carrot” was not ignored. Everyone brought a pinch of their own tea from their ration to make what they called the Elsfield blend. At the first meeting after Lady Tweedsmuir returned from Canada, Mrs Kreyer gave a talk on salvage. Bones could be made into fat, glue and manure, she said. As the war went on, bones became scarcer because dogs were fed on scraps. Bones, ash and swill were kept separately, and all paper was saved for re-manufacture. It was taken to the Manor and collected by Mrs Balfour of Holton Park who collected for the whole district. The WI arranged to use the school as a rest centre in case of an air raid in Elsfield. That would have been adequate for a stray bomb but they were worried about what would happen if Oxford were attacked and people flooded out of the city into the country, as had happened in Southampton and Portsmouth. Throughout the war, the women of Elsfield WI knitted for the forces and the Merchant Navy and towards the end of the war “with a feeling of joyous relief” at having pink wool provided for small children in liberated Europe. (Greece and Holland, among other places.) According to Miss Deneke, the later evacuation was much better planned. In the second wave of evacuations, the 25 cottages were already full so Miss Deneke had to turn again to the farms, which were the only houses with any spare capacity, These however were reserved for soldiers and land workers. Miss Parsons said “with trembling lip” that she would take a “nice mother and baby”. Lady Tweedsmuir had arranged her own evacuees, among them a Mrs Robinson, a London housing expert, who took over some of Miss Deneke’s responsibilities. Nine further children were brought to Elsfield privately and proper billeting allowances were negotiated by Mrs Robinson. The Vicarage, too, had self-evacuated people who came and went. The children from London were intelligent but unruly. Most were from Holborn and they missed fish and chips, the streets, the shops, and found it difficult to adapt to life in the country so didn’t stay long. The school garden was involved in digging for victory. The children knitted for the Merchant Navy and collected books for servicemen. They collected waste paper – half a ton – which was stored at the Manor, and horsechestnuts for medicinal purposes which were sent to the national and county collections, and they corresponded with US children after Pearl Harbour in late 1941. Life at the Manor After the Tweedsmuirs went to Canada in 1935, the house was empty. During the London blitz in 1940, Lady Tweedsmuir’s mother Mrs Norman Grosvenor came to stay at the Manor. A Red Cross working party met at the manor every week for a short time until Mrs Grosvenor’s health failed, and she died at the Manor later that same year. A further tragedy struck the family when Lord Tweedsmuir himself died in Canada in the same year. He was cremated in Canada and his ashes were returned to Britain and received by Johnnie and William Buchan. His ashes were buried in Elsfield churchyard under a gravestone designed by Herbert Baker and with an inscription which translates as “Here in his own earth, lies a man of letters, who served his country and enjoyed the affection of countless friends.” The memorial service for him in Elsfield on the 17th February 1940 was held without Lady Tweedsmuir, who was still in Canada. Prof Gilbert Murray, his long time friend and teacher, spoke of John Buchan’s “liberal outlook of this most unusual conservative”. William Buchan read the Death of Valiant for Truth from Pilgrim’s Progress and the Pilgrim hymn was sung. Miss Deneke says that “Four clipped yews stand sentinel over the grave”. These are no longer there, having been removed by the Rev de Vere much later in the century. Amos Webb, his chauffeur who accompanied him to Canada, died shortly after Lord Tweedsmuir and is buried close by and John Buchan’s good friend Mr WFG Watts of Hill Farm also died before the end of the war, in January 1944. On her return from Canada, Lady Tweedsmuir entertained overseas soldiers on ‘Balliol leave’. This was a series of courses sponsored by Oxford University. The men came up every Thursday afternoon by bus. Miss Deneke helped Mrs Charlett, the Tweedsmuirs’ cook, Mrs Webb and Mrs Charles Maltby to provide 35 teas each time. How the soldiers spent their afternoon is not very clear but they were shown a piece of embroidered silk from Japan, an edition of a book about Italian monuments given by Mussolini to John Buchan, and a signed photograph of the King, Queen and Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret Rose. How entertaining they found this is not recorded but on their way in and out they were surrounded by village children who hung about waiting for the soldiers to give them chewing gum. Alistair Buchan’s wedding to Hope Gilmore Two years after Lord Tweedsmuir’s death, there was a much happier event. Alistair married Hope Gilmour of Ottawa on 11 April 1942. Dr Ernest Walker composed a new setting of ‘I will lift up mine eyes to the hills’. Margaret Deneke played the piano, specially imported for the occasion. Mr Rushworth brought the choir boys from St Michael’s Church, Oxford and Alistair was married in the uniform of the 14th Canadian Guards by Canon Hepburn, Chaplain to the Canadian Forces, and by the Reverend Aste. Alison Aste’s wedding to Kenneth Grayston, 1942 The church was packed, even the chancel being full. Alistair and Hope were pelted with primroses by the children, confetti not being available because of wartime restrictions and the wedding reception was at the Manor. Lady Tweedsmuir had to borrow crockery and glasses for the occasion. Also married in 1942 was Alison Aste, one of the two daughters of Rev Aste. Rev Aste at Water Eaton after christening Towards the end of the war, there was a great flight of planes, crossed Elsfield flying in close formation on their way to France presaging the end of the war and to celebrate VE Day, the village was gay with flags. There was tea at the Manor and games and sports. On VJ Day, there was a children’s party at the school organised by Mrs Merry and Mrs Winfield when every children was given half a crown. It was indeed the end of an era, and as if to underline that fact, in March 1945, that pillar of village life, Miss Parsons, died at the age of eighty-nine.	<urn:uuid:017873e8-1f87-4403-a954-272da1c79c26>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.elsfield.net/history/elsfield-in-the-20th-century/the-buchan-years/the-war-years-1939-1945/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00409.warc.gz	en	0.991051	7,745	3.65625	4	[ -0.2343653291463852, 0.29066580533981323, 0.25031447410583496, 0.052638597786426544, 0.36003100872039795, 0.10150262713432312, -0.3982613980770111, 0.07329563796520233, -0.4736666679382324, -0.014077676460146904, -0.042449504137039185, -0.7129119634628296, 0.11771278083324432, 0.4112201333...	13	In July 1938, in a speech to farmers at Kettering, Neville Chamberlain said there was “no need to encourage the greatest output of food at home because ample supplies would continue from overseas in the event of war.” Secretly, however, as early as 1933, plans had already been made to control prices, wages and profits in the event of a major war. The government was building on experiences gained in the second half of the Great War, and their aims were two-fold: to increase the fertility of the land by maintaining livestock production and planning to plough up grassland immediately war was declared, so that the supply of human and animal foodstuffs could be increased very rapidly. It was also proposed that War Emergency Committees be set up to oversee wartime needs. Local people had been selected to run these committees, though they were not aware of it at the time. In 1936, therefore grants had become available for drainage and subsidies were introduced for fertiliser and this led in the war years to a doubling of the quantity of potash and phosphate applied to the fields. A wheat subsidy which was already in place had been extended to barley and oats. By 1939, there was also a payment of £2 an acre for every acre ploughed up between May and September 1939. The aim was to have two million acres of grassland ploughed in time for the 1940 harvest. Key occupations were to be reserved so there was an adequate labour force and preparations were in place to recruit for the Women’s Land Army, which had been an important force even in the First World War. Lady Denman, whom we have met in her guise as organiser of the WI, was put in charge of organising and recruiting for the WLA and this she went about with her usual ferocious tenacity. She was convinced of the importance of her work, as during the First World War the country had had only three weeks’ supply of food left when the harvest failed in 1917. She was determined this would not happen if she could help it. “The Land Army fights in the fields. It is in the fields of Britain that the most critical battle of the war may well be fought and won,” she declared in 1939. The WLA was formed on 1st June 1939 and two groups of land girls were trained and ready for work by the time war was declared in September 1939. Life in the Elsfield during the war years is described in two very different ways. One is by Ann Paton, who gives a child’s eye view of the times, while the second is an account by Helena Deneke written for an Oxfordshire Women’s Institute competition. These two main sources are supplemented by the recollections of Arthur Phipps and George Hambidge. Anne Paton’s account Anne offers a direct way into the everyday activities, the sounds, smells and colour of her life in Elsfield acutely observed and dedicated to her grandparents. She was the eldest of six children, who lived at School Cottage with their parents Bessie and Ben Jones. Her grandparents lived in one of the thatched cottages at the other end of the village and Anne and her sister spent a good deal of time there. Her grandparents’ cottage, rented from Mr Willis at Forest Farm, was small. It had two bedrooms, a sitting room, a scullery and an outside toilet where the coal and wood were stored. It was very dark so they had to use a candle and as it was not a water closet it was, as Anne ruefully comments, rather smelly. There were some very good things about the place, however. “My grandparents had a big garden and a good sized vegetable patch which had everything you could grow: flowers, plums, apples, redcurrants, blackcurrants, gooseberries and strawberries. My grandma made jam and bottled fruit. Can you imagine the smell in the kitchen? I would love to open the larder just to sniff, it was so good. Jams, pickles, meat, mint cakes and spices. It was just my idea of heaven, so mouth-watering.” Living in the little cottage were not only her grandparents but her great grandma Hallett and Anne provides a graphic picture of Nan Hallett getting ready for bed: “I often stayed the night with my grandparents. I loved this. My sister and I would enjoy an evening by the fireside when it was winter. Our supper was a cup of cocoa, very dark cocoa, and a biscuit, while the older ones had bread and a slither of cheese. My Nan Hallett used to say, ‘By gum, I enjoyed that!’ No-one stayed up later than ten o’clock. We were packed off to bed at 9.30. We had to go upstairs by candle light which was a bit spooky. Nan’s bed was a big bed with a brass head with a deep, deep mattress with large pillows and a large eiderdown. My Nan always had a stone hot water bottle in the bed, wrapped around it was her night gown. She felt the cold and always wore a shawl. The water in the bottle was for her morning wash. Great Gran would come to bed, puffing up the stairs with her candle to light her way, flickering and causing shadows to dance on the walls. With childish fear, my sister Pat and I would dive under the covers as quickly as possible. Great Gran would then start undressing. Knitted jumper and long black skirt, always a pinny over her clothes, beautiful white slip and then her stays as she called them in which she had pockets to carry her money on a journey. These were boned and laced to pull her in and keep her warm. Underneath she wore ‘coms’ (combinations) an all in one vest and pants to the ankle. What an ordeal that was! After this a beautiful nightgown pulled over her head with a big sigh of relief. Her next duty was her long white hair and when she had finished she would take the loose hair from her comb and twist it round her finger, then pop it in a pot.” The Phipps family outside 2 Terraced Cottages Anne then goes on to describe her Nan’s chest of drawers. One drawer was full of “every article under the sun”: lozenges, hankies, chocolate, soap, hairpins, scent, lavender bags “and the odd packet of cigarettes – Players or Woodbines – which she had been given. She would sometimes keep these and wrap them up as presents for some of the men at Christmas.” Both Nan Hallett and her daughter Mrs Phipps worked in the kitchen at the Manor for Lady Tweedsmuir, and though loving towards the children, Nan Hallett was not so nice to her son-in-law who smoked a pipe, which she disliked. Grandpa Phipps worked on the farm and would walk to work everyday, hands behind his back and his boots ringing on the road from the steel tips on his boots. He always seemed deep in thought but the children knew he carried peppermints with him. “We would tap on his shoulder and say, ‘Peppy, Gramp, peppy!’ and he would give us one. He only had a few a week which was his ration so really we were a bit naughty to ask,” Anne explained. The cooking for his dinner was done on a range open fire and in the oven was a rice pudding or a pie. After this he would smoke a pipe and then set off back to work. He walked up and down six times a day to work. “He had some nasty jobs to do like emptying the toilet bucket in a hole dug by him,” Anne added. It was less idyllic at home, where her parents struggled to bring up their six children with very little money. Being the eldest, Anne was the one to be kept off school to help her mother when she was pregnant and when the babies were little. She helped with the washing which was a heavy job made doubly difficult for Bessie, who suffered so badly from ecxema that by the end of wash day her hands were cracked and bleeding. On a Monday morning, they would fill the copper with water fetched from a pump shared by three houses, bucket by bucket. Once filled, it was then lit by wood and paper, then coal to heat the water. It was Anne’s job to turn the mangle after rinsing the clothes in cold water, then she would hang out the washing. Bessie, like many of the people of Elsfield, made very good use of her bicycle. As a girl on leaving school, she had cycled to Woodstock to the glove factory and, when her children were little, she fetched the shopping from Marston on her bike. For Anne’s parents, it was always a struggle to make ends meet. Sometimes they were in debt to the grocer but Bessie’s sister Joan was in the Land Army based at Church Farm so she could sometimes provide them with eggs and milk and occasionally meat. At one time or another, they kept pigs, geese, chickens and ducks and once, Ben tried breeding rabbits but this was a disappointment. His garden was his pride and joy but he would never sell anything though his vegetables and flowers were the best in the village. Fuel was also a problem, as not only had School Cottage, with its stone floors, to be heated but so did all the water they needed for washing. “In the winter we used to be outside sawing wood by hurricane lamp and it was hard work. My feet would be frozen and I had to jump up and down to keep warm,” says Anne. Coal was expensive and in short supply and Bessie could only afford a little at a time so wood was kept for the copper so they could have a bath on Sunday. “The water was ladled in and out by bucket and put into the tin bath. Very hard work and we had to take turns in the water, small ones first. Being older I hated this,” was Anne’s comment. When war broke out, Ben joined the RAF and drove a ‘Queen Mary’, a big vehicle which was for carrying aircraft and which could sometimes be seen parked outside the school. Anne describes the free time she had with affection: “Our days off school were happy ones and sometimes my Auntie Audrey would spend quite a bit of time with us. When her father was hay making, we would take his tea to him in a basket with sandwiches and cake and a bottle of cold tea. My Nan would put enough in for us too. We used to love this. After tea, we would help the men load the hay cart and afterwards we would stroke the horse before riding on the cart home.” She and Audrey also liked to play in Woodeaton Wood, which was the nearest woodland to her grandparents’ house. “It had a cart track through the middle like a cross road. In the summer it was grown over with a carpet of lush green grass. You could not see the other end so we would skip singing “The wonderful wizard of Oz”. This was a special place as there are lots of wild flowers in there – orchids, primroses, dog roses, bluebells , violets and many trees with honeysuckle growing up the trunks. One day we were walking back up the field when I saw a piece of rope or so I thought but it was a snake. My Auntie shouted just in time as I was just about to pick it up. I was so scared!” Audrey Phipps as an adult The war did impinge on one occasion when Anne was returning from the farm with a jug of milk. She had reached the church when she heard a rumbling noise. She jumped up on the bank as a convoy of tanks went past on their way to the Otmoor bombing range. “I could hardly breathe as I thought the Germans had arrived and I ran home screaming to my mother,” said Anne. Anne was only seven when that happened but later, when the war was over and normal life was beginning to be resumed she joined the G.F.S – the Girls’ Friendly Society. They met at the Vicarage and were taught to crochet and embroider and said prayers and sang. It was a quiet and peaceful way of life. “We would all go to Sunday school and Church. Sunday evenings we would get together with another family, the Maltbys, and go for walks through the fields with our dogs and catch up on the gossip”. According to Anne’s account of her life in Elsfield, the major event of the year was Christmas. It demonstrates how the difficulties of life in wartime and the lack of money, though it must have been a cause of concern for the adults, did not diminish the pleasure the children experienced. “There was no money to spare so when my Dad finished work he would come home at dinner time on Christmas Eve, then my mother would go shopping. It was a long job and I will never know how she carried it all on her bike. As it grew dark we would make tea and wait till mum came home. Everyone was so excited. It was only then did the cake get iced and presents wrapped up when the little ones were in bed. We always had a real tree. My Dad saw to this and then he would dress it with real candles and cotton wool and barley sugar sticks and little odds and ends. It was so pretty. All the decorations were made by hand, we made our paper chains from pretty paper or sometimes plain white paper until we could afford to buy some real ones. Our house smelled so good with all the cooking preparation. My Nans would have saved a pudding from the year before and it was given as a present or some tinned fruit, which was hard to get. Anyway, Christmas Day was great being a big family. My Dad was good at making wooden toys for us so we were lucky.” The customs from earlier in the century were still carried on. On Christmas Eve all the boys and girls in the village would gather by the school and start carol singing. The most important call was at the Manor House, where Lady Tweedsmuir had gathered all her family. The group of children would go in and sing to them all. The carol singers were given food and a warm drink to take them on their way and when they reached the end of the village it was late so they would walk back just in time for bed. Audrey Phipps, who married George Hambidge. Miss Deneke’s Account of the War Years Miss Deneke’s account of the war years is factual and detailed and shows how the world events which were unfolding impacted on village life. She first of all sketches out the recent changes in the landscape: towards Kidlington there is a new granary for drying corn erected for wartime needs. A thick column of smoke rises from the ground near Bletchington because of the growth of the cement works and Woodeaton Manor has been taken over by the BBC’s pay department. They have built offices in the stables and have adapted the house. “The BBC has evacuated itself to Oxfordshire,” she says. She gives a brief description of Elsfield in 1939: There are 25 cottages, a school and six more sizeable houses: The Manor, Hill Farm, Church Farm, the Vicarage, Home Farm and Forest Farm. “A half decayed huge tree opposite the Manor serves as a trysting place and a notice board”. This is long gone though the cottage beside where it used to stand is called ‘Tree Cottage’. The postal service is affected. Mrs Hambidge has run the post office and shop but “owing to failing health and to regulations since the war demanding too large a number of registered customers Mrs Hambidge has had to forego her licence”. (Every family had to be registered with a supplier of groceries and Mrs Hambidge must have felt unable to cope with all the extra paperwork entailed.) The Post Office has been closed down and the post is deposited in Beckley. Mrs Colwell bicycles to fetch letters and delivers to Stow Wood and Elsfield. Eva Beatrice Aste née Leggatt Miss Deneke recounts how when the wireless announced that Germany had invaded Poland, Mrs Phipps was standing, broom in hand, in the passage at Church Farm. Joan (Phipps) and Mrs Brown, the farmer’s wife, were there. “They stopped to listen”, says Miss Deneke, “and knew they would soon be for it”. The announcement on the radio that war had been declared had a similar effect on Mrs Aste, wife of the vicar, who later said that the announcement had imprinted on her memory every single item of furniture in the room she was in. Miss Deneke was acutely conscious of the changes the war would bring. She calls the war “a change that divides a past age sharply from an age that is to come”, which may be why she felt the need to record in such detail and with such loving care how Elsfield was affected. She makes the point that the war has scattered the people of Elsfield far and wide. They have met with a wide variety of people and they will be changed by their experiences, so much so that they may find it difficult to resume their former lives. She lists who left Elsfield and describes how the village mobilised for war. Frank Sharpe had already joined the RAF when war was declared and unfortunately died of a throat infection in Canada. “Our only loss”. Ben Jones joined up before telling his wife what he intended to do. He and Dennis Lafford were sent to Iceland where Dennis took photographs which showed a bleak landscape opened up, said Dennis, by the Americans who had built beautiful roads. Dennis brought home two beautiful sheepskins of the long-haired Icelandic sheep which are now laid across the foot of the beds in his parents’ cottage. Hubert Webb joined the RASC and was in Greece, Crete, Egypt and Syria, Gerald Colwell was in Canada. Richard Morbey took part in the D day landings and was in Holland. John Buchan Junior was with the Hudson Bay Co. and went to Sicily, Italy and Holland. William was in the RAF, Alastair was in the Canadian Army. “It was with pleasure and surprise that we recognised his photograph published in several newspapers where a young Canadian officer was seen with Gen. Montgomery” writes Miss Deneke. Rev Aste and Eva Beatrice Aste née Leggatt on honeymoon Mr Merry and Mr Chaulk were called for home defence and sent to guard the petrol dump at Islip. Betty Webb and Joan Phipps joined the land army. Joan worked at Church Farm but Betty worked outside Elsfield. At the Land Army Rally at Blenheim in 1943 Betty’s shallots won a prize. Dorothy Lafford was stationed with the NAAFI at Kidlington then Abingdon and later at Brize Norton. Rev Aste, Mr Butcher, and Mr Hambidge became ARP (Air Raid Precaution) members. Special constables were Mr Allam, Mr Brown, Mr Lafford senior and Mr Watts. The special constables patrolled in pairs. Miss Deneke knows how hard this extra work was for people whose work for the war effort was the all important one of keeping up food production. “When many alerts came it was hard work for men who had to be up at 5 am for milking”. Not only the people were affected but the land had to be adapted to the needs of wartime. 590 acres towards the Washbrook and elsewhere were ploughed up and planted with corn and grass to make better grazing for animals. Potatoes were also grown and these were picked by women and children, most of them going to the Army. A War Agricultural Committee was formed, whose Elsfield representative was Mr Watts of Hill Farm, the biggest employer in the village, and this organisation helped with advice and the loan of machinery. During the course of the war men were imported to work on the land. Some Czechs lodged at Forest Farm and later there were Italian POWs, who lifted mangolds and helped with drainage, as well as dredging the river. Vegetable gardens were also important. In 1944, Mrs Phipps won a prize for her garden, and milk from the farms went to Oxford. Late on in the war on her return to England, Lady Tweedsmuir distributed seeds sent from Canada. There was, of course, a blackout. Everyone had to be careful because a light could be seen for miles – across Otmoor. One night, Mrs Webb heard a great thundering on the door. She was frightened and when she opened it and saw a man in uniform, even more frightened. She thought she might be in trouble because of showing a light, though she had been careful. However the man was a despatch rider and was very grateful that there had been a sliver of light creeping out from the bottom of her door. He had been completely lost in the dark. She gave him a cup of tea which he drank with relish, then set off again. She closed the door behind him and put a mat over the bottom of the door to keep the light in. School Cottage with the telephone box to the right In September 1940, during the Battle of Britain, there was an invasion alert. Mr Lafford was called by Mr Watts on the telephone in the kiosk next to the school and told there was danger of an invasion. Mr Lafford ran to the Vicarage to tell the vicar, who along with his wife ran across to the church and began to ring the bells. On that occasion, road blocks were manned at either end of the village all Saturday night and all day Sunday until the danger was past. The observation post was manned and if the Germans had invaded, there were 17 men who had been prepared to die for King and Country. Mr Watts was so thankful that the Battle of Britain was won that he sold a ram and gave the proceeds to the Red Cross. There was a barrier on the road from Elsfield to Marston before the junction with the Woodeaton road. On one occasion, Miss Deneke was challenged to show her identity card by the person manning the barricade. She was most surprised as, in general, every body knew everybody else. The road barriers were made from ladders mounted on a bicycle wheel at one end and fixed to a post at the other. This made them easy to wheel across and block the road, though how effective they would have been in stopping a tank is debatable. Sergeant Taylor was in charge of the Home Guard in Elsfield. They had no proper rifles at first but made do with poles and shot guns. They had bunk beds in the reading room at the school and kept watch at either end of the village, two of the men keeping watch at the northern end of the village so they could see over Otmoor and another two at the Oxford end of the village looking towards Headington. They would be on watch for two hours at a stretch. At the end of two hours, one of them would go and wake the next man by banging on his window with a prop. Unfortunately, one time they banged a bit too hard and the window broke. Pinker and Bedding were no. 1 patrol and operated between the observation hut (in the field next to the King Charles Oak) and the north road block. No. 2 patrol was Lt. Corp. Hambidge and Private Boolyer on high ground in the East looking towards Headington. Their job was to look out for enemy aircraft and enemy agents. There were three sections which made up a platoon: Elsfield, Beckley and Woodeaton. When they did acquire guns, the Browning automatic was manned by Corporal Watts and Privates Pinker and Millington. The Tommy gun was manned by Corporal Maltby. Private Maltby was the dispatch rider and Private Hayes was at the telephone kiosk. He would transmit messages to Private Lafford who would act as runner. The others stayed at their stations where they had a days’ supply of rations, gas masks, eye shades, ointment and field dressings. Fortunately, there was no invasion but the war did impinge on village life in a dramatic way. Mr Morse found an Anson plane in Woodeaton Wood. It had been there about two days and the pilot was dead. One German plane crashed on Otmoor and all six crew were killed and in 1945, an American Liberator got into difficulties over Headington: the men bailed out and the plane crashed at Forest Farm. When Mrs Merry and Mrs Phipps were cycling near Islip a bomb fell there, missing the petrol dump but destroying