Split (1)

train · 729k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
Trajan, a significant Roman ruler, reigned from 98 to 117 AD. His government in Rome is symbolized by special actions to improve the standards of living of Roman citizens. However, his actual presence was on the battlefield, in fact Trajan is mostly remembered as a conqueror. His attitude for war and expansion was balanced with the increasing number of public projects such as road systems, baths and markets. As an emperor who was concerned with both good government and the public welfare, he instituted an excellent domestic policy. He cared for the children of the poor, restored the dilapidated road system, he built new bridges, aqueducts, public baths, and a modern port at Ostia. Lastly, he continued his predecessor’s policy of undoing much of the harm done by Domitian by freeing prisoners and recalling exiles. The Trajan’s markets, history and architecture Trajan’s Markets is a historical complex of the roman period where shops and offices were located. It was build during the Roman Empire between 107 AD and 110 AD by the same emperor responsible for the Trajan’s Column, Emperor Trajan. He commissioned Apollodorus of Damascus to plan the market complex. The complex also served as a forum and it completes the Forum of Trajan. The upper level of Trajan’s Market was used for offices and ran by the officials in charge of the entire market. The market itself allowed merchants from around the nation to sell their products. These shops were called “tabernae” and there were more than 150 in the entire complex. The complex was set into the side of Quirinal Hill and served to complete the Forum of Trajan. Apollodorus built a monumental, semi-circular facade bordered by a row of columns. At both ends were smaller exedras that were covered by a half dome. Also in the lower part of the market was the so-called Great Hall, 32 meters long and 8 meters high. The hall was possibly used for concerts, speeches or education. The roof of the market was meant to create light and space, it was fashioned as an arched concrete vault that sat on piers to allow sunlight to seep through into the shops and protect the shoppers from the weather. The Trajan's Markets, where they are located and how to visit the complex The Markets of Trajan gives us a good insight of Roman urban architecture, since it is one of the few high-rise structures that have been preserved. Despite many years of neglect and damages (as the ones created by earthquake of 1349) the complex is still in relatively good condition. In 1574 the Convent of Santa Caterina da Siena was built on the upper part of Trajan's Markets but it was demolished between 1911 and 1914. Part of the tower of the convent it is still visible at the upper part of the market, in the middle. Restoration of the complex was carried out under the Fascist regime from 1926 until 1934. Today visitors can walk along the main shopping street, the Via Biberatica, or through one of the complex's corridors, along the rooms that once housed the tabernae. To get inside the market it is necessary to get a ticket that will permit you to explore the area of the market included in the ticket. The Trajan's Markets are located along Via dei Fori Imperiali in Rome, not far from the Colosseum. Inside this colossal complex, visitors can also admire the Imperial Forum Museum.	<urn:uuid:44342b46-2a86-4bd1-8e84-a9db98b7d709>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.museumsrome.com/en/our-blog-on-rome/the-trajan-s-markets-and-trajan-the-roman-emperor	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00329.warc.gz	en	0.982527	730	3.609375	4	[ 0.009056388400495052, 0.3006478250026703, 0.4660516679286957, -0.1193016767501831, -0.21888084709644318, 0.004767393693327904, 0.04950089007616043, 0.5775059461593628, -0.10894536226987839, -0.3260047435760498, -0.28327053785324097, -0.4776481091976166, -0.060113005340099335, 0.62700235843...	9	Trajan, a significant Roman ruler, reigned from 98 to 117 AD. His government in Rome is symbolized by special actions to improve the standards of living of Roman citizens. However, his actual presence was on the battlefield, in fact Trajan is mostly remembered as a conqueror. His attitude for war and expansion was balanced with the increasing number of public projects such as road systems, baths and markets. As an emperor who was concerned with both good government and the public welfare, he instituted an excellent domestic policy. He cared for the children of the poor, restored the dilapidated road system, he built new bridges, aqueducts, public baths, and a modern port at Ostia. Lastly, he continued his predecessor’s policy of undoing much of the harm done by Domitian by freeing prisoners and recalling exiles. The Trajan’s markets, history and architecture Trajan’s Markets is a historical complex of the roman period where shops and offices were located. It was build during the Roman Empire between 107 AD and 110 AD by the same emperor responsible for the Trajan’s Column, Emperor Trajan. He commissioned Apollodorus of Damascus to plan the market complex. The complex also served as a forum and it completes the Forum of Trajan. The upper level of Trajan’s Market was used for offices and ran by the officials in charge of the entire market. The market itself allowed merchants from around the nation to sell their products. These shops were called “tabernae” and there were more than 150 in the entire complex. The complex was set into the side of Quirinal Hill and served to complete the Forum of Trajan. Apollodorus built a monumental, semi-circular facade bordered by a row of columns. At both ends were smaller exedras that were covered by a half dome. Also in the lower part of the market was the so-called Great Hall, 32 meters long and 8 meters high. The hall was possibly used for concerts, speeches or education. The roof of the market was meant to create light and space, it was fashioned as an arched concrete vault that sat on piers to allow sunlight to seep through into the shops and protect the shoppers from the weather. The Trajan's Markets, where they are located and how to visit the complex The Markets of Trajan gives us a good insight of Roman urban architecture, since it is one of the few high-rise structures that have been preserved. Despite many years of neglect and damages (as the ones created by earthquake of 1349) the complex is still in relatively good condition. In 1574 the Convent of Santa Caterina da Siena was built on the upper part of Trajan's Markets but it was demolished between 1911 and 1914. Part of the tower of the convent it is still visible at the upper part of the market, in the middle. Restoration of the complex was carried out under the Fascist regime from 1926 until 1934. Today visitors can walk along the main shopping street, the Via Biberatica, or through one of the complex's corridors, along the rooms that once housed the tabernae. To get inside the market it is necessary to get a ticket that will permit you to explore the area of the market included in the ticket. The Trajan's Markets are located along Via dei Fori Imperiali in Rome, not far from the Colosseum. Inside this colossal complex, visitors can also admire the Imperial Forum Museum.	741	ENGLISH	1
Clinton Elementary School recently introduced the fifth grade students to coding. An Hour of Code is a project where students learn the skills it takes to build a website using HTML scripts. Several different activities are available through the Hour of Code program; Minecraft and Maze building and music themes were popular but most students were working with the Dance Party 2019 program. A set of objectives would be given for each level and students had to create the code necessary to get their cartoon character to dance and advance to the next difficulty level. Wyatt, a student in Ms. Culver's class, said it was a lot of fun to learn programming and how computers work. Before the event, some students worked with teachers to set up the activities and then assist their classmates during the training. A student helper named Jason gave an in-depth tutorial of the Hour of Code program and the games the kids were playing. He said part of the fun for him was having to solve the objectives on his own. "It tells us what we…	<urn:uuid:4f3e983d-fab7-435e-a45b-56b13bacc1c8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.watervilletimes.com/single-post/2020/01/07/Hour-Of-Codes-Trains-CCS-Fifth-Graders	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00325.warc.gz	en	0.98618	204	3.265625	3	[ -0.6170898079872131, -0.2756701111793518, 0.19143980741500854, -0.5137253403663635, -0.3392636179924011, 0.18845823407173157, -0.2034149467945099, 0.050494953989982605, -0.05625445768237114, 0.11188908666372299, 0.3302120566368103, 0.5444023609161377, -0.22674275934696198, 0.14089028537273...	10	Clinton Elementary School recently introduced the fifth grade students to coding. An Hour of Code is a project where students learn the skills it takes to build a website using HTML scripts. Several different activities are available through the Hour of Code program; Minecraft and Maze building and music themes were popular but most students were working with the Dance Party 2019 program. A set of objectives would be given for each level and students had to create the code necessary to get their cartoon character to dance and advance to the next difficulty level. Wyatt, a student in Ms. Culver's class, said it was a lot of fun to learn programming and how computers work. Before the event, some students worked with teachers to set up the activities and then assist their classmates during the training. A student helper named Jason gave an in-depth tutorial of the Hour of Code program and the games the kids were playing. He said part of the fun for him was having to solve the objectives on his own. "It tells us what we…	203	ENGLISH	1
Early SM:SUFFRAGE1916-1942: Margaret Sanger and American Birth Control LeadMargaret Sanger spread information on what types of birth control there where and tried to develop an effective pill. In 1916, she opened a clinic and in 1921 she formed the American Birth Control Lead (ABCL). After a few years her and ABCL members spread information about birth control which was illegal until 1936. In 1942 the ABCL was turned into Planned Parenthood. Although Planned Parenthood offered contraception to women, there was a racially motivated controversy. People of color, specifically of Latin or African American descent, protested birth control out of the belief that it was a way to decrease the number of children of color. (textbook 559) 1960 FDA approves birth controlFDA approved birth control pill. It paved the way for women liberation and the sexual revolution while allowing men and women to stay career driven, without the fear of having a child. 1943: WWII women and pink collar ghetto jobsDuring WWII women had to take mens jobs while they were away at war. Women were forced into pink collar ghetto jobs. After WWII the men came back but women wanted to continue working. Women introduced the Equal Pay act so women would be paid the same as men but it was passed 20 years after the act was created. 1960s: Sexual Revolutionwomen were told to save themselves for marriage to be pure but with legal birth control and they felt liberated and women started to have meaningless sex. This became a problem because sometimes it would become meanful to one partner or the woman would get pregnant but the father would not stay with her. Women also felt that in order to prove their liberation they would have sex with any man. If a woman got pregnant she would be a single mother and for those would had a child when they were young, they were unable to get the necessary education for a well paying job. The lack of good paying jobs for females resulted in the “feminization of poverty.” 1963: Equal Pay ActThe Equal Pay Act was passed by John F. Kennedy to pay workers the same wage regardless of sex and race.1964: Civil Rights ActEqual Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) was created with the intent to explore the accusations of discrimination in the workplace against women. Women were treated as second class citizens and the EEOC was treated as a joke, they did not take accusations seriously. (textbook pg. 812)1966: National Organization for WomenLiberal Wing of the women’s movement was created with the National Organization for Women (NOW). It was created because the federal government did not enforce the Civil Rights Act. NOW was a group of educated women that wanted to make the EEOC enforce the Act. (textbook pg. 812)1970: Jo Freeman Boycott Jo Freeman decided to not take the United Airlines flight that would have made her trip easier because of their males only on executive flights. She wrote the airline a letter and started a boycott movement that created new policies and reforms. 1971: Boston Women’s CollectiveBoston Women’s Collective wrote Our Bodies, Ourselves as a new understanding of women’s own sexual and reproductive health. In 1972 they became The Boston Women’s Health Book Collective expanded Our Bodies, Ourselves to empower women to own their body.. 1972: ERAEqual Rights Amendment (ERA) was approved by Senate. The ERA is an amendment that would prevent discrimination in the workplace against women. “Stop ERA” was a movement created by Phyllis Schlafly. The movement was comprised of conservative females whom did not believe in the passing of the ERA because they were scared to leave their roles behind and live a new life. 1972: Ms. Gloria SteinemMs. (magazine) is a feminist liberal magazine created by a group of feminists led by Gloria Steinem. Steinem worked for New York Magazine and spoke and wrote about feminism. Ms. magazine was entirely run by women. Covers political issues or news stories relating to feminism. Gloria Steinem testified for the ERA, co-founded the Women’s Action Alliance, and the National Women’s political Caucus. 1972: Title IXTitle IX was created for equal opportunity in federally funded athletic programs for males and females. Allowed women and girls to participate in more school activities such as sports and other extracurriculars. 1973: Roe v. WadeRoe v. Wade. Norma McCorvey, also known as the fictional Jane Roe, was the plaintiff in the case Roe v. Wade which legalized abortion (vote was 7-2) after she took to the Supreme Court. The main reason the court agreed was because women were illegally getting abortions which cost them their lives in unsanitary facilities.1973: Battle of the SexesBobby Riggs lost to Billie Jean King in an exhibition tennis match in the three sets. This was an important win because Bobby Riggs challenged King to a $100,000 winner takes all match. Riggs said that she had no chance in winning because she was a woman and belonged in the home. King created a Women’s tennis association and and said she would boycott the U.S. Open if females were not paid as much as men. 1976: Hyde Amendment Ban on medical funding for abortions. 1994 three exceptions were made: rape, incest, or when a womens health is at risk. 1977: National Coalition v. Domestic Violence Women and children would not talk about domestic violence because it was such a private topic but this coalition was created to report domestic violence and fight against it. 1978: Pregnancy Discrimination ActDidn’t allow jobs to fire woman because of pregnancy. Woman started to take more jobs. In 1981 Sandra Day O’Connor became the first woman in the United States Supreme Court. An inspiration to all women. 1984 Sally Ride became the first woman astronaut. 1982: Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) An amendment created to prevent discrimination based on sex in the workplace, was first created in 1923, but Congress did not approve. It was approved by U.S. Senate in 1972 and was given seven years to ratify, but was granted 10 years by extension, until 1982.Did not ratify due to needing 38 states to ratify and only having 35 after 10 years. Phyllis Schlafly, a well-known anti-feminist and anti-abortion, argued against the ERA with arguments including it would jeopardize support from husbands for wives and their children, would make abortion a “constitutional right,” and would allow women to be drafted in the military. Late SM:1991:Anita Hill charged Clarence Thomas, with sexual harassment while they were working for the the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission. Anita came out about this before Clarence was appointed as a Supreme Court Justice. The were a lot of speculations because she was a black female and was labeled either a hero or a racist. Her allegations were dismissed by the US House and Senate but she raised awareness about sexual assault and encouraged others to speak out against it. And inspired women to run for office. Record high numbers of women in office. Named the “year of the woman,” inspired by Sandra Day O’Connor. But the Equal Rights Amendment was not ratified. 1994:Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) a federal legislation that offered more protection to female victims of secxual assault, domestic abuse, and other abuses.2005-2017 Hillary Clinton and Nancy PelosiHillary Clinton- from 1993-2001 she was the First Lady of the United States, 2001-2009 she was a New York Senator, and from 2009-2013 she was the United States Secretary of State. In 2016 she ran for President .She was the first woman nominee of a large political party.Nancy Pelosi-female politician from Baltimore. In 2007 she was the first female speaker to serve on the U.S. House of Representatives, she continued to do so until 2011.2017-2018: The Women’s March was a movement that took place in early 2017 after the name of the next President was released. It was used as a demonstration to convey the amount of people, female or not, disagree with Donald Trump’s ideas and morals. Celebrities participated in the march (there were many individual marches taking place in different states) to use their own platform to share their own morals, especially in relations to women, in response to his being elected to office. The #metoo movement was an online movement launched to give women a community to unite in response to the sexual assault, rape, and harassment reported in the entertainment industry of Hollywood. Some famous feminists have reportedly not supported the #metoo movement because it is counter-productive, belittles the bigger things and the victims because it makes everything seem equal in trauma and impact.	<urn:uuid:d95de984-b645-4c90-b79d-9cd398663539>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ameliahensley.com/early-559-1960-fda-approves-birth-controlfda/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00386.warc.gz	en	0.984503	1,795	3.921875	4	[ -0.4452762007713318, -0.05985698103904724, -0.22061648964881897, -0.013396484777331352, -0.20024091005325317, 0.6195350885391235, -0.14260312914848328, 0.18149152398109436, -0.4522760808467865, 0.07505809515714645, 0.2727856934070587, 0.2921603322029114, -0.09221937507390976, 0.12188470363...	3	Early SM:SUFFRAGE1916-1942: Margaret Sanger and American Birth Control LeadMargaret Sanger spread information on what types of birth control there where and tried to develop an effective pill. In 1916, she opened a clinic and in 1921 she formed the American Birth Control Lead (ABCL). After a few years her and ABCL members spread information about birth control which was illegal until 1936. In 1942 the ABCL was turned into Planned Parenthood. Although Planned Parenthood offered contraception to women, there was a racially motivated controversy. People of color, specifically of Latin or African American descent, protested birth control out of the belief that it was a way to decrease the number of children of color. (textbook 559) 1960 FDA approves birth controlFDA approved birth control pill. It paved the way for women liberation and the sexual revolution while allowing men and women to stay career driven, without the fear of having a child. 1943: WWII women and pink collar ghetto jobsDuring WWII women had to take mens jobs while they were away at war. Women were forced into pink collar ghetto jobs. After WWII the men came back but women wanted to continue working. Women introduced the Equal Pay act so women would be paid the same as men but it was passed 20 years after the act was created. 1960s: Sexual Revolutionwomen were told to save themselves for marriage to be pure but with legal birth control and they felt liberated and women started to have meaningless sex. This became a problem because sometimes it would become meanful to one partner or the woman would get pregnant but the father would not stay with her. Women also felt that in order to prove their liberation they would have sex with any man. If a woman got pregnant she would be a single mother and for those would had a child when they were young, they were unable to get the necessary education for a well paying job. The lack of good paying jobs for females resulted in the “feminization of poverty.” 1963: Equal Pay ActThe Equal Pay Act was passed by John F. Kennedy to pay workers the same wage regardless of sex and race.1964: Civil Rights ActEqual Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) was created with the intent to explore the accusations of discrimination in the workplace against women. Women were treated as second class citizens and the EEOC was treated as a joke, they did not take accusations seriously. (textbook pg. 812)1966: National Organization for WomenLiberal Wing of the women’s movement was created with the National Organization for Women (NOW). It was created because the federal government did not enforce the Civil Rights Act. NOW was a group of educated women that wanted to make the EEOC enforce the Act. (textbook pg. 812)1970: Jo Freeman Boycott Jo Freeman decided to not take the United Airlines flight that would have made her trip easier because of their males only on executive flights. She wrote the airline a letter and started a boycott movement that created new policies and reforms. 1971: Boston Women’s CollectiveBoston Women’s Collective wrote Our Bodies, Ourselves as a new understanding of women’s own sexual and reproductive health. In 1972 they became The Boston Women’s Health Book Collective expanded Our Bodies, Ourselves to empower women to own their body.. 1972: ERAEqual Rights Amendment (ERA) was approved by Senate. The ERA is an amendment that would prevent discrimination in the workplace against women. “Stop ERA” was a movement created by Phyllis Schlafly. The movement was comprised of conservative females whom did not believe in the passing of the ERA because they were scared to leave their roles behind and live a new life. 1972: Ms. Gloria SteinemMs. (magazine) is a feminist liberal magazine created by a group of feminists led by Gloria Steinem. Steinem worked for New York Magazine and spoke and wrote about feminism. Ms. magazine was entirely run by women. Covers political issues or news stories relating to feminism. Gloria Steinem testified for the ERA, co-founded the Women’s Action Alliance, and the National Women’s political Caucus. 1972: Title IXTitle IX was created for equal opportunity in federally funded athletic programs for males and females. Allowed women and girls to participate in more school activities such as sports and other extracurriculars. 1973: Roe v. WadeRoe v. Wade. Norma McCorvey, also known as the fictional Jane Roe, was the plaintiff in the case Roe v. Wade which legalized abortion (vote was 7-2) after she took to the Supreme Court. The main reason the court agreed was because women were illegally getting abortions which cost them their lives in unsanitary facilities.1973: Battle of the SexesBobby Riggs lost to Billie Jean King in an exhibition tennis match in the three sets. This was an important win because Bobby Riggs challenged King to a $100,000 winner takes all match. Riggs said that she had no chance in winning because she was a woman and belonged in the home. King created a Women’s tennis association and and said she would boycott the U.S. Open if females were not paid as much as men. 1976: Hyde Amendment Ban on medical funding for abortions. 1994 three exceptions were made: rape, incest, or when a womens health is at risk. 1977: National Coalition v. Domestic Violence Women and children would not talk about domestic violence because it was such a private topic but this coalition was created to report domestic violence and fight against it. 1978: Pregnancy Discrimination ActDidn’t allow jobs to fire woman because of pregnancy. Woman started to take more jobs. In 1981 Sandra Day O’Connor became the first woman in the United States Supreme Court. An inspiration to all women. 1984 Sally Ride became the first woman astronaut. 1982: Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) An amendment created to prevent discrimination based on sex in the workplace, was first created in 1923, but Congress did not approve. It was approved by U.S. Senate in 1972 and was given seven years to ratify, but was granted 10 years by extension, until 1982.Did not ratify due to needing 38 states to ratify and only having 35 after 10 years. Phyllis Schlafly, a well-known anti-feminist and anti-abortion, argued against the ERA with arguments including it would jeopardize support from husbands for wives and their children, would make abortion a “constitutional right,” and would allow women to be drafted in the military. Late SM:1991:Anita Hill charged Clarence Thomas, with sexual harassment while they were working for the the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission. Anita came out about this before Clarence was appointed as a Supreme Court Justice. The were a lot of speculations because she was a black female and was labeled either a hero or a racist. Her allegations were dismissed by the US House and Senate but she raised awareness about sexual assault and encouraged others to speak out against it. And inspired women to run for office. Record high numbers of women in office. Named the “year of the woman,” inspired by Sandra Day O’Connor. But the Equal Rights Amendment was not ratified. 1994:Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) a federal legislation that offered more protection to female victims of secxual assault, domestic abuse, and other abuses.2005-2017 Hillary Clinton and Nancy PelosiHillary Clinton- from 1993-2001 she was the First Lady of the United States, 2001-2009 she was a New York Senator, and from 2009-2013 she was the United States Secretary of State. In 2016 she ran for President .She was the first woman nominee of a large political party.Nancy Pelosi-female politician from Baltimore. In 2007 she was the first female speaker to serve on the U.S. House of Representatives, she continued to do so until 2011.2017-2018: The Women’s March was a movement that took place in early 2017 after the name of the next President was released. It was used as a demonstration to convey the amount of people, female or not, disagree with Donald Trump’s ideas and morals. Celebrities participated in the march (there were many individual marches taking place in different states) to use their own platform to share their own morals, especially in relations to women, in response to his being elected to office. The #metoo movement was an online movement launched to give women a community to unite in response to the sexual assault, rape, and harassment reported in the entertainment industry of Hollywood. Some famous feminists have reportedly not supported the #metoo movement because it is counter-productive, belittles the bigger things and the victims because it makes everything seem equal in trauma and impact.	1,938	ENGLISH	1
Students of Grade Nursery learnt the spatial concept that lays foundation for measurement of distance and awareness about directions for higher grades. The students learnt to compare and identify if the object is up or down. For this the children were given concrete objects and were shown pictorial descriptions. Besides this, the students were engrossed in kinaesthetic activities like they were taken to the playground to play on see-saw, slides and were made aware of the vocabulary like up and down. Also, few children were made to stand on a raised platform and others were made to stand down that platform. A famous game "उंच नीच का पापड़ा" was also played with them. At the end of the activity the students were well acquainted with the spatial words in a fun manner. The learnings were made joyful and interesting.	<urn:uuid:9092d683-7d50-4b71-a60a-c3e7522e82c7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.presidiumdwarka6.com/news_details/3473/upcoming_events.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00527.warc.gz	en	0.992667	182	3.703125	4	[ 0.07223036885261536, -0.058208566159009933, 0.3810552954673767, -0.5516840815544128, -0.4405117928981781, 0.2782995402812958, 0.3795197308063507, 0.237615168094635, -0.07577592134475708, 0.3202364146709442, -0.14384625852108002, -0.45412418246269226, 0.11132445186376572, 0.6253231763839722...	15	Students of Grade Nursery learnt the spatial concept that lays foundation for measurement of distance and awareness about directions for higher grades. The students learnt to compare and identify if the object is up or down. For this the children were given concrete objects and were shown pictorial descriptions. Besides this, the students were engrossed in kinaesthetic activities like they were taken to the playground to play on see-saw, slides and were made aware of the vocabulary like up and down. Also, few children were made to stand on a raised platform and others were made to stand down that platform. A famous game "उंच नीच का पापड़ा" was also played with them. At the end of the activity the students were well acquainted with the spatial words in a fun manner. The learnings were made joyful and interesting.	172	ENGLISH	1
Jouka-machi is a town developed and established around the residential castle of the local lord. Jouka-machi is believed to have been established during the Sengoku period (from the middle to the end of 16th century). It resulted from the policy of Oda Nobunaga, in which warriors were separated from farmers and established into a full-time warrior-army. Oda Nobunaga made the warriors live at the foot of his castle and he brought in commerce and industry to develop the town commercially. In the basic structure of jouka-machi the main road leads to the foot of the castle. As people settled there and business developed, a town was born. In many cases, such castle towns had various devices to protect the residents and the castle, such as the effective use of rivers and building gates, as well as houses built so close to each other that they effectively concealed the castle. The town itself became a gigantic fortress. The residential area was zoned according to the social status of the samurai warriors. The higher the status, the closer to the castle they lived. Other residents, as well as temples and shrines radiated out further from the castle as the town grew. Even now, some towns preserve the feel and look of the old castle towns. Though modernized, some towns still keep the old names such as ban-chou, oote-machi and gofuku-machi that evoke olden times. - Jouka-machi (Castle Town)	<urn:uuid:f46cd8af-30cb-48a4-80eb-5aed1fcbd12a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nippon-kichi.jp/article_list.do?p=6823&ml_lang=en	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00131.warc.gz	en	0.982387	319	3.8125	4	[ -0.12105488777160645, -0.01613559015095234, 0.21260255575180054, 0.18634642660617828, 0.06946335732936859, -0.09526456892490387, 0.29599860310554504, 0.2902122139930725, -0.10685040801763535, 0.1779511272907257, -0.04904389753937721, -0.7711199522018433, 0.63326096534729, 0.244025006890296...	2	Jouka-machi is a town developed and established around the residential castle of the local lord. Jouka-machi is believed to have been established during the Sengoku period (from the middle to the end of 16th century). It resulted from the policy of Oda Nobunaga, in which warriors were separated from farmers and established into a full-time warrior-army. Oda Nobunaga made the warriors live at the foot of his castle and he brought in commerce and industry to develop the town commercially. In the basic structure of jouka-machi the main road leads to the foot of the castle. As people settled there and business developed, a town was born. In many cases, such castle towns had various devices to protect the residents and the castle, such as the effective use of rivers and building gates, as well as houses built so close to each other that they effectively concealed the castle. The town itself became a gigantic fortress. The residential area was zoned according to the social status of the samurai warriors. The higher the status, the closer to the castle they lived. Other residents, as well as temples and shrines radiated out further from the castle as the town grew. Even now, some towns preserve the feel and look of the old castle towns. Though modernized, some towns still keep the old names such as ban-chou, oote-machi and gofuku-machi that evoke olden times. - Jouka-machi (Castle Town)	305	ENGLISH	1
点击数：17052019/8/17 23:40:45 来源: 广东专插本辅导网 The blues was born on the Mississippi River Delta in the early 1900s. After the Civil War, the slaves were free but life was still not easy. They had to find new work. In the South, work camps were formed. Black people from these camps worked on farms and on building up the Mississippi River banks. During the weeks the people worked long and hard They often lived alone. without their families, far from home. On the weekends, the workers got together at picnics or drinking places. Travelling black musicians with guitars entertained them. The musicians sang songs about the difficult life of the workers. These songs were called the blues . If you have the blues it means you feel very sad. You can have the blues because you have no money, no job. no lover, or no home. But blue songs were not always sad. Some of them were happy and many of them were funny. Sometimes the blues singers had song contests. Each singer sang new words or a new style of the blues song. They made up the music as they played. In this way they created new music. This is called improvisation, Later, improvisation became a very important part of jazz music. Blues began in the country in the South. As blacks moved into the big cities to work. The blues went with them. There, they sang about life in the cities. W. C. Handy, a black band leader from Memphis made the blues popular all over America. In 1914 he wrote the most famous blues song of all. "The St. Louis Blues" 31. After the Civil War. the Black people A.were mostly slaves B, still led a hard life C. enjoyed their new life with families D. worked on their own farms 32.At the very beginning, the blues were__. A. not performed on formal occasions B. traditional songs of the Black people C. about the life of travelling musicians D. very popular throughout the nation 33. What kind of emotion does the blues express? A. Sadness B. Happiness C. Joking D. All of the above 34.How did “improvisation” come into being? A. The blues singers gathered to have contests B. New words were added into old songs C. New styles were played with guitars D. The blues singers created music while playing 35. Which of the following is NOT true according to the passage? A. The blues were born in the country in the Sou B. The blues soon disappeared in big cities C. W. C. Handy made the blues popular in US D. The most well-known blues song is"The St. Louis Blue	<urn:uuid:56583b48-5122-407e-a9d5-89893bb36683>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://coral-green.net/jogp1?/36-217.iunm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00050.warc.gz	en	0.983969	612	3.765625	4	[ -0.16418242454528809, -0.20988112688064575, -0.1434546262025833, -0.3105661869049072, -0.042681436985731125, 0.39133352041244507, -0.06381542980670929, -0.4702591598033905, -0.0713636726140976, -0.007951890118420124, 0.5211150646209717, 0.08989868313074112, -0.10266327857971191, -0.1737053...	1	点击数：17052019/8/17 23:40:45 来源: 广东专插本辅导网 The blues was born on the Mississippi River Delta in the early 1900s. After the Civil War, the slaves were free but life was still not easy. They had to find new work. In the South, work camps were formed. Black people from these camps worked on farms and on building up the Mississippi River banks. During the weeks the people worked long and hard They often lived alone. without their families, far from home. On the weekends, the workers got together at picnics or drinking places. Travelling black musicians with guitars entertained them. The musicians sang songs about the difficult life of the workers. These songs were called the blues . If you have the blues it means you feel very sad. You can have the blues because you have no money, no job. no lover, or no home. But blue songs were not always sad. Some of them were happy and many of them were funny. Sometimes the blues singers had song contests. Each singer sang new words or a new style of the blues song. They made up the music as they played. In this way they created new music. This is called improvisation, Later, improvisation became a very important part of jazz music. Blues began in the country in the South. As blacks moved into the big cities to work. The blues went with them. There, they sang about life in the cities. W. C. Handy, a black band leader from Memphis made the blues popular all over America. In 1914 he wrote the most famous blues song of all. "The St. Louis Blues" 31. After the Civil War. the Black people A.were mostly slaves B, still led a hard life C. enjoyed their new life with families D. worked on their own farms 32.At the very beginning, the blues were__. A. not performed on formal occasions B. traditional songs of the Black people C. about the life of travelling musicians D. very popular throughout the nation 33. What kind of emotion does the blues express? A. Sadness B. Happiness C. Joking D. All of the above 34.How did “improvisation” come into being? A. The blues singers gathered to have contests B. New words were added into old songs C. New styles were played with guitars D. The blues singers created music while playing 35. Which of the following is NOT true according to the passage? A. The blues were born in the country in the Sou B. The blues soon disappeared in big cities C. W. C. Handy made the blues popular in US D. The most well-known blues song is"The St. Louis Blue	598	ENGLISH	1
Horace was born on 8th of December 65 BCE in Apulia under the name of Quintus Horatius Flaccus. He was one of the leading lyric poets during the Augustus Era. As a son of a freedman, he acted during the most magnificent blooming period of Roman literature during the times of Augustus. His father, who was of Venosian origin, made sure that Horace received thorough and versatile education. He studied in Rome, and since 45 BCE in Athens, where he was able to gain an insight into Greek and Latin. As an ally of the Republicans, after the Caesar was murdered, he joined up the army and, under the command of Brutus, fought against Augustus. Being a tribune of the army, he partook in the battle of Philippi in 42 BCE, from which he had to flee in order to save his life. After the amnesty for the enemies of Augustus was announced, he came back to Italy. Since he declared for the wrong side, his family assets were confiscated. Moreover, he acknowledged that his father was dead. Despite being nearly broke, he was able to purchase a position of secretary at quaestor in Rome, thereby ensuring that he would make a living and allowing him to take to poetry. His friendship with Virgil make it possible for him to become a part of the circle of Maecenas’ friends, who afterwards introduced him to Augustus. Good relations with Maecenas encouraged him to become a part of his literary circle, wherein he met Ovid. A small mansion near the city Tibur in the Monti Sabini given by Maecenas to Horace alleviated all his carks related to finances and allowed him to dedicate himself to literary work in full. Although he was financially dependent on his noble protector, he was able to maintain his personal independence, remaining a friendship of Maecenas till the end of his days. He remained moderate throughout his life and was not too influenced by any of the schools of philosophy – neither was he a resolute epicurean, nor a cynic or a skeptic, or a stoic. As the years went by, however, he was moving towards the stoicism. To this very day, Horace is known as a very ardent propagator of the civil virtues. - “Epodes”, 41-30 BCE – Short pieces of work themed on politics; Horace wrote them as he was impressed by the Perusine Wars – The advice to Romans is given, with the example of horrifying civils wars, that they, as the Phocians did, should leave Rome and travel to the Fortunate Isles, somewhere past the Pillars of Hercules. - “Satires”. 40-30 BCE – Works aimed at ridiculing peoples’ flaws and weaknesses. Therein, Horace did not deride the prominent figures, nor was he a strict judge, but told the truth while laughing. They were modeled on works of Gaius Lucilius, Menippus of Gadara and stoical-cynical diatribe. At that time, also the book of iambs came out, which were meant to attack usurers, upstarts, nasty critics and feeble poets. Horace’s Satires well greatly appreciated. - “The Odes” – These are the greatest of Horace’s achievements. These works covered a huge variety of subjects, such as religion, regale, poems to friends, poems to loves, Classical and Hellenistic themes, reflections on death and the joy of life; they were perfectly constructed when it comes to metrics. The Odes were to a great extent modeled on the poetry of Alcaeus, Sappho, Pindar and Anacreon. Because of the celebrations of the new century, Horace wrote the Carmen saeculare. - “The Letters” 23-8 BCE – They are of a philosophical essence. They touch upon the issues of poetry, particularly the letters of the 2nd tome: “The Letter to the Pisos”, also known as “Ars Poetica”. It is the essay on poetry, related mainly to drama, and translated into many languages. It was the basis of the European poetry. Horace’s literary works are regarded as the greatest achievements in the Classical Era and hugely influenced the European poetry. Horace died on 27th of November 8 BCE. The death was sudden, and the poet did not leave any last will. It caused suspicions that he committed suicide by using a poison, so that he could fulfill the promise once made to Maecenas: the very day of your death shall be my last day too. Those suspicions were never proved. The body of Horace was not burnt, but buried beside the tomb of Maecenas, in the garden of the friend on the Esquiline Hill (horti Macenatiani).	<urn:uuid:86196369-a7e0-428d-a329-4ac3a8bb2a61>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.imperiumromanum.edu.pl/en/biographies-of-romans/horace/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00053.warc.gz	en	0.985918	1,029	3.640625	4	[ -0.016589725390076637, 0.24547025561332703, 0.5344931483268738, 0.03823681175708771, -0.3919670581817627, -0.3406631052494049, 0.19761453568935394, 0.5279766321182251, 0.050672419369220734, -0.40159982442855835, -0.40294671058654785, -0.34899646043777466, -0.15062561631202698, 0.4497308135...	2	Horace was born on 8th of December 65 BCE in Apulia under the name of Quintus Horatius Flaccus. He was one of the leading lyric poets during the Augustus Era. As a son of a freedman, he acted during the most magnificent blooming period of Roman literature during the times of Augustus. His father, who was of Venosian origin, made sure that Horace received thorough and versatile education. He studied in Rome, and since 45 BCE in Athens, where he was able to gain an insight into Greek and Latin. As an ally of the Republicans, after the Caesar was murdered, he joined up the army and, under the command of Brutus, fought against Augustus. Being a tribune of the army, he partook in the battle of Philippi in 42 BCE, from which he had to flee in order to save his life. After the amnesty for the enemies of Augustus was announced, he came back to Italy. Since he declared for the wrong side, his family assets were confiscated. Moreover, he acknowledged that his father was dead. Despite being nearly broke, he was able to purchase a position of secretary at quaestor in Rome, thereby ensuring that he would make a living and allowing him to take to poetry. His friendship with Virgil make it possible for him to become a part of the circle of Maecenas’ friends, who afterwards introduced him to Augustus. Good relations with Maecenas encouraged him to become a part of his literary circle, wherein he met Ovid. A small mansion near the city Tibur in the Monti Sabini given by Maecenas to Horace alleviated all his carks related to finances and allowed him to dedicate himself to literary work in full. Although he was financially dependent on his noble protector, he was able to maintain his personal independence, remaining a friendship of Maecenas till the end of his days. He remained moderate throughout his life and was not too influenced by any of the schools of philosophy – neither was he a resolute epicurean, nor a cynic or a skeptic, or a stoic. As the years went by, however, he was moving towards the stoicism. To this very day, Horace is known as a very ardent propagator of the civil virtues. - “Epodes”, 41-30 BCE – Short pieces of work themed on politics; Horace wrote them as he was impressed by the Perusine Wars – The advice to Romans is given, with the example of horrifying civils wars, that they, as the Phocians did, should leave Rome and travel to the Fortunate Isles, somewhere past the Pillars of Hercules. - “Satires”. 40-30 BCE – Works aimed at ridiculing peoples’ flaws and weaknesses. Therein, Horace did not deride the prominent figures, nor was he a strict judge, but told the truth while laughing. They were modeled on works of Gaius Lucilius, Menippus of Gadara and stoical-cynical diatribe. At that time, also the book of iambs came out, which were meant to attack usurers, upstarts, nasty critics and feeble poets. Horace’s Satires well greatly appreciated. - “The Odes” – These are the greatest of Horace’s achievements. These works covered a huge variety of subjects, such as religion, regale, poems to friends, poems to loves, Classical and Hellenistic themes, reflections on death and the joy of life; they were perfectly constructed when it comes to metrics. The Odes were to a great extent modeled on the poetry of Alcaeus, Sappho, Pindar and Anacreon. Because of the celebrations of the new century, Horace wrote the Carmen saeculare. - “The Letters” 23-8 BCE – They are of a philosophical essence. They touch upon the issues of poetry, particularly the letters of the 2nd tome: “The Letter to the Pisos”, also known as “Ars Poetica”. It is the essay on poetry, related mainly to drama, and translated into many languages. It was the basis of the European poetry. Horace’s literary works are regarded as the greatest achievements in the Classical Era and hugely influenced the European poetry. Horace died on 27th of November 8 BCE. The death was sudden, and the poet did not leave any last will. It caused suspicions that he committed suicide by using a poison, so that he could fulfill the promise once made to Maecenas: the very day of your death shall be my last day too. Those suspicions were never proved. The body of Horace was not burnt, but buried beside the tomb of Maecenas, in the garden of the friend on the Esquiline Hill (horti Macenatiani).	1,009	ENGLISH	1
On 1 September 1939 when the BBC ceased television broadcasting it was explained that it was feared that the German air force would use the transmission signals from the aerial of Alexandra Palace as a navigational aid. As a result, television was too dangerous a luxury for wartime. It was a reason that was readily accepted by the British public and also, one would hope, by the enemy. In fact, the aerial was to be used for transmitting signals of an entirely different kind. During the early stages of WWII, both the RAF and the German Luftwaffe were working furiously to overcome the difficulty of accurate night time navigation over blacked-out enemy territory. However, the German's stole a march on Britain by developing a novel long range radio system based on a previously shorter technique known as the Lorenz blind landing approach, which they already had in use before the war. Most German bombers were equipped with Lorenz receivers and antennas which were used to assist in night and bad weather landings. The system operated on a radio frequency of around 30 MHz. In order to extend the range over the hundreds of miles needed to carry out accurate bombing raids a huge beam antenna with a high power transmitter was needed. The Lorenz radio receiver onboard the fighters were modified to increase their sensitivity. Developed by the Telefunken Company, the Germans gave it the codename "Knickebein". The first Knickebein antennas were erected in Germany at Kleve, near the Dutch border and at Stollberg just South of the Danish border. But with the fall of France, beam stations were also set up much closer to Britain on the Cherbourg peninsular. Thanks to early enigma decrypts from the code breakers at Bletchley Park, British Technical Intelligence had already received clues that a radio based navigation system was being used to guide the Luftwaffe bombing raids over central Britain. The claims of intricate German radar systems were suspected to be true but unproven until a British science advisor to MI6, Reginald Victor Jones, gathered evidence of their existence and set out to actively look for any information that might reveal the progress made by German scientists. Captured Luftwaffe aircrew and analysis of the electrical equipment found in crashed German bombers helped him to put the pieces together. The breakthrough came when a crashed Heinkel was recovered revealing a Lorenz receiver that had been adapted with a high sensitivity add-on. Jones then convinced the High Command of the menace and special reconnaissance flights were quickly organised to hunt for beams with a Lorenz signature. One was quickly located with, not just one, but two Lorenz type beams intersecting over Derby-home of Rolls Royce Aero Engines. With the existence of the beams confirmed steps were immediately taken to find a way of neutralising them. A small team, under the direction of a young physicist, Dr Robert Cockburn, was put together in order to devise the necessary jamming equipment. But in the meantime, the Germans were moving ahead themselves with refining their own equipment and developed a system which used 3 director beams. The added advantage of this was that the third beam acted as a semi-automated bomb release giving a signal at precisely the right moment for the aircraft to release its bombs. This meant the German's were able to carry out night time raids with devastating accuracy. In November 1940, British radio listening stations began to pick up unusual signals from German bombers. As luck would have it, the frequencies used were within those covered by the Alexandra Palace transmitter. Engineers were bought in to reactivate the transmitter and the signal broadcast from the aircraft was picked up at AP which then re-transmitted the signals back to the beam station (on the same frequency) causing an error in the range estimations. The Alexandra Palace transmissions were sent on the bomber's receiving frequency causing the bomber to immediately re-transpond the signal back, which would be picked up by the beam station and again by the ground based receiver, resulting in a further signal being transmitted by AP and so on and so on. The result was a string of unsolicited returns to the beam station in addition to an occasional "wanted signal". This jamming system was code named "Domino" and first became active in February 1941. On the first few nights the AP transmitter was used at low power simply to confuse the Germans - who assumed that their equipment was faulty. Later, the strength of the signal was increased, and it howled round like a badly set PA system - rendering the German system useless. Then on 3 May 1941, three German aircraft equipped with a somewhat more refined system were shot down. The transmitter units were salvaged and sent to Farnborough for analysis. The details of the beam steering system were discovered. This opened up a second jamming opportunity, as it was found that simply by transmitting a continuous modulating tone on the beam frequency, the automatic analyser on board the aircraft lost synchronisation and gave completely arbitrary steering instructions. Jammers using this technique were quickly produced and by the middle of that month the German bombers discovered that the skies over Britain had become a much more hostile place for them. A short while later, the bombing abruptly stopped. The Battle of Britain was won and Hitler turned his attention towards Russia. However, the story of Alexandra Palace's hidden War years doesn't quite end there. A few years ago I received an email from Simon Vaughan, the archivist of the Alexandra Palace Television Society. Simon had previously gone to see a former (long retired) BBC engineer called W C (Paff) Pafford. When Simon went to visit him, Paff was in his early 90s. Paff was an engineer at AP in the early days of transmissions and, when Simon visited his home, in his bedroom, next to the wardrobe, was the very first BBC Television Tuning Signal - designed and drawn by Paff and used in the pre-war era. Paff was in the studio on the first day of programmes to RadiOlympia in August 1936. Simon wrote: "Paff is the only man who can unravel a television mystery from the war years. In my earlier e-mail I mentioned that we hold over 1,200 photographs taken by Desmond Campbell. One packet of the photographs is dated August 1943 and shows a television demonstration in Studio A at Alexandra Palace. The two engineers featured in several of the photographs are identified by their surnames on the packet, so too is the female and child also featured. These also turn out to be the wife and daughter of one of the engineers. Mary Allen the make-up expert is also featured, along with Douglas Birkinshaw, and Desmond Campbell himself! But the key person in all this is Paff Pafford - he is featured at a black-board with Douglas Birkinshaw. When I saw Paff I asked him about this incident during the war. He got extremely upset, started shaking, saying "I can't tell you, I can't tell you - I signed the official secrets act", and had tears in his eyes! Obviously, there was no way I was going to pursue this line with him, changed the subject and soon had him calm again. Just as I was leaving he touched me on the arm and with his other hand tapped the side of his nose and said "many secret things happened during the war"! And that is where the story ends . . . how frustrating! "There are no records of any television display being undertaken in either the BBC Written Archive Centre or Public Records Office. I asked Neil Campbell, who gave APTS his father's memorabilia. He can remember his father being given the petrol coupons to be able to drive the family car down from Daventry (where he was stationed during the war), to Alexandra Palace for a special meeting - either with the King or Winston Churchill! Neil remembers this clearly as his father had a car accident on his way back to Daventry, so can tie it in to a specific event. But, he can't remember exactly when during the war this incident took place. However, I have the photographs to prove a demonstration took place, even that the studio equipment was fired-up and working as there are photographs taken off the studio and/or gallery monitors." It would appear that there is still a mystery to unravel... This article was first published on Television Heaven's companion site Teletronic. A much fuller account of the BBC's early days as well as a comprehensive history of television can be found here. Published on January 4th, 2020. Written by Laurence Marcus - with help from Simon Vaughan at APTS for Television Heaven.	<urn:uuid:8874ef6e-b50f-4719-9626-61dae1bad289>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://televisionheaven.co.uk/tv-history/history-of-the-bbc-ally-pallys-secret-war	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00413.warc.gz	en	0.987521	1,781	4.03125	4	[ -0.19490554928779602, 0.3545518219470978, -0.023702584207057953, -0.011336062103509903, 0.47114700078964233, -0.046380914747714996, -0.013773786835372448, 0.14609822630882263, 0.1340998411178589, -0.22287718951702118, 0.08242244273424149, -0.262271910905838, -0.03327026963233948, 0.3698623...	6	On 1 September 1939 when the BBC ceased television broadcasting it was explained that it was feared that the German air force would use the transmission signals from the aerial of Alexandra Palace as a navigational aid. As a result, television was too dangerous a luxury for wartime. It was a reason that was readily accepted by the British public and also, one would hope, by the enemy. In fact, the aerial was to be used for transmitting signals of an entirely different kind. During the early stages of WWII, both the RAF and the German Luftwaffe were working furiously to overcome the difficulty of accurate night time navigation over blacked-out enemy territory. However, the German's stole a march on Britain by developing a novel long range radio system based on a previously shorter technique known as the Lorenz blind landing approach, which they already had in use before the war. Most German bombers were equipped with Lorenz receivers and antennas which were used to assist in night and bad weather landings. The system operated on a radio frequency of around 30 MHz. In order to extend the range over the hundreds of miles needed to carry out accurate bombing raids a huge beam antenna with a high power transmitter was needed. The Lorenz radio receiver onboard the fighters were modified to increase their sensitivity. Developed by the Telefunken Company, the Germans gave it the codename "Knickebein". The first Knickebein antennas were erected in Germany at Kleve, near the Dutch border and at Stollberg just South of the Danish border. But with the fall of France, beam stations were also set up much closer to Britain on the Cherbourg peninsular. Thanks to early enigma decrypts from the code breakers at Bletchley Park, British Technical Intelligence had already received clues that a radio based navigation system was being used to guide the Luftwaffe bombing raids over central Britain. The claims of intricate German radar systems were suspected to be true but unproven until a British science advisor to MI6, Reginald Victor Jones, gathered evidence of their existence and set out to actively look for any information that might reveal the progress made by German scientists. Captured Luftwaffe aircrew and analysis of the electrical equipment found in crashed German bombers helped him to put the pieces together. The breakthrough came when a crashed Heinkel was recovered revealing a Lorenz receiver that had been adapted with a high sensitivity add-on. Jones then convinced the High Command of the menace and special reconnaissance flights were quickly organised to hunt for beams with a Lorenz signature. One was quickly located with, not just one, but two Lorenz type beams intersecting over Derby-home of Rolls Royce Aero Engines. With the existence of the beams confirmed steps were immediately taken to find a way of neutralising them. A small team, under the direction of a young physicist, Dr Robert Cockburn, was put together in order to devise the necessary jamming equipment. But in the meantime, the Germans were moving ahead themselves with refining their own equipment and developed a system which used 3 director beams. The added advantage of this was that the third beam acted as a semi-automated bomb release giving a signal at precisely the right moment for the aircraft to release its bombs. This meant the German's were able to carry out night time raids with devastating accuracy. In November 1940, British radio listening stations began to pick up unusual signals from German bombers. As luck would have it, the frequencies used were within those covered by the Alexandra Palace transmitter. Engineers were bought in to reactivate the transmitter and the signal broadcast from the aircraft was picked up at AP which then re-transmitted the signals back to the beam station (on the same frequency) causing an error in the range estimations. The Alexandra Palace transmissions were sent on the bomber's receiving frequency causing the bomber to immediately re-transpond the signal back, which would be picked up by the beam station and again by the ground based receiver, resulting in a further signal being transmitted by AP and so on and so on. The result was a string of unsolicited returns to the beam station in addition to an occasional "wanted signal". This jamming system was code named "Domino" and first became active in February 1941. On the first few nights the AP transmitter was used at low power simply to confuse the Germans - who assumed that their equipment was faulty. Later, the strength of the signal was increased, and it howled round like a badly set PA system - rendering the German system useless. Then on 3 May 1941, three German aircraft equipped with a somewhat more refined system were shot down. The transmitter units were salvaged and sent to Farnborough for analysis. The details of the beam steering system were discovered. This opened up a second jamming opportunity, as it was found that simply by transmitting a continuous modulating tone on the beam frequency, the automatic analyser on board the aircraft lost synchronisation and gave completely arbitrary steering instructions. Jammers using this technique were quickly produced and by the middle of that month the German bombers discovered that the skies over Britain had become a much more hostile place for them. A short while later, the bombing abruptly stopped. The Battle of Britain was won and Hitler turned his attention towards Russia. However, the story of Alexandra Palace's hidden War years doesn't quite end there. A few years ago I received an email from Simon Vaughan, the archivist of the Alexandra Palace Television Society. Simon had previously gone to see a former (long retired) BBC engineer called W C (Paff) Pafford. When Simon went to visit him, Paff was in his early 90s. Paff was an engineer at AP in the early days of transmissions and, when Simon visited his home, in his bedroom, next to the wardrobe, was the very first BBC Television Tuning Signal - designed and drawn by Paff and used in the pre-war era. Paff was in the studio on the first day of programmes to RadiOlympia in August 1936. Simon wrote: "Paff is the only man who can unravel a television mystery from the war years. In my earlier e-mail I mentioned that we hold over 1,200 photographs taken by Desmond Campbell. One packet of the photographs is dated August 1943 and shows a television demonstration in Studio A at Alexandra Palace. The two engineers featured in several of the photographs are identified by their surnames on the packet, so too is the female and child also featured. These also turn out to be the wife and daughter of one of the engineers. Mary Allen the make-up expert is also featured, along with Douglas Birkinshaw, and Desmond Campbell himself! But the key person in all this is Paff Pafford - he is featured at a black-board with Douglas Birkinshaw. When I saw Paff I asked him about this incident during the war. He got extremely upset, started shaking, saying "I can't tell you, I can't tell you - I signed the official secrets act", and had tears in his eyes! Obviously, there was no way I was going to pursue this line with him, changed the subject and soon had him calm again. Just as I was leaving he touched me on the arm and with his other hand tapped the side of his nose and said "many secret things happened during the war"! And that is where the story ends . . . how frustrating! "There are no records of any television display being undertaken in either the BBC Written Archive Centre or Public Records Office. I asked Neil Campbell, who gave APTS his father's memorabilia. He can remember his father being given the petrol coupons to be able to drive the family car down from Daventry (where he was stationed during the war), to Alexandra Palace for a special meeting - either with the King or Winston Churchill! Neil remembers this clearly as his father had a car accident on his way back to Daventry, so can tie it in to a specific event. But, he can't remember exactly when during the war this incident took place. However, I have the photographs to prove a demonstration took place, even that the studio equipment was fired-up and working as there are photographs taken off the studio and/or gallery monitors." It would appear that there is still a mystery to unravel... This article was first published on Television Heaven's companion site Teletronic. A much fuller account of the BBC's early days as well as a comprehensive history of television can be found here. Published on January 4th, 2020. Written by Laurence Marcus - with help from Simon Vaughan at APTS for Television Heaven.	1,788	ENGLISH	1
Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer, navigator, and colonizer who has been credited with the discovery() of the “New World” of the Americas on an expedition sponsored by King Ferdinand of Spain in 1492. After making four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean his efforts initiated European colonization of the New World. Columbus was born in 1451 in the Republic of Genoa, Italy. As a child, he evidently had little or no education as he didn’t learn to read and write until he was an adult. He first went to sea as a teenager participating in several trading voyages in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. In 1476, he nearly lost his life when his ship was attacked by French privateers off the coast of Portugal. When his ship was burned, he was forced to swim to the Portuguese shore. Afterward, he made his way to Lisbon, Portugal, where he eventually settled and married Felipa Perestrello, with whom he would have one son, Diego, in 1480. Soon afterward his wife died and Columbus moved to Spain. There, he would sire a second son with Beatriz Enriquez de Arana. named Fernando, who was born out of wedlock in 1488. Columbus then participated in several expeditions to Africa where he gained knowledge of the Atlantic currents flowing east and west from the Canary Islands. Travel to India and China at the time was not only long and arduous but also dangerous due to the Muslim domination of the trade routes through the Middle East. Portuguese explorers solved this problem by sailing south along the West African coast and around the Cape of Good Hope. But, Columbus had a different idea, believing that sailing west to reach the East would be quicker and safer. In search of a sponsor for the voyage, he took his idea to Portuguese King John II in 1484, then to Genoa and Venice, Italy, but was rejected all three times. He then approached the Spanish monarchy in 1486, who showed some interest but rejected the idea because they were in a war with the Muslims. For the next several years, Columbus continued to lobby several countries for their patronage but was not successful until the Spanish army captured the last Muslim stronghold in Granada in January 1492. Shortly afterward, the Spanish monarchs agreed to finance his expedition with Columbus’ contract stating he could keep 10 percent of whatever riches he found, would receive a noble title and would be awarded the governorship of any lands he should encounter. On August 3, 1492, Columbus and his crew set sail from Spain in three ships: the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria. After 36 days of sailing, Columbus and several crewmen set foot on an island in the present-day Bahamas on October 12 and claimed it for Spain. There, he encountered a friendly group of natives who were open to trade with the sailors and was intrigued by the bits of gold worn by the natives for adornment. For months, Columbus and his men continued their journey, visiting the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola (now Haiti and the Dominican Republic) meeting with the leaders of the native population and looking for pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, and spices. During this time, the Santa Maria was wrecked on a reef off the coast of Hispaniola. With the help of some islanders, Columbus’ men salvaged what they could and built the settlement of Villa de la Navidad (“Christmas Town”) with lumber from the ship. Thirty-nine men stayed behind to occupy the makeshift settlement and Columbus, convinced his exploration had reached Asia, set sail for Spain with the two remaining ships. Returning to Spain in 1493, Columbus gave a glowing report as to how he had reached the islands just off the coast of Asia. Presenting the royal court with artifacts, Indians and a small amount of gold, he was warmly received. About six months later, on September 25, 1493, Columbus took to the seas on his second expedition, this time with 17 ships and almost 1,500 men. They made landfall on November 3, 1493, near Dominica among the Lesser Antilles. They then explored more islands in the Caribbean Ocean before making their way to back Hispaniola. There, Columbus and his crew discovered the Navidad settlement had been destroyed and the sailors had been killed. Spurning the wishes of the queen, who found slavery offensive, Columbus established a forced labor policy over the native population to rebuild the settlement and explore for gold. His efforts produced small amounts of the mineral while spawning great hatred among the native population. Columbus left his brothers, Bartholomew and Diego, to govern the settlement, along with part of his ships’ crew. He headed west with the rest of his crew and a number of native slaves in a fruitless search for gold and other valuable goods. Though he found little of value, Columbus further convinced himself that he had discovered the outer islands of China. In the meantime, in lieu of the material riches he had promised the Spanish monarchs, he sent some 500 slaves to Queen Isabella. However, the queen, who didn’t believe in slavery was horrified and promptly and sternly returned the “gift.” Columbus returned to Spain in 1496 where he was coolly received at court. He had not found the rich Asian mainland, his efforts to get gold from the Indians had been only moderately successful, and the crown had begun to receive complaints about Columbus from the sailors and settlers. Despite his cool reception two years earlier, the crown financed a third expedition. On May 30, 1498, Columbus left with six ships from Sanlúcar, Spain, once again headed for the Americas. Three of the ships headed directly for Hispaniola with much-needed supplies, while Columbus took the other three in an exploration of what might lie to the south of the Caribbean islands he had already visited. It was during this voyage that he actually reached the mainland in present-day Venezuela. He then returned to the Hispaniola settlement, which had deteriorated to the point of near-mutiny with the settlers claiming they had been misled by Columbus’ claims of riches and complaining about the poor management of his brothers. Columbus was eventually forced to make peace with the rebellious colonists. In the meantime, a number of returning settlers and sailors lobbied against Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him and his brothers of gross mismanagement. In 1500, the Crown had him removed as governor, he and his brothers were arrested, and transported in chains to Spain They lingered in jail for six weeks before King Ferdinand ordered their release. They were eventually restored of their freedom and wealth, but Columbus’ titles and authority were stripped. Columbus made a fourth voyage in search of the Strait of Malacca to the Indian Ocean. Accompanied by his brother Bartolomeo and his 13-year-old son Fernando, he left Cádiz, Spain on May 11, 1502, with his flagship Santa María and the vessels Gallega, Vizcaína, and Santiago de Palos. This time, Columbus made it all the way to Panama – just miles from the Pacific Ocean – where he had to abandon two of his four ships in the face of an attack from hostile natives. In June 1503, his remaining ships were caught in a damaging storm off the coast of Cuba and were beached in Jamaica in June 1503. There, they remained until a Spaniard named Diego Mendez along with several natives paddled a canoe to Hispaniola. However, the governor, Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres, detested Columbus and obstructed all efforts to rescue him and his men. Help finally did arrive in June 1504 and Columbus and his men returned to Spain. In the two remaining years of his life, Columbus struggled to recover his lost titles but was unsuccessful. He died in Valladolid on May 20, 1506, still believing he had discovered a shorter route to Asia. Though Columbus is credited with opening up the Americas to European colonization, he failed to find that what he set out for – a new route to Asia and the riches it promised. He also did not “discover” the Americas, nor was he even the first European to visit the “New World,” as Viking explorers had sailed to Greenland and Newfoundland in the 11th century. Some experts believe there is also evidence of Viking landings on the continental United States. Celebrations of Columbus can be found as early as 1792, however, it was 1892 when President Benjamin Harrison called upon citizens of the U.S. to celebrate the explorer as part of a one-time 400th-anniversary event. In addition, many Italian American’s observed October 12 as a celebration of their heritage dating back to 1866. The day was first established as a Federal holiday in 1934. Since 1971 the holiday has been moved to the second Monday in October. The holiday has its controversies, and despite push back from Italian Americans, there have been strong efforts to rebrand Columbus Day as Indigenous Peoples day instead. For Native Americans, the day brings up colonial oppression and in 1989, South Dakota became the first state to switch the holiday to Native Americans’ Day, celebrating it for the first time in 1990. Berkeley California was the first U.S. city to switch to Indigenous Peoples’ Day shortly after. Today, according to the Pew Research Center, Columbus Day is the most inconsistently observed national holiday in the United States.	<urn:uuid:11386449-4c61-4a3c-b1a3-fb38690b46a4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.legendsofamerica.com/ah-christophercolumbus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00466.warc.gz	en	0.985517	1,972	3.984375	4	[ -0.21280109882354736, 0.3281911611557007, 0.1475522220134735, 0.13536424934864044, -0.5467195510864258, -0.3361760973930359, 0.03592688590288162, 0.2679860293865204, -0.10762009024620056, -0.3014422059059143, 0.36182087659835815, -0.3320577144622803, -0.3580942451953888, 0.4427297711372375...	5	Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer, navigator, and colonizer who has been credited with the discovery() of the “New World” of the Americas on an expedition sponsored by King Ferdinand of Spain in 1492. After making four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean his efforts initiated European colonization of the New World. Columbus was born in 1451 in the Republic of Genoa, Italy. As a child, he evidently had little or no education as he didn’t learn to read and write until he was an adult. He first went to sea as a teenager participating in several trading voyages in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. In 1476, he nearly lost his life when his ship was attacked by French privateers off the coast of Portugal. When his ship was burned, he was forced to swim to the Portuguese shore. Afterward, he made his way to Lisbon, Portugal, where he eventually settled and married Felipa Perestrello, with whom he would have one son, Diego, in 1480. Soon afterward his wife died and Columbus moved to Spain. There, he would sire a second son with Beatriz Enriquez de Arana. named Fernando, who was born out of wedlock in 1488. Columbus then participated in several expeditions to Africa where he gained knowledge of the Atlantic currents flowing east and west from the Canary Islands. Travel to India and China at the time was not only long and arduous but also dangerous due to the Muslim domination of the trade routes through the Middle East. Portuguese explorers solved this problem by sailing south along the West African coast and around the Cape of Good Hope. But, Columbus had a different idea, believing that sailing west to reach the East would be quicker and safer. In search of a sponsor for the voyage, he took his idea to Portuguese King John II in 1484, then to Genoa and Venice, Italy, but was rejected all three times. He then approached the Spanish monarchy in 1486, who showed some interest but rejected the idea because they were in a war with the Muslims. For the next several years, Columbus continued to lobby several countries for their patronage but was not successful until the Spanish army captured the last Muslim stronghold in Granada in January 1492. Shortly afterward, the Spanish monarchs agreed to finance his expedition with Columbus’ contract stating he could keep 10 percent of whatever riches he found, would receive a noble title and would be awarded the governorship of any lands he should encounter. On August 3, 1492, Columbus and his crew set sail from Spain in three ships: the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria. After 36 days of sailing, Columbus and several crewmen set foot on an island in the present-day Bahamas on October 12 and claimed it for Spain. There, he encountered a friendly group of natives who were open to trade with the sailors and was intrigued by the bits of gold worn by the natives for adornment. For months, Columbus and his men continued their journey, visiting the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola (now Haiti and the Dominican Republic) meeting with the leaders of the native population and looking for pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, and spices. During this time, the Santa Maria was wrecked on a reef off the coast of Hispaniola. With the help of some islanders, Columbus’ men salvaged what they could and built the settlement of Villa de la Navidad (“Christmas Town”) with lumber from the ship. Thirty-nine men stayed behind to occupy the makeshift settlement and Columbus, convinced his exploration had reached Asia, set sail for Spain with the two remaining ships. Returning to Spain in 1493, Columbus gave a glowing report as to how he had reached the islands just off the coast of Asia. Presenting the royal court with artifacts, Indians and a small amount of gold, he was warmly received. About six months later, on September 25, 1493, Columbus took to the seas on his second expedition, this time with 17 ships and almost 1,500 men. They made landfall on November 3, 1493, near Dominica among the Lesser Antilles. They then explored more islands in the Caribbean Ocean before making their way to back Hispaniola. There, Columbus and his crew discovered the Navidad settlement had been destroyed and the sailors had been killed. Spurning the wishes of the queen, who found slavery offensive, Columbus established a forced labor policy over the native population to rebuild the settlement and explore for gold. His efforts produced small amounts of the mineral while spawning great hatred among the native population. Columbus left his brothers, Bartholomew and Diego, to govern the settlement, along with part of his ships’ crew. He headed west with the rest of his crew and a number of native slaves in a fruitless search for gold and other valuable goods. Though he found little of value, Columbus further convinced himself that he had discovered the outer islands of China. In the meantime, in lieu of the material riches he had promised the Spanish monarchs, he sent some 500 slaves to Queen Isabella. However, the queen, who didn’t believe in slavery was horrified and promptly and sternly returned the “gift.” Columbus returned to Spain in 1496 where he was coolly received at court. He had not found the rich Asian mainland, his efforts to get gold from the Indians had been only moderately successful, and the crown had begun to receive complaints about Columbus from the sailors and settlers. Despite his cool reception two years earlier, the crown financed a third expedition. On May 30, 1498, Columbus left with six ships from Sanlúcar, Spain, once again headed for the Americas. Three of the ships headed directly for Hispaniola with much-needed supplies, while Columbus took the other three in an exploration of what might lie to the south of the Caribbean islands he had already visited. It was during this voyage that he actually reached the mainland in present-day Venezuela. He then returned to the Hispaniola settlement, which had deteriorated to the point of near-mutiny with the settlers claiming they had been misled by Columbus’ claims of riches and complaining about the poor management of his brothers. Columbus was eventually forced to make peace with the rebellious colonists. In the meantime, a number of returning settlers and sailors lobbied against Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him and his brothers of gross mismanagement. In 1500, the Crown had him removed as governor, he and his brothers were arrested, and transported in chains to Spain They lingered in jail for six weeks before King Ferdinand ordered their release. They were eventually restored of their freedom and wealth, but Columbus’ titles and authority were stripped. Columbus made a fourth voyage in search of the Strait of Malacca to the Indian Ocean. Accompanied by his brother Bartolomeo and his 13-year-old son Fernando, he left Cádiz, Spain on May 11, 1502, with his flagship Santa María and the vessels Gallega, Vizcaína, and Santiago de Palos. This time, Columbus made it all the way to Panama – just miles from the Pacific Ocean – where he had to abandon two of his four ships in the face of an attack from hostile natives. In June 1503, his remaining ships were caught in a damaging storm off the coast of Cuba and were beached in Jamaica in June 1503. There, they remained until a Spaniard named Diego Mendez along with several natives paddled a canoe to Hispaniola. However, the governor, Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres, detested Columbus and obstructed all efforts to rescue him and his men. Help finally did arrive in June 1504 and Columbus and his men returned to Spain. In the two remaining years of his life, Columbus struggled to recover his lost titles but was unsuccessful. He died in Valladolid on May 20, 1506, still believing he had discovered a shorter route to Asia. Though Columbus is credited with opening up the Americas to European colonization, he failed to find that what he set out for – a new route to Asia and the riches it promised. He also did not “discover” the Americas, nor was he even the first European to visit the “New World,” as Viking explorers had sailed to Greenland and Newfoundland in the 11th century. Some experts believe there is also evidence of Viking landings on the continental United States. Celebrations of Columbus can be found as early as 1792, however, it was 1892 when President Benjamin Harrison called upon citizens of the U.S. to celebrate the explorer as part of a one-time 400th-anniversary event. In addition, many Italian American’s observed October 12 as a celebration of their heritage dating back to 1866. The day was first established as a Federal holiday in 1934. Since 1971 the holiday has been moved to the second Monday in October. The holiday has its controversies, and despite push back from Italian Americans, there have been strong efforts to rebrand Columbus Day as Indigenous Peoples day instead. For Native Americans, the day brings up colonial oppression and in 1989, South Dakota became the first state to switch the holiday to Native Americans’ Day, celebrating it for the first time in 1990. Berkeley California was the first U.S. city to switch to Indigenous Peoples’ Day shortly after. Today, according to the Pew Research Center, Columbus Day is the most inconsistently observed national holiday in the United States.	2,030	ENGLISH	1
Exodus and the Mosaic Laws On Mount Sinai God appears to Moses as a burning bush Israel exodus from Egypt Welcome to our article (47), exodus and the Mosaic laws. May God guide and help me to say the right things? Dear readers, we are looking at religious event that have shaped religion, in the hope that we can use this knowledge, to suggest what can be done, to make religions compatible to each other, since there are signs that religions are becoming less important these days. Therefore, we want to review old events to refresh our memories, in this case we will talk about, Israel exodus from Egypt, which is an important event as written in the Bible. In the Old Testament according to the Bible, Moses was to be killed from the Egyptians when he was born, but his mother abandoned him on the river Nile hoping for a miracle, and the miracle happened because he was saved from the river Nile from an Egyptian princess that had no children, he grew and learned in the Egyptian court the Egyptian’s ways. One day he was attracted to his people, and he learned that he was an Israelite and not an Egyptian. Anyhow he did something bad and the Egyptian Pharaoh banned him from Egypt into the desert of Sinai. So, he went in the desert thinking about his people and walking towards Mount Sinai, he did not know yet that he had been selected by God to be the Hebrews leader that would lead the Hebrews back to the Promised Land, which was the land that God had given to Abraham their forbear. One day Moses felt the need to go up Mount Sinai to investigate what was there, since he was seeing signs, so, he went up Mount Sinai and saw a burning bush, but this burning bush was different from a normal burning bush, because while it seemed to be burning it did not burn out, a voice from this burning bush told Moses; stop where you are and take your shoes off you are on sacred land; this was the voice of God who appeared in the form of a burning bush and spoke to Moses; God said that he had heard the children of Israel laments and prayers to him, so, he wanted to help them to be free from the Egyptian bondage. Now, because the Israelites were praying to the God of Abraham, for this reason, God ordered Moses to go back to Egypt to free his people from the Pharaoh slavery. Moses was not sure this was a good idea since he had been banned from Egypt. So, Moses asked God, who I should say has sent me to the children of Israel and to the Pharaoh. God said, I am who I am, and tell the children of Israel and say that Yahweh the God of your Father has sent me. So, Moses went back to Egypt and after lots of arguments with the Pharaoh and divine intervention from Yahweh God, in the end Moses finally succeeded to lead his Hebrew people out of Egypt. As they left Egypt, the Pharaoh tried once more to stop them with his army. But Yahweh God helped the Israelite cross the Red Sea as if it was dry land, and then the water of the Red Sea came back and drowned the Pharaoh army that was trying to stop them leaving Egypt. This is what is written in the Bible; if you are believers, you must accept that this is true. The Bible Red Sea crossing On their way back to the promised land On their way back to the Promised Land, the Israelite went near Mount Sinai, since Yahweh God wanted Moses to go back to him up there, and Moses went again up Mount Sinai, where he met God again and God gave Moses the Ten Commandments. Now, while Moses was on Mount Sinai waiting for God to give him the Ten Commandments, he stayed up there for a long time. While he was up there, those people that had left Egypt to go to the Promised Land started to have different thoughts; they wanted a god like the Egyptians had and they made up a golden statue of a bull, this action made Yahweh resentful of this god statue; because he wanted the people of Israel to believe only in him, as we can see from the first three commandments that he gave Moses. Of course, Yahweh God punished them for this event. But this event brings doubts in our minds, so, we must ask, why the people of Israel did this, when they were witness to everything that happened, and the most recent one was crossing the Red Sea as if it was dry land; for what reason they wanted this other god? There is something wrong here, because if they had seen what we are being told they saw; then anyone that had witnessed those events could not doubt Yahweh power for a moment. Therefore, there are reasons to believe that something is wrong in this story. During the time that the Israelites were travelling in the desert to reach the Promised Land, is said that Moses spoken with God several times. From these meetings with God, and from those happenings that took place during this voyage from Egypt to the Promised Land, Moses and his brother Aaron wrote and laid down the first part of the Mosaic Laws, that would guide the Hebrews from there on. During this period Yahweh gave Moses many laws the Hebrew were divided in tribes and these formed the 12 tribes of Israel, which are the families of the 12 children of Jacob also called Israel; because Israel is the name that Yahweh God gave Jacob, in a prior event that happened when Jacob was alive, God said to Jacob from now on you are Israel. That is how Jacob is known as Israel. Now we are going to talk about the tribes of Israel; but we want to point out to our readers that we are not only writing all this Bible’s things to tell you what the Bible says, because we are also writing this to point out that most times people do what they must do according to the times and places they happen to live in. So, we believe that what took place in the Sinai desert including the Mosaic Laws; it was something that at that time and place needed to be done the way it was done. About God being the main player and telling Moses everything that needed to be done, we are not sure about that, even though the bible tells us that God did. I believe that it was more likely that Moses and his brother Aaron thought that it was necessary to separate the tribes, than God instructing them to do it, since they were the leaders of the Israelite and had to control the people; we need also to say that whether there was Yahweh God that was talking to Moses is doubtful, perhaps if talking to God had happened less often, then it could have been possible? Anyhow, now we want to talk about how the Israelite were divided and became the 12 tribes of Israel. Moses Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai The Israelite religious and history book the Bible The 12 tribes of Israel The Israelites were divided in 12 tribes one for each family of the children of Jacob, who was also known as Israel. The 12 children of Israel were: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Benjamin, Zebulon, Joseph, Dan, Asher, Naphtali, and Gad; these were the names of the 12 children of Israel, and every one of them had their own family and became one tribe. Thus, was Yahweh order through Moses. So, the 12 tribes of Israel were independent of each other; but they had to follow God’s order that went through Moses and his brother Aaron of the house of Levi. The Bible says that God spoke with Moses many times saying to Moses, go and tell the house of Jacob what they had to do. Now through this talking, new laws and ways of living were described to the sons of Israel, this is how the Mosaic Laws were formed. Quoting example from the Bible: Quote 1: Leviticus 18; Yahweh spoke to Moses; he said: ‘Speak to the sons of Israel and say to them: “I am Yahweh your God. You must not behave as they do in Egypt where once you lived; you must not behave as they do in Canaan where I am taking you. You must not follow their laws. You must follow my customs and keep my laws; by them you must lead your life.” Quote 2: Leviticus 19; Yahweh spoke to Moses; he said: ‘Speak to the whole community of the sons of Israel and say to them: “Be holy, for I, Yahweh your God, am holy. Each of you must respect his father and mother. And you must keep my Sabbaths; I am Yahweh your God. Do not turn to idols and cast no gods of metal. I am Yahweh your God. (Anyhow, I am using these quotes as examples in Leviticus between Moses and God). As I have said God was speaking to Moses many times in Exodus and Leviticus, but these talks become doubtful, because if these meetings with God had taken place, then the Israelites would have been more God conscious, but they were not as much as they should have been under those circumstances. Doubtful possibilities written In the Bible there are some doubtful possibilities written There are a lot of good things written in the Bible, but there are things that don’t add up and this is one of them. When we read the Bible specially Leviticus Moses and his brother Aaron, spoke with God many times, as if they were normal happenings. But what I cannot understand is this: if Moses was speaking with God these many times as it is said in the Bible, it follows that the Israelites should have known what was going on during these times; therefore, they should have believed and follow whatever commands were given to them without arguing in any ways, since what was being told was from Yahweh their God. We are saying this because, the story of the Israelite tells us that they had always doubts in their minds; so, they were arguing about the reasons why they were in the desert living a hard life, as if they had not seen what had happened around them. What we want to say here is this; we believe that the Israelite of those days, did not see or hear God, otherwise they would have had no doubts about God or Moses. For this reason, what has been written in the Bible about God talking to Moses so often, might not have taken place as much as they claim. So, everything was added later when the Bible was written and re-written. This is our views, because we cannot explain it in any other way; now, there is a lot more that can be said about these writings that don’t add up, but we leave it as it is for now. In our next religious article, we will continue to talk about the Bible, because the Bible was also the Israelite history book, in ancient times history and religion were written together, because whatever happened was thought to be religious, so, in our next article we will be talking about, The Bible is Hebrew history May God bless us all. Other religious links - Man needs God One of our domain websites, in this website we are trying to shorten our religious writing, in the hope that it will become more readers' friendly. - God's central sit of government I am setting the stage for the entire world to see, and when you read these pages you may have to agree, this is the golden door of golden opportunity that God will give to you and to all humanity. - God works in mysterious ways God works in mysterious ways, let me tell you a story. My own life observations and in this story explain how God works in mysterious ways. - Prayers of Reconciliation Prayers of Reconciliation, I come to you praying Father Most High and eternal life giver of every living thing, I am praying thee for forgiveness of my sins and reconciliation.. People prayers to God. - Prayers for Reconciliation Prayers for Reconciliation starts a religious theory that aims to save religions from atheism and extremist groups, it aims to achieve that by suggesting some modifications to existing religions, etc. - Angels, Saints and human souls 63 The life giver to every living thing is God. What I have described above is only the positive eternal life-force that exists in the universe, and we like to call this life-force God, and we believe that God is life and therefore the life giver. - Man needs God Religious blog that want to say that we need God and religions - Religious Reconciliation Doc Personal general religious blog - If you believe in God Another religious blog - God in the universe This site has been opened to keep my religious writings of Prayers of Reconciliation, Reconciliation of the Universe and God of the Universe, text and sketch. - Menfranco Reconciliation This site is being created to house Menfranco Reconciliation Forum.	<urn:uuid:d93bee97-ed28-4fa0-8824-a375e9529b51>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hubpages.com/religion-philosophy/Exodus-and-the-Mosaic-Laws-47	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00230.warc.gz	en	0.987449	2,750	3.375	3	[ -0.3997478783130646, 0.7268990874290466, 0.07658021152019501, -0.22944122552871704, -0.2948794960975647, -0.08812744170427322, 0.4421765208244324, -0.32679474353790283, -0.19513678550720215, 0.5640689134597778, -0.18080714344978333, -0.2006029188632965, -0.33380720019340515, 0.313815772533...	2	Exodus and the Mosaic Laws On Mount Sinai God appears to Moses as a burning bush Israel exodus from Egypt Welcome to our article (47), exodus and the Mosaic laws. May God guide and help me to say the right things? Dear readers, we are looking at religious event that have shaped religion, in the hope that we can use this knowledge, to suggest what can be done, to make religions compatible to each other, since there are signs that religions are becoming less important these days. Therefore, we want to review old events to refresh our memories, in this case we will talk about, Israel exodus from Egypt, which is an important event as written in the Bible. In the Old Testament according to the Bible, Moses was to be killed from the Egyptians when he was born, but his mother abandoned him on the river Nile hoping for a miracle, and the miracle happened because he was saved from the river Nile from an Egyptian princess that had no children, he grew and learned in the Egyptian court the Egyptian’s ways. One day he was attracted to his people, and he learned that he was an Israelite and not an Egyptian. Anyhow he did something bad and the Egyptian Pharaoh banned him from Egypt into the desert of Sinai. So, he went in the desert thinking about his people and walking towards Mount Sinai, he did not know yet that he had been selected by God to be the Hebrews leader that would lead the Hebrews back to the Promised Land, which was the land that God had given to Abraham their forbear. One day Moses felt the need to go up Mount Sinai to investigate what was there, since he was seeing signs, so, he went up Mount Sinai and saw a burning bush, but this burning bush was different from a normal burning bush, because while it seemed to be burning it did not burn out, a voice from this burning bush told Moses; stop where you are and take your shoes off you are on sacred land; this was the voice of God who appeared in the form of a burning bush and spoke to Moses; God said that he had heard the children of Israel laments and prayers to him, so, he wanted to help them to be free from the Egyptian bondage. Now, because the Israelites were praying to the God of Abraham, for this reason, God ordered Moses to go back to Egypt to free his people from the Pharaoh slavery. Moses was not sure this was a good idea since he had been banned from Egypt. So, Moses asked God, who I should say has sent me to the children of Israel and to the Pharaoh. God said, I am who I am, and tell the children of Israel and say that Yahweh the God of your Father has sent me. So, Moses went back to Egypt and after lots of arguments with the Pharaoh and divine intervention from Yahweh God, in the end Moses finally succeeded to lead his Hebrew people out of Egypt. As they left Egypt, the Pharaoh tried once more to stop them with his army. But Yahweh God helped the Israelite cross the Red Sea as if it was dry land, and then the water of the Red Sea came back and drowned the Pharaoh army that was trying to stop them leaving Egypt. This is what is written in the Bible; if you are believers, you must accept that this is true. The Bible Red Sea crossing On their way back to the promised land On their way back to the Promised Land, the Israelite went near Mount Sinai, since Yahweh God wanted Moses to go back to him up there, and Moses went again up Mount Sinai, where he met God again and God gave Moses the Ten Commandments. Now, while Moses was on Mount Sinai waiting for God to give him the Ten Commandments, he stayed up there for a long time. While he was up there, those people that had left Egypt to go to the Promised Land started to have different thoughts; they wanted a god like the Egyptians had and they made up a golden statue of a bull, this action made Yahweh resentful of this god statue; because he wanted the people of Israel to believe only in him, as we can see from the first three commandments that he gave Moses. Of course, Yahweh God punished them for this event. But this event brings doubts in our minds, so, we must ask, why the people of Israel did this, when they were witness to everything that happened, and the most recent one was crossing the Red Sea as if it was dry land; for what reason they wanted this other god? There is something wrong here, because if they had seen what we are being told they saw; then anyone that had witnessed those events could not doubt Yahweh power for a moment. Therefore, there are reasons to believe that something is wrong in this story. During the time that the Israelites were travelling in the desert to reach the Promised Land, is said that Moses spoken with God several times. From these meetings with God, and from those happenings that took place during this voyage from Egypt to the Promised Land, Moses and his brother Aaron wrote and laid down the first part of the Mosaic Laws, that would guide the Hebrews from there on. During this period Yahweh gave Moses many laws the Hebrew were divided in tribes and these formed the 12 tribes of Israel, which are the families of the 12 children of Jacob also called Israel; because Israel is the name that Yahweh God gave Jacob, in a prior event that happened when Jacob was alive, God said to Jacob from now on you are Israel. That is how Jacob is known as Israel. Now we are going to talk about the tribes of Israel; but we want to point out to our readers that we are not only writing all this Bible’s things to tell you what the Bible says, because we are also writing this to point out that most times people do what they must do according to the times and places they happen to live in. So, we believe that what took place in the Sinai desert including the Mosaic Laws; it was something that at that time and place needed to be done the way it was done. About God being the main player and telling Moses everything that needed to be done, we are not sure about that, even though the bible tells us that God did. I believe that it was more likely that Moses and his brother Aaron thought that it was necessary to separate the tribes, than God instructing them to do it, since they were the leaders of the Israelite and had to control the people; we need also to say that whether there was Yahweh God that was talking to Moses is doubtful, perhaps if talking to God had happened less often, then it could have been possible? Anyhow, now we want to talk about how the Israelite were divided and became the 12 tribes of Israel. Moses Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai The Israelite religious and history book the Bible The 12 tribes of Israel The Israelites were divided in 12 tribes one for each family of the children of Jacob, who was also known as Israel. The 12 children of Israel were: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Benjamin, Zebulon, Joseph, Dan, Asher, Naphtali, and Gad; these were the names of the 12 children of Israel, and every one of them had their own family and became one tribe. Thus, was Yahweh order through Moses. So, the 12 tribes of Israel were independent of each other; but they had to follow God’s order that went through Moses and his brother Aaron of the house of Levi. The Bible says that God spoke with Moses many times saying to Moses, go and tell the house of Jacob what they had to do. Now through this talking, new laws and ways of living were described to the sons of Israel, this is how the Mosaic Laws were formed. Quoting example from the Bible: Quote 1: Leviticus 18; Yahweh spoke to Moses; he said: ‘Speak to the sons of Israel and say to them: “I am Yahweh your God. You must not behave as they do in Egypt where once you lived; you must not behave as they do in Canaan where I am taking you. You must not follow their laws. You must follow my customs and keep my laws; by them you must lead your life.” Quote 2: Leviticus 19; Yahweh spoke to Moses; he said: ‘Speak to the whole community of the sons of Israel and say to them: “Be holy, for I, Yahweh your God, am holy. Each of you must respect his father and mother. And you must keep my Sabbaths; I am Yahweh your God. Do not turn to idols and cast no gods of metal. I am Yahweh your God. (Anyhow, I am using these quotes as examples in Leviticus between Moses and God). As I have said God was speaking to Moses many times in Exodus and Leviticus, but these talks become doubtful, because if these meetings with God had taken place, then the Israelites would have been more God conscious, but they were not as much as they should have been under those circumstances. Doubtful possibilities written In the Bible there are some doubtful possibilities written There are a lot of good things written in the Bible, but there are things that don’t add up and this is one of them. When we read the Bible specially Leviticus Moses and his brother Aaron, spoke with God many times, as if they were normal happenings. But what I cannot understand is this: if Moses was speaking with God these many times as it is said in the Bible, it follows that the Israelites should have known what was going on during these times; therefore, they should have believed and follow whatever commands were given to them without arguing in any ways, since what was being told was from Yahweh their God. We are saying this because, the story of the Israelite tells us that they had always doubts in their minds; so, they were arguing about the reasons why they were in the desert living a hard life, as if they had not seen what had happened around them. What we want to say here is this; we believe that the Israelite of those days, did not see or hear God, otherwise they would have had no doubts about God or Moses. For this reason, what has been written in the Bible about God talking to Moses so often, might not have taken place as much as they claim. So, everything was added later when the Bible was written and re-written. This is our views, because we cannot explain it in any other way; now, there is a lot more that can be said about these writings that don’t add up, but we leave it as it is for now. In our next religious article, we will continue to talk about the Bible, because the Bible was also the Israelite history book, in ancient times history and religion were written together, because whatever happened was thought to be religious, so, in our next article we will be talking about, The Bible is Hebrew history May God bless us all. Other religious links - Man needs God One of our domain websites, in this website we are trying to shorten our religious writing, in the hope that it will become more readers' friendly. - God's central sit of government I am setting the stage for the entire world to see, and when you read these pages you may have to agree, this is the golden door of golden opportunity that God will give to you and to all humanity. - God works in mysterious ways God works in mysterious ways, let me tell you a story. My own life observations and in this story explain how God works in mysterious ways. - Prayers of Reconciliation Prayers of Reconciliation, I come to you praying Father Most High and eternal life giver of every living thing, I am praying thee for forgiveness of my sins and reconciliation.. People prayers to God. - Prayers for Reconciliation Prayers for Reconciliation starts a religious theory that aims to save religions from atheism and extremist groups, it aims to achieve that by suggesting some modifications to existing religions, etc. - Angels, Saints and human souls 63 The life giver to every living thing is God. What I have described above is only the positive eternal life-force that exists in the universe, and we like to call this life-force God, and we believe that God is life and therefore the life giver. - Man needs God Religious blog that want to say that we need God and religions - Religious Reconciliation Doc Personal general religious blog - If you believe in God Another religious blog - God in the universe This site has been opened to keep my religious writings of Prayers of Reconciliation, Reconciliation of the Universe and God of the Universe, text and sketch. - Menfranco Reconciliation This site is being created to house Menfranco Reconciliation Forum.	2,707	ENGLISH	1
Defender of the Fatherland Day is a holiday observed in Russia and many former Soviet republics. It is celebrated on February 23. The holiday marks the date in 1918 during the Russian Civil War when the first mass draft into the Red Army occurred in Petrograd and Moscow. It was originally known as Red Army Day. In 1949, it was renamed Soviet Army and Navy Day. Following the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the holiday was given its current name. As the name suggests, the holiday celebrates the soldiers of the Russian military, but it has also more recently come to include the celebration of men as a whole, and to act as a counterpart of International Women's Day on March 8. The holiday is celebrated with parades and processions in honor of veterans, and women also give small gifts to the Russian men in their lives, especially a boyfriend or husband. Consequently, in colloquial usage, the holiday is often referred to as Men's Day.	<urn:uuid:4c7f53d7-b851-4591-b97f-eadd49adea5c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://russia.rin.ru/guides_e/11300.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00118.warc.gz	en	0.988024	197	3.4375	3	[ -0.07847124338150024, 0.19747328758239746, 0.07029145956039429, -0.10481324791908264, 0.009465492330491543, -0.3032263517379761, 0.2650943994522095, 0.22290857136249542, -0.39268484711647034, -0.14245104789733887, 0.3129599094390869, -0.007203116547316313, -0.1426868885755539, 0.4222061038...	5	Defender of the Fatherland Day is a holiday observed in Russia and many former Soviet republics. It is celebrated on February 23. The holiday marks the date in 1918 during the Russian Civil War when the first mass draft into the Red Army occurred in Petrograd and Moscow. It was originally known as Red Army Day. In 1949, it was renamed Soviet Army and Navy Day. Following the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the holiday was given its current name. As the name suggests, the holiday celebrates the soldiers of the Russian military, but it has also more recently come to include the celebration of men as a whole, and to act as a counterpart of International Women's Day on March 8. The holiday is celebrated with parades and processions in honor of veterans, and women also give small gifts to the Russian men in their lives, especially a boyfriend or husband. Consequently, in colloquial usage, the holiday is often referred to as Men's Day.	210	ENGLISH	1
Written by Henrik Ibsen, A Doll’s House is a play released during the Victorian era of the 19th century. The play addresses life as it was then, when women where no more than dolls, unable to perform significant roles in the then society as well as standing up for themselves in the family. It addresses the issue of gender roles, showing how disempowered the female is and the consequences behind this. Nora, a major character and a wife to Helmer, illustrates how women suffer mistreatments and degradations from their husbands. Following the impact on the life styles of women and the devastation of gender roles in the then century, brought by Ibsen through this publication, which is also evident today, the composition stands out as a feminist essay right from the title, A Doll’s House, up to the end of the play. Feminism is an issue that pursues the liberation of women, majority of whom live as slaves even in their very own families, whether married or not. This is the condition of women as at the time when Ibsen composes the play. He is handling the situation as it is as a call for women to stand up and fight for their rights in the society. The topic of the play serves as a clear illustration of feminism. A Doll is denotes the position of a woman in the family. A major character employed to portray is Nora. She is married to Helmer who refers to her as a mere doll rather than a wife. Nora is referred by her husband as a songbird, a lark, a squirrel, names that suggest how insignificant she is to her. In fact, Helmer asks, “Didn’t you tell me no one had been here…My little songbird must never do that again. A songbird must have a clean beak to chirp with-no false notes!” (Ibsen 25). Helmer stands out as a commander in his family. Everything he tells his wife ought to be adhered to regardless of the consequences therein. The way he questions Nora depicts his sternness and authoritative position in his family. He deprives Nora of the ability to decide as the wife. She cannot decide on whom to welcome in her family, neither can she decide on what to do in it. She only dances the tune of her husband. She is just a doll in the house that does in accordance with what others need out of it but not what it needs out of them. This degradation is what the writer brings forth to the women stressing on their need to rise up and fight against it. Nora is given every sort of names by her husband. But this does not make her dump him. They are together as a husband and a wife for a good number of years. Yes, Torvald, I can’t get along a bit without your help” (Ibsen 26). Money seems to be everything that Nora wants. But she realizes later that it (money) is useless without her enjoying her rights, not only as a woman but also a living being. In her reaction against the situation, she makes the best individual pronouncement for the first time. She opts for abandoning her husband to stay alone where she can enjoy freedom. She will not be constrained in a house like a doll; neither will she dance to any other person’s tune, but hers. She is a feminist whom the play uses as an illustration that women can make sound decisions as well as playing a significant role in their families other than just cooking and taking care of their husbands. “The common denominator in many of Ibsen’s dramas is his interest in individuals struggling for and authentic identity in the face of tyrannical social conventions. This conflict often results in his characters’ being divided between a sense of duty to themselves and their responsibility to others” (Ibsen 1563). Nora realizes that she is more than what she does or what his husband thinks she can do and has the right to manifest her talent or powers as a woman. She goes for this right. In fact, she declares that she needs to “make sense of [her] self and everything around her” (Ibsen 25). This is her turning point. She is ready to stand up for her rights as a woman regardless of the prevailing situation where women are being oppressed and denied some of their fundamental rights like the right to make personal decisions. Mrs. Linde’s conversation with Nora depicts her as one who led a life based on the decisions of her late husband. For instance, when her husband dies, she has virtually nothing of her own, money and children inclusive. This places everything in her then family in the hands of her husband. She has no power to earn as a woman. This is only the task of her husband. The death of her husband is symbolic. It implies the end of slavery and a commencement of feminism. Linde sets off to look for a job, which in turn enables her to take care of her family. This is no more than the realization that she is capable of working for her people just like her husband. In fact, she stands out as woman enough to leave a note to her husband claiming to return the following day. This is contrary to what is expected of the then women. They ought to stay in the houses all the times as the title, ‘A Doll’s House’ suggests. In her dialogue with Krogstad, she says that she is now ‘free’ and wishes to look after her family. This depicts the oppression she experiences before realizing that she is equally as powerful as a man and that she is all able to support her family. For instance, she takes a full responsibility of nursing her sick mother. This is not a possible case before when she is a doll in her husband’s house. She says that she was “a poor girl who’d been led astray” (Ibsen 29). This is the consequence of oppression that Ibsen addresses, that is in turn realized and abandoned by people like Linde and Nora-the feminists. Nora initially is a ‘pet’ in her family. She is just there to make her husband happy by going out with him, cooking for him, and maintaining his title as a ‘man’ owing to her beauty. As a doll plays its assigned role, not based on the situation, Nora has to tolerate this torture for the sake of her husband. This is her life that she realizes later that it is no more than a lie. She imagines of another one where she will be, not a doll, but a significant and a responsible person in her society. Nora says, “I’ve been your wife-doll here, just as at home I was Papa’s doll-child”(Ibsen 1608). This is the beginning of her realization. She is now courageous enough to confront her very own stern husband no matter the outcome. She is ready to fight for her rights as a woman. “I have to try to educate myself. You can’t help me with that. I’ve got to do it alone. And that’s why I’m leaving you now” (Ibsen 1609). Nora goes for the change she wants. She can educate herself regardless of her being a woman. She is not afraid of saying this to her husband. Ibsen finalizes the play by depicting all the women characters as feminists who abandon their ‘doll’ lives to leave like free, significant, and responsible in their societies. Nora, Linde, among others, begin as slaves but end a feminists. This renders Ibsen’s ‘A Doll’s House’ a feminist essay. Ibsen, Henrik. “A Doll’s House” London: Nick Hern Books, 1994.	<urn:uuid:e36ce0d0-4fe5-40c0-a3bb-169c62813f92>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://graceplaceofwillmar.org/is-a-dolls-house-a-feminist-essay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00462.warc.gz	en	0.986545	1,660	3.40625	3	[ 0.12456634640693665, -0.042145323008298874, 0.37168827652931213, -0.27183908224105835, 0.11580934375524521, 0.3720944821834564, 0.13957487046718597, 0.06345465779304504, -0.05344924330711365, -0.3492100238800049, 0.24238449335098267, -0.07235646992921829, 0.2667505443096161, -0.05938783288...	1	Written by Henrik Ibsen, A Doll’s House is a play released during the Victorian era of the 19th century. The play addresses life as it was then, when women where no more than dolls, unable to perform significant roles in the then society as well as standing up for themselves in the family. It addresses the issue of gender roles, showing how disempowered the female is and the consequences behind this. Nora, a major character and a wife to Helmer, illustrates how women suffer mistreatments and degradations from their husbands. Following the impact on the life styles of women and the devastation of gender roles in the then century, brought by Ibsen through this publication, which is also evident today, the composition stands out as a feminist essay right from the title, A Doll’s House, up to the end of the play. Feminism is an issue that pursues the liberation of women, majority of whom live as slaves even in their very own families, whether married or not. This is the condition of women as at the time when Ibsen composes the play. He is handling the situation as it is as a call for women to stand up and fight for their rights in the society. The topic of the play serves as a clear illustration of feminism. A Doll is denotes the position of a woman in the family. A major character employed to portray is Nora. She is married to Helmer who refers to her as a mere doll rather than a wife. Nora is referred by her husband as a songbird, a lark, a squirrel, names that suggest how insignificant she is to her. In fact, Helmer asks, “Didn’t you tell me no one had been here…My little songbird must never do that again. A songbird must have a clean beak to chirp with-no false notes!” (Ibsen 25). Helmer stands out as a commander in his family. Everything he tells his wife ought to be adhered to regardless of the consequences therein. The way he questions Nora depicts his sternness and authoritative position in his family. He deprives Nora of the ability to decide as the wife. She cannot decide on whom to welcome in her family, neither can she decide on what to do in it. She only dances the tune of her husband. She is just a doll in the house that does in accordance with what others need out of it but not what it needs out of them. This degradation is what the writer brings forth to the women stressing on their need to rise up and fight against it. Nora is given every sort of names by her husband. But this does not make her dump him. They are together as a husband and a wife for a good number of years. Yes, Torvald, I can’t get along a bit without your help” (Ibsen 26). Money seems to be everything that Nora wants. But she realizes later that it (money) is useless without her enjoying her rights, not only as a woman but also a living being. In her reaction against the situation, she makes the best individual pronouncement for the first time. She opts for abandoning her husband to stay alone where she can enjoy freedom. She will not be constrained in a house like a doll; neither will she dance to any other person’s tune, but hers. She is a feminist whom the play uses as an illustration that women can make sound decisions as well as playing a significant role in their families other than just cooking and taking care of their husbands. “The common denominator in many of Ibsen’s dramas is his interest in individuals struggling for and authentic identity in the face of tyrannical social conventions. This conflict often results in his characters’ being divided between a sense of duty to themselves and their responsibility to others” (Ibsen 1563). Nora realizes that she is more than what she does or what his husband thinks she can do and has the right to manifest her talent or powers as a woman. She goes for this right. In fact, she declares that she needs to “make sense of [her] self and everything around her” (Ibsen 25). This is her turning point. She is ready to stand up for her rights as a woman regardless of the prevailing situation where women are being oppressed and denied some of their fundamental rights like the right to make personal decisions. Mrs. Linde’s conversation with Nora depicts her as one who led a life based on the decisions of her late husband. For instance, when her husband dies, she has virtually nothing of her own, money and children inclusive. This places everything in her then family in the hands of her husband. She has no power to earn as a woman. This is only the task of her husband. The death of her husband is symbolic. It implies the end of slavery and a commencement of feminism. Linde sets off to look for a job, which in turn enables her to take care of her family. This is no more than the realization that she is capable of working for her people just like her husband. In fact, she stands out as woman enough to leave a note to her husband claiming to return the following day. This is contrary to what is expected of the then women. They ought to stay in the houses all the times as the title, ‘A Doll’s House’ suggests. In her dialogue with Krogstad, she says that she is now ‘free’ and wishes to look after her family. This depicts the oppression she experiences before realizing that she is equally as powerful as a man and that she is all able to support her family. For instance, she takes a full responsibility of nursing her sick mother. This is not a possible case before when she is a doll in her husband’s house. She says that she was “a poor girl who’d been led astray” (Ibsen 29). This is the consequence of oppression that Ibsen addresses, that is in turn realized and abandoned by people like Linde and Nora-the feminists. Nora initially is a ‘pet’ in her family. She is just there to make her husband happy by going out with him, cooking for him, and maintaining his title as a ‘man’ owing to her beauty. As a doll plays its assigned role, not based on the situation, Nora has to tolerate this torture for the sake of her husband. This is her life that she realizes later that it is no more than a lie. She imagines of another one where she will be, not a doll, but a significant and a responsible person in her society. Nora says, “I’ve been your wife-doll here, just as at home I was Papa’s doll-child”(Ibsen 1608). This is the beginning of her realization. She is now courageous enough to confront her very own stern husband no matter the outcome. She is ready to fight for her rights as a woman. “I have to try to educate myself. You can’t help me with that. I’ve got to do it alone. And that’s why I’m leaving you now” (Ibsen 1609). Nora goes for the change she wants. She can educate herself regardless of her being a woman. She is not afraid of saying this to her husband. Ibsen finalizes the play by depicting all the women characters as feminists who abandon their ‘doll’ lives to leave like free, significant, and responsible in their societies. Nora, Linde, among others, begin as slaves but end a feminists. This renders Ibsen’s ‘A Doll’s House’ a feminist essay. Ibsen, Henrik. “A Doll’s House” London: Nick Hern Books, 1994.	1,586	ENGLISH	1
Author(s): John Sadler; Rosie Serdiville Alexander was perhaps the greatest conquering general in history. In just over a generation, his northern Greek state of Macedon rose to control the whole of the vast Persian Empire. It was the legacy of his father, Philip, that launched Alexander on a spectacular career of conquest that planted Hellenic culture across most of Asia. In a dozen years Alexander took the whole of Asia Minor and Egypt, destroyed the once mighty Persian Empire, and pushed his army eastwards as far as the Indus. No-one in history has equaled his achievement. Julius Caesar, contemplating his hero's statue, is said to have wept because by contrast he had accomplished so little. Much of Alexander's success can be traced to the Macedonian phalanx, a close-ordered battle formation of sarissa-wielding infantry that proved itself a war-winning weapon. The army Alexander inherited from his father was the most powerful in Greece, highly disciplined, trained and loyal only to the king. United in a single purpose, they fought as one. Alexander recognized this and is quoted as saying, "Remember upon the conduct of each depends the fate of all." Cavalry was also of crucial importance in the Macedonian army, as the driving force to attack the flanks of the enemy in battle. A talented commander, able to anticipate how his opponent would think, Alexander understood how to commit his forces to devastating effect, and was never defeated in battle. He also developed a corps of engineers that utilized catapults and siege towers against enemy fortifications. Alexander led from the front, fighting with his men, eating with them, refusing water when there was not enough, and his men would quite literally follow him to the ends of the (known) world, and none of his successors was able to hold together the empire he had forged. Although he died an early death his fame and glory persist to this day. This concise history gives an overview of Alexander's life from a military standpoint, from his early military exploits to the creation of his empire and the legacy left after his premature death.	<urn:uuid:c671f286-580d-4957-9e8c-41d46c2e8b53>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.picturesandpages.com.au/p/adult-interest-alexander-the-great-conqueror-commander-king	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00334.warc.gz	en	0.989026	431	3.453125	3	[ -0.2948094308376312, 0.719901442527771, 0.5947404503822327, 0.13663756847381592, -0.6112275123596191, -0.42341113090515137, 0.0485445074737072, 0.5601316094398499, -0.1490343064069748, -0.15371839702129364, -0.3466544449329376, -0.29951024055480957, 0.22121453285217285, 0.2738581597805023,...	4	Author(s): John Sadler; Rosie Serdiville Alexander was perhaps the greatest conquering general in history. In just over a generation, his northern Greek state of Macedon rose to control the whole of the vast Persian Empire. It was the legacy of his father, Philip, that launched Alexander on a spectacular career of conquest that planted Hellenic culture across most of Asia. In a dozen years Alexander took the whole of Asia Minor and Egypt, destroyed the once mighty Persian Empire, and pushed his army eastwards as far as the Indus. No-one in history has equaled his achievement. Julius Caesar, contemplating his hero's statue, is said to have wept because by contrast he had accomplished so little. Much of Alexander's success can be traced to the Macedonian phalanx, a close-ordered battle formation of sarissa-wielding infantry that proved itself a war-winning weapon. The army Alexander inherited from his father was the most powerful in Greece, highly disciplined, trained and loyal only to the king. United in a single purpose, they fought as one. Alexander recognized this and is quoted as saying, "Remember upon the conduct of each depends the fate of all." Cavalry was also of crucial importance in the Macedonian army, as the driving force to attack the flanks of the enemy in battle. A talented commander, able to anticipate how his opponent would think, Alexander understood how to commit his forces to devastating effect, and was never defeated in battle. He also developed a corps of engineers that utilized catapults and siege towers against enemy fortifications. Alexander led from the front, fighting with his men, eating with them, refusing water when there was not enough, and his men would quite literally follow him to the ends of the (known) world, and none of his successors was able to hold together the empire he had forged. Although he died an early death his fame and glory persist to this day. This concise history gives an overview of Alexander's life from a military standpoint, from his early military exploits to the creation of his empire and the legacy left after his premature death.	424	ENGLISH	1
“We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though passion may have strained it must not break our bonds of affection. The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature.” — Abraham Lincoln, March 4, 1861, From His First Inaugural Address More than 620,000 people, or two percent of the population, died in the Civil War. Approximately 6,000 battles, skirmishes, and engagements were fought during the Civil War. An estimated 300 women disguised themselves as men and fought in the ranks. There were over 2,000 boys who were 14 years old or younger in the Union ranks. Three hundred were 13 years or less, while there were 200,000 no older than 16 years. At the Battle of Shiloh, on the banks of the Tennessee River, more Americans fell than in all previous American wars combined. There were 23,700 casualties. 3,530 Native Americans fought for the Union, of which, 1,018 were killed. The greatest cavalry battle ever fought in the Western hemisphere was at Brandy Station, Virginia, on June 9, 1863. Nearly 20,000 cavalrymen were engaged on a relatively confined terrain for more than 12 hours. An Iowa regiment had a rule that any man who uttered an oath should read a chapter in the Bible. Several of them got nearly through the Old Testament. There were more Northern-born Confederate generals than Southern-born Union generals. The famous Confederate blockade-runner, the C.S.S. Alabama, never entered a Confederate port during the length of her service. During the Battle of Antietam, Clara Barton tended the wounded so close to the fighting that a bullet went through her sleeve and killed a man she was treating. In March 1862, “new” ironclad war ships, the Monitor and the Merrimac battled off Hampton Roads, Virginia. From then on, every other wooden navy ship on earth was obsolete. There were 100 men in a Company and 10 Companies in a Regiment. Not fond of ceremonies or military music, Ulysses S. Grant said he could only recognize two tunes. “One was Yankee Doodle, the other one wasn’t.” President Abraham Lincoln was the first president to be assassinated. At the start of the war, the value of all manufactured goods produced in all the Confederate states added up to less than one-fourth of those produced in New York State alone. In 1862, the U.S. Congress authorized the first paper currency, called “greenbacks.” Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., future chief Justice, was wounded three times during the Civil War — in the chest at Ball’s Bluff, in the back at Antietam and in the heel at Chancellorsville Surgeons never washed their hands after an operation, because all blood was assumed to be the same, nor did he wash his instruments Confederate Private Henry Stanley fought for the Sixth Arkansas and was captured at Shiloh, but survived to go to Africa to find Dr. Livingston. On July 4, 1863, after 48 days of siege, Confederate General John C. Pemberton surrendered the city of Vicksburg, Mississippi to Union General, Ulysses S. Grant. For the next 81 years, the city Vicksburg, Mississippi did not celebrate the Fourth of July. Disease killed twice as many men during the war than did battle wounds. The 12th Connecticut Regiment entered the war with a compliment of 1,000 men. Before it entered its first engagement, sickness had reduced its strength to 600 able-bodied soldiers. On both sides of the conflict, potential recruits were offered monetary rewards, or “bounties,” for enlisting, as much as $677 in New York. “Bounty jumping” soon became so popular, that hundreds of men signed up, and then deserted, to enlist again elsewhere. For those who were drafted, the law allowed them to pay a substitute to go in their place. Another type of “bounty jumper” was born when men would hire out to more than one draftee and then make a hasty exit once they were paid. The record for bounty jumping was held by John O’Connor, who admitted to hiring himself out 32 times before being caught. He received a four-year prison term. Though African Americans constituted less than one percent of the northern population, by the war’s end made up ten percent of the Union Army. A total of 180,000 black men, more than 85% of those eligible, enlisted. By the time of the Confederate surrender in 1865, there were more African Americans in the Union army than there were soldiers in the Confederate army. In November 1863, President Lincoln was invited to offer a “few appropriate remarks” at the opening of a new Union cemetery at Gettysburg. Though Lincoln spoke just 269 words in his Gettysburg Address, the main speaker, an orator from Massachusetts, spoke for nearly two hours. Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest had 30 horses shot from under him and personally killed 31 men in hand-to-hand combat. “I was a horse ahead at the end,” he said. Andersonville Prison in southwest Georgia held 33,000 prisoners in 1864. It was the fifth largest city in the Confederacy. Alfred Thomas Archmedes Torbert held commissions in both USA and CSA armies simultaneously General Stonewall Jackson walked around with his right hand in the air to balance the blood flow in his body. He thought that because he was right-handed his left hand didn’t get as much blood as his right. So, by raising his right hand, it would allow the excess blood to run into his left. One of his arms has its own grave. Read more about Jackson’s Arm HERE. The words “In God We Trust” first appeared on a U.S. coin in 1864. By the end of the war, Unionists from every state except South Carolina had sent regiments to fight for the North. On November 9, 1863, President Lincoln attended a theater in Washington, D.C., to see The Marble Heart. In the play was an accomplished actor named John Wilkes Booth. Hiram Revels of Mississippi became the first black man ever elected to the U.S. Senate. He filled the seat last held by Jefferson Davis.	<urn:uuid:6e578bc6-313e-4c8a-b90f-7ae7333318dc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.legendsofamerica.com/ah-civilwarfacts/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00415.warc.gz	en	0.980227	1,396	3.34375	3	[ -0.34240275621414185, 0.3714429438114166, 0.30496564507484436, 0.09447556734085083, -0.31604063510894775, 0.25483065843582153, 0.003914570435881615, 0.17344342172145844, 0.061794839799404144, -0.02537892386317253, 0.08977702260017395, 0.15573859214782715, 0.383151650428772, 0.3265942037105...	1	“We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though passion may have strained it must not break our bonds of affection. The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature.” — Abraham Lincoln, March 4, 1861, From His First Inaugural Address More than 620,000 people, or two percent of the population, died in the Civil War. Approximately 6,000 battles, skirmishes, and engagements were fought during the Civil War. An estimated 300 women disguised themselves as men and fought in the ranks. There were over 2,000 boys who were 14 years old or younger in the Union ranks. Three hundred were 13 years or less, while there were 200,000 no older than 16 years. At the Battle of Shiloh, on the banks of the Tennessee River, more Americans fell than in all previous American wars combined. There were 23,700 casualties. 3,530 Native Americans fought for the Union, of which, 1,018 were killed. The greatest cavalry battle ever fought in the Western hemisphere was at Brandy Station, Virginia, on June 9, 1863. Nearly 20,000 cavalrymen were engaged on a relatively confined terrain for more than 12 hours. An Iowa regiment had a rule that any man who uttered an oath should read a chapter in the Bible. Several of them got nearly through the Old Testament. There were more Northern-born Confederate generals than Southern-born Union generals. The famous Confederate blockade-runner, the C.S.S. Alabama, never entered a Confederate port during the length of her service. During the Battle of Antietam, Clara Barton tended the wounded so close to the fighting that a bullet went through her sleeve and killed a man she was treating. In March 1862, “new” ironclad war ships, the Monitor and the Merrimac battled off Hampton Roads, Virginia. From then on, every other wooden navy ship on earth was obsolete. There were 100 men in a Company and 10 Companies in a Regiment. Not fond of ceremonies or military music, Ulysses S. Grant said he could only recognize two tunes. “One was Yankee Doodle, the other one wasn’t.” President Abraham Lincoln was the first president to be assassinated. At the start of the war, the value of all manufactured goods produced in all the Confederate states added up to less than one-fourth of those produced in New York State alone. In 1862, the U.S. Congress authorized the first paper currency, called “greenbacks.” Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., future chief Justice, was wounded three times during the Civil War — in the chest at Ball’s Bluff, in the back at Antietam and in the heel at Chancellorsville Surgeons never washed their hands after an operation, because all blood was assumed to be the same, nor did he wash his instruments Confederate Private Henry Stanley fought for the Sixth Arkansas and was captured at Shiloh, but survived to go to Africa to find Dr. Livingston. On July 4, 1863, after 48 days of siege, Confederate General John C. Pemberton surrendered the city of Vicksburg, Mississippi to Union General, Ulysses S. Grant. For the next 81 years, the city Vicksburg, Mississippi did not celebrate the Fourth of July. Disease killed twice as many men during the war than did battle wounds. The 12th Connecticut Regiment entered the war with a compliment of 1,000 men. Before it entered its first engagement, sickness had reduced its strength to 600 able-bodied soldiers. On both sides of the conflict, potential recruits were offered monetary rewards, or “bounties,” for enlisting, as much as $677 in New York. “Bounty jumping” soon became so popular, that hundreds of men signed up, and then deserted, to enlist again elsewhere. For those who were drafted, the law allowed them to pay a substitute to go in their place. Another type of “bounty jumper” was born when men would hire out to more than one draftee and then make a hasty exit once they were paid. The record for bounty jumping was held by John O’Connor, who admitted to hiring himself out 32 times before being caught. He received a four-year prison term. Though African Americans constituted less than one percent of the northern population, by the war’s end made up ten percent of the Union Army. A total of 180,000 black men, more than 85% of those eligible, enlisted. By the time of the Confederate surrender in 1865, there were more African Americans in the Union army than there were soldiers in the Confederate army. In November 1863, President Lincoln was invited to offer a “few appropriate remarks” at the opening of a new Union cemetery at Gettysburg. Though Lincoln spoke just 269 words in his Gettysburg Address, the main speaker, an orator from Massachusetts, spoke for nearly two hours. Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest had 30 horses shot from under him and personally killed 31 men in hand-to-hand combat. “I was a horse ahead at the end,” he said. Andersonville Prison in southwest Georgia held 33,000 prisoners in 1864. It was the fifth largest city in the Confederacy. Alfred Thomas Archmedes Torbert held commissions in both USA and CSA armies simultaneously General Stonewall Jackson walked around with his right hand in the air to balance the blood flow in his body. He thought that because he was right-handed his left hand didn’t get as much blood as his right. So, by raising his right hand, it would allow the excess blood to run into his left. One of his arms has its own grave. Read more about Jackson’s Arm HERE. The words “In God We Trust” first appeared on a U.S. coin in 1864. By the end of the war, Unionists from every state except South Carolina had sent regiments to fight for the North. On November 9, 1863, President Lincoln attended a theater in Washington, D.C., to see The Marble Heart. In the play was an accomplished actor named John Wilkes Booth. Hiram Revels of Mississippi became the first black man ever elected to the U.S. Senate. He filled the seat last held by Jefferson Davis.	1,440	ENGLISH	1
The first great international exhibition was held in London in 1851. Prince Albert, the husband of Queen Victoria, was the moving spirit in organizing it, and it was opened by the Queen herself. It was housed in a building made entirely of glass and iron, called the Crystal Palace. The exhibition was a great success, and drew exhibits and people from all parts of the world. Some optimistic people saw in it the beginning of an era of international peace ; for they could not believe that the nations that joined in promoting so grand a project could ever quarrel again. Their hopes, alas! were soon dashed; for only three years after, the Crimean War broke out. Many great exhibitions have been held since then- in London, Paris, Vienna, Edinburgh, Monchester, Chicago, and other places. A great Empire Exhibition was held at Wembly in 1924; and in 1938 one of the biggest ever held was at Glasgow, and was visited by fourteen million people. Although exhibitions evidently cannot prevent war, they do undoubtedly help to promote friendly relations among nations. Exhibits are sent from all countries, and visitors come from all parts of the world. Men and women of different nations cannot work and organize together, and meet in friendly intercourse, as they do at such times, without getting more knowledge of, and sympathy with, one another’s customs and ways of thinking. Moreover exhibitions do much to spread trade and commerce. They bring together samples of the produce of different countries, from which merchants can learn where they can buy and sell to the best advantage; Exhibitions are great advertising agencies. Perhaps the chief object and use of such exhibitions in the promotion of manufactures, and the encouragement of new inventions and improved methods. Manufacturers from all parts of the world can see at an exhibition all the latest machines, and methods and processes of manufacture. Prizes, also, are offered to stimulate inventions, and create a healthy rivalry in excellence of workmanship. Exhibitions have also an educational value; for besides exhibits of the products of different countries, an exhibition generally contains collections of pictures and works of art, curiosities of all kinds, and model villages and streets representing the life and customs of different nations. School teachers take their classes to an exhibition to show and explain to them many things that cannot so will he learn from books. So exhibitions have done much to help trade and education, and promote the international spirit.	<urn:uuid:7f97638d-7656-47ef-bf56-45925857b722>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thecollegestudy.net/2018/06/role-and-importance-of-exhibitions-paragraph.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00523.warc.gz	en	0.980547	494	3.328125	3	[ 0.1878693550825119, 0.29953330755233765, 0.8072413206100464, 0.033698830753564835, 0.1633726805448532, -0.02526235766708851, 0.22075578570365906, 0.012478516437113285, -0.3838697373867035, -0.11191203445196152, 0.45587271451950073, 0.08576571941375732, 0.10857977718114853, 0.62193214893341...	8	The first great international exhibition was held in London in 1851. Prince Albert, the husband of Queen Victoria, was the moving spirit in organizing it, and it was opened by the Queen herself. It was housed in a building made entirely of glass and iron, called the Crystal Palace. The exhibition was a great success, and drew exhibits and people from all parts of the world. Some optimistic people saw in it the beginning of an era of international peace ; for they could not believe that the nations that joined in promoting so grand a project could ever quarrel again. Their hopes, alas! were soon dashed; for only three years after, the Crimean War broke out. Many great exhibitions have been held since then- in London, Paris, Vienna, Edinburgh, Monchester, Chicago, and other places. A great Empire Exhibition was held at Wembly in 1924; and in 1938 one of the biggest ever held was at Glasgow, and was visited by fourteen million people. Although exhibitions evidently cannot prevent war, they do undoubtedly help to promote friendly relations among nations. Exhibits are sent from all countries, and visitors come from all parts of the world. Men and women of different nations cannot work and organize together, and meet in friendly intercourse, as they do at such times, without getting more knowledge of, and sympathy with, one another’s customs and ways of thinking. Moreover exhibitions do much to spread trade and commerce. They bring together samples of the produce of different countries, from which merchants can learn where they can buy and sell to the best advantage; Exhibitions are great advertising agencies. Perhaps the chief object and use of such exhibitions in the promotion of manufactures, and the encouragement of new inventions and improved methods. Manufacturers from all parts of the world can see at an exhibition all the latest machines, and methods and processes of manufacture. Prizes, also, are offered to stimulate inventions, and create a healthy rivalry in excellence of workmanship. Exhibitions have also an educational value; for besides exhibits of the products of different countries, an exhibition generally contains collections of pictures and works of art, curiosities of all kinds, and model villages and streets representing the life and customs of different nations. School teachers take their classes to an exhibition to show and explain to them many things that cannot so will he learn from books. So exhibitions have done much to help trade and education, and promote the international spirit.	496	ENGLISH	1
Holocaust Survivors: Rescue and Resettlement in the United States They had made it through World War II and now they were coming to America, 140,000 strong. The women, along with the men, had survived the rigors of the ghettos, the horrors of the concentration camps, the final agony of the death marches. They had been in hiding, or fighting with the partisans. They had escaped to the Soviet Union, some to Shanghai. And even after the war, they had been penned into displaced persons camps, in a holding pattern, waiting for a place to live, determined to get out of Europe. Now America was finally opening its doors, the doors that had been so tightly guarded during the war and, before, in the 1930s. And the American Jewish community was about to shoulder a responsibility that would sorely test its resources, commitment, and understanding. The newcomers were refugees, but refugees extraordinaire. Unlike even their Jewish predecessors who had fled Nazism in the 1930s and early 1940s, these people were virtually the only survivors of their entire families and had been victims of and witnesses to unimaginable crimes. Yet they had kept moving, going about the business of living, jump-starting their lives with a remarkable determination. While the men were bent on earning a living, the women were equally determined to raise a family and make a life for themselves and their husbands. In looking over their experience, many of these women today argue that their task was actually more difficult than that of the men. “The men were responsible for work, for a job, but women had to find schools, organizations, care for children, run the household.” “While he was in the store all day, I had to take care of everything else!” “We had to be more flexible and strong.” This was no mean feat considering the fact that they did this not only in an alien culture but, in most cases, without any close family members who could lend guidance and emotional support. In studies that were conducted both in the early 1950s and then forty years later, researchers concluded that Holocaust survivors did indeed adjust to a new life in America with an “amazing resiliency” that was most impressive, perhaps even heroic. The data on immigrants, however, are not broken down or explored, by and large, with gender in mind. This is particularly surprising given the fact that the majority of professional social workers and volunteers who interacted with the refugees were themselves women. Women’s issues, if they were defined at all, were merely subsumed under the men or ignored. And yet, while there appears to be no variation in the long-term, overall adjustment of men and women, there does appear to be a clear difference in the nature of the struggle that each group fought. Men and women had divergent responsibilities and priorities. They saw life and measured their achievements differently. The women who came to America after the war were distinct from the majority of women refugees who had escaped in the 1930s. They were generally younger (many in their early twenties), from Eastern Europe versus Germany and Austria, and were less educated or set upon a career path. After the war, despite all the adversity they had suffered, their number one priority was to marry and raise a family. While most women admitted that they had married so quickly after the war out of loneliness and the need for security, the decision to have children was different: It was a positive step of hope and affirmation that the women were making. The business of marrying and having children had begun in the displaced persons camp immediately after the war. By the end of 1946, nearly a thousand Jewish children were being born each month in the DP camps. In looking back over their experiences, most of the women interviewed in a Pittsburgh study of survivors recalled their great joy at being pregnant. They pointed out that not only were they eager to start a family but they were relieved that they could indeed get pregnant, since most of the women in the concentration camps had not menstruated while they had been there, due to their near-starvation diets. They also had been concerned that, perhaps because of what they had gone through, they would not be able to carry a healthy baby to term. Several women did admit, however, that either they never realized how difficult the job of raising their children would be or that they were scared. When the women came to America, they knew they would have to work. Very few of the refugees expected the streets to be paved with gold as perhaps an earlier immigration had fantasized. But the work they expected to do generally revolved around the home or, if it involved pay, was to add a little extra to the family income. In a study of survivors that was conducted in Detroit in 1953, the women who were employed, or had at one time been employed, saw their jobs primarily as a way to supplement their husbands’ income. They had no interest in being “career women.” (Neither did most American-born women of that time, for that matter.) Moreover, their occupation range was narrow—nurses’ aides, seamstresses, salespeople, and office workers. In a Cleveland study that included several single women who were heads of households (usually widows with children), none apparently was striving to better herself vocationally. They were “marking time” mostly as factory laborers or seamstresses until they would marry again. In Pittsburgh, the majority of women who did work were either seamstresses working out of their homes or they helped their husbands in small businesses such as cleaning or roofing. But their career or lack thereof was not how they judged their success in America. They, much more than the men, tended to measure their success in America by their family—their children’s character, education, success, happiness, Jewishness. That had been their goal and the source of so much satisfaction and pride. But there was frustration. Most of the women did not continue the education the war had interrupted, and for some this was a source of dissatisfaction as they looked back over their lives. They felt that they had just been too busy and never had the time. Some women indicated that they did not know that free high school classes, for example, would have been available to them and they bemoaned the fact that nobody really had told them. One woman speculated that perhaps her social worker wanted to make sure that she stayed home and took care of the children. Others noted that no agency or organization (even a woman’s organization) ever offered child care, something that would have been very much appreciated in the absence of family members. There was also no possibility that the women could pay for a baby-sitter to allow them to go to school. Yet while women often did not pursue educational opportunities in this country, they did adjust rapidly to American life, which in large measure was tied to their ability to learn English. While many women had indicated that upon arrival their toughest problem was the language, they still felt they learned the language faster than the men. And they did this without the help of classes, which the men, but not the women, were encouraged by social workers to take before obtaining a job. Unlike an earlier wave of immigrants at the turn of the century, being housebound was not nearly as stifling and isolating as it had been, for much could be learned from the radio as well as from children. A number of women interviewed in Pittsburgh felt that women tended to talk more to Americans for a variety of reasons as they went about their daily household business and/or they had a greater natural facility for languages than the men. The program that assisted the refugees after the war was a far-reaching one that depended on national and local community organization and cooperation. Communities around the country were given quotas of new immigrants that they were asked to resettle so that the financial burden would be distributed. The United Service for New Americans (USNA), which was formed in 1946 from a merger of the National Refugee Service and the Service to Foreign Born Department of the National Council of Jewish Women (NCJW), coordinated the resettlement of the postwar refugees in America. Katharine Engel of the NCJW became the first chair of the USNA board. Indeed, since the turn of the century, NCJW women had offered an array of services to assist immigrants, from location of relatives to Americanization programs. In the 1930s, Cecilia Razovsky of NCJW had become the first head of the newly formed National Coordinating Committee to aid refugees. By 1950, more than two hundred local sections of the NCJW were carrying on a wide program of services, and in communities where there was no Jewish family agency, the women volunteers were the heart of the immigrant resettlement program. In Pittsburgh, for example, NCJW women met newcomers at the train station, took them to appointments, offered English and naturalization classes, and helped them find housing (a particularly difficult task given the postwar housing shortage and the fact that landlords often chose not to rent to couples with a child). NCJW women also established a special thrift shop which, at the height of the refugee crunch in 1949 and 1950, relieved some of the financial strain on the Pittsburgh Jewish community and provided clothing and household goods to the refugees. Yet, despite the efforts of NCJW women, there was still a distance between them and the newcomers that was keenly felt by the refugee women. NCJW volunteers did not provide the friendship and warmth that many of the survivors of the Holocaust needed. Americans, both men and women, did not understand or appreciate what these “greeners” had been through, and the survivors soon learned, if they had been so inclined, not to talk about their experiences except among themselves. Ethel Landerman, a young social work intern for Montefiore Hospital where the refugees were treated free of charge, remarked: “We had no sense of the Holocaust as we know now, with a capital H. We really didn’t understand what people were telling us. The stories sounded too horrible. We simply did not believe them.” The women survivors associated with one another. They met in the park with their children. If they joined American organizations (which they did do at a greater rate than the men), they tended to join organizations (at least in the Pittsburgh sample) that were dedicated to Israel. This, of course, is not surprising, since so many of the women had wanted to go to Palestine immediately after the war but for a variety of reasons, including pregnancy, could not. Not one woman in Pittsburgh mentioned joining the National Council of Jewish Women, which had provided them with early assistance. Hospitality was extended to the Pittsburgh survivors through the women of the Friendship Club, a group of German Jewish refugees formed in the early 1930s. However, while many postwar refugees appreciated their outreach and went occasionally to Lit. "dedication." The 8-day "Festival of Lights" celebrated beginning on the 25th day of the Hebrew month of Kislev to commemorate the victory of the Jews over the Seleucid army in 164 B.C.E., the re-purification of the Temple and the miraculous eight days the Temple candelabrum remained lit from one cruse of undefiled oil which would have been enough to keep it burning for only one day.Hanukkah parties and the like, many of these Eastern European women were uncomfortable with the older German women. The women survivors who came after the war were driven to re-create a world of family. This was their priority and the task to which they dedicated themselves, but they were on their own, often citing Dr. Spock as their only adviser. They had to maneuver in a culture that offered exciting possibilities and opportunities, which they appreciated, but that also was not beyond criticism. While they applauded the freedom children had in America, for example, they deplored the numbers of “sassy and fresh” kids it produced. In inventing a family and running the household, these women acted as the bridge between the despair and destruction of the past and the hope of the future. They were the ones who communicated to the next generation the sense of possibility to which their children so readily responded. The very fact that women chose to have children was itself an act of faith and courage. These were traditional women, but they were faced with anything but traditional challenges. The fact that they succeeded so well in raising children and making a life for themselves and their husbands can be seen as more than their defiant response to Hitler. It is a testament to the strength of these women and to the human spirit. Research included interviews with fifteen women Holocaust survivors, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, summer 1996. Burstin, Barbara S. After the Holocaust (1989). Davie, Maurice. Refugees in America (1947). Glassman, Helen L. Adjustment in Freedom (1956). Heimreich, William B. Against All Odds (1992). Kirschmann, Doris, and Sylvia Savin. “Refugee Adjustment—Five Years Later.” The Jewish Social Service Quarterly 30, no. 2 (Winter 1953): 197–201. Smith, Lyman Cromwell. Three Hundred Thousand New Americans (1957). How to cite this page Burstin, Barbara. "Holocaust Survivors: Rescue and Resettlement in the United States." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 20 March 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on January 20, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/holocaust-survivors-rescue-and-resettlement-in-united-states>.	<urn:uuid:8d7a418c-26dc-4a66-a716-06d8b5b08ca4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://qa.jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/holocaust-survivors-rescue-and-resettlement-in-united-states	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00217.warc.gz	en	0.990967	2,827	3.421875	3	[ -0.2691209316253662, 0.4775776267051697, -0.022324135527014732, 0.20788344740867615, 0.3032277524471283, 0.40827369689941406, -0.27303075790405273, 0.3653225302696228, -0.0690695270895958, -0.31515422463417053, 0.4810777008533478, 0.11794131994247437, -0.23153096437454224, 0.17412206530570...	1	Holocaust Survivors: Rescue and Resettlement in the United States They had made it through World War II and now they were coming to America, 140,000 strong. The women, along with the men, had survived the rigors of the ghettos, the horrors of the concentration camps, the final agony of the death marches. They had been in hiding, or fighting with the partisans. They had escaped to the Soviet Union, some to Shanghai. And even after the war, they had been penned into displaced persons camps, in a holding pattern, waiting for a place to live, determined to get out of Europe. Now America was finally opening its doors, the doors that had been so tightly guarded during the war and, before, in the 1930s. And the American Jewish community was about to shoulder a responsibility that would sorely test its resources, commitment, and understanding. The newcomers were refugees, but refugees extraordinaire. Unlike even their Jewish predecessors who had fled Nazism in the 1930s and early 1940s, these people were virtually the only survivors of their entire families and had been victims of and witnesses to unimaginable crimes. Yet they had kept moving, going about the business of living, jump-starting their lives with a remarkable determination. While the men were bent on earning a living, the women were equally determined to raise a family and make a life for themselves and their husbands. In looking over their experience, many of these women today argue that their task was actually more difficult than that of the men. “The men were responsible for work, for a job, but women had to find schools, organizations, care for children, run the household.” “While he was in the store all day, I had to take care of everything else!” “We had to be more flexible and strong.” This was no mean feat considering the fact that they did this not only in an alien culture but, in most cases, without any close family members who could lend guidance and emotional support. In studies that were conducted both in the early 1950s and then forty years later, researchers concluded that Holocaust survivors did indeed adjust to a new life in America with an “amazing resiliency” that was most impressive, perhaps even heroic. The data on immigrants, however, are not broken down or explored, by and large, with gender in mind. This is particularly surprising given the fact that the majority of professional social workers and volunteers who interacted with the refugees were themselves women. Women’s issues, if they were defined at all, were merely subsumed under the men or ignored. And yet, while there appears to be no variation in the long-term, overall adjustment of men and women, there does appear to be a clear difference in the nature of the struggle that each group fought. Men and women had divergent responsibilities and priorities. They saw life and measured their achievements differently. The women who came to America after the war were distinct from the majority of women refugees who had escaped in the 1930s. They were generally younger (many in their early twenties), from Eastern Europe versus Germany and Austria, and were less educated or set upon a career path. After the war, despite all the adversity they had suffered, their number one priority was to marry and raise a family. While most women admitted that they had married so quickly after the war out of loneliness and the need for security, the decision to have children was different: It was a positive step of hope and affirmation that the women were making. The business of marrying and having children had begun in the displaced persons camp immediately after the war. By the end of 1946, nearly a thousand Jewish children were being born each month in the DP camps. In looking back over their experiences, most of the women interviewed in a Pittsburgh study of survivors recalled their great joy at being pregnant. They pointed out that not only were they eager to start a family but they were relieved that they could indeed get pregnant, since most of the women in the concentration camps had not menstruated while they had been there, due to their near-starvation diets. They also had been concerned that, perhaps because of what they had gone through, they would not be able to carry a healthy baby to term. Several women did admit, however, that either they never realized how difficult the job of raising their children would be or that they were scared. When the women came to America, they knew they would have to work. Very few of the refugees expected the streets to be paved with gold as perhaps an earlier immigration had fantasized. But the work they expected to do generally revolved around the home or, if it involved pay, was to add a little extra to the family income. In a study of survivors that was conducted in Detroit in 1953, the women who were employed, or had at one time been employed, saw their jobs primarily as a way to supplement their husbands’ income. They had no interest in being “career women.” (Neither did most American-born women of that time, for that matter.) Moreover, their occupation range was narrow—nurses’ aides, seamstresses, salespeople, and office workers. In a Cleveland study that included several single women who were heads of households (usually widows with children), none apparently was striving to better herself vocationally. They were “marking time” mostly as factory laborers or seamstresses until they would marry again. In Pittsburgh, the majority of women who did work were either seamstresses working out of their homes or they helped their husbands in small businesses such as cleaning or roofing. But their career or lack thereof was not how they judged their success in America. They, much more than the men, tended to measure their success in America by their family—their children’s character, education, success, happiness, Jewishness. That had been their goal and the source of so much satisfaction and pride. But there was frustration. Most of the women did not continue the education the war had interrupted, and for some this was a source of dissatisfaction as they looked back over their lives. They felt that they had just been too busy and never had the time. Some women indicated that they did not know that free high school classes, for example, would have been available to them and they bemoaned the fact that nobody really had told them. One woman speculated that perhaps her social worker wanted to make sure that she stayed home and took care of the children. Others noted that no agency or organization (even a woman’s organization) ever offered child care, something that would have been very much appreciated in the absence of family members. There was also no possibility that the women could pay for a baby-sitter to allow them to go to school. Yet while women often did not pursue educational opportunities in this country, they did adjust rapidly to American life, which in large measure was tied to their ability to learn English. While many women had indicated that upon arrival their toughest problem was the language, they still felt they learned the language faster than the men. And they did this without the help of classes, which the men, but not the women, were encouraged by social workers to take before obtaining a job. Unlike an earlier wave of immigrants at the turn of the century, being housebound was not nearly as stifling and isolating as it had been, for much could be learned from the radio as well as from children. A number of women interviewed in Pittsburgh felt that women tended to talk more to Americans for a variety of reasons as they went about their daily household business and/or they had a greater natural facility for languages than the men. The program that assisted the refugees after the war was a far-reaching one that depended on national and local community organization and cooperation. Communities around the country were given quotas of new immigrants that they were asked to resettle so that the financial burden would be distributed. The United Service for New Americans (USNA), which was formed in 1946 from a merger of the National Refugee Service and the Service to Foreign Born Department of the National Council of Jewish Women (NCJW), coordinated the resettlement of the postwar refugees in America. Katharine Engel of the NCJW became the first chair of the USNA board. Indeed, since the turn of the century, NCJW women had offered an array of services to assist immigrants, from location of relatives to Americanization programs. In the 1930s, Cecilia Razovsky of NCJW had become the first head of the newly formed National Coordinating Committee to aid refugees. By 1950, more than two hundred local sections of the NCJW were carrying on a wide program of services, and in communities where there was no Jewish family agency, the women volunteers were the heart of the immigrant resettlement program. In Pittsburgh, for example, NCJW women met newcomers at the train station, took them to appointments, offered English and naturalization classes, and helped them find housing (a particularly difficult task given the postwar housing shortage and the fact that landlords often chose not to rent to couples with a child). NCJW women also established a special thrift shop which, at the height of the refugee crunch in 1949 and 1950, relieved some of the financial strain on the Pittsburgh Jewish community and provided clothing and household goods to the refugees. Yet, despite the efforts of NCJW women, there was still a distance between them and the newcomers that was keenly felt by the refugee women. NCJW volunteers did not provide the friendship and warmth that many of the survivors of the Holocaust needed. Americans, both men and women, did not understand or appreciate what these “greeners” had been through, and the survivors soon learned, if they had been so inclined, not to talk about their experiences except among themselves. Ethel Landerman, a young social work intern for Montefiore Hospital where the refugees were treated free of charge, remarked: “We had no sense of the Holocaust as we know now, with a capital H. We really didn’t understand what people were telling us. The stories sounded too horrible. We simply did not believe them.” The women survivors associated with one another. They met in the park with their children. If they joined American organizations (which they did do at a greater rate than the men), they tended to join organizations (at least in the Pittsburgh sample) that were dedicated to Israel. This, of course, is not surprising, since so many of the women had wanted to go to Palestine immediately after the war but for a variety of reasons, including pregnancy, could not. Not one woman in Pittsburgh mentioned joining the National Council of Jewish Women, which had provided them with early assistance. Hospitality was extended to the Pittsburgh survivors through the women of the Friendship Club, a group of German Jewish refugees formed in the early 1930s. However, while many postwar refugees appreciated their outreach and went occasionally to Lit. "dedication." The 8-day "Festival of Lights" celebrated beginning on the 25th day of the Hebrew month of Kislev to commemorate the victory of the Jews over the Seleucid army in 164 B.C.E., the re-purification of the Temple and the miraculous eight days the Temple candelabrum remained lit from one cruse of undefiled oil which would have been enough to keep it burning for only one day.Hanukkah parties and the like, many of these Eastern European women were uncomfortable with the older German women. The women survivors who came after the war were driven to re-create a world of family. This was their priority and the task to which they dedicated themselves, but they were on their own, often citing Dr. Spock as their only adviser. They had to maneuver in a culture that offered exciting possibilities and opportunities, which they appreciated, but that also was not beyond criticism. While they applauded the freedom children had in America, for example, they deplored the numbers of “sassy and fresh” kids it produced. In inventing a family and running the household, these women acted as the bridge between the despair and destruction of the past and the hope of the future. They were the ones who communicated to the next generation the sense of possibility to which their children so readily responded. The very fact that women chose to have children was itself an act of faith and courage. These were traditional women, but they were faced with anything but traditional challenges. The fact that they succeeded so well in raising children and making a life for themselves and their husbands can be seen as more than their defiant response to Hitler. It is a testament to the strength of these women and to the human spirit. Research included interviews with fifteen women Holocaust survivors, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, summer 1996. Burstin, Barbara S. After the Holocaust (1989). Davie, Maurice. Refugees in America (1947). Glassman, Helen L. Adjustment in Freedom (1956). Heimreich, William B. Against All Odds (1992). Kirschmann, Doris, and Sylvia Savin. “Refugee Adjustment—Five Years Later.” The Jewish Social Service Quarterly 30, no. 2 (Winter 1953): 197–201. Smith, Lyman Cromwell. Three Hundred Thousand New Americans (1957). How to cite this page Burstin, Barbara. "Holocaust Survivors: Rescue and Resettlement in the United States." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 20 March 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on January 20, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/holocaust-survivors-rescue-and-resettlement-in-united-states>.	2,862	ENGLISH	1
They found many genetic changes that stop when a smoker quits, but found several genes that stay turned on for years, including several not previously linked with tobacco use. "These irreversible changes may account for the persistent lung cancer risk despite smoking cessation," the researchers wrote in their report, published in BioMed Central journal BMC Genomics. In any cell, only about one-fifth of the genes are switched on at any given time. Raj Chari of the British Columbia Cancer Research Centre in Vancouver and colleagues took tissue samples from 20 smokers and former smokers and compared their gene activity to one another and to the genes of four people who had never smoked. They found some DNA repair genes were turned off in smokers and stayed off in the former smokers. Damage to the DNA is one of the main causes of cancer. One gene that was switched on in smokers and former smokers was CABYR, a gene involved in helping sperm to swim. It may also help other types of cells move. For instance, cells in the airways may be helped to move their tail-like cilia to push mucus along. And it has been associated with brain tumors, the researchers said. Another gene that was switched on in smokers but not in people who had never smoked was called ENTPD8. It appears to play a role in damaging DNA. Other genetic changes seen in smokers appeared to reverse themselves a year or more later in the former smokers. Some were involved in helping cells in the airways repair and regenerate. "Fifty percent of newly diagnosed lung cancer patients are former smokers. It is therefore important to understand the effects of tobacco smoking on the (airways) in both active and former smokers," the researchers wrote. The study is published on the Internet at http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcgenomics/.	<urn:uuid:7512823a-d24a-4013-a8eb-13841cdc57ed>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.impactlab.net/2007/09/30/smoking-is-a-turn-on-for-some-genes/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00495.warc.gz	en	0.986295	376	3.4375	3	[ -0.1695559173822403, 0.22130727767944336, 0.036801502108573914, -0.0916643887758255, 0.11639076471328735, 0.18266601860523224, 0.529747486114502, 0.11726205796003342, -0.39168763160705566, 0.1777030974626541, -0.01741912215948105, -0.3372098505496979, -0.02320585772395134, 0.20722694694995...	2	They found many genetic changes that stop when a smoker quits, but found several genes that stay turned on for years, including several not previously linked with tobacco use. "These irreversible changes may account for the persistent lung cancer risk despite smoking cessation," the researchers wrote in their report, published in BioMed Central journal BMC Genomics. In any cell, only about one-fifth of the genes are switched on at any given time. Raj Chari of the British Columbia Cancer Research Centre in Vancouver and colleagues took tissue samples from 20 smokers and former smokers and compared their gene activity to one another and to the genes of four people who had never smoked. They found some DNA repair genes were turned off in smokers and stayed off in the former smokers. Damage to the DNA is one of the main causes of cancer. One gene that was switched on in smokers and former smokers was CABYR, a gene involved in helping sperm to swim. It may also help other types of cells move. For instance, cells in the airways may be helped to move their tail-like cilia to push mucus along. And it has been associated with brain tumors, the researchers said. Another gene that was switched on in smokers but not in people who had never smoked was called ENTPD8. It appears to play a role in damaging DNA. Other genetic changes seen in smokers appeared to reverse themselves a year or more later in the former smokers. Some were involved in helping cells in the airways repair and regenerate. "Fifty percent of newly diagnosed lung cancer patients are former smokers. It is therefore important to understand the effects of tobacco smoking on the (airways) in both active and former smokers," the researchers wrote. The study is published on the Internet at http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcgenomics/.	362	ENGLISH	1
The god of wine and wine-making, passion and fertility, music and dance, Dionysus represented the spontaneous and unrestrained aspects of human experience. Known as Eleutherios (the “liberator”), Dionysus produced euphoric states that freed his followers from both the constraints of society and their own inhibitions. Wherever music inspired dance, wherever wine led to revelry, wherever religion sparked ecstasy, Dionysus was thought to be at work. Though he is often shown with the symbolic grapes or wine, Dionysus’ symbols also include the snake and the phallus. Dionysus was adapted from religious traditions of non-Greek peoples in the greater Mediterranean world. Though he was recognized as a foreigner thanks to his origins, Dionysus, was still widely worshiped within Greek society. Perhaps better than any other deity of the Olympian pantheon, Dionysus and his status indicate the depths of religious syncretism in ancient Greece. He lived on in the Roman world under the name Bacchus, and aspects of him have survived in other Near East religious as well, including Christianity. The name Dionysus, written in Linear B a “di-wo-nu-so,” was first recorded on Mycenaean tablets from the twelfth or thirteenth century BC. There is no consensus as to the exact meaning, but most philologists believe the word is rooted in dio-, the possessive form of the name “Zeus.” The latter part of his name may be derived from Mount Nysa, where the infant Dionysus was thought to have been raised by nymphs known as the Nysiads. When put together, “Dionysus” probably meant something like “the Zeus of Nysa” or “of Zeus and Nysa.”1 Like the Egyptian god Osiris, from whom he took inspiration, Dionysus was twice-born. His first mother was Persephone, the daughter of Demeter and consort of Hades, who lived half her life in the Underworld. His second mother was Semele, princess of Thebes and the daughter of the goddess Harmonia and the mortal Cadmus. Though Dionysus had two different mothers, Zeus was his father in both instances. Dionysus sired children with many women, both mortal and divine. His most productive relationships were with Aphrodite, goddess of sensual love and beauty, and Ariadne, princess of Crete and daughter of the legendary king Minos. Other notable consorts include Circe, the goddess of magic and charm with whom Dionysus had Comus, a minor deity thought to oversee midnight trysts, and Aura, goddess of the breeze and daughter of Lelantos, with whom he had Iacchus, a god of ritual. The Two Births of Dionysus The mythos of Dionysus centers around his two births, though the stories describing those births are written in different traditions and scattered across many centuries. In the broadest telling, the god who would become Dionysus was born to Zeus and Persephone of the Underworld. According to Orphic tradition, Persephone had a child with Zeus, who slipped into the Underworld in the guise of snake.2 Sources referred to this child as Zagreus, and sometimes Liber. Zagreus would not live long, however. During the Titanomachy, the cataclysmic struggle between the Olympians and the Titans for control of the cosmos, Zagreus was slain by the Titans and chopped into pieces. According to Latin writer Gaius Julius Hyginus, after Zeus had claimed victory over the Titans, he reassembled the pieces of his lifeless son. Zeus then put Zagreus’ torn heart into a potion and gave to it Semele, a mortal priestess of his cult with whom he had become infatuated. Semele drank the concoction and became pregnant. When Hera caught wind of the affair, she sought vengeance. She appeared to Semele in the form of an old crone and told the priestess that her lover was secretly the mighty Zeus in disguise. Curious, Semele approached the disguised Zeus and asked him to grant her a wish. Ignorant of Semele’s suspicions, Zeus agreed to grant any wish that was in his power to fulfill, and she asked him to approach her in his true form. Reluctantly, Zeus agreed and Semele immediately perished, for death fell upon any mortal who saw a god or goddess in their true form. Zeus rescued the child from Semele’s womb and sewed it in his thigh. As Nonnus writes in the Dionysiaca (an epic poem dedicated to mythos of Dionysus): Zeus the Father received Dionysos after he had broken out of his mother’s fiery lap and leapt through the delivering thunders half-formed; he sewed him in his manly thigh, while he waited upon the light of the moon which was to bring him to birth. Then the hand of Cronides guiding the birth was his own midwife to the sewn-up child, by cutting the labouring threads in his pregnant thigh. So the rounded thigh in labour became female, and the boy too soon born was brought forth, but not in a mother’s way, having passed from a mother’s womb to a father’s. No sooner had he peeped out by this divine delivery, than the childbed Seasons crowned him with an ivy-garland in presage of things to come; they wreathed the horned head of a bullshaped Dionysos with twining horned snakes under the flowers.3 Thus, Dionysus came into the world. Hera despised the child, however, and refused to allow him to live in Olympus. Zeus took action, and entrusted the infant Dionysus to the nymphs and satyrs of Mt. Nysa, a remote mountain beyond the lands of the Hellenes. He also appointed the wizened elder Silenus to tutor the young man. Dionysus’ upbringing in a distance land, his absence from Mt. Olympus, and his status as the only major deity to have a mortal mother all made him a foreigner in the eyes of the gods. Dionysus, the Frenzied God of Wine It was on Mt. Olympus that Dionysius first mastered the cultivation of grapevines and the making of wine. Hera rewarded him by striking him with madness and leaving him to wander the mortal world. During his travels, he went to Phrygia and spread wine cultivation to all he encountered. Unsurprisingly, wine and drunkenness figure prominently in the mythos of Dionysus. In one famous story, Dionysus’ mentor Silenus became inebriated and wandered off, only to find himself in the garden of the great King Midas. The king welcomed Silenus to his court, where he was wined and dined for days. When Midas at last returned Silenus, Dionysus offered him anything his heart desired as a reward. Midas wished that anything he touched would turn to gold; thus, the king acquired his famous Midas touch at the graces of Dionysus. When all else failed, Dionysus used wine to persuade the unwilling, as he did with Hephaestus. Shortly after Hephaestus’ birth, the blacksmith had been expelled from Mt. Olympus by his own mother, Hera, who was repulsed by his malformed foot (in other versions, his malformed foot was caused by his being hurled from Mt. Olympus). Seeking revenge, Hephaestus devised a trap for his mother: a chair with a hidden mechanism that ensnared Hera when she sat in it. Anxious to free her and restore order among the Olympian deities, the gods sent Dionysus to fetch Hephaestus. When Dionysus found the outcast, they drank wine and made merry. When Hephaestus was good and drunk, Dionysus carried him back to Mt. Olympus on the back of a mule. Dionysus won his love, Ariadne of Crete, with the help of wine and an intrepid spirit. One day, Dionysus was walking along the shore when he was abducted by pirates, who believed him to be a prince. Biding his time, Dionysus allowed the ship to set sail, only to transform the masts of the vessel into crawling grapevines that dripped with sweet wine, intoxicating the crew. He then transformed himself into a lion and devoured the entire crew save the helmsman, who steered Dionysus to the island of Naxos. There he discovered Ariadne, who had been taken to the island by her abductor, the mortal hero Theseus, after he had slain the Minotaur. Dionysus fell in love with Ariadne immediately and soon married her. When she died, he set her crown into the heavens, creating the Corona constellation in her memory. Dionysus and Popular Religion The mythology of Dionysus was formed not only through static myths and stories, but also via the lived religious experiences of his many worshipers in the Greek world and beyond. To worship Dionysus was to experience Dionysus. Dionysus was one of the most popular of Greek deities, and his cult was observed through a variety of festivals. Among them were the Eleusinian Mysteries, the rituals of decay and renewal held in honor of Persephone and Demeter, and the Dionysia—a festival featuring dramatic performances where participants would indulge in bread and wine and carry wooden phalluses. Where the cult of the wine god truly thrived, however, was in festivals known as the Bacchic or Dionysian Mysteries (Bacchanalia, in the Roman world). Fueled by wine, music, and dance, the Dionysian Mysteries brought worshipers together in frenzied, orgiastic celebrations that freed them from social inhibitions. Many revelers wore masks to disguise themselves, and it was said that Dionysus himself would often appear among the throngs. Through a combination of heavy intoxication and the throes of religious ecstasy, worshipers would feel the true nature of Dionysus. Dionysus makes regular appearances throughout pop culture, often alongside the rest of the Olympic pantheon. He has appeared in countless retellings and reimaginings, from Disney’s Hercules to the Hercules and Xena: Warrior Princess television series to Rick Riordan’s Percy Jackson & The Olympians books and films. Dionysus is almost always depicted as a wine-besotted pleasure seeker. Wine is heavily associated with Dionysus, and the god has lent his name to myriad wineries from Greece to Napa Valley. Nonnus. Dionysiaca. Translated by W. H. D. Rouse. Theoi Classical Texts Library. https://www.theoi.com/Text/NonnusDionysiaca9.html. Wikipedia contributors. “Dionysus.” Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus. See the Wikipedia entry for “Dionysus.” ↩ Orphism was a mystical religion based on poems attributed to Orpheus, which emphasized purification and renewal through ritual. ↩ Nonnus, Dionysiaca, 9.1–15. ↩	<urn:uuid:fb5e6730-5cd1-4bc5-be61-cc10e7bd7a33>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mythopedia.com/greek-mythology/gods/dionysus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00103.warc.gz	en	0.980504	2,430	3.28125	3	[ 0.4835783839225769, 0.2964959442615509, 0.23537577688694, -0.027976060286164284, -0.5476114749908447, -0.3770177960395813, 0.132352814078331, 0.04639700800180435, 0.2253676801919937, -0.10187514871358871, -0.4229910969734192, -0.292991042137146, -0.0974792018532753, -0.03963576257228851, ...	4	The god of wine and wine-making, passion and fertility, music and dance, Dionysus represented the spontaneous and unrestrained aspects of human experience. Known as Eleutherios (the “liberator”), Dionysus produced euphoric states that freed his followers from both the constraints of society and their own inhibitions. Wherever music inspired dance, wherever wine led to revelry, wherever religion sparked ecstasy, Dionysus was thought to be at work. Though he is often shown with the symbolic grapes or wine, Dionysus’ symbols also include the snake and the phallus. Dionysus was adapted from religious traditions of non-Greek peoples in the greater Mediterranean world. Though he was recognized as a foreigner thanks to his origins, Dionysus, was still widely worshiped within Greek society. Perhaps better than any other deity of the Olympian pantheon, Dionysus and his status indicate the depths of religious syncretism in ancient Greece. He lived on in the Roman world under the name Bacchus, and aspects of him have survived in other Near East religious as well, including Christianity. The name Dionysus, written in Linear B a “di-wo-nu-so,” was first recorded on Mycenaean tablets from the twelfth or thirteenth century BC. There is no consensus as to the exact meaning, but most philologists believe the word is rooted in dio-, the possessive form of the name “Zeus.” The latter part of his name may be derived from Mount Nysa, where the infant Dionysus was thought to have been raised by nymphs known as the Nysiads. When put together, “Dionysus” probably meant something like “the Zeus of Nysa” or “of Zeus and Nysa.”1 Like the Egyptian god Osiris, from whom he took inspiration, Dionysus was twice-born. His first mother was Persephone, the daughter of Demeter and consort of Hades, who lived half her life in the Underworld. His second mother was Semele, princess of Thebes and the daughter of the goddess Harmonia and the mortal Cadmus. Though Dionysus had two different mothers, Zeus was his father in both instances. Dionysus sired children with many women, both mortal and divine. His most productive relationships were with Aphrodite, goddess of sensual love and beauty, and Ariadne, princess of Crete and daughter of the legendary king Minos. Other notable consorts include Circe, the goddess of magic and charm with whom Dionysus had Comus, a minor deity thought to oversee midnight trysts, and Aura, goddess of the breeze and daughter of Lelantos, with whom he had Iacchus, a god of ritual. The Two Births of Dionysus The mythos of Dionysus centers around his two births, though the stories describing those births are written in different traditions and scattered across many centuries. In the broadest telling, the god who would become Dionysus was born to Zeus and Persephone of the Underworld. According to Orphic tradition, Persephone had a child with Zeus, who slipped into the Underworld in the guise of snake.2 Sources referred to this child as Zagreus, and sometimes Liber. Zagreus would not live long, however. During the Titanomachy, the cataclysmic struggle between the Olympians and the Titans for control of the cosmos, Zagreus was slain by the Titans and chopped into pieces. According to Latin writer Gaius Julius Hyginus, after Zeus had claimed victory over the Titans, he reassembled the pieces of his lifeless son. Zeus then put Zagreus’ torn heart into a potion and gave to it Semele, a mortal priestess of his cult with whom he had become infatuated. Semele drank the concoction and became pregnant. When Hera caught wind of the affair, she sought vengeance. She appeared to Semele in the form of an old crone and told the priestess that her lover was secretly the mighty Zeus in disguise. Curious, Semele approached the disguised Zeus and asked him to grant her a wish. Ignorant of Semele’s suspicions, Zeus agreed to grant any wish that was in his power to fulfill, and she asked him to approach her in his true form. Reluctantly, Zeus agreed and Semele immediately perished, for death fell upon any mortal who saw a god or goddess in their true form. Zeus rescued the child from Semele’s womb and sewed it in his thigh. As Nonnus writes in the Dionysiaca (an epic poem dedicated to mythos of Dionysus): Zeus the Father received Dionysos after he had broken out of his mother’s fiery lap and leapt through the delivering thunders half-formed; he sewed him in his manly thigh, while he waited upon the light of the moon which was to bring him to birth. Then the hand of Cronides guiding the birth was his own midwife to the sewn-up child, by cutting the labouring threads in his pregnant thigh. So the rounded thigh in labour became female, and the boy too soon born was brought forth, but not in a mother’s way, having passed from a mother’s womb to a father’s. No sooner had he peeped out by this divine delivery, than the childbed Seasons crowned him with an ivy-garland in presage of things to come; they wreathed the horned head of a bullshaped Dionysos with twining horned snakes under the flowers.3 Thus, Dionysus came into the world. Hera despised the child, however, and refused to allow him to live in Olympus. Zeus took action, and entrusted the infant Dionysus to the nymphs and satyrs of Mt. Nysa, a remote mountain beyond the lands of the Hellenes. He also appointed the wizened elder Silenus to tutor the young man. Dionysus’ upbringing in a distance land, his absence from Mt. Olympus, and his status as the only major deity to have a mortal mother all made him a foreigner in the eyes of the gods. Dionysus, the Frenzied God of Wine It was on Mt. Olympus that Dionysius first mastered the cultivation of grapevines and the making of wine. Hera rewarded him by striking him with madness and leaving him to wander the mortal world. During his travels, he went to Phrygia and spread wine cultivation to all he encountered. Unsurprisingly, wine and drunkenness figure prominently in the mythos of Dionysus. In one famous story, Dionysus’ mentor Silenus became inebriated and wandered off, only to find himself in the garden of the great King Midas. The king welcomed Silenus to his court, where he was wined and dined for days. When Midas at last returned Silenus, Dionysus offered him anything his heart desired as a reward. Midas wished that anything he touched would turn to gold; thus, the king acquired his famous Midas touch at the graces of Dionysus. When all else failed, Dionysus used wine to persuade the unwilling, as he did with Hephaestus. Shortly after Hephaestus’ birth, the blacksmith had been expelled from Mt. Olympus by his own mother, Hera, who was repulsed by his malformed foot (in other versions, his malformed foot was caused by his being hurled from Mt. Olympus). Seeking revenge, Hephaestus devised a trap for his mother: a chair with a hidden mechanism that ensnared Hera when she sat in it. Anxious to free her and restore order among the Olympian deities, the gods sent Dionysus to fetch Hephaestus. When Dionysus found the outcast, they drank wine and made merry. When Hephaestus was good and drunk, Dionysus carried him back to Mt. Olympus on the back of a mule. Dionysus won his love, Ariadne of Crete, with the help of wine and an intrepid spirit. One day, Dionysus was walking along the shore when he was abducted by pirates, who believed him to be a prince. Biding his time, Dionysus allowed the ship to set sail, only to transform the masts of the vessel into crawling grapevines that dripped with sweet wine, intoxicating the crew. He then transformed himself into a lion and devoured the entire crew save the helmsman, who steered Dionysus to the island of Naxos. There he discovered Ariadne, who had been taken to the island by her abductor, the mortal hero Theseus, after he had slain the Minotaur. Dionysus fell in love with Ariadne immediately and soon married her. When she died, he set her crown into the heavens, creating the Corona constellation in her memory. Dionysus and Popular Religion The mythology of Dionysus was formed not only through static myths and stories, but also via the lived religious experiences of his many worshipers in the Greek world and beyond. To worship Dionysus was to experience Dionysus. Dionysus was one of the most popular of Greek deities, and his cult was observed through a variety of festivals. Among them were the Eleusinian Mysteries, the rituals of decay and renewal held in honor of Persephone and Demeter, and the Dionysia—a festival featuring dramatic performances where participants would indulge in bread and wine and carry wooden phalluses. Where the cult of the wine god truly thrived, however, was in festivals known as the Bacchic or Dionysian Mysteries (Bacchanalia, in the Roman world). Fueled by wine, music, and dance, the Dionysian Mysteries brought worshipers together in frenzied, orgiastic celebrations that freed them from social inhibitions. Many revelers wore masks to disguise themselves, and it was said that Dionysus himself would often appear among the throngs. Through a combination of heavy intoxication and the throes of religious ecstasy, worshipers would feel the true nature of Dionysus. Dionysus makes regular appearances throughout pop culture, often alongside the rest of the Olympic pantheon. He has appeared in countless retellings and reimaginings, from Disney’s Hercules to the Hercules and Xena: Warrior Princess television series to Rick Riordan’s Percy Jackson & The Olympians books and films. Dionysus is almost always depicted as a wine-besotted pleasure seeker. Wine is heavily associated with Dionysus, and the god has lent his name to myriad wineries from Greece to Napa Valley. Nonnus. Dionysiaca. Translated by W. H. D. Rouse. Theoi Classical Texts Library. https://www.theoi.com/Text/NonnusDionysiaca9.html. Wikipedia contributors. “Dionysus.” Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus. See the Wikipedia entry for “Dionysus.” ↩ Orphism was a mystical religion based on poems attributed to Orpheus, which emphasized purification and renewal through ritual. ↩ Nonnus, Dionysiaca, 9.1–15. ↩	2,378	ENGLISH	1