a house and killing some pigs. The shock of the blast blew Mrs Merry and Mrs Phipps off their bicycles. In 1943, Miss Parsons was called upon to provide accommodation for a Canadian Searchlight Company which was stationed in the village for two months. They cooked their meals on Miss Parsons’ oil stove in her dining room. Miss Parsons, determined to do her duty though she was now well on in her eighties, was also prevailed on to help with evacuees. As Oxfordshire was perceived as a relatively safe place from German bombing, arrangements were made to evacuate children from London. In the early months of the war, Miss Deneke was appointed billeting officer for these children. They were prepared to receive five children. A group of Elsfield residents waited by the old tree (at Tree Cottage) prepared to take them to Mrs Chaulk, Mrs Brown and Mrs Webb, who had all agreed to take a child or two, depending on spare bedrooms. They waited all afternoon, having been told that the children would arrive in the early afternoon. The bus did not come till six pm, driven by a surly driver. A biggish boy of 14 went to Mrs Webb, two little girls to Mrs Chaulk. Miss Deneke asked where the other three children were. The driver jerked his head in the direction of Church Farm. Miss Deneke hurried in that direction and was confronted by an outraged Mrs Brown guarding the gate. She had agreed to take two school age children but had been left with “a most unprepossessing little mother with one baby in her arms, another clinging to her skirts and in the advanced stages of expecting a third”. Mrs Brown refused to take them in, which Miss Deneke could understand, given the busy life led by a farmer’s wife. Miss Parsons agreed to take them in on a temporary basis. There was no antenatal clinic in Elsfield and no transport to get the mother to one, so she was eventually found a billet at Horspath and moved there. The mother had cried all the time – her unemployed husband had looked after the children and she didn’t know how. She didn’t understand why the lady had told her to leave London. She went home before long, but Miss Parsons had had a distressing time and her good spare room mattress was spoilt. The whole affair had shocked and outraged her. Mrs Webb’s boy proved too much for her. He was too old for Elsfield school and was transferred to Horspath where his school was billeted along with his teacher. Mrs Chaulk cleaned the heads of the little girls and got them some extra clothes. She got fond of them and thought she had established a relationship with the parents, but they turned up one day and took the children back to London without even saying thank you. Elsfield had received the wrong set of children and the reason was that Great Western Railways had muddled up the trains and sent the children destined for Oxfordshire to Bristol and the Bristol train to Oxford. The children they should have had landed in Weston Super Mare. Food rationing became an all important feature of life in wartime. It was introduce in January 1940 and gave equal shares of eggs, milk, bacon, ham, butter and sugar to everyone. Meat was rationed from March 1940 and in July tea, margerine and cooking fats were added to the list. In 1941, cheese and preserves were added and dried fruit, tinned goods and cerealswere also rationed. Food parcels, often from Canada, provided welcome additional food. Agricultural workers were allowed extra cheese and other foodstuffs at harvest and hay-making time and milk and eggs, being produced in the village, were more easily come by for Elsfield residents than for townsfolk. The WI was asked to co-operate with the Government. Food Advice Service. Mrs Bartlett, the treasurer, undertook to distribute recipes. Mrs Phipps became secretary of the WI Produce Guild and when a government scheme made 4d meat pies available in the countryside outside rations, she distributed them over a period of four and a half years. The government gave extra sugar to the WI so they could preserve fruit. This was done in Miss Parsons’ kitchen at Home Farm. In 1940, they made 1,193 and a half jars of jam and bottled 380 jars of fruit. In 1941, they made 399 lbs of jam and 105 bottles of fruit. The jam was collected by the Co-op for sale to their registered customers. The WI continued tea at its monthly meetings. Lady Tweedsmuir’s impassioned plea not to drop these, because of their social importance, “even if you have to drink cold water and gnaw a carrot” was not ignored. Everyone brought a pinch of their own tea from their ration to make what they called the Elsfield blend. At the first meeting after Lady Tweedsmuir returned from Canada, Mrs Kreyer gave a talk on salvage. Bones could be made into fat, glue and manure, she said. As the war went on, bones became scarcer because dogs were fed on scraps. Bones, ash and swill were kept separately, and all paper was saved for re-manufacture. It was taken to the Manor and collected by Mrs Balfour of Holton Park who collected for the whole district. The WI arranged to use the school as a rest centre in case of an air raid in Elsfield. That would have been adequate for a stray bomb but they were worried about what would happen if Oxford were attacked and people flooded out of the city into the country, as had happened in Southampton and Portsmouth. Throughout the war, the women of Elsfield WI knitted for the forces and the Merchant Navy and towards the end of the war “with a feeling of joyous relief” at having pink wool provided for small children in liberated Europe. (Greece and Holland, among other places.) According to Miss Deneke, the later evacuation was much better planned. In the second wave of evacuations, the 25 cottages were already full so Miss Deneke had to turn again to the farms, which were the only houses with any spare capacity, These however were reserved for soldiers and land workers. Miss Parsons said “with trembling lip” that she would take a “nice mother and baby”. Lady Tweedsmuir had arranged her own evacuees, among them a Mrs Robinson, a London housing expert, who took over some of Miss Deneke’s responsibilities. Nine further children were brought to Elsfield privately and proper billeting allowances were negotiated by Mrs Robinson. The Vicarage, too, had self-evacuated people who came and went. The children from London were intelligent but unruly. Most were from Holborn and they missed fish and chips, the streets, the shops, and found it difficult to adapt to life in the country so didn’t stay long. The school garden was involved in digging for victory. The children knitted for the Merchant Navy and collected books for servicemen. They collected waste paper – half a ton – which was stored at the Manor, and horsechestnuts for medicinal purposes which were sent to the national and county collections, and they corresponded with US children after Pearl Harbour in late 1941. Life at the Manor After the Tweedsmuirs went to Canada in 1935, the house was empty. During the London blitz in 1940, Lady Tweedsmuir’s mother Mrs Norman Grosvenor came to stay at the Manor. A Red Cross working party met at the manor every week for a short time until Mrs Grosvenor’s health failed, and she died at the Manor later that same year. A further tragedy struck the family when Lord Tweedsmuir himself died in Canada in the same year. He was cremated in Canada and his ashes were returned to Britain and received by Johnnie and William Buchan. His ashes were buried in Elsfield churchyard under a gravestone designed by Herbert Baker and with an inscription which translates as “Here in his own earth, lies a man of letters, who served his country and enjoyed the affection of countless friends.” The memorial service for him in Elsfield on the 17th February 1940 was held without Lady Tweedsmuir, who was still in Canada. Prof Gilbert Murray, his long time friend and teacher, spoke of John Buchan’s “liberal outlook of this most unusual conservative”. William Buchan read the Death of Valiant for Truth from Pilgrim’s Progress and the Pilgrim hymn was sung. Miss Deneke says that “Four clipped yews stand sentinel over the grave”. These are no longer there, having been removed by the Rev de Vere much later in the century. Amos Webb, his chauffeur who accompanied him to Canada, died shortly after Lord Tweedsmuir and is buried close by and John Buchan’s good friend Mr WFG Watts of Hill Farm also died before the end of the war, in January 1944. On her return from Canada, Lady Tweedsmuir entertained overseas soldiers on ‘Balliol leave’. This was a series of courses sponsored by Oxford University. The men came up every Thursday afternoon by bus. Miss Deneke helped Mrs Charlett, the Tweedsmuirs’ cook, Mrs Webb and Mrs Charles Maltby to provide 35 teas each time. How the soldiers spent their afternoon is not very clear but they were shown a piece of embroidered silk from Japan, an edition of a book about Italian monuments given by Mussolini to John Buchan, and a signed photograph of the King, Queen and Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret Rose. How entertaining they found this is not recorded but on their way in and out they were surrounded by village children who hung about waiting for the soldiers to give them chewing gum. Alistair Buchan’s wedding to Hope Gilmore Two years after Lord Tweedsmuir’s death, there was a much happier event. Alistair married Hope Gilmour of Ottawa on 11 April 1942. Dr Ernest Walker composed a new setting of ‘I will lift up mine eyes to the hills’. Margaret Deneke played the piano, specially imported for the occasion. Mr Rushworth brought the choir boys from St Michael’s Church, Oxford and Alistair was married in the uniform of the 14th Canadian Guards by Canon Hepburn, Chaplain to the Canadian Forces, and by the Reverend Aste. Alison Aste’s wedding to Kenneth Grayston, 1942 The church was packed, even the chancel being full. Alistair and Hope were pelted with primroses by the children, confetti not being available because of wartime restrictions and the wedding reception was at the Manor. Lady Tweedsmuir had to borrow crockery and glasses for the occasion. Also married in 1942 was Alison Aste, one of the two daughters of Rev Aste. Rev Aste at Water Eaton after christening Towards the end of the war, there was a great flight of planes, crossed Elsfield flying in close formation on their way to France presaging the end of the war and to celebrate VE Day, the village was gay with flags. There was tea at the Manor and games and sports. On VJ Day, there was a children’s party at the school organised by Mrs Merry and Mrs Winfield when every children was given half a crown. It was indeed the end of an era, and as if to underline that fact, in March 1945, that pillar of village life, Miss Parsons, died at the age of eighty-nine.	7,630	ENGLISH	1
This is not to say that all of the nobility took part in reaction against the monarchy but the numbers of French aristocrats that were rebelling was significant. This was an essay designed to explain the similarities and differences on the French and American Revolutions. End of Essay Note: This radical change in the principles, opinions, sentiments, and affections of the people, was the real American Revolution. That shows that the two revolutions are the same. The American Revolution was about the independence of a country. Although the revolutions of both started for very similar reasons, and both countries fought for the same thing, the outcomes of the two were very different. With such nepotism, the introduction of an elected or mixed-class parliament would obliterate their security. This is significant because the American colonists probably had more time to prepare for an invasion and as an addition to, the country of Britain was far away from America. American Revolution or French Revolution? Most of them were honored after the Revolution and lived long lives. They believed in working hard to make money and do what they wanted with it. One of them is the fact that the American's had warships and the French rebels did not. On the other hand, the British, the opponent to the Americans, were weakened because of outside mostly colonial and land-grabbing wars. Overall, the American and French Revolutions had many similarities, with a number of outstanding differences. The French were rapidly losing trust in the King, in fact many nobles began moving out of the palace of Versailles. In sum, these revolutions had more in common than it might appear despite the slight difference in time period and national histories. America was obligated to pay off the war, and to pay the high taxes that British Parliament assigned. On the other hand the French revolution was about human rights. The Americans planned their revolution for many years and executed it with the help of the French economically and military. When one man stole some of the tea, he was punished by the colony. Should these two revolutions, American and French, be acclaimed as "similar"? This is significant because the French rebels did not have a navy as the Americans had a navy. They were making their own laws and living by their own wits. And many Americans promoted the French Revolution, and the Americans were indebted to the French who advanced their revolution, providing both money and material to the cause.Comparing and Contrasting the American and French Revolutions Essay - The American Revolution began for two reasons: political and economic, while the French Revolution began with domination and mismanagement that contributed to the French society. Jun 16, · This essay is devoted to providing a contrast to the American and French Revolutions, with a conclusion that these were two very different events. Samuel Adams has been called the "Father of the American Revolution."Reviews: Compare and the contrast the American Constitution and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man (). Compare American and French politics of the 18 th and 19 th centuries. Compare and Contrast the American and French Revolutions Essay Sample Both the American and French Revolutions were focused around liberty and equality. Both countries were trying to gain freedom. Compare and Contrast Essay on the French and American Revolutions: This was an essay designed to explain the similarities and differences on the French and American Revolutions. Compare and Contrast American French and Latin American Revolutions Essay Compare and Analyze the America, French, and Latin American Revolution Throughout history, people have been oppressed and ruled by unfair governments.Download	<urn:uuid:24a39925-4a9a-46a1-b8b2-2547096fd5e8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mytacyy.willeyshandmadecandy.com/compare-and-contrast-french-and-american-revolution-essay-1182mk.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00426.warc.gz	en	0.981373	720	3.34375	3	[ -0.37496045231819153, 0.3433260917663574, -0.025458330288529396, -0.2765183448791504, 0.006840874440968037, 0.22964203357696533, -0.039900802075862885, 0.3286016583442688, 0.04219356179237366, 0.0400838777422905, 0.03260445594787598, 0.41948142647743225, 0.02506856806576252, 0.164622008800...	1	This is not to say that all of the nobility took part in reaction against the monarchy but the numbers of French aristocrats that were rebelling was significant. This was an essay designed to explain the similarities and differences on the French and American Revolutions. End of Essay Note: This radical change in the principles, opinions, sentiments, and affections of the people, was the real American Revolution. That shows that the two revolutions are the same. The American Revolution was about the independence of a country. Although the revolutions of both started for very similar reasons, and both countries fought for the same thing, the outcomes of the two were very different. With such nepotism, the introduction of an elected or mixed-class parliament would obliterate their security. This is significant because the American colonists probably had more time to prepare for an invasion and as an addition to, the country of Britain was far away from America. American Revolution or French Revolution? Most of them were honored after the Revolution and lived long lives. They believed in working hard to make money and do what they wanted with it. One of them is the fact that the American's had warships and the French rebels did not. On the other hand, the British, the opponent to the Americans, were weakened because of outside mostly colonial and land-grabbing wars. Overall, the American and French Revolutions had many similarities, with a number of outstanding differences. The French were rapidly losing trust in the King, in fact many nobles began moving out of the palace of Versailles. In sum, these revolutions had more in common than it might appear despite the slight difference in time period and national histories. America was obligated to pay off the war, and to pay the high taxes that British Parliament assigned. On the other hand the French revolution was about human rights. The Americans planned their revolution for many years and executed it with the help of the French economically and military. When one man stole some of the tea, he was punished by the colony. Should these two revolutions, American and French, be acclaimed as "similar"? This is significant because the French rebels did not have a navy as the Americans had a navy. They were making their own laws and living by their own wits. And many Americans promoted the French Revolution, and the Americans were indebted to the French who advanced their revolution, providing both money and material to the cause.Comparing and Contrasting the American and French Revolutions Essay - The American Revolution began for two reasons: political and economic, while the French Revolution began with domination and mismanagement that contributed to the French society. Jun 16, · This essay is devoted to providing a contrast to the American and French Revolutions, with a conclusion that these were two very different events. Samuel Adams has been called the "Father of the American Revolution."Reviews: Compare and the contrast the American Constitution and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man (). Compare American and French politics of the 18 th and 19 th centuries. Compare and Contrast the American and French Revolutions Essay Sample Both the American and French Revolutions were focused around liberty and equality. Both countries were trying to gain freedom. Compare and Contrast Essay on the French and American Revolutions: This was an essay designed to explain the similarities and differences on the French and American Revolutions. Compare and Contrast American French and Latin American Revolutions Essay Compare and Analyze the America, French, and Latin American Revolution Throughout history, people have been oppressed and ruled by unfair governments.Download	709	ENGLISH	1
Ferguson was born into slavery in 1779, while her mother, Katy Williams, was being transported from Virginia to New York City. After her mother was sold as a slave when Catherine was eight years old, she never had the chance to see her again. Ferguson referred to their master, a Presbyterian elder, only by the initials "R. B.", in order "to conceal his identity" and to prevent embarrassment from his own family. Her separation from her mother became her inspiration for helping children later in her life. At about the age of sixteen or seventeen, a female friend bought Ferguson her freedom for US$200, an amount that she had to repay over a period of six years. But the original agreement was changed later: instead of repayment of the sum, Ferguson's benefactor decided to accept her offer of serving the "lady of the city" for eleven months, which became the equivalent of US$100. The remaining half was raised by Divie Bethune, a merchant in New York. Afterwards, Ferguson became a baker of cakes sold for "weddings and parties". Ferguson married at the age of eighteen. She bore two children who both died during their infancy. She died of cholera at her home in 1854, at about 75 years of age. Although illiterate, Ferguson took care of poor and neglected black and white children in her neighborhood. Every Sunday, she brought these children to her home on Warren Street, New York, in order to provide them with religious education. From her house, and through the encouragement of a local minister, Rev. Dr. John Mitchell Mason of the Associate Reformed Church, her Sunday School was moved to the basement of a church - where there was a lecture room - on Murray Street in about 1814. Because of her illiteracy, Ferguson was unable to write about her experiences in early America, thus being seldom mentioned by historians, but she was described to have responded to "the needs of the poor in an era which the poor were notably neglected". Later on, her school became known as the Murray Street Sabbath School. Ferguson's teaching instructions included the memorization of hymns and Scripture. Among Ferguson's visitors to the school were Isabella Graham and Reverend Isaac Ferris. Apart from her efforts in educating children, Ferguson also held prayer meetings for children and adults twice a week, a work that went on for more than 40 years. She also took care of 48 children she had gathered "from the streets or from the unfit parents" until she was able to find "suitable homes for them". Ferguson gained a degree of prominence during her lifetime because of her social work, as evidenced by the attention she received from the press when she died. Examples were the notice about her death in The New York Times on July 13, 1854, and a brief biography published by the Tribune on July 20, 1854. As a tribute to her work, the Katy Ferguson Home for unwed mothers was established in New York in 1920. Ferguson was also included among 330 notable persons in a biographical dictionary of Benson J. Lossing.	<urn:uuid:b9ada04f-3917-4b04-845e-f7f2c0c269b8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alchetron.com/Catherine-Ferguson-%28educator%29	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00068.warc.gz	en	0.992477	631	3.3125	3	[ -0.02500549703836441, -0.0191827230155468, 0.682820737361908, 0.2942698001861572, -0.3576146364212036, 0.11750161647796631, -0.2721051871776581, -0.0805443525314331, -0.25985750555992126, 0.07819265127182007, 0.35426050424575806, -0.1718384325504303, -0.37964195013046265, -0.10879853367805...	1	Ferguson was born into slavery in 1779, while her mother, Katy Williams, was being transported from Virginia to New York City. After her mother was sold as a slave when Catherine was eight years old, she never had the chance to see her again. Ferguson referred to their master, a Presbyterian elder, only by the initials "R. B.", in order "to conceal his identity" and to prevent embarrassment from his own family. Her separation from her mother became her inspiration for helping children later in her life. At about the age of sixteen or seventeen, a female friend bought Ferguson her freedom for US$200, an amount that she had to repay over a period of six years. But the original agreement was changed later: instead of repayment of the sum, Ferguson's benefactor decided to accept her offer of serving the "lady of the city" for eleven months, which became the equivalent of US$100. The remaining half was raised by Divie Bethune, a merchant in New York. Afterwards, Ferguson became a baker of cakes sold for "weddings and parties". Ferguson married at the age of eighteen. She bore two children who both died during their infancy. She died of cholera at her home in 1854, at about 75 years of age. Although illiterate, Ferguson took care of poor and neglected black and white children in her neighborhood. Every Sunday, she brought these children to her home on Warren Street, New York, in order to provide them with religious education. From her house, and through the encouragement of a local minister, Rev. Dr. John Mitchell Mason of the Associate Reformed Church, her Sunday School was moved to the basement of a church - where there was a lecture room - on Murray Street in about 1814. Because of her illiteracy, Ferguson was unable to write about her experiences in early America, thus being seldom mentioned by historians, but she was described to have responded to "the needs of the poor in an era which the poor were notably neglected". Later on, her school became known as the Murray Street Sabbath School. Ferguson's teaching instructions included the memorization of hymns and Scripture. Among Ferguson's visitors to the school were Isabella Graham and Reverend Isaac Ferris. Apart from her efforts in educating children, Ferguson also held prayer meetings for children and adults twice a week, a work that went on for more than 40 years. She also took care of 48 children she had gathered "from the streets or from the unfit parents" until she was able to find "suitable homes for them". Ferguson gained a degree of prominence during her lifetime because of her social work, as evidenced by the attention she received from the press when she died. Examples were the notice about her death in The New York Times on July 13, 1854, and a brief biography published by the Tribune on July 20, 1854. As a tribute to her work, the Katy Ferguson Home for unwed mothers was established in New York in 1920. Ferguson was also included among 330 notable persons in a biographical dictionary of Benson J. Lossing.	661	ENGLISH	1
Elizabeth Blackwell was a great woman. She was the first woman to receive a Medical degree in America. She opened an Infirmary for women and children in New York.Elizabeth Blackwell was born on February 3 1821 in Bristol, England. But was raised differently then most children at this time. See women were treated differently than men. Women were given little education and were not allowed to hold important positions. They were not allowed to be doctors, bankers, or lawyers, and all the money they made had to go to the men in the family. Since women couldn't become Doctors their were few around. Many women would lose their babies because there was no medicine around. This happened to Elizabeth's mom. Her parents wanted a big family but almost every time her mom gave birth she would lose the baby. This made made Elizabeth sad. Elizabeth was determined that when she grew up she would become a doctor, so that she could help babies and children to stay healthy. She was going to study and work hard to reach her goal. Elizabeth studied very hard. She read every book in her house and was the teacher's best pupil. She never got bored of learning or trying new things; and years later she became a medical student. All the young men teased her in her class, but she learned to deal with it. For a long time the Blackwell's ran a sugar business. It was very successful, until one day the business started to loose money and they had to move to America; and there she would be able to go to a better school. So, on August 1832 they left to America on a ship. The trip was very hard for them it was like a nightmare. More than 200 people were crowded aboard the ship, and most of them brought cattle, rat-infested blackness below the deck of the ship. Even first-class passengers like the Blackwell's were miserable. There were outbreaks...	<urn:uuid:23ca8705-7feb-4bda-9ca6-ea07ab6b77e4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/elizabeth-blackwell-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00503.warc.gz	en	0.996902	386	3.5625	4	[ 0.24820995330810547, -0.18422436714172363, 0.18178139626979828, 0.12305878847837448, -0.2199815809726715, 0.016432520002126694, 0.3061511218547821, 0.0002308860857738182, -0.5386325716972351, 0.024937225505709648, 0.12896601855754852, 0.06047622486948967, -0.02819698117673397, 0.3881454467...	1	Elizabeth Blackwell was a great woman. She was the first woman to receive a Medical degree in America. She opened an Infirmary for women and children in New York.Elizabeth Blackwell was born on February 3 1821 in Bristol, England. But was raised differently then most children at this time. See women were treated differently than men. Women were given little education and were not allowed to hold important positions. They were not allowed to be doctors, bankers, or lawyers, and all the money they made had to go to the men in the family. Since women couldn't become Doctors their were few around. Many women would lose their babies because there was no medicine around. This happened to Elizabeth's mom. Her parents wanted a big family but almost every time her mom gave birth she would lose the baby. This made made Elizabeth sad. Elizabeth was determined that when she grew up she would become a doctor, so that she could help babies and children to stay healthy. She was going to study and work hard to reach her goal. Elizabeth studied very hard. She read every book in her house and was the teacher's best pupil. She never got bored of learning or trying new things; and years later she became a medical student. All the young men teased her in her class, but she learned to deal with it. For a long time the Blackwell's ran a sugar business. It was very successful, until one day the business started to loose money and they had to move to America; and there she would be able to go to a better school. So, on August 1832 they left to America on a ship. The trip was very hard for them it was like a nightmare. More than 200 people were crowded aboard the ship, and most of them brought cattle, rat-infested blackness below the deck of the ship. Even first-class passengers like the Blackwell's were miserable. There were outbreaks...	396	ENGLISH	1