The oldest shipwreck to happen in America’s Great Lakes may be identified after a long search. Everyone knows that sailors of old took their lives in their hands when they set out over the oceans, but it’s not just the oceans that are hazardous. Ships out on the Great Lakes also faced a great deal of danger at the hands of the water, and the lakes have enough shipwrecks littering their bottoms to prove the point. One of those destroyed ships is the Lake Serpent. The ship was a 47-foot schooner, and it was making a trip from Cleveland to the Lake Erie Islands in 1829, to get a load of limestone. The ship arrived at its destination, loaded up, and started its return voyage, but it never arrived. Eventually the bodies of the ship’s captain and his brother washed ashore in a county just west of Cleveland. What exactly happened to the Lake Serpent and where it went down remained uncertain until recently, according to Smithsonian.com. The National Museum of the Great Lakes in Toledo released a statement saying that the wreckage of the Serpent, which is thought to be the oldest shipwreck in the Great Lakes, may have been located. Chris Gilchrist, the museum’s director, and a team of divers and archaeologists who specialize in underwater work are behind the find. They’ve been exploring and studying the wrecks they can find, and using the information they gain to help learn more about transport and travel in the region, and, by extension, in the US as a whole, since the lakes represented a major route for travel between the eastern states and the Midwest. When Gilchrist started at the museum, which was then called the Inland Seas Maritime Museum, he observed that it had many artifacts from shipwrecks, but there was no real effort being made to display them to the public. He noted that the museum’s board was full of upper level executives from shipping companies, and they didn’t want people to think too hard about the idea of sunken ships. He eventually changed their minds, convincing them that lake travel, including the unpleasant reality of wrecks, was an integral part of history and should be addressed accordingly. His point was supported by the public interest in such things that stemmed from the popularity of the movie Titanic. Within just a few years, the museum had hired Carrie Sowden to be their archaeological director, and had also partnered with a diving club that explores Lake Erie. Since beginning their partnership, the team has found around 12 wrecks in Lake Erie, and more in Lake Ontario. Each of those wrecks says something about the particular time in history when they occurred. The diving team, the Cleveland Underwater Explorers (CLUE), includes a number of engineers among its members. Those engineers help the group refine its research, choosing its targets and figuring out where they most likely are hidden under the surface of the lakes. Ideally, they search a 25-mile radius, which is still a daunting task when you consider that it takes them about an hour to search one square mile using side-scan sonar. That’s the method that the team was using when they found something small off the coast of Kelley’s Island, The current name for the island the Lake Serpent was leaving when it disappeared. That was in 2015, but the blip seemed too small to be a shipwreck, so they let it go. It wasn’t until a year later that a dive in the area proved it was a ship, and that part of it was buried under sediment on the bottom of the lake. The ship was wooden, and small, which told the team that it was probably old. They originally thought it might be the remains of a different ship, the Lexington, which sank in the 1840s. After a couple of exploratory dives and some research on land, they finally concluded it was most likely the Lake Serpent, since they found records that the Serpent had the carving of a snake on its bow, and the wreck they found likewise had carving on the bow. Other records indicated that the serpent was carrying a load of stone when it went down, and the dive teams found large pieces of rock in the ships hold. The fact that the rock was cut roughly reinforced the notion that the vessel was the Serpent, since any stone that had been harvested after the Serpent sank would have been cut more smoothly that the boulders that they found. Sowden says that there is currently about a 75% certainty that the vessel they found is the missing Lake Serpent, and that more research will have to be done before they can give an absolute answer. The Vessel is just one of the wrecks that the team has found this year. The weather on the Great Lakes can be quite hazardous, hence the shipwreck, and the Great Lakes have a higher chance of shipwreck per square mile than any other bodies of water. Lake Erie, alone, has some 2,000 wrecks on the bottom of the lake. The lake is shallower than the other Great Lakes, which makes it easier to find wreckage, but also means that any ships they find there are in worse condition than those found in deeper water. Because of the laws in Ohio, the museum won’t be able to display anything they find in the wreckage if the ship is proven to be the Lake Serpent, so instead, they will hold a series of lectures at various institutions in the region which have helped fund the project.	<urn:uuid:e5bfff7d-5f88-4258-bfaf-3d9d7a42c146>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thevintagenews.com/2020/01/07/great-lakes-shipwreck/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00546.warc.gz	en	0.982673	1,129	3.453125	3	[ -0.11552060395479202, 0.03154224157333374, -0.0032663713209331036, -0.31578129529953003, 0.35977452993392944, -0.2661342918872833, 0.17579840123653412, -0.15642262995243073, -0.5946673154830933, -0.10769733786582947, 0.2001560926437378, 0.2582327127456665, -0.2597021758556366, 0.6027884483...	9	The oldest shipwreck to happen in America’s Great Lakes may be identified after a long search. Everyone knows that sailors of old took their lives in their hands when they set out over the oceans, but it’s not just the oceans that are hazardous. Ships out on the Great Lakes also faced a great deal of danger at the hands of the water, and the lakes have enough shipwrecks littering their bottoms to prove the point. One of those destroyed ships is the Lake Serpent. The ship was a 47-foot schooner, and it was making a trip from Cleveland to the Lake Erie Islands in 1829, to get a load of limestone. The ship arrived at its destination, loaded up, and started its return voyage, but it never arrived. Eventually the bodies of the ship’s captain and his brother washed ashore in a county just west of Cleveland. What exactly happened to the Lake Serpent and where it went down remained uncertain until recently, according to Smithsonian.com. The National Museum of the Great Lakes in Toledo released a statement saying that the wreckage of the Serpent, which is thought to be the oldest shipwreck in the Great Lakes, may have been located. Chris Gilchrist, the museum’s director, and a team of divers and archaeologists who specialize in underwater work are behind the find. They’ve been exploring and studying the wrecks they can find, and using the information they gain to help learn more about transport and travel in the region, and, by extension, in the US as a whole, since the lakes represented a major route for travel between the eastern states and the Midwest. When Gilchrist started at the museum, which was then called the Inland Seas Maritime Museum, he observed that it had many artifacts from shipwrecks, but there was no real effort being made to display them to the public. He noted that the museum’s board was full of upper level executives from shipping companies, and they didn’t want people to think too hard about the idea of sunken ships. He eventually changed their minds, convincing them that lake travel, including the unpleasant reality of wrecks, was an integral part of history and should be addressed accordingly. His point was supported by the public interest in such things that stemmed from the popularity of the movie Titanic. Within just a few years, the museum had hired Carrie Sowden to be their archaeological director, and had also partnered with a diving club that explores Lake Erie. Since beginning their partnership, the team has found around 12 wrecks in Lake Erie, and more in Lake Ontario. Each of those wrecks says something about the particular time in history when they occurred. The diving team, the Cleveland Underwater Explorers (CLUE), includes a number of engineers among its members. Those engineers help the group refine its research, choosing its targets and figuring out where they most likely are hidden under the surface of the lakes. Ideally, they search a 25-mile radius, which is still a daunting task when you consider that it takes them about an hour to search one square mile using side-scan sonar. That’s the method that the team was using when they found something small off the coast of Kelley’s Island, The current name for the island the Lake Serpent was leaving when it disappeared. That was in 2015, but the blip seemed too small to be a shipwreck, so they let it go. It wasn’t until a year later that a dive in the area proved it was a ship, and that part of it was buried under sediment on the bottom of the lake. The ship was wooden, and small, which told the team that it was probably old. They originally thought it might be the remains of a different ship, the Lexington, which sank in the 1840s. After a couple of exploratory dives and some research on land, they finally concluded it was most likely the Lake Serpent, since they found records that the Serpent had the carving of a snake on its bow, and the wreck they found likewise had carving on the bow. Other records indicated that the serpent was carrying a load of stone when it went down, and the dive teams found large pieces of rock in the ships hold. The fact that the rock was cut roughly reinforced the notion that the vessel was the Serpent, since any stone that had been harvested after the Serpent sank would have been cut more smoothly that the boulders that they found. Sowden says that there is currently about a 75% certainty that the vessel they found is the missing Lake Serpent, and that more research will have to be done before they can give an absolute answer. The Vessel is just one of the wrecks that the team has found this year. The weather on the Great Lakes can be quite hazardous, hence the shipwreck, and the Great Lakes have a higher chance of shipwreck per square mile than any other bodies of water. Lake Erie, alone, has some 2,000 wrecks on the bottom of the lake. The lake is shallower than the other Great Lakes, which makes it easier to find wreckage, but also means that any ships they find there are in worse condition than those found in deeper water. Because of the laws in Ohio, the museum won’t be able to display anything they find in the wreckage if the ship is proven to be the Lake Serpent, so instead, they will hold a series of lectures at various institutions in the region which have helped fund the project.	1,130	ENGLISH	1
"Exocomet" is probably a new word to you. We know exoplanets as planets that revolve around stars outside our solar system. Exocomets are comets that revolve around stars outside our solar system. Astronomers assumed that they were out there somewhere, but only recently have we seen evidence of them. And like exoplanets, they are too far away to see, but we have evidence that comes from those far away stars themselves. One exocomet was detected around a star 815 light-years away, and another at 850 light-years away. So we at least have evidence that they were at those stars over 800 years ago. But how do we know they are comets? The alien comets were found in data taken by the Kepler telescope, which spent several years staring at 150,000 stars in one spot in the sky. It was looking for exoplanet transits, a teeny dip in a star's light if an orbiting planet happened to pass directly between us and it. That only happens if the planet's orbit is almost exactly edge-on as seen from Earth, which is why it looked at so many stars. The more you look at, the more likely the geometry will work out. Transits are detected by measuring the amount of light from a star, and when that light dips, it usually means a planet is transiting. But graphs of those transits show that light dips and then increases in a regular pattern. Some graphs showed an asymmetrical dip, which would have been caused by a comet's tail. When this team of astronomers looked at the star KIC 3542116, though, they spotted decidedly asymmetric dips. Six of them, in fact! Three were about the same depth (about 0.1% of the star's light blocked), and another set of three a bit shallower (0.05% blocked). As soon as they saw the fang-shaped profile, they knew they had something special. Still, first they made sure their data weren’t contaminated by the legion of issues that can mess of the observations: starspots (sunspots, but on another star), known stellar variability, camera detector issues, and more. Once they eliminated all the known potential problems, they were left with one conclusion*: exocomets.	<urn:uuid:b4f8f45c-0b19-486b-821f-1c60c4df98a9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.neatorama.com/2018/03/20/Alien-Comets-Evidence-of-Exocomets/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00176.warc.gz	en	0.983962	477	3.75	4	[ -0.24949291348457336, -0.08107637614011765, 0.21423983573913574, -0.12336450815200806, 0.135409414768219, 0.009203329682350159, 0.27471062541007996, 0.47316062450408936, 0.045516934245824814, 0.4175965487957001, 0.3506787419319153, -0.2702280580997467, -0.15940403938293457, 0.0737884417176...	2	"Exocomet" is probably a new word to you. We know exoplanets as planets that revolve around stars outside our solar system. Exocomets are comets that revolve around stars outside our solar system. Astronomers assumed that they were out there somewhere, but only recently have we seen evidence of them. And like exoplanets, they are too far away to see, but we have evidence that comes from those far away stars themselves. One exocomet was detected around a star 815 light-years away, and another at 850 light-years away. So we at least have evidence that they were at those stars over 800 years ago. But how do we know they are comets? The alien comets were found in data taken by the Kepler telescope, which spent several years staring at 150,000 stars in one spot in the sky. It was looking for exoplanet transits, a teeny dip in a star's light if an orbiting planet happened to pass directly between us and it. That only happens if the planet's orbit is almost exactly edge-on as seen from Earth, which is why it looked at so many stars. The more you look at, the more likely the geometry will work out. Transits are detected by measuring the amount of light from a star, and when that light dips, it usually means a planet is transiting. But graphs of those transits show that light dips and then increases in a regular pattern. Some graphs showed an asymmetrical dip, which would have been caused by a comet's tail. When this team of astronomers looked at the star KIC 3542116, though, they spotted decidedly asymmetric dips. Six of them, in fact! Three were about the same depth (about 0.1% of the star's light blocked), and another set of three a bit shallower (0.05% blocked). As soon as they saw the fang-shaped profile, they knew they had something special. Still, first they made sure their data weren’t contaminated by the legion of issues that can mess of the observations: starspots (sunspots, but on another star), known stellar variability, camera detector issues, and more. Once they eliminated all the known potential problems, they were left with one conclusion*: exocomets.	486	ENGLISH	1
Once Columbus found the “New World” it was the end of the Native American World (including the Americas) as they knew it. They were generally described as simple and docile people who accepted the Europeans as friends. This was one of the major contributing factors to their demise. It is safe to safe to say that the European invasion had a widely negative impact on indigenous people. Indigenous people were enslaved for work in the gold mines, then on the plantations. In addition, because prior to the Europeans, they were isolated and had not been exposed to the diseases that plagued that population. As a result, they were susceptible to, suffered and frequently died from: smallpox, cholera, measles and influenza. Other ways in which lives were lost was through: overwork, violent circumstances due to resistance to enslavement, and suicide. Though the exact number of the inhabitants of the islands prior to Columbus is unknown, it has been suggested that several hundred thousand inhabited the Greater Antilles alone. Of note is that the genocide of the Tainos and Arawaks of the Greater Antilles occurred within half a century of Spanish occupation. Enslavement meant that indigenous people were not able to work for themselves. Being that they were subsistent farmers, their source of food became scarce. This interruption of their way of living meant that family and village structures were broken up. The native women were raped and stolen, causing fighting in which many of the indigenous people were killed. Their simple weaponry in the face of European superior weaponry was incomparable. Their belief systems were also torn from them as they were forced to accept the European beliefs, especially since a reason touted for this invasion was the capture of souls for the Kingdom of God. Their culture was suppressed, as the European way of life was imposed on them. Since the agricultural base of the indigenous society was destroyed (re their subsistent farming) they could no longer sustain themselves and had to depend on the Europeans for food. This syndrome of dependency and eventual underdevelopment of the present day Caribbean are consequences of the European invasion.	<urn:uuid:01294b49-10c6-48a5-a349-04824ad27bae>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://skoolers.com/2015/08/impact-of-europeans-on-indigenous-people/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00060.warc.gz	en	0.992197	424	4.0625	4	[ -0.1488952487707138, 0.08314574509859085, 0.29874786734580994, 0.03909183293581009, 0.21115435659885406, -0.4418383240699768, 0.13822877407073975, 0.2425893098115921, -0.1108035296201706, 0.0006496222922578454, 0.256016343832016, -0.2908516228199005, -0.33780425786972046, 0.160910353064537...	7	Once Columbus found the “New World” it was the end of the Native American World (including the Americas) as they knew it. They were generally described as simple and docile people who accepted the Europeans as friends. This was one of the major contributing factors to their demise. It is safe to safe to say that the European invasion had a widely negative impact on indigenous people. Indigenous people were enslaved for work in the gold mines, then on the plantations. In addition, because prior to the Europeans, they were isolated and had not been exposed to the diseases that plagued that population. As a result, they were susceptible to, suffered and frequently died from: smallpox, cholera, measles and influenza. Other ways in which lives were lost was through: overwork, violent circumstances due to resistance to enslavement, and suicide. Though the exact number of the inhabitants of the islands prior to Columbus is unknown, it has been suggested that several hundred thousand inhabited the Greater Antilles alone. Of note is that the genocide of the Tainos and Arawaks of the Greater Antilles occurred within half a century of Spanish occupation. Enslavement meant that indigenous people were not able to work for themselves. Being that they were subsistent farmers, their source of food became scarce. This interruption of their way of living meant that family and village structures were broken up. The native women were raped and stolen, causing fighting in which many of the indigenous people were killed. Their simple weaponry in the face of European superior weaponry was incomparable. Their belief systems were also torn from them as they were forced to accept the European beliefs, especially since a reason touted for this invasion was the capture of souls for the Kingdom of God. Their culture was suppressed, as the European way of life was imposed on them. Since the agricultural base of the indigenous society was destroyed (re their subsistent farming) they could no longer sustain themselves and had to depend on the Europeans for food. This syndrome of dependency and eventual underdevelopment of the present day Caribbean are consequences of the European invasion.	419	ENGLISH	1
This is a book review on 1776 by David McCullough. This author’s main thesis is the undying spirit of Washington and his followers that caused them not to falter in temporary defeats but although these may have created some doubts and caused some Americans to lose their loyalties, an inspired leader that is with supported by willing follower could do a lot to choose the battle for which they could attain small victories that would keep them to sustain the war and eventually gain their independence when the treaty of Paris was signed in 1783. The book envelops a series of events that would start from the declaration of war against the American colonies by Britain’s King George the III in 1775 and which would end to the great American victory at Battle of Trenton in 1776. The title therefore paints an important part of American history where it has the person of great general by the name George Washington, who latter become the American President. The name of Washington is forever etched in the hearts of freedom loving Americans that he was able to lead an army of Americans from various backgrounds and ages and with the colorful fact that most of these his followers were inexperienced and had had no training. The book included the names of Henry Knox, a bookseller at the age of thirty five and Nathaniel Green, who was a quaker at an age even younger than Knox, at twenty five who were both inexperienced generals to join and form the army of then General Washington as their commander-in-chief. Such situation of Americans then in 1775 was very much in contrast to the British Redcoats who were well equipped and experienced as they were being commanded by general William Howe. The period from 1775, when the announcement of war was made by the King George of England, started with the battle of Bunker Hill , where one could find the Americans suffering a defeat by the British, although there were thousands of British casualties. The Americans recuperate and attempts an attack on a strategic place called Boston where the British found themselves unprepared by the attack causing the latter’ surrender and retreat back to England on their ships. What could have explained the emotions that the Americans felt with said victory? Their spirits could not be higher at this point when after a defeat they could breath and wider space to make their advancement more strategic. Washington’s name at that point could only have greatest of honors. . As the books was not made to chronicle a straight victory but intermittent ones, it was found indeed that victory in Boston would not last long since the British was able to counter with an even larger army after returning from England. The British this time had with them a great number of navies that would surprise the Americans with their eyes wide open on where the troops came from. As a result, the Americans had retreat, to New York and thereby losing Boston very easily. Again nobody could have been more proud as the British who were very confident about themselves, as they saw the Americans as never a threat to them and the said British people at that time were expecting to defeat the Americans by a landslide. With battles continuing, the Americans being forced to retreat all the way down to New Jersey, after giving up precious territories along the way, their leadership was to find that their army had full of traitors who restored their loyalties to the British to the King of Great Britain, thus these people were branded “loyalists”. Thus, given these factors including inexperienced men of American army, it was not surprising to have the Americans suffer defeats and retreats in the hands of General Washington. There were most crucial factors that could have led to the defeats and one of them was the fact that the British controlled the seas with a navy of powerful ships. It was for this reason that Washington suffered from losses at many places including Brooklyn, New Jersey and Fort Washington. It was not surprising to see this in the light of the strength of the British navy given the fact that the British has outnumbered the Americans in which almost double in terms of number of soldiers. Although causing Washington’s biggest nightmare, temporary defeats did not last long as Washington was able to keep his army together even though he doubted himself during several occasions. Thus turning point came with Washington having commanded his army to cross the Delaware River and afterwards begin the Battle of Trenton. This was therefore the first battle that gave the Americans a great hope for the cause of the war after the British evacuation of Boston in 1775. Washington called the “Brilliant Strike” as it was a surprising attack on the British who were defeated at Trenton and his caused Washington to become a legendary figure. It was in this battle that he led the defeat of the British and would further push them back out of Trenton. And so that continued for another six and a half years until the Paris peace treaty was signed in 1783, when e America finally achieved their de jure independence. Comment and assessment of author’s main point I agree with the author’s main point about the almost unrivalled power of the British forces since they are the colonizers compared to the Americans. It could only be by strong belief in what they can do may the revolution led by George Washington to win the Revolutionary war against the British forces. With the first defeat of the Americans against the American forces, one could only see how powerful they are in conquering the physical prowess and spirit of the Americans but the latter also displayed a rather insurmountable spirit as shown by the successful attack in Boston where the British was in fact caught by surprise. For the British to surrender and retreat back to England on their ships must be a sign of advancing American who are ready to give up everything in the name of freedom and democracy. The story saw a big reality of war as in games where victory could come and go. What caused the American to lose their temporary victory and would push them to retreat are attributable to two factors the presence of traitors and their being outnumbered. One could wonder how some would lose their loyalties. Does it mean that some were not convinced to go to war against the British forces? War is a great psychological game and does not only need mental power but also strength of the spirit. When on loses some part, the leadership is set up and it creates great doubts in the minds of the soldiers but every small victory is a psychological advantage. As in any other game there are turning points when after certain losses a time of victory will have to come as long as the fighting spirit was there. The Americans led by Washington must be very strategic in Washington’s order to his soldiers to cross Delaware River and after wards could begin the Battle of Trenton. For a general to be able to choose his battle so that some victory could be attained must be a wise decision. America is proud to have gained its independence since it fought for it. It had all the reasons to celebrate its independence since its people under Washington did not waiver with small defeats. They persevered until they gained their independence Final assessment on the strengths and weaknesses of the assessment I would like to believe that my assessment of the author’s main point is strong as far as the truth of the author’s assertions are concerned since the presentation of the author could corroborated with other evidence. The strength of my assessment lies therefore on the fact that it could be corroborated by other references. Using the rules of evidence, corroborating evidence would do much to strengthen the weight of evidence; hence the credibility of the story could confirm the credibility of the author. Its weakness may lie in whether all the other authors that I might read on American history of the war could have copied from one another. I mean it could be only be coincidental. The fact that at least two authors are talking of circumstance which corroborates each other is a proof of a good work and therefore a credible author. It may be concluded that independence has a price to pay and to be proud about it one may need to go to war no matter how difficult it may be as what the American did in finally defeating their enemies. What could have been more glorious?	<urn:uuid:a05c925d-ec2e-4026-b0c9-f87fceb5e0a1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://webgamesday.com/book-review-on-book-1776-by-david-mccullough/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00005.warc.gz	en	0.98774	1,651	3.453125	3	[ -0.07732447981834412, 0.42998653650283813, 0.21336737275123596, 0.24158647656440735, -0.5778371691703796, 0.2522583305835724, -0.13660910725593567, 0.06789655238389969, -0.21403104066848755, 0.19844838976860046, 0.0540163591504097, 0.2930198609828949, 0.12648767232894897, 0.268991768360137...	5	This is a book review on 1776 by David McCullough. This author’s main thesis is the undying spirit of Washington and his followers that caused them not to falter in temporary defeats but although these may have created some doubts and caused some Americans to lose their loyalties, an inspired leader that is with supported by willing follower could do a lot to choose the battle for which they could attain small victories that would keep them to sustain the war and eventually gain their independence when the treaty of Paris was signed in 1783. The book envelops a series of events that would start from the declaration of war against the American colonies by Britain’s King George the III in 1775 and which would end to the great American victory at Battle of Trenton in 1776. The title therefore paints an important part of American history where it has the person of great general by the name George Washington, who latter become the American President. The name of Washington is forever etched in the hearts of freedom loving Americans that he was able to lead an army of Americans from various backgrounds and ages and with the colorful fact that most of these his followers were inexperienced and had had no training. The book included the names of Henry Knox, a bookseller at the age of thirty five and Nathaniel Green, who was a quaker at an age even younger than Knox, at twenty five who were both inexperienced generals to join and form the army of then General Washington as their commander-in-chief. Such situation of Americans then in 1775 was very much in contrast to the British Redcoats who were well equipped and experienced as they were being commanded by general William Howe. The period from 1775, when the announcement of war was made by the King George of England, started with the battle of Bunker Hill , where one could find the Americans suffering a defeat by the British, although there were thousands of British casualties. The Americans recuperate and attempts an attack on a strategic place called Boston where the British found themselves unprepared by the attack causing the latter’ surrender and retreat back to England on their ships. What could have explained the emotions that the Americans felt with said victory? Their spirits could not be higher at this point when after a defeat they could breath and wider space to make their advancement more strategic. Washington’s name at that point could only have greatest of honors. . As the books was not made to chronicle a straight victory but intermittent ones, it was found indeed that victory in Boston would not last long since the British was able to counter with an even larger army after returning from England. The British this time had with them a great number of navies that would surprise the Americans with their eyes wide open on where the troops came from. As a result, the Americans had retreat, to New York and thereby losing Boston very easily. Again nobody could have been more proud as the British who were very confident about themselves, as they saw the Americans as never a threat to them and the said British people at that time were expecting to defeat the Americans by a landslide. With battles continuing, the Americans being forced to retreat all the way down to New Jersey, after giving up precious territories along the way, their leadership was to find that their army had full of traitors who restored their loyalties to the British to the King of Great Britain, thus these people were branded “loyalists”. Thus, given these factors including inexperienced men of American army, it was not surprising to have the Americans suffer defeats and retreats in the hands of General Washington. There were most crucial factors that could have led to the defeats and one of them was the fact that the British controlled the seas with a navy of powerful ships. It was for this reason that Washington suffered from losses at many places including Brooklyn, New Jersey and Fort Washington. It was not surprising to see this in the light of the strength of the British navy given the fact that the British has outnumbered the Americans in which almost double in terms of number of soldiers. Although causing Washington’s biggest nightmare, temporary defeats did not last long as Washington was able to keep his army together even though he doubted himself during several occasions. Thus turning point came with Washington having commanded his army to cross the Delaware River and afterwards begin the Battle of Trenton. This was therefore the first battle that gave the Americans a great hope for the cause of the war after the British evacuation of Boston in 1775. Washington called the “Brilliant Strike” as it was a surprising attack on the British who were defeated at Trenton and his caused Washington to become a legendary figure. It was in this battle that he led the defeat of the British and would further push them back out of Trenton. And so that continued for another six and a half years until the Paris peace treaty was signed in 1783, when e America finally achieved their de jure independence. Comment and assessment of author’s main point I agree with the author’s main point about the almost unrivalled power of the British forces since they are the colonizers compared to the Americans. It could only be by strong belief in what they can do may the revolution led by George Washington to win the Revolutionary war against the British forces. With the first defeat of the Americans against the American forces, one could only see how powerful they are in conquering the physical prowess and spirit of the Americans but the latter also displayed a rather insurmountable spirit as shown by the successful attack in Boston where the British was in fact caught by surprise. For the British to surrender and retreat back to England on their ships must be a sign of advancing American who are ready to give up everything in the name of freedom and democracy. The story saw a big reality of war as in games where victory could come and go. What caused the American to lose their temporary victory and would push them to retreat are attributable to two factors the presence of traitors and their being outnumbered. One could wonder how some would lose their loyalties. Does it mean that some were not convinced to go to war against the British forces? War is a great psychological game and does not only need mental power but also strength of the spirit. When on loses some part, the leadership is set up and it creates great doubts in the minds of the soldiers but every small victory is a psychological advantage. As in any other game there are turning points when after certain losses a time of victory will have to come as long as the fighting spirit was there. The Americans led by Washington must be very strategic in Washington’s order to his soldiers to cross Delaware River and after wards could begin the Battle of Trenton. For a general to be able to choose his battle so that some victory could be attained must be a wise decision. America is proud to have gained its independence since it fought for it. It had all the reasons to celebrate its independence since its people under Washington did not waiver with small defeats. They persevered until they gained their independence Final assessment on the strengths and weaknesses of the assessment I would like to believe that my assessment of the author’s main point is strong as far as the truth of the author’s assertions are concerned since the presentation of the author could corroborated with other evidence. The strength of my assessment lies therefore on the fact that it could be corroborated by other references. Using the rules of evidence, corroborating evidence would do much to strengthen the weight of evidence; hence the credibility of the story could confirm the credibility of the author. Its weakness may lie in whether all the other authors that I might read on American history of the war could have copied from one another. I mean it could be only be coincidental. The fact that at least two authors are talking of circumstance which corroborates each other is a proof of a good work and therefore a credible author. It may be concluded that independence has a price to pay and to be proud about it one may need to go to war no matter how difficult it may be as what the American did in finally defeating their enemies. What could have been more glorious?	1,644	ENGLISH	1
In discussing the issue of discrimination against indigenous peoples, it is tempting to paraphrase a preambular paragraph of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide and say that at all periods of history, discrimination, in its many forms, has inflicted great losses on humanity. (1) There is a clear contradiction in the assumptions made by some lawyers and theologians in their fight for "good treatment" and the "humanity" of indigenous peoples at the beginning of the colonial period: the indigenous people should be treated well so that the colonists' king, god and faith could be imposed on them; the indigenous people had to pay taxes, provide food and work in mineral mining and pearl harvesting, and if they did not do so, a "just war" would be waged against them. (2) At times, the conquistadores arrived and waged the "just war" first and only subsequently imposed their divine and material conditions. The declarations of independence of the continent's republics referred to the equality of rights of all inhabitants but did not bring about an improvement in the situation of indigenous peoples; in some cases the presence, existence and rights of indigenous people were recognized de jure but their de facto recognition was denied. All the independence struggles were marked by the efforts to establish equality of rights and put an end to discrimination. In 1923, the great Cayuga chief Deskaheh, representative of the Iroquois people in Ontario (Canada) and holder of a passport issued by the authorities of his people, came to Geneva to the headquarters of the League of Nations. Acting on a mandate from the Government of the Federation of the Six Nations of the Grand River, he was carrying a letter containing an appeal for justice that was addressed to the Secretary-General of the League of Nations. The main goal of his mission was to ask for the Federation that he represented to be admitted as a member of the League of Nations and to request compliance with a treaty signed in 1784 by the authorities of his people and ratified by King George III of Great Britain. Great chief Deskaheh spent over a year in Europe but was not officially received by any League of Nations official and his requests were never discussed. Great chief Deskaheh is considered to be one of the main precursors of the current fight of indigenous peoples at the international level. (3) In response to the terrible atrocities...	<urn:uuid:2d221b1e-09ea-4d43-9c25-549565e362b2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://international.vlex.com/vid/discrimination-indigenous-peoples-context-56271635	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00253.warc.gz	en	0.981323	490	4.03125	4	[ -0.21201388537883759, 0.3985863924026489, 0.042445845901966095, 0.3440178334712982, -0.31701552867889404, -0.2994006872177124, 0.3280446529388428, 0.07533177733421326, -0.27622491121292114, 0.28895464539527893, 0.11396082490682602, -0.11083652824163437, 0.043235182762145996, 0.431485712528...	2	In discussing the issue of discrimination against indigenous peoples, it is tempting to paraphrase a preambular paragraph of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide and say that at all periods of history, discrimination, in its many forms, has inflicted great losses on humanity. (1) There is a clear contradiction in the assumptions made by some lawyers and theologians in their fight for "good treatment" and the "humanity" of indigenous peoples at the beginning of the colonial period: the indigenous people should be treated well so that the colonists' king, god and faith could be imposed on them; the indigenous people had to pay taxes, provide food and work in mineral mining and pearl harvesting, and if they did not do so, a "just war" would be waged against them. (2) At times, the conquistadores arrived and waged the "just war" first and only subsequently imposed their divine and material conditions. The declarations of independence of the continent's republics referred to the equality of rights of all inhabitants but did not bring about an improvement in the situation of indigenous peoples; in some cases the presence, existence and rights of indigenous people were recognized de jure but their de facto recognition was denied. All the independence struggles were marked by the efforts to establish equality of rights and put an end to discrimination. In 1923, the great Cayuga chief Deskaheh, representative of the Iroquois people in Ontario (Canada) and holder of a passport issued by the authorities of his people, came to Geneva to the headquarters of the League of Nations. Acting on a mandate from the Government of the Federation of the Six Nations of the Grand River, he was carrying a letter containing an appeal for justice that was addressed to the Secretary-General of the League of Nations. The main goal of his mission was to ask for the Federation that he represented to be admitted as a member of the League of Nations and to request compliance with a treaty signed in 1784 by the authorities of his people and ratified by King George III of Great Britain. Great chief Deskaheh spent over a year in Europe but was not officially received by any League of Nations official and his requests were never discussed. Great chief Deskaheh is considered to be one of the main precursors of the current fight of indigenous peoples at the international level. (3) In response to the terrible atrocities...	493	ENGLISH	1
The martyrdom of St. Stephen 17. January 2018 10:53 It is kneeling St. Stephen who is featured on a bracteate, clad in his gorgeous liturgical vestment. The coin is part of the Professor Helmut Hahn collection, it is estimated at 7,500 euros and will be auctioned by Künker at the Berlin sale on February 1, 2018. The elaborate piece was minted by Ulrich von Reinstein, Bishop of Halberstadt, between 1149 and 1160. After all, the saint had a special meaning for him. St. Stephen was the dedicatee of the cathedral that served as resting place for some of his relics. Our bracteate illustrates the martyrdom of St. Stephen as we know it from the Book of Acts, chapter 6 and the following: Stephen had preached that Jesus of Nazareth would destroy the temple and alter Jewish customs. This was considered blasphemy, and so the Sanhedrin condemned him to stoning, as this was the then customary punishment. This stoning can be seen on our coin: The kneeling saint has raised both hands in prayer. His tonsure and his clerical robe – the dalmatic – mark him as a deacon. Above him is God’s blessing hand. Behind him are his executioners, throwing stones. Who these aggressive attackers are? To the viewer of medieval times, they were clearly identifiable. They wear pointed hats which at the time served as iconographic symbol for Jews. With this bracteate, we are in the years 1149-1160, thus in an era which was certainly not characterized by repeating anti-Jewish pogroms and expulsions. Christian and Jewish citizens were still living side by side, even though the differences between them were clear to see. In the middle of the 12th century there were certainly neither ghettos nor regulations as to where Jews were supposed to live, but every Jewish house was marked as such by the mezuzah attached to the right doorpost. What’s more, ropes or rods demarcated the area in which the Shabbath rest was observed. Jews hardly differed from Christians in their outer appearance, at least when on the street. The many dress codes we hear about mostly date to the late Middle Ages. Nevertheless, as our bracteate proves, the pointed hat had already become a standard iconographic detail to denote Jews. Was it worn in everyday life? We don’t know. It was to get a signaling function as late as the end of the 14th century when it also became charged with negative associations. For example, when a Christian was sentenced in Seligenstadt for breaching the prohibition of receiving interest in 1390 – that is about 250 years after our coin had been struck –, he had to walk barefoot around the church wearing a pointed (Jewish) hat. At the time of our bracteate the Jewish community formed an integral part of urban life. If, for example, the bishop or even the emperor moved into Halberstadt, the Jews would honor him during his solemn entrance into the city by their presence – at eye level and not through a gesture of submission. This was because the Jewish community was protected by Jewish privileges, for which they paid considerable taxes, of course. Nothing unusual at this time. Everyone who received a privilege gave money in return. Can we thus call this coexistence a peaceful idyll? Certainly not, for both Jewish and Christian clergymen demanded the two groups to be strictly separated. The Jewish side prohibited intermarriage and laid down many dietary laws, which were surely difficult to observe when inviting or being invited by a Christian. And the Church had enacted laws to prevent any contact already in late antiquity. Within the framework of the 1179 Third Lateran Council, these were reformulated although apparently they were not rigorously enforced as we hear of punishments for breaking these rules only as late as the 15th century. However, times were changing, and this is what this bracteate stands for. He stylizes two Jews as murderers of St. Stephen, thus recalling the Church’s doctrine to view the entire Jewish community as Christ killers. This doctrine was widely distributed as late as 1096. 1096 is known as the year when the First Crusade began. Countless preachers traveled throughout the country, stirring up Christian hysteria and hatred of dissenters, which made thousands of people leave their homes and pilgrim to the Holy Land. If someone thought this place too far away, he could well start ruminating: Why not kill those who – at least if the preachers were to believe – had crucified Christ right on the spot? German Count Emicho von Leiningen was one of the most brutal advocates of this approach. Countless Jews were killed under his command. But not everybody shared Emicho’s hatred of Jews. There were certainly judicious people among the citizens, and there were the authorities which provided moral and military protection. After all, the Jewish communities were important for the empire’s prosperity. Both the attackers and defenders of the Jews had their arguments. However, it was left to Emperor Frederick I to place the Jews under his (preliminary) effective protection when he prepared the Third Crusade. This protection, however, did not last. Waterspout from Alsace, about 1300. The caricature of the Jew wearing the Jewish hat and holding on to a purse in his right hand is clearly visible. Today at Unterlinden Museum, Colmar. Photo: KW. Our bracteate was created in this era of transition. Even if the Jews featured are recognizable as Jews, they lack the defacing elements that late medieval and early modern works of art exploit to collectively brand the Jews as murderers of God. Nevertheless, this bracteate is a good example of how dangerous it can be to not view the individual as a perpetrator and victim, but make generalizations. For in terms of chronology, our bracteate stands at the beginning of innumerable persecutions in which Jews were scapegoated – by their fellow citizens filled with hatred and fear, and by a merciless authority. By the way, it was not until 1965, in the context of the Second Vatican Council with the memorandum Nostra aetate, that the Catholic Church officially repudiated the charge that the Jews were collectively responsible for the death of Christ. Sometimes it takes longer for reason to prevail.	<urn:uuid:fb16de94-89c8-4b07-b4fa-97786290fe2e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.kuenker.de/en/information/presseinformationen/aktuelle-mitteilungen/170	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00065.warc.gz	en	0.984847	1,334	3.40625	3	[ -0.019491640850901604, 0.5528532862663269, -0.08920260518789291, -0.3775809109210968, 0.12716826796531677, 0.019103365018963814, 0.2235671579837799, 0.47055584192276, 0.2756240963935852, 0.08094458281993866, -0.13300074636936188, -0.07901181280612946, -0.1260090172290802, 0.367575883865356...	3	The martyrdom of St. Stephen 17. January 2018 10:53 It is kneeling St. Stephen who is featured on a bracteate, clad in his gorgeous liturgical vestment. The coin is part of the Professor Helmut Hahn collection, it is estimated at 7,500 euros and will be auctioned by Künker at the Berlin sale on February 1, 2018. The elaborate piece was minted by Ulrich von Reinstein, Bishop of Halberstadt, between 1149 and 1160. After all, the saint had a special meaning for him. St. Stephen was the dedicatee of the cathedral that served as resting place for some of his relics. Our bracteate illustrates the martyrdom of St. Stephen as we know it from the Book of Acts, chapter 6 and the following: Stephen had preached that Jesus of Nazareth would destroy the temple and alter Jewish customs. This was considered blasphemy, and so the Sanhedrin condemned him to stoning, as this was the then customary punishment. This stoning can be seen on our coin: The kneeling saint has raised both hands in prayer. His tonsure and his clerical robe – the dalmatic – mark him as a deacon. Above him is God’s blessing hand. Behind him are his executioners, throwing stones. Who these aggressive attackers are? To the viewer of medieval times, they were clearly identifiable. They wear pointed hats which at the time served as iconographic symbol for Jews. With this bracteate, we are in the years 1149-1160, thus in an era which was certainly not characterized by repeating anti-Jewish pogroms and expulsions. Christian and Jewish citizens were still living side by side, even though the differences between them were clear to see. In the middle of the 12th century there were certainly neither ghettos nor regulations as to where Jews were supposed to live, but every Jewish house was marked as such by the mezuzah attached to the right doorpost. What’s more, ropes or rods demarcated the area in which the Shabbath rest was observed. Jews hardly differed from Christians in their outer appearance, at least when on the street. The many dress codes we hear about mostly date to the late Middle Ages. Nevertheless, as our bracteate proves, the pointed hat had already become a standard iconographic detail to denote Jews. Was it worn in everyday life? We don’t know. It was to get a signaling function as late as the end of the 14th century when it also became charged with negative associations. For example, when a Christian was sentenced in Seligenstadt for breaching the prohibition of receiving interest in 1390 – that is about 250 years after our coin had been struck –, he had to walk barefoot around the church wearing a pointed (Jewish) hat. At the time of our bracteate the Jewish community formed an integral part of urban life. If, for example, the bishop or even the emperor moved into Halberstadt, the Jews would honor him during his solemn entrance into the city by their presence – at eye level and not through a gesture of submission. This was because the Jewish community was protected by Jewish privileges, for which they paid considerable taxes, of course. Nothing unusual at this time. Everyone who received a privilege gave money in return. Can we thus call this coexistence a peaceful idyll? Certainly not, for both Jewish and Christian clergymen demanded the two groups to be strictly separated. The Jewish side prohibited intermarriage and laid down many dietary laws, which were surely difficult to observe when inviting or being invited by a Christian. And the Church had enacted laws to prevent any contact already in late antiquity. Within the framework of the 1179 Third Lateran Council, these were reformulated although apparently they were not rigorously enforced as we hear of punishments for breaking these rules only as late as the 15th century. However, times were changing, and this is what this bracteate stands for. He stylizes two Jews as murderers of St. Stephen, thus recalling the Church’s doctrine to view the entire Jewish community as Christ killers. This doctrine was widely distributed as late as 1096. 1096 is known as the year when the First Crusade began. Countless preachers traveled throughout the country, stirring up Christian hysteria and hatred of dissenters, which made thousands of people leave their homes and pilgrim to the Holy Land. If someone thought this place too far away, he could well start ruminating: Why not kill those who – at least if the preachers were to believe – had crucified Christ right on the spot? German Count Emicho von Leiningen was one of the most brutal advocates of this approach. Countless Jews were killed under his command. But not everybody shared Emicho’s hatred of Jews. There were certainly judicious people among the citizens, and there were the authorities which provided moral and military protection. After all, the Jewish communities were important for the empire’s prosperity. Both the attackers and defenders of the Jews had their arguments. However, it was left to Emperor Frederick I to place the Jews under his (preliminary) effective protection when he prepared the Third Crusade. This protection, however, did not last. Waterspout from Alsace, about 1300. The caricature of the Jew wearing the Jewish hat and holding on to a purse in his right hand is clearly visible. Today at Unterlinden Museum, Colmar. Photo: KW. Our bracteate was created in this era of transition. Even if the Jews featured are recognizable as Jews, they lack the defacing elements that late medieval and early modern works of art exploit to collectively brand the Jews as murderers of God. Nevertheless, this bracteate is a good example of how dangerous it can be to not view the individual as a perpetrator and victim, but make generalizations. For in terms of chronology, our bracteate stands at the beginning of innumerable persecutions in which Jews were scapegoated – by their fellow citizens filled with hatred and fear, and by a merciless authority. By the way, it was not until 1965, in the context of the Second Vatican Council with the memorandum Nostra aetate, that the Catholic Church officially repudiated the charge that the Jews were collectively responsible for the death of Christ. Sometimes it takes longer for reason to prevail.	1,374	ENGLISH	1
With the growth of Muslim territory and civilization, knowledge of medicine, which had accumulated in the classical civilizations over time, became available to those living in Muslim lands. With the spread of Arabic language and the effort to translate important works from other languages of learning, this heritage was concentrated in the Muslim libraries. Knowledge of diseases and diagnoses, and ways of curing them with medicines, surgery, and other treatments were published, along with advice on staying healthy. In Muslim cities, hospitals were founded and became centers of learning — the teaching hospitals of today. Rulers and wealthy people consulted physicians to help them overcome diseases, and supported their work in advancing medical studies. Among the sciences that flourished in Muslim civilization, medicine is one that perhaps most represented a multi-religious, multi-ethnic effort. The number of physicians of different religions working in the institutions of learning and serving as court physicians includes Jewish, Christian, and Indian physicians and researchers. This is true in the eastern Muslim lands as well as the western. For example, the first head of the House of Wisdom in the 8th century, and a physician who contributed knowledge about the anatomy of the eye, was al-Hunayn, a Nestorian Christian mathematician and physician. His co-religionists, the Bakhtishu family, served the Abbasid in Baghdad court as physicians for generations. Translations of Greek, Indian, and Persian medical works were available in Al-Andalus. Medicinal substances were imported through trade networks across Africa, Asia, and Europe. New medical knowledge accumulated through practice and research in hospitals and medical colleges. A famous Andalusian physician was Hasdai Ibn Shaprut (915-970 CE), a Jewish physician who served Abdul Rahman III (912-961 CE) at Córdoba, and translated an important work on pharmacy, using his knowledge of Arabic, Hebrew and Latin. Famous Muslim physicians in Al-Andalus were many. Ibn Juljul (Córdoba, b. 943 CE) wrote a commentary on Dioscorides’ work of pharmacology De Materia Medica, and wrote Categories of Physicians, a history of medicine from the Greeks to his time. Abul Qasim al-Zahrawi (Córdoba, d. 1013 CE) is best known as a surgeon, and served al-Hakam II as court physician. Al-Zahrawi wrote about other diseases and treatments in his Tasrif — a leading medical text in European universities after its translation into Latin in Toledo, in which al-Zahrawi is called Albucacis. Physician Ibn Zuhr (d. 1162 CE in Seville), known as Avenzoar in Latin, was the first to describe pericardial abscesses (of the heart) and to recommend tracheotomy when necessary. Ibn Zuhr’s Taysir was a standard medical work in Europe, translated into Latin in 1280 CE. In addition to his work in philosophy, Ibn Rushd (Córdoba, b. 1126) was both an accomplished physician and an astronomer. His famous medical book, Kitab al-Kulyat fi al-Tibb (known as the Colliget in Latin) discussed various diagnoses and cures for diseases, as well as their prevention. He was the personal physician to several Almoravid caliphs in Spain and Morocco. His friend Ibn Tufayl (d. 1186 CE) had been physician and medical author before him. The great Andalusian physician Ibn al-Khatib of 14th century Granada wrote an important book during the time of the Black Death. On the theory of contagious diseases, he wrote, “The fact of infection becomes clear to the investigator, whereas he who is not in contact remains safe.” He described how transmission happens through clothing, vessels, and earrings, at a time when nothing was known about viruses and bacteria. Andalusian doctors made contributions to medical ethics and hygiene. The jurist and philosopher Ibn Hazm wrote about the qualities that a physician should have: kindness, understanding, friendliness, dignity, and the ability to accept criticism. He wrote about the clothing and hygiene necessary for doctors. This cleanliness carried over into the hospitals, which had running water, gardens, and different wards for different diseases. The poor were treated there for free, and hospitals were open to all, supported by the government and private charities. They were also important institutions for training doctors. Lasting impact: European medicine benefited from the knowledge and experience of Muslim and Jewish physicians in Spain and Sicily in many ways. Muslim medical science contributed knowledge of sedatives, the use of antiseptics to clean wounds, and use of sutures made of gut and silk thread to close wounds. Techniques for curing disease with drugs, for assisting childbirth, setting bones and curing eye and skin diseases, as well as knowledge of contagious diseases, were just a few contributions. Visiting scholars in Islamic Spain were also exposed to the practice of medicine there, which was far advanced over that in other parts of Europe. The first European colleges of medicine developed at Palermo, Sicily, and at Salerno, Italy. During the 11th century CE, medical books by important Muslim physicians like Ibn Sina (980-1037 CE) and al-Razi (864-930 CE) were translated into Latin and brought into European universities, where they were used for centuries. With the invention of the printing press in Europe, these books became widespread. The famous English writer Chaucer shows how well known this medical knowledge from the Arabs was in Europe. In the beginning of the Canterbury Tales, Chaucer names physicians from the Medieval Islamic tradition: Ibn Sarabiyun or Serapion as he was known to Europe, a 9th century Syrian physician; “Razis” the great 10th century al-Razi; and “Avicen,” or Avicenna (Ibn Sina), whose early 11th-century medical encyclopedia was a basic work for physicians. Arabic medical literature gave rise to European medical advancements.	<urn:uuid:367bb3e6-e4c4-4a51-a451-fbe8d62f0eb3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.islamicspain.tv/the-science-and-culture-of-islamic-spain/25-subjects-of-science-and-culture/medicine/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00187.warc.gz	en	0.980959	1,269	3.484375	3	[ -0.1164754182100296, 0.6197417974472046, 0.10774539411067963, 0.025095127522945404, -0.22633245587348938, -0.08266271650791168, 0.22126224637031555, 0.35516151785850525, -0.3328825831413269, -0.05455329641699791, -0.23606404662132263, -0.328122615814209, -0.007726194337010384, 0.2118239402...	24	With the growth of Muslim territory and civilization, knowledge of medicine, which had accumulated in the classical civilizations over time, became available to those living in Muslim lands. With the spread of Arabic language and the effort to translate important works from other languages of learning, this heritage was concentrated in the Muslim libraries. Knowledge of diseases and diagnoses, and ways of curing them with medicines, surgery, and other treatments were published, along with advice on staying healthy. In Muslim cities, hospitals were founded and became centers of learning — the teaching hospitals of today. Rulers and wealthy people consulted physicians to help them overcome diseases, and supported their work in advancing medical studies. Among the sciences that flourished in Muslim civilization, medicine is one that perhaps most represented a multi-religious, multi-ethnic effort. The number of physicians of different religions working in the institutions of learning and serving as court physicians includes Jewish, Christian, and Indian physicians and researchers. This is true in the eastern Muslim lands as well as the western. For example, the first head of the House of Wisdom in the 8th century, and a physician who contributed knowledge about the anatomy of the eye, was al-Hunayn, a Nestorian Christian mathematician and physician. His co-religionists, the Bakhtishu family, served the Abbasid in Baghdad court as physicians for generations. Translations of Greek, Indian, and Persian medical works were available in Al-Andalus. Medicinal substances were imported through trade networks across Africa, Asia, and Europe. New medical knowledge accumulated through practice and research in hospitals and medical colleges. A famous Andalusian physician was Hasdai Ibn Shaprut (915-970 CE), a Jewish physician who served Abdul Rahman III (912-961 CE) at Córdoba, and translated an important work on pharmacy, using his knowledge of Arabic, Hebrew and Latin. Famous Muslim physicians in Al-Andalus were many. Ibn Juljul (Córdoba, b. 943 CE) wrote a commentary on Dioscorides’ work of pharmacology De Materia Medica, and wrote Categories of Physicians, a history of medicine from the Greeks to his time. Abul Qasim al-Zahrawi (Córdoba, d. 1013 CE) is best known as a surgeon, and served al-Hakam II as court physician. Al-Zahrawi wrote about other diseases and treatments in his Tasrif — a leading medical text in European universities after its translation into Latin in Toledo, in which al-Zahrawi is called Albucacis. Physician Ibn Zuhr (d. 1162 CE in Seville), known as Avenzoar in Latin, was the first to describe pericardial abscesses (of the heart) and to recommend tracheotomy when necessary. Ibn Zuhr’s Taysir was a standard medical work in Europe, translated into Latin in 1280 CE. In addition to his work in philosophy, Ibn Rushd (Córdoba, b. 1126) was both an accomplished physician and an astronomer. His famous medical book, Kitab al-Kulyat fi al-Tibb (known as the Colliget in Latin) discussed various diagnoses and cures for diseases, as well as their prevention. He was the personal physician to several Almoravid caliphs in Spain and Morocco. His friend Ibn Tufayl (d. 1186 CE) had been physician and medical author before him. The great Andalusian physician Ibn al-Khatib of 14th century Granada wrote an important book during the time of the Black Death. On the theory of contagious diseases, he wrote, “The fact of infection becomes clear to the investigator, whereas he who is not in contact remains safe.” He described how transmission happens through clothing, vessels, and earrings, at a time when nothing was known about viruses and bacteria. Andalusian doctors made contributions to medical ethics and hygiene. The jurist and philosopher Ibn Hazm wrote about the qualities that a physician should have: kindness, understanding, friendliness, dignity, and the ability to accept criticism. He wrote about the clothing and hygiene necessary for doctors. This cleanliness carried over into the hospitals, which had running water, gardens, and different wards for different diseases. The poor were treated there for free, and hospitals were open to all, supported by the government and private charities. They were also important institutions for training doctors. Lasting impact: European medicine benefited from the knowledge and experience of Muslim and Jewish physicians in Spain and Sicily in many ways. Muslim medical science contributed knowledge of sedatives, the use of antiseptics to clean wounds, and use of sutures made of gut and silk thread to close wounds. Techniques for curing disease with drugs, for assisting childbirth, setting bones and curing eye and skin diseases, as well as knowledge of contagious diseases, were just a few contributions. Visiting scholars in Islamic Spain were also exposed to the practice of medicine there, which was far advanced over that in other parts of Europe. The first European colleges of medicine developed at Palermo, Sicily, and at Salerno, Italy. During the 11th century CE, medical books by important Muslim physicians like Ibn Sina (980-1037 CE) and al-Razi (864-930 CE) were translated into Latin and brought into European universities, where they were used for centuries. With the invention of the printing press in Europe, these books became widespread. The famous English writer Chaucer shows how well known this medical knowledge from the Arabs was in Europe. In the beginning of the Canterbury Tales, Chaucer names physicians from the Medieval Islamic tradition: Ibn Sarabiyun or Serapion as he was known to Europe, a 9th century Syrian physician; “Razis” the great 10th century al-Razi; and “Avicen,” or Avicenna (Ibn Sina), whose early 11th-century medical encyclopedia was a basic work for physicians. Arabic medical literature gave rise to European medical advancements.	1,277	ENGLISH	1
One of the most igniting factors that gave birth to the American revolution is the ‘No Taxation Without Representation’. It was a slogan used by the colonists to protest against the unfair tax levy made by the British Parliament, without their consent. Read this post for more information. “Inflation is taxation without representation.” ― Milton Friedman ‘No Taxation Without Representation’ was the slogan of a revolution by the American colonies which protested that they should not be taxed until and unless there was someone to represent their community while making the taxation laws. This was the slogan used to protest against the British Parliament that levied taxes on the American colonies, without their consent or approval, or any say in this matter. This, however, formed the background for the American Revolution, and was one of the primary reasons for the havoc of the Boston Tea Party. The Sugar Act, Stamp Act, the Tea Act, and other laws that were passed by the British Parliament, sitting miles away from the American colonies, mostly invited the wrath of the colonists. Here is a brief account of an important chapter in the history of America, that eventually united the colonists to fight for freedom. History of ‘No Taxation Without Representation’ Period of Protests It started around 1750s or 1760s, and continued further to give rise to the American Revolution. The American colonies were under the rule of the British before the revolution. Most of the rules that were enacted, were oppressive and against the interests of the colonists. Though the American colonies were a rich source of trade for the British, the tax burdens on the colonists were not taken well by them. The catalyst for the strained relationship between the British and the colonies was the Stamp Act of 1765. According to the colonists, they had an equal right to represent themselves when such laws were passed overseas at the British Parliament. Moreover, the anger in the minds of the colonists provided an impetus for the fight for freedom against the British rule. The British had incurred huge losses at the Indian and French wars, and had to recover the losses. To add to it, there was a growing menace of smuggling of tea to the American colonies. The Parliament came up with an idea that could exploit its colonies, and passed laws that taxed the colonists. This unfair treatment triggered anger in the hearts of the colonists and they decided to rebel. Famous Colonists Involved He was a political activist, law practitioner, and a patriot who was pivotal during the protests against the taxation policies. He had coined the phrase Taxation without representation is tyranny. From the colony of Virginia, he is said to have been one of the key members to oppose the Stamp Act of 1765. He is famous for the speech Give me liberty, or give me death!. He was one of the most influential patriots from Boston, a delegate at the first meeting of Congress, and one of the pivotal people involved in the Boston Tea Party. Impact of ‘No Taxation without Representation’ Boston Tea Party The Boston Tea Party is said to be a direct result of the unfair taxation by the British empire. The British had a very remunerative business due to tea, which was being imported to the American colonies. Tea was a very popular beverage in the American colonies and the British were earning a good revenue out of it, due to their monopoly in the market. Realizing this, they decided to pass the tax burden to the American colonies. The Tea Act that was passed in May 1773, again sparked anger in the minds of the American colonies, with many consignees at New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston refusing to accept the tea consignments. On the night of December 16, 1773, Samuel Adams and a group called ‘Sons of Liberty’, emptied 342 chests of tea in the Boston Harbor. This act went about for around three hours. The British incurred huge losses and in retaliation, they charged huge punitive actions against the American colonists, which sparked the American revolution that started around 1775 in Massachusetts. Stamp Act Congress With the unjust Stamp Act, there were widespread protests. However, James Otis convinced that a common body representing the different colonies would be needed to address the British Parliament. During October 1765, a meeting of the delegates of the colonies was held in New York. All the colonies except North Carolina, Georgia, New Hampshire, and Virginia attended the meeting. However, New Hampshire admitted its acceptance to the resolutions passed at the Congress meeting. The main agenda was to discuss the oppressive taxation policies of the British Parliament without having any consultation or suggestion from the colonies. This was the first step towards achieving freedom from the British. The taxation policies of the British government and the monopoly of the British East India company, were among the primary reasons why the relations between the two sides turned sour. ‘No Taxation without Representation’ was one of the first few steps in the American Revolution. The generations today owe their freedom to all those who took part in the revolution. If not for the heroes who thought about and fought for the freedom of their people, we would have never been able to live a free life.	<urn:uuid:55b1c5c4-2766-44af-a339-c36d85f16346>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historyplex.com/what-does-no-taxation-without-representation-mean	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00229.warc.gz	en	0.980548	1,070	4.1875	4	[ -0.18957914412021637, 0.10550147294998169, -0.03810776770114899, -0.10807336121797562, -0.04594502970576286, 0.30895453691482544, 0.28949546813964844, 0.37614506483078003, -0.10333240032196045, 0.4550403356552124, -0.04093584418296814, -0.00968595128506422, -0.2449531853199005, 0.376992434...	7	One of the most igniting factors that gave birth to the American revolution is the ‘No Taxation Without Representation’. It was a slogan used by the colonists to protest against the unfair tax levy made by the British Parliament, without their consent. Read this post for more information. “Inflation is taxation without representation.” ― Milton Friedman ‘No Taxation Without Representation’ was the slogan of a revolution by the American colonies which protested that they should not be taxed until and unless there was someone to represent their community while making the taxation laws. This was the slogan used to protest against the British Parliament that levied taxes on the American colonies, without their consent or approval, or any say in this matter. This, however, formed the background for the American Revolution, and was one of the primary reasons for the havoc of the Boston Tea Party. The Sugar Act, Stamp Act, the Tea Act, and other laws that were passed by the British Parliament, sitting miles away from the American colonies, mostly invited the wrath of the colonists. Here is a brief account of an important chapter in the history of America, that eventually united the colonists to fight for freedom. History of ‘No Taxation Without Representation’ Period of Protests It started around 1750s or 1760s, and continued further to give rise to the American Revolution. The American colonies were under the rule of the British before the revolution. Most of the rules that were enacted, were oppressive and against the interests of the colonists. Though the American colonies were a rich source of trade for the British, the tax burdens on the colonists were not taken well by them. The catalyst for the strained relationship between the British and the colonies was the Stamp Act of 1765. According to the colonists, they had an equal right to represent themselves when such laws were passed overseas at the British Parliament. Moreover, the anger in the minds of the colonists provided an impetus for the fight for freedom against the British rule. The British had incurred huge losses at the Indian and French wars, and had to recover the losses. To add to it, there was a growing menace of smuggling of tea to the American colonies. The Parliament came up with an idea that could exploit its colonies, and passed laws that taxed the colonists. This unfair treatment triggered anger in the hearts of the colonists and they decided to rebel. Famous Colonists Involved He was a political activist, law practitioner, and a patriot who was pivotal during the protests against the taxation policies. He had coined the phrase Taxation without representation is tyranny. From the colony of Virginia, he is said to have been one of the key members to oppose the Stamp Act of 1765. He is famous for the speech Give me liberty, or give me death!. He was one of the most influential patriots from Boston, a delegate at the first meeting of Congress, and one of the pivotal people involved in the Boston Tea Party. Impact of ‘No Taxation without Representation’ Boston Tea Party The Boston Tea Party is said to be a direct result of the unfair taxation by the British empire. The British had a very remunerative business due to tea, which was being imported to the American colonies. Tea was a very popular beverage in the American colonies and the British were earning a good revenue out of it, due to their monopoly in the market. Realizing this, they decided to pass the tax burden to the American colonies. The Tea Act that was passed in May 1773, again sparked anger in the minds of the American colonies, with many consignees at New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston refusing to accept the tea consignments. On the night of December 16, 1773, Samuel Adams and a group called ‘Sons of Liberty’, emptied 342 chests of tea in the Boston Harbor. This act went about for around three hours. The British incurred huge losses and in retaliation, they charged huge punitive actions against the American colonists, which sparked the American revolution that started around 1775 in Massachusetts. Stamp Act Congress With the unjust Stamp Act, there were widespread protests. However, James Otis convinced that a common body representing the different colonies would be needed to address the British Parliament. During October 1765, a meeting of the delegates of the colonies was held in New York. All the colonies except North Carolina, Georgia, New Hampshire, and Virginia attended the meeting. However, New Hampshire admitted its acceptance to the resolutions passed at the Congress meeting. The main agenda was to discuss the oppressive taxation policies of the British Parliament without having any consultation or suggestion from the colonies. This was the first step towards achieving freedom from the British. The taxation policies of the British government and the monopoly of the British East India company, were among the primary reasons why the relations between the two sides turned sour. ‘No Taxation without Representation’ was one of the first few steps in the American Revolution. The generations today owe their freedom to all those who took part in the revolution. If not for the heroes who thought about and fought for the freedom of their people, we would have never been able to live a free life.	1,071	ENGLISH	1
Exploring The Novel Sula By Toni Morrison In the novel Sula, by Toni Morrison we follow the life of Sula Peace through out her childhood in the twenties until her death in 1941. The novel surrounds the black community in Medallion, specifically the bottom. By reading the story of Sulas life, and the life of the community in the bottom, Morrison shows us the important ways in which families and communities can shape a childs identity. Sula not only portrays the way children are shaped, but also the way that a community receives an adult who challenges the very environment that molded them. Need Help with Your Essay? Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help Sulas actions and much of her personality is a direct result of her childhood in the bottom. Sulas identity contains many elements of a strong, independent feminist character. However, the people in Medallion do not see Sula in a positive light. When she returns to Medallion as an adult Sula is seen as evil and regarded with much fear. The reason Sula outcast from the community is specifically due to the fact that she is a woman who refuses to contain herself in the social norms set up for the town. She refuses to marry and frequently sleeps around. The characters that exist around Sula serve as a point to compare the different ways the community treats those who are different. Specifically the way the characters, Shadrack and Hannah are treated by the community can be compared to the way the community treats Sula. In one way or another, Sula, Shadrack, and Hannah are outcast from the community in the bottom. Shadrack and Hannah however are not regarded with near as much fear or resentment the town feels towards Sula. The difference between the way the town treats Hannah and Sula is particularly alarming. After the death of Sulas father, Hannah has no real relationships with men. She sleeps only with the husbands of her friends and neighbors husbands. Although Hannah sleeps with married men the people in Medallion have a certain respect for her. The men, surprisingly, never gossiped about her. She was unquestionably a kind and generous woman… (p 2013). Hannah has affairs with the same men over and over again. Because of this most often the wives of those men take it as a compliment when Hannah sleeps with them. Hannah is Sulas mother and has indirectly taught a young Sula to view sex as a source of pleasure. Seeing her step so easily into the pantry and emerge looking precisely as she did when she entered, only happier… (p2013). This affects directly the relationships Sula has with men in her adult life. She too sleeps with only the husbands of other women. Sula has never witnessed a healthy relationship between a man and a woman. This is regarded by the community as terrible. Sula uses the men she sleeps with for pleasure, taking no consideration as to how the men feel. She refuses to have such patriarchal relationships as Hannah did. Hannah may indeed have received pleasure from the men she slept with but she remained the submissive participant in her relations. Hannah rubbed no edges, made no demands, made the man feel as though he were complete and wonderful just as he was- he didnt need fixing… (p 2012). Sula, on the other hand, has a need to feel in control right down to the mechanics of her affairs. And there was the utmost irony and outrage in lying under someone, in a position of surrender, feeling her own abiding strength and limitless power. (p2048). She not only took sex from men as pleasure, but sought out to claim power over them. Sula was trying them out and discarding them without any excuse the men could swallow. (p2044). This made the women upset and furthered their hatred for Sula. Sula had power by sleeping with these very same men who held power over submissive wives. The town regards all of Sulas actions as evil. They called her a roach and a bitch, but above that spread a nasty rumor that she slept with white men. There was nothing lower she could do, nothing filthier. (p2043). Though it is mentioned in the story that it was perfectly acceptable for black men to lay in the beds of white women. When the tables were turned, and it was a black woman, it was simply unthinkable. Sula took care of herself and because she had all her teeth, had had no childhood diseases and looked younger than her age the town acknowledged that as a conformation that she was indeed evil. .. she was free of any normal signs of vulnerability. (p2045). She was different from the people in the town, in weird coincidental ways, she was an embodiment of things they had never seen in their community before. This difference was just another way the community sought to label her as wicked and strange. The placed all their fears about the unknown into their growing hatred for Sula. It was this element of the unknown and difference from others that attracted Ajax to Sula. Ajax is the only character in the story who sees Sula for what she really is, a strong female. Ajax is a man who lives in the town whom Sula actually does fall in love with to a certain extent. She has a relationship with him for the right reasons, it was not the presents her brought her but … her real pleasure was the fact that he liked to talk to her. They had genuine conversations. (p2050). Sula witnessed all the other relationships in the town for what they were; men controlling their wives. The short union between Ajax and Sula is based on equality between them. Ajax was attracted to her for the very reason that, besides his mother, … this was perhaps the only other woman he knew whose life was her own. (p2050). Sulas negativity towards domestically, was primarily because it is patriarchal based. The idea that a man marries a woman and impregnates her solely as a claim to his own masculinity is the reason Sula couldnt fathom talking and chatting with women in these relationships. When she had come back home, social conversation was impossible for her because she could not lie. She could not say to those old acquaintances, Hey, girl, you looking good,… The narrower their lives, the wider their hips. Those with husbands had folded themselves into starched coffins… (p2048). Another character in the novel whom is outcast from the community, however with less harshness, is Shadrack. Shadrack enters the town in 1919, just out of the war, left shell-shocked. He becomes the town bum, frequently drinking and is regarded as crazy. However, Shadracks behavior is more bizarre and harmful to the community but they do not see it that way. He is constantly relieving himself in public and parading around drunk. Granted there is no sexuality linked to Shadrack, but he was known to show his penis to little girls and women. This was thought of as gross, but was accepted. There was no evidence that Sula had eve harmed anyone in the town, but Shadrack was continually disruptive. The community never saw Shadrack as evil, just as a crazy old man. He organized a day, on January third, as National Suicide Day. Where he marched through the town giving people one day to pile all their thoughts of death together, in an attempt to make sense of it. In fact they had simply stopped remarking on the holiday because they had absorbed it into their thoughts, into their language, into their lives. (p2000). They absorbed the outrageous, and different actions of Shadrack as part of their lives because he was a male. Sula never did anything so outrageous, but they viewed her as evil. For she was a woman who made no attempt to justify her actions or views on life to any man. There is an imagination in Sula and an intelligence which can be seen in all her actions. This imagination allows her to look closely at the community surrounding her and rise above it. She sees herself not so much in the community but separate from it, and the town does make a separate place for Sula. She doesnt take what is given to her, she doesnt blindly accept the social norms the community has set for women. In the end of the novel, right before Sula dies, Nel, Sulas old best friend, sums up why the whole community has viewed her as evil, a roach, a bitch and feared her so greatly. You cant do it all. You a woman and a colored woman at that. You cant act like a man. You cant be walking around all independent-like, doing whatever you like, taking what you want, leaving what you dont. (p2057). Throughout the novel however, that is exactly what Sula does. She attempts to live her life the most free she can. Free from the social norms of a patriarchal community who sees a woman solely in relationship to a man. If a woman doesnt have a relationship with a man and take up socially accepted responsibilities, she is seen as evil, inconceivable.	<urn:uuid:0629dba0-7f6c-4614-a9a7-4bb5fa5a2f9f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://benjaminbarber.org/exploring-the-novel-sula-by-toni-morrison/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00180.warc.gz	en	0.986842	1,876	3.296875	3	[ -0.09157729148864746, 0.17323675751686096, -0.13973799347877502, 0.09608050435781479, -0.8049218654632568, 0.3941059112548828, 0.30628037452697754, 0.13249649107456207, 0.29258838295936584, -0.2792746424674988, 0.2423744946718216, -0.4796760678291321, 0.19252920150756836, 0.131456792354583...	1	Exploring The Novel Sula By Toni Morrison In the novel Sula, by Toni Morrison we follow the life of Sula Peace through out her childhood in the twenties until her death in 1941. The novel surrounds the black community in Medallion, specifically the bottom. By reading the story of Sulas life, and the life of the community in the bottom, Morrison shows us the important ways in which families and communities can shape a childs identity. Sula not only portrays the way children are shaped, but also the way that a community receives an adult who challenges the very environment that molded them. Need Help with Your Essay? Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help Sulas actions and much of her personality is a direct result of her childhood in the bottom. Sulas identity contains many elements of a strong, independent feminist character. However, the people in Medallion do not see Sula in a positive light. When she returns to Medallion as an adult Sula is seen as evil and regarded with much fear. The reason Sula outcast from the community is specifically due to the fact that she is a woman who refuses to contain herself in the social norms set up for the town. She refuses to marry and frequently sleeps around. The characters that exist around Sula serve as a point to compare the different ways the community treats those who are different. Specifically the way the characters, Shadrack and Hannah are treated by the community can be compared to the way the community treats Sula. In one way or another, Sula, Shadrack, and Hannah are outcast from the community in the bottom. Shadrack and Hannah however are not regarded with near as much fear or resentment the town feels towards Sula. The difference between the way the town treats Hannah and Sula is particularly alarming. After the death of Sulas father, Hannah has no real relationships with men. She sleeps only with the husbands of her friends and neighbors husbands. Although Hannah sleeps with married men the people in Medallion have a certain respect for her. The men, surprisingly, never gossiped about her. She was unquestionably a kind and generous woman… (p 2013). Hannah has affairs with the same men over and over again. Because of this most often the wives of those men take it as a compliment when Hannah sleeps with them. Hannah is Sulas mother and has indirectly taught a young Sula to view sex as a source of pleasure. Seeing her step so easily into the pantry and emerge looking precisely as she did when she entered, only happier… (p2013). This affects directly the relationships Sula has with men in her adult life. She too sleeps with only the husbands of other women. Sula has never witnessed a healthy relationship between a man and a woman. This is regarded by the community as terrible. Sula uses the men she sleeps with for pleasure, taking no consideration as to how the men feel. She refuses to have such patriarchal relationships as Hannah did. Hannah may indeed have received pleasure from the men she slept with but she remained the submissive participant in her relations. Hannah rubbed no edges, made no demands, made the man feel as though he were complete and wonderful just as he was- he didnt need fixing… (p 2012). Sula, on the other hand, has a need to feel in control right down to the mechanics of her affairs. And there was the utmost irony and outrage in lying under someone, in a position of surrender, feeling her own abiding strength and limitless power. (p2048). She not only took sex from men as pleasure, but sought out to claim power over them. Sula was trying them out and discarding them without any excuse the men could swallow. (p2044). This made the women upset and furthered their hatred for Sula. Sula had power by sleeping with these very same men who held power over submissive wives. The town regards all of Sulas actions as evil. They called her a roach and a bitch, but above that spread a nasty rumor that she slept with white men. There was nothing lower she could do, nothing filthier. (p2043). Though it is mentioned in the story that it was perfectly acceptable for black men to lay in the beds of white women. When the tables were turned, and it was a black woman, it was simply unthinkable. Sula took care of herself and because she had all her teeth, had had no childhood diseases and looked younger than her age the town acknowledged that as a conformation that she was indeed evil. .. she was free of any normal signs of vulnerability. (p2045). She was different from the people in the town, in weird coincidental ways, she was an embodiment of things they had never seen in their community before. This difference was just another way the community sought to label her as wicked and strange. The placed all their fears about the unknown into their growing hatred for Sula. It was this element of the unknown and difference from others that attracted Ajax to Sula. Ajax is the only character in the story who sees Sula for what she really is, a strong female. Ajax is a man who lives in the town whom Sula actually does fall in love with to a certain extent. She has a relationship with him for the right reasons, it was not the presents her brought her but … her real pleasure was the fact that he liked to talk to her. They had genuine conversations. (p2050). Sula witnessed all the other relationships in the town for what they were; men controlling their wives. The short union between Ajax and Sula is based on equality between them. Ajax was attracted to her for the very reason that, besides his mother, … this was perhaps the only other woman he knew whose life was her own. (p2050). Sulas negativity towards domestically, was primarily because it is patriarchal based. The idea that a man marries a woman and impregnates her solely as a claim to his own masculinity is the reason Sula couldnt fathom talking and chatting with women in these relationships. When she had come back home, social conversation was impossible for her because she could not lie. She could not say to those old acquaintances, Hey, girl, you looking good,… The narrower their lives, the wider their hips. Those with husbands had folded themselves into starched coffins… (p2048). Another character in the novel whom is outcast from the community, however with less harshness, is Shadrack. Shadrack enters the town in 1919, just out of the war, left shell-shocked. He becomes the town bum, frequently drinking and is regarded as crazy. However, Shadracks behavior is more bizarre and harmful to the community but they do not see it that way. He is constantly relieving himself in public and parading around drunk. Granted there is no sexuality linked to Shadrack, but he was known to show his penis to little girls and women. This was thought of as gross, but was accepted. There was no evidence that Sula had eve harmed anyone in the town, but Shadrack was continually disruptive. The community never saw Shadrack as evil, just as a crazy old man. He organized a day, on January third, as National Suicide Day. Where he marched through the town giving people one day to pile all their thoughts of death together, in an attempt to make sense of it. In fact they had simply stopped remarking on the holiday because they had absorbed it into their thoughts, into their language, into their lives. (p2000). They absorbed the outrageous, and different actions of Shadrack as part of their lives because he was a male. Sula never did anything so outrageous, but they viewed her as evil. For she was a woman who made no attempt to justify her actions or views on life to any man. There is an imagination in Sula and an intelligence which can be seen in all her actions. This imagination allows her to look closely at the community surrounding her and rise above it. She sees herself not so much in the community but separate from it, and the town does make a separate place for Sula. She doesnt take what is given to her, she doesnt blindly accept the social norms the community has set for women. In the end of the novel, right before Sula dies, Nel, Sulas old best friend, sums up why the whole community has viewed her as evil, a roach, a bitch and feared her so greatly. You cant do it all. You a woman and a colored woman at that. You cant act like a man. You cant be walking around all independent-like, doing whatever you like, taking what you want, leaving what you dont. (p2057). Throughout the novel however, that is exactly what Sula does. She attempts to live her life the most free she can. Free from the social norms of a patriarchal community who sees a woman solely in relationship to a man. If a woman doesnt have a relationship with a man and take up socially accepted responsibilities, she is seen as evil, inconceivable.	1,908	ENGLISH	1
Understanding the Sources Used and Structure of Luke’s Gospel The Gospel according to Luke is the first part of a two-volume work that continues the biblical history of God's dealings with humanity found in the Old Testament, showing how God's promises to Israel have been fulfilled in Jesus and how the salvation promised to Israel and accomplished by Jesus has been extended to the Gentiles. In the prologue Luke states that his purpose of the two volumes is to provide Theophilus and others like him with certainty and assurance about earlier instruction they have received. Among the sources which were used by Luke were at least two written documents, one of them the gospel of Mark in substantially …show more content… The question of Luke’s sources is complicated by Streeter’s theory that Luke had composed a gospel before he came into possession of a copy of Mark. As I have said above; we know that Mark was one of Lukes sources as half of Marks Gospel can be found in Lukes. This theory is based on the fact that in large sections of Luke, Mark is not employed as a source, and that it is possible to reconstruct from Luke, omitting all his borrowings from Mark, a gospel-like document of considerable extent. As Luke doesn’t interweave Mark but instead sets down Mark in chunks. Because of the way Luke used Mark; Streeter believes that Mark was not one of Luke’s original sources but extra material with which Luke added to his original copy and that our present gospel is a revised and enlarged edition of his earlier work. This theory that Luke had already written the first draft of his Gospel before Mark came into his possession is known as Proto	<urn:uuid:f9001ae8-145b-4d18-85b0-288e690567e8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cram.com/essay/understanding-the-sources-used-and-structure-of/P3SCMNNAC	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00478.warc.gz	en	0.986107	344	3.390625	3	[ -0.2824453115463257, -0.030756836757063866, 0.057028256356716156, -0.10998781770467758, -0.04222188517451286, -0.005520136561244726, -0.10108719021081924, 0.03211336210370064, 0.19839833676815033, 0.18400391936302185, 0.07749872654676437, -0.19754095375537872, 0.14325830340385437, 0.036122...	1	Understanding the Sources Used and Structure of Luke’s Gospel The Gospel according to Luke is the first part of a two-volume work that continues the biblical history of God's dealings with humanity found in the Old Testament, showing how God's promises to Israel have been fulfilled in Jesus and how the salvation promised to Israel and accomplished by Jesus has been extended to the Gentiles. In the prologue Luke states that his purpose of the two volumes is to provide Theophilus and others like him with certainty and assurance about earlier instruction they have received. Among the sources which were used by Luke were at least two written documents, one of them the gospel of Mark in substantially …show more content… The question of Luke’s sources is complicated by Streeter’s theory that Luke had composed a gospel before he came into possession of a copy of Mark. As I have said above; we know that Mark was one of Lukes sources as half of Marks Gospel can be found in Lukes. This theory is based on the fact that in large sections of Luke, Mark is not employed as a source, and that it is possible to reconstruct from Luke, omitting all his borrowings from Mark, a gospel-like document of considerable extent. As Luke doesn’t interweave Mark but instead sets down Mark in chunks. Because of the way Luke used Mark; Streeter believes that Mark was not one of Luke’s original sources but extra material with which Luke added to his original copy and that our present gospel is a revised and enlarged edition of his earlier work. This theory that Luke had already written the first draft of his Gospel before Mark came into his possession is known as Proto	330	ENGLISH	1
Lottie Wilson Jackson was the first person of color to attend the Chicago Institute of Art. She pushed the National Women’s Suffrage Association to desegregate rail cars and painted Abraham Lincoln and Sojourner Truth together in a joint portrait. She was born in Niles, Michigan and lived in Bay City, Michigan later in her life. Anna Howard Shaw was raised in rural northern Michigan, near Big Rapids. She began work as a teacher and a seamstress but eventually pursued high school education, education at Albion College, and recognition as a preacher, all without parental support. She attended Boston University School of Theology, where she was the only woman in her class and where she also received a medical degree. Shaw was active in and later President of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA). The lives of Wilson and Shaw offer examples of: Triumph and successes Wilson and Shaw were “firsts” in their academic programs and pursued careers during a time when that was not easy for any woman. Frustration and difficulties Wilson’s effort to mobilize white activists to work against racial segregation on trains was tabled into oblivion. She also struggled to make a living as a painter in Washington D.C. Shaw felt she was not welcome as a Lutheran minister and left the ministry though she was one of the first women to earn a theology degree from a Lutheran seminary and become ordained. In addition, she could not have her thirty-year relationship with a woman recognized by the state. Racism and gender stereotype accommodation While she was head of the National American Women’s Suffrage Association, Shaw engaged in the denigration of black men, who had voting rights, in order to promote the idea that white women deserved the vote. As a woman with a ministerial calling and whose primary relationship was with a woman, Shaw lived her life far outside of mainstream; yet, as a suffrage leader, she strategically evoked the norms of women in the domestic, private sphere rather than link the suffrage cause to the expanding roles for women in the home and workplace. The choice of Jackson and Shaw for the logo is intended to stimulate us to learn about participants in the suffrage movement and to recognize that Michigan citizens were actively involved in the movement. It is equally important that we learn about the moral failings of some members of the suffrage community. Actors who made important contributions and entered into formerly all-male spaces also had flaws, as the case of Shaw illustrates. Feminists have sometimes failed to understand that their definition of the collective needs to be broad, anti-racist, and focused on solidarity with all people excluded from politics and full citizenship. We need to know about and learn from these mistakes, as well as from these women’s successes. Submitted by: Anne Manuel, 11-5-19 The UM Suffrage 2020 logo was designed by Michael Gawlick	<urn:uuid:ba7692e1-dbcd-491d-8557-b0104145f5c4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/umsuffrage2020/logo-info/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00452.warc.gz	en	0.985548	600	3.328125	3	[ -0.199372798204422, -0.321933388710022, -0.23013249039649963, 0.07138998806476593, -0.08033429086208344, 0.700611412525177, 0.06935407966375351, 0.04982222616672516, -0.017625361680984497, -0.21490716934204102, 0.15448175370693207, 0.1743966042995453, 0.03707471489906311, 0.272210687398910...	3	Lottie Wilson Jackson was the first person of color to attend the Chicago Institute of Art. She pushed the National Women’s Suffrage Association to desegregate rail cars and painted Abraham Lincoln and Sojourner Truth together in a joint portrait. She was born in Niles, Michigan and lived in Bay City, Michigan later in her life. Anna Howard Shaw was raised in rural northern Michigan, near Big Rapids. She began work as a teacher and a seamstress but eventually pursued high school education, education at Albion College, and recognition as a preacher, all without parental support. She attended Boston University School of Theology, where she was the only woman in her class and where she also received a medical degree. Shaw was active in and later President of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA). The lives of Wilson and Shaw offer examples of: Triumph and successes Wilson and Shaw were “firsts” in their academic programs and pursued careers during a time when that was not easy for any woman. Frustration and difficulties Wilson’s effort to mobilize white activists to work against racial segregation on trains was tabled into oblivion. She also struggled to make a living as a painter in Washington D.C. Shaw felt she was not welcome as a Lutheran minister and left the ministry though she was one of the first women to earn a theology degree from a Lutheran seminary and become ordained. In addition, she could not have her thirty-year relationship with a woman recognized by the state. Racism and gender stereotype accommodation While she was head of the National American Women’s Suffrage Association, Shaw engaged in the denigration of black men, who had voting rights, in order to promote the idea that white women deserved the vote. As a woman with a ministerial calling and whose primary relationship was with a woman, Shaw lived her life far outside of mainstream; yet, as a suffrage leader, she strategically evoked the norms of women in the domestic, private sphere rather than link the suffrage cause to the expanding roles for women in the home and workplace. The choice of Jackson and Shaw for the logo is intended to stimulate us to learn about participants in the suffrage movement and to recognize that Michigan citizens were actively involved in the movement. It is equally important that we learn about the moral failings of some members of the suffrage community. Actors who made important contributions and entered into formerly all-male spaces also had flaws, as the case of Shaw illustrates. Feminists have sometimes failed to understand that their definition of the collective needs to be broad, anti-racist, and focused on solidarity with all people excluded from politics and full citizenship. We need to know about and learn from these mistakes, as well as from these women’s successes. Submitted by: Anne Manuel, 11-5-19 The UM Suffrage 2020 logo was designed by Michael Gawlick	589	ENGLISH	1
Today we are using electronic tuners and know everything about frequencies but in the past, like before the 16th century, how could people tune their instruments? Did they tune them to specific frequencies? What reference did they have? Did they use some kind of instrument? Never mind the 16th C., even in the 1960s, reference points were not considered necessary by some recording bands, particularly those with only guitars and basses to go with drums! As long as one of the guitars was in tune with itself, the others used that as a datum point. Back in the 16th C., there was not a great deal of travel involved with musicians; making music was parochial, so the need for an industry standard such as we rely on nowadays wasn't needed. With easily tuneable (?!) instruments, i.e. lutes, as long as they were in tune with other no-so-easily tuneable instruments, it wasn't really an issue. And tuning was such that some instruments sounded better in one key (no 12EDO yet). Tuning forks, as already mentioned, were around from the beginning of the 1700s, so there was no 'official' datum point anyway at a time previous. Back in the '60s, I used to drop a house key on a hard surface, which gave me a reference to keep my guitar in tune, and I guess similar ideas were used by instrumentalists who were fastidious enough to keep their instruments on pitch. So, basically, everyone would, as previously said, tune to whatever instrument sounded right, but was the most difficult to alter anyway,. In the case of the lute, a common practice was apparently to "tune the treble string as high as it will go without breaking, then tune the remaining strings in accordance with the first." (source). This of course depends on the diameter of the string, the construction of the (gut) string and the size of the lute. Lutes were made in fairly well standardized sizes (source), which suggests that the instruments were not necessarily tuned to any reference pitch, but just so the top string (on which a lot of the melody is played) sounds good and the rest of the strings tuned to match (in some particular temperament). Presumably a group of players would tune according to the top string of all the instruments that was closes to breaking? [caveat: I am not an expert on this topic!] ETA: Lute players (especially baroque lute) spend half their lives tuning their lute, and the other half playing out of tune ;o) I know you asked about prior to the 16th century, but... I've never known a rock band that carried a tuning fork. Right up to the 1970s you would simply tune to 'whoever sounded about right already' unless there was some external reference like a piano in the building - & whether that was right or not was still questionable.	<urn:uuid:df58a022-216d-4031-8fd5-367d492c20fc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://music.stackexchange.com/questions/54703/how-did-people-tune-their-instruments-in-the-past/54707	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00096.warc.gz	en	0.98762	612	3.359375	3	[ -0.3919423222541809, -0.30574721097946167, 0.2583373188972473, -0.5584256649017334, -0.44513678550720215, -0.2192101925611496, -0.16213162243366241, 0.044264357537031174, 0.4293227791786194, 0.049126848578453064, 0.3111426532268524, 0.2076573371887207, 0.21384228765964508, -0.1553204357624...	9	Today we are using electronic tuners and know everything about frequencies but in the past, like before the 16th century, how could people tune their instruments? Did they tune them to specific frequencies? What reference did they have? Did they use some kind of instrument? Never mind the 16th C., even in the 1960s, reference points were not considered necessary by some recording bands, particularly those with only guitars and basses to go with drums! As long as one of the guitars was in tune with itself, the others used that as a datum point. Back in the 16th C., there was not a great deal of travel involved with musicians; making music was parochial, so the need for an industry standard such as we rely on nowadays wasn't needed. With easily tuneable (?!) instruments, i.e. lutes, as long as they were in tune with other no-so-easily tuneable instruments, it wasn't really an issue. And tuning was such that some instruments sounded better in one key (no 12EDO yet). Tuning forks, as already mentioned, were around from the beginning of the 1700s, so there was no 'official' datum point anyway at a time previous. Back in the '60s, I used to drop a house key on a hard surface, which gave me a reference to keep my guitar in tune, and I guess similar ideas were used by instrumentalists who were fastidious enough to keep their instruments on pitch. So, basically, everyone would, as previously said, tune to whatever instrument sounded right, but was the most difficult to alter anyway,. In the case of the lute, a common practice was apparently to "tune the treble string as high as it will go without breaking, then tune the remaining strings in accordance with the first." (source). This of course depends on the diameter of the string, the construction of the (gut) string and the size of the lute. Lutes were made in fairly well standardized sizes (source), which suggests that the instruments were not necessarily tuned to any reference pitch, but just so the top string (on which a lot of the melody is played) sounds good and the rest of the strings tuned to match (in some particular temperament). Presumably a group of players would tune according to the top string of all the instruments that was closes to breaking? [caveat: I am not an expert on this topic!] ETA: Lute players (especially baroque lute) spend half their lives tuning their lute, and the other half playing out of tune ;o) I know you asked about prior to the 16th century, but... I've never known a rock band that carried a tuning fork. Right up to the 1970s you would simply tune to 'whoever sounded about right already' unless there was some external reference like a piano in the building - & whether that was right or not was still questionable.	621	ENGLISH	1
Tracing the Journey of Paper Bags: Their invention and evolution Paper bags are ubiquitous these days. You can find yourself using them everywhere, to carry takeaway food home, in goody bags from events to just shopping for groceries. It is easy to think that they were always this common. Paper bags have been around before plastic was even invented. This was a time when storage material was mainly metal, wood or fiber, making it bulky and inconvenient. There had to be a better solution, but it wouldn’t come until the middle of the 19th century. Since that point though, paper bags have become so common that they are also used as branding and outreach material! How did this seemingly humble product make its mark on the consumer industry? Let’s trace the journey of paper bags through time, following the trail of people who contributed to it. The history of paper bags For years on end, people used jute, canvas and burlap to hold and transport items. This was obviously a very durable option, but these materials are heavy and the production process is long and energy-consuming. Early in the 19th century, paper began to be used as packaging material. It was lightweight and could carry basic items with ease. However, there was still a problem. The bags had to be produced by hand and therefore were not easily available to everyone. Although they were cheap, their design was clunky and they were far from what our idea of paper bags in the present is. A few decades later, a man named Francis Wolle was working in his family’s grocery store. He noticed that people couldn’t carry many products back with them. With the intent of increasing their capacity to take items home, he began fiddling around with the design of paper bags. In 1852, Wolle hit the target. He came up with a machine that would mass-produce paper bags. His bags looked more like mailing envelopes rather than the paper bag you would recognize, but they still had a better carrying capacity than what was available. Wolle patented his machine and went on to make millions of dollars manufacturing paper bags. Now, one of the two problems with paper bags was fixed. But they still were not sturdy and could hold lightweight items only. Enter Margaret Knight, an employee at the Columbia Paper Bag Company. She was a woman who had always been interested in tinkering around with machines. When she was about the age of 30, Margaret heard that her company was trying to make a machine that would make paper bags with flat bottoms. The idea interested Margaret so much that she created a prototype in six months! When she got a working version made of metal, it was 1868. Margaret then got into a patent battle with someone who stole her idea and emerged victoriously. The world got its first automated paper bags with flat bottoms, and Margaret became a media sensation and feminist icon. She formed her own company called the Eastern Paper Bag Company, and shop owners around the world lapped up her invention. But wait, her product was still slightly different from what we see today. Margaret’s bags were not foldable, so they still had room for improvement. Charles Stillwell, a mechanical engineer, came up with the idea of adding pleats to paper bags. They could now be folded and easily stored. Stillwell called them “self-opening sacks”. Then, yet another important development happened. Lydia and Walter Deubener realized that there was an easy way to make paper bags sturdier. They added in a string that was both a handle and bottom reinforcement, which let people carry up to 20 pounds of food in each bag! Paper bags became the standard packaging for department stores and were often printed with the logo or colors of the brand. But in the 1970s, plastic bags were introduced. These were cheaper and grocery stores embraced them whole-heartedly. It wasn’t until the early 21st century that people began to realize that these cheap alternatives were harmful to human health and the environment. This started a trend towards bringing back paper bags at stores. Now many grocers and shoppers resort to using paper bags whenever they can. What are paper bags made of? The common brown paper bags that you see are most likely made of kraft paper. This paper is manufactured through the kraft process invented by Carl F. Dahl, a German chemist. In the kraft process, wood chips are heated intensely and broken into pulp. This pulp is cleaned several times and bleached to give the brown paper we associate with paper bags. Kraft paper is very durable, and the kind used to make paper bags is special. This paper, called sack kraft paper, is porous with high elasticity and tear resistance, making it ideal for packaging. Paper bags can be made of any kind of paper. They vary in their size, shape and durability. Quite often, paper bags are required to have a set percentage of recycled content in their material, making them more sustainable. How does design affect the strength of paper bags? If you read through the history of paper bags, you might have already noticed that the small changes inventors made in its design contributed towards its strength a lot. From a flimsy paper envelope to the sturdy bag carrying about 20 pounds, here are the design elements that make paper bags awesome: - Paper material The kind of paper used to make the bag is the most basic design element. The simplest way to judge this is the weight of the paper. This is a measure of the density of the paper in reams of 500. The heavier the paper, the more durable the paper bag. Lighter paper is used to carry items such as documents, and heavier paper can help carry even grocery products. The Deubeners came up with the ingenious idea of adding handles to paper bags. Their invention used string, but a commoner material is kraft paper twisted into cords. The cords are glued to the inside of the paper bag and reinforced with other materials. This helps increase the capacity of the paper bag and distribute the weight inside more evenly. - Shape of bottom Wolle made an envelope-style bag, which is still very much in use for carrying documents and posts. But Margaret Knight’s design used a flat bottom, meaning that more items could now be neatly carried around. Her design is more common these days, being used at events and grocery stores often. In paper manufacturing, reinforced areas are called gussets. Paper bags have a few weak points, such as around the handles and at the bottom. Gusseting these areas increase their capacity to carry heavy items and prevents them from tearing. What types of bags are available? There are paper bags for every need in the market. Here are just a few you might encounter: Stillwell’s design, the bags are foldable but stand on their own when loaded. These are often used to carry lunches. Open-mouth bags, but with a pinched base. These are used to store bakery items and other food products. Wolle’s design, these bags are flat and mainly used to carry documents and post. - Recycled bags These are made of recycled material ranging from 40% to 100%. Perfect for the environment-friendly. The humble paper bag has had a long, dramatic journey full of change. It has evolved from a flimsy paper envelope to a sturdy bag that can hold heavy items. It has stood its ground against plastic, despite almost being obliterated, and is fast making its comeback. The next time you bring something home in a paper bag, remember the inventive folks behind its design!	<urn:uuid:11e74c61-5103-440e-a5d8-6dc606308fcc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.stanleypackaging.com.au/blog/tracing-the-journey-of-paper-bags-their-invention-and-evolution/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00064.warc.gz	en	0.982317	1,593	3.296875	3	[ -0.5804840922355652, -0.09327001869678497, 0.14586716890335083, -0.2485552281141281, -0.07346195727586746, -0.1291622817516327, 0.5342910289764404, 0.28870660066604614, -0.20383641123771667, 0.012960189953446388, 0.20377986133098602, 0.07451570779085159, 0.07236477732658386, 0.025318011641...	4	Tracing the Journey of Paper Bags: Their invention and evolution Paper bags are ubiquitous these days. You can find yourself using them everywhere, to carry takeaway food home, in goody bags from events to just shopping for groceries. It is easy to think that they were always this common. Paper bags have been around before plastic was even invented. This was a time when storage material was mainly metal, wood or fiber, making it bulky and inconvenient. There had to be a better solution, but it wouldn’t come until the middle of the 19th century. Since that point though, paper bags have become so common that they are also used as branding and outreach material! How did this seemingly humble product make its mark on the consumer industry? Let’s trace the journey of paper bags through time, following the trail of people who contributed to it. The history of paper bags For years on end, people used jute, canvas and burlap to hold and transport items. This was obviously a very durable option, but these materials are heavy and the production process is long and energy-consuming. Early in the 19th century, paper began to be used as packaging material. It was lightweight and could carry basic items with ease. However, there was still a problem. The bags had to be produced by hand and therefore were not easily available to everyone. Although they were cheap, their design was clunky and they were far from what our idea of paper bags in the present is. A few decades later, a man named Francis Wolle was working in his family’s grocery store. He noticed that people couldn’t carry many products back with them. With the intent of increasing their capacity to take items home, he began fiddling around with the design of paper bags. In 1852, Wolle hit the target. He came up with a machine that would mass-produce paper bags. His bags looked more like mailing envelopes rather than the paper bag you would recognize, but they still had a better carrying capacity than what was available. Wolle patented his machine and went on to make millions of dollars manufacturing paper bags. Now, one of the two problems with paper bags was fixed. But they still were not sturdy and could hold lightweight items only. Enter Margaret Knight, an employee at the Columbia Paper Bag Company. She was a woman who had always been interested in tinkering around with machines. When she was about the age of 30, Margaret heard that her company was trying to make a machine that would make paper bags with flat bottoms. The idea interested Margaret so much that she created a prototype in six months! When she got a working version made of metal, it was 1868. Margaret then got into a patent battle with someone who stole her idea and emerged victoriously. The world got its first automated paper bags with flat bottoms, and Margaret became a media sensation and feminist icon. She formed her own company called the Eastern Paper Bag Company, and shop owners around the world lapped up her invention. But wait, her product was still slightly different from what we see today. Margaret’s bags were not foldable, so they still had room for improvement. Charles Stillwell, a mechanical engineer, came up with the idea of adding pleats to paper bags. They could now be folded and easily stored. Stillwell called them “self-opening sacks”. Then, yet another important development happened. Lydia and Walter Deubener realized that there was an easy way to make paper bags sturdier. They added in a string that was both a handle and bottom reinforcement, which let people carry up to 20 pounds of food in each bag! Paper bags became the standard packaging for department stores and were often printed with the logo or colors of the brand. But in the 1970s, plastic bags were introduced. These were cheaper and grocery stores embraced them whole-heartedly. It wasn’t until the early 21st century that people began to realize that these cheap alternatives were harmful to human health and the environment. This started a trend towards bringing back paper bags at stores. Now many grocers and shoppers resort to using paper bags whenever they can. What are paper bags made of? The common brown paper bags that you see are most likely made of kraft paper. This paper is manufactured through the kraft process invented by Carl F. Dahl, a German chemist. In the kraft process, wood chips are heated intensely and broken into pulp. This pulp is cleaned several times and bleached to give the brown paper we associate with paper bags. Kraft paper is very durable, and the kind used to make paper bags is special. This paper, called sack kraft paper, is porous with high elasticity and tear resistance, making it ideal for packaging. Paper bags can be made of any kind of paper. They vary in their size, shape and durability. Quite often, paper bags are required to have a set percentage of recycled content in their material, making them more sustainable. How does design affect the strength of paper bags? If you read through the history of paper bags, you might have already noticed that the small changes inventors made in its design contributed towards its strength a lot. From a flimsy paper envelope to the sturdy bag carrying about 20 pounds, here are the design elements that make paper bags awesome: - Paper material The kind of paper used to make the bag is the most basic design element. The simplest way to judge this is the weight of the paper. This is a measure of the density of the paper in reams of 500. The heavier the paper, the more durable the paper bag. Lighter paper is used to carry items such as documents, and heavier paper can help carry even grocery products. The Deubeners came up with the ingenious idea of adding handles to paper bags. Their invention used string, but a commoner material is kraft paper twisted into cords. The cords are glued to the inside of the paper bag and reinforced with other materials. This helps increase the capacity of the paper bag and distribute the weight inside more evenly. - Shape of bottom Wolle made an envelope-style bag, which is still very much in use for carrying documents and posts. But Margaret Knight’s design used a flat bottom, meaning that more items could now be neatly carried around. Her design is more common these days, being used at events and grocery stores often. In paper manufacturing, reinforced areas are called gussets. Paper bags have a few weak points, such as around the handles and at the bottom. Gusseting these areas increase their capacity to carry heavy items and prevents them from tearing. What types of bags are available? There are paper bags for every need in the market. Here are just a few you might encounter: Stillwell’s design, the bags are foldable but stand on their own when loaded. These are often used to carry lunches. Open-mouth bags, but with a pinched base. These are used to store bakery items and other food products. Wolle’s design, these bags are flat and mainly used to carry documents and post. - Recycled bags These are made of recycled material ranging from 40% to 100%. Perfect for the environment-friendly. The humble paper bag has had a long, dramatic journey full of change. It has evolved from a flimsy paper envelope to a sturdy bag that can hold heavy items. It has stood its ground against plastic, despite almost being obliterated, and is fast making its comeback. The next time you bring something home in a paper bag, remember the inventive folks behind its design!	1,554	ENGLISH	1
What’s the story behind the locksmithing trade? In ancient times locks were few and far between, used only by individuals with power and authority. The history of locksmithing is said to date back 4000 years ago, beginning in Egypt and Babylon. It’s believed by some that locks were used to secure items from thieves along traveling roads during ancient times. This is a myth. Locks were not a common possession. In ancient times locks were much different than what we see and use today. Locks were oversized and made of wood, accompanied by an enormous wooden key. The wooden key was typically worn on a ring around the finger of its owner, to publically display the significance of the individual. In that time having a key meant you had items worth securing, symbolizing an abundance of wealth. With this status came great honor and importance among the people. While older locks were extremely large and made of different materials than what is used today, they do not function so differently. The oldest lock was found in the ruins of the Assyrian empire and is believed to have been created in 704 BC. This lock functioned by way of a pin mechanism, and its key appeared like an oversized toothbrush. The key was created to push the pin inside of its lock upwards, releasing its hold. Modern keys have advanced significantly since then but still, require a similar mechanism. Wooden locks and keys were used for centuries and were not evolved much until metal locks began appearing in Europe around 870 AD. These locks were made of iron or brass, and were seen stretching from Europe clear into China. They operated by metal keys that were twisted, pushed or screwed into the lock. Metal locks and keys remained the same for a long time, until the days of the industrial revolution in the 18th Century. Starting in this time we see immense growth in the locksmithing profession. A paned window into history: - In 1778 Robert Barron perfected the Lever Tumbler Lock. This lock required the lever (inside of the lock) to be lifted at a specific height in order to be released. - In 1817 there was a burglary in the Portsmouth Dockyard. In this time, the British government announced a competition, and it was won by a man named Jeremiah Chubb, who created the Chubb Detector Lock. This lock was difficult to pick but also gave an indication to its owner when someone tampered with it. Locks and keys were heavily tested by many individuals (of different abilities and social status) before a champion was announced, and the system was utilized. Jeremiah and his brother, Charles Chubb, began their own locksmithing business following the victory of Jeremiah’s success. - In 1848 Linus Yale perfected the double-acting pin tumbler lock. This lock was designed using a pin of different lengths, created to stop the lock from being opened without the proper key. - In 1861 Linus Yale invented a smaller key with serrated edges. His designed locks and keys are still used today. And if you ever need a Locksmith in Eugene OR, give us a call!	<urn:uuid:0d309a82-138d-42c6-8275-11ec1f60fff2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://locksmithplusinc.com/the-rich-history-of-the-locksmith-trade/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00404.warc.gz	en	0.987253	646	3.421875	3	[ -0.05728572979569435, 0.2611805200576782, 0.2425285428762436, -0.15236739814281464, -0.3398536443710327, -0.3297281265258789, 0.821837842464447, -0.20827347040176392, 0.03623251989483833, -0.08318635821342468, -0.1578720360994339, -0.005311678163707256, -0.046155091375112534, -0.0455435365...	5	What’s the story behind the locksmithing trade? In ancient times locks were few and far between, used only by individuals with power and authority. The history of locksmithing is said to date back 4000 years ago, beginning in Egypt and Babylon. It’s believed by some that locks were used to secure items from thieves along traveling roads during ancient times. This is a myth. Locks were not a common possession. In ancient times locks were much different than what we see and use today. Locks were oversized and made of wood, accompanied by an enormous wooden key. The wooden key was typically worn on a ring around the finger of its owner, to publically display the significance of the individual. In that time having a key meant you had items worth securing, symbolizing an abundance of wealth. With this status came great honor and importance among the people. While older locks were extremely large and made of different materials than what is used today, they do not function so differently. The oldest lock was found in the ruins of the Assyrian empire and is believed to have been created in 704 BC. This lock functioned by way of a pin mechanism, and its key appeared like an oversized toothbrush. The key was created to push the pin inside of its lock upwards, releasing its hold. Modern keys have advanced significantly since then but still, require a similar mechanism. Wooden locks and keys were used for centuries and were not evolved much until metal locks began appearing in Europe around 870 AD. These locks were made of iron or brass, and were seen stretching from Europe clear into China. They operated by metal keys that were twisted, pushed or screwed into the lock. Metal locks and keys remained the same for a long time, until the days of the industrial revolution in the 18th Century. Starting in this time we see immense growth in the locksmithing profession. A paned window into history: - In 1778 Robert Barron perfected the Lever Tumbler Lock. This lock required the lever (inside of the lock) to be lifted at a specific height in order to be released. - In 1817 there was a burglary in the Portsmouth Dockyard. In this time, the British government announced a competition, and it was won by a man named Jeremiah Chubb, who created the Chubb Detector Lock. This lock was difficult to pick but also gave an indication to its owner when someone tampered with it. Locks and keys were heavily tested by many individuals (of different abilities and social status) before a champion was announced, and the system was utilized. Jeremiah and his brother, Charles Chubb, began their own locksmithing business following the victory of Jeremiah’s success. - In 1848 Linus Yale perfected the double-acting pin tumbler lock. This lock was designed using a pin of different lengths, created to stop the lock from being opened without the proper key. - In 1861 Linus Yale invented a smaller key with serrated edges. His designed locks and keys are still used today. And if you ever need a Locksmith in Eugene OR, give us a call!	647	ENGLISH	1
As it is a known fact that gender bias and patriarchy are the practices and the ideologies that prevalent in today’s world as well. Maybe they are not practiced the way they were practiced back in the day, but still the harsh reality is that these practices still exist in our societies. Women are still treated as the secondary citizens in the society. They are still considered inferior to men. Even today , even after women have achieved so much in the world and in every possible field, still they are majorly seen as homemakers and non working class in the economy. They are still treated as they always need the support of men if want to lead a happy and a successful life. Still they are expected to take permission from male members in their families , either fathers or husbands, even if they want to pursue the smallest of the jobs on their own. Still it is thought that women can not take care of themselves and they still need the male population to make their lives better. Essay due? We'll write it for you! The two plays – Medea and Midsummer Night’s Dream – are laden with references and practices of gender bias and patriarchy. Even though in Medea , where the protagonist is a female and is portrayed in a very ferocious and a brave women , still instead of praising her guts and bravery, her acts are being compared to that of men. She is said to be “as brave as” or “as ferocious as a man” By such comparison , the play’s narrative automatically places the males over and above the females in the field of bravery and strength, which is a clear evidence of a patriarchy. It is a clear indication that women were expected to be very silent and soft spoken and they were not expected to show any strength and/or bravery. Even if they were to show any of these qualities they were always compared to men. In the play Medea, when Medea decides to take revenge from Jason for betraying her and is ready to go to any extent for her revenge, she is repeatedly compared to the male society for the extraordinary portrayal of courage, bravery, vengeance and anger. Even in the narration , it is very evident that the task or the actions which she intends to perform are not what women in society usually do and she repeatedly questioned about her actions. In the start of the play , a group of ladies come to console her after she has been betrayed and banished. But when she tells this group that she plans to take revenge for the injustice which she faced , they ask her that does she has the strength and the courage to go against his husband and the king. They also say that her revenge is justified but as soon as Creon enters they all shut their mouths and stand quietly in a corner. This is another example of a male dominated and male feared society that was present at the time this play was written. These same incidents and practices can be seen in Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream. The same male dominated society who think women are incapable is visible in this play. Every act of the play except the Act where Hermia and Helena fight with each other over the two men, women are shown inferior , delicate and scared. When the rude mechanical s are practicing for their play, Peter Quince and rest of the actors come to a decision to have prologue before the lion’s part so that the people shall know that he is not a lion and actually a man. When they are having this discussion, they say that they should have this prologue as the ladies can get scared and this might get them hanged. During the actual performance also , when the Lion is narrating his prologue, he refers to the ladies who have a faint heart and get easily scared. By these two acts , it can be seen that men were considered braver and to have a stronger heart as compared to the women. Women were believed to have a faint heart and were the ones who might get scared very easily. There are major evidences of patriarchy and gender bias in Medea. Throughout the play, any act done by Medea has been compared to what a male would do in that exact same situation. Also, all the acts of revenge and bravery done by Medea are considered to be wrong on her part and she is thus banished and exiled from the city of Athens. Some strong references of Patriarchy can be seen throughout the play. First reference which we come across is when Medea is betrayed by her husband and is banished by him with their two sons and still she is the one who is banished from the state and is exiled from the city by the king. Another major reference in the play which shows the male dominant society of that time is the instance where Jason can easily go and have a second marriage and yet face no consequences. But on the other hand, Medea has to go through a series of troubles and hardships even though she was the one who was the victim. Another evidence of Patriarchy can be seen when the king orders Medea to exile and Medea has no option but to follow the order. Disobedience of the order would have lead to death of both Medea and her children. Even though Medea had no other place to go and the order of exile was wrong on the king’s part, yet she had to follow the order. This shows that women were bound to follow whatever orders were given to them , even if they were unfair or they were punished. Similar references of Patriarchy can be seen in Midsummer Night’s Dream. In this play also, the setting is of a patriarchal system were women are given less importance throughout the play and men are always considered right and superior. Since the starting of the play , women are considered inferior to men. We come to know that Hippolytha is the queen who was a warrior in reality but she had to marry Thesus as he won her in a battle. She , although being a strong women , was treated like some kind of a war trophy. Another incident which portrays patriarchy was when Hermia is defined by her father as his property and she will have to do whatever he orders her. She has no say in her own life’s decision and is expected to follow her father’s order. Also her father denotes Hermia as a baggage which he has the right to dispose off and he has full right of where she will go. Also , disobedience of her father’s order will either lead to her death or living the life of a nun. She absolutely has no say in this decision and even if she truly love Lysander , she can not disobey her father. Another incident of male dominance can be seen between Oberon and Titania. Oberon wanted Titania to give up the Indian Boy and he ordered her to do so as he was her Husband. Her refusal came as a shock to him and thus he asked Puck to get the love potion and trick her into giving up the boy. This shows that he was hell bent on defeating her own wife so that he can be seen as superior to her. All these incidents are evidences of the Patriarchal society that existed during that time. These practices are still followed in today’s day and time and there is no escaping them. Women still live in a male dominant society and still have to go through various levels of hardships in their day to day life because the society they live in still believe that men are superior to women. Disclaimer: This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. You can order our professional work here. Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now	<urn:uuid:0e2f7a46-ac8f-41e0-8391-d7f39b681984>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://eduzaurus.com/free-essay-samples/gender-bias-and-patriarchy/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00549.warc.gz	en	0.987352	1,632	3.828125	4	[ 0.16395726799964905, 0.08641402423381805, 0.006356736179441214, -0.21221208572387695, 0.043556004762649536, 0.48659077286720276, 0.18848052620887756, 0.15341900289058685, 0.38415151834487915, -0.1402108073234558, 0.026350628584623337, 0.03772183507680893, 0.20561635494232178, 0.01331553049...	2	As it is a known fact that gender bias and patriarchy are the practices and the ideologies that prevalent in today’s world as well. Maybe they are not practiced the way they were practiced back in the day, but still the harsh reality is that these practices still exist in our societies. Women are still treated as the secondary citizens in the society. They are still considered inferior to men. Even today , even after women have achieved so much in the world and in every possible field, still they are majorly seen as homemakers and non working class in the economy. They are still treated as they always need the support of men if want to lead a happy and a successful life. Still they are expected to take permission from male members in their families , either fathers or husbands, even if they want to pursue the smallest of the jobs on their own. Still it is thought that women can not take care of themselves and they still need the male population to make their lives better. Essay due? We'll write it for you! The two plays – Medea and Midsummer Night’s Dream – are laden with references and practices of gender bias and patriarchy. Even though in Medea , where the protagonist is a female and is portrayed in a very ferocious and a brave women , still instead of praising her guts and bravery, her acts are being compared to that of men. She is said to be “as brave as” or “as ferocious as a man” By such comparison , the play’s narrative automatically places the males over and above the females in the field of bravery and strength, which is a clear evidence of a patriarchy. It is a clear indication that women were expected to be very silent and soft spoken and they were not expected to show any strength and/or bravery. Even if they were to show any of these qualities they were always compared to men. In the play Medea, when Medea decides to take revenge from Jason for betraying her and is ready to go to any extent for her revenge, she is repeatedly compared to the male society for the extraordinary portrayal of courage, bravery, vengeance and anger. Even in the narration , it is very evident that the task or the actions which she intends to perform are not what women in society usually do and she repeatedly questioned about her actions. In the start of the play , a group of ladies come to console her after she has been betrayed and banished. But when she tells this group that she plans to take revenge for the injustice which she faced , they ask her that does she has the strength and the courage to go against his husband and the king. They also say that her revenge is justified but as soon as Creon enters they all shut their mouths and stand quietly in a corner. This is another example of a male dominated and male feared society that was present at the time this play was written. These same incidents and practices can be seen in Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream. The same male dominated society who think women are incapable is visible in this play. Every act of the play except the Act where Hermia and Helena fight with each other over the two men, women are shown inferior , delicate and scared. When the rude mechanical s are practicing for their play, Peter Quince and rest of the actors come to a decision to have prologue before the lion’s part so that the people shall know that he is not a lion and actually a man. When they are having this discussion, they say that they should have this prologue as the ladies can get scared and this might get them hanged. During the actual performance also , when the Lion is narrating his prologue, he refers to the ladies who have a faint heart and get easily scared. By these two acts , it can be seen that men were considered braver and to have a stronger heart as compared to the women. Women were believed to have a faint heart and were the ones who might get scared very easily. There are major evidences of patriarchy and gender bias in Medea. Throughout the play, any act done by Medea has been compared to what a male would do in that exact same situation. Also, all the acts of revenge and bravery done by Medea are considered to be wrong on her part and she is thus banished and exiled from the city of Athens. Some strong references of Patriarchy can be seen throughout the play. First reference which we come across is when Medea is betrayed by her husband and is banished by him with their two sons and still she is the one who is banished from the state and is exiled from the city by the king. Another major reference in the play which shows the male dominant society of that time is the instance where Jason can easily go and have a second marriage and yet face no consequences. But on the other hand, Medea has to go through a series of troubles and hardships even though she was the one who was the victim. Another evidence of Patriarchy can be seen when the king orders Medea to exile and Medea has no option but to follow the order. Disobedience of the order would have lead to death of both Medea and her children. Even though Medea had no other place to go and the order of exile was wrong on the king’s part, yet she had to follow the order. This shows that women were bound to follow whatever orders were given to them , even if they were unfair or they were punished. Similar references of Patriarchy can be seen in Midsummer Night’s Dream. In this play also, the setting is of a patriarchal system were women are given less importance throughout the play and men are always considered right and superior. Since the starting of the play , women are considered inferior to men. We come to know that Hippolytha is the queen who was a warrior in reality but she had to marry Thesus as he won her in a battle. She , although being a strong women , was treated like some kind of a war trophy. Another incident which portrays patriarchy was when Hermia is defined by her father as his property and she will have to do whatever he orders her. She has no say in her own life’s decision and is expected to follow her father’s order. Also her father denotes Hermia as a baggage which he has the right to dispose off and he has full right of where she will go. Also , disobedience of her father’s order will either lead to her death or living the life of a nun. She absolutely has no say in this decision and even if she truly love Lysander , she can not disobey her father. Another incident of male dominance can be seen between Oberon and Titania. Oberon wanted Titania to give up the Indian Boy and he ordered her to do so as he was her Husband. Her refusal came as a shock to him and thus he asked Puck to get the love potion and trick her into giving up the boy. This shows that he was hell bent on defeating her own wife so that he can be seen as superior to her. All these incidents are evidences of the Patriarchal society that existed during that time. These practices are still followed in today’s day and time and there is no escaping them. Women still live in a male dominant society and still have to go through various levels of hardships in their day to day life because the society they live in still believe that men are superior to women. Disclaimer: This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. You can order our professional work here. Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now	1,601	ENGLISH	1
Remains found of explorer Matthew Flinders who put Australia on the map The remains of the first British explorer to circumnavigate the Australian continent and popularise the countrys name have been found near a busy... SYDNEY: The remains of the first British explorer to circumnavigate the Australian continent and popularise the country's name have been found near a busy London railway station. Archaeologists sifting through a vast burial ground near Euston station said Friday they had found a coffin plate identifying the last resting place of Royal Navy captain Matthew Flinders. Flinders was buried on 23rd July 1814, but not before publishing "A Voyage to Terra Australis," which described his circumnavigation of Australia in 1802-1803 that proved it was a continent. "Flinders put Australia on the map due to his tenacity and expertise as a navigator and explorer," said Helen Wass, an archaeologist overseeing the dig for the HS2 high speed rail project. With an estimated 40,000 remains at the site, archaeologists were not sure they were going to find Flinders, whose resting place had been subject to much speculation. "We were very lucky" said Wass, he "had a breastplate made of lead meaning it would not have corroded." "We'll now be able to study his skeleton to see whether life at sea left its mark and what more we can learn about him." Flinders is a hero for many Australians of European origin, with stations, streets, squares and towns across the country named after him. The discovery of his remains comes on the eve of "Australia Day" a controversial national holiday which falls on the date of the arrival of the British First Fleet to Australia. Many Australians view the Fleet and men like Flinders as harbingers of the decimation of ancient Aboriginal societies and cultures. There is added controversy over the role of an aboriginal Australian aide to Flinders named Bungaree, who has been largely eclipsed by his British captain, but who historians now believe played a crucial role in success of the voyages.	<urn:uuid:5b28304c-d029-4592-a17e-856c1b9c2f7b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/International/2019-01-25/Remains-found-of-explorer-Matthew-Flinders-who-put-Australia-on-the-map/482181	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00031.warc.gz	en	0.980291	434	3.28125	3	[ 0.045406050980091095, 0.06839102506637573, 0.40551403164863586, 0.19448581337928772, -0.2824231684207916, -0.11375639587640762, -0.012820365838706493, -0.04638093337416649, -0.4205276668071747, 0.02874217927455902, 0.2900431752204895, -1.0425046682357788, 0.0012801196426153183, 0.679710507...	1	Remains found of explorer Matthew Flinders who put Australia on the map The remains of the first British explorer to circumnavigate the Australian continent and popularise the countrys name have been found near a busy... SYDNEY: The remains of the first British explorer to circumnavigate the Australian continent and popularise the country's name have been found near a busy London railway station. Archaeologists sifting through a vast burial ground near Euston station said Friday they had found a coffin plate identifying the last resting place of Royal Navy captain Matthew Flinders. Flinders was buried on 23rd July 1814, but not before publishing "A Voyage to Terra Australis," which described his circumnavigation of Australia in 1802-1803 that proved it was a continent. "Flinders put Australia on the map due to his tenacity and expertise as a navigator and explorer," said Helen Wass, an archaeologist overseeing the dig for the HS2 high speed rail project. With an estimated 40,000 remains at the site, archaeologists were not sure they were going to find Flinders, whose resting place had been subject to much speculation. "We were very lucky" said Wass, he "had a breastplate made of lead meaning it would not have corroded." "We'll now be able to study his skeleton to see whether life at sea left its mark and what more we can learn about him." Flinders is a hero for many Australians of European origin, with stations, streets, squares and towns across the country named after him. The discovery of his remains comes on the eve of "Australia Day" a controversial national holiday which falls on the date of the arrival of the British First Fleet to Australia. Many Australians view the Fleet and men like Flinders as harbingers of the decimation of ancient Aboriginal societies and cultures. There is added controversy over the role of an aboriginal Australian aide to Flinders named Bungaree, who has been largely eclipsed by his British captain, but who historians now believe played a crucial role in success of the voyages.	430	ENGLISH	1
Sadi Carnot Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Birth Place : Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot (now best known as simply Sadi Carnot) was born on June 1, 1796, in France. His father was Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot. He also had a brother named Hippolyte. Sadi Carnot attended the prestigious Ecole Polytechnique, which was one of the best schools for youngsters in the country at the time. He graduated from this school in 1814. Around 1820, Sadi Carnot went back to school and started to attend classes at both the college de France the Sorbonne. It was while at this school that he became interested in science. One of his main interests in the subject was that of gases. This would be a topic that he would later study for the rest of his life. During his time at the Ecole Polytechnique, he also joined the French Army. During this time, Napoleon was leading the military. Sadi Carnot only stayed in an active duty military position until 1814. After this, he attended the Ecole du Genie for further military training, specifically for military engineering. While he was at this school, Napoleon was exiled from France, returned, and was defeated. In 1819, Sadi Carnot joined the General Staff Corps division of the French Army. While here, he also went to college to continue his education. In 1821, the first steam engine rode through the town Sadi Carnot was living in. He was deeply, interested in the new machine, but he didn’t know how it worked. After seeing the machine, he had the new goal of figuring out how it worked and making a general theory for all steam engines. Up until this point in time, scientists were unsure of what heat actually was. Some thought that is was an invisible liquid. Sadi Carnot was sure that couldn’t be right. He knew heat went into making steam engines work, and he believed the machine to be efficient, and he wanted to prove his ideas to others. Around 1823, Sadi Carnot began working on writing a book about his ideas. He later published this book in 1824 and called it Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire. In this book, he proposed a theory on how heat worked; this was later called the Carnot Cycle. The Merriam Webster online dictionary defines the Carnot Cycle as so, “an ideal reversible closed thermodynamic cycle in which the working substance goes through the four successive operations of isothermal expansion to the desired point, adiabatic expansion to a desired point, isothermal compression, and adiabatic compression back to its initial state.” The site also claims that the term was not used until many years after Carnot’s death, in 1887. Sadi Carnot’s book made a turning point in thermodynamic science. Along with the Carnot Cycle, the book also proposed the ideal way to make a steam engine. This engine would have made it so no parts of the engine would become heated terribly, but it could still produce steam. While Carnot’s theory for a steam engine was wonderful, it is likely to be impossible actually to build. Many of his other ideas in this book would later go on to influence other scientists who would study heat. Some of his ideas also went on to influence the theory of thermodynamics. While Sadi Carnot did write many other things, mostly essays, much of his work is lost to modern-day science because it was lost in a fire. Sadi Carnot died on August 24, 1832, in Paris, France. The cause of his death was cholera. He was only 36 years old when he passed away. More People From France Charles Robert Richet	<urn:uuid:6f628f4c-0ff8-4fbc-b7a5-3cbda527e856>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/sadi-carnot/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00360.warc.gz	en	0.986601	803	3.265625	3	[ 0.018761122599244118, 0.865403413772583, 0.3578125536441803, 0.21863579750061035, -0.4093138575553894, 0.3445192277431488, 0.5246520042419434, 0.17984206974506378, -0.15546202659606934, -0.4002060294151306, 0.04422950744628906, -0.5269705057144165, 0.24662896990776062, 0.9473696351051331, ...	1	Sadi Carnot Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Birth Place : Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot (now best known as simply Sadi Carnot) was born on June 1, 1796, in France. His father was Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot. He also had a brother named Hippolyte. Sadi Carnot attended the prestigious Ecole Polytechnique, which was one of the best schools for youngsters in the country at the time. He graduated from this school in 1814. Around 1820, Sadi Carnot went back to school and started to attend classes at both the college de France the Sorbonne. It was while at this school that he became interested in science. One of his main interests in the subject was that of gases. This would be a topic that he would later study for the rest of his life. During his time at the Ecole Polytechnique, he also joined the French Army. During this time, Napoleon was leading the military. Sadi Carnot only stayed in an active duty military position until 1814. After this, he attended the Ecole du Genie for further military training, specifically for military engineering. While he was at this school, Napoleon was exiled from France, returned, and was defeated. In 1819, Sadi Carnot joined the General Staff Corps division of the French Army. While here, he also went to college to continue his education. In 1821, the first steam engine rode through the town Sadi Carnot was living in. He was deeply, interested in the new machine, but he didn’t know how it worked. After seeing the machine, he had the new goal of figuring out how it worked and making a general theory for all steam engines. Up until this point in time, scientists were unsure of what heat actually was. Some thought that is was an invisible liquid. Sadi Carnot was sure that couldn’t be right. He knew heat went into making steam engines work, and he believed the machine to be efficient, and he wanted to prove his ideas to others. Around 1823, Sadi Carnot began working on writing a book about his ideas. He later published this book in 1824 and called it Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire. In this book, he proposed a theory on how heat worked; this was later called the Carnot Cycle. The Merriam Webster online dictionary defines the Carnot Cycle as so, “an ideal reversible closed thermodynamic cycle in which the working substance goes through the four successive operations of isothermal expansion to the desired point, adiabatic expansion to a desired point, isothermal compression, and adiabatic compression back to its initial state.” The site also claims that the term was not used until many years after Carnot’s death, in 1887. Sadi Carnot’s book made a turning point in thermodynamic science. Along with the Carnot Cycle, the book also proposed the ideal way to make a steam engine. This engine would have made it so no parts of the engine would become heated terribly, but it could still produce steam. While Carnot’s theory for a steam engine was wonderful, it is likely to be impossible actually to build. Many of his other ideas in this book would later go on to influence other scientists who would study heat. Some of his ideas also went on to influence the theory of thermodynamics. While Sadi Carnot did write many other things, mostly essays, much of his work is lost to modern-day science because it was lost in a fire. Sadi Carnot died on August 24, 1832, in Paris, France. The cause of his death was cholera. He was only 36 years old when he passed away. More People From France Charles Robert Richet	810	ENGLISH	1
Bravery can be classified into two kinds-real bravery and false bravery. One kind of false bravery arises from ignorance of danger. If an infant plays with a cobra, it would be absolutely free. from fear, and would do what brave men would fear to do; but we ought not to call it bravery, for it has no appreciation of the danger. Yet such fearlessness is often mistaken for real bravery. If the want of recognition of danger is due to intoxication, the quality of bravery is sometimes called Dutch courage, because the drink that was served out to troops before an attack was usually Dutch rum. Another spurious form of courage is actually due to fear, as when a soldier stands his ground in a battle, because he fears the punishment which will be inflicted on him if he runs away. In such cases thể stronger fear overcomes the weaker fear, and surely the man who is actuated by any kind of fear cannot be said to be displaying bravery because it has its own virtues. What is true courage? Now we consider it. The simplest form of courage is constitutional courage, which shows itself in the absence of trembling and of other signs of fear in the face of great danger. When Louis XVI was being led to execution, he is said to have exclaimed, “Am I afraid? Feel my pulse.” His steady pulse, when he was on the point of dying a terrible death, showed that he was physically brave.” One of the most striking instances of constitutional bravery to be found in history is Nelson. In his childhood on one occasion, he happened to have lost himself, to the great alarm of his parents. On his being found, when wonder was expressed that fear had not driven him home, he replied: “Fear; I never saw fear. What is it?” All through his life he showed himself absolutely insensible to fear. His spirits: rose in the hour of danger, and, when the enemy’s cannon-balls were flying round his head, he was perfectly cool and collected. This is only one example. Tipu Sultan also fell martyr fighting bravely. That is quite possible for a man to be constitutionally timid and nevertheless to he brave. Indeed, the bravery of a man who, by determined resolution, rises superior to his fears, is perhaps the highest kind of courage. Such was the courage of Turenne, one of the greatest French generals. Once when he was going into battle, he felt himself trembling all over. But instead of yielding to his physical fears, he exclaimed to his body, “What are you trembling now? Just wait and see what you will have to go through presently. It shows that man should be brave inwardly and that is real bravery. The excess of everything is had and the same case is here. The excess of courage is condemned as foolhardiness. A man is foolhardy who, for some trifling object, runs into great danger. When a sailor jumps out of an express train to recover his hat or smokes his pipes over a powder magazine, then instead of being praised for his carelessness of danger, he is rightly blamed for foolishly risking his life. This is not bravery. It is called foolishness. Bravery and reason go hand in hand. The great Augustan poet is right saying that; “Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.”	<urn:uuid:0d2d432c-a611-49c4-a477-f25d0cdc5543>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thecollegestudy.net/2019/03/short-paragraph-on-bravery-550-words.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00234.warc.gz	en	0.986243	698	3.328125	3	[ -0.12855422496795654, 0.48284366726875305, -0.21507768332958221, 0.30080223083496094, 0.2731412649154663, -0.035398662090301514, 1.026646614074707, 0.2597619295120239, 0.1196497455239296, -0.524344265460968, -0.06852428615093231, -0.2501106560230255, 0.06015506759285927, 0.1007040217518806...	7	Bravery can be classified into two kinds-real bravery and false bravery. One kind of false bravery arises from ignorance of danger. If an infant plays with a cobra, it would be absolutely free. from fear, and would do what brave men would fear to do; but we ought not to call it bravery, for it has no appreciation of the danger. Yet such fearlessness is often mistaken for real bravery. If the want of recognition of danger is due to intoxication, the quality of bravery is sometimes called Dutch courage, because the drink that was served out to troops before an attack was usually Dutch rum. Another spurious form of courage is actually due to fear, as when a soldier stands his ground in a battle, because he fears the punishment which will be inflicted on him if he runs away. In such cases thể stronger fear overcomes the weaker fear, and surely the man who is actuated by any kind of fear cannot be said to be displaying bravery because it has its own virtues. What is true courage? Now we consider it. The simplest form of courage is constitutional courage, which shows itself in the absence of trembling and of other signs of fear in the face of great danger. When Louis XVI was being led to execution, he is said to have exclaimed, “Am I afraid? Feel my pulse.” His steady pulse, when he was on the point of dying a terrible death, showed that he was physically brave.” One of the most striking instances of constitutional bravery to be found in history is Nelson. In his childhood on one occasion, he happened to have lost himself, to the great alarm of his parents. On his being found, when wonder was expressed that fear had not driven him home, he replied: “Fear; I never saw fear. What is it?” All through his life he showed himself absolutely insensible to fear. His spirits: rose in the hour of danger, and, when the enemy’s cannon-balls were flying round his head, he was perfectly cool and collected. This is only one example. Tipu Sultan also fell martyr fighting bravely. That is quite possible for a man to be constitutionally timid and nevertheless to he brave. Indeed, the bravery of a man who, by determined resolution, rises superior to his fears, is perhaps the highest kind of courage. Such was the courage of Turenne, one of the greatest French generals. Once when he was going into battle, he felt himself trembling all over. But instead of yielding to his physical fears, he exclaimed to his body, “What are you trembling now? Just wait and see what you will have to go through presently. It shows that man should be brave inwardly and that is real bravery. The excess of everything is had and the same case is here. The excess of courage is condemned as foolhardiness. A man is foolhardy who, for some trifling object, runs into great danger. When a sailor jumps out of an express train to recover his hat or smokes his pipes over a powder magazine, then instead of being praised for his carelessness of danger, he is rightly blamed for foolishly risking his life. This is not bravery. It is called foolishness. Bravery and reason go hand in hand. The great Augustan poet is right saying that; “Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.”	677	ENGLISH	1
Aristotle was born in Stagria, a Greek community in Thrace, in 384 B.C.Most of what we know is from a compilation by Diogenes Laertius.He learned dissection and anatomy from his father, Nichomachus.At the age of 17, his personal guard Proxenus sent him to Athens. Aristotle paid close attention to his clothes and accent, as to make himself appear as of a higher class.He then studied at Plato's Academy at the age of 18.He earned the reputation of being the most brilliant student quickly.Plato once said that his Academy consisted of the body of his students and the brain of Aristotle. Plato died when Aristotle was 37.Aristotle expected to become the next master of the Academy.However, The Trustees chose a native Athenian, since Aristotle was not born in Athens.Aristotle became an advisor to a former classmate who became a philosopher-king in Asia Minor. Aristotle had little affect and did not influence his former classmate.Nonetheless, Aristotle then married the adopted daughter, Pythias, of the King, Hermeias.Hermeias offended the King of Persia and was then crucified. Aristotle was forced to leave with his wife.They fled to the island of Lesbos where he studied Natural History.While on the island his wife died giving birth to their daughter.Later he had a son with Herpyllis, a lady that he lived with. In 343 B.C. King Phillip of Macedonia invited Aristotle to train his son Alexander.Alexander became one of history's greatest generals, who became known as Alexander the Great.On his conquests he ordered his troops to bring back specimens for his old teacher. King Phillip later sent Aristotle back to Stagria, Greece in 340 B.C.While in Stagria, Aristotle wrote a code of laws to help restore the community, which was ruined by war.In 334 B.C. Aristotle returned to Athens, where founded his own Platonic school there, and later at Lyceum.Alexander possibly funded these schools, whe…	<urn:uuid:16e6720d-ab28-4b4d-b823-43d97efd5e4c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/aristotle-life/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00228.warc.gz	en	0.991499	439	3.625	4	[ 0.3513753116130829, 0.4084828794002533, 0.3927009105682373, -0.4097795784473419, -0.4803968071937561, -0.43133610486984253, 0.288458913564682, 0.344486266374588, -0.0745091661810875, 0.035018328577280045, -0.1434253454208374, -0.44112011790275574, 0.046895191073417664, 0.22176998853683472,...	1	Aristotle was born in Stagria, a Greek community in Thrace, in 384 B.C.Most of what we know is from a compilation by Diogenes Laertius.He learned dissection and anatomy from his father, Nichomachus.At the age of 17, his personal guard Proxenus sent him to Athens. Aristotle paid close attention to his clothes and accent, as to make himself appear as of a higher class.He then studied at Plato's Academy at the age of 18.He earned the reputation of being the most brilliant student quickly.Plato once said that his Academy consisted of the body of his students and the brain of Aristotle. Plato died when Aristotle was 37.Aristotle expected to become the next master of the Academy.However, The Trustees chose a native Athenian, since Aristotle was not born in Athens.Aristotle became an advisor to a former classmate who became a philosopher-king in Asia Minor. Aristotle had little affect and did not influence his former classmate.Nonetheless, Aristotle then married the adopted daughter, Pythias, of the King, Hermeias.Hermeias offended the King of Persia and was then crucified. Aristotle was forced to leave with his wife.They fled to the island of Lesbos where he studied Natural History.While on the island his wife died giving birth to their daughter.Later he had a son with Herpyllis, a lady that he lived with. In 343 B.C. King Phillip of Macedonia invited Aristotle to train his son Alexander.Alexander became one of history's greatest generals, who became known as Alexander the Great.On his conquests he ordered his troops to bring back specimens for his old teacher. King Phillip later sent Aristotle back to Stagria, Greece in 340 B.C.While in Stagria, Aristotle wrote a code of laws to help restore the community, which was ruined by war.In 334 B.C. Aristotle returned to Athens, where founded his own Platonic school there, and later at Lyceum.Alexander possibly funded these schools, whe…	440	ENGLISH	1
The relationship between our Constitution and other laws The Constitution is a law passed by Parliament and it is the highest law in the land. All other laws must follow it. Other laws can be divided into statutes, common law and customary law: Statutes are laws, which are made by government. Laws made by the national parliament are called Acts of Parliament. Laws made by Provincial legislatures are called Ordinances, and laws made by Municipal Councils are called by-laws. Common law means laws that have not been made by parliament or any other government. They are unwritten laws. Common law is based on Roman Dutch law (laws that were brought by the Dutch when they arrived in South Africa). The courts used these laws and developed them when they made decisions. Customary laws are also unwritten laws. They are laws that apply to certain cultures or ethnic groups. All these laws have to follow the Constitution. In other words, they cannot go against what the Constitution says. So, new laws must follow the Constitution and the government must change old laws or parts of old laws if they don't follow the Constitution. If a customary law or common law goes against the Constitution then a court will say it is invalid. In other words, it can't apply in the situation.	<urn:uuid:7a046318-600b-476e-90e6-47972e8976e6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/celebrating-freedom-and-democracy	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00279.warc.gz	en	0.984517	259	4	4	[ -0.38041919469833374, -0.1421322226524353, 0.03333846107125282, -0.305348664522171, 0.15206871926784515, -0.15986214578151703, 0.5125827789306641, -0.30930882692337036, -0.013799515552818775, 0.215613454580307, -0.281729519367218, -0.10254108905792236, -0.2953682541847229, 0.11021838337182...	8	The relationship between our Constitution and other laws The Constitution is a law passed by Parliament and it is the highest law in the land. All other laws must follow it. Other laws can be divided into statutes, common law and customary law: Statutes are laws, which are made by government. Laws made by the national parliament are called Acts of Parliament. Laws made by Provincial legislatures are called Ordinances, and laws made by Municipal Councils are called by-laws. Common law means laws that have not been made by parliament or any other government. They are unwritten laws. Common law is based on Roman Dutch law (laws that were brought by the Dutch when they arrived in South Africa). The courts used these laws and developed them when they made decisions. Customary laws are also unwritten laws. They are laws that apply to certain cultures or ethnic groups. All these laws have to follow the Constitution. In other words, they cannot go against what the Constitution says. So, new laws must follow the Constitution and the government must change old laws or parts of old laws if they don't follow the Constitution. If a customary law or common law goes against the Constitution then a court will say it is invalid. In other words, it can't apply in the situation.	257	ENGLISH	1