"HOSPITALITY" Greek mythological stories contain many entertaining features: terrible monsters-Medusa and Hydra-, adventurous heroes-Perseus and Hercules-, and amazing gods-Zeus and Athena-. In addition to entertaining the reader, Edith Hamilton's Mythology contains many Greek values and morals that can educate the reader. Many scholars study these values to learn more about the ancient Greek culture. One particular value shown throughout Greek myths is hospitality. A great show of hospitality is when a Greek was taken in to one's home to live with them as part of their family. The best example of this is when the old fisherman, Dict ys, discovered a chest containing Dana and Perseus and took them home to live with him and his wife. "They had no children and they cared for Dana and Perseus as if they were their own" (148). Without this show of hospitality, Dana and Perseus may not have survived. Also, without this show of cordiality Perseus would not have been able to become the hero he is and accomplish the great tasks he completed throughout his life. Another example of one's being taken in occurs in the story of Demeter. Demeter, disguised as a poor aged woman because of the misery of her daughter's kidnapping, was found by four lovely maidens, who after talking to their mother, Metaneira, took Demeter in with them. Here Demeter was given food and a house to live in. This hospitality helped Demeter to cope with the abduction of her daughter, Persephone because it not only allowed her to nurse the child, Demo phon, but also to interact with other people. These two myths show how much hospitality was a significant part of Greek culture. Many Greek heroes were aided by strangers while on their journeys. A good example of this form of hospitality is when Telemachus stays with Menelaus on his quest to find news regarding his father, Odysseus. Here Menelaus held a splendid banquet and gave Telemachus the information he was asking for (216). Telemachus was then given a bed to sleep and spent the night in the beautiful house. Another example also from the Odyssey is when Odysseus stays with the Phaeacians. "Here the King raised him and bade hum sit at table and take his fill if food and drink without fear. He could rest assured that they would arrange to send home in one of their ships" (220). The Phaeacians indeed sent Odysseus home and ended his terrible journey. Other heroes such as, Perseus, were also given hospitality while on their journeys. Perseus came to gathering place of the Hyperboreans while on his journey to kill the gorgon, Medusa. "They showed him great kindness: they welcomed him to their feast, and maidens dancing to the sound of the flute and lyre paused to get for him the gifts he sought" (151). With the help of the Hyperboreans, Perseus was able to then pursue his quest. With the help of the hospitality of others in these examples, the heroes were able to attack their goals with a better mentality. In conclusion, hospitality is a very important trait because it represents the characteristics of a moral Greek. In ancient Greece, a stranger that comes upon a house would be welcomed in and given food to eat. Today, however, a stranger comes upon a house and is sent away. The main differences of hospitality in Greek time than in modern day are modern day people show no hospitality.	<urn:uuid:62299387-2def-42e1-854c-c61872291a0a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaypride.com/ex/great-show-of-hospitality-51851	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00222.warc.gz	en	0.981664	729	3.546875	4	[ 0.41992270946502686, 0.05947498977184296, 0.2324659526348114, -0.03691094368696213, -0.3673441410064697, -0.45332586765289307, 0.28888407349586487, 0.4739985167980194, -0.1253429800271988, 0.06830012798309326, -0.35085487365722656, -0.21348747611045837, -0.16915389895439148, 0.345369637012...	1	"HOSPITALITY" Greek mythological stories contain many entertaining features: terrible monsters-Medusa and Hydra-, adventurous heroes-Perseus and Hercules-, and amazing gods-Zeus and Athena-. In addition to entertaining the reader, Edith Hamilton's Mythology contains many Greek values and morals that can educate the reader. Many scholars study these values to learn more about the ancient Greek culture. One particular value shown throughout Greek myths is hospitality. A great show of hospitality is when a Greek was taken in to one's home to live with them as part of their family. The best example of this is when the old fisherman, Dict ys, discovered a chest containing Dana and Perseus and took them home to live with him and his wife. "They had no children and they cared for Dana and Perseus as if they were their own" (148). Without this show of hospitality, Dana and Perseus may not have survived. Also, without this show of cordiality Perseus would not have been able to become the hero he is and accomplish the great tasks he completed throughout his life. Another example of one's being taken in occurs in the story of Demeter. Demeter, disguised as a poor aged woman because of the misery of her daughter's kidnapping, was found by four lovely maidens, who after talking to their mother, Metaneira, took Demeter in with them. Here Demeter was given food and a house to live in. This hospitality helped Demeter to cope with the abduction of her daughter, Persephone because it not only allowed her to nurse the child, Demo phon, but also to interact with other people. These two myths show how much hospitality was a significant part of Greek culture. Many Greek heroes were aided by strangers while on their journeys. A good example of this form of hospitality is when Telemachus stays with Menelaus on his quest to find news regarding his father, Odysseus. Here Menelaus held a splendid banquet and gave Telemachus the information he was asking for (216). Telemachus was then given a bed to sleep and spent the night in the beautiful house. Another example also from the Odyssey is when Odysseus stays with the Phaeacians. "Here the King raised him and bade hum sit at table and take his fill if food and drink without fear. He could rest assured that they would arrange to send home in one of their ships" (220). The Phaeacians indeed sent Odysseus home and ended his terrible journey. Other heroes such as, Perseus, were also given hospitality while on their journeys. Perseus came to gathering place of the Hyperboreans while on his journey to kill the gorgon, Medusa. "They showed him great kindness: they welcomed him to their feast, and maidens dancing to the sound of the flute and lyre paused to get for him the gifts he sought" (151). With the help of the Hyperboreans, Perseus was able to then pursue his quest. With the help of the hospitality of others in these examples, the heroes were able to attack their goals with a better mentality. In conclusion, hospitality is a very important trait because it represents the characteristics of a moral Greek. In ancient Greece, a stranger that comes upon a house would be welcomed in and given food to eat. Today, however, a stranger comes upon a house and is sent away. The main differences of hospitality in Greek time than in modern day are modern day people show no hospitality.	737	ENGLISH	1
Memorial places from 1933 to 1990 Various monuments from the national socialist era, the GDR years, and from the time during which Germany was divided, have been preserved in the state of Brandenburg and near the former capital of the Reich, Berlin, which was occupied and divided after 1945. Many of these sites have a double history, like the woodlands in the north of Berlin which served both the ruling class during the “Third Reich” and the political elite of the GDR as a recreational area. Sites for concentration and prisoner of war camps endured a similar fate: After 1945, the Soviet occupational force utilised these camps as special camps. The prisons and workhouses employed by the national socialists to imprison their opponents later served the Soviets and SED regime to put behind bars political prisoners.	<urn:uuid:df942689-27a0-4fb2-ba3d-abbd58ca303f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.brandenburg-tourism.com/experiences/experience-culture/places-of-remembrance/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00548.warc.gz	en	0.981131	161	3.578125	4	[ 0.030618373304605484, 0.6783539652824402, 0.33154457807540894, 0.0018531387904658914, 0.29457810521125793, 0.29518330097198486, -0.05863487347960472, -0.3204553425312042, -0.2995948791503906, -0.6239452958106995, 0.1593778431415558, -0.16973786056041718, 0.2746928036212921, 0.8934475779533...	15	Memorial places from 1933 to 1990 Various monuments from the national socialist era, the GDR years, and from the time during which Germany was divided, have been preserved in the state of Brandenburg and near the former capital of the Reich, Berlin, which was occupied and divided after 1945. Many of these sites have a double history, like the woodlands in the north of Berlin which served both the ruling class during the “Third Reich” and the political elite of the GDR as a recreational area. Sites for concentration and prisoner of war camps endured a similar fate: After 1945, the Soviet occupational force utilised these camps as special camps. The prisons and workhouses employed by the national socialists to imprison their opponents later served the Soviets and SED regime to put behind bars political prisoners.	176	ENGLISH	1
October 1944, an order has been issued to erase a city from the surface of Earth. Issuing the order was Hitler, and the city to be destroyed was Warsaw. While a large part of it was demolished, it has luckily not been erased. Today, we can say the city rose from the ashes and became one of the fastest growing cities in Europe. World War II was by far the worst event in the history of humankind. It left many parts of the World completely devastated. One of the countries that suffered many losses was Poland. It is here, where the conflict started on September 1st, 1939. The capital of the country was a centre of many military actions as well as the resistance movement. Throughout the 6 years of war 65% of the city’s infrastructure has been demolished. Historic buildings, works of art, archives, all of that was lost for future generations. Seeing the pictures from that period makes you shiver. The city was a ruin. But looking at Warsaw today, you wouldn’t be able to tell. It got it’s second life and is using it very well. How Did it all Unfold It all started with the siege of Warsaw, that took place between 8th and 28th of September 1939. During that time many lives were lost and many parts of the city wrecked by bombs dropped by the Luftwaffe. Another tragedy came in 1943. The Ghetto Uprising left the capital in devastation. The decision of the Jewish underground to demonstrate against the forces of the Third Reich was a result of the resolve to liquidate the ghetto. It was part of the plan of the extermination of European Jews. The uprising took place between 19 April and mid-May. It was the first urban uprising in the occupied Europe. Unfortunately, it did not succeed. After the uprising, the Germans razed the Warsaw ghetto to the ground. They burned and blown out all the houses in the area of the fighting. Almost nothing was left there. But the biggest blow was yet to come. The Warsaw Uprising was military action targeted against the Germans, and politically also the USSR between 1st of August and 3rd of October 1944. It was a part of the operation “Storm” as well as the emergence of the Polish Underground State. The insurgents were hoping to defeat the Nazis before the Red Army enters the city. That would allow them to be more independent from the USSR. But the resistance did not have the numbers and sadly didn’t receive significant help from its allies. Their territory was taken by the enemy army and in the end, the last of them had to flee to survive. The final strike fell on the Old Town, where the civilians and severely wounded insurgents were massacred. The uprising lasted for 63 days and ended with the capitulation of the Poles. What happened afterwards is now called the Demolition of Warsaw. The enemy army would destroy and burn down the city. Between October 1944 and January 1945, they destroyed about 30% of what was left on the left bank of the Vistula river. Hundreds of priceless monuments and objects of great cultural, religious and economic value were lost. Together with the previous events it left Warsaw completely devastated. 84% of the infrastructure in the left bank and 65% of the entire area of the city was now a ruin. Before the end of the war, all of the bridges, railway stations, passenger aircraft equipment and telephone exchanges as well as nearly all of the industrial, historic, cultural, religious, and public buildings were gone. For a while, it felt as if the plan to remove the city from the map of Poland was a success. But somehow, thanks to the determination of its people, Warsaw rose from the ashes. The Reconstruction of Warsaw After the war, no one believed Warsaw could ever be restored. There were even voiced that claimed it would be better to leave it as it is. The ruins would be a unique monument of the war, reminding future generations of its monstrosity. But the people would come to the city in hopes of bringing back its former glory. It was also important to Stalin to have bargaining chip on the upcoming conference in Yalta. The decision has been made. But where did the money for such a project come from? The answer may be shocking, but – the people. The only sources of funding were the voluntary contributions of the citizens. The Social Fund for Reconstruction of the Capital that existed between 1945 and 1965 and collected the money for this case. At first, Warsaw was supposed to be brought back to life in its shape from before the war. But even though the idea was noble, it was impossible to execute. Apart from places like Old Town, Nowy Świat (New World) and the Royal Castle, the majority of the city was to be modern. The efforts of the Polish people paid off. The World admired their commitment and the work they did to restore their capital. In 1980 the Old Town of Warsaw was listed as a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO. The European Metropolis Despite misbelief and many obstacles, Warsaw managed to remain the capital of Poland. Not only that but today it is also the largest city in the country, in terms of both population and area. It is a political, economic and cultural centre of the country. As a capital, it is a home to the President, the Government, and the Parliament. Warsaw is also the seat of the Frontex agency responsible for the security of the European Union’s external borders as well as the Office of Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR). Many polish and foreign companies open their offices in the city. The city’s landscape is now full of skyscrapers. They are the tallest buildings in Poland, with the Palace of Culture and Science at the top of the list with 237 m of altitude. The Warsaw Spire and Warsaw Trade Tower come in next. Altogether currently there are over 60 skyscrapers in the capital of Poland, and the number will grow significantly in the upcoming years. The city is a true global metropolis. There are quite a few places in the city you cannot miss. One of them is the mentioned above Palace of Culture and Science. As a gift to the Polish people from the Soviets, it is rather controversial. But whether everybody likes it or not, it has become a symbol of the city. It is a home to museum, theatres, cinemas and universities. Many exhibitions and fairs take place inside of it. But what you simply cannot miss is visiting its observation deck on the 30th floor. It gives you a panoramic view of the city so you can truly admire how it has grown. For a nice Sunday stroll, you can head out to the Łazienki Park. This palace and garden complex comes from the 18th century. Apart from buildings, such as the Palace on the Isle, pavilions and sculptures, there are four gardens there, Royal, Romantic, Modernist and Chinese. It is a very peaceful and very beautiful place. And you obviously must go to the Old Town, the oldest urban centre of the city. It has a complex of ancient architecture, mostly from the 17th and 18th centuries. The most famous part of it is the Castle Square, with the Royal Castle, the column of the king Sigismund III. 85% of the Old Town has been destroyed during the event of the war, but the Poles restored it so with such commitment, that you wouldn’t be able to tell from just walking around it. There are hundreds of interesting sites in Warsaw. It is a vibrant, modern city with plenty to offer. We only touched the surface of what you can find there. It is inspiring how it went from ruins to the biggest city in the country and how it grew despite the odds.	<urn:uuid:7b0ae196-8dcf-470e-a344-a44fc0caa721>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.blog.bidroom.com/warsaw-ruins-skyscrapers/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00030.warc.gz	en	0.982126	1,615	3.3125	3	[ -0.43113672733306885, 0.36760979890823364, 0.18594121932983398, 0.18275058269500732, -0.022959690541028976, 0.07594071328639984, -0.09778519719839096, 0.27539563179016113, -0.02813406102359295, 0.11092328280210495, -0.01863529160618782, 0.03786924481391907, -0.044410571455955505, 0.5638257...	9	October 1944, an order has been issued to erase a city from the surface of Earth. Issuing the order was Hitler, and the city to be destroyed was Warsaw. While a large part of it was demolished, it has luckily not been erased. Today, we can say the city rose from the ashes and became one of the fastest growing cities in Europe. World War II was by far the worst event in the history of humankind. It left many parts of the World completely devastated. One of the countries that suffered many losses was Poland. It is here, where the conflict started on September 1st, 1939. The capital of the country was a centre of many military actions as well as the resistance movement. Throughout the 6 years of war 65% of the city’s infrastructure has been demolished. Historic buildings, works of art, archives, all of that was lost for future generations. Seeing the pictures from that period makes you shiver. The city was a ruin. But looking at Warsaw today, you wouldn’t be able to tell. It got it’s second life and is using it very well. How Did it all Unfold It all started with the siege of Warsaw, that took place between 8th and 28th of September 1939. During that time many lives were lost and many parts of the city wrecked by bombs dropped by the Luftwaffe. Another tragedy came in 1943. The Ghetto Uprising left the capital in devastation. The decision of the Jewish underground to demonstrate against the forces of the Third Reich was a result of the resolve to liquidate the ghetto. It was part of the plan of the extermination of European Jews. The uprising took place between 19 April and mid-May. It was the first urban uprising in the occupied Europe. Unfortunately, it did not succeed. After the uprising, the Germans razed the Warsaw ghetto to the ground. They burned and blown out all the houses in the area of the fighting. Almost nothing was left there. But the biggest blow was yet to come. The Warsaw Uprising was military action targeted against the Germans, and politically also the USSR between 1st of August and 3rd of October 1944. It was a part of the operation “Storm” as well as the emergence of the Polish Underground State. The insurgents were hoping to defeat the Nazis before the Red Army enters the city. That would allow them to be more independent from the USSR. But the resistance did not have the numbers and sadly didn’t receive significant help from its allies. Their territory was taken by the enemy army and in the end, the last of them had to flee to survive. The final strike fell on the Old Town, where the civilians and severely wounded insurgents were massacred. The uprising lasted for 63 days and ended with the capitulation of the Poles. What happened afterwards is now called the Demolition of Warsaw. The enemy army would destroy and burn down the city. Between October 1944 and January 1945, they destroyed about 30% of what was left on the left bank of the Vistula river. Hundreds of priceless monuments and objects of great cultural, religious and economic value were lost. Together with the previous events it left Warsaw completely devastated. 84% of the infrastructure in the left bank and 65% of the entire area of the city was now a ruin. Before the end of the war, all of the bridges, railway stations, passenger aircraft equipment and telephone exchanges as well as nearly all of the industrial, historic, cultural, religious, and public buildings were gone. For a while, it felt as if the plan to remove the city from the map of Poland was a success. But somehow, thanks to the determination of its people, Warsaw rose from the ashes. The Reconstruction of Warsaw After the war, no one believed Warsaw could ever be restored. There were even voiced that claimed it would be better to leave it as it is. The ruins would be a unique monument of the war, reminding future generations of its monstrosity. But the people would come to the city in hopes of bringing back its former glory. It was also important to Stalin to have bargaining chip on the upcoming conference in Yalta. The decision has been made. But where did the money for such a project come from? The answer may be shocking, but – the people. The only sources of funding were the voluntary contributions of the citizens. The Social Fund for Reconstruction of the Capital that existed between 1945 and 1965 and collected the money for this case. At first, Warsaw was supposed to be brought back to life in its shape from before the war. But even though the idea was noble, it was impossible to execute. Apart from places like Old Town, Nowy Świat (New World) and the Royal Castle, the majority of the city was to be modern. The efforts of the Polish people paid off. The World admired their commitment and the work they did to restore their capital. In 1980 the Old Town of Warsaw was listed as a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO. The European Metropolis Despite misbelief and many obstacles, Warsaw managed to remain the capital of Poland. Not only that but today it is also the largest city in the country, in terms of both population and area. It is a political, economic and cultural centre of the country. As a capital, it is a home to the President, the Government, and the Parliament. Warsaw is also the seat of the Frontex agency responsible for the security of the European Union’s external borders as well as the Office of Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR). Many polish and foreign companies open their offices in the city. The city’s landscape is now full of skyscrapers. They are the tallest buildings in Poland, with the Palace of Culture and Science at the top of the list with 237 m of altitude. The Warsaw Spire and Warsaw Trade Tower come in next. Altogether currently there are over 60 skyscrapers in the capital of Poland, and the number will grow significantly in the upcoming years. The city is a true global metropolis. There are quite a few places in the city you cannot miss. One of them is the mentioned above Palace of Culture and Science. As a gift to the Polish people from the Soviets, it is rather controversial. But whether everybody likes it or not, it has become a symbol of the city. It is a home to museum, theatres, cinemas and universities. Many exhibitions and fairs take place inside of it. But what you simply cannot miss is visiting its observation deck on the 30th floor. It gives you a panoramic view of the city so you can truly admire how it has grown. For a nice Sunday stroll, you can head out to the Łazienki Park. This palace and garden complex comes from the 18th century. Apart from buildings, such as the Palace on the Isle, pavilions and sculptures, there are four gardens there, Royal, Romantic, Modernist and Chinese. It is a very peaceful and very beautiful place. And you obviously must go to the Old Town, the oldest urban centre of the city. It has a complex of ancient architecture, mostly from the 17th and 18th centuries. The most famous part of it is the Castle Square, with the Royal Castle, the column of the king Sigismund III. 85% of the Old Town has been destroyed during the event of the war, but the Poles restored it so with such commitment, that you wouldn’t be able to tell from just walking around it. There are hundreds of interesting sites in Warsaw. It is a vibrant, modern city with plenty to offer. We only touched the surface of what you can find there. It is inspiring how it went from ruins to the biggest city in the country and how it grew despite the odds.	1,647	ENGLISH	1
Edmonia Lewis Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Mary Edmonia Lewis was born on July 4th, 1844. She was an American sculptor who hailed as the first African-American woman to receive accolades in the field of arts. Her prominence came as a result of bringing together artistic themes associated with black people in the 19th century. Also, her exceptional work saw her name included in the list of 100 Greatest African Americans by MolefiKete Asante. Mary Edmonia Lewis was born on July 4th, 1844. She was the daughter of an Afro-Haitian father and an African-American mother. Lewis’ father worked as a servant while her mother was a craftswoman and a weaver. Orphaned at a tender age of nine, Lewis, together with her older half-brother were forced to live with their aunt near Niagara Falls. Here, she took part in selling baskets alongside other items including blouses and moccasins. Lewis first joined Oberlin College at the age of 15 where she began to study art. She stood out as one of the few students of color and this as she claimed, subjected her to discrimination and racism. Despite studying up to her final year, Lewis did not graduate because of some challenges. Consequently, she had to leave school. In 1864, Lewis began to pursue her sculpting career in Boston. She received help from abolitionist William Garrison who introduced her to practicing sculptors. In turn, Lewis got hands-on experience on ways of mastering the art. From here she progressed and later set up her studio. The most notable sculpting piece that earned her fame was that of Colonel Robert Shaw. Lewis gained quite a fortune from the art. She later moved to Rome where she joined several American artists including women. While in Italy Lewis continued with her artwork and in 1867, she produced “Forever Free.” The artwork indicated a black man and woman breaking out of slavery. She went on to produce more prized pieces including “The Arrow Maker” (1866) and “The Death of Cleopatra” (1876). The sculpture of the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra also earned her quite an important public salute. Lewis then worked on carvings of American presidents including Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses S. Grant. Lewis had no known marriage engagement or children. Edmonia Lewis died on September 17th, 1907 in Hammersmith, London. Her death documents indicate that she died of chronic Bright’s disease. Her art pieces are permanently placed at Smithson American Art Museum and Howard University Gallery of Art.	<urn:uuid:e5753fb2-44d9-4455-a31f-b8fb71f2b907>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/edmonia-lewis/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00001.warc.gz	en	0.986231	562	3.515625	4	[ -0.18555037677288055, 0.1287158727645874, 0.901743471622467, 0.3714852035045624, -0.44010066986083984, 0.15144263207912445, 0.25778403878211975, -0.04360877722501755, -0.08181886374950409, 0.27426737546920776, -0.4542102515697479, -0.12365647405385971, -0.3969901502132416, -0.0516902357339...	9	Edmonia Lewis Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Mary Edmonia Lewis was born on July 4th, 1844. She was an American sculptor who hailed as the first African-American woman to receive accolades in the field of arts. Her prominence came as a result of bringing together artistic themes associated with black people in the 19th century. Also, her exceptional work saw her name included in the list of 100 Greatest African Americans by MolefiKete Asante. Mary Edmonia Lewis was born on July 4th, 1844. She was the daughter of an Afro-Haitian father and an African-American mother. Lewis’ father worked as a servant while her mother was a craftswoman and a weaver. Orphaned at a tender age of nine, Lewis, together with her older half-brother were forced to live with their aunt near Niagara Falls. Here, she took part in selling baskets alongside other items including blouses and moccasins. Lewis first joined Oberlin College at the age of 15 where she began to study art. She stood out as one of the few students of color and this as she claimed, subjected her to discrimination and racism. Despite studying up to her final year, Lewis did not graduate because of some challenges. Consequently, she had to leave school. In 1864, Lewis began to pursue her sculpting career in Boston. She received help from abolitionist William Garrison who introduced her to practicing sculptors. In turn, Lewis got hands-on experience on ways of mastering the art. From here she progressed and later set up her studio. The most notable sculpting piece that earned her fame was that of Colonel Robert Shaw. Lewis gained quite a fortune from the art. She later moved to Rome where she joined several American artists including women. While in Italy Lewis continued with her artwork and in 1867, she produced “Forever Free.” The artwork indicated a black man and woman breaking out of slavery. She went on to produce more prized pieces including “The Arrow Maker” (1866) and “The Death of Cleopatra” (1876). The sculpture of the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra also earned her quite an important public salute. Lewis then worked on carvings of American presidents including Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses S. Grant. Lewis had no known marriage engagement or children. Edmonia Lewis died on September 17th, 1907 in Hammersmith, London. Her death documents indicate that she died of chronic Bright’s disease. Her art pieces are permanently placed at Smithson American Art Museum and Howard University Gallery of Art.	568	ENGLISH	1
What were the atrocities committed against the Jews in Nazi Germany? Jews in Nazi Germany were beaten and abused at the start of the Nazi regime in Germany in 1933. However, the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 formally stripped them of their citizenship. During World War II, the Nazis began to carry out what they called the "deportation" of Jews from Germany and conquered territories. Jews were told they were being relocated to a new land, but this actually meant being taken either to a death camp or a concentration camp. If they arrived at a death camp, they were immediately gassed and killed. If they were sent to a concentration camp, they were worked to death and often "selected" for gassing when the camp got overcrowded, unless they were of the very few lucky enough to find some position that allowed them to survive. The Nazi plan was genocide, the murder of all Jews. They held the Jews responsible for Germany's and the world's problems. This is a deeply sick ideology. In the case of Anne Frank, she was "deported" to a concentration camp after the Nazis discovered her family's secret hideaway. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:8d828288-3b77-4fce-ae6a-0da1ddfdd17e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-atrocities-committed-against-jews-nazi-1331924	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00404.warc.gz	en	0.991894	238	3.53125	4	[ -0.06887716054916382, 0.5233703851699829, 0.0018486714689061046, 0.06177179515361786, 0.3158135712146759, 0.25637027621269226, 0.24097666144371033, 0.07804498821496964, 0.008420408703386784, -0.11722458899021149, 0.4463275074958801, -0.23108485341072083, -0.2886699438095093, 0.425798058509...	1	What were the atrocities committed against the Jews in Nazi Germany? Jews in Nazi Germany were beaten and abused at the start of the Nazi regime in Germany in 1933. However, the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 formally stripped them of their citizenship. During World War II, the Nazis began to carry out what they called the "deportation" of Jews from Germany and conquered territories. Jews were told they were being relocated to a new land, but this actually meant being taken either to a death camp or a concentration camp. If they arrived at a death camp, they were immediately gassed and killed. If they were sent to a concentration camp, they were worked to death and often "selected" for gassing when the camp got overcrowded, unless they were of the very few lucky enough to find some position that allowed them to survive. The Nazi plan was genocide, the murder of all Jews. They held the Jews responsible for Germany's and the world's problems. This is a deeply sick ideology. In the case of Anne Frank, she was "deported" to a concentration camp after the Nazis discovered her family's secret hideaway. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	245	ENGLISH	1
Colonization, Settlers and First Nations The year was 1850, anything on Vancouver Island north of Victoria was wilderness. Victoria became a colony of Great Britain in 1849 as a result of the operation of the Hudson's Bay Company. The “Company of Adventurers” as they were referred to were based in what is now Vancouver Washington. But Vancouver Island had resources of importance to them. Originally named Fort Albert, in honour of Queen Victoria's consort it was eventually named Fort Victoria, now Victoria. Nothing more than a trading post on the site of the present Empress Hotel. In 1846 the transfer of authority for the territory was transferred to Victoria. Vancouver Island was not a rich fur trade area, something the HBC was known for. But we did have lots of land and resources, notably coal. The First Nations were generally friendly, but a few incidents did happen, one of which actually resulted in a public hanging (more on that in later articles). The first governor of the colony was James Blanshard. He lasted a short period of time, resigned and went back to Great Britain. That is where James Douglas stepped in. We celebrated 150 years of British Columbia becoming a colony of Great Britain, and it was under his command that it all happened. Even though Vancouver Island was a colony 8 or so years before the rest of the mainland joined. Movement north from Victoria had a major obstacle. The Malahat mountain range precluded easy road traffic. So, Cowichan Bay became an important marine stop. The Hudson's Bay Company had established a trading post there, so it followed that colonists and traffic should follow. Originally boats anchored in the bay and the local first nations ferried the goods in canoes. Eventually Samuel Harris built a dock and commerce and settlement followed. From there north there was a road to Nanaimo and points along and beyond, but if you really wanted to get there you came to Cowichan Bay. The cost of a parcel of land with the local natives was a couple of Hudson's Bay Blankets. Very few folk actually came here and settled in the bay, they thought it was too wild. They all moved outward to what is now Duncan, Mill Bay, Maple Bay, Cowichan Station, etc. Not only did they bring settlement but as most of them were of British descent they brought the culture and sports they enjoyed. Polo was played in many fields. We still have the second oldest grass tennis courts in the world next to Wimbledon. Of course the railway changed all that too. Once the railway was built the movement of people and goods became much easier. Granted we had a primitive wagon road (the Cowichan Trail not the Malahat) but it took days to get up island. The Empress Hotel was built and many farms and fishermen sent goods on the rails there daily. We even had a famous resident. Robert W. Service spent a few years living in Cowichan Bay before he moved north and became famous. Rumours say he was asked to move as he had the habit of greeting visitors with a rifle... Thomas Wagner is a researcher and historian in the area. Read about the Cowichan Bay History	<urn:uuid:ff86a2db-7dc9-4d5a-bc26-2fa549c54638>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://crabbyoldbugger.com/writing/colonization.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00500.warc.gz	en	0.988826	651	3.4375	3	[ -0.02956724911928177, 0.23494993150234222, 0.6572670340538025, -0.25059154629707336, -0.06922253221273422, -0.20506912469863892, 0.10529396682977676, -0.022740203887224197, -0.24559131264686584, 0.35665836930274963, 0.47766709327697754, -0.6118713617324829, 0.1981050819158554, 0.3541651368...	1	Colonization, Settlers and First Nations The year was 1850, anything on Vancouver Island north of Victoria was wilderness. Victoria became a colony of Great Britain in 1849 as a result of the operation of the Hudson's Bay Company. The “Company of Adventurers” as they were referred to were based in what is now Vancouver Washington. But Vancouver Island had resources of importance to them. Originally named Fort Albert, in honour of Queen Victoria's consort it was eventually named Fort Victoria, now Victoria. Nothing more than a trading post on the site of the present Empress Hotel. In 1846 the transfer of authority for the territory was transferred to Victoria. Vancouver Island was not a rich fur trade area, something the HBC was known for. But we did have lots of land and resources, notably coal. The First Nations were generally friendly, but a few incidents did happen, one of which actually resulted in a public hanging (more on that in later articles). The first governor of the colony was James Blanshard. He lasted a short period of time, resigned and went back to Great Britain. That is where James Douglas stepped in. We celebrated 150 years of British Columbia becoming a colony of Great Britain, and it was under his command that it all happened. Even though Vancouver Island was a colony 8 or so years before the rest of the mainland joined. Movement north from Victoria had a major obstacle. The Malahat mountain range precluded easy road traffic. So, Cowichan Bay became an important marine stop. The Hudson's Bay Company had established a trading post there, so it followed that colonists and traffic should follow. Originally boats anchored in the bay and the local first nations ferried the goods in canoes. Eventually Samuel Harris built a dock and commerce and settlement followed. From there north there was a road to Nanaimo and points along and beyond, but if you really wanted to get there you came to Cowichan Bay. The cost of a parcel of land with the local natives was a couple of Hudson's Bay Blankets. Very few folk actually came here and settled in the bay, they thought it was too wild. They all moved outward to what is now Duncan, Mill Bay, Maple Bay, Cowichan Station, etc. Not only did they bring settlement but as most of them were of British descent they brought the culture and sports they enjoyed. Polo was played in many fields. We still have the second oldest grass tennis courts in the world next to Wimbledon. Of course the railway changed all that too. Once the railway was built the movement of people and goods became much easier. Granted we had a primitive wagon road (the Cowichan Trail not the Malahat) but it took days to get up island. The Empress Hotel was built and many farms and fishermen sent goods on the rails there daily. We even had a famous resident. Robert W. Service spent a few years living in Cowichan Bay before he moved north and became famous. Rumours say he was asked to move as he had the habit of greeting visitors with a rifle... Thomas Wagner is a researcher and historian in the area. Read about the Cowichan Bay History	658	ENGLISH	1
A temple dating back to the 12th century BCE–a time when the Israelites and the Philistines were at War–has been excavated by experts yielding incredible, historical results that may be directly related to the Ark of the Covenant. The 3,100-year-old temple, located near Beit Shemesh is believed to hide many clues concerning the famous Ark of the Covenant. The site, located on a tel no more than 20 kilometers west of Jerusalem has been excavated by scholars since 2012. However, only now has the archeological site yielded a striking, historical discovery: a stone table which resembles that of the narratives of a slab on which the Ark of the Covenant once sat, an ancient device that is believed to have housed the Ten Commandments received by Moses on Mount Sinai, reports The Jerusalem Post. The stone table was discovered inside a structure that is believed to have been an ancient temple. Now, only the temples remains are visible showing evince od walls 8.5 meters long, and whose points were aligned with the cardinal points. It also features two large concave stones that were most likely used for libation offerings. Among the archaeological remains, the researchers have also recovered pottery fragments as well as animal bones, indicative of ritualistic activities inside the structure. “There is a lot of evidence that this was indeed a temple,” Prof. Shlomo Bunimovitz of Tel Aviv University told Haaretz. “When you look at the structure and its content, it’s very clear that this not a standard domestic space but something special.” The massive stone table is the greatest discovery: the massive dolmen-like slab sits on two smaller rocks. “At the beginning, we thought it was a massebah that had fallen over,” explained archeologist Dr. Zvi Lederman, who leads the excavation. “But soon we realized that it was meant to be a table.” Reachers note that the discovery is of great importance since it ties in with the historical time frame of the large stone the ark of the Covenant is said to have been placed upon when it was transported to Beit Shemesh after being returned by the Philistines, as described in the book of Samuel: “Now the people of Beth Shemesh were reaping their wheat harvest in the valley; and they lifted their eyes and saw the ark, and rejoiced to see it. Then the cart [sent by the Philistines] came into the field of Joshua of Beth Shemesh, and stood there; a large stone was there. So they split the wood of the cart and offered the cows as a burnt offering to the Lord. The Levites took down the ark of the Lord and the chest that was with it, in which were the articles of gold, and put them on the large stone.” The temple was destroyed, at some point in the mid-12th Century BC. Evidence of that are the pottery fragments discovered within the building which show clear evidence of being smashed to bits. As archaeological excavations were underway, the researchers had to dig their way through a thick layer that was initially thought to have been ash but eventually proved to be animal dug. This is evidence that after the building was captured, it was turned into a cowshed. “This would be a rare case in which we can merge the biblical narrative with an archaeological find,” explained Lederman. Despite the exciting discovery, it is difficult to link the stone (atop which the Ark of the Covenant is said to have been placed) directly to something the Bible mentions, since coming to such a conclusion would be nearly impossible to prove in archaeological terms. The researcher shoes away from linking the stone to the ark because of a few inconsistencies between the narrative and the evidence: the stone was said to have been located in a view and not a temple atop a tel. The Bible is “not a historical document, but an ideological one,” Bunimovitz explained. “But in every ideological narrative, if you want it to be believed and accepted, you have to insert some real elements.”	<urn:uuid:d43c9b9a-7eea-4cbd-9c2f-e9f53f60d099>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://curiosmos.com/archaeological-shock-experts-find-ancient-temple-where-ark-of-covenant-once-sat/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00514.warc.gz	en	0.981775	870	3.359375	3	[ -0.3184581995010376, 0.49424245953559875, 0.29452046751976013, -0.01461917906999588, -0.3374612331390381, -0.2510594427585602, 0.03077888861298561, 0.14382846653461456, -0.1804790496826172, 0.28300854563713074, 0.1623537540435791, -0.2772894501686096, -0.07049832493066788, 0.49736884236335...	7	A temple dating back to the 12th century BCE–a time when the Israelites and the Philistines were at War–has been excavated by experts yielding incredible, historical results that may be directly related to the Ark of the Covenant. The 3,100-year-old temple, located near Beit Shemesh is believed to hide many clues concerning the famous Ark of the Covenant. The site, located on a tel no more than 20 kilometers west of Jerusalem has been excavated by scholars since 2012. However, only now has the archeological site yielded a striking, historical discovery: a stone table which resembles that of the narratives of a slab on which the Ark of the Covenant once sat, an ancient device that is believed to have housed the Ten Commandments received by Moses on Mount Sinai, reports The Jerusalem Post. The stone table was discovered inside a structure that is believed to have been an ancient temple. Now, only the temples remains are visible showing evince od walls 8.5 meters long, and whose points were aligned with the cardinal points. It also features two large concave stones that were most likely used for libation offerings. Among the archaeological remains, the researchers have also recovered pottery fragments as well as animal bones, indicative of ritualistic activities inside the structure. “There is a lot of evidence that this was indeed a temple,” Prof. Shlomo Bunimovitz of Tel Aviv University told Haaretz. “When you look at the structure and its content, it’s very clear that this not a standard domestic space but something special.” The massive stone table is the greatest discovery: the massive dolmen-like slab sits on two smaller rocks. “At the beginning, we thought it was a massebah that had fallen over,” explained archeologist Dr. Zvi Lederman, who leads the excavation. “But soon we realized that it was meant to be a table.” Reachers note that the discovery is of great importance since it ties in with the historical time frame of the large stone the ark of the Covenant is said to have been placed upon when it was transported to Beit Shemesh after being returned by the Philistines, as described in the book of Samuel: “Now the people of Beth Shemesh were reaping their wheat harvest in the valley; and they lifted their eyes and saw the ark, and rejoiced to see it. Then the cart [sent by the Philistines] came into the field of Joshua of Beth Shemesh, and stood there; a large stone was there. So they split the wood of the cart and offered the cows as a burnt offering to the Lord. The Levites took down the ark of the Lord and the chest that was with it, in which were the articles of gold, and put them on the large stone.” The temple was destroyed, at some point in the mid-12th Century BC. Evidence of that are the pottery fragments discovered within the building which show clear evidence of being smashed to bits. As archaeological excavations were underway, the researchers had to dig their way through a thick layer that was initially thought to have been ash but eventually proved to be animal dug. This is evidence that after the building was captured, it was turned into a cowshed. “This would be a rare case in which we can merge the biblical narrative with an archaeological find,” explained Lederman. Despite the exciting discovery, it is difficult to link the stone (atop which the Ark of the Covenant is said to have been placed) directly to something the Bible mentions, since coming to such a conclusion would be nearly impossible to prove in archaeological terms. The researcher shoes away from linking the stone to the ark because of a few inconsistencies between the narrative and the evidence: the stone was said to have been located in a view and not a temple atop a tel. The Bible is “not a historical document, but an ideological one,” Bunimovitz explained. “But in every ideological narrative, if you want it to be believed and accepted, you have to insert some real elements.”	826	ENGLISH	1
“You are fat, stupid and ugly.” This is just one example of the taunting that some students endure from peers and classmates. These and other harmful statements are instances of bullying. Bullying is a form of violence. It is negative, aggressive and unwanted behaviors intended to cause harm, hurt or humiliation to another student. It is anything that hurts another student, when things are repeatedly said or done to have power over that individual. There are many types of bullying, including racial bullying, sexual bullying and cyber bullying. Bullying includes name calling, saying or writing derogatory comments, purposely excluding an individual from activities, spreading lies and rumors, ignoring, threatening, doing anything to make another person feel uncomfortable or scared, stealing or damaging belongings of others, kicking, hitting, slapping, and making someone do things they do not want to do. Children handle being bullied in many different ways. Those who are bullied are subject to peer pressure. Sometimes they end up doing things they really do not want to do in order to “fit in”—hoping that the bullying will stop. Those who are bullied often feel pain, fear or hurt. They lose self-confidence and feel lonely, scared and sad. They sometimes do not feel safe at school, at home or at play—and often have poor grades in school. They may suffer from depression, headaches, stomach aches and other health problems and they may also have thoughts of suicide. Some feel it necessary to fight or bring a gun or weapon to school to stop the hurt of being bullied. I worked with a group of middle-school students who felt they were being bullied. The students were referred to me by their parents because they where getting into trouble at school. Many of the students were receiving declining or failing grades. Some of them had experienced detentions or suspensions for fighting inside or outside of school. When meeting with the students for the first time, they explained the reason they got into fights was because they felt they were being “picked on.” A group of students constantly bullied them, and they got into the fights because they felt angry and wanted to lash out against the bullying. Statistics reveal that one out of every four students are bullied, picked on, or abused each month. In addition, 30% of students in the United States admit to being bullies, victims of bullies, bystanders of bullying or have participated in all three roles. My work with the group began with explaining Thought Field Therapy to try to solve the anxiety, fear and feeling that they had to fight to end the bullying. The students rated their SUD (subjective units of distress) which ranged from “10” or above for fear and anxiety to “7.” I began leading the students through Psychological Reversal to correct any reversals that may negatively effect the treatment. I then taught them the tapping sequence for General Anxiety and Stress, checking frequently for SUD as their distress steadily lowered by at least two points for all students in the group. We continued in this way until the SUD for each student was down to “0” or “1.” The students reported feeling better and explained that “feeling better” meant they where having fun doing TFT and did not feel tense or angry when they thought about being bullied. Studies show that the less confidence a student has, the more likely they are to be bullied. The more confidence a student presents, the less likely it is that bullying will occur. They continued to practice the steps of TFT until they learned the sequences well enough to do them throughout the week whenever they felt like fighting, felt scared or felt less confident. When the students arrived the next week, they were laughing and talking with a completely different demeanor from the previous week when they where somber, sad and angry. The students reported having used TFT throughout the week. All of them explained that they did not participate in any fights during the week. They all told of using tapping when feeling scared. One student explained that she was able to concentrate on her school work and was able to pass her math test because—for the first time—she was able to study. But the most compelling comment came from one student who was constantly engaged in fighting and was on the verge of being expelled from school, even though she was actually the victim of bullying. “I didn’t fight when some kids were picking on me,” she said. “I just started tapping and walked away.” Excerpted from Callahan Techniques’ latest book, The Tapping Solution: Tapping the Body’s Energy Pathways	<urn:uuid:c5e1b661-eaa0-4344-b7df-1b77704537c6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://tfttraumarelief.org/2012/05/02/relieving-the-trauma-of-bullying/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00234.warc.gz	en	0.98357	961	3.609375	4	[ 0.2217848300933838, -0.1527644544839859, 0.33810269832611084, 0.06297065317630768, -0.28771495819091797, 0.2271978110074997, 0.3987915515899658, -0.08209741115570068, 0.3218380808830261, -0.23059749603271484, 0.18998843431472778, -0.21285685896873474, 0.21332862973213196, -0.03157595172524...	8	“You are fat, stupid and ugly.” This is just one example of the taunting that some students endure from peers and classmates. These and other harmful statements are instances of bullying. Bullying is a form of violence. It is negative, aggressive and unwanted behaviors intended to cause harm, hurt or humiliation to another student. It is anything that hurts another student, when things are repeatedly said or done to have power over that individual. There are many types of bullying, including racial bullying, sexual bullying and cyber bullying. Bullying includes name calling, saying or writing derogatory comments, purposely excluding an individual from activities, spreading lies and rumors, ignoring, threatening, doing anything to make another person feel uncomfortable or scared, stealing or damaging belongings of others, kicking, hitting, slapping, and making someone do things they do not want to do. Children handle being bullied in many different ways. Those who are bullied are subject to peer pressure. Sometimes they end up doing things they really do not want to do in order to “fit in”—hoping that the bullying will stop. Those who are bullied often feel pain, fear or hurt. They lose self-confidence and feel lonely, scared and sad. They sometimes do not feel safe at school, at home or at play—and often have poor grades in school. They may suffer from depression, headaches, stomach aches and other health problems and they may also have thoughts of suicide. Some feel it necessary to fight or bring a gun or weapon to school to stop the hurt of being bullied. I worked with a group of middle-school students who felt they were being bullied. The students were referred to me by their parents because they where getting into trouble at school. Many of the students were receiving declining or failing grades. Some of them had experienced detentions or suspensions for fighting inside or outside of school. When meeting with the students for the first time, they explained the reason they got into fights was because they felt they were being “picked on.” A group of students constantly bullied them, and they got into the fights because they felt angry and wanted to lash out against the bullying. Statistics reveal that one out of every four students are bullied, picked on, or abused each month. In addition, 30% of students in the United States admit to being bullies, victims of bullies, bystanders of bullying or have participated in all three roles. My work with the group began with explaining Thought Field Therapy to try to solve the anxiety, fear and feeling that they had to fight to end the bullying. The students rated their SUD (subjective units of distress) which ranged from “10” or above for fear and anxiety to “7.” I began leading the students through Psychological Reversal to correct any reversals that may negatively effect the treatment. I then taught them the tapping sequence for General Anxiety and Stress, checking frequently for SUD as their distress steadily lowered by at least two points for all students in the group. We continued in this way until the SUD for each student was down to “0” or “1.” The students reported feeling better and explained that “feeling better” meant they where having fun doing TFT and did not feel tense or angry when they thought about being bullied. Studies show that the less confidence a student has, the more likely they are to be bullied. The more confidence a student presents, the less likely it is that bullying will occur. They continued to practice the steps of TFT until they learned the sequences well enough to do them throughout the week whenever they felt like fighting, felt scared or felt less confident. When the students arrived the next week, they were laughing and talking with a completely different demeanor from the previous week when they where somber, sad and angry. The students reported having used TFT throughout the week. All of them explained that they did not participate in any fights during the week. They all told of using tapping when feeling scared. One student explained that she was able to concentrate on her school work and was able to pass her math test because—for the first time—she was able to study. But the most compelling comment came from one student who was constantly engaged in fighting and was on the verge of being expelled from school, even though she was actually the victim of bullying. “I didn’t fight when some kids were picking on me,” she said. “I just started tapping and walked away.” Excerpted from Callahan Techniques’ latest book, The Tapping Solution: Tapping the Body’s Energy Pathways	914	ENGLISH	1