In 1500 the population of England was about 3 million. Due to yearly outbreaks of plague and sickness the population stayed at about this number. There was a general shortage of labourers which meant wages were high and rents low. All classes therefore enjoyed a reasonable standard of living. The city of London had a population of around 60,000. It extended from Aldgate and the Tower of London in the east to Fleet Street and Temple Bar in the west. The village of Holborn was the northern extreme and the town of Southwark across the river marked the southernmost point. The only bridge across the river was London Bridge. St Paul’s Cathedral, on the top of Ludgate Hill, dominated the city. It was built in the Gothic style with a square Gothic tower. The streets of London were narrow and dirty and the upper floors of the timber houses often overhung the roads. If a fire broke out, large areas of the city could be destroyed. If this happened the community worked together to rebuild lost buildings. The roads were not paved and became bogs when it rained. Many of the inhabitants of London knew each other because the houses were packed so closely together. Noblemen, bishops and leading merchants all kept large establishments in the city. The church owned houses, tenements and plots of land all over the city. Merchants resented the dominance of the church in the city because there was a lack of premises from which to do business. The twelve great companies: mercers, grocers, drapers, fishmongers, goldsmiths, skinners, salters, ironmongers, tailors, haberdashers, vintners and clothworkers dominated the political and social life of London. The aldermen and Lord Mayor of London were usually members of these twelve companies. Each trade had its own area. There were 52 goldsmiths in the Strand, the largest street in London, and the skinners’ workshops were found in Walbrook ward. Many leading members of these guilds were also members of the Merchant Adventurers. These men dealt in a variety of commodities and were agents for both imports and exports. They made frequent trips to Calais and Antwerp to haggle prices of wine, wool and cloth and quickly became very wealthy citizens. On Sundays and feast days many Londoners used the surrounding fields for recreation. Football, hockey and handball were popular sports and were played at Spitafield, Moorfield and Smithfield. Longbow practice was available in all fields while Smithfield was the site of horsefairs and the burning of heretics. Annual fairs were held in the city where outdoor entertainers, mummers, minstrels and puppeteers performed. Professional gamblers, minstrels and players could be found in the taverns. Although officially disapproved of, men from all walks of life could be found singing bawdy songs, applauding mummers and losing money at cards, shuffleboard, dice or tables (backgammon and draughts). Wealthy English people could afford the best houses and many lived in two storey wattle and daub houses. To build a wattle and daub house, the builder had to construct a large timber frame. The spaces between the timbers were then filled with woven twigs called wattle. The twigs were then covered with a mixture of mud and clay known as daub which was left to bake hard. The wooden timber was coated with black tar to help preserve it and prevent it rotting. The daub was often painted with limewash to make it look whiter. The roof was then tiled. Houses were furnished with basic furniture – tables, chairs, and wooden beds. The cloth trade was booming in England in 1500 and cloth could fetch a high price. Cloth was mainly produced in Somerset, The Cotswolds, East Anglia and Yorkshire. Clothiers from these areas travelled to the capital with their laden pack horses. They unloaded their wares in Blackwell Hall, Basinghill Street where the bales were sealed and weighed by market officials. The buyers had a monopoly for buying cloth and although clothmakers haggled prices were generally low. In a bid to make more money, many wealthy merchants bought their own country estates and filled the land with sheep so that they could control every stage in the manufacture of the cloth. The increase in the Wool trade with Burgundy meant that the demand for wool had increased. As a result more land was used to enclose sheep and people were becoming concerned about the loss of agricultural land to sheep farming. Travel was not easy in England in 1500 because most of the roads were dirt tracks which only remained visible and free from growth because of frequent use. Most carts and wagons had spiked wheels and blacksmiths usually set up their forges near the roads and made a good trade shoeing horses and repairing wheels. Travel was most hazardous in the winter months when rain or snow could obliterate the dirt tracks. Villages were few and far between and signposts a rarity. Travellers venturing into unknown areas would often employ a guide. People tended to travel in groups whenever possible for protection against being robbed by highwaymen. Employment and Unemployment Laws All English men had to obey laws which controlled all aspects of their lives from the colour clothes each class was allowed to wear to the number of dishes each should have for dinner. In 1495 a law had been passed to regulate the number of hours a labourer could work. During the summer months (mid March to mid September) they would begin work by 5am and work until 7pm or 8pm with a half hour break for breakfast and an hour for lunch. In the winter they would begin work at sunrise and work until sunset with the same breaks. There was no support for those that did not work. Some were able to get help from the monasteries but others had no choice but to beg. There were also those that chose not to work but instead made a living from travelling from town to town begging or making a living from gambling. The Vagabonds and Beggars Act was introduced in 1494 to try to stop working people from being exploited. Vagabonds and beggars that were caught would be put in the stocks for three days and only be given bread and water. Unfortunately, the act did not distinguish between those who were unable to find work and those that deliberately avoided work. Most people tried to obey the law since punishments for breaking laws were harsh. All classes, except peers, were likely to be tortured during investigations. If they were found guilty of treason they would be hung, drawn and quartered. Only peers were given the luxury of beheading. Women of any class could expect to be burned at the stake if found guilty of either treason or the murder of their husbands. During the year there were 40 feast and Saints’ days. It was law that everyone attend church on Sundays and Holy days unless they obtained a special dispensation. It was forbidden to eat meat, butter or cheese on Fridays, Saturdays, during Lent, during Advent or on the eve of Holy days. People were able to obtain a dispensation to exempt them from a holy law but a fee had to be paid to the king and it was usually necessary to bribe the priest or clerk granting the dispensation. Many priests were corrupt and lived openly with concubines and had fathered children despite it being law that they remained celibate. Most English people attended mass daily and truly believed the priest had the power to make the body of Christ. The tomb of Thomas Becket in Canterbury Cathedral and the shrine of our Lady at Walsingham were focal points for pilgrimages. These shrines had become very wealthy because of the large numbers of jewels and stones that had been left by pilgrims. A very small number of people did not believe that the Catholic religion was the true religion. The Lollard Movement believed that every man should have the opportunity to read the Bible and interpret it as he saw fit. However, the authorities stated that these beliefs were heretical. Heretics were given the opportunity to recant their beliefs but if they refused they were burned at the stake. Education had become increasingly important in England by the year 1500 and most large towns had a grammar school. Here the sons of those that could afford to pay for schooling learned Latin grammar. A knowledge of Latin grammar was essential for merchants who wished to trade across Europe and also for those that wished to pursue a legal or religious career. Lessons started at sunrise and often did not finish until sunset. Pupils that did not complete their studies to the teacher’s satisfaction were punished, usually by being whipped. Harvard Reference for this page: Heather Y Wheeler. (2017 – 2019). What was England like in 1500? Available: https://www.tudornation.com/what-was-england-like-in-1500 Last accessed January 18th, 2020	<urn:uuid:7b633763-9fab-4847-9b60-857a1f1cfe6b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.tudornation.com/what-was-england-like-in-1500/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00382.warc.gz	en	0.989303	1,843	3.703125	4	[ 0.40546923875808716, -0.2580430209636688, 0.3650451898574829, -0.18035081028938293, 0.3008614778518677, -0.21464934945106506, -0.12608200311660767, -0.08442580699920654, -0.2152850329875946, -0.07721804827451706, -0.11575490236282349, -0.4364360570907593, -0.09053526818752289, 0.0055438261...	1	In 1500 the population of England was about 3 million. Due to yearly outbreaks of plague and sickness the population stayed at about this number. There was a general shortage of labourers which meant wages were high and rents low. All classes therefore enjoyed a reasonable standard of living. The city of London had a population of around 60,000. It extended from Aldgate and the Tower of London in the east to Fleet Street and Temple Bar in the west. The village of Holborn was the northern extreme and the town of Southwark across the river marked the southernmost point. The only bridge across the river was London Bridge. St Paul’s Cathedral, on the top of Ludgate Hill, dominated the city. It was built in the Gothic style with a square Gothic tower. The streets of London were narrow and dirty and the upper floors of the timber houses often overhung the roads. If a fire broke out, large areas of the city could be destroyed. If this happened the community worked together to rebuild lost buildings. The roads were not paved and became bogs when it rained. Many of the inhabitants of London knew each other because the houses were packed so closely together. Noblemen, bishops and leading merchants all kept large establishments in the city. The church owned houses, tenements and plots of land all over the city. Merchants resented the dominance of the church in the city because there was a lack of premises from which to do business. The twelve great companies: mercers, grocers, drapers, fishmongers, goldsmiths, skinners, salters, ironmongers, tailors, haberdashers, vintners and clothworkers dominated the political and social life of London. The aldermen and Lord Mayor of London were usually members of these twelve companies. Each trade had its own area. There were 52 goldsmiths in the Strand, the largest street in London, and the skinners’ workshops were found in Walbrook ward. Many leading members of these guilds were also members of the Merchant Adventurers. These men dealt in a variety of commodities and were agents for both imports and exports. They made frequent trips to Calais and Antwerp to haggle prices of wine, wool and cloth and quickly became very wealthy citizens. On Sundays and feast days many Londoners used the surrounding fields for recreation. Football, hockey and handball were popular sports and were played at Spitafield, Moorfield and Smithfield. Longbow practice was available in all fields while Smithfield was the site of horsefairs and the burning of heretics. Annual fairs were held in the city where outdoor entertainers, mummers, minstrels and puppeteers performed. Professional gamblers, minstrels and players could be found in the taverns. Although officially disapproved of, men from all walks of life could be found singing bawdy songs, applauding mummers and losing money at cards, shuffleboard, dice or tables (backgammon and draughts). Wealthy English people could afford the best houses and many lived in two storey wattle and daub houses. To build a wattle and daub house, the builder had to construct a large timber frame. The spaces between the timbers were then filled with woven twigs called wattle. The twigs were then covered with a mixture of mud and clay known as daub which was left to bake hard. The wooden timber was coated with black tar to help preserve it and prevent it rotting. The daub was often painted with limewash to make it look whiter. The roof was then tiled. Houses were furnished with basic furniture – tables, chairs, and wooden beds. The cloth trade was booming in England in 1500 and cloth could fetch a high price. Cloth was mainly produced in Somerset, The Cotswolds, East Anglia and Yorkshire. Clothiers from these areas travelled to the capital with their laden pack horses. They unloaded their wares in Blackwell Hall, Basinghill Street where the bales were sealed and weighed by market officials. The buyers had a monopoly for buying cloth and although clothmakers haggled prices were generally low. In a bid to make more money, many wealthy merchants bought their own country estates and filled the land with sheep so that they could control every stage in the manufacture of the cloth. The increase in the Wool trade with Burgundy meant that the demand for wool had increased. As a result more land was used to enclose sheep and people were becoming concerned about the loss of agricultural land to sheep farming. Travel was not easy in England in 1500 because most of the roads were dirt tracks which only remained visible and free from growth because of frequent use. Most carts and wagons had spiked wheels and blacksmiths usually set up their forges near the roads and made a good trade shoeing horses and repairing wheels. Travel was most hazardous in the winter months when rain or snow could obliterate the dirt tracks. Villages were few and far between and signposts a rarity. Travellers venturing into unknown areas would often employ a guide. People tended to travel in groups whenever possible for protection against being robbed by highwaymen. Employment and Unemployment Laws All English men had to obey laws which controlled all aspects of their lives from the colour clothes each class was allowed to wear to the number of dishes each should have for dinner. In 1495 a law had been passed to regulate the number of hours a labourer could work. During the summer months (mid March to mid September) they would begin work by 5am and work until 7pm or 8pm with a half hour break for breakfast and an hour for lunch. In the winter they would begin work at sunrise and work until sunset with the same breaks. There was no support for those that did not work. Some were able to get help from the monasteries but others had no choice but to beg. There were also those that chose not to work but instead made a living from travelling from town to town begging or making a living from gambling. The Vagabonds and Beggars Act was introduced in 1494 to try to stop working people from being exploited. Vagabonds and beggars that were caught would be put in the stocks for three days and only be given bread and water. Unfortunately, the act did not distinguish between those who were unable to find work and those that deliberately avoided work. Most people tried to obey the law since punishments for breaking laws were harsh. All classes, except peers, were likely to be tortured during investigations. If they were found guilty of treason they would be hung, drawn and quartered. Only peers were given the luxury of beheading. Women of any class could expect to be burned at the stake if found guilty of either treason or the murder of their husbands. During the year there were 40 feast and Saints’ days. It was law that everyone attend church on Sundays and Holy days unless they obtained a special dispensation. It was forbidden to eat meat, butter or cheese on Fridays, Saturdays, during Lent, during Advent or on the eve of Holy days. People were able to obtain a dispensation to exempt them from a holy law but a fee had to be paid to the king and it was usually necessary to bribe the priest or clerk granting the dispensation. Many priests were corrupt and lived openly with concubines and had fathered children despite it being law that they remained celibate. Most English people attended mass daily and truly believed the priest had the power to make the body of Christ. The tomb of Thomas Becket in Canterbury Cathedral and the shrine of our Lady at Walsingham were focal points for pilgrimages. These shrines had become very wealthy because of the large numbers of jewels and stones that had been left by pilgrims. A very small number of people did not believe that the Catholic religion was the true religion. The Lollard Movement believed that every man should have the opportunity to read the Bible and interpret it as he saw fit. However, the authorities stated that these beliefs were heretical. Heretics were given the opportunity to recant their beliefs but if they refused they were burned at the stake. Education had become increasingly important in England by the year 1500 and most large towns had a grammar school. Here the sons of those that could afford to pay for schooling learned Latin grammar. A knowledge of Latin grammar was essential for merchants who wished to trade across Europe and also for those that wished to pursue a legal or religious career. Lessons started at sunrise and often did not finish until sunset. Pupils that did not complete their studies to the teacher’s satisfaction were punished, usually by being whipped. Harvard Reference for this page: Heather Y Wheeler. (2017 – 2019). What was England like in 1500? Available: https://www.tudornation.com/what-was-england-like-in-1500 Last accessed January 18th, 2020	1,866	ENGLISH	1
More than 7,000 years ago, in what is now northern Poland, a hardy band of farmers came up with a clever way to preserve the milk from their cows. They poured it into special pottery vessels with holes in the bottom, thereby separating the solids from the precious fluid to make cheese. That is the conclusion announced by a team of scientists today in the journal Nature, based on chemical analysis of the pottery - the first hard evidence for cheese-making by prehistoric humans. By making cheese, these early farmers could transport and store a good source of protein, said Princeton University anthropologist Peter Bogucki. Equally important, they could digest it. Lactose intolerance was almost universal among adults during that era, but cheese contains little lactose because it is separated during the straining process. The research was led by chemists at the University of Bristol. The pottery with holes was excavated by Bogucki and Polish colleagues in the 1970s, but until now they were unable to prove that the vessels were used to make cheese.	<urn:uuid:2c78ed25-e4c6-448e-8694-bf3c94ee9614>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.inquirer.com/philly/health/20121212_Earliest_evidence_of_cheese-making_found_-_in_Poland_.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00497.warc.gz	en	0.980536	218	4.0625	4	[ -0.2763404846191406, 0.4742112457752228, 0.42401960492134094, -0.03346732631325722, -0.04478699341416359, -0.035985808819532394, 0.040483761578798294, 0.4307909607887268, -0.3043540120124817, -0.23997259140014648, -0.3597354590892792, -0.6943756937980652, 0.21094480156898499, 0.52305328845...	2	More than 7,000 years ago, in what is now northern Poland, a hardy band of farmers came up with a clever way to preserve the milk from their cows. They poured it into special pottery vessels with holes in the bottom, thereby separating the solids from the precious fluid to make cheese. That is the conclusion announced by a team of scientists today in the journal Nature, based on chemical analysis of the pottery - the first hard evidence for cheese-making by prehistoric humans. By making cheese, these early farmers could transport and store a good source of protein, said Princeton University anthropologist Peter Bogucki. Equally important, they could digest it. Lactose intolerance was almost universal among adults during that era, but cheese contains little lactose because it is separated during the straining process. The research was led by chemists at the University of Bristol. The pottery with holes was excavated by Bogucki and Polish colleagues in the 1970s, but until now they were unable to prove that the vessels were used to make cheese.	217	ENGLISH	1
Martin was an early advocate of American independence from Great Britain. In the fall of 1774, as a resident of Somerset County, Maryland, he served on the county's patriot committee, and in December attended a convention of the Province of Maryland in Annapolis, which had been called to consider the recommendations of the American Congress. Martin married Maria Cresap (daughter of Captain Michael Cresap) on Christmas Day 1783. Of their five children, three daughters lived to adulthood. An extended display of his eloquence and volubility appears in "Modern Gratitude in Five Numbers: Addressed to Richard Raynall Keene, Esq. Concerning a Family Marriage" (1802)—a closely documented, fiercely argued (and partly autobiographical) denunciation of a former protégé who, against Martin's express wishes, had wooed and married Martin's daughter Eleonora. In 1785, he was elected to the Confederation Congress by the Maryland General Assembly, but his numerous public and private duties prevented him from traveling to Philadelphia. In an address to the Maryland House of Delegates in November 1787 and in numerous newspaper articles, Martin attacked the proposed new form of government and continued to fight ratification of the Constitution through 1788. He lamented the ascension of the national government over the states and condemned what he saw as unequal representation in Congress. He owned six slaves of his own but opposed including slaves in determining representation (most slave owners supported counting slaves for the purposes of determining representation - as this would increase the power of Slave States) and believed that the absence of a jury in the U.S. Supreme Court gravely endangered freedom. Maryland largely ignored Martin's warnings. In April 1788, it voted to ratify the Constitution, the seventh state to do so. In June, when New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify, the required threshold had been reached, and the new Constitution took effect. Three years later, the first 10 amendments were added. Around 1791, however, Martin turned to the Federalist Party because of his animosity toward Thomas Jefferson, who, in 1807, spoke of him as the "Federal Bull-Dog." The beginning of the 1800s saw Martin as defense counsel in two controversial national cases. In the first case, Martin won an acquittal for his close friend Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase in his impeachment trial in 1805. Two years later, Martin was one of Aaron Burr's defense lawyers when Burr stood trial for treason in 1807. After a record 28 consecutive years as state attorney general, Martin resigned in December 1805. In 1813, he became chief judge of the court of oyer and terminer for the City and County of Baltimore. He was reappointed attorney general of Maryland in 1818, and, in 1819, he argued Maryland's position in the landmark Supreme Court case McCulloch v. Maryland. The plaintiffs were represented by Daniel Webster, william Pinkney and william Wirt. Martin's fortunes declined dramatically in his last years. Alcoholism, illness, and poverty weighted heavily on Martin, taking their toll as he aged. By the mid-1820s, he was subsisting on a special tax imposed on Maryland lawyers solely for his personal support. Eventually, he was taken in by Aaron Burr, whom he had defended at this disgraced ex-vice president's 1807 trial for treason. By this time, detestation of Thomas Jefferson, his one-time decentralist ally, led Martin to embrace the Federalist Party, in apparent repudiation of everything he had argued for so strenuously. Paralysis, which had struck in 1819, forced him to retire as Maryland's attorney general in 1822. On July 8, 1826, at the age of 78, he died in Aaron Burr's home in New York City and was buried in an unmarked grave in St. John's churchyard. His death came four days after the deaths on July 4 of Jefferson and John Adams.	<urn:uuid:524cfe42-ef44-46fc-9598-220db730446d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.idolnetworth.com/luther-martin-net-worth-57694	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00389.warc.gz	en	0.981924	816	3.375	3	[ -0.5996183156967163, 0.616131067276001, 0.29213637113571167, -0.304464727640152, -0.2833731174468994, 0.4138908386230469, 0.09812255948781967, 0.12398705631494522, -0.16541537642478943, -0.025911718606948853, -0.012776602059602737, 0.3954867124557495, -0.014598471112549305, -0.140408799052...	2	Martin was an early advocate of American independence from Great Britain. In the fall of 1774, as a resident of Somerset County, Maryland, he served on the county's patriot committee, and in December attended a convention of the Province of Maryland in Annapolis, which had been called to consider the recommendations of the American Congress. Martin married Maria Cresap (daughter of Captain Michael Cresap) on Christmas Day 1783. Of their five children, three daughters lived to adulthood. An extended display of his eloquence and volubility appears in "Modern Gratitude in Five Numbers: Addressed to Richard Raynall Keene, Esq. Concerning a Family Marriage" (1802)—a closely documented, fiercely argued (and partly autobiographical) denunciation of a former protégé who, against Martin's express wishes, had wooed and married Martin's daughter Eleonora. In 1785, he was elected to the Confederation Congress by the Maryland General Assembly, but his numerous public and private duties prevented him from traveling to Philadelphia. In an address to the Maryland House of Delegates in November 1787 and in numerous newspaper articles, Martin attacked the proposed new form of government and continued to fight ratification of the Constitution through 1788. He lamented the ascension of the national government over the states and condemned what he saw as unequal representation in Congress. He owned six slaves of his own but opposed including slaves in determining representation (most slave owners supported counting slaves for the purposes of determining representation - as this would increase the power of Slave States) and believed that the absence of a jury in the U.S. Supreme Court gravely endangered freedom. Maryland largely ignored Martin's warnings. In April 1788, it voted to ratify the Constitution, the seventh state to do so. In June, when New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify, the required threshold had been reached, and the new Constitution took effect. Three years later, the first 10 amendments were added. Around 1791, however, Martin turned to the Federalist Party because of his animosity toward Thomas Jefferson, who, in 1807, spoke of him as the "Federal Bull-Dog." The beginning of the 1800s saw Martin as defense counsel in two controversial national cases. In the first case, Martin won an acquittal for his close friend Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase in his impeachment trial in 1805. Two years later, Martin was one of Aaron Burr's defense lawyers when Burr stood trial for treason in 1807. After a record 28 consecutive years as state attorney general, Martin resigned in December 1805. In 1813, he became chief judge of the court of oyer and terminer for the City and County of Baltimore. He was reappointed attorney general of Maryland in 1818, and, in 1819, he argued Maryland's position in the landmark Supreme Court case McCulloch v. Maryland. The plaintiffs were represented by Daniel Webster, william Pinkney and william Wirt. Martin's fortunes declined dramatically in his last years. Alcoholism, illness, and poverty weighted heavily on Martin, taking their toll as he aged. By the mid-1820s, he was subsisting on a special tax imposed on Maryland lawyers solely for his personal support. Eventually, he was taken in by Aaron Burr, whom he had defended at this disgraced ex-vice president's 1807 trial for treason. By this time, detestation of Thomas Jefferson, his one-time decentralist ally, led Martin to embrace the Federalist Party, in apparent repudiation of everything he had argued for so strenuously. Paralysis, which had struck in 1819, forced him to retire as Maryland's attorney general in 1822. On July 8, 1826, at the age of 78, he died in Aaron Burr's home in New York City and was buried in an unmarked grave in St. John's churchyard. His death came four days after the deaths on July 4 of Jefferson and John Adams.	880	ENGLISH	1
The legend of Santa Claus can be traced back hundreds of years to a monk named St. Nicholas. It is believed that Nicholas was born sometime around 280 A.D. in Patara, near Myra in modern-day Turkey. Much admired for his piety and kindness, St. Nicholas became the subject of many legends. Saint Nicholas of Myra was a 4th-century Greek Christian bishop of Myra (now Demre) in Lycia. Nicholas was famous for his generous gifts to the poor, in particular presenting the three impoverished daughters of a pious Christian with dowries so that they would not have to become prostitutes. On three different occasions, the bags of gold providing the dowries had appeared in their home. They had been tossed through an open window and are said to have landed in stockings or shoes left before the fire to dry. This led to the custom of children hanging stockings or putting out shoes, eagerly awaiting gifts from Saint Nicholas. Nicholas was made Bishop of Myra while still a young man and became known throughout the land for his generosity to those in need and his love for children. Thus began the tradition of gift-giving in honour of Saint Nicholas, whose modern name Santa Claus, comes from the Dutch ‘Sinterklaas’. Saint Nicholas died on 6 th December, 343 AD and so on the eve of his death, children were bestowed gifts in his honour. December 6 th is still the main day for gift giving in many countries in Europe. In other countries, the day of gifts was moved in the course of the Reformation and its opposition to the veneration of saints in many countries on the 24 th and 25 th December. Nicholas’ tomb in Myra became a popular place of pilgrimage. Because of the many wars and attacks in the region, some Christians were concerned that access to the tomb might become difficult. So in 1087, most of his bones were moved to Bari in Italy, where they remain to this day. A basilica was constructed the same year to store his remains and the area became a pilgrimage site for the devout.	<urn:uuid:71bf9615-5b82-4bee-b683-e56259da7754>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://martainment.com/who-invented-santa-claus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00224.warc.gz	en	0.990862	431	3.796875	4	[ 0.4003409445285797, 0.17636626958847046, 0.36328068375587463, -0.09498618543148041, 0.04031090438365936, -0.322287917137146, 0.26379382610321045, -0.02682971954345703, 0.11206455528736115, -0.09534909576177597, -0.22840769588947296, 0.2581993341445923, 0.1780221164226532, 0.349548995494842...	2	The legend of Santa Claus can be traced back hundreds of years to a monk named St. Nicholas. It is believed that Nicholas was born sometime around 280 A.D. in Patara, near Myra in modern-day Turkey. Much admired for his piety and kindness, St. Nicholas became the subject of many legends. Saint Nicholas of Myra was a 4th-century Greek Christian bishop of Myra (now Demre) in Lycia. Nicholas was famous for his generous gifts to the poor, in particular presenting the three impoverished daughters of a pious Christian with dowries so that they would not have to become prostitutes. On three different occasions, the bags of gold providing the dowries had appeared in their home. They had been tossed through an open window and are said to have landed in stockings or shoes left before the fire to dry. This led to the custom of children hanging stockings or putting out shoes, eagerly awaiting gifts from Saint Nicholas. Nicholas was made Bishop of Myra while still a young man and became known throughout the land for his generosity to those in need and his love for children. Thus began the tradition of gift-giving in honour of Saint Nicholas, whose modern name Santa Claus, comes from the Dutch ‘Sinterklaas’. Saint Nicholas died on 6 th December, 343 AD and so on the eve of his death, children were bestowed gifts in his honour. December 6 th is still the main day for gift giving in many countries in Europe. In other countries, the day of gifts was moved in the course of the Reformation and its opposition to the veneration of saints in many countries on the 24 th and 25 th December. Nicholas’ tomb in Myra became a popular place of pilgrimage. Because of the many wars and attacks in the region, some Christians were concerned that access to the tomb might become difficult. So in 1087, most of his bones were moved to Bari in Italy, where they remain to this day. A basilica was constructed the same year to store his remains and the area became a pilgrimage site for the devout.	438	ENGLISH	1
Tulum is an ancient walled city perched on the edge of a cliff in the Mexican Caribbean. A city of its kind in its era for it is the only archeological site close to the sea. Tulum is believed to have been a major trading and religious center between the 11th and 16th centuries. Goods like turquoise, jade, cotton, food, copper bells, axes, and cacao beans were traded here. It is estimated that the population of Tulum was once 1,600 people and was one of the few Mayan cities that were still inhabited when the Spaniards invaded Mexico. Its population was, however, mainly wiped out by diseases brought by the Spanish and the rest killed by the intruders. The word Tulum means “wall, trench or fence” in the Mayan language. A fitting name as the wall around the city is three to 5 meters (16 ft) in height, 8 m (26 ft) thick and 400 m (1,300 ft) long on western wall parallel to the sea. Though the original ancient name of the city is said to be Zama, meaning “dawn” or “sunrise”. Mayans were superstitious and feared thunder and lightning but were amazing astronomers and scientists which meant they predicted astronomical manifestations with stunning precision. The wind temple in Tulum is said to whistle whenever a hurricane is coming.	<urn:uuid:42c32e63-707d-46ca-a89d-e3d14936a2f8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://picoftheday.me/2019/12/21/hurricane-approaching/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00119.warc.gz	en	0.981928	289	3.40625	3	[ 0.2866365611553192, -0.04203996807336807, 0.1826394498348236, 0.4212631583213806, -0.05920921266078949, 0.23165029287338257, 0.26458272337913513, 0.08747101575136185, -0.34191587567329407, -0.15038032829761505, 0.01801137439906597, -0.5386936664581299, -0.4893868863582611, 0.04445877298712...	9	Tulum is an ancient walled city perched on the edge of a cliff in the Mexican Caribbean. A city of its kind in its era for it is the only archeological site close to the sea. Tulum is believed to have been a major trading and religious center between the 11th and 16th centuries. Goods like turquoise, jade, cotton, food, copper bells, axes, and cacao beans were traded here. It is estimated that the population of Tulum was once 1,600 people and was one of the few Mayan cities that were still inhabited when the Spaniards invaded Mexico. Its population was, however, mainly wiped out by diseases brought by the Spanish and the rest killed by the intruders. The word Tulum means “wall, trench or fence” in the Mayan language. A fitting name as the wall around the city is three to 5 meters (16 ft) in height, 8 m (26 ft) thick and 400 m (1,300 ft) long on western wall parallel to the sea. Though the original ancient name of the city is said to be Zama, meaning “dawn” or “sunrise”. Mayans were superstitious and feared thunder and lightning but were amazing astronomers and scientists which meant they predicted astronomical manifestations with stunning precision. The wind temple in Tulum is said to whistle whenever a hurricane is coming.	297	ENGLISH	1
What Happened In Eyam? Eyam, a village in Derbyshire, was also badly affected by the Great Plague of 1665 even though the disease is most associated with its impact on London. The sacrifices made by the villages of Eyam may well have saved cities in northern England from the worst of the plague. At the time of the plague, the village had a population of about 350. The most important person in the village was the church leader – William Mompesson. How Did The Great Plague of 1665 Start In Eyam? In the summer of 1665, the village tailor received a parcel of material from his supplier in London. This parcel contained the fleas that caused the plague. The tailor was dead from the plague within one week of receiving his parcel. By the end of September, five more villagers had died. Twenty three died in October. How Did The Village Help Stop The Plague? Some of the villagers suggested that they should flee the village for the nearby city of Sheffield. Mompesson persuaded them not to do this as he feared that they would spread the plague into the north of England that had more or less escaped the worst of it. In fact, the village decided to cut itself off from the outside would. They effectively agreed to quarantine themselves even though it would mean death for many of them. The village was supplied with food by those who lived outside of the village. People brought supplies and left them at the parish stones that marked the start of Eyam. The villages left money in a water trough filled with vinegar to steralise the coins left in them. In this way, Eyam was not left to starve to death. Those who supplied the food did not come into contact with the villagers. Eyam continued to be hit by the plague in 1666. The rector, Mompesson, had to bury his own family in the churchyard of Eyam. His wife died in August 1666. He decided to hold his services outside to reduce the chances of people catching the disease. By November 1666, the plague was considered at an end. 260 out of 350 had died in the village but their sacrifice may well have saved many thousands of lives in the north of England. Mompesson did survive. He wrote towards the end of the village’s ordeal: \|Now, blessed be God, all our fears are over for none have died of the plague since the eleventh of October and the pest-houses have long been empty.\|	<urn:uuid:1d4e37fa-db15-45b1-8c12-641947b1b422>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/stuart-england/eyam-and-the-great-plague-of-1665/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00194.warc.gz	en	0.991136	515	3.5625	4	[ -0.0319550521671772, 0.12536172568798065, 0.5101031064987183, 0.011414531618356705, 0.33898288011550903, -0.4194711148738861, 0.4095524549484253, 0.26206067204475403, -0.2121899127960205, 0.3271274268627167, -0.31591933965682983, -0.03260150924324989, 0.17192506790161133, 0.320007443428039...	7	What Happened In Eyam? Eyam, a village in Derbyshire, was also badly affected by the Great Plague of 1665 even though the disease is most associated with its impact on London. The sacrifices made by the villages of Eyam may well have saved cities in northern England from the worst of the plague. At the time of the plague, the village had a population of about 350. The most important person in the village was the church leader – William Mompesson. How Did The Great Plague of 1665 Start In Eyam? In the summer of 1665, the village tailor received a parcel of material from his supplier in London. This parcel contained the fleas that caused the plague. The tailor was dead from the plague within one week of receiving his parcel. By the end of September, five more villagers had died. Twenty three died in October. How Did The Village Help Stop The Plague? Some of the villagers suggested that they should flee the village for the nearby city of Sheffield. Mompesson persuaded them not to do this as he feared that they would spread the plague into the north of England that had more or less escaped the worst of it. In fact, the village decided to cut itself off from the outside would. They effectively agreed to quarantine themselves even though it would mean death for many of them. The village was supplied with food by those who lived outside of the village. People brought supplies and left them at the parish stones that marked the start of Eyam. The villages left money in a water trough filled with vinegar to steralise the coins left in them. In this way, Eyam was not left to starve to death. Those who supplied the food did not come into contact with the villagers. Eyam continued to be hit by the plague in 1666. The rector, Mompesson, had to bury his own family in the churchyard of Eyam. His wife died in August 1666. He decided to hold his services outside to reduce the chances of people catching the disease. By November 1666, the plague was considered at an end. 260 out of 350 had died in the village but their sacrifice may well have saved many thousands of lives in the north of England. Mompesson did survive. He wrote towards the end of the village’s ordeal: \|Now, blessed be God, all our fears are over for none have died of the plague since the eleventh of October and the pest-houses have long been empty.\|	532	ENGLISH	1
Pawn shops are extremely common these days, with more than 12,000 operating in the United States alone. But do you ever wonder how this business was started? For as long as currency has been invented people have always had financial struggles and often find themselves in situations where they cash fast. Due to this problem, pawning is one of the oldest professions in the world. According to the History Channel the first pawn shops emerged in Ancient China more than 3,000 years ago. This was used as a method to grant short-term credit to peasants. Pawnbroking also took off in Ancient Greece and Rome allowing merchants to get small shops up and running. The Catholic Church placed restrictions on charging interest in the middle ages, but these regulations were toned down in 14th and 15th century Europe because short-term credit proved to be an effective way to finance businesses, as well as temporarily aiding the poor. What does the word “pawn” actually mean? Well also according to the History Channel, it stems from the Latin word “patinum,” meaning cloth or clothing. For working class people, more often than not their most valuable item was their clothes. During the 19th century, people with little to no money would often pawn their clothes on Monday and retrieve them on Friday as a means to have enough money to make it through the week. In 1872 England established new regulations protecting pawnbrokers who accidently sold stolen items; simply entitled “The Pawnbrokers Act of 1872.” In addition to protecting the pawnbrokers the act also restricted the amount of interest that can be charged on pawned items and created a set of guidelines establishing rules and regulations, many of which are still used today. Some interesting facts about the history of pawning: During the Great Depression pawn shops were among the only institutions that could offer cash to people, as banks failed and citizens had to give up their prized possessions in order to live. The popular nursery rhyme: “Pop Goes the Weasel” actually refers to pawning. A “weasel” is actually referring to a shoemaker’s tool (not the animal) and “pop” is a slang term for pawning. Hence the verse “That’s the way the money goes, Pop! Goes the weasel.” Another interesting fact is that St. Nicholas (or Santa Clause for some of you) was known as the patron saint of pawnbrokers and bankers Today pawn shops operate as mini-banks for people who don’t have bank accounts and still are there for people in need of quick cash. Certified pan shops offer extremely low interest rates and all though it may sometimes seem like they are “low-balling” customers, the majority of shops offer viable solutions for people in need of quick cash. Of course, they also serve as an area of exchange for people looking to buy or sell unique or rare items.	<urn:uuid:aa46858c-4c40-4bdc-ad42-ad1cc711e8d2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gardencitypawn.com/origins-of-pawn-shops-how-did-they-start	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00036.warc.gz	en	0.982882	613	3.375	3	[ -0.0719333216547966, -0.3462477922439575, 0.19622401893138885, -0.15826533734798431, 0.149502694606781, -0.4557671844959259, 0.4747096300125122, -0.05048952251672745, 0.11637093126773834, 0.14258944988250732, 0.23212078213691711, 0.15964919328689575, -0.011947546154260635, 0.19273474812507...	7	Pawn shops are extremely common these days, with more than 12,000 operating in the United States alone. But do you ever wonder how this business was started? For as long as currency has been invented people have always had financial struggles and often find themselves in situations where they cash fast. Due to this problem, pawning is one of the oldest professions in the world. According to the History Channel the first pawn shops emerged in Ancient China more than 3,000 years ago. This was used as a method to grant short-term credit to peasants. Pawnbroking also took off in Ancient Greece and Rome allowing merchants to get small shops up and running. The Catholic Church placed restrictions on charging interest in the middle ages, but these regulations were toned down in 14th and 15th century Europe because short-term credit proved to be an effective way to finance businesses, as well as temporarily aiding the poor. What does the word “pawn” actually mean? Well also according to the History Channel, it stems from the Latin word “patinum,” meaning cloth or clothing. For working class people, more often than not their most valuable item was their clothes. During the 19th century, people with little to no money would often pawn their clothes on Monday and retrieve them on Friday as a means to have enough money to make it through the week. In 1872 England established new regulations protecting pawnbrokers who accidently sold stolen items; simply entitled “The Pawnbrokers Act of 1872.” In addition to protecting the pawnbrokers the act also restricted the amount of interest that can be charged on pawned items and created a set of guidelines establishing rules and regulations, many of which are still used today. Some interesting facts about the history of pawning: During the Great Depression pawn shops were among the only institutions that could offer cash to people, as banks failed and citizens had to give up their prized possessions in order to live. The popular nursery rhyme: “Pop Goes the Weasel” actually refers to pawning. A “weasel” is actually referring to a shoemaker’s tool (not the animal) and “pop” is a slang term for pawning. Hence the verse “That’s the way the money goes, Pop! Goes the weasel.” Another interesting fact is that St. Nicholas (or Santa Clause for some of you) was known as the patron saint of pawnbrokers and bankers Today pawn shops operate as mini-banks for people who don’t have bank accounts and still are there for people in need of quick cash. Certified pan shops offer extremely low interest rates and all though it may sometimes seem like they are “low-balling” customers, the majority of shops offer viable solutions for people in need of quick cash. Of course, they also serve as an area of exchange for people looking to buy or sell unique or rare items.	594	ENGLISH	1
We are really proud of our learning, especially our reading. Today, we learned about the phoneme ‘ch’. Then we went outdoors to segment and blend to read lots of ‘ch’ words. We used natural materials to show sound buttons in each word. How many words can you think of which have the phoneme ‘ch’ in them? This term, the whole school are learning about herbs. Last week, class 1 predicted what they thought a herb was. This week we looked at different herbs and tasted them. We described what each herb tasted like then, using a … Continue reading → When we arrived at school we found a letter from Santa. He had written to tell us that the most popular toy this year, for class 1, was a teddy bear. We decided we would find out if he was right. First, we looked at a range of toys we had for Christmas. Then we voted for our favourite toy. We used the results to make a pictogram. This showed our findings. We learned that the most popular toy, in class 1 this year, was a computer . Today, Will came to visit us. Will is a friend of our school. His job is to make the most delicious salami sausages we have ever tasted. Will had worked with year 6 pupils last term and they had made … Continue reading → Today for Literacy we have been writing labels for toys around us using a MacBook . We had to segment and blend to form the letters to make our word. We learned about capital letters on our keyboard. What would … Continue reading → As we are learning about 3D shapes class 1 enjoyed using the mud kitchen to dig and create their own 3D shapes. As we learned we tried using 3D shape words. We enjoyed sharing ideas and looking at each other’s … Continue reading → We have been busy today talking about 3D shapes. We have been learning new words…. cube, cuboid, cylinder, pyramid, cone and sphere. We looked at the faces and edges of the shapes. Then we made toys using the 3D shapes. … Continue reading → We are determined to keep raising money for those who are not as fortunate as us. This term we are thinking about people who are not as health as us and have decided to raise money for the British Heart Foundation. We will complete a sponsored skip at the end of half term. This week we practised skipping to see how good we are and what we need to learn. When we do our sponsored skip we need to skip for a long time! This term we are learning about toys. We have been busy today telling each other about our favourite toy and why this toy is special. This bunny is very special as it is soft and cuddly. This is a transformer … Continue reading →	<urn:uuid:d0b0d1cb-f56f-467b-b9e6-88a8395af09e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://class-one.wombridgeprimary.co.uk/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00371.warc.gz	en	0.981493	583	3.375	3	[ -0.10854554176330566, -0.22268766164779663, 0.2727450132369995, -0.06244879215955734, -0.30802255868911743, 0.24736864864826202, 0.38775092363357544, 0.2538250982761383, 0.030693814158439636, -0.08862267434597015, 0.052248310297727585, -0.5035823583602905, 0.22972744703292847, 0.3200733959...	1	We are really proud of our learning, especially our reading. Today, we learned about the phoneme ‘ch’. Then we went outdoors to segment and blend to read lots of ‘ch’ words. We used natural materials to show sound buttons in each word. How many words can you think of which have the phoneme ‘ch’ in them? This term, the whole school are learning about herbs. Last week, class 1 predicted what they thought a herb was. This week we looked at different herbs and tasted them. We described what each herb tasted like then, using a … Continue reading → When we arrived at school we found a letter from Santa. He had written to tell us that the most popular toy this year, for class 1, was a teddy bear. We decided we would find out if he was right. First, we looked at a range of toys we had for Christmas. Then we voted for our favourite toy. We used the results to make a pictogram. This showed our findings. We learned that the most popular toy, in class 1 this year, was a computer . Today, Will came to visit us. Will is a friend of our school. His job is to make the most delicious salami sausages we have ever tasted. Will had worked with year 6 pupils last term and they had made … Continue reading → Today for Literacy we have been writing labels for toys around us using a MacBook . We had to segment and blend to form the letters to make our word. We learned about capital letters on our keyboard. What would … Continue reading → As we are learning about 3D shapes class 1 enjoyed using the mud kitchen to dig and create their own 3D shapes. As we learned we tried using 3D shape words. We enjoyed sharing ideas and looking at each other’s … Continue reading → We have been busy today talking about 3D shapes. We have been learning new words…. cube, cuboid, cylinder, pyramid, cone and sphere. We looked at the faces and edges of the shapes. Then we made toys using the 3D shapes. … Continue reading → We are determined to keep raising money for those who are not as fortunate as us. This term we are thinking about people who are not as health as us and have decided to raise money for the British Heart Foundation. We will complete a sponsored skip at the end of half term. This week we practised skipping to see how good we are and what we need to learn. When we do our sponsored skip we need to skip for a long time! This term we are learning about toys. We have been busy today telling each other about our favourite toy and why this toy is special. This bunny is very special as it is soft and cuddly. This is a transformer … Continue reading →	579	ENGLISH	1
My investigation will explore the reasons why the soviet union fell and argue that ( ) had the most influence but first some background on how the nation came to be, the nation started because of a civil war during the 19th century. The revolution started because of political actions that the government was taking. The government used tsarism, which was absolute rule or a dictatorship. The government kept regular citizens out of the government and promoted industrial growth and education. The result was tension between the government and normal population. Other important problems were rural overpopulation, “Russia had the highest rate of demographic growth in Europe; in the second half of the 19th century the rural population increased by more than 50 percent. Potentially destabilizing also was the refusal of the mass of Russian peasantry, living in communes, to acknowledge the principle of private property in land.” (Dewdney, John C) Almost 80% of the population was made of peasants and communes are land that are distributed to peasants to cultivate but are not owned by the peasants. Most did not have any sort of private property and most were not eligible for citizenship. “The intelligentsia was partly liberal, partly radical, but in either case unalterably opposed to the status quo. Radical intellectuals tried in the 1860s and ’70s to stir the peasants and workers to rebellion. Having met with no response, they adopted methods of terror, which culminated in 1881 in the assassination of Emperor Alexander II.” (Dewdney, John C) The government’s continued policies caused this new radical group to start attacking the government, their initial attempts were futile. The government was able to defend themselves from the group for 2 decades. In January 1904 liberal intellectuals formed the Union of Liberation, which was committed to fighting for democracy. “The oppositional groups received their chance in 1904–05 when Russia became involved in a war with Japan. Caused by Russia’s designs on Manchuria, the war went badly from the start, lowering the regime’s prestige in the eyes of the people.” (Dewdney, John C) In January 1905 an event that would be later known as bloody sunday occurred. Bloody Sunday occurred when workers were massacred while demonstrating a petition made by the Union of Liberation. Before the event took place Georgy Gapon the leader of the Assembly of Russian Workingmen arranged a demonstration and told authorities of his plan. The workers carried petitions with grievances and reforms that were wanted, the demonstration was held close to the Winter Palace. The emperor Nicholas II, whom Gapon wanted to see the demonstration, was not in the city. “Nicholas’s uncle, Grand Duke Vladimir—tried to stop the march and then ordered his police to fire upon the demonstrators. More than 100 marchers were killed, and several hundred were wounded.” (The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica) The result of these deaths caused more strikes, peasants rising up and mutinies in the army. On october 17 Emperor Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto in fear of a strike and the manifesto ended the system that was put into place and Russia now had a constitution and Duma was given power to veto and create proposals.	<urn:uuid:5a35c5d8-e01e-4e77-a6a3-f9bfd2d6f457>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://westvirginiaangerclass.com/my-19th-century-the-rural-population-increased-by/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00444.warc.gz	en	0.983882	671	3.984375	4	[ -0.47221946716308594, 0.019487544894218445, 0.12343655526638031, -0.0123739717528224, 0.35069623589515686, 0.07812382280826569, 0.1914353370666504, 0.5930724143981934, -0.4020170569419861, 0.12206612527370453, 0.2054818868637085, 0.2955085039138794, 0.27932384610176086, 0.46941739320755005...	1	My investigation will explore the reasons why the soviet union fell and argue that ( ) had the most influence but first some background on how the nation came to be, the nation started because of a civil war during the 19th century. The revolution started because of political actions that the government was taking. The government used tsarism, which was absolute rule or a dictatorship. The government kept regular citizens out of the government and promoted industrial growth and education. The result was tension between the government and normal population. Other important problems were rural overpopulation, “Russia had the highest rate of demographic growth in Europe; in the second half of the 19th century the rural population increased by more than 50 percent. Potentially destabilizing also was the refusal of the mass of Russian peasantry, living in communes, to acknowledge the principle of private property in land.” (Dewdney, John C) Almost 80% of the population was made of peasants and communes are land that are distributed to peasants to cultivate but are not owned by the peasants. Most did not have any sort of private property and most were not eligible for citizenship. “The intelligentsia was partly liberal, partly radical, but in either case unalterably opposed to the status quo. Radical intellectuals tried in the 1860s and ’70s to stir the peasants and workers to rebellion. Having met with no response, they adopted methods of terror, which culminated in 1881 in the assassination of Emperor Alexander II.” (Dewdney, John C) The government’s continued policies caused this new radical group to start attacking the government, their initial attempts were futile. The government was able to defend themselves from the group for 2 decades. In January 1904 liberal intellectuals formed the Union of Liberation, which was committed to fighting for democracy. “The oppositional groups received their chance in 1904–05 when Russia became involved in a war with Japan. Caused by Russia’s designs on Manchuria, the war went badly from the start, lowering the regime’s prestige in the eyes of the people.” (Dewdney, John C) In January 1905 an event that would be later known as bloody sunday occurred. Bloody Sunday occurred when workers were massacred while demonstrating a petition made by the Union of Liberation. Before the event took place Georgy Gapon the leader of the Assembly of Russian Workingmen arranged a demonstration and told authorities of his plan. The workers carried petitions with grievances and reforms that were wanted, the demonstration was held close to the Winter Palace. The emperor Nicholas II, whom Gapon wanted to see the demonstration, was not in the city. “Nicholas’s uncle, Grand Duke Vladimir—tried to stop the march and then ordered his police to fire upon the demonstrators. More than 100 marchers were killed, and several hundred were wounded.” (The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica) The result of these deaths caused more strikes, peasants rising up and mutinies in the army. On october 17 Emperor Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto in fear of a strike and the manifesto ended the system that was put into place and Russia now had a constitution and Duma was given power to veto and create proposals.	681	ENGLISH	1
Cash for Clunkers is an initiative introduced by the U.S Government, in which financial incentives were provided to the car owners to scrap their less efficient vehicles that were old and buy new vehicles that Cash for Clunkers is an initiative introduced by the U.S Government, in which financial incentives were provided to the car owners to scrap their less efficient vehicles that were old and buy new vehicles that are more fuel efficient. Though originally it was introduced as Car Allowance Rebate System and later became popular as Cash for Clunkers program. Concept of Cash for Clunkers President Obama signed the law of Cash for Clunkers in the year 2009. The law was also administered by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. All required information were submitted by the car dealers to NHTSA on behalf of qualified new car buyers. Though there are some key factors that were considered before allotting the policy to a car owners. The factors are listed below for reference – - Cash for Clunkers was introduced by U.S government so that car owners can get their old in-efficient vehicles exchanged with new efficient vehicles. - The program got depleted and ended in November 2009 after allocating $3 billion. - The needs to qualify the credit by fulfilling certain criteria. The traded-in car should be less than 25 years old, should be in a diveable condition, haven an EPD-rated fuel efficiency, and be scrapped. - There were arguments from the supporters that the program has caused stimulation in the economy and pollution was reduced. - The critics objected that the program has resulted in a shortage of vehicles, used car prices were increased and income earners were harmed. They added that the program was heavy for taxpayers. Criteria to qualify for the program The program began in 2009 in July. Few criteria were listed and they had to be met by the traded-in used car. - Must be in drivable condition. - Have an EPA- rated fuel efficiency that is almost less than 18 miles per gallon. - Be scrapped in the sense that the engine is rendered unusable and the body of the vehicle is crushed. - The new car bought in exchange for the old one should have an EPA-rated fuel efficiency of more than 22 miles per gallon. These were the rules for old cars. However, the rules for trucks were more complicated. Effects of Cash for Clunker There were mixed results obtained from the program. It has a lot of supporters and various critics as well. Supporters stated that the program was effective and it was a success. They said that the program has effectively removed more than 7,00,000 fuel-inefficient cars from the roads. However, there were numerou critics of the program of the program. It was criticized by economists, environmental groups and Federal government agencies. finally , The National Bureau of Economic Research Stated that there were modest effects of the program and most of the transactions that were carried out could have happened anyway. Cash Cars Buyer understand that people have to go through a lot to sell their junk car and get cash in return. They provide one-stop solution for all junk car related needs. Sell your old car to them and expect cash in return in a very less wait time. Learn more at www.cashcarsbuyer.com to know more. They are probably one of the most trusted junk car buyers across America.	<urn:uuid:008e6371-cb7e-4267-8d6d-d62861df6ba5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.motoscootercity.com/in-detail-view-of-cash-for-clunker-program-almost-everything-you-need-to-know.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00355.warc.gz	en	0.990279	696	3.265625	3	[ -0.378159761428833, -0.11396259069442749, 0.1633751392364502, 0.05899706110358238, 0.010963723063468933, 0.21350106596946716, 0.2560163140296936, -0.0036970681976526976, -0.3980351984500885, 0.26345205307006836, 0.12708497047424316, 0.09784889221191406, -0.24242323637008667, 0.153679117560...	14	Cash for Clunkers is an initiative introduced by the U.S Government, in which financial incentives were provided to the car owners to scrap their less efficient vehicles that were old and buy new vehicles that Cash for Clunkers is an initiative introduced by the U.S Government, in which financial incentives were provided to the car owners to scrap their less efficient vehicles that were old and buy new vehicles that are more fuel efficient. Though originally it was introduced as Car Allowance Rebate System and later became popular as Cash for Clunkers program. Concept of Cash for Clunkers President Obama signed the law of Cash for Clunkers in the year 2009. The law was also administered by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. All required information were submitted by the car dealers to NHTSA on behalf of qualified new car buyers. Though there are some key factors that were considered before allotting the policy to a car owners. The factors are listed below for reference – - Cash for Clunkers was introduced by U.S government so that car owners can get their old in-efficient vehicles exchanged with new efficient vehicles. - The program got depleted and ended in November 2009 after allocating $3 billion. - The needs to qualify the credit by fulfilling certain criteria. The traded-in car should be less than 25 years old, should be in a diveable condition, haven an EPD-rated fuel efficiency, and be scrapped. - There were arguments from the supporters that the program has caused stimulation in the economy and pollution was reduced. - The critics objected that the program has resulted in a shortage of vehicles, used car prices were increased and income earners were harmed. They added that the program was heavy for taxpayers. Criteria to qualify for the program The program began in 2009 in July. Few criteria were listed and they had to be met by the traded-in used car. - Must be in drivable condition. - Have an EPA- rated fuel efficiency that is almost less than 18 miles per gallon. - Be scrapped in the sense that the engine is rendered unusable and the body of the vehicle is crushed. - The new car bought in exchange for the old one should have an EPA-rated fuel efficiency of more than 22 miles per gallon. These were the rules for old cars. However, the rules for trucks were more complicated. Effects of Cash for Clunker There were mixed results obtained from the program. It has a lot of supporters and various critics as well. Supporters stated that the program was effective and it was a success. They said that the program has effectively removed more than 7,00,000 fuel-inefficient cars from the roads. However, there were numerou critics of the program of the program. It was criticized by economists, environmental groups and Federal government agencies. finally , The National Bureau of Economic Research Stated that there were modest effects of the program and most of the transactions that were carried out could have happened anyway. Cash Cars Buyer understand that people have to go through a lot to sell their junk car and get cash in return. They provide one-stop solution for all junk car related needs. Sell your old car to them and expect cash in return in a very less wait time. Learn more at www.cashcarsbuyer.com to know more. They are probably one of the most trusted junk car buyers across America.	691	ENGLISH	1
Arctic History – Land Use NSB Publishes Study of Early 19th Century Point Hope Land Use The Traditional Eskimo Hunters of Point Hope, Alaska: 1800-1875 by Ernest S. Burch, Jr. Published by the North Slope Borough 89 Pages – $10.00 \|Grave of an umialik at Tikirak, early 1880s. Point Hope had an enormous graveyard, a mile wide and five miles long. This grave appears to be very new and the flexed knees of the deceased can be seen behind the post on the right. The graveyard contained thousands of burials at the end of the 19th century. The early missionaries collected the remains from most of the traditional burials and placed them in a single mass Christian grave. Photo: The Kennedy Collection, The Whaling Museum, New Bedford, Mass.\| As the oldest continuously inhabited community in the Western Hemisphere, Point Hope is regarded among the Inupiat as a spiritual center which has remained faithful to the cultural traditions of the past. It is a powerful witness to the success of a society that has thrived in the Arctic for thousands of years. When a cultural anthropologist as sensitive as Ernest Burch, Jr., comes to the task of defining the history and land use patterns of Point Hopers in the early 19th Century (just prior to contact with Westerners), a book such as his The Traditional Eskimo Hunters of Point Hope, Alaska: 1800-1875 is rewarding to all readers seeking to understand more of Inupiat culture. Land Ownership Highlighted While the purpose of the book is to give a comprehensive account of the ways in which the Point Hope People of the early nineteenth century used their land, three important issues emerge. The first is that the members of Point Hope Society were conscious of owning a clearly delimited territory. They referred to themselves as a nation, using the word nunatqiiglit, which meant “people who are related to one another through their common ownership of the land.” This fact was clearly understood by neighboring societies, whose own territories were similarly defined and controlled. This observation is in clear distinction with the traditional western view of Eskimos as nomads who freely roamed the country as they wished, doing whatever they wanted to do. Related to territorial boundaries and the restrictions on land use was the protection of wildlife resources. Point Hopers were able to limit access to the harvest by keeping foreigners out altogether, and by the practice of the more powerful families among them of preempting settlement sites in the more productive districts. A final point made in the book is that the experience of Point Hopers breaks down the view that there were two different types of Eskimos, the inland Nunamiut and the marine Tariumiut. This work supports the view that Eskimo economies were neither inland or marine but Arctic adapted, and each society depended on a combination of marine and terrestrial species. Nowhere is this more evident than among Point Hopers, who took advantage of being in one of the best shore whaling locations in the world, but also availed themselves of the other resources the country offered. The following is a synopsis of the book. Chapter I -The Land Point Hope is an Eskimo village located near the end of a point which projects several miles into the Chukchi Sea from the coast of Northwest Alaska. The point resembles a huge finger pointing at Asia, and is thus referred to by the Natives as Tikiraq, meaning “index finger.” The people owning and living on the land in and around Point Hope are called Tikiarmiut. The Point Hope Region occupied by the Tikiarmiut during the Traditional Period under discussion (1800-1875) included some 4300 square miles, reaching from Kemegrak Hills on the south to Lisburne Hills and Cape Beaufort on the north. The boundaries inland included the drainages of the Kukpuk and Pikmigiam Rivers. The area geographically is part of the Arctic Foothills Province laying to the west of the Brooks Range. The winter temperatures are normally above -30 degrees F., but the strong northerly winds from the Arctic Slope flowing around the western edge of the Brooks Range makes the Point Hope area one of the most uncomfortable in the world. Annual average precipitation is between 8 and 12 inches. The area is characterized by Arctic tundra flora including dwarf shrubs and trees, grasses, sedges, lichens, moss, berries, herbs, and flowers. The Region is seasonal home to some 120 species of birds, 25 species of terrestrial animals, 15 species of marine mammals, 55 species of fish. Some 70 of the major species are known to have been important subsistence resources to the traditional Point Hope People. These include the bowhead whale, the walrus, the beluga, 3 species of seal, the caribou, 8 species of fur-bearing animals, the polar and grizzly bear, 14 species of fish, 25 species of birds, and 12 species of invertebrates. The Tikiarmiut were blessed by the fact that the annual cycles of the major prey species were not synchronous with one another. The general abundance of game, the ability to preserve much of their harvest for long periods, and the skillful coordination of their movements with those of the major prey species enabled them to achieve one of the largest human populations of any Native Arctic people in the world. Chapter II – The People \|Point Hope men aboard the “Corwin,” 1881. All are wearing labrets, the typical ornament of adult males among the Northwest Alaskan Eskimos. The man on the right, back row, is wearing a caribou skin parka, with the fur side out. The man on the right, front row, appear to be wearing a caribou-skin parka with the fur side in. The one in the middle front row has a waterproof parka, probably made from the intestines of the bearded seal. The other two are wearing white drilling, obtained from traders, over their skin parkas. The man in the back row, left, is the legendary Atanauzaq. The others are not identified. Photo: E.W. Nelson Collection, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution.\| Scientists have reported that the first people arrived in Point Hope thousands of years ago. But the oldest evidence of human occupation by the ancestors of the Tikiarmiut dates from about 600 B.C. The Tikiarmiut appear at the beginning of the 19th century as a large and powerful group of people speaking the North Slope dialect of Inupiaq languages. The land owned by the Tikiarmiut was defined by well-known boundaries. Foreigners crossed these boundaries at considerable risk unless they came under certain long established conventions governing neighboring nations. The Tikiarmiut were by no means isolated. Their land was joined by that of the Kivalinarmiut (Kivalina Society) to the south and the Silalinarmiut (Northwest Coast Society) to the north and the Utuqqarmiut (Utukok River Society) to the east. The population of the Tikiarmiut around 1800 was about 1342. Because Point Hope was the largest and most powerful society in Northwest Alaska, it was a nation surrounded by enemies bearing deep grudges which they attempted to redress by force of arms. The resulting battles caused a significant decline in the Point Hope population during the first half of the 19th century. The first battle was fought against neighbors from the east and resulted in the deaths of at least 200 Tikiarmiut, a major disaster for the society, A second event happened when Indians living on the upper Noatak River attacked the village of Nuvuraluaq, a suburb of Point Hope, trapping the inhabitants in their houses and killing the entire population of more than 50 people. A third event took place about 1838 when people of Kotzebue Society (Qikiqtarzugmiut) attacked another settlement near Cape Lisburne, killing some 70 Tikiarmiut. The Tikiarmiut were by no means passive about all this. They had successfully repelled many raids on their main village of Tikiraq and were very active in mounting attacks of their own from the Colville River to the North, to the upper Noatak River to the east to Kotzebue Sound on the south. The Late Traditional Period: With the arrival of the American whaling ships in 1849, the citizens of Point Hope began to experience profound changes. The whalers and their suppliers, at first wary of the inhabitants of Tikiraq, soon began to visit them frequently. Around 1865 an epidemic of measles broke out in the Region and ravaged whole villages. While this epidemic was possibly the worst in the history of the Tikiarmiut, it was only the first of a long series. At the same time the people were coping with the ravages of newly-introduced disease, the newcomers were depleting needed subsistence resources. By 1854, it was reported that whales had become very scarce and they continued to decline in numbers over the next several decades. By the 1860’s the whale stocks were so depleted that the whalers turned their attention to walrus. Within 15 years, the walrus population was also decimated. During the 1870’s, other scourges were introduced by visiting whaling ships and traders in the form of alcohol, tuberculosis, and venereal disease. The Period of Instability: 1875-1900 At a time when the society of the Tikiarmiut appeared to be crumbling, two factors were at work which seemed to shore it up. The first was the influence of Atanauzaq, a powerful, intelligent and generous Tikiraq leader who had developed some remarkable entrepreneurial skills in trading with the American traders and whalers. Through a combination of luck, skill, and a facility with English, he became established as the middleman between the entire Point Hope population and the outsiders. While during his early years, the legendary Atanauzaq was a positive factor in the life of Point Hope, he later became corrupted by his own power. He began killing people, taking other men’s wives, and acting capriciously. Many families emigrated from Point Hope to escape his influence, and those who stayed plotted his demise. He was finally assassinated February 14, 1889. A second stabilizing influence was the work of the U.S. Revenue Marine Service, the forerunner of the Coast Guard. During the 1870’s Revenue Marine cruises were begun to enforce the law against selling alcohol to Natives. It seems these were successful in at least inhibiting the American whalers from indulging in their worst excesses among the Tikiarmiut. In the winter 1885-1886, one of the worst disasters befell the people of Point Hope. The whale, walrus, and caribou populations had already been depleted, and that winter, the other species collapsed as well. Dozens of people starved to death. In 1887, another development began which had lasting impact on Point Hope, and that was the establishment of’ shore-based whaling. The whalers brought people from the Seward Peninsula to work the stations. Many of’ these people left the area to settle in Kivalina when the whaling season was over. This annual migration to and from Point Hope Region was later increased by workers coming from the Noatak and Kobuk River areas, which were highly impacted by the scarcity of caribou. The regular movement of outsiders to Point Hope for spring whaling has been typical of the 20th century and dates from this time. The Period of Readjustment: Alter the collapse of the baleen market, the area was supported by the new demands for furs which were abundant in the Point Hope Region, and the establishment of a domesticated reindeer industry in the area. Also important was the increasing presence of both the church and a variety of U.S. Government agencies. A basis for integration into the larger U .S. society was established. “They referred to themselves as a nation, using the word nunatqtiglit, which meant ‘people who are related to one another through their common ownership of the land.'” Both the fur and the reindeer industry collapsed with the Great Depression of the 1930’s. This caused the retreat of the trappers and herders back to Point Hope to exploit the advantages of village life. Although the people were now concentrated in the village instead of remote settlements, greatly improved methods of hunting and travel gave the Tikiarmiut a new ability to travel far and exploit their traditional hunting grounds. Chapter III: Land Use — The Production of Raw Materials The Traditional Tikiarmiut harvested the raw materials of the land by hunting the wildlife available to them where they lived. From animals they obtained virtually all of their food, clothing, tools, utensils, weapons, and most of their other physical possessions. Their chief source of food was the bowhead whale, which passed close by Point Hope twice a year, in the spring and fall. The primary whaling season was in April and May, and the major whaling location was located just south of Tikiraq, where as many as 20 whaling crews lined up on the edge of the landfast ice waiting for the whales. Each crew, consisting of a helmsman, a harpooner, and six paddlers would mount a 24-hour watch for surfacing whales. When one appeared, the boat would be launched in pursuit, the first task was to attach a set of sealskin drag floats to the whale by means of a harpoon. The next objective was to kill the whale by means of lances and magical songs. Several other crews would come to assist and would share in the harvest. Once the whale was killed, the task became one of towing it to the edge of the ice, butchering it, and getting it ashore. Whale hunts also took place in the fall, and a spring hunt took place at Point Lisburne. But both these practices produced fewer whales and were finally terminated when the whales were depleted in the 1850’s. Beluga whales were also hunted at Point Hope, appearing first with the first runs of bowhead in April and then another run in July, two months after the first group had passed, For unknown reasons, the supply of beluga, which were never exploited by the American whalers, has diminished considerably. Walrus also were known to visit Point Hope twice a year, beginning with the opening of the shore leads throughout June and again in September, when the animals migrated south. Swimming walruses were hunted much in the same manner as hunting whales and were harpooned. Walruses on shore were killed with lances or bludgeoned with clubs. The three types of seals available at Point Hope were hunted by a variety of techniques, depending on the species and the season. In the fall, they were hunted close to shore in kayaks. In winter, they were hunted at the breathing holes. In the sunny days of spring when the seals basked on the ice, they were often stalked and harpooned on the ice. Caribou was as important to the Tikiarmiut as the marine mammals because of their dependence on caribou for hides, sinew, antlers, and bones used for making of most of their clothing, tents, blankets, tools, and weapons. Caribou meat, fat, marrow, and viscera also formed an important part of their diet. The Traditional Tikiarmiut harvested the caribou using many different techniques. One of the best techniques was to drive a band of caribou up between two converging lines of ‘scarecrows” (inuksut) into an enclosure made of bundled willows and brush placed upright and covered with earth and moss. Up to 200 caribou at a time could be trapped this way. Snares were employed at other times, along with pitfalls. Caribou were often shot with bow-and-arrow and sometimes speared while swimming. Available fish included cod, Dolly Varden, whitefish, and three species of salmon. These were taken in a variety of methods including seine and gill nets, traps, spearing, and hooking. Point Hopers were accustomed to take about 30 species of fowl, which fell into four categories: sea-cliff birds, ducks and geese, gulls and terns, and terrestrial birds. Murres make up most of the sea-cliff birds and arrive in the Region in early May. They were hunted with bolas as they crossed the tip of the Point at low altitudes. After they began nesting, their eggs were gathered on the cliffs. Ducks and geese were hunted during May and June primarily using the bola. The eggs of gulls and terns were considered a delicacy. Terns were rarely killed, but gulls were taken by bow-and-arrow or snared at the nest. During the summer, the sandhill crane was taken. In the fall, the snowy owl was available. Ptarmigan are taken throughout the year. Vegetable products included berries taken in season, and willows, dwarf birch, moss, and grasses ere harvested for house frames, fuel, insulation, wicks, and tinder. Mineral products utilized from the land included slate for knives and spear points, flint for arrowheads, scrapers, and starting tires, sand for grinding, and clay for making pots. Hematite was used for dyeing skins. Pyrite (ignik) was used for starting fires. Chapter IV: Land Use -Social Dimension At any one time, the Tikiarmiut occupied only the tiniest portion of the region they owned. This chapter explains the complex factors which determined where they were all to be found at any one time. Generally, the suitability of any place for human occupation depended on the availability of animal food resources, but that was not the only consideration. There were also dangerous creatures and ghosts whose presence pre-empted usage of certain places as settlement sites. The fact that 19th century hunting took place on foot meant that an array of settlements had to be placed throughout the area, each of which could provide “very easy access” (around five miles) to important hunting areas. Except during whaling season, the Tikiarmiut tended to disperse throughout the Region at a number of these locales. Generally, there were four types of settlements: summer settlements, interior settlements, out lying coastal settlements, and the single settlement of Tikiraq at Point Hope. During the summer, Tikiraq was virtually abandoned as the people lived in permanent settlements near the bird cliffs at Capes Thompson and Lisburne, or dwelled in tents at other spots good for fishing and beluga hunting. Travel was done mainly in the skin boat umiaks which carried the sealskin or caribou skin tents and other baggage. Toward the end of August, the dispersed summer groups began to move to their fall locations. This could be either on the coast, but several were at the interior settlements on the Kukpuk River where fish and caribou would be available. As many as 200 people would be living along the lower Kukpuk in some 15 different settlements, with houses covered with sod, caribou skins, or moss. As winter came on, several groups would move even further inland to take advantage of the caribou hunt. There they would live in the same skin or moss covered houses or snow houses. The outlying coastal settlements, along the northern coast between Capes Lisburne and Beaufort, tended to be more stable than the interior settlements, with habitants leaving only for the spring whaling season in Tikiraq. The population in these settlements harvested caribou and seal. Tikiraq, the main settlement of Point Hope People, was evidently not very impressive to the first Europeans who visited there, but was actually one of the largest settlements in the Eskimo-spreading world. Tikiraq is distinguished from the other settlements not only by its size (about 600 lived there at the beginning of the 19th century), but by the fact that it was occupied by families not related by blood. All the other settlements were occupied by extended families and those related to one another. It was so large, in fact, that many of the adults did not know each other’s names. The society of the Tikiarmiut was divided into what others today would call large extended families. The Native term for such a unit was amilraq or amilraqtuyaat. These extended families would be as large as 70 – 75 people and would dwell in a cluster of sod houses. All of the settlements except Tikiraq would be occupied by the members of just one of these families. Tikiraq itself is best understood as being a large settlement made up of’ a number of these family-clustered houses located unusually close together. Over the years, the different families at Tikiraq evolved various ways for the different families to facilitate social cooperation. One was the qalgi, a place for group activities – dancing, feasting, ceremonies, and community work. “Qalgi” could be any assigned place or a building. The term was also used to designate the organization that used that place, in the same way as the English use the term ”lodge” for both the place and the organization. The social organization of the qalgi became quite formal over time. The building itself was originally built by a very large and powerful family which first extended membership to related family groups. Each qalgi tended to he dominated by one or more large families. Six qalgis were interspersed among the houses of’ Tikiraq in the early 19th century. The structure of the family-clustered houses was impressive. They were often connected by passageways and included caches, storage racks, cold storage, and other support features nearby. Each cluster in Tikiraq had its own name. An impressive feature of Tikiraq was the enormous graveyard that extended northeast from the community. It was five miles long and a mile wide and is said to have contained several thousand corpses at the end of the 19th century. Other areas of the community included playing fields and an archery range where men and boys could practice shooting. A final feature included a defense zone of spikes made of baleen and caribou bones that were strategically placed in three parallel rows. The spikes protruded from the ground just a few inches. The battle strategy was to drive attacking forces back onto the spikes where their feet would be impaled and their mobility impaired. Chapter V: Land Use – The Temporal Dimension \|Winter house, along with storage and drying racks, Tikiraq, early 1880s. Living quarters are under the racks. The entrance passage is on the left. Photo: Kennedy Collection, The Whaling Museum, New Bedford, Mass.\| The movements of the People of Point Hope were related to the movements of the migratory food species on which they depended. A lot of timing was involved, not only to be at the right place when the species arrived, but to have all the necessary gear and supplies ready for that particular hunt. Much depended on the regularity of the animals. While minor variations in their schedules happened every year, major variations were matters of great concern. Over the generations people had developed sonic ability to predict many of these changes a month or two in advance. They could then alter their plans and make adjustments. Wrong judgments could result in hunger and famine. It was in the spring of the year that people began directing their subsistence activities towards the systematic accumulation of supplies for the following year. People gathered at two locations, Tikiraq and Ulivak, near Cape Lisburne for the beginning of the spring whale hunt. At Tikiraq, the first task was the clearing of an ice road, necessary for dragging the sleds to the water’s edge. This task required everyone’s cooperation. Once the road was built, the crews spread out along the shore lead as they wished. By mid-April, it is light enough to see all night at Point Hope. So the bowhead were hunted at all hours, whenever they appeared. When no bowheads appeared, attention turned to belugas. When there were no whales at all, men and boys hunted with bolas the thousands of waterfowl that flew along the shore at that time of year. Most of the meat and blubber of the whales, beluga, or seals that were caught was stored in cold storage. These were ice cellars dug 15 feet or so into the permafrost. The deeper ones had two floors. Each family usually had one or more of these ice cellars, which were an important factor in the efficient maintenance of a large population of people. At the end of whaling, the crews returned to the settlement and preparations took place for the whaling feast, nalukataq, which took place a couple days later and lasted for a week. During the spring-summer transition, a period between the whaling feast and the final disappearance of the sea ice, the primary land use activity was the hunting of bearded seal and walrus, ringed seal, and waterfowl – given that order of priority. A significant number of families moved out to their summer camps during that period. Bearded seals were sought mainly for the size, workability, and toughness of their skins. They weighed several hundred pounds each and supplied much food to be stored in the ice cellars. Some was dried and stored in pokes of seal oil. Some was eaten after aging a few days on the sand. The beginning of summer opened the sea to the Tikiarmiut for travel and presented them with a variety of options as to where they could go and how they were to spend their time. The options were (1) land-oriented hunting and gathering, (2) coast-oriented hunting and gathering, and (3) trading. Though a group might have done one more than another, often a variety of goals were pursued at any one time. Tikiraq was relatively abandoned during summer, and many groups left the Point Hope Region altogether, indicating that the subsistence area was larger than the area of political control. This situation was made possible by the general inter-societal truce during the summer months. Several went hunting caribou, for example, in inland territory actually owned by the neighboring Utukok River Society, but occupied by them at other times of the year. Summer caribou hunting was important for clothing. The skins were prime condition for clothing only at that time of year. Entire family groups would walk slowly inland up river drainages with the help of pack dogs, carrying lightweight camping gear, hunting snares, tents and food in the form of whale blubber and seal oil. When a caribou was taken, it would be prepared and dried on the spot and stored in a cache. Some families hunted marmot and ground squirrels as well. Those who chose to summer on the coast continued seal hunting and began the egg gathering. When caribou occasionally came to the coast, they were pursued and hunted also. Beluga were still available and the coast was visited by migrations of salmon and charr which were taken by set nets anchored perpendicular to the shore. People on the shore gathered berries and greens, and hunted waterfowl and squirrels. The third major activity was the trade fair held at Sheshalik on Kotzebue Sound. From 50 to 100 would travel in boats from Point Hope to meet with people from the entire Kotzebue Sound region, and even a few boatloads from Siberia. They traded oil, seal and whale meat, muktuk, seal and walrus skins, and rope for Russian tobacco, jade, pottery, Siberian reindeer skins, beads, caribou skins, and furs. Towards the end of August, people began moving back to Tikiraq. Even those who were to winter elsewhere would make a point to visit Tikiraq during the fall to retrieve stored food, to visit relatives, and to enjoy the festivities celebrating an abundant summer. Then many would take off for the fall hunting camps along the coast all the way to Cape Beaufort and up the Kukpuk River. On the north coast, walrus and mountain sheep would be taken. In the south, people would seine for fish until the sea froze. In the inland, salmon, charr, and grayling were taken, and caribou hunted. The beginning of winter brought the harvest of ringed seals. From this time forward, the harvest of ringed seals became the primary subsistence activity of every able-bodied man. The Point Hope hunters gradually extended their sealing operations at a gradual pace as the ice conditions allowed. Both the breathing hole technique and nets set under the ice were used. Polar bear were also hunted as they appeared. January found older people and children jigging for cod through holes cut in the ice. A month later the same people were found catching crabs using similar techniques. In the inland, food supply was less stable and the people would be more likely to move following the herds. As a result, Point Hope people were apt to be more dispersed in February than October. But by March, they all began the trip back to Tikiraq to prepare for whaling season. For many that meant a long and cold trip. But as the author writes: But the compulsion to hunt the bowhead was ingrained in the Point Hoper’s psyche as well as in his stomach. Nothing but death itself would keep a hunter from joining his crew. As a result, late March would find the entire Point Hope population again situated in just two places, bringing a close to the cycle which had begun the year before.”	<urn:uuid:8046d545-9b41-47f3-9f70-1945d6fcd5e0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://ebenhopson.com/the-hunters-of-point-hope/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00146.warc.gz	en	0.98181	6,293	3.359375	3	[ -0.2669021487236023, 0.31567972898483276, 0.36540570855140686, 0.1364665925502777, -0.005443754605948925, 0.04311984032392502, 0.2744438052177429, -0.22424742579460144, -0.5151658654212952, 0.22487452626228333, 0.00022623938275501132, -0.3416416645050049, 0.16012685000896454, 0.37925076484...	2	Arctic History – Land Use NSB Publishes Study of Early 19th Century Point Hope Land Use The Traditional Eskimo Hunters of Point Hope, Alaska: 1800-1875 by Ernest S. Burch, Jr. Published by the North Slope Borough 89 Pages – $10.00 \|Grave of an umialik at Tikirak, early 1880s. Point Hope had an enormous graveyard, a mile wide and five miles long. This grave appears to be very new and the flexed knees of the deceased can be seen behind the post on the right. The graveyard contained thousands of burials at the end of the 19th century. The early missionaries collected the remains from most of the traditional burials and placed them in a single mass Christian grave. Photo: The Kennedy Collection, The Whaling Museum, New Bedford, Mass.\| As the oldest continuously inhabited community in the Western Hemisphere, Point Hope is regarded among the Inupiat as a spiritual center which has remained faithful to the cultural traditions of the past. It is a powerful witness to the success of a society that has thrived in the Arctic for thousands of years. When a cultural anthropologist as sensitive as Ernest Burch, Jr., comes to the task of defining the history and land use patterns of Point Hopers in the early 19th Century (just prior to contact with Westerners), a book such as his The Traditional Eskimo Hunters of Point Hope, Alaska: 1800-1875 is rewarding to all readers seeking to understand more of Inupiat culture. Land Ownership Highlighted While the purpose of the book is to give a comprehensive account of the ways in which the Point Hope People of the early nineteenth century used their land, three important issues emerge. The first is that the members of Point Hope Society were conscious of owning a clearly delimited territory. They referred to themselves as a nation, using the word nunatqiiglit, which meant “people who are related to one another through their common ownership of the land.” This fact was clearly understood by neighboring societies, whose own territories were similarly defined and controlled. This observation is in clear distinction with the traditional western view of Eskimos as nomads who freely roamed the country as they wished, doing whatever they wanted to do. Related to territorial boundaries and the restrictions on land use was the protection of wildlife resources. Point Hopers were able to limit access to the harvest by keeping foreigners out altogether, and by the practice of the more powerful families among them of preempting settlement sites in the more productive districts. A final point made in the book is that the experience of Point Hopers breaks down the view that there were two different types of Eskimos, the inland Nunamiut and the marine Tariumiut. This work supports the view that Eskimo economies were neither inland or marine but Arctic adapted, and each society depended on a combination of marine and terrestrial species. Nowhere is this more evident than among Point Hopers, who took advantage of being in one of the best shore whaling locations in the world, but also availed themselves of the other resources the country offered. The following is a synopsis of the book. Chapter I -The Land Point Hope is an Eskimo village located near the end of a point which projects several miles into the Chukchi Sea from the coast of Northwest Alaska. The point resembles a huge finger pointing at Asia, and is thus referred to by the Natives as Tikiraq, meaning “index finger.” The people owning and living on the land in and around Point Hope are called Tikiarmiut. The Point Hope Region occupied by the Tikiarmiut during the Traditional Period under discussion (1800-1875) included some 4300 square miles, reaching from Kemegrak Hills on the south to Lisburne Hills and Cape Beaufort on the north. The boundaries inland included the drainages of the Kukpuk and Pikmigiam Rivers. The area geographically is part of the Arctic Foothills Province laying to the west of the Brooks Range. The winter temperatures are normally above -30 degrees F., but the strong northerly winds from the Arctic Slope flowing around the western edge of the Brooks Range makes the Point Hope area one of the most uncomfortable in the world. Annual average precipitation is between 8 and 12 inches. The area is characterized by Arctic tundra flora including dwarf shrubs and trees, grasses, sedges, lichens, moss, berries, herbs, and flowers. The Region is seasonal home to some 120 species of birds, 25 species of terrestrial animals, 15 species of marine mammals, 55 species of fish. Some 70 of the major species are known to have been important subsistence resources to the traditional Point Hope People. These include the bowhead whale, the walrus, the beluga, 3 species of seal, the caribou, 8 species of fur-bearing animals, the polar and grizzly bear, 14 species of fish, 25 species of birds, and 12 species of invertebrates. The Tikiarmiut were blessed by the fact that the annual cycles of the major prey species were not synchronous with one another. The general abundance of game, the ability to preserve much of their harvest for long periods, and the skillful coordination of their movements with those of the major prey species enabled them to achieve one of the largest human populations of any Native Arctic people in the world. Chapter II – The People \|Point Hope men aboard the “Corwin,” 1881. All are wearing labrets, the typical ornament of adult males among the Northwest Alaskan Eskimos. The man on the right, back row, is wearing a caribou skin parka, with the fur side out. The man on the right, front row, appear to be wearing a caribou-skin parka with the fur side in. The one in the middle front row has a waterproof parka, probably made from the intestines of the bearded seal. The other two are wearing white drilling, obtained from traders, over their skin parkas. The man in the back row, left, is the legendary Atanauzaq. The others are not identified. Photo: E.W. Nelson Collection, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution.\| Scientists have reported that the first people arrived in Point Hope thousands of years ago. But the oldest evidence of human occupation by the ancestors of the Tikiarmiut dates from about 600 B.C. The Tikiarmiut appear at the beginning of the 19th century as a large and powerful group of people speaking the North Slope dialect of Inupiaq languages. The land owned by the Tikiarmiut was defined by well-known boundaries. Foreigners crossed these boundaries at considerable risk unless they came under certain long established conventions governing neighboring nations. The Tikiarmiut were by no means isolated. Their land was joined by that of the Kivalinarmiut (Kivalina Society) to the south and the Silalinarmiut (Northwest Coast Society) to the north and the Utuqqarmiut (Utukok River Society) to the east. The population of the Tikiarmiut around 1800 was about 1342. Because Point Hope was the largest and most powerful society in Northwest Alaska, it was a nation surrounded by enemies bearing deep grudges which they attempted to redress by force of arms. The resulting battles caused a significant decline in the Point Hope population during the first half of the 19th century. The first battle was fought against neighbors from the east and resulted in the deaths of at least 200 Tikiarmiut, a major disaster for the society, A second event happened when Indians living on the upper Noatak River attacked the village of Nuvuraluaq, a suburb of Point Hope, trapping the inhabitants in their houses and killing the entire population of more than 50 people. A third event took place about 1838 when people of Kotzebue Society (Qikiqtarzugmiut) attacked another settlement near Cape Lisburne, killing some 70 Tikiarmiut. The Tikiarmiut were by no means passive about all this. They had successfully repelled many raids on their main village of Tikiraq and were very active in mounting attacks of their own from the Colville River to the North, to the upper Noatak River to the east to Kotzebue Sound on the south. The Late Traditional Period: With the arrival of the American whaling ships in 1849, the citizens of Point Hope began to experience profound changes. The whalers and their suppliers, at first wary of the inhabitants of Tikiraq, soon began to visit them frequently. Around 1865 an epidemic of measles broke out in the Region and ravaged whole villages. While this epidemic was possibly the worst in the history of the Tikiarmiut, it was only the first of a long series. At the same time the people were coping with the ravages of newly-introduced disease, the newcomers were depleting needed subsistence resources. By 1854, it was reported that whales had become very scarce and they continued to decline in numbers over the next several decades. By the 1860’s the whale stocks were so depleted that the whalers turned their attention to walrus. Within 15 years, the walrus population was also decimated. During the 1870’s, other scourges were introduced by visiting whaling ships and traders in the form of alcohol, tuberculosis, and venereal disease. The Period of Instability: 1875-1900 At a time when the society of the Tikiarmiut appeared to be crumbling, two factors were at work which seemed to shore it up. The first was the influence of Atanauzaq, a powerful, intelligent and generous Tikiraq leader who had developed some remarkable entrepreneurial skills in trading with the American traders and whalers. Through a combination of luck, skill, and a facility with English, he became established as the middleman between the entire Point Hope population and the outsiders. While during his early years, the legendary Atanauzaq was a positive factor in the life of Point Hope, he later became corrupted by his own power. He began killing people, taking other men’s wives, and acting capriciously. Many families emigrated from Point Hope to escape his influence, and those who stayed plotted his demise. He was finally assassinated February 14, 1889. A second stabilizing influence was the work of the U.S. Revenue Marine Service, the forerunner of the Coast Guard. During the 1870’s Revenue Marine cruises were begun to enforce the law against selling alcohol to Natives. It seems these were successful in at least inhibiting the American whalers from indulging in their worst excesses among the Tikiarmiut. In the winter 1885-1886, one of the worst disasters befell the people of Point Hope. The whale, walrus, and caribou populations had already been depleted, and that winter, the other species collapsed as well. Dozens of people starved to death. In 1887, another development began which had lasting impact on Point Hope, and that was the establishment of’ shore-based whaling. The whalers brought people from the Seward Peninsula to work the stations. Many of’ these people left the area to settle in Kivalina when the whaling season was over. This annual migration to and from Point Hope Region was later increased by workers coming from the Noatak and Kobuk River areas, which were highly impacted by the scarcity of caribou. The regular movement of outsiders to Point Hope for spring whaling has been typical of the 20th century and dates from this time. The Period of Readjustment: Alter the collapse of the baleen market, the area was supported by the new demands for furs which were abundant in the Point Hope Region, and the establishment of a domesticated reindeer industry in the area. Also important was the increasing presence of both the church and a variety of U.S. Government agencies. A basis for integration into the larger U .S. society was established. “They referred to themselves as a nation, using the word nunatqtiglit, which meant ‘people who are related to one another through their common ownership of the land.'” Both the fur and the reindeer industry collapsed with the Great Depression of the 1930’s. This caused the retreat of the trappers and herders back to Point Hope to exploit the advantages of village life. Although the people were now concentrated in the village instead of remote settlements, greatly improved methods of hunting and travel gave the Tikiarmiut a new ability to travel far and exploit their traditional hunting grounds. Chapter III: Land Use — The Production of Raw Materials The Traditional Tikiarmiut harvested the raw materials of the land by hunting the wildlife available to them where they lived. From animals they obtained virtually all of their food, clothing, tools, utensils, weapons, and most of their other physical possessions. Their chief source of food was the bowhead whale, which passed close by Point Hope twice a year, in the spring and fall. The primary whaling season was in April and May, and the major whaling location was located just south of Tikiraq, where as many as 20 whaling crews lined up on the edge of the landfast ice waiting for the whales. Each crew, consisting of a helmsman, a harpooner, and six paddlers would mount a 24-hour watch for surfacing whales. When one appeared, the boat would be launched in pursuit, the first task was to attach a set of sealskin drag floats to the whale by means of a harpoon. The next objective was to kill the whale by means of lances and magical songs. Several other crews would come to assist and would share in the harvest. Once the whale was killed, the task became one of towing it to the edge of the ice, butchering it, and getting it ashore. Whale hunts also took place in the fall, and a spring hunt took place at Point Lisburne. But both these practices produced fewer whales and were finally terminated when the whales were depleted in the 1850’s. Beluga whales were also hunted at Point Hope, appearing first with the first runs of bowhead in April and then another run in July, two months after the first group had passed, For unknown reasons, the supply of beluga, which were never exploited by the American whalers, has diminished considerably. Walrus also were known to visit Point Hope twice a year, beginning with the opening of the shore leads throughout June and again in September, when the animals migrated south. Swimming walruses were hunted much in the same manner as hunting whales and were harpooned. Walruses on shore were killed with lances or bludgeoned with clubs. The three types of seals available at Point Hope were hunted by a variety of techniques, depending on the species and the season. In the fall, they were hunted close to shore in kayaks. In winter, they were hunted at the breathing holes. In the sunny days of spring when the seals basked on the ice, they were often stalked and harpooned on the ice. Caribou was as important to the Tikiarmiut as the marine mammals because of their dependence on caribou for hides, sinew, antlers, and bones used for making of most of their clothing, tents, blankets, tools, and weapons. Caribou meat, fat, marrow, and viscera also formed an important part of their diet. The Traditional Tikiarmiut harvested the caribou using many different techniques. One of the best techniques was to drive a band of caribou up between two converging lines of ‘scarecrows” (inuksut) into an enclosure made of bundled willows and brush placed upright and covered with earth and moss. Up to 200 caribou at a time could be trapped this way. Snares were employed at other times, along with pitfalls. Caribou were often shot with bow-and-arrow and sometimes speared while swimming. Available fish included cod, Dolly Varden, whitefish, and three species of salmon. These were taken in a variety of methods including seine and gill nets, traps, spearing, and hooking. Point Hopers were accustomed to take about 30 species of fowl, which fell into four categories: sea-cliff birds, ducks and geese, gulls and terns, and terrestrial birds. Murres make up most of the sea-cliff birds and arrive in the Region in early May. They were hunted with bolas as they crossed the tip of the Point at low altitudes. After they began nesting, their eggs were gathered on the cliffs. Ducks and geese were hunted during May and June primarily using the bola. The eggs of gulls and terns were considered a delicacy. Terns were rarely killed, but gulls were taken by bow-and-arrow or snared at the nest. During the summer, the sandhill crane was taken. In the fall, the snowy owl was available. Ptarmigan are taken throughout the year. Vegetable products included berries taken in season, and willows, dwarf birch, moss, and grasses ere harvested for house frames, fuel, insulation, wicks, and tinder. Mineral products utilized from the land included slate for knives and spear points, flint for arrowheads, scrapers, and starting tires, sand for grinding, and clay for making pots. Hematite was used for dyeing skins. Pyrite (ignik) was used for starting fires. Chapter IV: Land Use -Social Dimension At any one time, the Tikiarmiut occupied only the tiniest portion of the region they owned. This chapter explains the complex factors which determined where they were all to be found at any one time. Generally, the suitability of any place for human occupation depended on the availability of animal food resources, but that was not the only consideration. There were also dangerous creatures and ghosts whose presence pre-empted usage of certain places as settlement sites. The fact that 19th century hunting took place on foot meant that an array of settlements had to be placed throughout the area, each of which could provide “very easy access” (around five miles) to important hunting areas. Except during whaling season, the Tikiarmiut tended to disperse throughout the Region at a number of these locales. Generally, there were four types of settlements: summer settlements, interior settlements, out lying coastal settlements, and the single settlement of Tikiraq at Point Hope. During the summer, Tikiraq was virtually abandoned as the people lived in permanent settlements near the bird cliffs at Capes Thompson and Lisburne, or dwelled in tents at other spots good for fishing and beluga hunting. Travel was done mainly in the skin boat umiaks which carried the sealskin or caribou skin tents and other baggage. Toward the end of August, the dispersed summer groups began to move to their fall locations. This could be either on the coast, but several were at the interior settlements on the Kukpuk River where fish and caribou would be available. As many as 200 people would be living along the lower Kukpuk in some 15 different settlements, with houses covered with sod, caribou skins, or moss. As winter came on, several groups would move even further inland to take advantage of the caribou hunt. There they would live in the same skin or moss covered houses or snow houses. The outlying coastal settlements, along the northern coast between Capes Lisburne and Beaufort, tended to be more stable than the interior settlements, with habitants leaving only for the spring whaling season in Tikiraq. The population in these settlements harvested caribou and seal. Tikiraq, the main settlement of Point Hope People, was evidently not very impressive to the first Europeans who visited there, but was actually one of the largest settlements in the Eskimo-spreading world. Tikiraq is distinguished from the other settlements not only by its size (about 600 lived there at the beginning of the 19th century), but by the fact that it was occupied by families not related by blood. All the other settlements were occupied by extended families and those related to one another. It was so large, in fact, that many of the adults did not know each other’s names. The society of the Tikiarmiut was divided into what others today would call large extended families. The Native term for such a unit was amilraq or amilraqtuyaat. These extended families would be as large as 70 – 75 people and would dwell in a cluster of sod houses. All of the settlements except Tikiraq would be occupied by the members of just one of these families. Tikiraq itself is best understood as being a large settlement made up of’ a number of these family-clustered houses located unusually close together. Over the years, the different families at Tikiraq evolved various ways for the different families to facilitate social cooperation. One was the qalgi, a place for group activities – dancing, feasting, ceremonies, and community work. “Qalgi” could be any assigned place or a building. The term was also used to designate the organization that used that place, in the same way as the English use the term ”lodge” for both the place and the organization. The social organization of the qalgi became quite formal over time. The building itself was originally built by a very large and powerful family which first extended membership to related family groups. Each qalgi tended to he dominated by one or more large families. Six qalgis were interspersed among the houses of’ Tikiraq in the early 19th century. The structure of the family-clustered houses was impressive. They were often connected by passageways and included caches, storage racks, cold storage, and other support features nearby. Each cluster in Tikiraq had its own name. An impressive feature of Tikiraq was the enormous graveyard that extended northeast from the community. It was five miles long and a mile wide and is said to have contained several thousand corpses at the end of the 19th century. Other areas of the community included playing fields and an archery range where men and boys could practice shooting. A final feature included a defense zone of spikes made of baleen and caribou bones that were strategically placed in three parallel rows. The spikes protruded from the ground just a few inches. The battle strategy was to drive attacking forces back onto the spikes where their feet would be impaled and their mobility impaired. Chapter V: Land Use – The Temporal Dimension \|Winter house, along with storage and drying racks, Tikiraq, early 1880s. Living quarters are under the racks. The entrance passage is on the left. Photo: Kennedy Collection, The Whaling Museum, New Bedford, Mass.\| The movements of the People of Point Hope were related to the movements of the migratory food species on which they depended. A lot of timing was involved, not only to be at the right place when the species arrived, but to have all the necessary gear and supplies ready for that particular hunt. Much depended on the regularity of the animals. While minor variations in their schedules happened every year, major variations were matters of great concern. Over the generations people had developed sonic ability to predict many of these changes a month or two in advance. They could then alter their plans and make adjustments. Wrong judgments could result in hunger and famine. It was in the spring of the year that people began directing their subsistence activities towards the systematic accumulation of supplies for the following year. People gathered at two locations, Tikiraq and Ulivak, near Cape Lisburne for the beginning of the spring whale hunt. At Tikiraq, the first task was the clearing of an ice road, necessary for dragging the sleds to the water’s edge. This task required everyone’s cooperation. Once the road was built, the crews spread out along the shore lead as they wished. By mid-April, it is light enough to see all night at Point Hope. So the bowhead were hunted at all hours, whenever they appeared. When no bowheads appeared, attention turned to belugas. When there were no whales at all, men and boys hunted with bolas the thousands of waterfowl that flew along the shore at that time of year. Most of the meat and blubber of the whales, beluga, or seals that were caught was stored in cold storage. These were ice cellars dug 15 feet or so into the permafrost. The deeper ones had two floors. Each family usually had one or more of these ice cellars, which were an important factor in the efficient maintenance of a large population of people. At the end of whaling, the crews returned to the settlement and preparations took place for the whaling feast, nalukataq, which took place a couple days later and lasted for a week. During the spring-summer transition, a period between the whaling feast and the final disappearance of the sea ice, the primary land use activity was the hunting of bearded seal and walrus, ringed seal, and waterfowl – given that order of priority. A significant number of families moved out to their summer camps during that period. Bearded seals were sought mainly for the size, workability, and toughness of their skins. They weighed several hundred pounds each and supplied much food to be stored in the ice cellars. Some was dried and stored in pokes of seal oil. Some was eaten after aging a few days on the sand. The beginning of summer opened the sea to the Tikiarmiut for travel and presented them with a variety of options as to where they could go and how they were to spend their time. The options were (1) land-oriented hunting and gathering, (2) coast-oriented hunting and gathering, and (3) trading. Though a group might have done one more than another, often a variety of goals were pursued at any one time. Tikiraq was relatively abandoned during summer, and many groups left the Point Hope Region altogether, indicating that the subsistence area was larger than the area of political control. This situation was made possible by the general inter-societal truce during the summer months. Several went hunting caribou, for example, in inland territory actually owned by the neighboring Utukok River Society, but occupied by them at other times of the year. Summer caribou hunting was important for clothing. The skins were prime condition for clothing only at that time of year. Entire family groups would walk slowly inland up river drainages with the help of pack dogs, carrying lightweight camping gear, hunting snares, tents and food in the form of whale blubber and seal oil. When a caribou was taken, it would be prepared and dried on the spot and stored in a cache. Some families hunted marmot and ground squirrels as well. Those who chose to summer on the coast continued seal hunting and began the egg gathering. When caribou occasionally came to the coast, they were pursued and hunted also. Beluga were still available and the coast was visited by migrations of salmon and charr which were taken by set nets anchored perpendicular to the shore. People on the shore gathered berries and greens, and hunted waterfowl and squirrels. The third major activity was the trade fair held at Sheshalik on Kotzebue Sound. From 50 to 100 would travel in boats from Point Hope to meet with people from the entire Kotzebue Sound region, and even a few boatloads from Siberia. They traded oil, seal and whale meat, muktuk, seal and walrus skins, and rope for Russian tobacco, jade, pottery, Siberian reindeer skins, beads, caribou skins, and furs. Towards the end of August, people began moving back to Tikiraq. Even those who were to winter elsewhere would make a point to visit Tikiraq during the fall to retrieve stored food, to visit relatives, and to enjoy the festivities celebrating an abundant summer. Then many would take off for the fall hunting camps along the coast all the way to Cape Beaufort and up the Kukpuk River. On the north coast, walrus and mountain sheep would be taken. In the south, people would seine for fish until the sea froze. In the inland, salmon, charr, and grayling were taken, and caribou hunted. The beginning of winter brought the harvest of ringed seals. From this time forward, the harvest of ringed seals became the primary subsistence activity of every able-bodied man. The Point Hope hunters gradually extended their sealing operations at a gradual pace as the ice conditions allowed. Both the breathing hole technique and nets set under the ice were used. Polar bear were also hunted as they appeared. January found older people and children jigging for cod through holes cut in the ice. A month later the same people were found catching crabs using similar techniques. In the inland, food supply was less stable and the people would be more likely to move following the herds. As a result, Point Hope people were apt to be more dispersed in February than October. But by March, they all began the trip back to Tikiraq to prepare for whaling season. For many that meant a long and cold trip. But as the author writes: But the compulsion to hunt the bowhead was ingrained in the Point Hoper’s psyche as well as in his stomach. Nothing but death itself would keep a hunter from joining his crew. As a result, late March would find the entire Point Hope population again situated in just two places, bringing a close to the cycle which had begun the year before.”	6,316	ENGLISH	1
Transition from Slavery to Freedom Essay During this remarkable period of transition, former slaves debilitated their family lives, sought to control their work environments, established their own schools and churches, and participated in public life as citizens. While these goals may appear straightforward to us today, they were anything but simple to achieve at the time. The transition from slavery to freedom was as extraordinary as it was complex. Newly freed African Americans experienced both boundless joy and excruciating disappointment as they established themselves as free persons. Freed people frequently encountered violent resistance to their efforts to become paid workers and active citizens. Many white southerners refused to accept former slaves as free persons. The state of Tennessee provides a particularly rich case study of the transition from slavery to freedom during the Civil War and Reconstruction. Second only to Virginia in the number of skirmishes and battles on its soil, Tennessee was at the heart of the conflict between North and South. 1 The chaos of war visited many Tennessee communities and served to break down the bonds that kept 275,000 individuals enslaved. Most Tennessee slaves gained their freedom during the war, not after it was over. According to a leading scholarly work on emancipation, “By the spring of 865, few Tennessee blacks were still living as slaves. “2 As soon as the war began, enslaved Tenseness paid attention to the conflict and how their owners reacted to it. For some slaves, the outbreak of war brought what they dreaded most: being uprooted and separated from their families and kin. Some slaveholders responded to the uncertainties of living in wartime Tennessee by selling their slaves or relocating with them to the south, into the interior of the Confederacy. The many enslaved men and women who remained in Tennessee stayed alert, listening, observing, and sharing information with each other. As the Union army pushed into the state early in 1862, slaves could hear the battles and skirmishes, the rumble of the troops’ wagon trains-3 Tennessee African Americans hoped and prayed that the war would bring about a change in their condition. By the end of 1 862, the Union army occupied large areas of Middle and West Tennessee, including Nashville and Memphis; at the close of 1 863, the Federals also had control of Chattanooga and Knoxville in East Tennessee. Union occupation would contribute significantly to the demise of slavery, even though that was not the army intention. Early on, most officers defiantly refused to accept escaping slaves into Union lines, and some returned escaped slaves to their Illusionist owners-4 In countless other cases, however, Union army officers and soldiers represented an alternative authority to slaveholders, and this played an important role in breaking down the bonds of slavery. John Incline, who was a boy when Union forces camped near his owners plantation outside of Nashville in 1862, recalled how his owner had no power to stop the Federal troops from killing his livestock: “Master and the over-seer went out, under their umbrellas, and begged them to stop, but they went right on, paying no attention to them. ” Incline related how the troops also took rail fences to use as firewood, gave the slaves blankets and clothing, paid some of the slave women to work for them, and encouraged the slaves to claim their freedom by becoming laborers for the army. By the end of 1862, Incline had done so with the 1 36th Michigan Infantry. 5 Enslaved African Americans in Tennessee achieved their freedom in various ways, for there was no single emancipation experience. Men appear to have been more likely than women to escape to Union lines, particularly early in the war. Many female slaves decided whether o stay or go during the war based on what they thought would be best for their children; they wanted to be free, but they did not want to break up their families. Women with young children in particular found it difficult to make their way to Unoccupied areas, although many did so. For thousands of slave men in Tennessee, an important element of the transition from slavery to freedom was service in the armed forces. By war’s end, more than 20,000 Tenseness had joined the United States Colored Troops (JUST); only two states furnished more black men to the Union war effort. African Americans eventually made up forty percent of Tennessee Union troops. Even those enslaved Tenseness who did not join up were heartened by the idea that black men were serving as soldiers. 7 Many of the men who joined JUST units in Tennessee first contributed to the Union war effort by working as military laborers. The first men to enroll in the 2nd IS. S. Colored Infantry Regiment (later known as the 13th Regiment, JUST) in Murderousness in July 1863, for example, had worked for the Logion army at such posts as Clarksville, Gallatin, and Nashville. Local women showed their pride in the regiment by giving it a lag that read “Presented by the Colored Ladies of Murderousness. ” The 13th helped complete the Nashville & Northwestern Railroad to Jacksonville, served as guards along the railroad, and then fought gallantly in the Battle of Nashville in December 1864. Many of the former slave men who joined the Union army in Tennessee had wives, children, and other family members who also sought their freedom behind Union lines. 9 These fugitives, particularly women with young children and elderly persons who could not work, did not receive a warm welcome but were viewed as a problem by Union 2 commanders. Many escaped slave women tried to get work at Union encampments, and despite limited opportunities, some succeeded in working for the army as cooks, laundresses, seamstresses, and hospital workers. 0 Wartime freedom proved extremely difficult for families behind Join lines and was sometimes disastrous due to horrendous living conditions. By wads end, hastily built contraband camps had been established near Union army camps throughout Tennessee but proved to be very poor refuges for former slaves. The flimsy shelters in the camps provided little protection from the elements, and the overcrowded conditions resulted in alarming rates Of eases and death. What is more, contraband camps existed in war zones and offered little stability. Some refugees had to move from place to place; others, like the residents of the contraband camp at Fort Pillow in April 1864, found themselves under attack when Confederate forces struck. In addition, women living in the camps suffered from sexual assaults by white Union soldiers and officers. In union-occupied towns, most former slaves tried to find their own accommodations rather than settle in the camps. 11 It is important to remember that some enslaved Tenseness chose to main at the home place rather than escape during the war, especially after they learned of the squalid living conditions in many of the contraband camps. Even those slaves who stayed with their owners during the war, however, began to experience the transition from slavery to freedom. The threat of escape gave enslaved Tenseness some leverage with their owners. They were able to gain some concessions from their masters and mistresses, including doing more work for themselves and having more time for their families. 1 2 Slaveholders Sarah Kennedy of Clarksville, for example, amplified in 1863 that a slave man named Phil “did nothing but cut the wood for some time before he left. Before running off, Phil also apparently did not turn over to Sarah what he earned from hiring himself out. 13 Family Life as Free Persons Once no longer enslaved, a primary concern for African Americans throughout the South was to locate family members from whom they had been separated under slavery. With the Mobil¶y’ that they had long been denied under slavery, freed people in Tennessee took to their feet. They traveled to towns and cities, looking for each other and seeking any leads that eight help them reunite. In addition, for years after the war, former slaves took out detailed ads in newspapers, trying to find each other. Henry Hill, for example, put a notice in the Colored Tennessee in October 1865 seeking information about his wife, Lucy Blair, whom he had not seen for five years: “l am a wagon maker by trade, and would be thankful for any information respecting [Lucky] whereabouts. I am in Nashville, Tennessee, on Gay Street, north of the Statehouse. ” 14 Those families who succeeded in reuniting experienced the joy of reconciliation, along with the strain of rebuilding severed relationships. The desire to keep their families intact continued to motivate former slaves after the war. Many external pressures threatened the family unit, however. Limited resources, depressed economic circumstances, and manipulation by white employers looking for 3 inexpensive laborers prompted some parents to bind out, or apprentice, their children to white employers. 16 The legalization of slave marriages was an important result of freedom. During and immediately following the war, federal authorities and missionaries encouraged former slaves to make their marriages legally binding for the first time. Officials in West Tennessee were particularly diligent about this, requiring as of March 1864 that all couples who lived together in contraband camps had to be married. 17 Families especially embraced the opportunity to learn to read and write; it is virtually impossible to overestimate the desire for education among former slaves (and this topic will be discussed in more detail later in this essay). This strong dedication to education brought former slaves into close contact with teachers sponsored by religious and secular societies. Most of these teachers came from the North, and the majority of them were white women. They provided moral instruction; taught the Abs; distributed clothing; ran sewing classes; administered medical care; and gave out advice on conduct, dress, childcare, and household organization. 18 Really better described as missionaries given the range of assistance they provided to freed families, these female teachers showed concern for black women and their families (a solicitude that was often in stark contrast to the indifference shown by Union officials). Foredoomed responded to this concern by relating their past and present troubles, taking advantage of the opportunity to testify to the suffering they had experienced. The teachers tried to help former slaves reunite their families, and they encouraged black men and women to marry. While these female missionaries could often be both patronizing and paternalistic toward former slaves, they provided an important signal that slavery was no more, and that freedom would be different than slavery. 19 Work Ensuring that freedom truly would be different than slavery was an uphill battle during the years of Reconstruction, particularly in the area of work. Many former slaves worked for their former owners, often in agricultural jobs and usually for very little compensation. Former slaves wanted to have autonomy within their work lives and control over their own time. These desires often clashed with former slaveholders’ belief that black Ten nesses should remain “in their place. ” Important to the transition to free labor during the early postwar years was the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, commonly known as the Freedman’s Bureau. Congress created the Bureau in March 1865 to help freed slaves achieve payment for their work, get an education, and gain access to their civil rights. After the war ended, both the Freedman’s Bureau and Tennessee planters sought to convince newly freed slaves to remain on he land as agricultural workers (or, in the case of the many former slaves who had left rural areas for tm„S and cities, to return to the plantations). The planters wanted workers, and the Bureau hoped to reduce overcrowding in Tennessee towns and cities. In addition, the Bureau believed that African American workers were best suited for agricultural labor. The Bureau also wanted to promote 4 stability. In most areas under union occupation, the federal government had established a contract labor system under which former slaves raised crops on lands abandoned by Confederates. Using this system as a model, the Bureau encouraged freed people to sign labor contracts to work for landowners for the year 1866. 20 During the first several months after the end of the war, many of Tennessee former slaves held out hope that they would receive land as compensation for their years of enslavement. When at the end of 1865 they realized that they would not be provided with the rumored “forty acres and a mule,” many freed people signed labor contracts for the upcoming year. The vast majority of these labor contracts were for agricultural work. Often entire families would contract with a landowner to cultivate the crops. For compensation, he black workers received wages or a share of the crop. They might also be furnished with housing, food, firewood, clothing, and, occasionally, medical care. 1 Former slaves gladly left their bondage behind, but they wanted to retain some of the traditions they had developed in order to survive slavery. Agricultural workers who were living on land owned by their employers, for example, often insisted in their labor contracts that they be able to keep a separate garden plot for their families or raise hogs for themselves, privileges that had been customary under slavery. The 1866 contract between A. W. Moss and Sam Biostatic of Williamson County, for example, contained the provision that “Sam is to have two acres of ground for his wife to cultivate and that they are to have the products there of. 22 Planters also sought to continue some of the legacies of slavery. Many wanted to control the comings and goings of their workers, limit their visitors (or prohibit visitors altogether), and dictate how they should and should not behave. WA. Crockett of Williamson County, for example, insisted that Sophia Crockett “be perfectly civil and use no impudent language. ” He also stated, “I require her to work at what I desire. 23 The vestiges of slavery would linger for many years. The struggle between former slaves trying to exercise their freedom and former slaveholders used to having total control over their workers meant that postwar workplaces were tense, and often violent-24 Many former slaves did not receive the compensation promised in their labor contracts. With the wartime devastation of the Tennessee economy, many planters did not have much money with which to pay workers after the war. Even given the limitations of the postwar economy, however, there is considerable evidence to suggest that many employers did not want to treat roomer slaves as free workers and compensate them accordingly. Many freed people turned to the Freedman’s Bureau and its court system for redress, but white Tenseness resisted the courts’ authority, and they were discontinued in May of 1866. Still, former slaves persisted. On January 1, 1868, Moroseness’s Freedom’s Watchman reported that “the Bureau agents of the various counties are being applied to by scores of colored people who wish some aid in forcing their employers to fulfill the contracts made with them. “25 While agricultural work predominated, freed people performed many other types of labor after the war. They built stone fences; worked in hemp factories; preached at newly 5 formed churches; sold fruits, vegetables, and baked goods; worked at branches of the Freedman’s Savings Bank; taught school; ran groceries, hotels, and brothels; and did blacksmithing. They cooked, washed, ironed, cleaned, milked, spun, and wove. When working for white employers, former slaves tried, often unsuccessfully, to be sure that freedom differed from slavery. Female house servants sought to live at home at night, rather than be on call twenty-four hours a day at the home of their employers. Field workers tried to negotiate for shorter hours. Most freed people worked long hours, with little time off. 26 Some JUST veterans were able to translate their wartime experience into postwar employment. Private William Holland, for example, became a federal government employee at the United States National Cemetery in Murderousness. As a member of the 11 lath EJECTS, Holland had worked for Chaplain William Earner’s at the cemetery, reentering remains of union soldiers from throughout Middle Tennessee. After the war, Holland also owned a small farm near the cemetery. Although his views on his postwar life are not known, Holland achieved the kind of independence that remained a AOL for most African Americans during the early years of freedom. 27 Schools and Churches Beyond their work lives, freed people established greater independence. They founded their own churches and schools throughout Tennessee. Hand in hand with these institutions, they also created benevolent and political organizations. The first wartime schools in Tennessee were begun by black people themselves during the fall of 1862. As the war went on, the number of schools grew, many of them sponsored by Northern benevolent organizations, such as the Pennsylvania Freedman’s Relief Association, the American Missionary Association, and the Western Freedman’s Aid Commission. After the war, the Freedman’s Bureau oversaw many of the schools established in Tennessee for former slaves. One, the Fish School in Nashville, became a university in 1867 to train black teachers. 28 During the war and afterward, schools served both children and adults. In 1867, the assistant commissioner for the Freedman’s Bureau in Tennessee stated, “Everywhere in the State the colored people are fully alive to the importance of educating their children and themselves. Nearly every school contains a class of adult persons, some middle-aged and some older. Leslie Wilson of Nashville, who had been enslaved for 56 years, expressed her joy at the opportunity to attend school: “l have been praying for this very time for near 20 years and now that it is here I must work with all my heart my whole heart is set on learning to read. 29 Willow’s inspiring testimonial was typical. The Tennessee legislature established a system of public education in 1867, and schools for black and white children were opened in every county except one. In 1 867, 72,350 African American children in Tennessee attended these public schools, 88,866 in 1868, and 89,503 in 1869. Funds earmarked for the schools were diverted elsewhere, however, and political opposition to state-supported education resulted in the repeal of the 6 legislation when the Democrats won control of the General Assembly from the Republicans in 1869. 0 Tennessee African Americans founded hundreds of new churches during and after the war. Former slaves wanted to meet when they wished and worship as they pleased. As early as 1 866, there were more than seven black churches in Nashville, and at least twelve in 1869. Murderousness had four black churches by 1870, two Methodist and ;o Baptist. 1 In many cases, these churches did not just spring up out of nowhere, but the seeds of these new congregations had their origins in the antebellum period. A good example of this is SST. Paul African Methodist Episcopal Church in Columbia, founded shortly after the end of the war. SST. Pall’s founders descended from a group of black Christians who had first joined in fellowship at the white Methodist Episcopal church, meeting weekly in the basement. 32 Churches became important community institutions. They provided education through their Sabbath schools, which usually met on weekends and in the evenings. Many church buildings were also used as schools during the day. In addition, African American churches spawned numerous benevolent organizations that provided services for their members in times of sickness and death. Cemeteries were established in many church yards. Churches also hosted political meetings. With the foundation laid during Reconstruction, African American churches would be the most vital racially independent organizations within black communities for the next century. 33 under slavery, African Americans in Tennessee had developed strong kin and “fictive kin” nee;arks for supporting each other when families were torn part. This ethos of mutuality continued during and after the war. Women in contraband camps in Clarksville and on President’s Island started orphanages. Black Nashville ran a relief society after the war for the poor, regardless of color. 34 Many former slaves founded and joined fraternal organizations designed to provide social fellowship and to do good works in the community. Both churches and schools became the targets of white Tenseness who did not want to accept African American education or autonomy. Certainly, in most communities, there were some white individuals who supported black schools; these men and women sometimes donated land, or sold it at a low price, for the establishment of school buildings. Yet there was a very strong undercurrent of opposition to African American schools in Tennessee. Opponents to black schools used intimidation and violence to try to shut them down. J. A. Edmondson, the superintendent for schools in Williamson County, reported in January 1 869 on opposition to black schools in Franklin: “On Friday night 300 masked men rode through the village of Franklin, yelling like demons. Mr… Gray, a [school] director in the 4th District, (where they had even notice that the less done about negro schools, the better), let it be know that he wanted to talk with them. They rode to his house, and after quite a long parley, consented to let the negro school go on without disturbance, provided it was managed and controlled by white men. ” Two months later, Edmondson reported 7 much greater acceptance of the local free schools. 35 While violence was averted in this case, many schools (and churches that housed schools) were burned during the postwar period. Politics and Citizenship During and after the war, Tennessee former slaves frequently took to the trees to celebrate their freedom and express their hopes and dreams for the future. Slaves had been forbidden from assembling in public, so the opportunity to gather in civic spaces was a clear way to distinguish freedom from slavery. Freed people held meetings and parades in courthouse squares and on main streets, claiming their right to these important public areas. Public activities held during the war included rallies to spur enlistment in the Union army, Independence Day parades, and celebrations in honor of emancipation and Tennessee ratification of the 13th Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, which abolished slavery forever. Black leaders used these events to call for full civil and political rights, education, and economic opportunity for Tennessee African Americans. 36 One forum developed by black leaders after the war was the “state colored convention” held annually to assess the needs of freed people, draw up lists of grievances, and agitate for equal rights. The first such convention Was held in Nashville in August 1 865 and attracted delegates from twenty-two counties. The convention successfully petitioned Congress not to seat Tennessee delegates until the state legislature had granted African Americans equal rights. A second such invention was held in Nashville the following summer. After much debate over whether to focus on politics or economics and education, the participants called for suffrage for black men and for the acceptance of African Americans into the state militia. State colored conventions continued to meet into the sass, and Nashville hosted the Colored National Convention in 1876. 7 Former slaves viewed the right to vote as a key element of freedom and lobbied hard for it. The General Assembly’s approval Of the 14th Amendment, and Tennessee subsequent readmission to the Union on July 24, 1 866, paved the way for black suffrage. African American men in Tennessee succeeded in gaining this right through a law passed by the General Assembly in February 1867. The same law, however, barred black men from sitting on juries or holding office, provisions that would be overturned about a year later. At this time, most former Confederates in Tennessee were barred from voting. During the twenty-five years after the end of the Civil War, Tennessee black voters helped send thirteen African Americans to the General Assembly; the first, Nashville barber Sampson Kibble, was elected in 1872, and twelve more held office during the 1 sass. These successes were short-lived, however, as the General Assembly passed a series of laws in 1889-1890 that disenfranchised the vast majority of black voters. )38 Once they had won the franchise in 1 867, African American men found themselves courted by political party representatives. Although during the heady early days of enfranchisement there was some support among black Tenseness for the Conservatives, most former slaves favored the Radical Republicans. Freedmen across the state joined 8 political groups called Union Leagues, where they gained political organizing skills and bolstered the Radical Republican party. Excitement grew particularly high before the August 1867 election for governor, which would be the first opportunity for former slave men to cast their votes in Tennessee. Black Tenseness provided Republican Governor William G. Brown with more than half of the votes needed for him to win a second term and helped Republicans dominate the election at every level. 39 While women did not gain the right to vote themselves, they showed a keen interest in political issues and attended mass meetings and rallies. During the postwar period, men, women, and children publicly celebrated Emancipation Day, Memorial Day, he Fourth of July, and other holidays. Parades, speeches, song and dance, and refreshments characterized these events. Ministers, soldiers and later veterans, and other prominent men usually led the parades and gave the speeches, but women made important contributions as well, performing patriotic songs, reading aloud civic documents such as the Emancipation Proclamation, carrying the united States flag, dressing up to represent “Liberty’ or the states of the Union, presenting gifts to visiting dignitaries, and, especially later in the nineteenth century, raising funds and helping organize the celebrations themselves. 0 A July 4th parade held in Memphis in 1 875, for example, included twelve carriages filled with members of female benevolent organizations. Cite this Transition from Slavery to Freedom Essay Transition from Slavery to Freedom Essay. (2018, Mar 16). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/transition-from-slavery-to-freedom-essay/	<urn:uuid:6f39f549-83a0-4ae9-a66b-9c5b2c5ac050>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://graduateway.com/transition-from-slavery-to-freedom-essay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00281.warc.gz	en	0.980653	5,295	3.9375	4	[ -0.5129910707473755, 0.5979108810424805, 0.1478346586227417, 0.07697807997465134, -0.09779936075210571, 0.11732284724712372, 0.09583041816949844, 0.07004593312740326, -0.09151087701320648, 0.41978299617767334, 0.48613548278808594, 0.21547189354896545, -0.16196462512016296, 0.12163485586643...	1	Transition from Slavery to Freedom Essay During this remarkable period of transition, former slaves debilitated their family lives, sought to control their work environments, established their own schools and churches, and participated in public life as citizens. While these goals may appear straightforward to us today, they were anything but simple to achieve at the time. The transition from slavery to freedom was as extraordinary as it was complex. Newly freed African Americans experienced both boundless joy and excruciating disappointment as they established themselves as free persons. Freed people frequently encountered violent resistance to their efforts to become paid workers and active citizens. Many white southerners refused to accept former slaves as free persons. The state of Tennessee provides a particularly rich case study of the transition from slavery to freedom during the Civil War and Reconstruction. Second only to Virginia in the number of skirmishes and battles on its soil, Tennessee was at the heart of the conflict between North and South. 1 The chaos of war visited many Tennessee communities and served to break down the bonds that kept 275,000 individuals enslaved. Most Tennessee slaves gained their freedom during the war, not after it was over. According to a leading scholarly work on emancipation, “By the spring of 865, few Tennessee blacks were still living as slaves. “2 As soon as the war began, enslaved Tenseness paid attention to the conflict and how their owners reacted to it. For some slaves, the outbreak of war brought what they dreaded most: being uprooted and separated from their families and kin. Some slaveholders responded to the uncertainties of living in wartime Tennessee by selling their slaves or relocating with them to the south, into the interior of the Confederacy. The many enslaved men and women who remained in Tennessee stayed alert, listening, observing, and sharing information with each other. As the Union army pushed into the state early in 1862, slaves could hear the battles and skirmishes, the rumble of the troops’ wagon trains-3 Tennessee African Americans hoped and prayed that the war would bring about a change in their condition. By the end of 1 862, the Union army occupied large areas of Middle and West Tennessee, including Nashville and Memphis; at the close of 1 863, the Federals also had control of Chattanooga and Knoxville in East Tennessee. Union occupation would contribute significantly to the demise of slavery, even though that was not the army intention. Early on, most officers defiantly refused to accept escaping slaves into Union lines, and some returned escaped slaves to their Illusionist owners-4 In countless other cases, however, Union army officers and soldiers represented an alternative authority to slaveholders, and this played an important role in breaking down the bonds of slavery. John Incline, who was a boy when Union forces camped near his owners plantation outside of Nashville in 1862, recalled how his owner had no power to stop the Federal troops from killing his livestock: “Master and the over-seer went out, under their umbrellas, and begged them to stop, but they went right on, paying no attention to them. ” Incline related how the troops also took rail fences to use as firewood, gave the slaves blankets and clothing, paid some of the slave women to work for them, and encouraged the slaves to claim their freedom by becoming laborers for the army. By the end of 1862, Incline had done so with the 1 36th Michigan Infantry. 5 Enslaved African Americans in Tennessee achieved their freedom in various ways, for there was no single emancipation experience. Men appear to have been more likely than women to escape to Union lines, particularly early in the war. Many female slaves decided whether o stay or go during the war based on what they thought would be best for their children; they wanted to be free, but they did not want to break up their families. Women with young children in particular found it difficult to make their way to Unoccupied areas, although many did so. For thousands of slave men in Tennessee, an important element of the transition from slavery to freedom was service in the armed forces. By war’s end, more than 20,000 Tenseness had joined the United States Colored Troops (JUST); only two states furnished more black men to the Union war effort. African Americans eventually made up forty percent of Tennessee Union troops. Even those enslaved Tenseness who did not join up were heartened by the idea that black men were serving as soldiers. 7 Many of the men who joined JUST units in Tennessee first contributed to the Union war effort by working as military laborers. The first men to enroll in the 2nd IS. S. Colored Infantry Regiment (later known as the 13th Regiment, JUST) in Murderousness in July 1863, for example, had worked for the Logion army at such posts as Clarksville, Gallatin, and Nashville. Local women showed their pride in the regiment by giving it a lag that read “Presented by the Colored Ladies of Murderousness. ” The 13th helped complete the Nashville & Northwestern Railroad to Jacksonville, served as guards along the railroad, and then fought gallantly in the Battle of Nashville in December 1864. Many of the former slave men who joined the Union army in Tennessee had wives, children, and other family members who also sought their freedom behind Union lines. 9 These fugitives, particularly women with young children and elderly persons who could not work, did not receive a warm welcome but were viewed as a problem by Union 2 commanders. Many escaped slave women tried to get work at Union encampments, and despite limited opportunities, some succeeded in working for the army as cooks, laundresses, seamstresses, and hospital workers. 0 Wartime freedom proved extremely difficult for families behind Join lines and was sometimes disastrous due to horrendous living conditions. By wads end, hastily built contraband camps had been established near Union army camps throughout Tennessee but proved to be very poor refuges for former slaves. The flimsy shelters in the camps provided little protection from the elements, and the overcrowded conditions resulted in alarming rates Of eases and death. What is more, contraband camps existed in war zones and offered little stability. Some refugees had to move from place to place; others, like the residents of the contraband camp at Fort Pillow in April 1864, found themselves under attack when Confederate forces struck. In addition, women living in the camps suffered from sexual assaults by white Union soldiers and officers. In union-occupied towns, most former slaves tried to find their own accommodations rather than settle in the camps. 11 It is important to remember that some enslaved Tenseness chose to main at the home place rather than escape during the war, especially after they learned of the squalid living conditions in many of the contraband camps. Even those slaves who stayed with their owners during the war, however, began to experience the transition from slavery to freedom. The threat of escape gave enslaved Tenseness some leverage with their owners. They were able to gain some concessions from their masters and mistresses, including doing more work for themselves and having more time for their families. 1 2 Slaveholders Sarah Kennedy of Clarksville, for example, amplified in 1863 that a slave man named Phil “did nothing but cut the wood for some time before he left. Before running off, Phil also apparently did not turn over to Sarah what he earned from hiring himself out. 13 Family Life as Free Persons Once no longer enslaved, a primary concern for African Americans throughout the South was to locate family members from whom they had been separated under slavery. With the Mobil¶y’ that they had long been denied under slavery, freed people in Tennessee took to their feet. They traveled to towns and cities, looking for each other and seeking any leads that eight help them reunite. In addition, for years after the war, former slaves took out detailed ads in newspapers, trying to find each other. Henry Hill, for example, put a notice in the Colored Tennessee in October 1865 seeking information about his wife, Lucy Blair, whom he had not seen for five years: “l am a wagon maker by trade, and would be thankful for any information respecting [Lucky] whereabouts. I am in Nashville, Tennessee, on Gay Street, north of the Statehouse. ” 14 Those families who succeeded in reuniting experienced the joy of reconciliation, along with the strain of rebuilding severed relationships. The desire to keep their families intact continued to motivate former slaves after the war. Many external pressures threatened the family unit, however. Limited resources, depressed economic circumstances, and manipulation by white employers looking for 3 inexpensive laborers prompted some parents to bind out, or apprentice, their children to white employers. 16 The legalization of slave marriages was an important result of freedom. During and immediately following the war, federal authorities and missionaries encouraged former slaves to make their marriages legally binding for the first time. Officials in West Tennessee were particularly diligent about this, requiring as of March 1864 that all couples who lived together in contraband camps had to be married. 17 Families especially embraced the opportunity to learn to read and write; it is virtually impossible to overestimate the desire for education among former slaves (and this topic will be discussed in more detail later in this essay). This strong dedication to education brought former slaves into close contact with teachers sponsored by religious and secular societies. Most of these teachers came from the North, and the majority of them were white women. They provided moral instruction; taught the Abs; distributed clothing; ran sewing classes; administered medical care; and gave out advice on conduct, dress, childcare, and household organization. 18 Really better described as missionaries given the range of assistance they provided to freed families, these female teachers showed concern for black women and their families (a solicitude that was often in stark contrast to the indifference shown by Union officials). Foredoomed responded to this concern by relating their past and present troubles, taking advantage of the opportunity to testify to the suffering they had experienced. The teachers tried to help former slaves reunite their families, and they encouraged black men and women to marry. While these female missionaries could often be both patronizing and paternalistic toward former slaves, they provided an important signal that slavery was no more, and that freedom would be different than slavery. 19 Work Ensuring that freedom truly would be different than slavery was an uphill battle during the years of Reconstruction, particularly in the area of work. Many former slaves worked for their former owners, often in agricultural jobs and usually for very little compensation. Former slaves wanted to have autonomy within their work lives and control over their own time. These desires often clashed with former slaveholders’ belief that black Ten nesses should remain “in their place. ” Important to the transition to free labor during the early postwar years was the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, commonly known as the Freedman’s Bureau. Congress created the Bureau in March 1865 to help freed slaves achieve payment for their work, get an education, and gain access to their civil rights. After the war ended, both the Freedman’s Bureau and Tennessee planters sought to convince newly freed slaves to remain on he land as agricultural workers (or, in the case of the many former slaves who had left rural areas for tm„S and cities, to return to the plantations). The planters wanted workers, and the Bureau hoped to reduce overcrowding in Tennessee towns and cities. In addition, the Bureau believed that African American workers were best suited for agricultural labor. The Bureau also wanted to promote 4 stability. In most areas under union occupation, the federal government had established a contract labor system under which former slaves raised crops on lands abandoned by Confederates. Using this system as a model, the Bureau encouraged freed people to sign labor contracts to work for landowners for the year 1866. 20 During the first several months after the end of the war, many of Tennessee former slaves held out hope that they would receive land as compensation for their years of enslavement. When at the end of 1865 they realized that they would not be provided with the rumored “forty acres and a mule,” many freed people signed labor contracts for the upcoming year. The vast majority of these labor contracts were for agricultural work. Often entire families would contract with a landowner to cultivate the crops. For compensation, he black workers received wages or a share of the crop. They might also be furnished with housing, food, firewood, clothing, and, occasionally, medical care. 1 Former slaves gladly left their bondage behind, but they wanted to retain some of the traditions they had developed in order to survive slavery. Agricultural workers who were living on land owned by their employers, for example, often insisted in their labor contracts that they be able to keep a separate garden plot for their families or raise hogs for themselves, privileges that had been customary under slavery. The 1866 contract between A. W. Moss and Sam Biostatic of Williamson County, for example, contained the provision that “Sam is to have two acres of ground for his wife to cultivate and that they are to have the products there of. 22 Planters also sought to continue some of the legacies of slavery. Many wanted to control the comings and goings of their workers, limit their visitors (or prohibit visitors altogether), and dictate how they should and should not behave. WA. Crockett of Williamson County, for example, insisted that Sophia Crockett “be perfectly civil and use no impudent language. ” He also stated, “I require her to work at what I desire. 23 The vestiges of slavery would linger for many years. The struggle between former slaves trying to exercise their freedom and former slaveholders used to having total control over their workers meant that postwar workplaces were tense, and often violent-24 Many former slaves did not receive the compensation promised in their labor contracts. With the wartime devastation of the Tennessee economy, many planters did not have much money with which to pay workers after the war. Even given the limitations of the postwar economy, however, there is considerable evidence to suggest that many employers did not want to treat roomer slaves as free workers and compensate them accordingly. Many freed people turned to the Freedman’s Bureau and its court system for redress, but white Tenseness resisted the courts’ authority, and they were discontinued in May of 1866. Still, former slaves persisted. On January 1, 1868, Moroseness’s Freedom’s Watchman reported that “the Bureau agents of the various counties are being applied to by scores of colored people who wish some aid in forcing their employers to fulfill the contracts made with them. “25 While agricultural work predominated, freed people performed many other types of labor after the war. They built stone fences; worked in hemp factories; preached at newly 5 formed churches; sold fruits, vegetables, and baked goods; worked at branches of the Freedman’s Savings Bank; taught school; ran groceries, hotels, and brothels; and did blacksmithing. They cooked, washed, ironed, cleaned, milked, spun, and wove. When working for white employers, former slaves tried, often unsuccessfully, to be sure that freedom differed from slavery. Female house servants sought to live at home at night, rather than be on call twenty-four hours a day at the home of their employers. Field workers tried to negotiate for shorter hours. Most freed people worked long hours, with little time off. 26 Some JUST veterans were able to translate their wartime experience into postwar employment. Private William Holland, for example, became a federal government employee at the United States National Cemetery in Murderousness. As a member of the 11 lath EJECTS, Holland had worked for Chaplain William Earner’s at the cemetery, reentering remains of union soldiers from throughout Middle Tennessee. After the war, Holland also owned a small farm near the cemetery. Although his views on his postwar life are not known, Holland achieved the kind of independence that remained a AOL for most African Americans during the early years of freedom. 27 Schools and Churches Beyond their work lives, freed people established greater independence. They founded their own churches and schools throughout Tennessee. Hand in hand with these institutions, they also created benevolent and political organizations. The first wartime schools in Tennessee were begun by black people themselves during the fall of 1862. As the war went on, the number of schools grew, many of them sponsored by Northern benevolent organizations, such as the Pennsylvania Freedman’s Relief Association, the American Missionary Association, and the Western Freedman’s Aid Commission. After the war, the Freedman’s Bureau oversaw many of the schools established in Tennessee for former slaves. One, the Fish School in Nashville, became a university in 1867 to train black teachers. 28 During the war and afterward, schools served both children and adults. In 1867, the assistant commissioner for the Freedman’s Bureau in Tennessee stated, “Everywhere in the State the colored people are fully alive to the importance of educating their children and themselves. Nearly every school contains a class of adult persons, some middle-aged and some older. Leslie Wilson of Nashville, who had been enslaved for 56 years, expressed her joy at the opportunity to attend school: “l have been praying for this very time for near 20 years and now that it is here I must work with all my heart my whole heart is set on learning to read. 29 Willow’s inspiring testimonial was typical. The Tennessee legislature established a system of public education in 1867, and schools for black and white children were opened in every county except one. In 1 867, 72,350 African American children in Tennessee attended these public schools, 88,866 in 1868, and 89,503 in 1869. Funds earmarked for the schools were diverted elsewhere, however, and political opposition to state-supported education resulted in the repeal of the 6 legislation when the Democrats won control of the General Assembly from the Republicans in 1869. 0 Tennessee African Americans founded hundreds of new churches during and after the war. Former slaves wanted to meet when they wished and worship as they pleased. As early as 1 866, there were more than seven black churches in Nashville, and at least twelve in 1869. Murderousness had four black churches by 1870, two Methodist and ;o Baptist. 1 In many cases, these churches did not just spring up out of nowhere, but the seeds of these new congregations had their origins in the antebellum period. A good example of this is SST. Paul African Methodist Episcopal Church in Columbia, founded shortly after the end of the war. SST. Pall’s founders descended from a group of black Christians who had first joined in fellowship at the white Methodist Episcopal church, meeting weekly in the basement. 32 Churches became important community institutions. They provided education through their Sabbath schools, which usually met on weekends and in the evenings. Many church buildings were also used as schools during the day. In addition, African American churches spawned numerous benevolent organizations that provided services for their members in times of sickness and death. Cemeteries were established in many church yards. Churches also hosted political meetings. With the foundation laid during Reconstruction, African American churches would be the most vital racially independent organizations within black communities for the next century. 33 under slavery, African Americans in Tennessee had developed strong kin and “fictive kin” nee;arks for supporting each other when families were torn part. This ethos of mutuality continued during and after the war. Women in contraband camps in Clarksville and on President’s Island started orphanages. Black Nashville ran a relief society after the war for the poor, regardless of color. 34 Many former slaves founded and joined fraternal organizations designed to provide social fellowship and to do good works in the community. Both churches and schools became the targets of white Tenseness who did not want to accept African American education or autonomy. Certainly, in most communities, there were some white individuals who supported black schools; these men and women sometimes donated land, or sold it at a low price, for the establishment of school buildings. Yet there was a very strong undercurrent of opposition to African American schools in Tennessee. Opponents to black schools used intimidation and violence to try to shut them down. J. A. Edmondson, the superintendent for schools in Williamson County, reported in January 1 869 on opposition to black schools in Franklin: “On Friday night 300 masked men rode through the village of Franklin, yelling like demons. Mr… Gray, a [school] director in the 4th District, (where they had even notice that the less done about negro schools, the better), let it be know that he wanted to talk with them. They rode to his house, and after quite a long parley, consented to let the negro school go on without disturbance, provided it was managed and controlled by white men. ” Two months later, Edmondson reported 7 much greater acceptance of the local free schools. 35 While violence was averted in this case, many schools (and churches that housed schools) were burned during the postwar period. Politics and Citizenship During and after the war, Tennessee former slaves frequently took to the trees to celebrate their freedom and express their hopes and dreams for the future. Slaves had been forbidden from assembling in public, so the opportunity to gather in civic spaces was a clear way to distinguish freedom from slavery. Freed people held meetings and parades in courthouse squares and on main streets, claiming their right to these important public areas. Public activities held during the war included rallies to spur enlistment in the Union army, Independence Day parades, and celebrations in honor of emancipation and Tennessee ratification of the 13th Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, which abolished slavery forever. Black leaders used these events to call for full civil and political rights, education, and economic opportunity for Tennessee African Americans. 36 One forum developed by black leaders after the war was the “state colored convention” held annually to assess the needs of freed people, draw up lists of grievances, and agitate for equal rights. The first such convention Was held in Nashville in August 1 865 and attracted delegates from twenty-two counties. The convention successfully petitioned Congress not to seat Tennessee delegates until the state legislature had granted African Americans equal rights. A second such invention was held in Nashville the following summer. After much debate over whether to focus on politics or economics and education, the participants called for suffrage for black men and for the acceptance of African Americans into the state militia. State colored conventions continued to meet into the sass, and Nashville hosted the Colored National Convention in 1876. 7 Former slaves viewed the right to vote as a key element of freedom and lobbied hard for it. The General Assembly’s approval Of the 14th Amendment, and Tennessee subsequent readmission to the Union on July 24, 1 866, paved the way for black suffrage. African American men in Tennessee succeeded in gaining this right through a law passed by the General Assembly in February 1867. The same law, however, barred black men from sitting on juries or holding office, provisions that would be overturned about a year later. At this time, most former Confederates in Tennessee were barred from voting. During the twenty-five years after the end of the Civil War, Tennessee black voters helped send thirteen African Americans to the General Assembly; the first, Nashville barber Sampson Kibble, was elected in 1872, and twelve more held office during the 1 sass. These successes were short-lived, however, as the General Assembly passed a series of laws in 1889-1890 that disenfranchised the vast majority of black voters. )38 Once they had won the franchise in 1 867, African American men found themselves courted by political party representatives. Although during the heady early days of enfranchisement there was some support among black Tenseness for the Conservatives, most former slaves favored the Radical Republicans. Freedmen across the state joined 8 political groups called Union Leagues, where they gained political organizing skills and bolstered the Radical Republican party. Excitement grew particularly high before the August 1867 election for governor, which would be the first opportunity for former slave men to cast their votes in Tennessee. Black Tenseness provided Republican Governor William G. Brown with more than half of the votes needed for him to win a second term and helped Republicans dominate the election at every level. 39 While women did not gain the right to vote themselves, they showed a keen interest in political issues and attended mass meetings and rallies. During the postwar period, men, women, and children publicly celebrated Emancipation Day, Memorial Day, he Fourth of July, and other holidays. Parades, speeches, song and dance, and refreshments characterized these events. Ministers, soldiers and later veterans, and other prominent men usually led the parades and gave the speeches, but women made important contributions as well, performing patriotic songs, reading aloud civic documents such as the Emancipation Proclamation, carrying the united States flag, dressing up to represent “Liberty’ or the states of the Union, presenting gifts to visiting dignitaries, and, especially later in the nineteenth century, raising funds and helping organize the celebrations themselves. 0 A July 4th parade held in Memphis in 1 875, for example, included twelve carriages filled with members of female benevolent organizations. Cite this Transition from Slavery to Freedom Essay Transition from Slavery to Freedom Essay. (2018, Mar 16). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/transition-from-slavery-to-freedom-essay/	5,454	ENGLISH	1
This week in Maths, the children have been using the written method for division. They began the week by learning how to divide numbers without the need to regroup from the hundreds or tens. Once they were secure, they then learnt how to calculate division equations where regrouping from the hundreds or tens is needed. They have finished the week completing reasoning and problem solving tasks in order to apply their new learning. In English, the children have been reading The Promise. They have thought about how the story begins and began to describe the setting, before moving on to writing in role as the main character. Next week, they will be writing their own chapter for the story using the structure of the text to support them. The children also began their new History topic, Tudors, this week. They began by mind mapping anything they may know about the Tudors before completing a scavenger hunt where they had to find the answers to a series of questions about Tudor life. Next week, they will look in depth at Tudor family crests and will design their own.	<urn:uuid:4362da91-d19b-446b-8da3-87d59037ac56>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.busheymanorjm.herts.sch.uk/week-2-56/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00482.warc.gz	en	0.983741	217	4.25	4	[ -0.497237890958786, -0.1310977041721344, -0.107240691781044, -0.1859080046415329, -0.5506728887557983, 0.24658337235450745, -0.4810865819454193, 0.1934598684310913, -0.11071716994047165, -0.045106060802936554, 0.2080109417438507, -0.2501184642314911, 0.10963340848684311, 0.3855218887329101...	7	This week in Maths, the children have been using the written method for division. They began the week by learning how to divide numbers without the need to regroup from the hundreds or tens. Once they were secure, they then learnt how to calculate division equations where regrouping from the hundreds or tens is needed. They have finished the week completing reasoning and problem solving tasks in order to apply their new learning. In English, the children have been reading The Promise. They have thought about how the story begins and began to describe the setting, before moving on to writing in role as the main character. Next week, they will be writing their own chapter for the story using the structure of the text to support them. The children also began their new History topic, Tudors, this week. They began by mind mapping anything they may know about the Tudors before completing a scavenger hunt where they had to find the answers to a series of questions about Tudor life. Next week, they will look in depth at Tudor family crests and will design their own.	214	ENGLISH	1
This article needs additional citations for verification. (September 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \|The Tarnów Ghetto\| Building that hosts Memorial to those Jews killed in the Tarnów Ghetto. The Tarnów Ghetto was a Jewish Ghetto located in the city of Tarnów, located approximately 70km east from the city of Kraków. It was established for the purpose of exploitation, terror, and persecution of local Polish Jews, as well as the staging area for separating the "able workers" from those who would later be deemed unworthy of life. On September 8th, 1939, the Germans came to occupy the city of Tarnów. Upon their arrival, the Germans immediately started capturing Jewish men in the streets, forcing them to do labor, and taking away other Jewish property. On November 9th, 1939, the synagogues and other prayer houses were set ablaze, then completely destroyed. About one month later, on December 18th, 1939, the Jews of Tarnów were required to hand in all valuables, such as jewelry and foreign currency, as well as wear a special patch signifying they were Jews, or they would face death. The Tarnów Ghetto was officially established in March 1941. Soon after, in June 1941, the Jewish people from the area surrounding were relocated to Tarnów. This relocation caused the population of the ghetto to rise to about 40,000 people. Persecution of the Jews The 1st action that was taken against the Jews occurred on June 9th, 1942. On this date, the Jewish people were required to report to Kaplanowka Square to fill out registration papers. They were stamped with either a “SD” if they did war work, and a “K” if they did not do any war work. People stamped with a “K” were set to be deported soon after. Then, on the morning of June 12th, 1942, men from the SS were given rations of alcohol. After consuming the alcohol, the SS men grabbed axes and went door to door to the Jewish residences. Jews found with papers stamped with a “K” or Jews who didn’t have papers were either taken away or killed on the spot. Some were taken to a forest near the ghetto and were gunned down. Others were taken to Czacki school, put in a steam bath, and were choked to death from the steam. The 2nd action was taken on July 24th-25th, 1942. The Jewish people were ordered out of their houses. They were required to walk barefoot to the market square, getting whipped and pushed by the butts of the Nazi’s rifles. Any children in these homes were escorted to a shed nearby and were shot dead. Some of the Jews who were fit for labor were taken for the purpose of forced labor, the others were then deported to Belzec extermination camp. This action was also known as the “Children Action” because of the large number of children killed during this event. In October 1942, the Tarnów Ghetto was split into Section A and Section B. Section A was turned into a forced labor camp split into a male division and a female division. Section B was made up of the Jewish people who didn’t work or who had large families. Once a Jew was assigned to a certain section, he or she was not allowed to move sections. Once the Jews from Section A were shipped away for labor, the Jews in Section B were told to report to the Magdeburger Platz where all their valuables were confiscated. They were then ordered to kneel down in front of the Gestapo officers while their documents were checked. By the middle of the day, 2,500 Jews were lined up at the square and marched to the station where they were loaded into goods wagons. The train stopped one time at the Rzeszow station to pick up more wagons of Jews. The train then left for the final destination of Belzic. A select few Jewish people were able to climb through the vents and jump out of the wagon and head back to the Tarnów Ghetto. In January 1943, the remaining 9,000 Jews left in the Tarnów Ghetto were ordered to safeguard the properties left behind by the Jews that were deported and to supervise the Jewish labor force. A conference in mid-August 1943 was held in which it was announced that the Tarnów Ghetto would be finally liquidated in early September 1943. An end of August conference confirmed the plans for the final liquidation. 300 Jewish people, 200 men and 100 women, were to stay behind to be the cleanup crew. 6,00 Jews were transported to Auschwitz-Birkenau for “special treatment”, and the remained 2,00 Jews were transferred to Plaszow. On September 3rd1943, SS as well as other forces surrounded the Tarnów Ghetto. The Jews for Section A and the Jews from Section B went to the Magdeburger Platz. Some Jews from Section A were selected to move to the Plaszow camp to do forced labor, the rest were put into the Singer factory grounds. Many were not immediately deported. In the afternoon, Jews from the Magdeburger Platz were led to the railway station to be loaded into the goods wagons. They squeezed 160 Jews in each wagon, nailing wooden planks over the air vents. Because of this lack of ventilation, many Jews died during the trip. On January 18th, 1945, the Soviet Army entered the city of Tarnów, ending the Nazi occupation of the city. - 'Joseph Wardzala Joseph was captured on the streets of the Tarnów Ghetto in April 1941. He was immediately taken to a good wagon and was shipped from Tarnów to Germany. He was assigned to build underground shelters in the neighborhood of Wattenstadt. As he recounts, “The work was exhausting, 10 hours a day, six days a week, often even Sundays.” People were continually dying of pure exhaustion. People in the camp were only given one meal a day, which consisted of a bowl of soup and a small amount of margarine on a piece of bread. If people did not work fast enough, they were whipped with a leather whip. The camp was finally liberated in April 1945 by the United States Army. The American created camps where children could get an education. People were now allowed to attend church and to have jobs of their choosing. Joseph arrived in the United States in 1950 where he found a home in Derby, Connecticut. Since 1966 he has been organizing exhibits, giving presentations, and showing videos on what happened to him during the war. He has also donated many documents such as the document stating he was a forced laborer. His letter “P”, which he had to have sewn on his clothing because he was Polish, is also displayed at the Holocaust Museum. He now gives many lectures on the Holocaust to thank God for his survival, and to prevent an event like this from occurring again. - Gutman, Israel (1995). Encyclopedia of the Holocaust. Macmillan Library Reference USA. p. 1454. ISBN 9780028645278. - Club-Sites.co.uk. "Holocaust Historical Society". www.holocausthistoricalsociety.org.uk. Retrieved 2018-05-04. - "Tarnow www.HolocaustResearchProject.org". www.holocaustresearchproject.org. Retrieved 2018-05-04. - "Tarnow". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2018-05-04. - "Tarnow Ghetto – Amon Göth & the Final Deportation -The German Occupation of Europe". www.holocaustresearchproject.org. Retrieved 2018-05-04. - Brecher, Elinor J. (1994-11-01). Schindler's legacy: true stories of the list survivors. Dutton. p. 143. - "Kidnapped and Deported - Joseph Wardzala - One Man's Story from the Polish Holocaust \| The Holocaust History - A People's and Survivor History - Remember.org". The Holocaust History - A People's and Survivor History - Remember.org. Retrieved 2018-05-04.	<urn:uuid:e3e25674-13b6-4d81-b48e-1a16cfe2676d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarn%C3%B3w_Ghetto	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00293.warc.gz	en	0.985165	1,754	3.671875	4	[ -0.4499073028564453, 0.4337293803691864, -0.14129024744033813, 0.3402765989303589, -0.08213524520397186, 0.24828960001468658, 0.18669214844703674, 0.07472016662359238, -0.1839263141155243, -0.022338151931762695, 0.30726349353790283, -0.41817498207092285, -0.3198677897453308, 0.086992919445...	1	This article needs additional citations for verification. (September 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \|The Tarnów Ghetto\| Building that hosts Memorial to those Jews killed in the Tarnów Ghetto. The Tarnów Ghetto was a Jewish Ghetto located in the city of Tarnów, located approximately 70km east from the city of Kraków. It was established for the purpose of exploitation, terror, and persecution of local Polish Jews, as well as the staging area for separating the "able workers" from those who would later be deemed unworthy of life. On September 8th, 1939, the Germans came to occupy the city of Tarnów. Upon their arrival, the Germans immediately started capturing Jewish men in the streets, forcing them to do labor, and taking away other Jewish property. On November 9th, 1939, the synagogues and other prayer houses were set ablaze, then completely destroyed. About one month later, on December 18th, 1939, the Jews of Tarnów were required to hand in all valuables, such as jewelry and foreign currency, as well as wear a special patch signifying they were Jews, or they would face death. The Tarnów Ghetto was officially established in March 1941. Soon after, in June 1941, the Jewish people from the area surrounding were relocated to Tarnów. This relocation caused the population of the ghetto to rise to about 40,000 people. Persecution of the Jews The 1st action that was taken against the Jews occurred on June 9th, 1942. On this date, the Jewish people were required to report to Kaplanowka Square to fill out registration papers. They were stamped with either a “SD” if they did war work, and a “K” if they did not do any war work. People stamped with a “K” were set to be deported soon after. Then, on the morning of June 12th, 1942, men from the SS were given rations of alcohol. After consuming the alcohol, the SS men grabbed axes and went door to door to the Jewish residences. Jews found with papers stamped with a “K” or Jews who didn’t have papers were either taken away or killed on the spot. Some were taken to a forest near the ghetto and were gunned down. Others were taken to Czacki school, put in a steam bath, and were choked to death from the steam. The 2nd action was taken on July 24th-25th, 1942. The Jewish people were ordered out of their houses. They were required to walk barefoot to the market square, getting whipped and pushed by the butts of the Nazi’s rifles. Any children in these homes were escorted to a shed nearby and were shot dead. Some of the Jews who were fit for labor were taken for the purpose of forced labor, the others were then deported to Belzec extermination camp. This action was also known as the “Children Action” because of the large number of children killed during this event. In October 1942, the Tarnów Ghetto was split into Section A and Section B. Section A was turned into a forced labor camp split into a male division and a female division. Section B was made up of the Jewish people who didn’t work or who had large families. Once a Jew was assigned to a certain section, he or she was not allowed to move sections. Once the Jews from Section A were shipped away for labor, the Jews in Section B were told to report to the Magdeburger Platz where all their valuables were confiscated. They were then ordered to kneel down in front of the Gestapo officers while their documents were checked. By the middle of the day, 2,500 Jews were lined up at the square and marched to the station where they were loaded into goods wagons. The train stopped one time at the Rzeszow station to pick up more wagons of Jews. The train then left for the final destination of Belzic. A select few Jewish people were able to climb through the vents and jump out of the wagon and head back to the Tarnów Ghetto. In January 1943, the remaining 9,000 Jews left in the Tarnów Ghetto were ordered to safeguard the properties left behind by the Jews that were deported and to supervise the Jewish labor force. A conference in mid-August 1943 was held in which it was announced that the Tarnów Ghetto would be finally liquidated in early September 1943. An end of August conference confirmed the plans for the final liquidation. 300 Jewish people, 200 men and 100 women, were to stay behind to be the cleanup crew. 6,00 Jews were transported to Auschwitz-Birkenau for “special treatment”, and the remained 2,00 Jews were transferred to Plaszow. On September 3rd1943, SS as well as other forces surrounded the Tarnów Ghetto. The Jews for Section A and the Jews from Section B went to the Magdeburger Platz. Some Jews from Section A were selected to move to the Plaszow camp to do forced labor, the rest were put into the Singer factory grounds. Many were not immediately deported. In the afternoon, Jews from the Magdeburger Platz were led to the railway station to be loaded into the goods wagons. They squeezed 160 Jews in each wagon, nailing wooden planks over the air vents. Because of this lack of ventilation, many Jews died during the trip. On January 18th, 1945, the Soviet Army entered the city of Tarnów, ending the Nazi occupation of the city. - 'Joseph Wardzala Joseph was captured on the streets of the Tarnów Ghetto in April 1941. He was immediately taken to a good wagon and was shipped from Tarnów to Germany. He was assigned to build underground shelters in the neighborhood of Wattenstadt. As he recounts, “The work was exhausting, 10 hours a day, six days a week, often even Sundays.” People were continually dying of pure exhaustion. People in the camp were only given one meal a day, which consisted of a bowl of soup and a small amount of margarine on a piece of bread. If people did not work fast enough, they were whipped with a leather whip. The camp was finally liberated in April 1945 by the United States Army. The American created camps where children could get an education. People were now allowed to attend church and to have jobs of their choosing. Joseph arrived in the United States in 1950 where he found a home in Derby, Connecticut. Since 1966 he has been organizing exhibits, giving presentations, and showing videos on what happened to him during the war. He has also donated many documents such as the document stating he was a forced laborer. His letter “P”, which he had to have sewn on his clothing because he was Polish, is also displayed at the Holocaust Museum. He now gives many lectures on the Holocaust to thank God for his survival, and to prevent an event like this from occurring again. - Gutman, Israel (1995). Encyclopedia of the Holocaust. Macmillan Library Reference USA. p. 1454. ISBN 9780028645278. - Club-Sites.co.uk. "Holocaust Historical Society". www.holocausthistoricalsociety.org.uk. Retrieved 2018-05-04. - "Tarnow www.HolocaustResearchProject.org". www.holocaustresearchproject.org. Retrieved 2018-05-04. - "Tarnow". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Retrieved 2018-05-04. - "Tarnow Ghetto – Amon Göth & the Final Deportation -The German Occupation of Europe". www.holocaustresearchproject.org. Retrieved 2018-05-04. - Brecher, Elinor J. (1994-11-01). Schindler's legacy: true stories of the list survivors. Dutton. p. 143. - "Kidnapped and Deported - Joseph Wardzala - One Man's Story from the Polish Holocaust \| The Holocaust History - A People's and Survivor History - Remember.org". The Holocaust History - A People's and Survivor History - Remember.org. Retrieved 2018-05-04.	1,847	ENGLISH	1
\|New South Wales Corps\| (102nd Regiment of Foot) \|Nickname(s)\|\|Rum Corps, Botany Bay Rangers, Rum Puncheon Corps, The Condemned.\| \|Colours\|\|Yellow Facings, White Braided Lace\| \|Engagements\|\| Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars (1795–1800) \| Battle of Vinegar Hill (1804) Rum Rebellion (1808) The New South Wales Corps was formed in England in 1789 as a permanent regiment to relieve the New South Wales Marine Corps, who had accompanied the First Fleet to Australia. It was disbanded in 1818. The regiment was formed in England in June 1789 as a permanent unit to relieve the New South Wales Marine Corps, who had accompanied the First Fleet to Australia.The regiment began arriving as guards on the Second Fleet in 1790. The regiment, led by Major Francis Grose, consisted of three companies numbering about 300 men. Although drafts were sent from Britain to reinforce the regiment throughout its time in Australia, full strength was never to exceed 500. A fourth company was raised from those Marines wishing to remain in New South Wales under Captain George Johnston, who had been Governor Arthur Phillip's aide-de-camp. When Phillip returned to England for respite in December 1792, Grose was left in charge.Grose immediately abandoned Phillip's plans for governing the colony. A staunch military man, he established military rule and set out to secure the authority of the Corps. He abolished the civilian courts and transferred the magistrates to the authority of Captain Joseph Foveaux. After the poor crops of 1793 he cut the rations of the convicts but not those of the Corps, overturning Phillip's policy of equal rations for all. In a connived attempt to improve agricultural production and make the colony more self-sufficient, Grose turned away from collective farming and made generous land grants to officers of the Corps. They were also provided with government-fed and clothed convicts as farm labour. Grose also relaxed Phillip's prohibition on trading of rum (sometimes a generic term for any form of distilled beverage, usually made from wheat), usually from Bengal. The colony, like many British territories at the time, was short of coins, and rum soon became the medium of trade. The officers of the Corps were able to use their position and wealth to buy all the imported rum and then exchange it for goods and labour at very favourable rates, thus earning the Corps the nickname "The Rum Corps". By 1793 stills were being imported and grain was being used to make rum, exacerbating the shortage of grain. Due to poor health Grose returned to England in December 1794and Captain William Paterson assumed temporary command until a permanent replacement, Governor John Hunter, arrived in September 1795. Paterson had obtained his commission with the backing of Sir Joseph Banks because he was interested in natural history and would explore and collect samples for Banks and the Royal Society. Governor Hunter attempted unsuccessfully to use the troops of the Corps to guard imported rum and stop the officers from buying it up. Attempts to stop the importation were also thwarted by the failure of other governments to co-operate and by the Corps' officers chartering of a Danish ship to bring in a large shipment of rum from India. Hunter also tried to start up a public store with goods from England to provide competition and stabilise the price of goods, but Hunter was not a good businessman and supplies were too erratic. Hunter requested greater control by authorities in England and an excise duty on rum. He also issued an order restricting the amount of convict labour that officers could use, but again had no means to enforce it. Hunter was opposed strongly by officers of the Corps, and pamphlets and letters against him were circulated. John Macarthur wrote a letter accusing Hunter of ineffectiveness and trading in rum. Hunter was required by the Colonial Office to answer the charges, and soon after was recalled for being ineffective. In 1799 Paterson, now a Lieutenant Colonel, returned from England with orders to stamp out the trading in rum by officers of the Corps. In 1800 he charged Major George Johnston, who had also served as Hunter's aide-de-camp, with giving a sergeant part payment in rum at an exorbitant rate. Johnston claimed he was being unfairly persecuted and demanded that he be sent to England for trial. The English courts decided that colonial affairs were not a matter for them and, as all the evidence and witnesses were in Sydney, that any trial should be held there. They also decided that, as proper court martial could not be constituted in Sydney, no further action should be taken against Johnston. Governor Philip King, appointed in September 1800, continued Hunter's efforts to prevent the Corps trading in rum. He had the power to levy an excise duty on alcohol, and the Transit Board now required all ships to lodge a bond which was forfeit for disobeying the Governor's orders, which included the prohibition of the landing of more than 500 gallons of rum. King also encouraged private importers and traders, opened a public brewery in 1804,and introduced a schedule of values for Indian copper and Spanish pieces of eight which were used as currency; there was still a serious problem keeping the coin in the colony despite it being valued higher than its face value. King's actions were not wholly effective but they still antagonised officers of the Corps, and like Hunter he was the subject of pamphlets and attacks. King tried, unsuccessfully, to court-martial the officers responsible. The Corps were called into action responding to the Battle of Vinegar Hill (named after a revolt in Ireland). Late on 4 March 1804, a great number of Irish rebels rose up at the government farm at Castle Hill, armed themselves with muskets and pikes from surrounding farms, and planned to sack Parramatta and take Sydney Town. Calcutta landed 150 of his crew to assist the New South Wales Corps and Governor King.Some say they then intended to take ships and sail back to Ireland, others say the intention was to declare the Republic of New Ireland two weeks later on St. Patrick's Day. An alarm at around 11pm raised Major Johnston from his sleep; he then led 29 soldiers of the New South Wales Corps on a forced march from their barracks at Annandale to Parramatta. They arrived around dawn and then later in the morning, with 50 militia of the Loyal Volunteers, they pursued the rebels who were now heading to Green Hills, today's Windsor. At a feigned meeting with the rebels aided by a priest as lure, Johnston took the ringleaders hostage and when they and their men refused to surrender, to the shouts of 'death or liberty' the troops quickly put down the revolt. Over the next three days repercussions and summary justice reigned. Governor King highly commended Major Johnston for his actions, even though King had to intervene directly to stop a military kangaroo court from hanging one in ten of the rebels. At midnight on 4 March, Captain Daniel Woodriff of HMS Governor King had been requesting a replacement, for at least a year, and eventually Governor William Bligh was appointed in 1805.Although the economy had developed and diversified somewhat by 1806, Bligh arrived determined to bring the Corps, and especially John Macarthur, to heel, and stop their trading in rum. This led to the Rum Rebellion, the deposing of Bligh, and the eventual recall of the New South Wales Corps. In 1808, the New South Wales Corps was renamed the 102nd Regiment of Foot.Having arrived in the colony in December 1809 with the 73rd Regiment of Foot, which was to take over from the 102nd Regiment of Foot, Governor Lachlan Macquarie was able to control the rum trade more effectively, introducing and enforcing a licensing system. However, due to the lack of currency he was still forced to pay for public works in rum. The construction of Sydney Hospital was entirely funded by granting a monopoly on the import of rum to the contractors, who were the merchants Alexander Riley and Garnham Blaxcell, and the colonial surgeon D'Arcy Wentworth, and troops were used to prohibit the landing of rum anywhere but at the hospital dock. A few of the officers and long-serving privates in the 102nd Regiment were transferred to Macquarie's 73rd regiment, bringing it up to near full strength. About 100 veterans and invalids were retained for garrison duty in New South Wales. Most of the regiment embarked for England in May 1810.In England, most of the returnees went to Veteran or Garrison battalions, most officers ending up in the 8th Royal Veteran Battalion. The regiment was reconstituted with new recruits after it arrived at its new base in Horsham in October 1810. It was sent to Guernsey in July 1811. The regiment was posted to Bermuda in 1812 and transferred to Nova Scotia in 1813. In the War of 1812 the regiment took part in seaborne raids along the US Atlantic coast. Detachments of the regiment remained on both sides of the border between the British colony of New Brunswick and the US State of Maine after the war's end in December 1814 at Moose Island, modern day Eastport, Maine, USA. After the end of the wars against Napoleonic France and the United States, the British Army disbanded many units for the sake of economy. The regiment was renumbered as the 100th Regiment of Foot in 1816.The regiment was the last British unit to occupy the United States; the last detachments returned to Chatham in England, where the regiment was disbanded on 24 March 1818. The regiment's commanding officers were: New South Wales Corps 102nd Regiment of Foot The Rum Rebellion of 1808 was the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history. During the 19th century, it was widely referred to in Australia as the Great Rebellion. Vice Admiral John Hunter was an officer of the Royal Navy, who succeeded Arthur Phillip as the second governor of New South Wales, Australia and served as such from 1795 to 1800. Captain Philip Gidley King was the third Governor of New South Wales, and did much to organise the young colony in the face of great obstacles. Colonel William Paterson, FRS was a Scottish soldier, explorer, Lieutenant Governor and botanist best known for leading early settlement at Port Dalrymple in Tasmania. In 1795, Paterson gave an order that resulted in the massacre of a number of men, women and children, members of the Bediagal tribe. William Balmain was a Scottish-born naval surgeon and civil administrator who sailed as an assistant surgeon with the First Fleet to establish the first European settlement in Australia, and later to take up the appointment of the principal surgeon, for New South Wales. John Macarthur was a British army officer, entrepreneur, politician, architect and pioneer of settlement in Australia. Macarthur is recognised as the pioneer of the wool industry that was to boom in Australia in the early 19th century and become a trademark of the nation. He is noted as the architect Farm House, his own residence in Parramatta, and as the man who commissioned architect John Verge to design Camden Park Estate in Camden, in New South Wales. He was instrumental in agitating for, and organising, a rebellion against the colonial government in what is often described as the Rum Rebellion. Joseph Foveaux was a soldier and convict settlement administrator in colonial New South Wales, Australia. John Townson was an army officer and settler in the colony of New South Wales. He entered the 18th Regiment of Foot in 1779 and was part of the Gibraltar garrison. He transferred to the New South Wales Corps in October 1789 and arrived in Sydney on the Second Fleet ship Scarborough in June 1790. The following lists events that happened during 1792 in Australia. The following lists events that happened during 1794 in Australia. Lieutenant-General Francis Grose was a British soldier who commanded the New South Wales Corps. As Lieutenant Governor of New South Wales he governed the colony from 1792 until 1794, in which he established military rule, abolished civil courts, and made generous land-grants to his officers. He failed to stamp out the practice of paying wages in alcoholic spirits, with consequent public drunkenness and corruption. Although he helped to improve living conditions to some degree, he was not viewed as a successful administrator. The following lists events that happened during 1808 in Australia. Lieutenant-Colonel George Johnston was briefly Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales, Australia after leading the rebellion later known as the Rum Rebellion. After serving as a young marine officer in the American Revolutionary War, Johnston served in the East Indies, fighting against the French, before volunteering to accompany the First Fleet to New South Wales. After serving as adjutant to Governor Arthur Phillip, Johnston served in the New South Wales Corps and he was a key figure in putting down the Castle Hill convict rebellion in 1804. He led his troops in deposing Governor Bligh in the Rum Rebellion in 1808; which led to his court martial and subsequent cashiering from military service. In his later life, he returned to New South Wales as a private citizen, raising a family in the colony and establishing a successful farm around Annandale in Sydney. Thomas Jamison was a prominent surgeon, government official, mercantile trader and land owner of Sydney. Jamison was also a member of the First Fleet expedition of 11 ships which founded the Australian colony of New South Wales in 1788. Twenty years later he participated in the Rum Rebellion, which deposed the colony's governor, William Bligh. Anthony Fenn Kemp was a soldier, merchant and a deputy judge advocate of the colony of New South Wales. He was one of the key participants in the "Rum Rebellion" that removed William Bligh, the appointed governor of the colony, and established an interim military government. He was later permitted to settle in Van Diemen's Land and became a successful merchant and farmer there. Isaac Nichols was an English Australian farmer, shipowner and public servant who was a convict transported to New South Wales on the Third Fleet, on the Admiral Barrington. He was transported for seven years in 1790 for stealing. He is most remembered as the first postmaster of the postal service now known as Australia Post. William Baker was a New South Wales Marine and member of the First Fleet that founded the European penal colony of New South Wales. HMS Porpoise was the former mercantile quarter-decked sloop Lord Melville, which the Royal Navy purchased in 1804 to use as a store-ship. Mary Putland (1783–1864) was the Lady of Government House, New South Wales, Australia during the period her father William Bligh was the Governor of New South Wales. The New South Wales Marine Corps (1786–1791) was an ad hoc volunteer unit that the British Royal Navy created to guard the convicts aboard the First Fleet to Australia, and to preserve "subordination and regularity" in the penal colony in New South Wales.	<urn:uuid:31a26afa-7886-4787-bbbc-107b198a05e5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikimili.com/en/New_South_Wales_Corps	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00406.warc.gz	en	0.98166	3,131	3.625	4	[ 0.10567764192819595, 0.37065884470939636, 0.5182301998138428, 0.10874249041080475, 0.18758650124073029, -0.3308922052383423, -0.20859788358211517, 0.17289583384990692, -0.5814738273620605, -0.1540866196155548, 0.30726632475852966, -0.7740368247032166, 0.05388205870985985, 0.606858849525451...	1	\|New South Wales Corps\| (102nd Regiment of Foot) \|Nickname(s)\|\|Rum Corps, Botany Bay Rangers, Rum Puncheon Corps, The Condemned.\| \|Colours\|\|Yellow Facings, White Braided Lace\| \|Engagements\|\| Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars (1795–1800) \| Battle of Vinegar Hill (1804) Rum Rebellion (1808) The New South Wales Corps was formed in England in 1789 as a permanent regiment to relieve the New South Wales Marine Corps, who had accompanied the First Fleet to Australia. It was disbanded in 1818. The regiment was formed in England in June 1789 as a permanent unit to relieve the New South Wales Marine Corps, who had accompanied the First Fleet to Australia.The regiment began arriving as guards on the Second Fleet in 1790. The regiment, led by Major Francis Grose, consisted of three companies numbering about 300 men. Although drafts were sent from Britain to reinforce the regiment throughout its time in Australia, full strength was never to exceed 500. A fourth company was raised from those Marines wishing to remain in New South Wales under Captain George Johnston, who had been Governor Arthur Phillip's aide-de-camp. When Phillip returned to England for respite in December 1792, Grose was left in charge.Grose immediately abandoned Phillip's plans for governing the colony. A staunch military man, he established military rule and set out to secure the authority of the Corps. He abolished the civilian courts and transferred the magistrates to the authority of Captain Joseph Foveaux. After the poor crops of 1793 he cut the rations of the convicts but not those of the Corps, overturning Phillip's policy of equal rations for all. In a connived attempt to improve agricultural production and make the colony more self-sufficient, Grose turned away from collective farming and made generous land grants to officers of the Corps. They were also provided with government-fed and clothed convicts as farm labour. Grose also relaxed Phillip's prohibition on trading of rum (sometimes a generic term for any form of distilled beverage, usually made from wheat), usually from Bengal. The colony, like many British territories at the time, was short of coins, and rum soon became the medium of trade. The officers of the Corps were able to use their position and wealth to buy all the imported rum and then exchange it for goods and labour at very favourable rates, thus earning the Corps the nickname "The Rum Corps". By 1793 stills were being imported and grain was being used to make rum, exacerbating the shortage of grain. Due to poor health Grose returned to England in December 1794and Captain William Paterson assumed temporary command until a permanent replacement, Governor John Hunter, arrived in September 1795. Paterson had obtained his commission with the backing of Sir Joseph Banks because he was interested in natural history and would explore and collect samples for Banks and the Royal Society. Governor Hunter attempted unsuccessfully to use the troops of the Corps to guard imported rum and stop the officers from buying it up. Attempts to stop the importation were also thwarted by the failure of other governments to co-operate and by the Corps' officers chartering of a Danish ship to bring in a large shipment of rum from India. Hunter also tried to start up a public store with goods from England to provide competition and stabilise the price of goods, but Hunter was not a good businessman and supplies were too erratic. Hunter requested greater control by authorities in England and an excise duty on rum. He also issued an order restricting the amount of convict labour that officers could use, but again had no means to enforce it. Hunter was opposed strongly by officers of the Corps, and pamphlets and letters against him were circulated. John Macarthur wrote a letter accusing Hunter of ineffectiveness and trading in rum. Hunter was required by the Colonial Office to answer the charges, and soon after was recalled for being ineffective. In 1799 Paterson, now a Lieutenant Colonel, returned from England with orders to stamp out the trading in rum by officers of the Corps. In 1800 he charged Major George Johnston, who had also served as Hunter's aide-de-camp, with giving a sergeant part payment in rum at an exorbitant rate. Johnston claimed he was being unfairly persecuted and demanded that he be sent to England for trial. The English courts decided that colonial affairs were not a matter for them and, as all the evidence and witnesses were in Sydney, that any trial should be held there. They also decided that, as proper court martial could not be constituted in Sydney, no further action should be taken against Johnston. Governor Philip King, appointed in September 1800, continued Hunter's efforts to prevent the Corps trading in rum. He had the power to levy an excise duty on alcohol, and the Transit Board now required all ships to lodge a bond which was forfeit for disobeying the Governor's orders, which included the prohibition of the landing of more than 500 gallons of rum. King also encouraged private importers and traders, opened a public brewery in 1804,and introduced a schedule of values for Indian copper and Spanish pieces of eight which were used as currency; there was still a serious problem keeping the coin in the colony despite it being valued higher than its face value. King's actions were not wholly effective but they still antagonised officers of the Corps, and like Hunter he was the subject of pamphlets and attacks. King tried, unsuccessfully, to court-martial the officers responsible. The Corps were called into action responding to the Battle of Vinegar Hill (named after a revolt in Ireland). Late on 4 March 1804, a great number of Irish rebels rose up at the government farm at Castle Hill, armed themselves with muskets and pikes from surrounding farms, and planned to sack Parramatta and take Sydney Town. Calcutta landed 150 of his crew to assist the New South Wales Corps and Governor King.Some say they then intended to take ships and sail back to Ireland, others say the intention was to declare the Republic of New Ireland two weeks later on St. Patrick's Day. An alarm at around 11pm raised Major Johnston from his sleep; he then led 29 soldiers of the New South Wales Corps on a forced march from their barracks at Annandale to Parramatta. They arrived around dawn and then later in the morning, with 50 militia of the Loyal Volunteers, they pursued the rebels who were now heading to Green Hills, today's Windsor. At a feigned meeting with the rebels aided by a priest as lure, Johnston took the ringleaders hostage and when they and their men refused to surrender, to the shouts of 'death or liberty' the troops quickly put down the revolt. Over the next three days repercussions and summary justice reigned. Governor King highly commended Major Johnston for his actions, even though King had to intervene directly to stop a military kangaroo court from hanging one in ten of the rebels. At midnight on 4 March, Captain Daniel Woodriff of HMS Governor King had been requesting a replacement, for at least a year, and eventually Governor William Bligh was appointed in 1805.Although the economy had developed and diversified somewhat by 1806, Bligh arrived determined to bring the Corps, and especially John Macarthur, to heel, and stop their trading in rum. This led to the Rum Rebellion, the deposing of Bligh, and the eventual recall of the New South Wales Corps. In 1808, the New South Wales Corps was renamed the 102nd Regiment of Foot.Having arrived in the colony in December 1809 with the 73rd Regiment of Foot, which was to take over from the 102nd Regiment of Foot, Governor Lachlan Macquarie was able to control the rum trade more effectively, introducing and enforcing a licensing system. However, due to the lack of currency he was still forced to pay for public works in rum. The construction of Sydney Hospital was entirely funded by granting a monopoly on the import of rum to the contractors, who were the merchants Alexander Riley and Garnham Blaxcell, and the colonial surgeon D'Arcy Wentworth, and troops were used to prohibit the landing of rum anywhere but at the hospital dock. A few of the officers and long-serving privates in the 102nd Regiment were transferred to Macquarie's 73rd regiment, bringing it up to near full strength. About 100 veterans and invalids were retained for garrison duty in New South Wales. Most of the regiment embarked for England in May 1810.In England, most of the returnees went to Veteran or Garrison battalions, most officers ending up in the 8th Royal Veteran Battalion. The regiment was reconstituted with new recruits after it arrived at its new base in Horsham in October 1810. It was sent to Guernsey in July 1811. The regiment was posted to Bermuda in 1812 and transferred to Nova Scotia in 1813. In the War of 1812 the regiment took part in seaborne raids along the US Atlantic coast. Detachments of the regiment remained on both sides of the border between the British colony of New Brunswick and the US State of Maine after the war's end in December 1814 at Moose Island, modern day Eastport, Maine, USA. After the end of the wars against Napoleonic France and the United States, the British Army disbanded many units for the sake of economy. The regiment was renumbered as the 100th Regiment of Foot in 1816.The regiment was the last British unit to occupy the United States; the last detachments returned to Chatham in England, where the regiment was disbanded on 24 March 1818. The regiment's commanding officers were: New South Wales Corps 102nd Regiment of Foot The Rum Rebellion of 1808 was the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history. During the 19th century, it was widely referred to in Australia as the Great Rebellion. Vice Admiral John Hunter was an officer of the Royal Navy, who succeeded Arthur Phillip as the second governor of New South Wales, Australia and served as such from 1795 to 1800. Captain Philip Gidley King was the third Governor of New South Wales, and did much to organise the young colony in the face of great obstacles. Colonel William Paterson, FRS was a Scottish soldier, explorer, Lieutenant Governor and botanist best known for leading early settlement at Port Dalrymple in Tasmania. In 1795, Paterson gave an order that resulted in the massacre of a number of men, women and children, members of the Bediagal tribe. William Balmain was a Scottish-born naval surgeon and civil administrator who sailed as an assistant surgeon with the First Fleet to establish the first European settlement in Australia, and later to take up the appointment of the principal surgeon, for New South Wales. John Macarthur was a British army officer, entrepreneur, politician, architect and pioneer of settlement in Australia. Macarthur is recognised as the pioneer of the wool industry that was to boom in Australia in the early 19th century and become a trademark of the nation. He is noted as the architect Farm House, his own residence in Parramatta, and as the man who commissioned architect John Verge to design Camden Park Estate in Camden, in New South Wales. He was instrumental in agitating for, and organising, a rebellion against the colonial government in what is often described as the Rum Rebellion. Joseph Foveaux was a soldier and convict settlement administrator in colonial New South Wales, Australia. John Townson was an army officer and settler in the colony of New South Wales. He entered the 18th Regiment of Foot in 1779 and was part of the Gibraltar garrison. He transferred to the New South Wales Corps in October 1789 and arrived in Sydney on the Second Fleet ship Scarborough in June 1790. The following lists events that happened during 1792 in Australia. The following lists events that happened during 1794 in Australia. Lieutenant-General Francis Grose was a British soldier who commanded the New South Wales Corps. As Lieutenant Governor of New South Wales he governed the colony from 1792 until 1794, in which he established military rule, abolished civil courts, and made generous land-grants to his officers. He failed to stamp out the practice of paying wages in alcoholic spirits, with consequent public drunkenness and corruption. Although he helped to improve living conditions to some degree, he was not viewed as a successful administrator. The following lists events that happened during 1808 in Australia. Lieutenant-Colonel George Johnston was briefly Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales, Australia after leading the rebellion later known as the Rum Rebellion. After serving as a young marine officer in the American Revolutionary War, Johnston served in the East Indies, fighting against the French, before volunteering to accompany the First Fleet to New South Wales. After serving as adjutant to Governor Arthur Phillip, Johnston served in the New South Wales Corps and he was a key figure in putting down the Castle Hill convict rebellion in 1804. He led his troops in deposing Governor Bligh in the Rum Rebellion in 1808; which led to his court martial and subsequent cashiering from military service. In his later life, he returned to New South Wales as a private citizen, raising a family in the colony and establishing a successful farm around Annandale in Sydney. Thomas Jamison was a prominent surgeon, government official, mercantile trader and land owner of Sydney. Jamison was also a member of the First Fleet expedition of 11 ships which founded the Australian colony of New South Wales in 1788. Twenty years later he participated in the Rum Rebellion, which deposed the colony's governor, William Bligh. Anthony Fenn Kemp was a soldier, merchant and a deputy judge advocate of the colony of New South Wales. He was one of the key participants in the "Rum Rebellion" that removed William Bligh, the appointed governor of the colony, and established an interim military government. He was later permitted to settle in Van Diemen's Land and became a successful merchant and farmer there. Isaac Nichols was an English Australian farmer, shipowner and public servant who was a convict transported to New South Wales on the Third Fleet, on the Admiral Barrington. He was transported for seven years in 1790 for stealing. He is most remembered as the first postmaster of the postal service now known as Australia Post. William Baker was a New South Wales Marine and member of the First Fleet that founded the European penal colony of New South Wales. HMS Porpoise was the former mercantile quarter-decked sloop Lord Melville, which the Royal Navy purchased in 1804 to use as a store-ship. Mary Putland (1783–1864) was the Lady of Government House, New South Wales, Australia during the period her father William Bligh was the Governor of New South Wales. The New South Wales Marine Corps (1786–1791) was an ad hoc volunteer unit that the British Royal Navy created to guard the convicts aboard the First Fleet to Australia, and to preserve "subordination and regularity" in the penal colony in New South Wales.	3,291	ENGLISH	1
John Ronald Reuel Tolkien was born in South Africa in 1892 to British parents. The family moved back to its native city of Birmingham following the death of Tolkien’s father in 1896. His new surroundings were a great influence on the future author and provided the inspiration for Hobbiton and the Shire. Tolkien’s mother died when he was 16 years old and he was subsequently brought up by a Catholic priest, growing up to be devoutly religious. He served as a lieutenant in World War One, then pursued an academic career after the war’s end, eventually becoming Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford University. Here he befriended CS Lewis, the author of the Narnia books. Tolkien wrote stories to amuse his four children. One of these, The Hobbit, was published in 1936. This was very popular and spawned the sequel The Lord of the Rings, published 18 years later. He died in 1973, an academic most famous for his works of fantasy.	<urn:uuid:66694182-77b5-4e60-8394-c2a9de33d3f9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.educationquizzes.com/specialist/books/author---j-r-r-tolkien-0001/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00503.warc.gz	en	0.988606	203	3.5	4	[ -0.3707447946071625, 0.7174491882324219, 0.19818896055221558, 0.0729512944817543, -0.4565446078777313, -0.20578639209270477, -0.11694883555173874, -0.06306523829698563, -0.09104681760072708, -0.32425975799560547, -0.47398439049720764, -0.07884145528078079, 0.21271347999572754, 0.2157689630...	10	John Ronald Reuel Tolkien was born in South Africa in 1892 to British parents. The family moved back to its native city of Birmingham following the death of Tolkien’s father in 1896. His new surroundings were a great influence on the future author and provided the inspiration for Hobbiton and the Shire. Tolkien’s mother died when he was 16 years old and he was subsequently brought up by a Catholic priest, growing up to be devoutly religious. He served as a lieutenant in World War One, then pursued an academic career after the war’s end, eventually becoming Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford University. Here he befriended CS Lewis, the author of the Narnia books. Tolkien wrote stories to amuse his four children. One of these, The Hobbit, was published in 1936. This was very popular and spawned the sequel The Lord of the Rings, published 18 years later. He died in 1973, an academic most famous for his works of fantasy.	217	ENGLISH	1
23 September 1641: the Merchant Royal sinks with 1.5 million ounces of gold On this day in 1641, the Merchant Royal became the most valuable shipwreck in history when it sank off Cornwall with over a billion pounds’ worth of gold. The early to mid-1600s was a strange time for England, in that it wasn't constantly at war with half of Europe. And while it was at peace with Spain, Captain John Limbrey hired out his services and those of his ship, the Merchant Royal, to ferry gold, silver and jewels to Spain from the New World, and supplies, troops and ammunition the other way making some £10,000 for himself in the process. On his final voyage across the Atlantic in 1641, his ship sprung a leak, so he put in to Cadiz for repairs.While docked there, a fire broke out on a neighbouring vessel. As it happened, that ship had been contracted to take a cargo of gold and silver to Antwerpto pay for Spanish troops in Flanders. Limbrey was happy to add the cargo to his already bulging hold. The Merchant Royal and its sister ship, the Dover Merchant, set sail in tandem. In total, the Merchant Royal was carrying 100,000lb of gold almost 1.5 million ounces, worth over £1bn at today's prices 400 bars of Mexican silver and nearly 500,000 pieces of eight', plus "as much again in jewel". But on this day in 1641, as they approached the English Channel in poor weather, disaster struck. The ship's pumps broke and it began taking in water.The crew launched the ship's longboat and called for Limbrey to join them. But he was adamant he was staying with his treasure, claiming he'd worked hard in Spain to amass his fortune. It didn't take long for him to reconsider, however, and soon he fired the ship's cannon to alert the Dover Merchant, which came to his assistance. He was the last man off the ship alive. The Merchant Royal went down some 30 miles or so off Land's End. None of the treasure has ever been found.	<urn:uuid:9e60e9dc-bc03-4887-827c-660b9c1d3473>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://moneyweek.com/408989/23-september-1641-the-merchant-royal-sinks-with-1-5-million-ounces-of-gold	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00078.warc.gz	en	0.985548	445	3.28125	3	[ 0.11406853795051575, -0.03930105268955231, 0.5691561102867126, -0.1584051102399826, -0.2997630536556244, -0.7487868070602417, 0.24792031943798065, 0.24136100709438324, -0.005529628600925207, -0.12832458317279816, 0.13832809031009674, -0.5060966610908508, -0.014600028283894062, 0.3295538127...	1	23 September 1641: the Merchant Royal sinks with 1.5 million ounces of gold On this day in 1641, the Merchant Royal became the most valuable shipwreck in history when it sank off Cornwall with over a billion pounds’ worth of gold. The early to mid-1600s was a strange time for England, in that it wasn't constantly at war with half of Europe. And while it was at peace with Spain, Captain John Limbrey hired out his services and those of his ship, the Merchant Royal, to ferry gold, silver and jewels to Spain from the New World, and supplies, troops and ammunition the other way making some £10,000 for himself in the process. On his final voyage across the Atlantic in 1641, his ship sprung a leak, so he put in to Cadiz for repairs.While docked there, a fire broke out on a neighbouring vessel. As it happened, that ship had been contracted to take a cargo of gold and silver to Antwerpto pay for Spanish troops in Flanders. Limbrey was happy to add the cargo to his already bulging hold. The Merchant Royal and its sister ship, the Dover Merchant, set sail in tandem. In total, the Merchant Royal was carrying 100,000lb of gold almost 1.5 million ounces, worth over £1bn at today's prices 400 bars of Mexican silver and nearly 500,000 pieces of eight', plus "as much again in jewel". But on this day in 1641, as they approached the English Channel in poor weather, disaster struck. The ship's pumps broke and it began taking in water.The crew launched the ship's longboat and called for Limbrey to join them. But he was adamant he was staying with his treasure, claiming he'd worked hard in Spain to amass his fortune. It didn't take long for him to reconsider, however, and soon he fired the ship's cannon to alert the Dover Merchant, which came to his assistance. He was the last man off the ship alive. The Merchant Royal went down some 30 miles or so off Land's End. None of the treasure has ever been found.	472	ENGLISH	1
The khanate, and later the amirate, of Bukhara was situated between the rivers Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya (the Oxus and Jaxartes of old), a land of high moun- tains, deserts and well-irrigated fertile plains. Its population comprised mainly Persian, Mongol and Turkic peoples, but there were also Arabs, Hindus and Jews. They had an ancient tradition of trade in agricultural produce, locally made cotton and silk materials, furs, horses - the famous horses of Ferghana were highly valued in China - and precious stones. The khanate was founded in the early 16th century and, from 1561 until its disappearance in 1920, the city of Bukhara was its capital. Other major towns, at different times, were Samarqand, Tashkent, Khoqand and Balkh. In the 2oth century the amirate was replaced by the Soviet republics of Uzbekistan, Tajiskistan, Qirghizstan and Turkmenistan. The information available on Bukharan Jews concerns mainly the early settle- ment and the modern period, from 1820 onwards. The almost total absence of records for the intervening period may be due as much to the Jews themselves, who seem to have kept no records, as to the lack of interest shown by Muslims, reluctant to write about Infidels. Contact with the nearest Jewish communities of Iran and Afghanistan was also very difficult after the early Middle Ages. Religious animosity between the Sunnis of the khanate and the Shi’as of Iran, together with rival claims to the rich province of Khurasan which then included Nishapur, Mashhad, and Marv, meant that travel to Iran was dangerous, even for Muslims. Pilgrims to Mecca accordingly chose to travel through Turkey or even through India, as did Jewish pilgrims to Jerusalem, for their co-religionists were often grievously persecuted in 17th- century Iran.l Contact with Afghanistan and India became equally dangerous after the early 18th century, when the decline in power of the Bukharan ruler resulted in the secession of Balkh and the surrounding area south of the Amu-Darya. The only foreigners to reach the khanate in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries were Russian ambassadors, whose sole concern was to establish good relations with the khans in order to free Orthodox Christians from slavery and to develop the existing trade, which was dominated by the khans and their courtiers. Jews found no place in their detailed reports to the Tsars. This changed in the 19th century, when members of Russian missions began to write for the general public. Imbued with the contemporary love of exoticism, Paper presented to the society on 6 April 1995. they noted the dark garb, shaved heads and long side-whiskers of the Jews, visited their synagogues and wrote about the discrimination to which they were subjected. Missionaries to the Jews also wrote about them in detail, as did the British officers who investigated the commercial and strategic possibilities of the area. After Russia established its domination in Central Asia in the late 19th century, the truncated amirate became a Russian protectorate, far safer for non-Muslims, and there were many	<urn:uuid:f0a737ca-3a92-40d2-a2b1-0adb0f5383f5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://jhse.org/articles/bukharan-jews-ancient-and-modern/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00421.warc.gz	en	0.983632	682	3.703125	4	[ -0.15938246250152588, 0.23090915381908417, -0.02043203078210354, 0.21616911888122559, -0.8421728610992432, -0.5887701511383057, 0.05101563781499863, -0.10126770287752151, -0.052552059292793274, -0.18541254103183746, 0.02131509594619274, -0.679405927658081, 0.1766398549079895, 0.00500176707...	1	The khanate, and later the amirate, of Bukhara was situated between the rivers Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya (the Oxus and Jaxartes of old), a land of high moun- tains, deserts and well-irrigated fertile plains. Its population comprised mainly Persian, Mongol and Turkic peoples, but there were also Arabs, Hindus and Jews. They had an ancient tradition of trade in agricultural produce, locally made cotton and silk materials, furs, horses - the famous horses of Ferghana were highly valued in China - and precious stones. The khanate was founded in the early 16th century and, from 1561 until its disappearance in 1920, the city of Bukhara was its capital. Other major towns, at different times, were Samarqand, Tashkent, Khoqand and Balkh. In the 2oth century the amirate was replaced by the Soviet republics of Uzbekistan, Tajiskistan, Qirghizstan and Turkmenistan. The information available on Bukharan Jews concerns mainly the early settle- ment and the modern period, from 1820 onwards. The almost total absence of records for the intervening period may be due as much to the Jews themselves, who seem to have kept no records, as to the lack of interest shown by Muslims, reluctant to write about Infidels. Contact with the nearest Jewish communities of Iran and Afghanistan was also very difficult after the early Middle Ages. Religious animosity between the Sunnis of the khanate and the Shi’as of Iran, together with rival claims to the rich province of Khurasan which then included Nishapur, Mashhad, and Marv, meant that travel to Iran was dangerous, even for Muslims. Pilgrims to Mecca accordingly chose to travel through Turkey or even through India, as did Jewish pilgrims to Jerusalem, for their co-religionists were often grievously persecuted in 17th- century Iran.l Contact with Afghanistan and India became equally dangerous after the early 18th century, when the decline in power of the Bukharan ruler resulted in the secession of Balkh and the surrounding area south of the Amu-Darya. The only foreigners to reach the khanate in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries were Russian ambassadors, whose sole concern was to establish good relations with the khans in order to free Orthodox Christians from slavery and to develop the existing trade, which was dominated by the khans and their courtiers. Jews found no place in their detailed reports to the Tsars. This changed in the 19th century, when members of Russian missions began to write for the general public. Imbued with the contemporary love of exoticism, Paper presented to the society on 6 April 1995. they noted the dark garb, shaved heads and long side-whiskers of the Jews, visited their synagogues and wrote about the discrimination to which they were subjected. Missionaries to the Jews also wrote about them in detail, as did the British officers who investigated the commercial and strategic possibilities of the area. After Russia established its domination in Central Asia in the late 19th century, the truncated amirate became a Russian protectorate, far safer for non-Muslims, and there were many	704	ENGLISH	1
Modern readers of the New Testament often imagine that women’s lives in the first and second centuries C.E. were highly restricted. This mind-set has led to a number of myths concerning women and their condition in first-century Roman Judea, or what many call the New Testament period. While women were not considered the equals of men, a number of legal and social norms contradict modern expectations. A better understanding of these conventions may reshape the interpretation of biblical texts. 1: Women were controlled by their fathers or husbands. According to Roman law, women were under the legal authority of their father until he died. But the same was true for men: When a father died, his adult sons and daughters became legally independent. They could own their own property and inherited property from their father. In most cases, marriage did not alter the legal independence of women. At an earlier time it had been common for women to come under the legal authority of their husbands, but by the first century C.E. this was not the case. Most marriages took a legal form in which the woman remained in her father’s authority if he was alive or retained her legal independence if her father had died. Thus, a husband exercised legal authority over other members of his household—but not over his wife. There were social norms that supported the notion that wives should defer to husbands, but the reality of women’s legal status should not be obscured by such statements.	<urn:uuid:b3f3a309-e6f5-4d95-a262-0f485ca2ecf6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/46/1/21	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00402.warc.gz	en	0.99127	299	3.953125	4	[ -0.28578802943229675, 0.5895716547966003, -0.06093597412109375, -0.25091856718063354, -0.0716116726398468, 0.14227132499217987, 0.060571204870939255, 0.2396067976951599, 0.15979893505573273, -0.07119731605052948, -0.21863940358161926, 0.1205868273973465, 0.042979639023542404, -0.0390954315...	5	Modern readers of the New Testament often imagine that women’s lives in the first and second centuries C.E. were highly restricted. This mind-set has led to a number of myths concerning women and their condition in first-century Roman Judea, or what many call the New Testament period. While women were not considered the equals of men, a number of legal and social norms contradict modern expectations. A better understanding of these conventions may reshape the interpretation of biblical texts. 1: Women were controlled by their fathers or husbands. According to Roman law, women were under the legal authority of their father until he died. But the same was true for men: When a father died, his adult sons and daughters became legally independent. They could own their own property and inherited property from their father. In most cases, marriage did not alter the legal independence of women. At an earlier time it had been common for women to come under the legal authority of their husbands, but by the first century C.E. this was not the case. Most marriages took a legal form in which the woman remained in her father’s authority if he was alive or retained her legal independence if her father had died. Thus, a husband exercised legal authority over other members of his household—but not over his wife. There were social norms that supported the notion that wives should defer to husbands, but the reality of women’s legal status should not be obscured by such statements.	284	ENGLISH	1
The origins of all Garifuna people may be traced back to their West African and Arawak ancestors who lived on the Caribbean island of St. Vincent. They were known to French and British colonialists as Black Caribs. After more than a century of resisting colonization, the Garifuna were abandoned by their French allies, and defeated by the British. Garifuna leader Joseph Chatoyer (pronounced Sa-Tu-Ye) was killed in an ambush, and some Garifuna managed to escape to neighboring islands and to South America, while others were sold into slavery in the United States. On April 11, 1797, 2,026 captives were transported from St. Vincent to the island of Roatan (now part of Honduras). Since then, Garifuna people have carved out a unique worldview based on careful use of natural resources and coexistence with the environment. While remaining stewards of their original coastal settlements, they have migrated by sea and by land for more than two centuries, and Garinagu (plural of Garifuna) communities now thrive throughout the western hemisphere. These creative and inventive people have developed a transnational network by celebrating and performing their history and culture with pride and conviction. Guided by the Flores family from their family land on Roatan, we are mapping the musical diaspora of the Garifuna people one dance party at a time! In the process, we are learning that there are African Americans discovering their Garinagu roots every day- which is really worth celebrating.	<urn:uuid:811cfbae-fb93-4f8d-a040-59359698b15b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://anichugu.com/garifuna-history-101/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00535.warc.gz	en	0.983483	307	3.71875	4	[ 0.18023493885993958, 0.13980689644813538, 0.12168330699205399, -0.11107521504163742, 0.1960597038269043, -0.10401958972215652, 0.11672549694776535, 0.01525005605071783, -0.26785987615585327, 0.08927823603153229, 0.17104551196098328, -0.24887080490589142, -0.03845939412713051, 0.10207404941...	6	The origins of all Garifuna people may be traced back to their West African and Arawak ancestors who lived on the Caribbean island of St. Vincent. They were known to French and British colonialists as Black Caribs. After more than a century of resisting colonization, the Garifuna were abandoned by their French allies, and defeated by the British. Garifuna leader Joseph Chatoyer (pronounced Sa-Tu-Ye) was killed in an ambush, and some Garifuna managed to escape to neighboring islands and to South America, while others were sold into slavery in the United States. On April 11, 1797, 2,026 captives were transported from St. Vincent to the island of Roatan (now part of Honduras). Since then, Garifuna people have carved out a unique worldview based on careful use of natural resources and coexistence with the environment. While remaining stewards of their original coastal settlements, they have migrated by sea and by land for more than two centuries, and Garinagu (plural of Garifuna) communities now thrive throughout the western hemisphere. These creative and inventive people have developed a transnational network by celebrating and performing their history and culture with pride and conviction. Guided by the Flores family from their family land on Roatan, we are mapping the musical diaspora of the Garifuna people one dance party at a time! In the process, we are learning that there are African Americans discovering their Garinagu roots every day- which is really worth celebrating.	314	ENGLISH	1
Fathered by the Duke of Vazul and one of his pagan concubines in Hungry circa 1016 CE, Béla I’s life began inauspiciously. The middle child of three boys, he and his brothers were forced to leave Hungry after their father’s death as their presence was a threat to ruling monarchy. Béla found himself in Poland where he entered the service of King Mieszko II Lambert. As a retainer, his was a major player in Poland’s push against the pagan tribesmen. His numerous victories earned him the title “Béla the Champion” and “Béla the Bison.” In the meantime, the former king of Hungry, Peter, lost his office when a vicious pagan revolt upended his authority. Béla’s brother Andrew I entered the vacuum and ascended to the throne. While Peter had been a model ally to the Holy Roman Empire and the Vatican, Andrew sought more independence. Sensing that his plans could start a war with the Christian superpower, he brought his war-hardened brother Béla into his court, offering him a third of the kingdom in exchange for his subservience. Béla accepted, and the agreement held fast until 1057, when Béla’s wife had a son. Eager to secure country for his future bloodline, he raised an army in Poland and marched on his brother’s holdings. Andrew I’s forces were no match for the experienced Béla, and he was killed in 1060. Béla I ascended to his brother’s position, but his rule only lasted three years. His wooden throne collapsed as he sat on it, and it killed him. Though it should be mentioned that his brief time as ruler was characterized by efficient management and political stability, it was a fitting end for a man that gained his station through betrayal and fratricide. It was, however, preferable to György Dózsa’s death. Leader of a peasant revolt in Hungry in the early 16th century, his army of starved, disgruntled farmers began their war against the nobility with great successes. They captured the city-fortresses of Csanád, Arad, Lippa and Világos before the uprising was crushed by an army of 20,000 heavily armed soldiers. Scholars estimate that some 70,000 peasants were tortured in the war’s aftermath, but none suffered as much as György Dózsa. Mocking his ambitions to rule over Hungary, he was chained to a heated iron throne, with a burning iron crown on his head and a red-hot scepter in his hand. They executed his younger brother Gergely before him as he begged them to let the boy live. Then they lacerated his skin with iron rods, so that he his burnt flesh was exposed. Nine rebels, who had been starved for days, were led in front of him and ordered to eat the meat off his bones. Three refused and were killed on the spot. The remaining six bit into him, swallowing the body of their former leader. Despite the anti-religious bent of György Dózsa’s, he was eventually accepted as a martyr by the Christian church, in part because of his enduring popularity among the peasants. A statue of the Virgin Mary stands in the spot where he was cooked on the throne. His face is present throughout Hungary, and György Dózsa is one of the most popular street names in the country. By Matt Alberswerth	<urn:uuid:47dc80c1-bc14-463e-8c1e-f7f496292baf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://diaboliquemagazine.com/unusual-deaths-7-watch-the-throne/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00266.warc.gz	en	0.992162	757	3.546875	4	[ -0.3660666048526764, 0.6725296378135681, 0.06406256556510925, -0.1367260217666626, -0.06880095601081848, -0.004270925186574459, 0.16836079955101013, 0.0669524222612381, -0.11407218128442764, -0.26340800523757935, 0.04601391777396202, -0.4631437063217163, 0.003498161444440484, 0.03794288635...	4	Fathered by the Duke of Vazul and one of his pagan concubines in Hungry circa 1016 CE, Béla I’s life began inauspiciously. The middle child of three boys, he and his brothers were forced to leave Hungry after their father’s death as their presence was a threat to ruling monarchy. Béla found himself in Poland where he entered the service of King Mieszko II Lambert. As a retainer, his was a major player in Poland’s push against the pagan tribesmen. His numerous victories earned him the title “Béla the Champion” and “Béla the Bison.” In the meantime, the former king of Hungry, Peter, lost his office when a vicious pagan revolt upended his authority. Béla’s brother Andrew I entered the vacuum and ascended to the throne. While Peter had been a model ally to the Holy Roman Empire and the Vatican, Andrew sought more independence. Sensing that his plans could start a war with the Christian superpower, he brought his war-hardened brother Béla into his court, offering him a third of the kingdom in exchange for his subservience. Béla accepted, and the agreement held fast until 1057, when Béla’s wife had a son. Eager to secure country for his future bloodline, he raised an army in Poland and marched on his brother’s holdings. Andrew I’s forces were no match for the experienced Béla, and he was killed in 1060. Béla I ascended to his brother’s position, but his rule only lasted three years. His wooden throne collapsed as he sat on it, and it killed him. Though it should be mentioned that his brief time as ruler was characterized by efficient management and political stability, it was a fitting end for a man that gained his station through betrayal and fratricide. It was, however, preferable to György Dózsa’s death. Leader of a peasant revolt in Hungry in the early 16th century, his army of starved, disgruntled farmers began their war against the nobility with great successes. They captured the city-fortresses of Csanád, Arad, Lippa and Világos before the uprising was crushed by an army of 20,000 heavily armed soldiers. Scholars estimate that some 70,000 peasants were tortured in the war’s aftermath, but none suffered as much as György Dózsa. Mocking his ambitions to rule over Hungary, he was chained to a heated iron throne, with a burning iron crown on his head and a red-hot scepter in his hand. They executed his younger brother Gergely before him as he begged them to let the boy live. Then they lacerated his skin with iron rods, so that he his burnt flesh was exposed. Nine rebels, who had been starved for days, were led in front of him and ordered to eat the meat off his bones. Three refused and were killed on the spot. The remaining six bit into him, swallowing the body of their former leader. Despite the anti-religious bent of György Dózsa’s, he was eventually accepted as a martyr by the Christian church, in part because of his enduring popularity among the peasants. A statue of the Virgin Mary stands in the spot where he was cooked on the throne. His face is present throughout Hungary, and György Dózsa is one of the most popular street names in the country. By Matt Alberswerth	748	ENGLISH	1
I have always been fascinated by the connections between music and math. And I love using math concepts to teach music. No, they are not exactly the same. But they do work together beautifully. Today in music class, students were introduced to that connection. And they used it to become composers. The premise was simple. Students would write four sets of four numbers (using only 1-5) on a notecard. The groups of numbers would then be translated into a melody, using the notes C, D, E, F, and G. Before students chose their number groups, we talked about patterns. First, we studied the patterns on the keyboard. We discussed how numbers in a pattern can step up and down, skip, or repeat. Just like a melody. With this in mind, each student received a notecard. They divided it into fourths, creating four boxes. Each box was then filled with four numbers of their choosing. There were students, notecards, and pencils everywhere! It was loud! Controlled chaos, I like to say. But it was awesome! Once students completed their pattern cards, I planned to play their melodies on the piano. The response from my fifth-grade class was precious. And “precious” is not a word I often use to describe fifth graders. 😉 As I began to play the compositions, students huddled around the piano. Each one crowded in, trying to hand me their card next. Each one sheepishly smiled as they heard their creation. I wish I could have snapped a picture. Maybe the actual composing was more logic than creativity. But the outcome was music, nonetheless. Even if it was music created by the numbers.	<urn:uuid:9d594bd3-7263-4055-8c11-a0356eec380c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pianogirlthoughts.com/2020/01/07/by-the-numbers/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00119.warc.gz	en	0.983244	358	3.28125	3	[ -0.23837539553642273, -0.47600746154785156, 0.023108961060643196, -0.4257359802722931, -0.6773607134819031, 0.14890511333942413, -0.2777126431465149, -0.008306599222123623, 0.4230589270591736, -0.2980875074863434, -0.035586368292570114, 0.3276171088218689, 0.38069990277290344, -0.024049224...	14	I have always been fascinated by the connections between music and math. And I love using math concepts to teach music. No, they are not exactly the same. But they do work together beautifully. Today in music class, students were introduced to that connection. And they used it to become composers. The premise was simple. Students would write four sets of four numbers (using only 1-5) on a notecard. The groups of numbers would then be translated into a melody, using the notes C, D, E, F, and G. Before students chose their number groups, we talked about patterns. First, we studied the patterns on the keyboard. We discussed how numbers in a pattern can step up and down, skip, or repeat. Just like a melody. With this in mind, each student received a notecard. They divided it into fourths, creating four boxes. Each box was then filled with four numbers of their choosing. There were students, notecards, and pencils everywhere! It was loud! Controlled chaos, I like to say. But it was awesome! Once students completed their pattern cards, I planned to play their melodies on the piano. The response from my fifth-grade class was precious. And “precious” is not a word I often use to describe fifth graders. 😉 As I began to play the compositions, students huddled around the piano. Each one crowded in, trying to hand me their card next. Each one sheepishly smiled as they heard their creation. I wish I could have snapped a picture. Maybe the actual composing was more logic than creativity. But the outcome was music, nonetheless. Even if it was music created by the numbers.	345	ENGLISH	1
McNeill 1992, pp. 39–40 The cost of building a castle varied according to factors such as their complexity and transport costs for material. for lords of smaller areas, castle building was a very serious and costly undertaking. It was usual for a stone castle to take the best part of a decade to finish. The cost of a large castle built over this time (anywhere from £1,000 to £10,000) would take the income from several manors, severely impacting a lord's finances. McNeill 1992, pp. 39–40 Not only were stone castles expensive to build in the first place, but their maintenance was a constant drain. They contained a lot of timber, which was often unseasoned and as a result needed careful upkeep. The positioning of castles was influenced by the available terrain. Whereas hill castles such as Marksburg were common in Germany, where 66 per cent of all known medieval were highland area while 34 per cent were on low-lying land, they formed a minority of sites in England. Because of the range of functions they had to fulfil, castles were built in a variety of locations. Multiple factors were considered when choosing a site, balancing between the need for a defendable position with other considerations such as proximity to resources. For instance many castles are located near Roman roads, which remained important transport routes in the Middle Ages, or could lead to the alteration or creation of new road systems in the area. Where available it was common to exploit pre-existing defences such as building with a Roman fort or the ramparts of an Iron Age hillfort. A prominent site that overlooked the surrounding area and offered some natural defences may also have been chosen because its visibility made it a symbol of power. Urban castles were particularly important in controlling centres of population and production, especially with an invading force, for instance in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century the majority of royal castles were built in or near towns. As castles were not simply military buildings but centres of administration and symbols of power, they had a significant impact on the surrounding landscape. Rural castles were often associated with mills and field systems due to their role in managing the lord's estate,which gave them greater influence over resources. Others were adjacent to or in royal forests or deer parks and were important in their upkeep. Fish ponds were a luxury of the lordly elite, and many were found next to castles. Not only were they practical in that they ensured a water supply and fresh fish, but they were a status symbol as they were expensive to build and maintain. Medieval Castles were huge protection camps made to protect the king. They had every kind of defense known to medieval man. From murder holes, to arrow-loops, a castle had it. Medieval castles were usually built on a high rocky cliff located by water. Castle locations were very hard to find and sometimes months were spent looking for one. A moat was built around the castle and was usually filled with sewage and bathroom “goodies.” All these things played an important part in keeping the castle strong and ready to fight. A couple other defenses the castle had were murder holes; soldiers would dump many things on the sieging warriors. Another tactic was the arrow-loops; a small slender cut in the castle wall that arrows could be shot out from but not…	<urn:uuid:cc38d906-1420-446b-a024-870d805cc60f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Research-Paper-Info-564194.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00133.warc.gz	en	0.993419	691	4.0625	4	[ -0.12286891043186188, -0.14387518167495728, 0.6599782705307007, 0.04978698119521141, 0.18294838070869446, -0.08286142349243164, -0.02071821689605713, -0.37052130699157715, -0.07296433299779892, -0.19301873445510864, -0.1181933656334877, -0.24390539526939392, 0.16014698147773743, 0.08263665...	1	McNeill 1992, pp. 39–40 The cost of building a castle varied according to factors such as their complexity and transport costs for material. for lords of smaller areas, castle building was a very serious and costly undertaking. It was usual for a stone castle to take the best part of a decade to finish. The cost of a large castle built over this time (anywhere from £1,000 to £10,000) would take the income from several manors, severely impacting a lord's finances. McNeill 1992, pp. 39–40 Not only were stone castles expensive to build in the first place, but their maintenance was a constant drain. They contained a lot of timber, which was often unseasoned and as a result needed careful upkeep. The positioning of castles was influenced by the available terrain. Whereas hill castles such as Marksburg were common in Germany, where 66 per cent of all known medieval were highland area while 34 per cent were on low-lying land, they formed a minority of sites in England. Because of the range of functions they had to fulfil, castles were built in a variety of locations. Multiple factors were considered when choosing a site, balancing between the need for a defendable position with other considerations such as proximity to resources. For instance many castles are located near Roman roads, which remained important transport routes in the Middle Ages, or could lead to the alteration or creation of new road systems in the area. Where available it was common to exploit pre-existing defences such as building with a Roman fort or the ramparts of an Iron Age hillfort. A prominent site that overlooked the surrounding area and offered some natural defences may also have been chosen because its visibility made it a symbol of power. Urban castles were particularly important in controlling centres of population and production, especially with an invading force, for instance in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century the majority of royal castles were built in or near towns. As castles were not simply military buildings but centres of administration and symbols of power, they had a significant impact on the surrounding landscape. Rural castles were often associated with mills and field systems due to their role in managing the lord's estate,which gave them greater influence over resources. Others were adjacent to or in royal forests or deer parks and were important in their upkeep. Fish ponds were a luxury of the lordly elite, and many were found next to castles. Not only were they practical in that they ensured a water supply and fresh fish, but they were a status symbol as they were expensive to build and maintain. Medieval Castles were huge protection camps made to protect the king. They had every kind of defense known to medieval man. From murder holes, to arrow-loops, a castle had it. Medieval castles were usually built on a high rocky cliff located by water. Castle locations were very hard to find and sometimes months were spent looking for one. A moat was built around the castle and was usually filled with sewage and bathroom “goodies.” All these things played an important part in keeping the castle strong and ready to fight. A couple other defenses the castle had were murder holes; soldiers would dump many things on the sieging warriors. Another tactic was the arrow-loops; a small slender cut in the castle wall that arrows could be shot out from but not…	717	ENGLISH	1
Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1868) 1. Shogun: Great General In the late 1100’s, one noble family forced the emperor to appoint him the shogun. Shoguns ruled Japan for 700 years. He was a military dictator. 2. Daimyo: A great landowner They were the highest nobles next to the shogun. They controlled large estates (=pieces of land) and warriors. 3. Samurai: One who serves They were brave soldiers who fought for the daimyo. When they did not fight, they practiced martial arts and sumo wrestling. They were also artists and poets. They had a code of honor called bushido. If they lost their honor they had to commit hari-kari (=kill themselves). During the Tokugawa Shogunate, Japan was peaceful (=quiet) and stable. Economy, agriculture and trade all improved. It was a time of cultural and intellectual accomplishments. Isolation Era (1603-1853) 1. Tokugawa shoguns were afraid of losing their power. They did not like western influence in Japan. 2. Therefore, they isolated Japan from the rest of the world. 3. There was no foreign trade or travel outside of Japan. If Japanese people left Japan, they could not come back. 4. Missionaries and foreign traders were killed or forced to leave Japan. Many Christian Japanese were also killed. 5. They only let some Chinese and Dutch traders in the city of Nagasaki. Japanese and European Feudalism Japanese Feudalism European Feudalism Moral connection between the daimyo and his samurais. Legal arrangement between the lord and his subordinates. The Daimyo chose a son who could best take care of the land after his death. Japanese women were expected to be tough and self-disciplined. The land was given to the oldest son or divided among all his sons after the lord’s death. Respected women even though they were not equal to men. Japanese samurai could write poems, or paint beautiful paintings. Education was not important for a European knight.	<urn:uuid:b92baf02-b5f4-428f-87f2-3cb70b8bef39>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studylib.net/doc/7817938/japanese-feudal-system	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00298.warc.gz	en	0.986376	429	4.21875	4	[ -0.14077481627464294, 0.12229949980974197, 0.034163616597652435, -0.4012640714645386, 0.1390894055366516, -0.10669387131929398, 0.21300894021987915, -0.13968196511268616, -0.2250054031610489, -0.05277318134903908, 0.022772695869207382, -0.2248205542564392, 0.5393363237380981, 0.61281132698...	1	Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1868) 1. Shogun: Great General In the late 1100’s, one noble family forced the emperor to appoint him the shogun. Shoguns ruled Japan for 700 years. He was a military dictator. 2. Daimyo: A great landowner They were the highest nobles next to the shogun. They controlled large estates (=pieces of land) and warriors. 3. Samurai: One who serves They were brave soldiers who fought for the daimyo. When they did not fight, they practiced martial arts and sumo wrestling. They were also artists and poets. They had a code of honor called bushido. If they lost their honor they had to commit hari-kari (=kill themselves). During the Tokugawa Shogunate, Japan was peaceful (=quiet) and stable. Economy, agriculture and trade all improved. It was a time of cultural and intellectual accomplishments. Isolation Era (1603-1853) 1. Tokugawa shoguns were afraid of losing their power. They did not like western influence in Japan. 2. Therefore, they isolated Japan from the rest of the world. 3. There was no foreign trade or travel outside of Japan. If Japanese people left Japan, they could not come back. 4. Missionaries and foreign traders were killed or forced to leave Japan. Many Christian Japanese were also killed. 5. They only let some Chinese and Dutch traders in the city of Nagasaki. Japanese and European Feudalism Japanese Feudalism European Feudalism Moral connection between the daimyo and his samurais. Legal arrangement between the lord and his subordinates. The Daimyo chose a son who could best take care of the land after his death. Japanese women were expected to be tough and self-disciplined. The land was given to the oldest son or divided among all his sons after the lord’s death. Respected women even though they were not equal to men. Japanese samurai could write poems, or paint beautiful paintings. Education was not important for a European knight.	454	ENGLISH	1
Umjindi Swazi History swazi induna barberton 1884 KING MSWATI 3 Swazi Shongwe Matsamo Tribe. According to tradition, the Shongwe Matsamo were an independent tribe originated from a place in northern Zululand near the mouth of the Pongolo River (eLuphongolo). When Somhlolo was king of the Swazi people and Tikuni was chief of the Matsamo, they were driven out by the Zulu to Swaziland and settled at the Bulunga village in the district of Bremersdorp (today Manzini). Matsafeni, son of Tikuni, was a good soldier and King Mswati II moved his tribe to places where they had to defend the Swazi Kingdom. Between 1856 and 1865, the tribe under Chief Matsafeni were sent to defend the Kingdom against the Sotho tribes to the north of the Kingdom. A section of the Shongwe tribe remained in Bulunga, however. Up to the time of Magubha strong ties existed between the two sections. Today the two sections each have their own chief. Matsafeni built his head village on the eastern slopes of the hills to the west of the Mlumati River (the present Schoemansdal area) and called it Ka-Shongwe. Two other villages named Ka-NdlangamandIa and eSidungweni/Mashobeni were also built. After the death of Mswati II, Matsafeni Shongwe joined forces with Matsafeni Mdluli, another Swazi general, in a war with the Sotho people, who were driven northward to Mhuluhulu near Hoedspruit. They looted the cattle of the Sotho and incorporated young children into the Shongwe tribe. Matsafeni Shongwe died after the Sotho war (1850-1868) of small-pox and was buried near the present Shongwe Mission where his grave can still be seen. Smallpox wiped out the entire Ka-NdlangamandIa village and the Mashobeni village moved to Swaziland. Matsafeni was succeeded by his son Matsamo, who was also a warrior who had served in wars over cattle and land against the Sotho, the Shangaans and the Bajobi of Mozambique. An historical incident from this era explains the origin of one of the tribes of the eastern Nkomazi region. After one of the wars, Matsamo fell ill and had to be left behind by his soldiers. He was cared for by the people of Mahlalela in the Mbozini region and was escorted back to Swaziland by Mahlalela. To express his gratitude, king Mswati II gave aid to Mahlalela and made him chief of what is today the MIambo tribe. Matsamo had 30 wives and established sixteen villages where his sons lived, in the areas of Mzinti, Schulzendal, Middelplaas, Schoemansdal, Jeppe's Reef and in Swaziland. Matsamo would probably have been succeeded by his son Lugebhuda, but he but he predeceased his father in 1912. Lugebhuda's son, Magubha/Sidlamafa, was appointed by Matsamo as his successor shortly before his death in 1925. Matsamo is remembered as a good chief who was loved by everybody. He was tolerant and willing to give land to people not of his tribe, including a number of white people, like Kirk, Schoeman and Gilliland (?) who obtained farms in the Matsamo tribal area. Matsamo's son Njiyeza acted as regent until Magubha came of age in 1929. As eldest son of Matsamo's first wife, Lozindaba, Njiyeza was the spiritual leader of the family. He drowned in the Ngugwane in 1937. Magubha/Sidlamafa was the son of Lugebhuda's wife Mangeti, who was a granddaughter of Mswati II. He was born ca. 1909 and lived at the eMbanweni village on Schoemansdal. He reigned for eleven years and was buried next to Matsamo. Magubha is remembered as a stern man, but also as a chief who upheld the old traditions and retained good relationships with the people of Swaziland. After Magubha/Sidlamafa's death, Sisini, son of his father's first wife Silele, acted as regent from 1941 to his death in 1945. Sithulele, half brother of Lugebhuda and full brother of the regent Njiyeza, succeeded Sisini and acted from 1945 to 1955. From 1955 to 1962, Sigweje, another son of Matsamo, acted as regent. After three successive regents, Tinhlohla/Amos, son of Sidlamafa/Magubha's second wife Totoyi, became full chief and reigned till 1981. It was during his time, in 1970, that the first secondary school of the tribal area, the Shongewe Secondary School, was built. After Tinhlohla's death, his half-sister Mdzili/Grace, who is remembered as a very kind person, acted from 1981-1982. Mahusha, another son of Magubha took over from Mdzili and acted until his death in 1992. In 1993 Obed/Sikhumbuzo, son of Tinhlohia was instated and the new tribal offices were officially opened. Information supplied by Hans Bornman	<urn:uuid:de118769-7fd4-4356-b97a-43fac6156f82>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.umjindi.co.za/menu/history/swazi.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00009.warc.gz	en	0.985835	1,214	3.484375	3	[ -0.24765247106552124, 0.5352100133895874, 0.29234129190444946, -0.02495194971561432, -0.33614835143089294, -0.11656496673822403, 0.1826966106891632, -0.23460599780082703, -0.25262799859046936, 0.0066400934010744095, 0.3473220467567444, -0.6083828806877136, 0.427163302898407, 0.237037837505...	3	Umjindi Swazi History swazi induna barberton 1884 KING MSWATI 3 Swazi Shongwe Matsamo Tribe. According to tradition, the Shongwe Matsamo were an independent tribe originated from a place in northern Zululand near the mouth of the Pongolo River (eLuphongolo). When Somhlolo was king of the Swazi people and Tikuni was chief of the Matsamo, they were driven out by the Zulu to Swaziland and settled at the Bulunga village in the district of Bremersdorp (today Manzini). Matsafeni, son of Tikuni, was a good soldier and King Mswati II moved his tribe to places where they had to defend the Swazi Kingdom. Between 1856 and 1865, the tribe under Chief Matsafeni were sent to defend the Kingdom against the Sotho tribes to the north of the Kingdom. A section of the Shongwe tribe remained in Bulunga, however. Up to the time of Magubha strong ties existed between the two sections. Today the two sections each have their own chief. Matsafeni built his head village on the eastern slopes of the hills to the west of the Mlumati River (the present Schoemansdal area) and called it Ka-Shongwe. Two other villages named Ka-NdlangamandIa and eSidungweni/Mashobeni were also built. After the death of Mswati II, Matsafeni Shongwe joined forces with Matsafeni Mdluli, another Swazi general, in a war with the Sotho people, who were driven northward to Mhuluhulu near Hoedspruit. They looted the cattle of the Sotho and incorporated young children into the Shongwe tribe. Matsafeni Shongwe died after the Sotho war (1850-1868) of small-pox and was buried near the present Shongwe Mission where his grave can still be seen. Smallpox wiped out the entire Ka-NdlangamandIa village and the Mashobeni village moved to Swaziland. Matsafeni was succeeded by his son Matsamo, who was also a warrior who had served in wars over cattle and land against the Sotho, the Shangaans and the Bajobi of Mozambique. An historical incident from this era explains the origin of one of the tribes of the eastern Nkomazi region. After one of the wars, Matsamo fell ill and had to be left behind by his soldiers. He was cared for by the people of Mahlalela in the Mbozini region and was escorted back to Swaziland by Mahlalela. To express his gratitude, king Mswati II gave aid to Mahlalela and made him chief of what is today the MIambo tribe. Matsamo had 30 wives and established sixteen villages where his sons lived, in the areas of Mzinti, Schulzendal, Middelplaas, Schoemansdal, Jeppe's Reef and in Swaziland. Matsamo would probably have been succeeded by his son Lugebhuda, but he but he predeceased his father in 1912. Lugebhuda's son, Magubha/Sidlamafa, was appointed by Matsamo as his successor shortly before his death in 1925. Matsamo is remembered as a good chief who was loved by everybody. He was tolerant and willing to give land to people not of his tribe, including a number of white people, like Kirk, Schoeman and Gilliland (?) who obtained farms in the Matsamo tribal area. Matsamo's son Njiyeza acted as regent until Magubha came of age in 1929. As eldest son of Matsamo's first wife, Lozindaba, Njiyeza was the spiritual leader of the family. He drowned in the Ngugwane in 1937. Magubha/Sidlamafa was the son of Lugebhuda's wife Mangeti, who was a granddaughter of Mswati II. He was born ca. 1909 and lived at the eMbanweni village on Schoemansdal. He reigned for eleven years and was buried next to Matsamo. Magubha is remembered as a stern man, but also as a chief who upheld the old traditions and retained good relationships with the people of Swaziland. After Magubha/Sidlamafa's death, Sisini, son of his father's first wife Silele, acted as regent from 1941 to his death in 1945. Sithulele, half brother of Lugebhuda and full brother of the regent Njiyeza, succeeded Sisini and acted from 1945 to 1955. From 1955 to 1962, Sigweje, another son of Matsamo, acted as regent. After three successive regents, Tinhlohla/Amos, son of Sidlamafa/Magubha's second wife Totoyi, became full chief and reigned till 1981. It was during his time, in 1970, that the first secondary school of the tribal area, the Shongewe Secondary School, was built. After Tinhlohla's death, his half-sister Mdzili/Grace, who is remembered as a very kind person, acted from 1981-1982. Mahusha, another son of Magubha took over from Mdzili and acted until his death in 1992. In 1993 Obed/Sikhumbuzo, son of Tinhlohia was instated and the new tribal offices were officially opened. Information supplied by Hans Bornman	1,263	ENGLISH	1
Plato was an ancient Greek philosopher who played an important role in the development of Western philosophy. As a scion of a rich and aristocratic family, he received good education under renowned teachersincluding Socrates. Although initially he wanted to join politics, the execution of Socrates changed his mind and he left Athens for twelve years, visiting places around the Mediterranean Sea, studying under different teachers. It was during this period that he first started writing. That Plato was immensely influenced by Socrates is evident from his body of works created during this period. Ultimately, he returned to Athens and set up the first organized school in the western civilization. It soon turned into a center of excellence and many well known scholars, including his famous pupil Aristotle, became associated with it. Plato never stopped writing; his masterpieces like ‘The Republic’ and ‘Theory of Forms’ were created during his later years. Along with Socrates and Aristotle, Plato is credited to have laid the foundations of Western philosophy and science. Fortunately, most of his works have survived intact for over 2,400 years although few of his predecessors' works remain extant. - Plato was bornin fifth century BC into a wealthy and aristocratic family from Athens. Some scholars believe that he was named Aristocles after his grandfather and was later called Plato because of his broad physical built. However, there is no indisputable evidence in this regard.There is also a controversy about the year as well as the place of his birth. Initially, the year of his birth wasidentified as 428 BC but after analyzing the events of his life, modern historiansbelieve it was around 424/423 BC.While some scholars have identified the place of his birth as Athens, others believe that he was born in Aegina, located at a distance of 27 km from the city. However, it isuniversally acceptedthat he was mostly brought up in Athens in the house of his stepfather Pyrilampes.Plato’s father, Ariston of Collytus, was a descendent of Codrus, the ancient king of Athens while his mother, Perictione, was a descendant of Solon, the Athenian lawgiver and poet. Plato had two brothers, Glaucon and Adeimantus and a sister named Potone.Ariston died when Plato was a still a child. Thereafter, his mother married the Athenian statesman Pyrilampes, who was also her uncle. Platohad a stepbrother named Antiphon from this union.Not much is known about Plato’s early life. However, Speusippus, his nephew by his sister Potone, who later became a renowned philosopher himself,had talked about Plato’s modesty and quickness of mind in his discourses. He also mentioned that he was a hard working boy and had a love for learning.It is possible that Plato had studied grammar, music and gymnastics under renowned educators of that time. From the writings of Aristotle, we also know that Plato studied under Athenian philosopher Cratylus, who introduced him to the teachings of HeraclitusAs a young man Plato came in contact with Socrates, who was his uncle’s friend. Young as he was, Plato was much impressed by Socrates’ method of dialogue and debate. Subsequently, he became close to the elder scholar and was included in his circle.At that time, Athens was at war with Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta. Plato joined the war in 409 BC and fought alongside the Athenian soldiers for five years before the war ended in 404 BC with the defeat of Athens.Till then, Athens had been under democratic rule, but now Sparta replaced it with oligarchy, headed by thirty pro-Spartan leaders, who later came to be known as the ‘Thirty Tyrants.’ Although it included two of Plato’s relatives, he was very upset about the state of affairs at Athens.The oligarchy continued for thirteen months, after which the tyrants were overthrown and democracy was restored in 403 BC. Plato now thought of joining politics. Around this time, he remained close to Socrates and soon became his best disciple.In 399 BC, Socrates was unfairly executed on the charge of corrupting the youth. It affected Plato to such an extent that he gave up his goal of joining politics and set out on a tour.Continue Reading BelowLater Life & Career - After leaving Athens, Plato travelled for twelve years, visiting places around the Mediterranean coast such as Syracuse (Sicily), Italy, Egypt and Cyrene (Libya). For some time, he studied mathematics under the Pythagoreans in Italy. What he learned there later helped him to form his own ideas.In Egypt,he studied geometry, geology, astronomy and religion. It was here that he learned to make water clock, which he later introduced in Athens. This was also the time he started writing extensively.It is believed ‘The Apology of Socrates’, his first major work, was written shortly after the death of Socrates. Some other works of this period are ‘Protagoras’, ‘Euthyphro’, ‘Hippias Major and Minor’ and ‘Ion’. All these were written in dialogue form through which Plato attempted to convey the philosophy and teachings of Socrates.Around this time Plato also visited Syracuse, which was under the rule of tyrant king Dionysius I, whose brother-in-law Dion had become Plato’s disciple. It angered Dionysius and Plato was sold into slavery. Fortunately, Anniceris, another of his disciples, was able to buy his freedom for twenty minas and send him home.Plato returned to Athens in 387 BC. In the same year, he founded his ‘Academy’ on a plot of land in the Grove of Academus, outside the city wall of Athens. It is said to be the first organized school in the western world. Plato’s famous book, ‘The Republic’ was written sometime during this period.In 367 BC, Plato travelled once more to Syracuse on the invitation of Dion, who was also the uncle as well as the adviser of the new King Dionysius II. Both Dion and Plato had hoped that he would be able to turn Dionysius II into a philosopher king.However, their hopes soon turned to ashes. Dionysius II began suspecting Dion of conspiring against him. As a result of this, Dion was sent to exile and Plato was put under house arrest. On being released, Plato returned to Athens and resumed his academic career.Now, the role of art and culture as well as ethics and morality began to take a more prominent place in Plato’s thought. More importantly, he now began to develop his own metaphysical ideas and explore the fundamental nature of being and the world encompassing it.Continue Reading BelowMajor Works - The school that Plato opened after returning to Athens is one of his major contributions to the development of western civilization. It was probably know as ‘Akademia’ because it was located at the Grove of Academus. It is believed that the word ‘academy’ has been derived from it.Led by great scholars like Speusippus, Xenocrates, Polemon, Crates, and Arcesilaus, the academy continued to function tillits destruction in 84 BC. After that, it was revived many times. Today we can safely say that it was the forerunner of the modern educational system.Plato is also remembered for the body of works that he left behind. ‘The Republic’, a Socratic dialogue written in around 380 BC, is one of his most famous works. In this book, Plato has defined his concept of justice and also the characteristics of a just city-state and the just man.‘Theory of Forms’, written during his later period,is another of his well-known works. In it, Plato had suggested that the material world as we see it is not the real world. This changeable world is actually an ‘image’ or ‘copy’ of the actual world.Death & Legacy - It is generally accepted that Plato passed away in around 348/347 BC at Athens. However, like many other events of his life, there is a controversy about how he died.Some scholars are of the opinion that he passed away peacefullyin his sleep while others believehe breathed his last whilelistening to a young Thracian girl playing the flute. Still others believe that his death came while attending a wedding feast.Today, the scholars consider him to be the central figure in the development of western philosophy, science and mathematics. Some also refer to him as one of the founders of western religion and spirituality.More than two thousand years have passed since Plato’s death. Yet he is still remembered all over the world with reverence and scholars often quote him while discussing different philosophical issues. Such is Plato’s legacy. How To CiteArticle Title- Plato BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/plato-257.phpLast Updated- December 18, 2017 People Also Viewed	<urn:uuid:e9aa3246-8101-4346-8d16-cca7082bfa5e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/plato-257.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00260.warc.gz	en	0.990958	1,923	3.96875	4	[ -0.06708424538373947, 0.42275696992874146, 0.3357265591621399, -0.3824268579483032, -0.8948867321014404, -0.17705923318862915, 0.19449982047080994, 0.5024682283401489, -0.05402389168739319, -0.23187607526779175, -0.3682447671890259, -0.1163470521569252, 0.29828009009361267, 0.3953148424625...	1	Plato was an ancient Greek philosopher who played an important role in the development of Western philosophy. As a scion of a rich and aristocratic family, he received good education under renowned teachersincluding Socrates. Although initially he wanted to join politics, the execution of Socrates changed his mind and he left Athens for twelve years, visiting places around the Mediterranean Sea, studying under different teachers. It was during this period that he first started writing. That Plato was immensely influenced by Socrates is evident from his body of works created during this period. Ultimately, he returned to Athens and set up the first organized school in the western civilization. It soon turned into a center of excellence and many well known scholars, including his famous pupil Aristotle, became associated with it. Plato never stopped writing; his masterpieces like ‘The Republic’ and ‘Theory of Forms’ were created during his later years. Along with Socrates and Aristotle, Plato is credited to have laid the foundations of Western philosophy and science. Fortunately, most of his works have survived intact for over 2,400 years although few of his predecessors' works remain extant. - Plato was bornin fifth century BC into a wealthy and aristocratic family from Athens. Some scholars believe that he was named Aristocles after his grandfather and was later called Plato because of his broad physical built. However, there is no indisputable evidence in this regard.There is also a controversy about the year as well as the place of his birth. Initially, the year of his birth wasidentified as 428 BC but after analyzing the events of his life, modern historiansbelieve it was around 424/423 BC.While some scholars have identified the place of his birth as Athens, others believe that he was born in Aegina, located at a distance of 27 km from the city. However, it isuniversally acceptedthat he was mostly brought up in Athens in the house of his stepfather Pyrilampes.Plato’s father, Ariston of Collytus, was a descendent of Codrus, the ancient king of Athens while his mother, Perictione, was a descendant of Solon, the Athenian lawgiver and poet. Plato had two brothers, Glaucon and Adeimantus and a sister named Potone.Ariston died when Plato was a still a child. Thereafter, his mother married the Athenian statesman Pyrilampes, who was also her uncle. Platohad a stepbrother named Antiphon from this union.Not much is known about Plato’s early life. However, Speusippus, his nephew by his sister Potone, who later became a renowned philosopher himself,had talked about Plato’s modesty and quickness of mind in his discourses. He also mentioned that he was a hard working boy and had a love for learning.It is possible that Plato had studied grammar, music and gymnastics under renowned educators of that time. From the writings of Aristotle, we also know that Plato studied under Athenian philosopher Cratylus, who introduced him to the teachings of HeraclitusAs a young man Plato came in contact with Socrates, who was his uncle’s friend. Young as he was, Plato was much impressed by Socrates’ method of dialogue and debate. Subsequently, he became close to the elder scholar and was included in his circle.At that time, Athens was at war with Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta. Plato joined the war in 409 BC and fought alongside the Athenian soldiers for five years before the war ended in 404 BC with the defeat of Athens.Till then, Athens had been under democratic rule, but now Sparta replaced it with oligarchy, headed by thirty pro-Spartan leaders, who later came to be known as the ‘Thirty Tyrants.’ Although it included two of Plato’s relatives, he was very upset about the state of affairs at Athens.The oligarchy continued for thirteen months, after which the tyrants were overthrown and democracy was restored in 403 BC. Plato now thought of joining politics. Around this time, he remained close to Socrates and soon became his best disciple.In 399 BC, Socrates was unfairly executed on the charge of corrupting the youth. It affected Plato to such an extent that he gave up his goal of joining politics and set out on a tour.Continue Reading BelowLater Life & Career - After leaving Athens, Plato travelled for twelve years, visiting places around the Mediterranean coast such as Syracuse (Sicily), Italy, Egypt and Cyrene (Libya). For some time, he studied mathematics under the Pythagoreans in Italy. What he learned there later helped him to form his own ideas.In Egypt,he studied geometry, geology, astronomy and religion. It was here that he learned to make water clock, which he later introduced in Athens. This was also the time he started writing extensively.It is believed ‘The Apology of Socrates’, his first major work, was written shortly after the death of Socrates. Some other works of this period are ‘Protagoras’, ‘Euthyphro’, ‘Hippias Major and Minor’ and ‘Ion’. All these were written in dialogue form through which Plato attempted to convey the philosophy and teachings of Socrates.Around this time Plato also visited Syracuse, which was under the rule of tyrant king Dionysius I, whose brother-in-law Dion had become Plato’s disciple. It angered Dionysius and Plato was sold into slavery. Fortunately, Anniceris, another of his disciples, was able to buy his freedom for twenty minas and send him home.Plato returned to Athens in 387 BC. In the same year, he founded his ‘Academy’ on a plot of land in the Grove of Academus, outside the city wall of Athens. It is said to be the first organized school in the western world. Plato’s famous book, ‘The Republic’ was written sometime during this period.In 367 BC, Plato travelled once more to Syracuse on the invitation of Dion, who was also the uncle as well as the adviser of the new King Dionysius II. Both Dion and Plato had hoped that he would be able to turn Dionysius II into a philosopher king.However, their hopes soon turned to ashes. Dionysius II began suspecting Dion of conspiring against him. As a result of this, Dion was sent to exile and Plato was put under house arrest. On being released, Plato returned to Athens and resumed his academic career.Now, the role of art and culture as well as ethics and morality began to take a more prominent place in Plato’s thought. More importantly, he now began to develop his own metaphysical ideas and explore the fundamental nature of being and the world encompassing it.Continue Reading BelowMajor Works - The school that Plato opened after returning to Athens is one of his major contributions to the development of western civilization. It was probably know as ‘Akademia’ because it was located at the Grove of Academus. It is believed that the word ‘academy’ has been derived from it.Led by great scholars like Speusippus, Xenocrates, Polemon, Crates, and Arcesilaus, the academy continued to function tillits destruction in 84 BC. After that, it was revived many times. Today we can safely say that it was the forerunner of the modern educational system.Plato is also remembered for the body of works that he left behind. ‘The Republic’, a Socratic dialogue written in around 380 BC, is one of his most famous works. In this book, Plato has defined his concept of justice and also the characteristics of a just city-state and the just man.‘Theory of Forms’, written during his later period,is another of his well-known works. In it, Plato had suggested that the material world as we see it is not the real world. This changeable world is actually an ‘image’ or ‘copy’ of the actual world.Death & Legacy - It is generally accepted that Plato passed away in around 348/347 BC at Athens. However, like many other events of his life, there is a controversy about how he died.Some scholars are of the opinion that he passed away peacefullyin his sleep while others believehe breathed his last whilelistening to a young Thracian girl playing the flute. Still others believe that his death came while attending a wedding feast.Today, the scholars consider him to be the central figure in the development of western philosophy, science and mathematics. Some also refer to him as one of the founders of western religion and spirituality.More than two thousand years have passed since Plato’s death. Yet he is still remembered all over the world with reverence and scholars often quote him while discussing different philosophical issues. Such is Plato’s legacy. How To CiteArticle Title- Plato BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/plato-257.phpLast Updated- December 18, 2017 People Also Viewed	1,891	ENGLISH	1