One of Malta's national holidays is Sette Guigno, which is translated from Italian as “Seventh of June”. It commemorates the uprising against the British colonial government which occurred on June 7, 1919. Malta was not conquered by Britain, it voluntarily became part of the British Empire in 1800. After the First World War, the colonial government failed to provide an adequate supply of food provision for the Maltese islands. The cost of living increased dramatically, which led to increased struggle of the local population for greater autonomy. Riots began June 7, 1919, during the National Assembly meeting. British troops fired into the crowd and shot four people dead. This led to increased resistance against the colonial government and profiteering merchants who thrived while common people could not even afford to buy bread. The Sette Giugno riot is considered the first step towards the independence of Malta. Sette Guigno was declared as a national holiday in March 1989 and was first celebrated on June 7 that same year.	<urn:uuid:319ec552-9749-4d60-895c-00d47c65d957>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://malta.officialpublicholidays.com/national/sette-guigno-malta-2019	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00330.warc.gz	en	0.981711	216	3.734375	4	[ -0.28402358293533325, 0.2948895990848541, 0.4084378778934479, 0.06960044056177139, 0.048098888248205185, 0.27215203642845154, 0.06792861223220825, 0.23756547272205353, -0.07305894792079926, 0.08183769136667252, -0.009123938158154488, -0.36097580194473267, -0.10714319348335266, 0.2090763896...	2	One of Malta's national holidays is Sette Guigno, which is translated from Italian as “Seventh of June”. It commemorates the uprising against the British colonial government which occurred on June 7, 1919. Malta was not conquered by Britain, it voluntarily became part of the British Empire in 1800. After the First World War, the colonial government failed to provide an adequate supply of food provision for the Maltese islands. The cost of living increased dramatically, which led to increased struggle of the local population for greater autonomy. Riots began June 7, 1919, during the National Assembly meeting. British troops fired into the crowd and shot four people dead. This led to increased resistance against the colonial government and profiteering merchants who thrived while common people could not even afford to buy bread. The Sette Giugno riot is considered the first step towards the independence of Malta. Sette Guigno was declared as a national holiday in March 1989 and was first celebrated on June 7 that same year.	225	ENGLISH	1
On this day in history: WWII Broome air raid ON 3 MARCH 1942, as the steamy summer wound down in Broome, WA, the world was in the midst of World War II, and Japanese imperial expansion in the Pacific seemed to have no limits. The Japanese were preparing for an invasion of PNG, a campaign that would give rise to the famous Kokoda Track. Darwin had been attacked by 188 aircraft and hundreds of bombs roughly two weeks earlier. The death toll there had been 243, with another 300-400 wounded. For the very first time Australians had to face the fact that they would be fighting WWII in their own territory. On 3 March the small pearling town of Broome would be the next Australian city to feel the heat of war. Broome’s location between Indonesia (then known as the Dutch East Indies) and the rest of mainland Australia meant it turned from a small-time town into a burgeoning military base by early 1942. Broome: strategic city in the cross hairs Facilities in Broome were being used for refuelling aircraft, many of which at the time couldn’t make the long trips from Indonesia to the main cities of Australia. “Broome was of great strategic significance,” says Dr Karl James, a historian in the Military History Section of the Australia War Memorial. In a two-week period during February-March 1942, Broome was the stopover for more than a thousand refugees, the mostly from Java, which had been impacted by the war. But just after 9am on 3 March, nine Japanese warplanes and a reconnaissance plane reached the flying boat anchorage at Roebuck Bay (now a bird haven) in Broome and the RAAF base at Broome Airfield. The enemy planes strafed aircraft on the ground and engaged those in the air, including a USAAF B-24A Liberator full of wounded personnel. Later the bodies of 30 Dutch civilians were found, making the official death toll 88, though it may have been higher. “With the Dutch civilians, we’re not sure how many died,” Karl says. Boome air raids take an emotional toll But the loss was more than just numbers. “Broome had that emotional element to it, because of the Dutch civilians, especially women and children who were killed. There were many personal relics, children’s toys and homeware, and it’s this civilian element which makes it very powerful.” The Allies had no fighter planes in Broome, as the RAAF had to cover the entire northern coastline of Australia, making it exposed and largely defenceless. During the raid one Japanese plane was downed, killing pilot Osamo Kudō, when Dutch pilot and First Lieutenant Gus Winckel tore a 7.9mm machine gun from his Lockheed Lodestar and shot down the Zero by balancing the heavy weapon on his shoulder. Another Japanese plane ran out of fuel and was forced to ditch, though the pilot survived. All in all, Broome was attacked four times during the war, but the attack on 3 March, 1942 was by far the most devastating and emotional.	<urn:uuid:0c5fcfdc-3a52-450e-abc0-bd05be31fedc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/on-this-day/2015/03/on-this-day-in-history-broome-air-raids/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00252.warc.gz	en	0.983145	661	3.53125	4	[ -0.16844221949577332, 0.3317573666572571, 0.026588736101984978, 0.12518537044525146, 0.13644838333129883, 0.31604883074760437, 0.19184020161628723, 0.34956902265548706, -0.16455130279064178, 0.23258183896541595, 0.13554807007312775, -0.34624767303466797, 0.000743266602512449, 0.83790063858...	3	On this day in history: WWII Broome air raid ON 3 MARCH 1942, as the steamy summer wound down in Broome, WA, the world was in the midst of World War II, and Japanese imperial expansion in the Pacific seemed to have no limits. The Japanese were preparing for an invasion of PNG, a campaign that would give rise to the famous Kokoda Track. Darwin had been attacked by 188 aircraft and hundreds of bombs roughly two weeks earlier. The death toll there had been 243, with another 300-400 wounded. For the very first time Australians had to face the fact that they would be fighting WWII in their own territory. On 3 March the small pearling town of Broome would be the next Australian city to feel the heat of war. Broome’s location between Indonesia (then known as the Dutch East Indies) and the rest of mainland Australia meant it turned from a small-time town into a burgeoning military base by early 1942. Broome: strategic city in the cross hairs Facilities in Broome were being used for refuelling aircraft, many of which at the time couldn’t make the long trips from Indonesia to the main cities of Australia. “Broome was of great strategic significance,” says Dr Karl James, a historian in the Military History Section of the Australia War Memorial. In a two-week period during February-March 1942, Broome was the stopover for more than a thousand refugees, the mostly from Java, which had been impacted by the war. But just after 9am on 3 March, nine Japanese warplanes and a reconnaissance plane reached the flying boat anchorage at Roebuck Bay (now a bird haven) in Broome and the RAAF base at Broome Airfield. The enemy planes strafed aircraft on the ground and engaged those in the air, including a USAAF B-24A Liberator full of wounded personnel. Later the bodies of 30 Dutch civilians were found, making the official death toll 88, though it may have been higher. “With the Dutch civilians, we’re not sure how many died,” Karl says. Boome air raids take an emotional toll But the loss was more than just numbers. “Broome had that emotional element to it, because of the Dutch civilians, especially women and children who were killed. There were many personal relics, children’s toys and homeware, and it’s this civilian element which makes it very powerful.” The Allies had no fighter planes in Broome, as the RAAF had to cover the entire northern coastline of Australia, making it exposed and largely defenceless. During the raid one Japanese plane was downed, killing pilot Osamo Kudō, when Dutch pilot and First Lieutenant Gus Winckel tore a 7.9mm machine gun from his Lockheed Lodestar and shot down the Zero by balancing the heavy weapon on his shoulder. Another Japanese plane ran out of fuel and was forced to ditch, though the pilot survived. All in all, Broome was attacked four times during the war, but the attack on 3 March, 1942 was by far the most devastating and emotional.	665	ENGLISH	1
Frank Doerr, Senior Director of Religious Education, Fort Benning Religious Support Office / Recently celebrating the 241st Anniversary of the founding of the Chaplain Corps on 29 July, the life and work of a Roman soldier who could be considered a precursor to today’s Army chaplains, presents an interesting discussion topic. Martin of Tours was born about A.D. 316. His father commanded a Roman Legion, so Martin was reared as an army brat. Fortunately, his biographer Sulpicius Severus was an eyewitness. Severus wrote about the first time he met Martin. He was surprised when he offered him a place to stay, but instead of an elaborate well-kept villa or palace, Martin lived in a monk’s cell in the woods! Just as interesting, Martin washed the hands of Severus before meals and even washed his feet before retiring for the evening. This was a common practice that Martin performed for anyone of humble birth. Severus later became a follower and friend, and recorded much of his life from other eyewitnesses before writing a biography about him. While often little is known of the heroes of Christianity from the Early Church, we are fortunate to have reliable information about an early light of the faith who was not a martyr. Martin was reared in Italy and followed in his father’s footsteps and joined the military at the age of 15. He served in a very special unit of the Imperial Guard, the Cavalry, whose pomp and circumstance was second to none at the time. After four years of training, he was attached to a combat unit and ordered to Amiens, in present day France. As an officer in the Cavalry, he was given two horses and an orderly. It may come as a shock to some, but Martin’s biographer stated that he switched places with the orderly and served him. While in Amiens, a well-known event happened about 1,700 years ago. Martin was covered in a magnificent white cloak worn by the Imperial Guard in winter. After making his night rounds, he noticed a beggar at the gate to the city. Martin took off his cloak and cut it in half and gave it to the poor man. Later that night while sleeping he heard a voice, “Martin covered me with his cloak.” After this event he was baptized and became a Christian, and no longer wanted to be a soldier in the Roman Army, which presented quite a difficulty. About the year 340 he asked for a discharge from his service. Martin’s commander (the emperor Julian) then accused him of cowardice, so to prove his courage, he offered to enter an impending battle with a German tribe near Worms, Germany, unarmed and alone. The “offer” infuriated the emperor, and Martin was imprisoned. Spending the night in prayer, it is claimed that in the morning the enemy asked for terms of peace. Soon after he was given his discharge, and then went to an island in the Mediterranean Sea and became a recluse. Around the year 360, he founded a religious community in present day France (Gaul) that was the first monastery in the Western Roman Empire, and his example and encouragement led to the founding of several other monasteries. So he is often referred to as the father of monasticism in Gaul. In A.D. 370, Martin was appointed bishop of the City of Tours, also in France. Several legends exist concerning how he was “tricked” so that he could not refuse the desire of the people for him to become their next bishop. One of these is that upon hearing that he would be asked to become bishop, he hid in a barn. However, the ever-watchful geese spotted a stranger, and wildly doing what they do best, made a fuss and loudly squawked. Needless to say, they revealed his hiding place. In memory of Martin and his episode with the pesky birds, goose is commonly eaten on Nov. 11 in Europe. The day the church has set aside to recall his life of holiness. Martin was responsible for several civil duties as bishop. It is said that he was fair and impartial and was highly praised. He was also a very active missionary. His preaching could be easily summed up by the phrase, “preach the Gospel and if necessary use words.” Many miracles were witnessed both during and after his lifetime, which served as a sign of his dedication to the truth of the Gospels. His approach to bringing people to follow the teaching of Christ was unique. He would travel from house to house and talk to them about God. He would then organize a group of believers into a community led by a presbyter. He would continue to visit the communities regularly by showing his love and care for them. Conversion was a theme and passion that drove him to do some interesting if not questionable deeds. On one occasion where Martin seemed unable to convince the townspeople to remove a tree that was held in high esteem, he agreed to sit where the tree was expected to fall. To make things more interesting, the tree had a lean to it, and that is where he would sit until it fell. As the tree began its decent to the ground, Martin made the sign of the cross and the tree slowly changed its fall toward those who were watching. While no one was hurt, many came to believe on that day. Toward the end of his life, Martin had a disagreement with another bishop that he severely regretted. He brooded over this for a long time until he received a vision and counsel from an angel. He was told to take courage and become the man he was. The advice from the angel that Martin should not dwell on past mistakes is advice we can all use at some point in our lives.	<urn:uuid:73bae197-49d0-431e-8b8b-51ba461432e8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://benningnews.org/2016/08/03/chaplains-corner-from-roman-cavalry-to-christian-soldier/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00243.warc.gz	en	0.991669	1,202	3.296875	3	[ -0.2250193953514099, 0.7668165564537048, 0.4288547933101654, -0.36379772424697876, 0.07279755920171738, 0.1524181365966797, -0.07019804418087006, 0.2777046263217926, -0.11014550924301147, -0.2522769570350647, -0.01756955310702324, -0.2705056667327881, -0.2602618634700775, 0.316299498081207...	1	Frank Doerr, Senior Director of Religious Education, Fort Benning Religious Support Office / Recently celebrating the 241st Anniversary of the founding of the Chaplain Corps on 29 July, the life and work of a Roman soldier who could be considered a precursor to today’s Army chaplains, presents an interesting discussion topic. Martin of Tours was born about A.D. 316. His father commanded a Roman Legion, so Martin was reared as an army brat. Fortunately, his biographer Sulpicius Severus was an eyewitness. Severus wrote about the first time he met Martin. He was surprised when he offered him a place to stay, but instead of an elaborate well-kept villa or palace, Martin lived in a monk’s cell in the woods! Just as interesting, Martin washed the hands of Severus before meals and even washed his feet before retiring for the evening. This was a common practice that Martin performed for anyone of humble birth. Severus later became a follower and friend, and recorded much of his life from other eyewitnesses before writing a biography about him. While often little is known of the heroes of Christianity from the Early Church, we are fortunate to have reliable information about an early light of the faith who was not a martyr. Martin was reared in Italy and followed in his father’s footsteps and joined the military at the age of 15. He served in a very special unit of the Imperial Guard, the Cavalry, whose pomp and circumstance was second to none at the time. After four years of training, he was attached to a combat unit and ordered to Amiens, in present day France. As an officer in the Cavalry, he was given two horses and an orderly. It may come as a shock to some, but Martin’s biographer stated that he switched places with the orderly and served him. While in Amiens, a well-known event happened about 1,700 years ago. Martin was covered in a magnificent white cloak worn by the Imperial Guard in winter. After making his night rounds, he noticed a beggar at the gate to the city. Martin took off his cloak and cut it in half and gave it to the poor man. Later that night while sleeping he heard a voice, “Martin covered me with his cloak.” After this event he was baptized and became a Christian, and no longer wanted to be a soldier in the Roman Army, which presented quite a difficulty. About the year 340 he asked for a discharge from his service. Martin’s commander (the emperor Julian) then accused him of cowardice, so to prove his courage, he offered to enter an impending battle with a German tribe near Worms, Germany, unarmed and alone. The “offer” infuriated the emperor, and Martin was imprisoned. Spending the night in prayer, it is claimed that in the morning the enemy asked for terms of peace. Soon after he was given his discharge, and then went to an island in the Mediterranean Sea and became a recluse. Around the year 360, he founded a religious community in present day France (Gaul) that was the first monastery in the Western Roman Empire, and his example and encouragement led to the founding of several other monasteries. So he is often referred to as the father of monasticism in Gaul. In A.D. 370, Martin was appointed bishop of the City of Tours, also in France. Several legends exist concerning how he was “tricked” so that he could not refuse the desire of the people for him to become their next bishop. One of these is that upon hearing that he would be asked to become bishop, he hid in a barn. However, the ever-watchful geese spotted a stranger, and wildly doing what they do best, made a fuss and loudly squawked. Needless to say, they revealed his hiding place. In memory of Martin and his episode with the pesky birds, goose is commonly eaten on Nov. 11 in Europe. The day the church has set aside to recall his life of holiness. Martin was responsible for several civil duties as bishop. It is said that he was fair and impartial and was highly praised. He was also a very active missionary. His preaching could be easily summed up by the phrase, “preach the Gospel and if necessary use words.” Many miracles were witnessed both during and after his lifetime, which served as a sign of his dedication to the truth of the Gospels. His approach to bringing people to follow the teaching of Christ was unique. He would travel from house to house and talk to them about God. He would then organize a group of believers into a community led by a presbyter. He would continue to visit the communities regularly by showing his love and care for them. Conversion was a theme and passion that drove him to do some interesting if not questionable deeds. On one occasion where Martin seemed unable to convince the townspeople to remove a tree that was held in high esteem, he agreed to sit where the tree was expected to fall. To make things more interesting, the tree had a lean to it, and that is where he would sit until it fell. As the tree began its decent to the ground, Martin made the sign of the cross and the tree slowly changed its fall toward those who were watching. While no one was hurt, many came to believe on that day. Toward the end of his life, Martin had a disagreement with another bishop that he severely regretted. He brooded over this for a long time until he received a vision and counsel from an angel. He was told to take courage and become the man he was. The advice from the angel that Martin should not dwell on past mistakes is advice we can all use at some point in our lives.	1,182	ENGLISH	1
Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you. Any subject. Any type of essay. We’ll even meet a 3-hour deadline.Get your price 121 writers online Gender differentiation is explained as the process by which the biological differences observed amongst genders, men, and women, are used to allocate social based responsibilities as well as dictate one’s significance in the society. Various societies use the gender basis as the main method of differentiating the genders and the degree to which the discrimination occurs depending on the society since some have it done extravagantly while others have it moderated. In the contemporary society, the gender discrimination has been the main factor for gender inequality and while some communities struggle to bridge the gap others are very determined and aim at retaining their cultural pedigree. In most instances, the gender inequality is seen to be working against women, suppressing their capabilities and abilities as opposed to the men who are seen to be benefiting from the gender inequality. In this paper, I’m going to look at Machiavelli’s account of the Florentine history to help me comprehend how women in historical Florentine were simply used as child machines and were assigned to only handle the household duties. Amongst some of the duties, the women were tasked with taking care of the children and most importantly the male child because they were very vital for any family, as he will carry after the father. After the male children grow up they become the leaders and inherits the wealth from their families. The paper will equally look at how women were blocked from leadership roles, a case which remains true to date. Finally, we will look at the role of religion and the art played in ensuring that gender differentiation is fashioned in a much more acceptable form. Gender differentiation was agitated by the fact that men and women in the society ought to have specific roles assigned to them. In accordance to the objective various techniques were employed in verifying that the values of gender differentiation were correctly incorporated into the society and thus, both, as well as art, were part of the great ways the differentiation would be orchestrated (Machiavelli, 1847). Many women have come out to try and stand-up for gender equality and most countries have responded positively by legislating certain laws that give the female gender the opportunity to actually have space in the male-dominated society. In other states however the cultural integrity is more important and they do not have space for the equality because of their strong pedigree on the responsibilities of both men and women. Religion plays a very important role in any given society. Many at times religion fashions the cultural practices of societies. Since religion was largely accepted and adopted without much question it was efficiently used in portraying that a woman was inferior to man. The popes in Italy possessed much influence thanks to the growth of the Roman Empire and Theodoric The king of Goths. The woman was accustomed to always be obedient to her man. In Florentine history, Machiavelli depicts the role of the Roman Catholic Church through the pope in designing the differentiation. Women of all the generation are mandated to the failure of the biblical Eva who was created from Adam’s ribs but in the end, allowed herself to be deceived by the devil. As a result of her barbarity the woman was punished with pain at birth and had to be submissive to her man. This preaching was intentionally designed with the idea of having the man placed at an advantageous position over the woman. Religion ensured that the man was always in control over the woman which meant that the man was the dominant being. The men took all the political, economic, religious and social leadership positions and the women were simply left to offer their support to the men in every endeavor they undertook. We see a case of Theodoric who had great attributes both for war as well as peace and always conquered. We see him taking charge by writing a letter to every district to have their leader so that he can easily command them during a war. Theodoric as a man takes up the leadership position as a man and that enabled him to have all the necessary influence. Upon his death, we see that his son takes over Italy and brought the country to a proper state of greatness. When the son died and his mother took over, Theodatus crossed her, killed her and took over because they believed that the woman was an inferior being to rule them. The popes in the Roman church were all of the male genders since they were believed to be of greater influence. The popes seemed to have a very huge impact since they could easily write letters to the Roman kings and they would respond with the utmost speed and reasoning. The pope would easily recommend an idea to the king and because of the influence they had it would be very easy for their ideas to be implemented. The pope also supported various countries which enabled them to harmonize peace and co-existence among states. All the priests in the Roman Catholic were all men with none of them being a woman. A clear indication that the male gender was seen to be more superior than the female gender. Art as a piece is generally a form of drawing or sketch that represents something or conveys certain information. Art was greatly used as a method of inculcating the various attributes of gender differentiation in the society. The art forms were presented in several different forms right from drawings that at certain occasions depicted the women as secondary as well as their situation in the society. At times art was used to imply that the society is molded around it. The artists designing the various art forms were very talented and in most instances coached by the dictates of society on how and what their pieces of art should represent. The community then was taught how to interpret the various art forms so as to be able to fully understand the various roles of individuals in the society through the art forms. Women, for instance, would be drawn either with children on their backs or carrying firewood or even cooking meals. Men, on the other hand, would be drawn with spears on their hands wearing animal skin looking mighty and strong. A good instance is some drawing that showed the women having to view the outer world from the window inside their homes. This was a symbol that the woman was confined to house chores as well as the taking care of children and was not tasked with going out to fend for their families (Machiavelli, 1847). The picture was a clear indication of the amount of freedom they were given in the historical times. The women were seen as much more inferior sex and the message was emphasized through various art forms that were present at the given time in the society. In Florentine history, Machiavelli indicates that the growth of the country depended on how many citizens they had. We see that there was a rapid population increase in order to be able to fill the cities they had captured as well as be able to have enough manpower to defend themselves. The women were to be used in the increase of population and they would then be taking care of the children especially the boys so that the city could grow and have enough soldiers to be able to defend themselves, which again shows the important rule of being a man. This continuous rising of cities and growth of population ensured that the women stayed indoors to be able to protect and nature the children they had given birth to. In the historical times as well as the contemporary society, men are looked upon as the epitome of authority as well as the decision-makers in their families. The men are usually at the helm of leadership because of entitlement and also being male by default gives one the role of being the leader or the head of any situation. The women are seen as objects meant for giving birth to ensure continuity of families as well as the protection of wealth. At times the women were just trade items that were used to bind different clans found in the Florentine family. In order to make the trade, the families ought to have certain features that were acceptable such as influence, nobility and political influence (Machiavelli, 1847). Towns, as well as cities, were established every single time because of the pride the leaders derived from the settlement into new places by their people. The men were collectively brought together to ensure adequate defense and similar accommodation. People were sent to new countries or colonies that had been acquired through war to establish the new places. Once they had moved to the new country they were required to drastically increase in population because they were prone to attacks from others and this was the role of the women. They gave birth to the children and took good care of them while their husbands went to war to get more colonies as well as protect their own cities. The new colonies were built like fortresses and were required to be safe with the residents being more orderly and civilized. For instance, when the Romans conquered Carthaginians, Italy immediately became secure from any invasions since the number of buildings as well as occupants were rapidly increasing. The men then moved to locations that they could easily capture colonies from and build their next city. In most cases, the towns they left behind grew much faster and safer as the days went. The women were left behind to be able to build those new towns while the men left to look for other towns. Over the cause of time, there was the need for a free government and the city was divided into six sections. Twelve people were chosen all of which were men and two of them were each going to manage the cities. They were elected every year to be sure no judicial misconduct was observed. Two judges were also elected to help in the determination of various cases. All this selection and appointments were majorly men oriented. Men and women have always been differentiated based on gender dating from a long time back in history. Based on several factors the discrimination has always had religious backing, emphasize from art as well as sexuality. The paper looks into Florentine history, Machiavelli where women have always been inferior to men and are in almost all instances been to allocate the duties of a housewife of cooking, taking care of the children as well as giving birth. The historical cities all had a common goal of having so many of their residents in different places and it was the role of the women to give birth in order to fill those places and the men went to fight to be able to secure those cities. It is recommended that we embrace gender equity in the contemporary society to be able to have women taking up some of the duties that for a long time have been attributed to be a man’s work. Women ought to have equal opportunities to be able to also make a change in their societies and places they come from. Equity will enable all the genders to have an equal chance that will offer hope for a better tomorrow. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below: Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now Are you interested in getting a customized paper?Check it out!	<urn:uuid:b568d8f8-6d95-4adc-922c-decdf0d21311>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gradesfixer.com/free-essay-examples/role-of-religion-in-gender-differentiation/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00208.warc.gz	en	0.990173	2,288	3.703125	4	[ 0.08101603388786316, 0.16502434015274048, -0.06807819753885269, -0.09462447464466095, -0.2066786140203476, 0.6159051060676575, 0.1810891032218933, 0.3969663977622986, 0.09909173101186752, -0.0852309912443161, 0.15655511617660522, -0.001409286167472601, 0.419159471988678, -0.088022679090499...	1	Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you. Any subject. Any type of essay. We’ll even meet a 3-hour deadline.Get your price 121 writers online Gender differentiation is explained as the process by which the biological differences observed amongst genders, men, and women, are used to allocate social based responsibilities as well as dictate one’s significance in the society. Various societies use the gender basis as the main method of differentiating the genders and the degree to which the discrimination occurs depending on the society since some have it done extravagantly while others have it moderated. In the contemporary society, the gender discrimination has been the main factor for gender inequality and while some communities struggle to bridge the gap others are very determined and aim at retaining their cultural pedigree. In most instances, the gender inequality is seen to be working against women, suppressing their capabilities and abilities as opposed to the men who are seen to be benefiting from the gender inequality. In this paper, I’m going to look at Machiavelli’s account of the Florentine history to help me comprehend how women in historical Florentine were simply used as child machines and were assigned to only handle the household duties. Amongst some of the duties, the women were tasked with taking care of the children and most importantly the male child because they were very vital for any family, as he will carry after the father. After the male children grow up they become the leaders and inherits the wealth from their families. The paper will equally look at how women were blocked from leadership roles, a case which remains true to date. Finally, we will look at the role of religion and the art played in ensuring that gender differentiation is fashioned in a much more acceptable form. Gender differentiation was agitated by the fact that men and women in the society ought to have specific roles assigned to them. In accordance to the objective various techniques were employed in verifying that the values of gender differentiation were correctly incorporated into the society and thus, both, as well as art, were part of the great ways the differentiation would be orchestrated (Machiavelli, 1847). Many women have come out to try and stand-up for gender equality and most countries have responded positively by legislating certain laws that give the female gender the opportunity to actually have space in the male-dominated society. In other states however the cultural integrity is more important and they do not have space for the equality because of their strong pedigree on the responsibilities of both men and women. Religion plays a very important role in any given society. Many at times religion fashions the cultural practices of societies. Since religion was largely accepted and adopted without much question it was efficiently used in portraying that a woman was inferior to man. The popes in Italy possessed much influence thanks to the growth of the Roman Empire and Theodoric The king of Goths. The woman was accustomed to always be obedient to her man. In Florentine history, Machiavelli depicts the role of the Roman Catholic Church through the pope in designing the differentiation. Women of all the generation are mandated to the failure of the biblical Eva who was created from Adam’s ribs but in the end, allowed herself to be deceived by the devil. As a result of her barbarity the woman was punished with pain at birth and had to be submissive to her man. This preaching was intentionally designed with the idea of having the man placed at an advantageous position over the woman. Religion ensured that the man was always in control over the woman which meant that the man was the dominant being. The men took all the political, economic, religious and social leadership positions and the women were simply left to offer their support to the men in every endeavor they undertook. We see a case of Theodoric who had great attributes both for war as well as peace and always conquered. We see him taking charge by writing a letter to every district to have their leader so that he can easily command them during a war. Theodoric as a man takes up the leadership position as a man and that enabled him to have all the necessary influence. Upon his death, we see that his son takes over Italy and brought the country to a proper state of greatness. When the son died and his mother took over, Theodatus crossed her, killed her and took over because they believed that the woman was an inferior being to rule them. The popes in the Roman church were all of the male genders since they were believed to be of greater influence. The popes seemed to have a very huge impact since they could easily write letters to the Roman kings and they would respond with the utmost speed and reasoning. The pope would easily recommend an idea to the king and because of the influence they had it would be very easy for their ideas to be implemented. The pope also supported various countries which enabled them to harmonize peace and co-existence among states. All the priests in the Roman Catholic were all men with none of them being a woman. A clear indication that the male gender was seen to be more superior than the female gender. Art as a piece is generally a form of drawing or sketch that represents something or conveys certain information. Art was greatly used as a method of inculcating the various attributes of gender differentiation in the society. The art forms were presented in several different forms right from drawings that at certain occasions depicted the women as secondary as well as their situation in the society. At times art was used to imply that the society is molded around it. The artists designing the various art forms were very talented and in most instances coached by the dictates of society on how and what their pieces of art should represent. The community then was taught how to interpret the various art forms so as to be able to fully understand the various roles of individuals in the society through the art forms. Women, for instance, would be drawn either with children on their backs or carrying firewood or even cooking meals. Men, on the other hand, would be drawn with spears on their hands wearing animal skin looking mighty and strong. A good instance is some drawing that showed the women having to view the outer world from the window inside their homes. This was a symbol that the woman was confined to house chores as well as the taking care of children and was not tasked with going out to fend for their families (Machiavelli, 1847). The picture was a clear indication of the amount of freedom they were given in the historical times. The women were seen as much more inferior sex and the message was emphasized through various art forms that were present at the given time in the society. In Florentine history, Machiavelli indicates that the growth of the country depended on how many citizens they had. We see that there was a rapid population increase in order to be able to fill the cities they had captured as well as be able to have enough manpower to defend themselves. The women were to be used in the increase of population and they would then be taking care of the children especially the boys so that the city could grow and have enough soldiers to be able to defend themselves, which again shows the important rule of being a man. This continuous rising of cities and growth of population ensured that the women stayed indoors to be able to protect and nature the children they had given birth to. In the historical times as well as the contemporary society, men are looked upon as the epitome of authority as well as the decision-makers in their families. The men are usually at the helm of leadership because of entitlement and also being male by default gives one the role of being the leader or the head of any situation. The women are seen as objects meant for giving birth to ensure continuity of families as well as the protection of wealth. At times the women were just trade items that were used to bind different clans found in the Florentine family. In order to make the trade, the families ought to have certain features that were acceptable such as influence, nobility and political influence (Machiavelli, 1847). Towns, as well as cities, were established every single time because of the pride the leaders derived from the settlement into new places by their people. The men were collectively brought together to ensure adequate defense and similar accommodation. People were sent to new countries or colonies that had been acquired through war to establish the new places. Once they had moved to the new country they were required to drastically increase in population because they were prone to attacks from others and this was the role of the women. They gave birth to the children and took good care of them while their husbands went to war to get more colonies as well as protect their own cities. The new colonies were built like fortresses and were required to be safe with the residents being more orderly and civilized. For instance, when the Romans conquered Carthaginians, Italy immediately became secure from any invasions since the number of buildings as well as occupants were rapidly increasing. The men then moved to locations that they could easily capture colonies from and build their next city. In most cases, the towns they left behind grew much faster and safer as the days went. The women were left behind to be able to build those new towns while the men left to look for other towns. Over the cause of time, there was the need for a free government and the city was divided into six sections. Twelve people were chosen all of which were men and two of them were each going to manage the cities. They were elected every year to be sure no judicial misconduct was observed. Two judges were also elected to help in the determination of various cases. All this selection and appointments were majorly men oriented. Men and women have always been differentiated based on gender dating from a long time back in history. Based on several factors the discrimination has always had religious backing, emphasize from art as well as sexuality. The paper looks into Florentine history, Machiavelli where women have always been inferior to men and are in almost all instances been to allocate the duties of a housewife of cooking, taking care of the children as well as giving birth. The historical cities all had a common goal of having so many of their residents in different places and it was the role of the women to give birth in order to fill those places and the men went to fight to be able to secure those cities. It is recommended that we embrace gender equity in the contemporary society to be able to have women taking up some of the duties that for a long time have been attributed to be a man’s work. Women ought to have equal opportunities to be able to also make a change in their societies and places they come from. Equity will enable all the genders to have an equal chance that will offer hope for a better tomorrow. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below: Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now Are you interested in getting a customized paper?Check it out!	2,267	ENGLISH	1
The Total column shows the total number of people in that county or town with this surname. For example, there were 133 people called WHITTET in Perthshire at the time of the 1881 census. The Frequency column shows the percentage of people in this county or town with this surname. For example, a frequency of 0.1014 in Perthshire means that 0.1014% of the people in Perthshire on census day were called WHITTET. The Index column shows the relative probability of finding someone called WHITTET in this county or town, compared with the probability of finding them anywhere in Britain as a whole. An index of 1 means that if you pick someone at random from this county or town, you have exactly the same probability of picking someone called WHITTET as if you picked at random from the whole of the UK. Where the index is higher than 1, then you are more likely to find someone called WHITTET here than if you picked from the UK as a whole, and where it's lower then you are less likely. The actual figure shows the level of probability - for example, a figure of 2 would indicate that you are twice as likely to find someone called WHITTET here than in the UK as a whole, and 10 would make it ten times as likely. The value of 102.28 in Perthshire means that you are 102.28 times as likely to find someone with the surname of WHITTET in Perthshire than you would be in the whole of the UK.	<urn:uuid:ac720e46-7502-4256-b9a2-7925f06e1a7e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://britishsurnames.co.uk/1881census/Perthshire	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00085.warc.gz	en	0.98112	309	3.84375	4	[ -0.20283330976963043, -0.22773732244968414, -0.06591221690177917, 0.08401016891002655, -0.16387403011322021, 0.32237985730171204, 0.7251611351966858, 0.12634065747261047, 0.4594961106777191, -0.08579878509044647, 0.024109333753585815, -0.24836039543151855, 0.24036967754364014, 0.2360335588...	2	The Total column shows the total number of people in that county or town with this surname. For example, there were 133 people called WHITTET in Perthshire at the time of the 1881 census. The Frequency column shows the percentage of people in this county or town with this surname. For example, a frequency of 0.1014 in Perthshire means that 0.1014% of the people in Perthshire on census day were called WHITTET. The Index column shows the relative probability of finding someone called WHITTET in this county or town, compared with the probability of finding them anywhere in Britain as a whole. An index of 1 means that if you pick someone at random from this county or town, you have exactly the same probability of picking someone called WHITTET as if you picked at random from the whole of the UK. Where the index is higher than 1, then you are more likely to find someone called WHITTET here than if you picked from the UK as a whole, and where it's lower then you are less likely. The actual figure shows the level of probability - for example, a figure of 2 would indicate that you are twice as likely to find someone called WHITTET here than in the UK as a whole, and 10 would make it ten times as likely. The value of 102.28 in Perthshire means that you are 102.28 times as likely to find someone with the surname of WHITTET in Perthshire than you would be in the whole of the UK.	332	ENGLISH	1
What was a Roman centurion? Question: "What was a Roman centurion?" Answer: During the New Testament era, a Roman centurion was a professional military officer commanding a platoon of troops called a “century.” This could be anywhere from nearly one hundred to several hundred men. Each Roman legion was composed of nearly 5,000 men, divided into multiple cohorts, each cohort composed of multiple centuries. As a result, a legion could contain as many as sixty centurions. Their importance was based on seniority, with the senior centurion in a legion being in a position of great prestige. Some historians have compared the top-level centurions to medieval knights. Roman centurions represented the bridge between enlisted troops and commissioned officers, in much the same way as warrant officers do in the modern U.S. military. Soldiers were appointed as centurions by virtue of their bravery, loyalty, character, and prowess in battle. Centurions were held to high standards of conduct and were expected to fight on the front lines with their men. In fact, the centurion’s designated place in formation was at the end of the very front row. As a result, Roman centurions were well paid and held in high esteem, and they experienced high rates of injury and death during war. The combination of wealth, power, and prestige made them influential in society. The Bible mentions several Roman centurions. The man overseeing Jesus’ crucifixion was a centurion (Matthew 27:54), probably one of lower seniority. It was a centurion who exclaimed at the foot of the cross, “Surely this man was the Son of God!” (Mark 15:39). Matthew 8:5–13 and Luke 7:1–10 relay the story of a centurion, likely of high rank, who approached Jesus for healing on behalf of his servant. The royal official mentioned in John 4:43–54 might have been a high-ranking centurion, as well. In all cases, the centurions are noted for their position of authority. For these men to make a request of anyone, let alone Jesus, a Jew, would have required great faith and great humility. Perhaps the most important Roman centurion mentioned in the Bible is Cornelius, described in Acts 10. Cornelius was said to have a good reputation with the Jewish people, in particular for his prayer and charity (Acts 10:2). According to the Bible, Cornelius saw an angelic vision telling him to seek Peter in Joppa. Cornelius was obedient to the vision, and Peter told him of his own vision, commanding him to evangelize Gentiles as well as Jews. Cornelius was saved during this encounter, becoming one of the first non-Jews evangelized in the early church era (Acts 11:15–18). The presence of the Holy Spirit in an uncircumcised, non-Jewish person—a Roman centurion, of all people—proved to the other Christians that the message of Christ was universal. Recommended Resource: The Centurion by Ken Gire More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free! What was a Roman legion? Who was Barnabas in the Bible? What happened at Mars Hill in the Bible? Who was Peter in the Bible? Who were Priscilla and Aquila? Miscellaneous Bible Questions What was a Roman centurion?	<urn:uuid:449440ee-25c4-4119-ac18-b0d44cbc9545>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gotquestions.org/Roman-Centurion.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00231.warc.gz	en	0.981667	718	3.671875	4	[ -0.3502190113067627, 0.5391323566436768, 0.5243674516677856, -0.2320696860551834, -0.3017726540565491, -0.1783124804496765, 0.16088710725307465, 0.39121049642562866, -0.08096198737621307, -0.07524726539850235, 0.08299857378005981, -0.1761540174484253, -0.014352782629430294, 0.3292818665504...	1	What was a Roman centurion? Question: "What was a Roman centurion?" Answer: During the New Testament era, a Roman centurion was a professional military officer commanding a platoon of troops called a “century.” This could be anywhere from nearly one hundred to several hundred men. Each Roman legion was composed of nearly 5,000 men, divided into multiple cohorts, each cohort composed of multiple centuries. As a result, a legion could contain as many as sixty centurions. Their importance was based on seniority, with the senior centurion in a legion being in a position of great prestige. Some historians have compared the top-level centurions to medieval knights. Roman centurions represented the bridge between enlisted troops and commissioned officers, in much the same way as warrant officers do in the modern U.S. military. Soldiers were appointed as centurions by virtue of their bravery, loyalty, character, and prowess in battle. Centurions were held to high standards of conduct and were expected to fight on the front lines with their men. In fact, the centurion’s designated place in formation was at the end of the very front row. As a result, Roman centurions were well paid and held in high esteem, and they experienced high rates of injury and death during war. The combination of wealth, power, and prestige made them influential in society. The Bible mentions several Roman centurions. The man overseeing Jesus’ crucifixion was a centurion (Matthew 27:54), probably one of lower seniority. It was a centurion who exclaimed at the foot of the cross, “Surely this man was the Son of God!” (Mark 15:39). Matthew 8:5–13 and Luke 7:1–10 relay the story of a centurion, likely of high rank, who approached Jesus for healing on behalf of his servant. The royal official mentioned in John 4:43–54 might have been a high-ranking centurion, as well. In all cases, the centurions are noted for their position of authority. For these men to make a request of anyone, let alone Jesus, a Jew, would have required great faith and great humility. Perhaps the most important Roman centurion mentioned in the Bible is Cornelius, described in Acts 10. Cornelius was said to have a good reputation with the Jewish people, in particular for his prayer and charity (Acts 10:2). According to the Bible, Cornelius saw an angelic vision telling him to seek Peter in Joppa. Cornelius was obedient to the vision, and Peter told him of his own vision, commanding him to evangelize Gentiles as well as Jews. Cornelius was saved during this encounter, becoming one of the first non-Jews evangelized in the early church era (Acts 11:15–18). The presence of the Holy Spirit in an uncircumcised, non-Jewish person—a Roman centurion, of all people—proved to the other Christians that the message of Christ was universal. Recommended Resource: The Centurion by Ken Gire More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free! What was a Roman legion? Who was Barnabas in the Bible? What happened at Mars Hill in the Bible? Who was Peter in the Bible? Who were Priscilla and Aquila? Miscellaneous Bible Questions What was a Roman centurion?	732	ENGLISH	1
In Science we have been focusing on animals and how they have adapted to their environment. We looked at different animals and matched them to their environment and discussed why they are best suited to the environment. Did you know a polar bear can sniff seals that are under water? We also looked at what essential items animals need to survive. What were they? We received a letter from a company that makes healthy lunch boxes. They needed our help coming up with a healthy shopping list for them. When we have learnt about our human needs, we know food is ESSENTIAL. We had to think about what sort of food to include. First, we needed to decide what foods are healthy and unhealthy. Then, we used the terms: Using these labels, we decided how to make a BALANCED shopping list that will include all of these things. We have been looking at how humans can stay safe and healthy. We had the hand hygiene nurse come and visit us to tell us all about how to wash our hands and keep them clean. We learnt the steps to wash our hands and wrote some instructions! Come and ask us!	<urn:uuid:1bc1579d-14a0-493f-8715-0cb337d53b56>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://cedarsprimaryschool.co.uk/autumn-1-and-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00231.warc.gz	en	0.986066	231	3.53125	4	[ -0.23653653264045715, -0.3219750225543976, 0.41227519512176514, -0.085185207426548, 0.25996923446655273, 0.1331714689731598, 0.8845441341400146, 0.19746215641498566, -0.2957279682159424, 0.25386112928390503, -0.25148966908454895, -0.8273804783821106, 0.410800576210022, 0.0839579775929451, ...	3	In Science we have been focusing on animals and how they have adapted to their environment. We looked at different animals and matched them to their environment and discussed why they are best suited to the environment. Did you know a polar bear can sniff seals that are under water? We also looked at what essential items animals need to survive. What were they? We received a letter from a company that makes healthy lunch boxes. They needed our help coming up with a healthy shopping list for them. When we have learnt about our human needs, we know food is ESSENTIAL. We had to think about what sort of food to include. First, we needed to decide what foods are healthy and unhealthy. Then, we used the terms: Using these labels, we decided how to make a BALANCED shopping list that will include all of these things. We have been looking at how humans can stay safe and healthy. We had the hand hygiene nurse come and visit us to tell us all about how to wash our hands and keep them clean. We learnt the steps to wash our hands and wrote some instructions! Come and ask us!	223	ENGLISH	1
The word “synagogue” surprisingly comes from Greek, not Hebrew. It refers to gathering together in a group. The word “synagogue” surprisingly comes from Greek, not Hebrew. It refers to gathering together in a group. In the Bible, we see Jesus and Paul teaching in synagogues that were gathering places for the Jews. Archaeologists have found ruins of ancient synagogues in the Holy Land and in Greece and Italy. The center of Jewish worship during Jesus’ life and up until 70 A.D. was the temple in Jerusalem. Since the temple was completely destroyed by the Romans there has been no true center of worship for Jews. Their religious practice has moved into their homes, synagogues, and community centers. It looks like ancient synagogues were combinations of places of worship and community centers. The ruins of ancient synagogues show that they mostly were constructed along the same plan with stepped seats along three walls and a front door facing Jerusalem. In the central room, a person could read from the scriptures while everyone in the congregation could see one another. Synagogues also had mikvaot—ritual baths for cleansing after times of uncleanness—and places for people to stay, eat, and to gather socially. Sometimes, we read that Jesus healed at a synagogue. We can imagine people naturally gathering there and it being a natural place for Christ to go to heal and teach. It would also be a natural place for Paul and his companions to go and teach. Synagogues were accustomed to receiving travelers and offering them respite and refreshment.	<urn:uuid:b9d3059c-bc6e-4a90-be28-95b4b9829642>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://jesus.christ.org/history-rituals/what-is-a-synagogue/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00411.warc.gz	en	0.983232	329	3.40625	3	[ 0.28329920768737793, 0.3277534246444702, -0.08774498105049133, 0.17294299602508545, -0.25995948910713196, -0.30964669585227966, 0.18849702179431915, 0.2968798279762268, 0.012381012551486492, 0.12989860773086548, 0.004308634903281927, -0.09933070093393326, -0.11742676794528961, 0.0474763624...	9	The word “synagogue” surprisingly comes from Greek, not Hebrew. It refers to gathering together in a group. The word “synagogue” surprisingly comes from Greek, not Hebrew. It refers to gathering together in a group. In the Bible, we see Jesus and Paul teaching in synagogues that were gathering places for the Jews. Archaeologists have found ruins of ancient synagogues in the Holy Land and in Greece and Italy. The center of Jewish worship during Jesus’ life and up until 70 A.D. was the temple in Jerusalem. Since the temple was completely destroyed by the Romans there has been no true center of worship for Jews. Their religious practice has moved into their homes, synagogues, and community centers. It looks like ancient synagogues were combinations of places of worship and community centers. The ruins of ancient synagogues show that they mostly were constructed along the same plan with stepped seats along three walls and a front door facing Jerusalem. In the central room, a person could read from the scriptures while everyone in the congregation could see one another. Synagogues also had mikvaot—ritual baths for cleansing after times of uncleanness—and places for people to stay, eat, and to gather socially. Sometimes, we read that Jesus healed at a synagogue. We can imagine people naturally gathering there and it being a natural place for Christ to go to heal and teach. It would also be a natural place for Paul and his companions to go and teach. Synagogues were accustomed to receiving travelers and offering them respite and refreshment.	318	ENGLISH	1
The Creole Case was the result of an American slave revolt in November 1841 on board the Creole, a ship involved in the United States coastwise slave trade. As a consequence of the revolt, 128 enslaved people won their freedom in the Bahamas, then a British possession. Because of the number of people eventually freed, the Creole mutiny was the most successful slave revolt in US history. In the fall of 1841, the brig Creole, which was owned by the Johnson and Eperson Company of Richmond, Virginia, transported 135 slaves from Richmond for sale in New Orleans, Louisiana. The Creole had left Richmond with 103 slaves and picked up another 32 in Hampton Roads, Virginia. Most of the slaves were owned by Johnson and Eperson, but 26 were owned by Thomas McCargo, a slave trader who was one of the Creole passengers. The ship also carried tobacco; a crew of ten; the captain’s wife, daughter, and niece; four passengers, including slave traders; and eight slaves of the traders. Madison Washington, an enslaved man who escaped to Canada in 1840 but was captured and sold when he returned to Virginia in search of his wife Susan, was among those being shipped to New Orleans. On November 7, 1841, Washington and eighteen other male slaves rebelled, overwhelming the crew and killing John R. Hewell, one of the slave traders. The ship’s captain, Robert Ensor, along with several crew members, was wounded but survived. One of the slaves was badly wounded and later died. The rebels took overseer William Merritt at his word that he would navigate for them. They first demanded that the ship be taken to Liberia. When Merritt told them that the voyage was impossible because of the shortage of food or water, another rebel, Ben Blacksmen, said they should be taken to the British West Indies, because he knew the slaves from the Hermosa had gained their freedom the previous year under a similar circumstance. On November 9, 1841, the Creole reached Nassau where it first was boarded by the harbor pilot and his crew, all local black Bahamians. They told the American slaves that under British law they were free and then advised them to go ashore at once. As Captain Ensor was badly wounded, the Bahamian quarantine officer took First Mate Zephaniah Gifford to inform the American consul of the events. At the consul’s request, the British governor of the Bahamas ordered a guard to board the Creole to prevent the escape of the men implicated in Hewell’s death. The British took Washington and eighteen conspirators into custody under charges of mutiny, while the rest of the enslaved were allowed to live as free people including some who remained in the Bahamas and others who sailed to Jamaica. Five people, which included three women, a girl, and a boy, decided to stay aboard the Creole and sailed with the ship to New Orleans, returning to slavery. On April 16, 1842, the Admiralty Court in Nassau ordered the surviving seventeen mutineers to be released and freed including Washington. In total, 128 enslaved people gained their freedom, which made the Creole mutiny the most successful slave revolt in US history.	<urn:uuid:b2e485d1-03c5-4c77-958e-6777b26098d5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/creole-case-1841/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00441.warc.gz	en	0.980108	669	3.78125	4	[ -0.48172199726104736, 0.21843750774860382, 0.5159305334091187, -0.558067262172699, -0.30622369050979614, -0.19322815537452698, -0.05320548266172409, -0.11686774343252182, -0.3156978189945221, 0.13600517809391022, 0.18151843547821045, 0.08736874163150787, -0.5092882513999939, 0.081302627921...	11	The Creole Case was the result of an American slave revolt in November 1841 on board the Creole, a ship involved in the United States coastwise slave trade. As a consequence of the revolt, 128 enslaved people won their freedom in the Bahamas, then a British possession. Because of the number of people eventually freed, the Creole mutiny was the most successful slave revolt in US history. In the fall of 1841, the brig Creole, which was owned by the Johnson and Eperson Company of Richmond, Virginia, transported 135 slaves from Richmond for sale in New Orleans, Louisiana. The Creole had left Richmond with 103 slaves and picked up another 32 in Hampton Roads, Virginia. Most of the slaves were owned by Johnson and Eperson, but 26 were owned by Thomas McCargo, a slave trader who was one of the Creole passengers. The ship also carried tobacco; a crew of ten; the captain’s wife, daughter, and niece; four passengers, including slave traders; and eight slaves of the traders. Madison Washington, an enslaved man who escaped to Canada in 1840 but was captured and sold when he returned to Virginia in search of his wife Susan, was among those being shipped to New Orleans. On November 7, 1841, Washington and eighteen other male slaves rebelled, overwhelming the crew and killing John R. Hewell, one of the slave traders. The ship’s captain, Robert Ensor, along with several crew members, was wounded but survived. One of the slaves was badly wounded and later died. The rebels took overseer William Merritt at his word that he would navigate for them. They first demanded that the ship be taken to Liberia. When Merritt told them that the voyage was impossible because of the shortage of food or water, another rebel, Ben Blacksmen, said they should be taken to the British West Indies, because he knew the slaves from the Hermosa had gained their freedom the previous year under a similar circumstance. On November 9, 1841, the Creole reached Nassau where it first was boarded by the harbor pilot and his crew, all local black Bahamians. They told the American slaves that under British law they were free and then advised them to go ashore at once. As Captain Ensor was badly wounded, the Bahamian quarantine officer took First Mate Zephaniah Gifford to inform the American consul of the events. At the consul’s request, the British governor of the Bahamas ordered a guard to board the Creole to prevent the escape of the men implicated in Hewell’s death. The British took Washington and eighteen conspirators into custody under charges of mutiny, while the rest of the enslaved were allowed to live as free people including some who remained in the Bahamas and others who sailed to Jamaica. Five people, which included three women, a girl, and a boy, decided to stay aboard the Creole and sailed with the ship to New Orleans, returning to slavery. On April 16, 1842, the Admiralty Court in Nassau ordered the surviving seventeen mutineers to be released and freed including Washington. In total, 128 enslaved people gained their freedom, which made the Creole mutiny the most successful slave revolt in US history.	694	ENGLISH	1
Born on the first of February 1902, in Joplin, Missouri, Hughes had rather a tough life and upbringing. Not only was he born black in a difficult time period for black people but his parents were also separated. He barely lived with his mother during his childhood for his grandmother brought him up until her death. Later on he lived with his mother and his father for a short period and he did not like either of them. Hughes studied in Columbia University till he left due to racial prejudice. But he managed to get his poetry published. His first famous poem, "The Negro Speaks of Rivers", which was published in 1921, Hughes poetry contributed to the development of a cultural movement known as "The Harlem Renaissance", characterized by black pride and the desire to see African Americans attain self realization. Most of Hughes poetry illustrates the ordeals experienced by his race and the pride he feels in his people's accomplishments. . Langston Hughes' poetry also shows an obvious pride in the Black American race and what they have done to American society. His pride is mostly seen in his use of the rhyme of Jazz, a type of much developed mostly by Black Americans and enjoyed by both black and white in American. In fact, he depicts them as beautiful as in the following lines: . The night is beautiful, . So the faces of my people. . The stars are beautiful, . So the eyes of my people. . Beautiful, also, is the sun. . Beautiful, also, are the souls of my people. Langston Hughes' poem is filled with meaning and real matter, using simple words to illustrate the overall complexity of African American lives. Hughes uses comparison in every line to reinforce and emphasize the main message he is trying to convey, which is what could happen "if a dream is deferred". Hughes speaks about what would happen if a person were unable to pursue his/her dreams and goals in life. Hughes uses similes throughout the poem, giving us the imagery and the capability of imagining how hard an African American's life could be.	<urn:uuid:43724e11-a917-4f5e-aaa8-40a119894f8a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/206034.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00181.warc.gz	en	0.990331	423	3.75	4	[ -0.07301104813814163, 0.4127533435821533, 0.1561170071363449, 0.22120048105716705, -0.23275987803936005, 0.2708783745765686, 0.6616942882537842, -0.1899167001247406, -0.3447803258895874, -0.0060221292078495026, 0.29629990458488464, 0.13336247205734253, -0.16535209119319916, 0.0040216925553...	3	Born on the first of February 1902, in Joplin, Missouri, Hughes had rather a tough life and upbringing. Not only was he born black in a difficult time period for black people but his parents were also separated. He barely lived with his mother during his childhood for his grandmother brought him up until her death. Later on he lived with his mother and his father for a short period and he did not like either of them. Hughes studied in Columbia University till he left due to racial prejudice. But he managed to get his poetry published. His first famous poem, "The Negro Speaks of Rivers", which was published in 1921, Hughes poetry contributed to the development of a cultural movement known as "The Harlem Renaissance", characterized by black pride and the desire to see African Americans attain self realization. Most of Hughes poetry illustrates the ordeals experienced by his race and the pride he feels in his people's accomplishments. . Langston Hughes' poetry also shows an obvious pride in the Black American race and what they have done to American society. His pride is mostly seen in his use of the rhyme of Jazz, a type of much developed mostly by Black Americans and enjoyed by both black and white in American. In fact, he depicts them as beautiful as in the following lines: . The night is beautiful, . So the faces of my people. . The stars are beautiful, . So the eyes of my people. . Beautiful, also, is the sun. . Beautiful, also, are the souls of my people. Langston Hughes' poem is filled with meaning and real matter, using simple words to illustrate the overall complexity of African American lives. Hughes uses comparison in every line to reinforce and emphasize the main message he is trying to convey, which is what could happen "if a dream is deferred". Hughes speaks about what would happen if a person were unable to pursue his/her dreams and goals in life. Hughes uses similes throughout the poem, giving us the imagery and the capability of imagining how hard an African American's life could be.	418	ENGLISH	1
Bluff City bicentennial: How the Cotton Exchange shaped Memphis Without cotton, Memphis as we know it wouldn't exist. The industry was fueled by the fertile soil in the Mississippi Delta, technological advancement that brought the cotton gin, slaves, later replaced by sharecroppers and others working for free or cheap, and a global demand for the crop. Although cotton was bought and sold in Memphis for most of the half-century before the Civil War, it wasn't until after the decade after the war that a group of growers, buyers, financiers and others whose livelihoods were tied to the crop formed the Memphis Cotton Exchange in 1873. The first location of the Cotton Exchange was in a modest building near Madison Avenue and Second Street. It then moved to a larger building near the same intersection. The final stop was the 12-story building at 65 Union Ave., where it moved in the mid-1920s and remained until it closed in 1978. If the story of Memphis had to be told through a single building, that one at the corner of Union Avenue and Front Street — the center of what was then known as Cotton Row — is among the few that could tell it. BLUFF CITY BICENTENNIAL: From comic to tragic, here are 200 pieces of Memphis' history In 2006, the first floor became home to the Cotton Museum, which looks back on how cotton influenced everything in Memphis from the economy to the music to large cultural events. "This floor sat empty from 1978 to 2006," said Ann Bateman, Cotton Museum manager. "They basically walked out and locked the door. All the stuff was still here. I wouldn’t call it preserved. It was just left. ... They just literally walked out and shut the door and turned the lights out." Bales of cotton and pints of bourbon Much like the name Wall Street refers to the home of the New York Stock Exchange and the financial industry ecosystem surrounding it, Cotton Row, the strip of Front Street in Downtown Memphis between Monroe and Gayoso avenues, was known simply as "the street" to cotton traders. The street, including 28 buildings and two vacant lots, is now on the National Register of Historic Places. According to the National Register nomination form submitted the year before the exchange closed, the cotton trade got its formal start within the first decade of Memphis' founding. "From 1826, when 300 bales were brought to Memphis by wagon, to the present, cotton has been important to Memphis," the application said, adding that by the late 1880s and 1890s, that number skyrocketed to 400,000 to 700,000 bales of cotton every year. Much of that cotton was bought and sold along Cotton Row. In the heart of it all was the Memphis Cotton Exchange. And on the ground level where the museum now sits was "the floor," said Calvin Turley, who started his career inside the building when it was still functioning as the exchange and still runs his cotton company from the fourth floor. On the floor, cotton merchants would gather to agree on the value of bales of compressed cotton that sat about 5 feet tall and 2 feet wide. "For most of the history of cotton merchandising in this country, the value of a 500-pound bale of cotton was determined by a sample — approximately shoe box size, let's say — which you would look at and read like you would a book," Turley said. The color of the cotton, the leaf content, and the length of the fibers when bunches were pulled apart all contributed to its value. "You needed to be where the brokers and merchants were so you could go look at samples and determine the value of this commodity that your intention was to trade," he said. "There was every good reason to have a place where people would meet one another." That need to be close created a cotton ecosystem. Inside the Cotton Exchange building, cotton classers were on the top floor where the natural light was best. It was their job to examine cotton samples and sort them into different classes based on quality. The "squidge" worked alongside the classer as an apprentice learning the business. Until bright light bulbs were developed to mimic sunlight, this work could be done only on clear, sunny days and near windows. Porters — usually black — maintained the street, moved cotton bales and performed other labor-intensive jobs. Outside the building, cotton factors, who lent money to farmers to buy seed and merchants to buy cotton, set up alongside cotton insurers, warehouse representatives, steamship agents and others. "It was to be a place where rules were made, people could gather, markets were shown on the board," Turley said. "It was all about the buying and selling of cotton." Just as that proximity facilitated business, it also created a social order maintained by lively games of dominoes, practical jokes and often-raucous drinking. "There was a lot of drinking on the street, which was maybe a combination of a certain level of anxiety produced by speculation during the season and then nothing to do in the summertime," Turley said. "One of my first jobs was going to the Cotton Bowl liquor store and buying half pints of Old Yellowstone bourbon, which was not a very respectable brand, but it kept fires going." Download the app: Get the latest news from The Commercial Appeal straight to your phone. The death and rebirth of Downtown The buildings on Cotton Row didn't match the elaborate architecture of some of the others that were rising around it, but even that was a sign of the time. "Although built during a period of exuberant architectural expression, the Cotton Row buildings are primarily a product of function rather than prevailing fashion," the National Register nomination form said. These buildings were there to get business done, not to look pretty. But just as the technology of the cotton gin helped to make the cotton industry viable, technology eventually made Cotton Row and the exchange obsolete. While some of the world's leading cotton companies — including Dunavant Enterprises and Hohenberg Cotton, which later sold to Cargill — came from the shops on Cotton Row, as technology developed, traders could make deals over the phone from miles away and had no reason to come to Cotton Row. As businesses disappeared and consolidated on Cotton Row, others in Downtown were shutting down too, although for different reasons. According to Charles Crawford, a historian with the University of Memphis, as cars became more common, more and more people were willing to commute for work. As they moved east to the Memphis suburbs, businesses followed and East Memphis became the new central business district. Opposition to school integration and the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. at the Lorraine Motel only accelerated the already declining Downtown. By the time the Memphis Cotton Exchange closed in 1978, much of Downtown was already desolate. "You could have fired a gun down Main Street and wouldn't hit anyone," Crawford said. But just as the exchange building followed the trend of a waning Downtown, it helped lead the revival. Henry Turley, who helped pioneer a wave of Downtown development and revitalization, bought the building in the mid-1980s with partner Clyde Patton. Henry Turley, Calvin Turley's brother, had already renovated two vacant buildings when he and Patton set their sights on this one. "The building was nearly empty," Henry Turley said. "There was nothing on Main Street. This place was pitiful." Henry Turley persuaded tenants to move in by offering part ownership of the building rather than just rental space. After this building, Henry Turley went on to lead a new wave of residential development to encourage more density Downtown, an effort that is still underway decades later. As for the exchange building, it is still being used for what it was always used for — offices. Now, it houses advertisers, lawyers, real estate developers and, yes, even cotton traders. The Commercial Appeal has been providing thorough coverage of Memphis since before the Cotton Exchange existed. Click here for a special offer to get unlimited digital access.	<urn:uuid:860610f5-ec59-47b2-bc7e-0ba129a0f6b0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.commercialappeal.com/story/news/local/memphis200/2019/04/22/memphis-bicentennial-memphiscotton-exchange-mississippi-delta/3331133002/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00032.warc.gz	en	0.983854	1,674	3.546875	4	[ -0.6856788396835327, -0.2789613604545593, 0.23098188638687134, 0.3786272406578064, 0.054911285638809204, 0.18772530555725098, -0.018991835415363312, 0.2827884256839752, -0.3571045398712158, 0.49812766909599304, 0.5342357158660889, 0.11768869310617447, -0.16651514172554016, -0.1093672662973...	2	Bluff City bicentennial: How the Cotton Exchange shaped Memphis Without cotton, Memphis as we know it wouldn't exist. The industry was fueled by the fertile soil in the Mississippi Delta, technological advancement that brought the cotton gin, slaves, later replaced by sharecroppers and others working for free or cheap, and a global demand for the crop. Although cotton was bought and sold in Memphis for most of the half-century before the Civil War, it wasn't until after the decade after the war that a group of growers, buyers, financiers and others whose livelihoods were tied to the crop formed the Memphis Cotton Exchange in 1873. The first location of the Cotton Exchange was in a modest building near Madison Avenue and Second Street. It then moved to a larger building near the same intersection. The final stop was the 12-story building at 65 Union Ave., where it moved in the mid-1920s and remained until it closed in 1978. If the story of Memphis had to be told through a single building, that one at the corner of Union Avenue and Front Street — the center of what was then known as Cotton Row — is among the few that could tell it. BLUFF CITY BICENTENNIAL: From comic to tragic, here are 200 pieces of Memphis' history In 2006, the first floor became home to the Cotton Museum, which looks back on how cotton influenced everything in Memphis from the economy to the music to large cultural events. "This floor sat empty from 1978 to 2006," said Ann Bateman, Cotton Museum manager. "They basically walked out and locked the door. All the stuff was still here. I wouldn’t call it preserved. It was just left. ... They just literally walked out and shut the door and turned the lights out." Bales of cotton and pints of bourbon Much like the name Wall Street refers to the home of the New York Stock Exchange and the financial industry ecosystem surrounding it, Cotton Row, the strip of Front Street in Downtown Memphis between Monroe and Gayoso avenues, was known simply as "the street" to cotton traders. The street, including 28 buildings and two vacant lots, is now on the National Register of Historic Places. According to the National Register nomination form submitted the year before the exchange closed, the cotton trade got its formal start within the first decade of Memphis' founding. "From 1826, when 300 bales were brought to Memphis by wagon, to the present, cotton has been important to Memphis," the application said, adding that by the late 1880s and 1890s, that number skyrocketed to 400,000 to 700,000 bales of cotton every year. Much of that cotton was bought and sold along Cotton Row. In the heart of it all was the Memphis Cotton Exchange. And on the ground level where the museum now sits was "the floor," said Calvin Turley, who started his career inside the building when it was still functioning as the exchange and still runs his cotton company from the fourth floor. On the floor, cotton merchants would gather to agree on the value of bales of compressed cotton that sat about 5 feet tall and 2 feet wide. "For most of the history of cotton merchandising in this country, the value of a 500-pound bale of cotton was determined by a sample — approximately shoe box size, let's say — which you would look at and read like you would a book," Turley said. The color of the cotton, the leaf content, and the length of the fibers when bunches were pulled apart all contributed to its value. "You needed to be where the brokers and merchants were so you could go look at samples and determine the value of this commodity that your intention was to trade," he said. "There was every good reason to have a place where people would meet one another." That need to be close created a cotton ecosystem. Inside the Cotton Exchange building, cotton classers were on the top floor where the natural light was best. It was their job to examine cotton samples and sort them into different classes based on quality. The "squidge" worked alongside the classer as an apprentice learning the business. Until bright light bulbs were developed to mimic sunlight, this work could be done only on clear, sunny days and near windows. Porters — usually black — maintained the street, moved cotton bales and performed other labor-intensive jobs. Outside the building, cotton factors, who lent money to farmers to buy seed and merchants to buy cotton, set up alongside cotton insurers, warehouse representatives, steamship agents and others. "It was to be a place where rules were made, people could gather, markets were shown on the board," Turley said. "It was all about the buying and selling of cotton." Just as that proximity facilitated business, it also created a social order maintained by lively games of dominoes, practical jokes and often-raucous drinking. "There was a lot of drinking on the street, which was maybe a combination of a certain level of anxiety produced by speculation during the season and then nothing to do in the summertime," Turley said. "One of my first jobs was going to the Cotton Bowl liquor store and buying half pints of Old Yellowstone bourbon, which was not a very respectable brand, but it kept fires going." Download the app: Get the latest news from The Commercial Appeal straight to your phone. The death and rebirth of Downtown The buildings on Cotton Row didn't match the elaborate architecture of some of the others that were rising around it, but even that was a sign of the time. "Although built during a period of exuberant architectural expression, the Cotton Row buildings are primarily a product of function rather than prevailing fashion," the National Register nomination form said. These buildings were there to get business done, not to look pretty. But just as the technology of the cotton gin helped to make the cotton industry viable, technology eventually made Cotton Row and the exchange obsolete. While some of the world's leading cotton companies — including Dunavant Enterprises and Hohenberg Cotton, which later sold to Cargill — came from the shops on Cotton Row, as technology developed, traders could make deals over the phone from miles away and had no reason to come to Cotton Row. As businesses disappeared and consolidated on Cotton Row, others in Downtown were shutting down too, although for different reasons. According to Charles Crawford, a historian with the University of Memphis, as cars became more common, more and more people were willing to commute for work. As they moved east to the Memphis suburbs, businesses followed and East Memphis became the new central business district. Opposition to school integration and the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. at the Lorraine Motel only accelerated the already declining Downtown. By the time the Memphis Cotton Exchange closed in 1978, much of Downtown was already desolate. "You could have fired a gun down Main Street and wouldn't hit anyone," Crawford said. But just as the exchange building followed the trend of a waning Downtown, it helped lead the revival. Henry Turley, who helped pioneer a wave of Downtown development and revitalization, bought the building in the mid-1980s with partner Clyde Patton. Henry Turley, Calvin Turley's brother, had already renovated two vacant buildings when he and Patton set their sights on this one. "The building was nearly empty," Henry Turley said. "There was nothing on Main Street. This place was pitiful." Henry Turley persuaded tenants to move in by offering part ownership of the building rather than just rental space. After this building, Henry Turley went on to lead a new wave of residential development to encourage more density Downtown, an effort that is still underway decades later. As for the exchange building, it is still being used for what it was always used for — offices. Now, it houses advertisers, lawyers, real estate developers and, yes, even cotton traders. The Commercial Appeal has been providing thorough coverage of Memphis since before the Cotton Exchange existed. Click here for a special offer to get unlimited digital access.	1,689	ENGLISH	1
From birth, gender is one important thing that identifies who you are, Or at least that’s what we were taught from a young age. Gender is one simple thing that can be not thoroughly understood. A topic that has given us so many normative narratives to discuss, especially throughout this class. However, I have to admit this class is the most informational way I have received information about gender. In this activity, the one thing that had been brought to my attention was that women are meant to be in the house; cleaning, cooking and doing laundry. Not out playing professional sports like many males do. I have found that Dylans Blog and Brayden’s Blog have connections to my blog as we are both discussing gender in sports and physical activity. Dylan’s story ” Gender” represents the idea that girls can play a male’s sport too, but get judged harshly from the other team because of her gender. He talks about how “She was the best guard on our team, I had always admired her play style.” To me, that statement means that a girl is totally capable of being able to play a high-level sport with male athletes and be able to keep up with them even if she is a different gender. In our readings, we had to read about ” Discourses of Sexism in Advertising” (DiAngelo & Sensoy, 2012 pg. 108) Sports was hugely emphasized in this chapter. The quote ” Girls and women in sports are not taken seriously in the mainstream culture.” (DiAngelo & Sensoy, 2012 pg. 108) Relates to Dylan’s story as the boys felt they couldn’t play as hard against her because she was a girl, they looked at her gender and judged her. They did not look at the talented young athletic female she was. Dylan continues to describe the settings and then goes to say the other team complains and uses the excuse ” they felt they weren’t allowed to play as hard.” I can relate this to my story as the boys were judging me based on my gender saying I wasn’t capable to do something athletic because I was a girl. Which had made me angry and wanting to prove them wrong, but for some girls, it would’ve had strongly discouraged them into quitting. Brayden’s story ” Gender” explains how his gym class was also split up by gender but his teacher had given him an explanation “Some felt that it would be fairer and some people would feel more comfortable if we split up the two genders.” I think his teacher had given a reasonable answer as in My story my teacher had not given us an explanation as to why the gym classes had to be separated by gender. The normative narrative present in the two stories that had all related to mine was girls weren’t taken seriously when it came to sports and being physically active. As girls, we had gotten based on our gender, not our talent. It is clear in Dylan’s Story and My Story that the normative narrative had been girls weren’t taken seriously when it came to sports. As a young girl, I can remember being heavily involved in many organized sports throughout my community and had enjoyed it. It had created lifelong memories with friends and I learned many life skills I use today. As a young girl growing up girls were based in the category of being smart and boys were dumb, girls weren’t athletic and boys were. Our society and created gender norms for us to believe in that affected us in a negative way. The book ” Is Everyone really equal ? ” has connected the idea of ” Girls and women in sports are not taken seriously in the mainstream culture.” (DiAngelo & Sensoy, 2012 pg. 108) That idea is represented in all three stories. Although Dylan Story talks more about girls being judged based on their gender and Brayden Story talks about how gender is split up because of comfort and privacy reasons they both have connections to My Story as I talk about both. I think that Dylan’s Story tries to disrupt the normative narrative of girls being able to play a high-level sport and keep up with the males. Not having to judge everything off gender. In the book, it talks about Hayley Wickenheiser playing hockey and it not being a very feminine sport. I compared the book to Dylan’s Story as they were similar because of two females playing a “mans sport”. The girl in Dylan’s Story is playing football and in the book, Hayley is playing hockey. ” However, the stereotype of women hockey players not being feminine follows Wickenheiser as it does all female players.”(DiAngelo & Sensoy, 2012 pg. 108) Two girls playing not so feminine sports would often have been called “TomBoy” because they had been involved with a “males” sport. A common issue with having gender-based sports. To be a girl has been defined into many stereotypical words including… pretty, smart, kind, and shows emotions to be a boy has been defined as… rough, dumb, athletic and not to show emotions. Our book has given the statement ” We are socialized to perceive and values these categories differently”(DiAngelo & Sensoy, 2012 pg.51) In My Story I talk about how the boys degraded my ability to do something athletic and the statement in the book proves that when given these categories we all perceive them in a different way. Some may use it as a challenge to prove them wrong or some may take it negatively. In Dylans Story, the girl who played football may have taken the other team saying “” they felt they weren’t allowed to play as hard.” very harshly and have felt like she let her team down because of her gender. I can now understand why girls wanted to be in a separate gym class, I had looked at my story differently. With the help of reading Brayden’s Story as well. Being born a female has led to many challenges but after doing this assignment I have realized that gender should not stop you from doing what you love or are passionate for. Sensoy, O., & DiAngelo, R. (2012). Is Everyone Really Equal?: An Introduction to Key Concepts in Social Justice Education. New York, United States of America: Teachers College Press.	<urn:uuid:8a405463-559d-446c-bac8-db796f019765>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://barbermarlee.wordpress.com/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00503.warc.gz	en	0.984845	1,337	3.5625	4	[ 0.49992862343788147, 0.056401968002319336, 0.09891799092292786, -0.4735631048679352, -0.23768356442451477, 0.6850879192352295, 0.7088911533355713, 0.3104303479194641, 0.11517102271318436, 0.049734458327293396, -0.08575380593538284, -0.2530180811882019, 0.22122496366500854, 0.08614137768745...	1	From birth, gender is one important thing that identifies who you are, Or at least that’s what we were taught from a young age. Gender is one simple thing that can be not thoroughly understood. A topic that has given us so many normative narratives to discuss, especially throughout this class. However, I have to admit this class is the most informational way I have received information about gender. In this activity, the one thing that had been brought to my attention was that women are meant to be in the house; cleaning, cooking and doing laundry. Not out playing professional sports like many males do. I have found that Dylans Blog and Brayden’s Blog have connections to my blog as we are both discussing gender in sports and physical activity. Dylan’s story ” Gender” represents the idea that girls can play a male’s sport too, but get judged harshly from the other team because of her gender. He talks about how “She was the best guard on our team, I had always admired her play style.” To me, that statement means that a girl is totally capable of being able to play a high-level sport with male athletes and be able to keep up with them even if she is a different gender. In our readings, we had to read about ” Discourses of Sexism in Advertising” (DiAngelo & Sensoy, 2012 pg. 108) Sports was hugely emphasized in this chapter. The quote ” Girls and women in sports are not taken seriously in the mainstream culture.” (DiAngelo & Sensoy, 2012 pg. 108) Relates to Dylan’s story as the boys felt they couldn’t play as hard against her because she was a girl, they looked at her gender and judged her. They did not look at the talented young athletic female she was. Dylan continues to describe the settings and then goes to say the other team complains and uses the excuse ” they felt they weren’t allowed to play as hard.” I can relate this to my story as the boys were judging me based on my gender saying I wasn’t capable to do something athletic because I was a girl. Which had made me angry and wanting to prove them wrong, but for some girls, it would’ve had strongly discouraged them into quitting. Brayden’s story ” Gender” explains how his gym class was also split up by gender but his teacher had given him an explanation “Some felt that it would be fairer and some people would feel more comfortable if we split up the two genders.” I think his teacher had given a reasonable answer as in My story my teacher had not given us an explanation as to why the gym classes had to be separated by gender. The normative narrative present in the two stories that had all related to mine was girls weren’t taken seriously when it came to sports and being physically active. As girls, we had gotten based on our gender, not our talent. It is clear in Dylan’s Story and My Story that the normative narrative had been girls weren’t taken seriously when it came to sports. As a young girl, I can remember being heavily involved in many organized sports throughout my community and had enjoyed it. It had created lifelong memories with friends and I learned many life skills I use today. As a young girl growing up girls were based in the category of being smart and boys were dumb, girls weren’t athletic and boys were. Our society and created gender norms for us to believe in that affected us in a negative way. The book ” Is Everyone really equal ? ” has connected the idea of ” Girls and women in sports are not taken seriously in the mainstream culture.” (DiAngelo & Sensoy, 2012 pg. 108) That idea is represented in all three stories. Although Dylan Story talks more about girls being judged based on their gender and Brayden Story talks about how gender is split up because of comfort and privacy reasons they both have connections to My Story as I talk about both. I think that Dylan’s Story tries to disrupt the normative narrative of girls being able to play a high-level sport and keep up with the males. Not having to judge everything off gender. In the book, it talks about Hayley Wickenheiser playing hockey and it not being a very feminine sport. I compared the book to Dylan’s Story as they were similar because of two females playing a “mans sport”. The girl in Dylan’s Story is playing football and in the book, Hayley is playing hockey. ” However, the stereotype of women hockey players not being feminine follows Wickenheiser as it does all female players.”(DiAngelo & Sensoy, 2012 pg. 108) Two girls playing not so feminine sports would often have been called “TomBoy” because they had been involved with a “males” sport. A common issue with having gender-based sports. To be a girl has been defined into many stereotypical words including… pretty, smart, kind, and shows emotions to be a boy has been defined as… rough, dumb, athletic and not to show emotions. Our book has given the statement ” We are socialized to perceive and values these categories differently”(DiAngelo & Sensoy, 2012 pg.51) In My Story I talk about how the boys degraded my ability to do something athletic and the statement in the book proves that when given these categories we all perceive them in a different way. Some may use it as a challenge to prove them wrong or some may take it negatively. In Dylans Story, the girl who played football may have taken the other team saying “” they felt they weren’t allowed to play as hard.” very harshly and have felt like she let her team down because of her gender. I can now understand why girls wanted to be in a separate gym class, I had looked at my story differently. With the help of reading Brayden’s Story as well. Being born a female has led to many challenges but after doing this assignment I have realized that gender should not stop you from doing what you love or are passionate for. Sensoy, O., & DiAngelo, R. (2012). Is Everyone Really Equal?: An Introduction to Key Concepts in Social Justice Education. New York, United States of America: Teachers College Press.	1,300	ENGLISH	1
"The condition of the Supreme Court is pitiable, and yet those old fools hold on with a tenacity that is most discouraging," President WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT wrote in May 1909 to his old friend HORACE H. LURTON. Taft would have his day. One year later, Chief Justice MELVILLE W. FULLER spoke at the Court's memorial service for Justice DAVID J. BREWER : "As our brother Brewer joins the great procession, there pass before me the forms of Mathews and Miller, of Field and Bradley and Lamar and Blatchford, of Jackson and Gray and of Peckham, whose works follow them now that they rest from their labors." These were virtually Fuller's last words from the bench, for he died on Independence Day, 1910, in his native Maine. RUFUS W. PECKHAM had died less than a year earlier. WILLIAM H. MOODY, tragically and prematurely ill, would within a few months have to cut short by retirement one of the few notable short tenures on the Court. JOHN MARSHALL HARLAN had but one year left in his remarkable thirty-four-year tenure. By 1912, five new Justices had come to the Court who were not there in 1909: a new majority under a new Chief Justice. The year 1910 was a significant divide in the history of the country as well. The population was nearly half urban, and immigration was large and growing. The country stood on the verge of enacting humane and extensive labor regulation. A year of Republican unrest in Congress and THEODORE ROOSEVELT'S decisive turn to progressive agitation, 1910 was the first time in eight elections that the Democrats took control of the House. In the same year, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was founded. It was a year of progressive tremors that would eventually shake the Supreme Court to its foundations with the appointment of LOUIS D. BRANDEIS in 1916. But the five appointments with which President Taft rehabilitated his beloved Court between 1909 and 1912 had no such dramatic impact. There was a significant strengthening of a mild progressive tendency earlier evident within the Court, but the new appointments brought neither a hardening nor a decisive break with the DOCTRINES of laissez-faire constitutionalism and luxuriant individualism embodied in such decisions as LOCHNER V. NEW YORK (1905) and Adair v. United States (1908). Taft's aim was to strengthen the Court with active men of sound, if somewhat progressive, conservative principles. Neither Taft nor the nation saw the Court, as both increasingly would a decade later, as the storm center of pressures for fundamental constitutional change. Taft's first choice when Peckham died in 1909 was his friend Lurton, then on the Sixth Circuit, and a former member of the Tennessee Supreme Court. Lurton, a Democrat, had been a fiery secessionist in his youth, and in his short and uneventful four-year tenure he combined conservationism on economic regulation, race, and labor relations. Taft's second choice was not so modest. When Taft went to Governor CHARLES EVANS HUGHES of New York to replace Brewer, he brought to the Court for the first of his two tenures a Justice who would emerge as one of the greatest figures in the history of American law, and a principal architect of modern CIVIL LIBERTIES and CIVIL RIGHTS jurisprudence. As governor of New York, Hughes was already one of the formidable reform figures of the Progressive era, and his later career as a presidential candidate who came within a whisper of success in 1916, secretary of state during the 1920s, and Chief Justice during the tumultuous years of the New Deal, mark him as one of the most versatile and important public figures to sit on the Court since JOHN MARSHALL. Taft's choice of the Chief Justice to fill the center seat left vacant by Fuller was something of a surprise, although reasons are obvious in retrospect. EDWARD D. WHITE was a Confederate veteran from Louisiana, who had played a central role in the Democratic reaction against Reconstruction in that state and had emerged as a Democratic senator in 1891. He had been appointed Associate Justice in 1894 by President GROVER CLEVELAND and had compiled a respectable but unobtrusive record in sixteen years in the side seat. He had dissented with able force from the self-inflicted wound of POLLOCK V. FARMERS ' LOAN & TRUST CO. (1895), holding unconstitutional the federal income tax, and his antitrust dissents in TRANS-MISSOURI FREIGHT ASSOCIATION (1897) and UNITED STATES V. NORTHERN SECURITIES COMPANY (1904) embodied sound good sense. He had done "pioneer work," as Taft later called it, in ADMINISTRATIVE LAW. White had a genius for friendship and, despite a habit of constant worrying, extraordinary personal warmth. OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES summed him up in these words in 1910: "His writing leaves much to be desired, but his thinking is profound, especially in the legislative direction which we don't recognize as a judicial requirement but which is so, especially in our Court, nevertheless." White was sixty-five, a Democrat, a Confederate veteran, and a Roman Catholic, and his selection by Taft was seen as adventurous. But given Taft's desire to bind up sectional wounds, to spread his political advantage, to put someone in the center seat who might not occupy Taft's own ultimate ambition for too long, to exemplify bipartisanship in the choice of Chief Justice, and on its own sturdy merits, the selection of White seems easy to understand. Along with White's nomination, Taft sent to the Senate nominations of WILLIS VAN DEVANTER of Wyoming and JOSEPH R. LAMAR of Georgia. Van Devanter would sit for twenty-seven years, and would become one of the Court's most able, if increasingly conservative, legal craftsmen. Lamar would last only five years, and his death in 1915, along with Lurton's death in 1914 and Hughes's resignation to run for President, opened up the second important cycle of appointments to the White Court. The Taft appointees joined two of the most remarkable characters ever to sit on the Supreme Court. John Marshall Harlan, then seventy-eight, had been on the Court since his appointment by President RUTHERFORD B. HAYES in 1877. He was a Justice of passionate strength and certitude, a man who, in the fond words of Justice Brewer, "goes to bed every night with one hand on the Constitution and the other on the Bible, and so sleeps the sleep of justice and righteousness." He had issued an apocalyptic dissent in Pollock, the income tax case, and his dissent in PLESSY V. FERGUSON (1986), the notorious decision upholding racial SEGREGATION on railroads, was an appeal to the conscience of the Constitution without equal in our history. The other, even more...	<urn:uuid:0f9f3d56-6534-4bd1-ab6b-693a16133a73>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://law-journals-books.vlex.com/vid/white-court-51715886	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00116.warc.gz	en	0.980307	1,478	3.34375	3	[ -0.6900486946105957, 0.017453134059906006, -0.009374471381306648, -0.10395996272563934, -0.3584557771682739, 0.3014068901538849, 0.3319147825241089, -0.16131176054477692, 0.07502545416355133, 0.14777755737304688, -0.07365230470895767, 0.5040441751480103, 0.5033372640609741, 0.1343516558408...	3	"The condition of the Supreme Court is pitiable, and yet those old fools hold on with a tenacity that is most discouraging," President WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT wrote in May 1909 to his old friend HORACE H. LURTON. Taft would have his day. One year later, Chief Justice MELVILLE W. FULLER spoke at the Court's memorial service for Justice DAVID J. BREWER : "As our brother Brewer joins the great procession, there pass before me the forms of Mathews and Miller, of Field and Bradley and Lamar and Blatchford, of Jackson and Gray and of Peckham, whose works follow them now that they rest from their labors." These were virtually Fuller's last words from the bench, for he died on Independence Day, 1910, in his native Maine. RUFUS W. PECKHAM had died less than a year earlier. WILLIAM H. MOODY, tragically and prematurely ill, would within a few months have to cut short by retirement one of the few notable short tenures on the Court. JOHN MARSHALL HARLAN had but one year left in his remarkable thirty-four-year tenure. By 1912, five new Justices had come to the Court who were not there in 1909: a new majority under a new Chief Justice. The year 1910 was a significant divide in the history of the country as well. The population was nearly half urban, and immigration was large and growing. The country stood on the verge of enacting humane and extensive labor regulation. A year of Republican unrest in Congress and THEODORE ROOSEVELT'S decisive turn to progressive agitation, 1910 was the first time in eight elections that the Democrats took control of the House. In the same year, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was founded. It was a year of progressive tremors that would eventually shake the Supreme Court to its foundations with the appointment of LOUIS D. BRANDEIS in 1916. But the five appointments with which President Taft rehabilitated his beloved Court between 1909 and 1912 had no such dramatic impact. There was a significant strengthening of a mild progressive tendency earlier evident within the Court, but the new appointments brought neither a hardening nor a decisive break with the DOCTRINES of laissez-faire constitutionalism and luxuriant individualism embodied in such decisions as LOCHNER V. NEW YORK (1905) and Adair v. United States (1908). Taft's aim was to strengthen the Court with active men of sound, if somewhat progressive, conservative principles. Neither Taft nor the nation saw the Court, as both increasingly would a decade later, as the storm center of pressures for fundamental constitutional change. Taft's first choice when Peckham died in 1909 was his friend Lurton, then on the Sixth Circuit, and a former member of the Tennessee Supreme Court. Lurton, a Democrat, had been a fiery secessionist in his youth, and in his short and uneventful four-year tenure he combined conservationism on economic regulation, race, and labor relations. Taft's second choice was not so modest. When Taft went to Governor CHARLES EVANS HUGHES of New York to replace Brewer, he brought to the Court for the first of his two tenures a Justice who would emerge as one of the greatest figures in the history of American law, and a principal architect of modern CIVIL LIBERTIES and CIVIL RIGHTS jurisprudence. As governor of New York, Hughes was already one of the formidable reform figures of the Progressive era, and his later career as a presidential candidate who came within a whisper of success in 1916, secretary of state during the 1920s, and Chief Justice during the tumultuous years of the New Deal, mark him as one of the most versatile and important public figures to sit on the Court since JOHN MARSHALL. Taft's choice of the Chief Justice to fill the center seat left vacant by Fuller was something of a surprise, although reasons are obvious in retrospect. EDWARD D. WHITE was a Confederate veteran from Louisiana, who had played a central role in the Democratic reaction against Reconstruction in that state and had emerged as a Democratic senator in 1891. He had been appointed Associate Justice in 1894 by President GROVER CLEVELAND and had compiled a respectable but unobtrusive record in sixteen years in the side seat. He had dissented with able force from the self-inflicted wound of POLLOCK V. FARMERS ' LOAN & TRUST CO. (1895), holding unconstitutional the federal income tax, and his antitrust dissents in TRANS-MISSOURI FREIGHT ASSOCIATION (1897) and UNITED STATES V. NORTHERN SECURITIES COMPANY (1904) embodied sound good sense. He had done "pioneer work," as Taft later called it, in ADMINISTRATIVE LAW. White had a genius for friendship and, despite a habit of constant worrying, extraordinary personal warmth. OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES summed him up in these words in 1910: "His writing leaves much to be desired, but his thinking is profound, especially in the legislative direction which we don't recognize as a judicial requirement but which is so, especially in our Court, nevertheless." White was sixty-five, a Democrat, a Confederate veteran, and a Roman Catholic, and his selection by Taft was seen as adventurous. But given Taft's desire to bind up sectional wounds, to spread his political advantage, to put someone in the center seat who might not occupy Taft's own ultimate ambition for too long, to exemplify bipartisanship in the choice of Chief Justice, and on its own sturdy merits, the selection of White seems easy to understand. Along with White's nomination, Taft sent to the Senate nominations of WILLIS VAN DEVANTER of Wyoming and JOSEPH R. LAMAR of Georgia. Van Devanter would sit for twenty-seven years, and would become one of the Court's most able, if increasingly conservative, legal craftsmen. Lamar would last only five years, and his death in 1915, along with Lurton's death in 1914 and Hughes's resignation to run for President, opened up the second important cycle of appointments to the White Court. The Taft appointees joined two of the most remarkable characters ever to sit on the Supreme Court. John Marshall Harlan, then seventy-eight, had been on the Court since his appointment by President RUTHERFORD B. HAYES in 1877. He was a Justice of passionate strength and certitude, a man who, in the fond words of Justice Brewer, "goes to bed every night with one hand on the Constitution and the other on the Bible, and so sleeps the sleep of justice and righteousness." He had issued an apocalyptic dissent in Pollock, the income tax case, and his dissent in PLESSY V. FERGUSON (1986), the notorious decision upholding racial SEGREGATION on railroads, was an appeal to the conscience of the Constitution without equal in our history. The other, even more...	1,538	ENGLISH	1
In Latin it is where we find the etymological origin of the word villa that we will now analyze in depth. We specify that it emanates from the term villa , which can be translated as “country house”. Villa is a term with several uses linked to different types of populations and certain particular housing styles. In its classical sense, a village is a population that has some privileges that differentiate it from villages or towns , but that does not come to be considered as a city for example Samui villas and Koh samui hotels It is, therefore, a type of population nucleus that emerged in the Middle Ages . In medieval villages artisans and merchants used to live, differing from rural settlers. Most of these villas managed to evolve both in infrastructure and in number of settlers until they became cities. A villa, on the other hand, is a recreational house that is situated in an isolated place, usually in the countryside . For example: “The businessman retired to his rest village after closing several commercial agreements” , “My employer’s villa has a large number of wooded hectares and a large swimming pool . “ In Argentina , the notion of a villa is used to name the neighborhood of precarious homes with infrastructure deficiencies . The original concept spoke of misery villa (coined by Bernardo Verbitsky in one of his books), although in everyday language reference is simply made to villa. The villas are usually located in or around large cities and are formed from migrations (with people arriving from different towns or countries in search of work). In addition to all of the above, we cannot ignore that it is common in the colloquial field to make use of the term house of the villa. It is an expression with which it comes to define what is the municipality of any municipality. There is also what is known as the university of village and land. This expression, however, was more typical of past centuries and was used to refer specifically to the set of neighborhoods that maintained a bond of union since they were under the same representation. Of course, we cannot ignore the expression of the workers of the town. This is used to refer to a man who works in the construction sector, specifically as a bricklayer.	<urn:uuid:1e3c9dd7-21d2-4a9d-aa65-da334325e50f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://bitcoin-lawyer.org/all-you-need-to-know-villa/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00201.warc.gz	en	0.980723	472	3.359375	3	[ 0.08490518480539322, -0.13053524494171143, 0.285657674074173, 0.23785877227783203, 0.33407774567604065, -0.09785381704568863, 0.32155075669288635, -0.4037492871284485, 0.3443897068500519, -0.010725085623562336, 0.11334928125143051, -0.18058393895626068, -0.3789525032043457, 0.2176324129104...	15	In Latin it is where we find the etymological origin of the word villa that we will now analyze in depth. We specify that it emanates from the term villa , which can be translated as “country house”. Villa is a term with several uses linked to different types of populations and certain particular housing styles. In its classical sense, a village is a population that has some privileges that differentiate it from villages or towns , but that does not come to be considered as a city for example Samui villas and Koh samui hotels It is, therefore, a type of population nucleus that emerged in the Middle Ages . In medieval villages artisans and merchants used to live, differing from rural settlers. Most of these villas managed to evolve both in infrastructure and in number of settlers until they became cities. A villa, on the other hand, is a recreational house that is situated in an isolated place, usually in the countryside . For example: “The businessman retired to his rest village after closing several commercial agreements” , “My employer’s villa has a large number of wooded hectares and a large swimming pool . “ In Argentina , the notion of a villa is used to name the neighborhood of precarious homes with infrastructure deficiencies . The original concept spoke of misery villa (coined by Bernardo Verbitsky in one of his books), although in everyday language reference is simply made to villa. The villas are usually located in or around large cities and are formed from migrations (with people arriving from different towns or countries in search of work). In addition to all of the above, we cannot ignore that it is common in the colloquial field to make use of the term house of the villa. It is an expression with which it comes to define what is the municipality of any municipality. There is also what is known as the university of village and land. This expression, however, was more typical of past centuries and was used to refer specifically to the set of neighborhoods that maintained a bond of union since they were under the same representation. Of course, we cannot ignore the expression of the workers of the town. This is used to refer to a man who works in the construction sector, specifically as a bricklayer.	446	ENGLISH	1

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