Barn Burning is about the struggle of a boy to do what is right during the Post Civil War era. The main character, Sartoris Snopes, is a poor son of a migrant tenant farmer. In the opening scene he is being asked by a circuit judge about the burning of a farmers barn by his father. The boy does not tell on his father and is not forced to do so, but he thinks that he would have done so had he been asked. The father, Abner Snopes, served in the Civil War for both sides and has difficulty venting his anger. Usually he does so through the burning of other peoples barns when they wrong him. The symbol of blood is used by Faulkner to contribute to the theme of loyalty to the family. One use of blood is shown when the boy is called to testify and is pressured by his father to lie. When the boy is on stand he is stressed by the fear that his father will do something crazy if he tells on him. Also, his father tells him that some things are more important than the truth, that family is the most important thing. You were fixing to tell them. You would have told them(484). This statement made by Abner shows how the boy truly feels about his blood fathers actions and where he stands when it comes to telling a lie or the truth regarding those actions. Also, the scene where that statement takes place depicts how the father feels about family. He thinks that a lie is justified if you are doing so for another family member in order to keep them from suffering consequences. The use of blood is also evident when the boy thinks, our enemy, Ourn! Mine and hisn both! Hes my father(481). Here this shows that the father has done this before and the boy is used to dealing with it. The use of blood is also utilized when the father explains that the family must stick together. Following the courthouse scene the boy and his father talk about the incident and Abner states, You got to learn to stick to your own blood or you aint going to have any blood to stick to you(484). In saying this, it is almost as if he is trying to convince the boy to lie for his own blood. The boy despises his father for all the horrible things he has done to people in the past, yet he still sticks up for him. After Abner has deliberately destroyed Major DeSpains expensive imported rug his son states, You done the best you could, If he wanted hit done different why didnt he wait and tell you how? (488). Thus providing evidence that the boy still has some respect for his blood, and though he is against his fathers actions he still supports them because he is family. Faulkners use of blood contributes to the theme of loyalty to the family in several ways. Throughout the short story there are many references to loyalty and sticking to your own blood. Barn Burning is a very in-depth short story and had to be read carefully in order to obtain the full meaning and recognize the morals.	<urn:uuid:8a0a2b73-5702-40c2-bf8b-d1a3b9261f15>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mypaynetapps.com/use-of-blood-in-barn-burning/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00512.warc.gz	en	0.98951	624	3.328125	3	[ -0.14832991361618042, 0.6164697408676147, -0.31424257159233093, 0.05645028501749039, 0.09339497238397598, -0.017970269545912743, 0.6564543843269348, -0.016537584364414215, -0.34230050444602966, -0.0631645992398262, -0.10355274379253387, -0.14787307381629944, -0.11606663465499878, 0.5811469...	4	Barn Burning is about the struggle of a boy to do what is right during the Post Civil War era. The main character, Sartoris Snopes, is a poor son of a migrant tenant farmer. In the opening scene he is being asked by a circuit judge about the burning of a farmers barn by his father. The boy does not tell on his father and is not forced to do so, but he thinks that he would have done so had he been asked. The father, Abner Snopes, served in the Civil War for both sides and has difficulty venting his anger. Usually he does so through the burning of other peoples barns when they wrong him. The symbol of blood is used by Faulkner to contribute to the theme of loyalty to the family. One use of blood is shown when the boy is called to testify and is pressured by his father to lie. When the boy is on stand he is stressed by the fear that his father will do something crazy if he tells on him. Also, his father tells him that some things are more important than the truth, that family is the most important thing. You were fixing to tell them. You would have told them(484). This statement made by Abner shows how the boy truly feels about his blood fathers actions and where he stands when it comes to telling a lie or the truth regarding those actions. Also, the scene where that statement takes place depicts how the father feels about family. He thinks that a lie is justified if you are doing so for another family member in order to keep them from suffering consequences. The use of blood is also evident when the boy thinks, our enemy, Ourn! Mine and hisn both! Hes my father(481). Here this shows that the father has done this before and the boy is used to dealing with it. The use of blood is also utilized when the father explains that the family must stick together. Following the courthouse scene the boy and his father talk about the incident and Abner states, You got to learn to stick to your own blood or you aint going to have any blood to stick to you(484). In saying this, it is almost as if he is trying to convince the boy to lie for his own blood. The boy despises his father for all the horrible things he has done to people in the past, yet he still sticks up for him. After Abner has deliberately destroyed Major DeSpains expensive imported rug his son states, You done the best you could, If he wanted hit done different why didnt he wait and tell you how? (488). Thus providing evidence that the boy still has some respect for his blood, and though he is against his fathers actions he still supports them because he is family. Faulkners use of blood contributes to the theme of loyalty to the family in several ways. Throughout the short story there are many references to loyalty and sticking to your own blood. Barn Burning is a very in-depth short story and had to be read carefully in order to obtain the full meaning and recognize the morals.	628	ENGLISH	1
What did the Banners of the twelve tribes look like? Here is how the Midrash describes the banners of the twelve tribes: There were distinguishing signs for each prince; each had a flag (mappah) and a different color for every flag corresponding to the precious stones on the breastplate (lit. “heart”) of Aaron. It was from these that governments learned to provide themselves with flags of various colors. Each tribe had its own prince and its flag whose color corresponded to the color of its stone. Reuben’s stone was ruby, the color of his flag was red, and embroidered thereon were mandrakes. Simeon’s was topaz and his flag was green, with the town of Shechem embroidered thereon Levi’s was smaragd and the color of his flag was a third white, a third black, and a third red; embroidered thereon were the Urim and Thummim. Judah’s was a carbuncle, and the color of his flag resembled that of the heavens, embroidered on it was a lion. Issachar’s was a sapphire and the color of his Flag was black like stibium; embroidered thereon were the sun an	<urn:uuid:589c9e1c-4abb-40bb-a23b-eeff3789eb83>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.experts123.com/q/what-did-the-banners-of-the-twelve-tribes-look-like.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00474.warc.gz	en	0.992004	263	3.40625	3	[ -0.20005466043949127, 0.5222139954566956, 0.1281503438949585, 0.11927439272403717, -0.38249513506889343, 0.05506754294037819, 0.5160247683525085, 0.09268107265233994, -0.22470231354236603, -0.079168401658535, 0.10133256763219833, -0.4253098964691162, 0.030097058042883873, -0.14850622415542...	2	What did the Banners of the twelve tribes look like? Here is how the Midrash describes the banners of the twelve tribes: There were distinguishing signs for each prince; each had a flag (mappah) and a different color for every flag corresponding to the precious stones on the breastplate (lit. “heart”) of Aaron. It was from these that governments learned to provide themselves with flags of various colors. Each tribe had its own prince and its flag whose color corresponded to the color of its stone. Reuben’s stone was ruby, the color of his flag was red, and embroidered thereon were mandrakes. Simeon’s was topaz and his flag was green, with the town of Shechem embroidered thereon Levi’s was smaragd and the color of his flag was a third white, a third black, and a third red; embroidered thereon were the Urim and Thummim. Judah’s was a carbuncle, and the color of his flag resembled that of the heavens, embroidered on it was a lion. Issachar’s was a sapphire and the color of his Flag was black like stibium; embroidered thereon were the sun an	246	ENGLISH	1
January 17, 2014 Through out the time of 1875 and 1900 many attacks and labor movements happened. Many labor unions tried to reform laborers' wages and the conditions in which they were working. Even though there are many attempts for change by arranged labor, we were holding unsuccessful in improving the position of the laborers. In document A there is a data of the daily hours and index of average daily wages. It shows that daily hours gone from on the lookout for. 9 in 1875 to 9. some in 1891. This is a very slight drop in daily hours looking at most unionists were taking pictures for 8 hours of work a day. The wages did not go up much either. The index of daily pay went by 169. being unfaithful in 1875 to 172. 5 in 1891. That is certainly only a 3 money raise during the period of 16 years. It is very obvious that the work of the unionist were not successful in falling work with their preferred limit and defeated at elevating wages to a desired rate. In doc B a writer for The brand new York Times is declaring how impossible the Great Train Strike of 1877 is. This displays how the papers and publications were privately of management because they will felt labor was inhospitable. In doc C there exists a laborer standing up over the deceased goose who have laid the golden egg labeled capital. On the side is actually a communist. This again demonstrates that the magazines, in this case Harper's Weekly, branded the labor movements since radical. In document G a worker is asked about how exactly labor was different labor is different than 15 years ago. This individual said that there was fewer laborers because the labor is now decide to part into parts. This triggered a loss of specialization which led to job loss over the nation. In document Electronic there is a replicate of a job contract. This kind of contract was stating that you just as a laborer couldn't join a union or you would be fired. This particular contract is known as a yellow puppy contract or iron clothed contract. In Document Farreneheit there is a photo of three chefs struggling with over the " labor...	<urn:uuid:f4a1312e-17ee-4752-a7f9-8a685e01e1b0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pkteducation.com/1875-1900-dbq/67706-1875-early-1900s-dbq-dissertation.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00367.warc.gz	en	0.982033	433	3.3125	3	[ -0.49899011850357056, -0.004493366926908493, -0.09340206533670425, 0.589470624923706, 0.19684931635856628, -0.06551282852888107, -0.34148114919662476, 0.009885134175419807, -0.305364727973938, 0.2615671455860138, 0.2539688050746918, 0.17063367366790771, 0.015091970562934875, 0.292777031660...	1	January 17, 2014 Through out the time of 1875 and 1900 many attacks and labor movements happened. Many labor unions tried to reform laborers' wages and the conditions in which they were working. Even though there are many attempts for change by arranged labor, we were holding unsuccessful in improving the position of the laborers. In document A there is a data of the daily hours and index of average daily wages. It shows that daily hours gone from on the lookout for. 9 in 1875 to 9. some in 1891. This is a very slight drop in daily hours looking at most unionists were taking pictures for 8 hours of work a day. The wages did not go up much either. The index of daily pay went by 169. being unfaithful in 1875 to 172. 5 in 1891. That is certainly only a 3 money raise during the period of 16 years. It is very obvious that the work of the unionist were not successful in falling work with their preferred limit and defeated at elevating wages to a desired rate. In doc B a writer for The brand new York Times is declaring how impossible the Great Train Strike of 1877 is. This displays how the papers and publications were privately of management because they will felt labor was inhospitable. In doc C there exists a laborer standing up over the deceased goose who have laid the golden egg labeled capital. On the side is actually a communist. This again demonstrates that the magazines, in this case Harper's Weekly, branded the labor movements since radical. In document G a worker is asked about how exactly labor was different labor is different than 15 years ago. This individual said that there was fewer laborers because the labor is now decide to part into parts. This triggered a loss of specialization which led to job loss over the nation. In document Electronic there is a replicate of a job contract. This kind of contract was stating that you just as a laborer couldn't join a union or you would be fired. This particular contract is known as a yellow puppy contract or iron clothed contract. In Document Farreneheit there is a photo of three chefs struggling with over the " labor...	479	ENGLISH	1
The Fall of Rome and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Rome was the most powerful empire the world had ever seen. Its architecture was Hellenistic and its road system was as impressive as that of the Inca in S. America Roman Empire at its height 117 C.E. Rome had a republican democracy sometimes Rome had a senate where patricians could represent people It means nobody is above the law, not the king, not the senate, not the people, not the police. Laws are written down and must be respected Rule of Law!! Three other examples "Realizing what a deadly disaster had come to them, the people quickly drove the Italians from their city. But the disease remained, and soon death was everywhere. Fathers abandoned their sick sons. Lawyers refused to come and make out wills for the dying. Friars and nuns were left to care for the sick, and monasteries and convents were soon deserted, as they were stricken, too. Bodies were left in empty houses, and there was no one to give them a Christian burial." It was called the black plague because of the dark spots found on its victims Coffins were rare, most were buried in mass graves! Why was Rome so affected by the Plague? Rome was besieged by various tribes from modern day Germany and France. Although the fall of the Roman Empire did not happen overnight, many consider its fall the beginning of the Middle Ages or Dark Ages.	<urn:uuid:ed7152eb-e04a-4717-b05c-205af7160aac>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.sliderbase.com/spitem-546-1.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00201.warc.gz	en	0.986171	310	3.640625	4	[ -0.4595686197280884, 0.3552605211734772, 0.4756086766719818, 0.1506163328886032, -0.2551703155040741, -0.23256807029247284, -0.005957077257335186, 0.46130359172821045, 0.17236757278442383, -0.1871526688337326, 0.041316498070955276, -0.021331051364541054, -0.17341813445091248, 0.48497068881...	11	The Fall of Rome and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Rome was the most powerful empire the world had ever seen. Its architecture was Hellenistic and its road system was as impressive as that of the Inca in S. America Roman Empire at its height 117 C.E. Rome had a republican democracy sometimes Rome had a senate where patricians could represent people It means nobody is above the law, not the king, not the senate, not the people, not the police. Laws are written down and must be respected Rule of Law!! Three other examples "Realizing what a deadly disaster had come to them, the people quickly drove the Italians from their city. But the disease remained, and soon death was everywhere. Fathers abandoned their sick sons. Lawyers refused to come and make out wills for the dying. Friars and nuns were left to care for the sick, and monasteries and convents were soon deserted, as they were stricken, too. Bodies were left in empty houses, and there was no one to give them a Christian burial." It was called the black plague because of the dark spots found on its victims Coffins were rare, most were buried in mass graves! Why was Rome so affected by the Plague? Rome was besieged by various tribes from modern day Germany and France. Although the fall of the Roman Empire did not happen overnight, many consider its fall the beginning of the Middle Ages or Dark Ages.	307	ENGLISH	1
An introduction to the social impact of theodore roosevelt Roosevelt had declined to run for re-election to the presidency indeciding to exit politics and go on a yearlong African safari Ellis,p. He believed that African Americans as a race were inferior to whites, but he thought many black individuals were superior to white individuals and should be able to prove their merit. Theodore roosevelt foreign policy He was also the nation's first environmentalist President, setting aside nearly million acres for national forests, reserves, and wildlife refuges. They both wanted the betterment of America both domestically and at the world stage. More profoundly, they represent a refusal to accept constructions of the United States as an exceptional nation, presided over by exceptional men. Campaigning in , Franklin named Theodore as one of the four most interesting men in American history, and one of the few presidents who had successfully adapted his office in response to contemporary realities. He caused a major controversy early in his presidency when he invited Booker T. Both had their own beliefs of how reform, empowerment of the people and foreign policy should be accomplished. He believed that as President, he had a unique relationship with and responsibility to the people, and therefore wanted to challenge prevailing notions of limited government and individualism; government, he maintained, should serve as an agent of reform for the people. Navy, which he believed would deter potential enemies from targeting the country, and he applied his energies to negotiating peace agreements, working to balance power throughout the world. He was the vice president under William McKinley, he came into office in , just before his 43rd birthday. He fought for what he believed and never backed down from that belief. InDickinson State University DSU began to explore the legacy of the 26th President as a tribute to his historical legacy and admiration to the territory that the university resides today. He was always a cowboy at heart. Upon victory, he vowed not to run for another term ina promise he came to regret. He conquered the frontier and went on to conquer other countries as well. He was also an extremely popular President and the first to use the media to appeal directly to the people, bypassing the political parties and career politicians. Theodore roosevelt biography In and again in , historians selected and polled by Arthur Schlesinger had ranked Theodore Roosevelt as the seventh greatest president. Teddy Roosevelt and the White Fleet and the Big Stick, those are days that related to a period of empire, when great nations did as they pleased, with little hindrance. His "Square Deal" domestic program reflected the progressive call to reform the American workplace, initiating welfare legislation and government regulation of industry. President because he greatly strengthened the power of the executive branch. He was the first president to win reelection after gaining the White House due to the death of his predecessor. Theodore Roosevelt died less than a year later. Lewis A. Though he had already been a public servant for nearly two decades, Theodore Roosevelt became a national hero for his role in the Spanish-American Warespecially in leading the Rough Riders regiment. He also was impetuous and did not hesitate to work around the regulations to get what he wanted. based on 34 review	<urn:uuid:662b2c90-a413-47a8-b138-b1daadb4afdd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hywefegoxojuca.whatshanesaid.com/an-introduction-to-the-social-impact-of-theodore-roosevelt476794706fd.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00551.warc.gz	en	0.982463	656	3.46875	3	[ -0.14589989185333252, 0.4623298645019531, 0.2746252417564392, -0.1541849970817566, 0.22125163674354553, 0.27226337790489197, 0.2269313484430313, 0.0905037373304367, -0.05995980650186539, 0.05963738262653351, 0.48139527440071106, 0.27535194158554077, 0.14588817954063416, 0.4177173972129822,...	1	An introduction to the social impact of theodore roosevelt Roosevelt had declined to run for re-election to the presidency indeciding to exit politics and go on a yearlong African safari Ellis,p. He believed that African Americans as a race were inferior to whites, but he thought many black individuals were superior to white individuals and should be able to prove their merit. Theodore roosevelt foreign policy He was also the nation's first environmentalist President, setting aside nearly million acres for national forests, reserves, and wildlife refuges. They both wanted the betterment of America both domestically and at the world stage. More profoundly, they represent a refusal to accept constructions of the United States as an exceptional nation, presided over by exceptional men. Campaigning in , Franklin named Theodore as one of the four most interesting men in American history, and one of the few presidents who had successfully adapted his office in response to contemporary realities. He caused a major controversy early in his presidency when he invited Booker T. Both had their own beliefs of how reform, empowerment of the people and foreign policy should be accomplished. He believed that as President, he had a unique relationship with and responsibility to the people, and therefore wanted to challenge prevailing notions of limited government and individualism; government, he maintained, should serve as an agent of reform for the people. Navy, which he believed would deter potential enemies from targeting the country, and he applied his energies to negotiating peace agreements, working to balance power throughout the world. He was the vice president under William McKinley, he came into office in , just before his 43rd birthday. He fought for what he believed and never backed down from that belief. InDickinson State University DSU began to explore the legacy of the 26th President as a tribute to his historical legacy and admiration to the territory that the university resides today. He was always a cowboy at heart. Upon victory, he vowed not to run for another term ina promise he came to regret. He conquered the frontier and went on to conquer other countries as well. He was also an extremely popular President and the first to use the media to appeal directly to the people, bypassing the political parties and career politicians. Theodore roosevelt biography In and again in , historians selected and polled by Arthur Schlesinger had ranked Theodore Roosevelt as the seventh greatest president. Teddy Roosevelt and the White Fleet and the Big Stick, those are days that related to a period of empire, when great nations did as they pleased, with little hindrance. His "Square Deal" domestic program reflected the progressive call to reform the American workplace, initiating welfare legislation and government regulation of industry. President because he greatly strengthened the power of the executive branch. He was the first president to win reelection after gaining the White House due to the death of his predecessor. Theodore Roosevelt died less than a year later. Lewis A. Though he had already been a public servant for nearly two decades, Theodore Roosevelt became a national hero for his role in the Spanish-American Warespecially in leading the Rough Riders regiment. He also was impetuous and did not hesitate to work around the regulations to get what he wanted. based on 34 review	652	ENGLISH	1
English Lions have enjoyed the autumn term theme of ‘Woodland’ and have made full use of the wonderful sticks, pinecones and coloured leaves that have fallen. We have dived into the world of ‘The Gruffalo’ and ‘The Stick Man’, concentrating this term on speaking and listening skills and joining in with repeated refrains. Children retold the stories in their own way using role play and small world activities. We have described settings and characters using different language and exciting vocabulary. As we learn new sounds we have developed a love for writing, using identifiable letters to communicate meaning to support our drawings. Children have independently produced their own Stick Man’s Family Tree and written letters to find him. One of our highlights this term was our forest school trip, where we went on our very own bear hunt through the woods! With our fantastic observation skills we did find the bear, he was soft and cuddly! We sang songs and ate a picnic around the fire. We were in awe of the flames in the fire and enjoyed sitting safely watching it burn. We thought about the different textures and feelings in the woods, one of our favourites was how the mud felt under our feet, especially when we jumped in the muddy puddles! In English Lions we love to create. We have made use of the wonderful natural resources available at this time of year to create wonderful models and pictures. We made our own Stick Men, as well as creating a Family Tree and a bed for him. We built bridges across rivers and more recently we made angels and stars to put on the Christmas tree. We are improving our skills with discussing what we have made, how we made it and how we can improve. For maths this term we have focused on our counting and number recognition. We have again used many different natural resources to support us with this and have linked it to the tasks that we have been completing already, so that we understand why we need to develop our math skills. We have worked on saying one number name for each item we are counting, touching or moving the items as we do so. We have also looked at measurement, we used vocabulary such as longer and shorter to order the length of sticks and we enjoyed using a metre stick to compare our own heights. English Lions have had a fantastic first term at school. They have had a busy time getting to know each other and learning the rules and routines. Although it has been a very wet term, they have still loved exploring the activities in our outside area, especially the messy mud kitchen! English Lions love to sing and they have learnt lots of songs, with the favourites being, ‘Miss Polly had a dolly’ and ‘Boa Constrictor’. They have even come up with their own dinosaur song! Art and design has played a big part in the classroom this term, and there are definitely lots of budding artists. The children have used shapes to make pictures of animals and painted pictures of their favourite dinosaurs. English Lions have also started Phonics lessons and are doing incredibly well with learning all of the new sounds. Mrs Brand and Mrs Dutton are very proud of all the children for settling in so well.	<urn:uuid:8bf4f15a-1a9c-4c66-94e5-611cbf44890f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.jubileeprimaryschool.org.uk/latest-news/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00042.warc.gz	en	0.980048	657	3.703125	4	[ -0.23663629591464996, 0.015965361148118973, 0.30656033754348755, -0.027083005756139755, -0.1532430648803711, 0.13753661513328552, 0.1925312578678131, 0.07206510007381439, 0.05021657049655914, 0.22527286410331726, -0.11692781746387482, -0.7334579229354858, -0.22831928730010986, 0.2281913459...	1	English Lions have enjoyed the autumn term theme of ‘Woodland’ and have made full use of the wonderful sticks, pinecones and coloured leaves that have fallen. We have dived into the world of ‘The Gruffalo’ and ‘The Stick Man’, concentrating this term on speaking and listening skills and joining in with repeated refrains. Children retold the stories in their own way using role play and small world activities. We have described settings and characters using different language and exciting vocabulary. As we learn new sounds we have developed a love for writing, using identifiable letters to communicate meaning to support our drawings. Children have independently produced their own Stick Man’s Family Tree and written letters to find him. One of our highlights this term was our forest school trip, where we went on our very own bear hunt through the woods! With our fantastic observation skills we did find the bear, he was soft and cuddly! We sang songs and ate a picnic around the fire. We were in awe of the flames in the fire and enjoyed sitting safely watching it burn. We thought about the different textures and feelings in the woods, one of our favourites was how the mud felt under our feet, especially when we jumped in the muddy puddles! In English Lions we love to create. We have made use of the wonderful natural resources available at this time of year to create wonderful models and pictures. We made our own Stick Men, as well as creating a Family Tree and a bed for him. We built bridges across rivers and more recently we made angels and stars to put on the Christmas tree. We are improving our skills with discussing what we have made, how we made it and how we can improve. For maths this term we have focused on our counting and number recognition. We have again used many different natural resources to support us with this and have linked it to the tasks that we have been completing already, so that we understand why we need to develop our math skills. We have worked on saying one number name for each item we are counting, touching or moving the items as we do so. We have also looked at measurement, we used vocabulary such as longer and shorter to order the length of sticks and we enjoyed using a metre stick to compare our own heights. English Lions have had a fantastic first term at school. They have had a busy time getting to know each other and learning the rules and routines. Although it has been a very wet term, they have still loved exploring the activities in our outside area, especially the messy mud kitchen! English Lions love to sing and they have learnt lots of songs, with the favourites being, ‘Miss Polly had a dolly’ and ‘Boa Constrictor’. They have even come up with their own dinosaur song! Art and design has played a big part in the classroom this term, and there are definitely lots of budding artists. The children have used shapes to make pictures of animals and painted pictures of their favourite dinosaurs. English Lions have also started Phonics lessons and are doing incredibly well with learning all of the new sounds. Mrs Brand and Mrs Dutton are very proud of all the children for settling in so well.	635	ENGLISH	1
By the summer of 1864, it looked as if Ulysses S. Grant’s position as General-in-chief of the Union armies was in jeopardy. He had failed to secure a knockout punch against the Confederacy and he missed a prime chance to gain major ground in Virginia by capturing the railroad junction of Petersburg, which was south of the Confederate capital of Richmond and supplied the capital. To keep from being replaced, which Abraham Lincoln was known to do to his generals, Grant would have to bring a badly needed victory that would serve as a huge blow to Robert E. Lee and his Confederate army. Abraham Lincoln’s first year as president was 1860, which meant in 1864 that it was election year. The election was in only a few months, and because of Grant’s perceived inadequacies the Republicans were in trouble in the upcoming elections. Though Grant continued in his offensive through many battles, he was losing many men to casualties, prompting criticism in the North. Lee believed that if he could hold off the Union army for a few more months, it would influence the election and Democratic candidates would be more willing to negotiate peace with the Confederates. As it looked, things were not going well for Grant, who had devised an offensive that was to be the last push to ending the war, and his offensive had come to a grinding halt in many aspects of the offensive. Late in the summer of 1864 the Union finally got good news. The Union navy was able to capture Mobile Bay, a key component of the South. Mobile Bay was a key defensive position for the Confederates as it possessed three fortifications that Grant had wanted to capture during his campaign. In early August, each of the three forts fell to the powerful Union navy. Mobile was not captured but instead rendered unusable to the Confederates, who used the defensive position as a port to supply many areas of the Confederacy despite being blockaded. Without being able to use Mobile Bay as a port because of Union Admiral David Farragut, the Confederacy had no more major ports on the Gulf of Mexico after already having been starved of supplies because of the lack of ports. In September, good news finally came from the Union army. William T. Sherman laid siege to Atlanta, Georgia, in late August and early September. Pitted against Confederate John Bell Hood, Sherman cut off the supply lines between Atlanta and the other Confederate states and army as he bombarded the Confederate army. At the beginning of September, Hood decided to retreat from the city and allow the Union army to capture it after burning any supplies they left behind. Despite allowing Hood’s army to get away uncaptured and relatively intact, Sherman’s success produces tremendous results in the form of Northern morale and gave a devastating blow to the Southern counterpart. It helped the Republican Party regain some of its lost momentum during Grant’s campaign while deepening the depressing morale felt by Confederate citizens, who began to feel the pinch of the Union military with their foot in the door. With Atlanta captured, Sherman would then produce the so-called “Sherman’s March to the Sea”, a campaign that would produce horrendous results for the Confederates and take the idea of the Civil War being “all-out war” one step further as he looked to inflict direct attrition on the Confederate civilians. College level lectures “Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era” by James McPherson	<urn:uuid:b91f2b39-a349-4119-a90a-2141d3f18ce9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://yuptab.com/capturing-atlanta-in-1864-william-t-sherman-saves-grants-job/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00266.warc.gz	en	0.983328	708	3.8125	4	[ -0.42923837900161743, 0.36003872752189636, 0.35359612107276917, 0.2719005346298218, 0.012973693199455738, 0.03883125260472298, 0.018809203058481216, -0.08542785793542862, -0.2576242983341217, -0.04744773730635643, 0.14035388827323914, 0.08875395357608795, 0.2529582679271698, 0.392904013395...	2	By the summer of 1864, it looked as if Ulysses S. Grant’s position as General-in-chief of the Union armies was in jeopardy. He had failed to secure a knockout punch against the Confederacy and he missed a prime chance to gain major ground in Virginia by capturing the railroad junction of Petersburg, which was south of the Confederate capital of Richmond and supplied the capital. To keep from being replaced, which Abraham Lincoln was known to do to his generals, Grant would have to bring a badly needed victory that would serve as a huge blow to Robert E. Lee and his Confederate army. Abraham Lincoln’s first year as president was 1860, which meant in 1864 that it was election year. The election was in only a few months, and because of Grant’s perceived inadequacies the Republicans were in trouble in the upcoming elections. Though Grant continued in his offensive through many battles, he was losing many men to casualties, prompting criticism in the North. Lee believed that if he could hold off the Union army for a few more months, it would influence the election and Democratic candidates would be more willing to negotiate peace with the Confederates. As it looked, things were not going well for Grant, who had devised an offensive that was to be the last push to ending the war, and his offensive had come to a grinding halt in many aspects of the offensive. Late in the summer of 1864 the Union finally got good news. The Union navy was able to capture Mobile Bay, a key component of the South. Mobile Bay was a key defensive position for the Confederates as it possessed three fortifications that Grant had wanted to capture during his campaign. In early August, each of the three forts fell to the powerful Union navy. Mobile was not captured but instead rendered unusable to the Confederates, who used the defensive position as a port to supply many areas of the Confederacy despite being blockaded. Without being able to use Mobile Bay as a port because of Union Admiral David Farragut, the Confederacy had no more major ports on the Gulf of Mexico after already having been starved of supplies because of the lack of ports. In September, good news finally came from the Union army. William T. Sherman laid siege to Atlanta, Georgia, in late August and early September. Pitted against Confederate John Bell Hood, Sherman cut off the supply lines between Atlanta and the other Confederate states and army as he bombarded the Confederate army. At the beginning of September, Hood decided to retreat from the city and allow the Union army to capture it after burning any supplies they left behind. Despite allowing Hood’s army to get away uncaptured and relatively intact, Sherman’s success produces tremendous results in the form of Northern morale and gave a devastating blow to the Southern counterpart. It helped the Republican Party regain some of its lost momentum during Grant’s campaign while deepening the depressing morale felt by Confederate citizens, who began to feel the pinch of the Union military with their foot in the door. With Atlanta captured, Sherman would then produce the so-called “Sherman’s March to the Sea”, a campaign that would produce horrendous results for the Confederates and take the idea of the Civil War being “all-out war” one step further as he looked to inflict direct attrition on the Confederate civilians. College level lectures “Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era” by James McPherson	697	ENGLISH	1
Beowulf’s Promise Analysis Essay The Poem Beowulf The poem Beowulf is based on a character that is well known for his exploits when it comes down to the act of war. In the poem, the Danes are faced with a predicament. They are constantly attacked by a monster named Grendel, and the attacks go on for nearly twelve years. The damage to the Danes can only be measured by the lives that are lost over the years until Beowulf, who is from another tribe, decides to come to their rescue. Known as a man of different talents, Beowulf is not afraid to talk of his might and conquests over the years. This makes him a welcome and pleasant guest among the Danes (Swanton 74). Even though he might be considered arrogant by his peers and even some of the older people, Beowulf never failed to achieve his goals. As he was being honored, Beowulf made some promises to the king and the people that he intended to keep. This paper will look at how he fulfilled some of the promises Beowulf made, and how they might have affected him later. The first promise that Beowulf made to the Danish people and their king was that he would kill Grendel, or die at the hall in which they were holding the feast. The promise to protect and serve the people of another tribe or die trying meant that he had a strong resolve and immeasurable faith that he would be able to handle the danger that lay ahead. Upon proclaiming that he would kill Grendel, the Danes continued their celebrations in the hall that the king had built during his reign (Heorot), until everyone, except Beowulf and his men, retired for the night. The reader gets to see Beowulf honor his promise of killing Grendel when he ripped Grendel’s arm from his body, and let him run back to his lair to die (Swanton 96). Later on in the poem, there is also proof of Beowulf fulfilling his promise to the Danish king. As the celebrations to mark the death of Grendel and the birth of a new hero continued, Grendel’s mother plots to seek vengeance for her offspring. In the night, she manages to grab one of the king’s most trusted counselors and runs off with him. Beowulf learns of this as he finds the king grieving for his trusted friend. It is here that Beowulf makes another promise to the king where he claims that he will find Grendel’s mother and kill her. In his words, Beowulf claims that there would be no sea or mountain that she could hide without him finding her (Swanton 121). Afterward, he kills Grendel’s mother by slicing her head and also cuts off Grendel’s head from his body. In conclusion, by fulfilling these promises, Beowulf earned honor, respect, and admiration from both his people and the Danes. It is these exploits that enabled him to get half a kingdom upon his return home, and later on, become king of the Geats. He proves to be a great king till the time of his death as he battles with a dragon that had terrified his people. It was determined that the treasure that he fought for would not be given to anyone, and he was later buried with it. He is described as the most capable of all kings (Swanton 137). An alliance had been made between Beowulf and the Danish king, and it was an alliance that lasted even after the death of Beowulf. Swanton, Michael. Beowulf: Revised Edition. Oxford Road, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997. Print.	<urn:uuid:e258d9c7-f821-4a95-b622-0f277774149a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://summarystory.com/beowulf/beowulfs-promise-analysis-essay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00107.warc.gz	en	0.989956	775	3.75	4	[ -0.41645124554634094, 0.6518246531486511, 0.0804448276758194, 0.4172632694244385, -0.4102616310119629, 0.2078884243965149, 0.25423818826675415, 0.09917665272951126, -0.14691868424415588, -0.5101984739303589, 0.17222119867801666, -0.2756272554397583, 0.24522139132022858, 0.07805823534727097...	11	Beowulf’s Promise Analysis Essay The Poem Beowulf The poem Beowulf is based on a character that is well known for his exploits when it comes down to the act of war. In the poem, the Danes are faced with a predicament. They are constantly attacked by a monster named Grendel, and the attacks go on for nearly twelve years. The damage to the Danes can only be measured by the lives that are lost over the years until Beowulf, who is from another tribe, decides to come to their rescue. Known as a man of different talents, Beowulf is not afraid to talk of his might and conquests over the years. This makes him a welcome and pleasant guest among the Danes (Swanton 74). Even though he might be considered arrogant by his peers and even some of the older people, Beowulf never failed to achieve his goals. As he was being honored, Beowulf made some promises to the king and the people that he intended to keep. This paper will look at how he fulfilled some of the promises Beowulf made, and how they might have affected him later. The first promise that Beowulf made to the Danish people and their king was that he would kill Grendel, or die at the hall in which they were holding the feast. The promise to protect and serve the people of another tribe or die trying meant that he had a strong resolve and immeasurable faith that he would be able to handle the danger that lay ahead. Upon proclaiming that he would kill Grendel, the Danes continued their celebrations in the hall that the king had built during his reign (Heorot), until everyone, except Beowulf and his men, retired for the night. The reader gets to see Beowulf honor his promise of killing Grendel when he ripped Grendel’s arm from his body, and let him run back to his lair to die (Swanton 96). Later on in the poem, there is also proof of Beowulf fulfilling his promise to the Danish king. As the celebrations to mark the death of Grendel and the birth of a new hero continued, Grendel’s mother plots to seek vengeance for her offspring. In the night, she manages to grab one of the king’s most trusted counselors and runs off with him. Beowulf learns of this as he finds the king grieving for his trusted friend. It is here that Beowulf makes another promise to the king where he claims that he will find Grendel’s mother and kill her. In his words, Beowulf claims that there would be no sea or mountain that she could hide without him finding her (Swanton 121). Afterward, he kills Grendel’s mother by slicing her head and also cuts off Grendel’s head from his body. In conclusion, by fulfilling these promises, Beowulf earned honor, respect, and admiration from both his people and the Danes. It is these exploits that enabled him to get half a kingdom upon his return home, and later on, become king of the Geats. He proves to be a great king till the time of his death as he battles with a dragon that had terrified his people. It was determined that the treasure that he fought for would not be given to anyone, and he was later buried with it. He is described as the most capable of all kings (Swanton 137). An alliance had been made between Beowulf and the Danish king, and it was an alliance that lasted even after the death of Beowulf. Swanton, Michael. Beowulf: Revised Edition. Oxford Road, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997. Print.	772	ENGLISH	1
The front gates of the Old Newgate Prison in East Granby, around 1895. Image from The Connecticut Quarterly (1895). The scene in 2018: The Old Newgate Prison opened in 1773, in an abandoned copper mine in Granby – now present-day East Granby – Connecticut. The prisoners were housed underground in the old mine tunnels, with the idea that this would be a virtually escape-proof facility. However, the prison proved far less secure than its proponents had anticipated, and it was practically a revolving door in its early years, with some prisoners escaping almost as soon as they arrived. During its first nine years in operation, more than half of the inmates who were confined here had reportedly escaped, and the above-ground buildings were burned on three separate occasions as part of escape attempts. Nonetheless, the facility remained in use, and in 1790 it became a state prison. A number of new buildings were constructed in the following years, and a new wooden fence was constructed around the perimeter of the prison yard in 1790. However, this was replaced by a more substantial stone wall in 1802, as shown here in these two photos. The prison ultimately closed in 1827, and all of the inmates were transferred to the newly-built state prison in Wethersfield. This site was subsequently used again for copper mining, in the 1830s and 1850s, but neither attempt was particularly successful. In the meantime, most of the old prison buildings fell into ruin. By the time the first photo was taken in the 1890s, only two of the buildings were substantially intact, and one of these ultimately burned down in 1904. Newgate had already become recognized as an important local landmark by the turn of the 20th century, and it was a popular destination for curious visitors. The site was eventually acquired by the state of Connecticut in 1968, and it was converted into a museum. Since then, the ruins have been stabilized, and Newgate has been preserved as a National Historic Landmark. As shown in these two photos, the 1802 stone wall has remained particularly well-preserved, and this view of the front gate still looks much the same as it would have to the prisoners who arrived here more than two centuries ago.	<urn:uuid:b3e149e8-1f68-41c8-9ef5-62b65170645d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://lostnewengland.com/2020/01/old-newgate-prison-gates-east-granby-connecticut/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00208.warc.gz	en	0.991469	458	3.453125	3	[ 0.028976544737815857, -0.02719530463218689, 0.30884549021720886, 0.342063844203949, 0.11569534987211227, 0.13853967189788818, -0.2500421106815338, -0.4229622483253479, -0.13739602267742157, -0.05330647900700569, 0.14392752945423126, 0.12178468704223633, 0.2895854115486145, 0.29565748572349...	10	The front gates of the Old Newgate Prison in East Granby, around 1895. Image from The Connecticut Quarterly (1895). The scene in 2018: The Old Newgate Prison opened in 1773, in an abandoned copper mine in Granby – now present-day East Granby – Connecticut. The prisoners were housed underground in the old mine tunnels, with the idea that this would be a virtually escape-proof facility. However, the prison proved far less secure than its proponents had anticipated, and it was practically a revolving door in its early years, with some prisoners escaping almost as soon as they arrived. During its first nine years in operation, more than half of the inmates who were confined here had reportedly escaped, and the above-ground buildings were burned on three separate occasions as part of escape attempts. Nonetheless, the facility remained in use, and in 1790 it became a state prison. A number of new buildings were constructed in the following years, and a new wooden fence was constructed around the perimeter of the prison yard in 1790. However, this was replaced by a more substantial stone wall in 1802, as shown here in these two photos. The prison ultimately closed in 1827, and all of the inmates were transferred to the newly-built state prison in Wethersfield. This site was subsequently used again for copper mining, in the 1830s and 1850s, but neither attempt was particularly successful. In the meantime, most of the old prison buildings fell into ruin. By the time the first photo was taken in the 1890s, only two of the buildings were substantially intact, and one of these ultimately burned down in 1904. Newgate had already become recognized as an important local landmark by the turn of the 20th century, and it was a popular destination for curious visitors. The site was eventually acquired by the state of Connecticut in 1968, and it was converted into a museum. Since then, the ruins have been stabilized, and Newgate has been preserved as a National Historic Landmark. As shown in these two photos, the 1802 stone wall has remained particularly well-preserved, and this view of the front gate still looks much the same as it would have to the prisoners who arrived here more than two centuries ago.	498	ENGLISH	1
Suicide could be defined as; the acts of taking one’s own life voluntary and intentionally- most people seeing it as an individual act. Emile Durkheim wrote Le Suicide to prove that suicide wasn’t just an individual act but one that was social. He used official statistics and quantitative data to back up his hypothesis. Through these stats, he found there were consistent differences in suicide rates between different societies and contexts: protestant countries were discovered to have had higher rates than those of Catholic countries- this was probably due to the facet that suicide was seen as a sin and the Catholic community were more collective. He also found suicide rates were at the lowest at times of war- noticing that at times of upheaval, people were more as one. Durkheim then gathered a theory that social integration and regulation were the factors which determined the level of suicide in any society. Within this theory, he depicted four kinds of suicide: egoistic- a sense of isolation, where communities weren’t as closely knit as others- any sense of belonging wasn’t there. Altruistic- he described this as members of societies who believed their lives were less important than the needs of the group or society. Anomic- this occurred in modern western societies at times of massive change and upheaval. Finally, fatalistic suicide, which Durkheim found occurred in societies that were over-regulated or restricted the lives of its members, where they found death, seemed to be their only option. Jack Douglas argued that Durkheim failed to acknowledge that suicide meant different things to people/societies. For example, in Japan, dying for their leader was seen as a great honour and others were dying due to grief or depression. As an interpretivist, he believed statistics were an unreliable judgement to base conclusions upon and thought methods such as; interviews with the families, diaries and/or letters were more favourable as they were more descriptive, in depth and valid as opposed to stats. He used these to develop a typology of suicide. He suggested that the most common social meanings of suicide in modern industrial societies are: transformation of the soul- in terms of religion and reaching heaven. Transformation of the self- persuading others to think of you differently. As a means of gaining sympathy and as a means of inducing guilt. Maxwell Atkinson agreed with Douglas, in the sense that the scientific approach of positivists was incorrect. He argued that suicide statistics were as much a social construction as any other part of the social world-…	<urn:uuid:b61015ae-21d3-4dc1-9fcc-37308cc66e45>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Sociology-Sociology-And-Le-Suicide-576676.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00128.warc.gz	en	0.988439	514	3.34375	3	[ -0.21700815856456757, -0.023257313296198845, 0.06986045092344284, -0.2742629647254944, 0.09431982785463333, 0.20509643852710724, 0.7376229166984558, 0.41279593110084534, 0.5812923908233643, -0.17202675342559814, 0.33060696721076965, -0.18566910922527313, -0.08406470715999603, 0.30504551529...	1	Suicide could be defined as; the acts of taking one’s own life voluntary and intentionally- most people seeing it as an individual act. Emile Durkheim wrote Le Suicide to prove that suicide wasn’t just an individual act but one that was social. He used official statistics and quantitative data to back up his hypothesis. Through these stats, he found there were consistent differences in suicide rates between different societies and contexts: protestant countries were discovered to have had higher rates than those of Catholic countries- this was probably due to the facet that suicide was seen as a sin and the Catholic community were more collective. He also found suicide rates were at the lowest at times of war- noticing that at times of upheaval, people were more as one. Durkheim then gathered a theory that social integration and regulation were the factors which determined the level of suicide in any society. Within this theory, he depicted four kinds of suicide: egoistic- a sense of isolation, where communities weren’t as closely knit as others- any sense of belonging wasn’t there. Altruistic- he described this as members of societies who believed their lives were less important than the needs of the group or society. Anomic- this occurred in modern western societies at times of massive change and upheaval. Finally, fatalistic suicide, which Durkheim found occurred in societies that were over-regulated or restricted the lives of its members, where they found death, seemed to be their only option. Jack Douglas argued that Durkheim failed to acknowledge that suicide meant different things to people/societies. For example, in Japan, dying for their leader was seen as a great honour and others were dying due to grief or depression. As an interpretivist, he believed statistics were an unreliable judgement to base conclusions upon and thought methods such as; interviews with the families, diaries and/or letters were more favourable as they were more descriptive, in depth and valid as opposed to stats. He used these to develop a typology of suicide. He suggested that the most common social meanings of suicide in modern industrial societies are: transformation of the soul- in terms of religion and reaching heaven. Transformation of the self- persuading others to think of you differently. As a means of gaining sympathy and as a means of inducing guilt. Maxwell Atkinson agreed with Douglas, in the sense that the scientific approach of positivists was incorrect. He argued that suicide statistics were as much a social construction as any other part of the social world-…	504	ENGLISH	1
Tabitha Stanmore is a researcher of historical attitudes to magic from 1350 to 1650. She gives a Library Lecture at Cecil Sharp House on 22 January. In the year 1528 in the small Yorkshire village of Bishop Wilton, Isabel Mure gathered two young women to her. Taking a handful of straw and a kindled branch, she took the women down to the village beck and bade them watch as she lit the straw on fire. As the women looked on, Isabel placed the lighted wisp on the water and said: Isabel recited the Lord’s Prayer and Ave Maria fifteen times and the Apostle’s Creed three times. After that, as far as we know, the three women went home. This is the only record which survives about Isabel Mure, and we do not know what happened to her after she was reported to the church authorities for performing this ritual. All we know is that she led this small group and had faith in her actions. What were Isabel and her unnamed companions doing? Why were they there, and what were they hoping to achieve while standing at the side of the stream? Though enigmatic, brief records such as this one can help us understand the nature of magic and belief in pre-modern England. We can hazard a guess that Isabel was attempting some sort of divination, perhaps trying to predict – and ward off – diseases that might afflict herself or her community. She claimed to see ‘flew and night fevers’, which might refer to spreading infections which slowly afflicted different parts of the body and caused high temperatures, making the sufferers bed-bound. Reciting the Lord’s Prayer and Ave Maria was also a common practice in medieval and early modern healing rituals; around the same time, the cunning woman Margaret Hunt recommended reciting the prayers for nine nights as a cure for all illnesses. Prayers to Christ and the Virgin were believed to carry enormous power whether or not they were used for their originally intended purpose: the very name Jesus was often thought to carry protective qualities. Perhaps Isabel was trying to use the prayers in a similar way to Margaret, therefore, but directed at the world in general rather than a particular patient. Alternatively, perhaps she was trying to heal the women she had brought with her. The items she used in her ritual also literally shed some light. By setting the straw on fire and floating it on the water, Isabel would have caused reflections and smoke. Divination magic often needs an object of focus, whether that is animal entrails, a piece of clouded glass or simply a pool of water. The smoke from the doused straw, or simply the ways that it moved as it was taken by the beck, may have been taken as a sign of things to come; certainly Isabel claimed to foresee fevers and evil as she watched the fire, grass and stream move about her. The fact that we do not know the outcome of this case also tells us something crucial: in all likelihood, the case was not followed up by the church courts. This is a reflection of a wider attitude towards folk magic in England, particularly before it became an official crime in 1542. Rituals for future-telling, healing, and a range of other purposes like finding stolen goods and inspiring love were very common across the country before and even after this date. The magicians, or cunning folk, who performed these spells played a major part in fixing their community’s everyday problems and were an integral part of pre-modern English culture. In January, I will give a lecture for the English Folk Dance and Song Society which will explore practical folk magic, and pick apart some of the spells preserved in the archives. We will investigate some of the common themes and motifs in these spells, asking whether there was any underlying theory behind them and what they meant to the people who performed them. In doing so, we uncover an important but frequently overlooked part of English history.	<urn:uuid:a078690d-482a-4195-a5ee-63edc8cb5187>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cecilsharphouse.org/csh-about-us/csh-news/342-january-2020/6954-practical-magic	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00045.warc.gz	en	0.981796	811	3.3125	3	[ -0.2548399269580841, 0.017286580055952072, 0.14171548187732697, 0.21239030361175537, 0.05647030472755432, 0.1077038049697876, 0.1695205569267273, 0.029521573334932327, -0.13637128472328186, 0.004722882993519306, -0.2503718435764313, -0.31198710203170776, -0.433269202709198, -0.061340801417...	2	Tabitha Stanmore is a researcher of historical attitudes to magic from 1350 to 1650. She gives a Library Lecture at Cecil Sharp House on 22 January. In the year 1528 in the small Yorkshire village of Bishop Wilton, Isabel Mure gathered two young women to her. Taking a handful of straw and a kindled branch, she took the women down to the village beck and bade them watch as she lit the straw on fire. As the women looked on, Isabel placed the lighted wisp on the water and said: Isabel recited the Lord’s Prayer and Ave Maria fifteen times and the Apostle’s Creed three times. After that, as far as we know, the three women went home. This is the only record which survives about Isabel Mure, and we do not know what happened to her after she was reported to the church authorities for performing this ritual. All we know is that she led this small group and had faith in her actions. What were Isabel and her unnamed companions doing? Why were they there, and what were they hoping to achieve while standing at the side of the stream? Though enigmatic, brief records such as this one can help us understand the nature of magic and belief in pre-modern England. We can hazard a guess that Isabel was attempting some sort of divination, perhaps trying to predict – and ward off – diseases that might afflict herself or her community. She claimed to see ‘flew and night fevers’, which might refer to spreading infections which slowly afflicted different parts of the body and caused high temperatures, making the sufferers bed-bound. Reciting the Lord’s Prayer and Ave Maria was also a common practice in medieval and early modern healing rituals; around the same time, the cunning woman Margaret Hunt recommended reciting the prayers for nine nights as a cure for all illnesses. Prayers to Christ and the Virgin were believed to carry enormous power whether or not they were used for their originally intended purpose: the very name Jesus was often thought to carry protective qualities. Perhaps Isabel was trying to use the prayers in a similar way to Margaret, therefore, but directed at the world in general rather than a particular patient. Alternatively, perhaps she was trying to heal the women she had brought with her. The items she used in her ritual also literally shed some light. By setting the straw on fire and floating it on the water, Isabel would have caused reflections and smoke. Divination magic often needs an object of focus, whether that is animal entrails, a piece of clouded glass or simply a pool of water. The smoke from the doused straw, or simply the ways that it moved as it was taken by the beck, may have been taken as a sign of things to come; certainly Isabel claimed to foresee fevers and evil as she watched the fire, grass and stream move about her. The fact that we do not know the outcome of this case also tells us something crucial: in all likelihood, the case was not followed up by the church courts. This is a reflection of a wider attitude towards folk magic in England, particularly before it became an official crime in 1542. Rituals for future-telling, healing, and a range of other purposes like finding stolen goods and inspiring love were very common across the country before and even after this date. The magicians, or cunning folk, who performed these spells played a major part in fixing their community’s everyday problems and were an integral part of pre-modern English culture. In January, I will give a lecture for the English Folk Dance and Song Society which will explore practical folk magic, and pick apart some of the spells preserved in the archives. We will investigate some of the common themes and motifs in these spells, asking whether there was any underlying theory behind them and what they meant to the people who performed them. In doing so, we uncover an important but frequently overlooked part of English history.	801	ENGLISH	1
\|Date(s):\|\|December 10, 1832\| \|Location(s):\|\|Washington City, District of Columbia\| \|Tag(s):\|\|Economy, Government, Law, Politics\| \|Course:\|\|“America, 1820-1890 (2007),” Furman University\| \|Rating:\|\|3.93 (147 votes)\| The crisis threatened to tear the nation apart. This crisis was the passage of the Nullification Ordinances by the South Carolina State Assembly in November of 1832. The unity and survival of the nation depended upon President Andrew Jackson's response. On December 10, 1832, President Jackson presented his response to the Congress, arguing that the justification for state nullification of federal laws was misguided, unconstitutional, and treasonous to the country. Jackson began his proclamation by outlining the reasons and reservations that led South Carolina to pass the ordinance; their major concerns were the tariffs of May 29, 1828 and June 14, 1832. South Carolina believed these measures were unfair and didn't fall within the constitutional power of Congress to raise revenue; they proclaimed the laws null and void and threatened succession. In his address, Jackson showed that the doctrine of nullification was "incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which It was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed." First, he posited that South Carolina's objections based on stated powers and fairness were misguided and incorrect because the Constitution gave Congress the "discretionary power" to raise revenue by taxation. Next, Jackson argued the Constitution joined the states into a single nation, and "in becoming parts of a nation...they surrender many of their essential parts of sovereignty." Thus, secession was wholly unconstitutional because it is an affront to national authority. Finally, Jackson warned the people of South Carolina, who he believed were tricked into nullification by political and social leaders, that any action of "disunion, by force, is treason." He made an emotional appeal for these people to see the error of their position. His address ends with a hope that the nation will survive and be reconciled by reasonableness and harmony, but also an assurance that it will be reconciled by force, if necessary. President's Jackson's speech came at a crucial time during his presidency; he had just been elected to a second term, but already his popular and political support was flagging. But, according to historian Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., Jackson's handling of the nullification crisis and his resolve to ensure the survival of the union, both evident in the December speech, gained him temporary "popular acclaim," making him the "country's hero." Jackson, a shrewd political, turned his new popularity into a political weapon to further the other policies of his administration, most notably his continued war against the Bank of the United States. Jackson's speech and eventual handling of the nullification crisis were viewed, by the majority of the nation, as the actions of a strong leader dedicated to the nation and its survival; he used this renewed trust to further the political goals of his presidency.	<urn:uuid:cd282102-e311-4511-89c9-3a1b14f8c816>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/4142	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00489.warc.gz	en	0.982036	650	3.453125	3	[ -0.15592791140079498, 0.2640744149684906, 0.19230350852012634, -0.13016194105148315, 0.07373668253421783, 0.17036807537078857, 0.26397621631622314, -0.023570865392684937, -0.10695149004459381, 0.000688415952026844, 0.27173882722854614, -0.0874214842915535, 0.3690517544746399, 0.15464948117...	1	\|Date(s):\|\|December 10, 1832\| \|Location(s):\|\|Washington City, District of Columbia\| \|Tag(s):\|\|Economy, Government, Law, Politics\| \|Course:\|\|“America, 1820-1890 (2007),” Furman University\| \|Rating:\|\|3.93 (147 votes)\| The crisis threatened to tear the nation apart. This crisis was the passage of the Nullification Ordinances by the South Carolina State Assembly in November of 1832. The unity and survival of the nation depended upon President Andrew Jackson's response. On December 10, 1832, President Jackson presented his response to the Congress, arguing that the justification for state nullification of federal laws was misguided, unconstitutional, and treasonous to the country. Jackson began his proclamation by outlining the reasons and reservations that led South Carolina to pass the ordinance; their major concerns were the tariffs of May 29, 1828 and June 14, 1832. South Carolina believed these measures were unfair and didn't fall within the constitutional power of Congress to raise revenue; they proclaimed the laws null and void and threatened succession. In his address, Jackson showed that the doctrine of nullification was "incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which It was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed." First, he posited that South Carolina's objections based on stated powers and fairness were misguided and incorrect because the Constitution gave Congress the "discretionary power" to raise revenue by taxation. Next, Jackson argued the Constitution joined the states into a single nation, and "in becoming parts of a nation...they surrender many of their essential parts of sovereignty." Thus, secession was wholly unconstitutional because it is an affront to national authority. Finally, Jackson warned the people of South Carolina, who he believed were tricked into nullification by political and social leaders, that any action of "disunion, by force, is treason." He made an emotional appeal for these people to see the error of their position. His address ends with a hope that the nation will survive and be reconciled by reasonableness and harmony, but also an assurance that it will be reconciled by force, if necessary. President's Jackson's speech came at a crucial time during his presidency; he had just been elected to a second term, but already his popular and political support was flagging. But, according to historian Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., Jackson's handling of the nullification crisis and his resolve to ensure the survival of the union, both evident in the December speech, gained him temporary "popular acclaim," making him the "country's hero." Jackson, a shrewd political, turned his new popularity into a political weapon to further the other policies of his administration, most notably his continued war against the Bank of the United States. Jackson's speech and eventual handling of the nullification crisis were viewed, by the majority of the nation, as the actions of a strong leader dedicated to the nation and its survival; he used this renewed trust to further the political goals of his presidency.	679	ENGLISH	1
SOCIETIES’ TREATMENT of their unfortunates is an old and usually sad story. In 1972 TV reporter Geraldo Rivera dealt with this in a shocking report on conditions in Staten Island’s Willowbrook State School, which housed children with intellectual disabilities. As Mr. Rivera and others reported, its residents were housed in filthy conditions and sometimes subjected to physical and sexual abuse. New York State’s earliest attempt (as a state) to care for its poor and mentally ill came via a 1784 law mandating that each town elect two overseers of the poor to distribute money to the needy. Subsequently, an 1824 law attempted to promote more regulated humane treatment of the state’s unfortunates. County Boards of Supervisors had to purchase land on which to construct tax funded poorhouses. From a contemporary perspective, several of the law’s provisions, including use of solitary confinement to deal with difficult inmates, would be quite controversial. Also, although inmates were denied voice in the decision, they could be farmed out to private, outside employers. The employers had to give suitable support for such persons. This was not slavery, but it was arguably close to it. The county’s first poorhouse, a part of which was a farm, was established in 1830 in Ghent. In 1857 the racially segregated facility was the subject of a comprehensive report which noted that it consisted of a brick main building and some two-story wooden ones, all unventilated. Paupers occupied 18 rooms of the main house, which was warmed by stoves. The basements were occupied as kitchens, etc. Also, a 204-acre farm, yielding an annual revenue of $1,400 was connected with the almshouse. In 1857, the facility housed 187 inmates supported at a weekly cost of $1. Three-fourths of them were there because of alcohol problems. The sexes were segregated but were under a single keeper. The more able paupers worked on the farm and in the house. The almshouse was supplied with Bibles, had religious services, a school and a physician, but no bathing facilities. Some inmates were children, who were probably orphaned; some had parents who could not afford to keep them. The boys were kept entirely separate and apart from the older paupers. The superintendents procured supplies, regulated the house’s governing, “binded out” the children on their arrival at “proper age,” (a phrase which was not defined) and exercised the power of discharging what the 1857 report called “lunatics.” The paupers were fed meat, bread, vegetables, tea and butter. A “pest house,” for persons with communicable diseases or mental problems, was connected with the establishment. That year, it had five mentally deficient inmates and thirty-five “lunatics,” all paupers, save two, who each paid one dollar a week. Unfortunately, at least in the pest house, residents sometimes suffered severe physical abuse. Hardly a model of caring, four were confined in cells; one was so held so for three years. They were also restrained by mitts and by a ball and chain, and sometimes whipped or put on a diet of bread and water. The Ghent facility was no Willowbrook, which in many respects violated the law. A good portion of the blame for less than humane treatment at Ghent lay with the state legislature which, in keeping with the time’s standards, authorized some harsh treatment of almshouse residents. That same year, two mental patients escaped from the house; no search was instituted for them. The report stated that the house (although poorly constructed) kept the children were clean despite a lack of bathing facilities, and that the children were well fed. The cells, 24 f them, were also reported to be clean, and beds were provided whenever the mental patients would allow them to remain. An 1864 statewide investigation revealed that some mentally ill people were shackled to the floors and walls. It also concluded that the facility had an inadequate water supply, a lack of cleanliness and ventilation and an uneven supply of heat in the winter. In recent years, it’s been claimed that in growing their own food at the facility’s farm and assisting in maintaining their shared home, residents found personal worth. However, without full records, a balanced assessment of the almshouse’s efficacy is difficult to make. But it was not until 1955 that it finally closed and its residents were moved to Pine Haven in Philmont. Its main building burnt down in 1979 after brief use as a restaurant named “The Almshouse.” Seventeen years after the almshouse closed and long after Rivera’s report, America’s poor and many mentally ill now make up the ranks of our 554,000 homeless nationwide. Historian and writer Howard Blue is an occasional contributor to The Columbia Paper.	<urn:uuid:cc8392ac-0fa7-44bd-8e96-36c14ca39c9f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.columbiapaper.com/2019/12/columbia-county-history-countys-19th-century-poor-and-insane/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00523.warc.gz	en	0.988311	1,046	3.390625	3	[ -0.09477810561656952, 0.1510993242263794, 0.16428396105766296, 0.20162272453308105, 0.11741521954536438, 0.05417780578136444, -0.1273876577615738, -0.19949933886528015, 0.004959214013069868, 0.19078794121742249, 0.11260929703712463, 0.42954620718955994, -0.07011401653289795, 0.748984515666...	4	SOCIETIES’ TREATMENT of their unfortunates is an old and usually sad story. In 1972 TV reporter Geraldo Rivera dealt with this in a shocking report on conditions in Staten Island’s Willowbrook State School, which housed children with intellectual disabilities. As Mr. Rivera and others reported, its residents were housed in filthy conditions and sometimes subjected to physical and sexual abuse. New York State’s earliest attempt (as a state) to care for its poor and mentally ill came via a 1784 law mandating that each town elect two overseers of the poor to distribute money to the needy. Subsequently, an 1824 law attempted to promote more regulated humane treatment of the state’s unfortunates. County Boards of Supervisors had to purchase land on which to construct tax funded poorhouses. From a contemporary perspective, several of the law’s provisions, including use of solitary confinement to deal with difficult inmates, would be quite controversial. Also, although inmates were denied voice in the decision, they could be farmed out to private, outside employers. The employers had to give suitable support for such persons. This was not slavery, but it was arguably close to it. The county’s first poorhouse, a part of which was a farm, was established in 1830 in Ghent. In 1857 the racially segregated facility was the subject of a comprehensive report which noted that it consisted of a brick main building and some two-story wooden ones, all unventilated. Paupers occupied 18 rooms of the main house, which was warmed by stoves. The basements were occupied as kitchens, etc. Also, a 204-acre farm, yielding an annual revenue of $1,400 was connected with the almshouse. In 1857, the facility housed 187 inmates supported at a weekly cost of $1. Three-fourths of them were there because of alcohol problems. The sexes were segregated but were under a single keeper. The more able paupers worked on the farm and in the house. The almshouse was supplied with Bibles, had religious services, a school and a physician, but no bathing facilities. Some inmates were children, who were probably orphaned; some had parents who could not afford to keep them. The boys were kept entirely separate and apart from the older paupers. The superintendents procured supplies, regulated the house’s governing, “binded out” the children on their arrival at “proper age,” (a phrase which was not defined) and exercised the power of discharging what the 1857 report called “lunatics.” The paupers were fed meat, bread, vegetables, tea and butter. A “pest house,” for persons with communicable diseases or mental problems, was connected with the establishment. That year, it had five mentally deficient inmates and thirty-five “lunatics,” all paupers, save two, who each paid one dollar a week. Unfortunately, at least in the pest house, residents sometimes suffered severe physical abuse. Hardly a model of caring, four were confined in cells; one was so held so for three years. They were also restrained by mitts and by a ball and chain, and sometimes whipped or put on a diet of bread and water. The Ghent facility was no Willowbrook, which in many respects violated the law. A good portion of the blame for less than humane treatment at Ghent lay with the state legislature which, in keeping with the time’s standards, authorized some harsh treatment of almshouse residents. That same year, two mental patients escaped from the house; no search was instituted for them. The report stated that the house (although poorly constructed) kept the children were clean despite a lack of bathing facilities, and that the children were well fed. The cells, 24 f them, were also reported to be clean, and beds were provided whenever the mental patients would allow them to remain. An 1864 statewide investigation revealed that some mentally ill people were shackled to the floors and walls. It also concluded that the facility had an inadequate water supply, a lack of cleanliness and ventilation and an uneven supply of heat in the winter. In recent years, it’s been claimed that in growing their own food at the facility’s farm and assisting in maintaining their shared home, residents found personal worth. However, without full records, a balanced assessment of the almshouse’s efficacy is difficult to make. But it was not until 1955 that it finally closed and its residents were moved to Pine Haven in Philmont. Its main building burnt down in 1979 after brief use as a restaurant named “The Almshouse.” Seventeen years after the almshouse closed and long after Rivera’s report, America’s poor and many mentally ill now make up the ranks of our 554,000 homeless nationwide. Historian and writer Howard Blue is an occasional contributor to The Columbia Paper.	1,040	ENGLISH	1
Before we go deep into details needed in this article, we have to define the whole concept of astronomy and how important it is for us. Keep reading to learn about who was the founder of modern astronomy and much more! What is Astronomy? Astronomy is described as the study of celestial objects and beings. This includes the stars, galaxies, and the several phenomena that come outside this Earth’s atmosphere. The study of astronomy is described as one of the earliest sciences, which started way back in the early ages. In the early days, the term modern astronomy began to evolve and today, it has become a very popular practice in the field of astronomy. In the field of modern astronomy, there was a combination of space exploration, since the earliest astronomers could only work with their eyes and the use of the telescope. Modern astronomy brought about many discoveries in the study of the planets and the entire structure of the solar system. Through this modern astronomy, several moons were discovered and several breakthroughs in the field of astronomy were also created. Who Created Astronomy? When discussing who was the founder of modern astronomy, we must not fail to make of the great Nicolaus Copernicus. His name is highly noted in this field, as he is the pioneer of what we now study and practice in the field of modern astronomy. Copernicus (1473 – 1543) was a great polymath who, in the renaissance era, created a model that strongly stood by the ideology that the Earth revolves around the Sun and not the other way round. Throughout his lifetime, he was greatly criticized by his ideology. It turns out, he was right! As the Earth orbits the Sun, the Moon orbits the Earth Before his death, he published a book titled “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres.” This publication, however, was recorded as one of the major events in the history of science and astronomy in general. After his death, came the Copernican Revolution, which led to the bringing up of the Scientific Revolution. The founder of modern astronomy aimed to develop a new and improved theory, which could be used to figure out the planetary positions. He presented a heliocentric theory that did not assume that the Earth was the center of the universe. His theory, however, was greatly ridiculed and not widely accepted until many years after his death. During his lifetime, he was not able to prove that the Earth revolves around the Sun, but while he was alive, he was able to prove the current Ptolemaic system was lacking symmetry and clumsy. Today, a lot of people, especially astronomers and scientists look up to the Copernicus model. The model allow the positions of the planets to be calculated well. This breakdown in modern astronomy has led to several other breakthroughs in the field of modern science.Modern astronomy would not be complete without making mention of Copernicus. This great man changed how we study the planets and the entire solar system, and to this day, his works are still highly appreciated. For a proper understanding of these concepts, you can always get his book, “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres.”	<urn:uuid:a817815e-6f0f-460b-b356-3c2d3405f234>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://lab-robotics.org/space/founder-of-modern-astronomy/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00075.warc.gz	en	0.982915	653	3.59375	4	[ 0.06353883445262909, 0.26832425594329834, -0.0006746351718902588, -0.2053806632757187, -0.11564032733440399, 0.023737840354442596, 0.07652228325605392, 0.17337153851985931, 0.02751302346587181, 0.15593227744102478, -0.05038958787918091, -0.3954199552536011, -0.09628741443157196, 0.14394998...	5	Before we go deep into details needed in this article, we have to define the whole concept of astronomy and how important it is for us. Keep reading to learn about who was the founder of modern astronomy and much more! What is Astronomy? Astronomy is described as the study of celestial objects and beings. This includes the stars, galaxies, and the several phenomena that come outside this Earth’s atmosphere. The study of astronomy is described as one of the earliest sciences, which started way back in the early ages. In the early days, the term modern astronomy began to evolve and today, it has become a very popular practice in the field of astronomy. In the field of modern astronomy, there was a combination of space exploration, since the earliest astronomers could only work with their eyes and the use of the telescope. Modern astronomy brought about many discoveries in the study of the planets and the entire structure of the solar system. Through this modern astronomy, several moons were discovered and several breakthroughs in the field of astronomy were also created. Who Created Astronomy? When discussing who was the founder of modern astronomy, we must not fail to make of the great Nicolaus Copernicus. His name is highly noted in this field, as he is the pioneer of what we now study and practice in the field of modern astronomy. Copernicus (1473 – 1543) was a great polymath who, in the renaissance era, created a model that strongly stood by the ideology that the Earth revolves around the Sun and not the other way round. Throughout his lifetime, he was greatly criticized by his ideology. It turns out, he was right! As the Earth orbits the Sun, the Moon orbits the Earth Before his death, he published a book titled “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres.” This publication, however, was recorded as one of the major events in the history of science and astronomy in general. After his death, came the Copernican Revolution, which led to the bringing up of the Scientific Revolution. The founder of modern astronomy aimed to develop a new and improved theory, which could be used to figure out the planetary positions. He presented a heliocentric theory that did not assume that the Earth was the center of the universe. His theory, however, was greatly ridiculed and not widely accepted until many years after his death. During his lifetime, he was not able to prove that the Earth revolves around the Sun, but while he was alive, he was able to prove the current Ptolemaic system was lacking symmetry and clumsy. Today, a lot of people, especially astronomers and scientists look up to the Copernicus model. The model allow the positions of the planets to be calculated well. This breakdown in modern astronomy has led to several other breakthroughs in the field of modern science.Modern astronomy would not be complete without making mention of Copernicus. This great man changed how we study the planets and the entire solar system, and to this day, his works are still highly appreciated. For a proper understanding of these concepts, you can always get his book, “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres.”	642	ENGLISH	1
Editor's Note: This is part 12 of the history of the Cherokees. And so began the "Nuna-daut-sun't" (The trail where we cried). Cherokees young and old were herded like cattle into makeshift stockades at appropriately named places like "Rattlesnake Springs" near Chattanooga, which in reality were little more that large hog pens. Little or no thought was given to shelter or sanitation, measles, whooping cough, dysentery and snakebites, and they took a terrible toll throughout the summer of 1838. Chief John Ross petitioned the president, asking that the Cherokee be allowed to manage their own removal. In his petition he wrote, "We have been made to drink the bitter cup of humiliation, we are treated like dogs, our lives and our liberties are the sport of white men. Our country and the graves of our fathers were torn from us in cruel succession, until we find ourselves fugitives, vagrants, and strangers in our own country." President Martin Van Buren refused to read Ross's petition. The order of removal came in October 1838, and several large bands were forced to remove in the face of an approaching winter, which would be recorded as one of the coldest on record. The Cherokees were marched west without adequate food, clothing, or supplies of medicines. The soldiers assigned to their removal were under orders to "move the Indians quickly" and did little or nothing to protect them from whites, who attacked and robbed them at every opportunity. Conditions was such that thousands died as they were forced west by uncaring Americans. An estimated 8,000 Cherokee men, women, and children died on this American Death March, thousands were left unburied where they fell, on roadsides, on creeks and riverbanks. History would record this American Death March as "The Trail of Tears." During this time of sorrow, several hundred Cherokees escaped and hid in the mountains of Tennessee, north Alabama, and many made their way back to the mountains of Georgia and North Carolina. After two years of searching, the Army gave up and the "Fugitive Cherokees" were allowed to remain. In 1839, outraged white citizens demanded that Congress investigate the barbaric treatment of Indians, the investigation was not confined to the Cherokee, but included the ill treatment ofCreek, Chickasaw, and Seminoles as well. Speaking before Congress, Josephine Meeker, a white woman, said, "This whole business is a monotonous piece of treachery and bloodstained villainy, in which innocent persons suffer, while scoundrels who cheat and swindle the poor Indians, keep out of danger and fill their pockets with money." Howbeit little corrective action was taken until 1848 as formal recognition was granted the "Fugitive Cherokees" by President James Knox Polk. Next week: Epilogue of the Cherokee story. E. Delano (Ed) Christian of Tupelo is Town Chief of the New Echota Band, Red Nation of Cherokees. E-mail him at firstname.lastname@example.org	<urn:uuid:3fa9f66e-403a-475c-95a0-7fdf636bfd12>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.djournal.com/lifestyle/humiliating-trail-of-tears-begins-for-cherokees/article_ff9af939-77c3-5eac-aefd-fec5a8be0ff1.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00029.warc.gz	en	0.980542	645	3.953125	4	[ -0.4695163071155548, 0.2332966923713684, 0.4628339409828186, 0.20876504480838776, -0.026438768953084946, 0.021380838006734848, 0.47724607586860657, -0.33305734395980835, -0.03775729984045029, 0.1080377846956253, 0.4051000475883484, 0.2485743910074234, 0.17933624982833862, 0.216829597949981...	1	Editor's Note: This is part 12 of the history of the Cherokees. And so began the "Nuna-daut-sun't" (The trail where we cried). Cherokees young and old were herded like cattle into makeshift stockades at appropriately named places like "Rattlesnake Springs" near Chattanooga, which in reality were little more that large hog pens. Little or no thought was given to shelter or sanitation, measles, whooping cough, dysentery and snakebites, and they took a terrible toll throughout the summer of 1838. Chief John Ross petitioned the president, asking that the Cherokee be allowed to manage their own removal. In his petition he wrote, "We have been made to drink the bitter cup of humiliation, we are treated like dogs, our lives and our liberties are the sport of white men. Our country and the graves of our fathers were torn from us in cruel succession, until we find ourselves fugitives, vagrants, and strangers in our own country." President Martin Van Buren refused to read Ross's petition. The order of removal came in October 1838, and several large bands were forced to remove in the face of an approaching winter, which would be recorded as one of the coldest on record. The Cherokees were marched west without adequate food, clothing, or supplies of medicines. The soldiers assigned to their removal were under orders to "move the Indians quickly" and did little or nothing to protect them from whites, who attacked and robbed them at every opportunity. Conditions was such that thousands died as they were forced west by uncaring Americans. An estimated 8,000 Cherokee men, women, and children died on this American Death March, thousands were left unburied where they fell, on roadsides, on creeks and riverbanks. History would record this American Death March as "The Trail of Tears." During this time of sorrow, several hundred Cherokees escaped and hid in the mountains of Tennessee, north Alabama, and many made their way back to the mountains of Georgia and North Carolina. After two years of searching, the Army gave up and the "Fugitive Cherokees" were allowed to remain. In 1839, outraged white citizens demanded that Congress investigate the barbaric treatment of Indians, the investigation was not confined to the Cherokee, but included the ill treatment ofCreek, Chickasaw, and Seminoles as well. Speaking before Congress, Josephine Meeker, a white woman, said, "This whole business is a monotonous piece of treachery and bloodstained villainy, in which innocent persons suffer, while scoundrels who cheat and swindle the poor Indians, keep out of danger and fill their pockets with money." Howbeit little corrective action was taken until 1848 as formal recognition was granted the "Fugitive Cherokees" by President James Knox Polk. Next week: Epilogue of the Cherokee story. E. Delano (Ed) Christian of Tupelo is Town Chief of the New Echota Band, Red Nation of Cherokees. E-mail him at firstname.lastname@example.org	653	ENGLISH	1
The fall of the Roman Empire split the East and West; the east became the Byzantine Empire. The Empire began in 306 at the time of Constantine I until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453. • The culture of the Byzantine Empire was a continuation of that from the Roman Empire and was complex and refined. It was a large, ethically diverse Christian state, defended by a mobile specialised army. The Empire was circled by enemies but relied less on military strength and more on persuasion. Even when they did fight, which they often did with skill, they were less inclined to destroy their enemies, rather restrain them as they realised that their current enemies could easily be their next allies. Organisation The Empire began to lose much of its territory to the Arabs but what was left was strengthened by reforms- a new administrative unit introduced along with a system of military land grants and hereditary service that ensured an adequate supply of soldiers. The economy of the Byzantine Empire actually became stronger due to its lack of territory as it gave greater freedom to merchants and agricultural labour. The Byzantine Empire was an autocracy: this means the Emperor maintained complete control over all branches of government, finance and administration, the judiciary and armed forces, as well as having an enormous influence over the Orthodox church and the financial life of the empire. The office of Emperor was never violated as no Byzantine ever seriously thought about any other form of government until the Empire's last days. But there was a very big difference between theories about the Basileus (Ruler of eastern Roman Empire) and the actual position of individual emperors. Byzantium continued with the Roman idea of an elective monarchy (elected rather than hereditary monarch). Emperors were subject to the Empire's laws and even the Emperor Justinian I, an arch-autocrat (ruler with unlimited authority), recognised in his legal codes that the people had in fact simply transferred their complete independence to the Emperor - he did not rule in his own right. Though in theory the emperors held the central, absolute power they were unable to stop the feudalization of the empire and the accumulating wealth of a few powerful families. While these civil disputes were going on new enemies were gaining strength- the Seljuq Turks and the Normans. The Emperor Although several families managed to establish ruling dynasties, Byzantium did not fully develop the notion of hereditary rule. Many able and ambitious men (and at least one woman) from very humble beginnings managed to rise to the top over those who had a 'better' claim in terms of their family background. The Byzantine idea that the Emperor was ultimately selected by God also, wrongly, helped successful rebels and people who illegally seized places of another. If you were able to forcefully remove the existing Emperor and rule in his place you obviously had God's approval - otherwise He would never have allowed you to succeed. • The civil service was part of a whole distinct and semi-independent element within the Byzantine political culture, along with the provincial and military aristocracy, the Orthodox Church and, the Emperor himself. Entry into the civil service was only for the elite in society. To join candidates had to be educated to the highest level (which was only available in Constantinople and received patronage from someone already in an influential position. Another factor that contributed to joining the civil service was being castrated as a child. This was because eunuchs could not rule the empire and so were thought to be more trustworthy, though there were members of the civil service who were not eunuchs.	<urn:uuid:4cbf5cc6-7f41-4a56-8f70-e624445832be>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.slideserve.com/jihan/the-organisation-of-the-byzantine-empire	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00464.warc.gz	en	0.986919	710	4.1875	4	[ -0.330713152885437, 0.19800874590873718, 0.49483153223991394, -0.06991507112979889, -0.287742555141449, -0.2747375965118408, -0.29063740372657776, 0.5689071416854858, 0.2756546139717102, -0.11830542981624603, -0.10503822565078735, -0.18240825831890106, 0.06515095382928848, 0.10121979564428...	1	The fall of the Roman Empire split the East and West; the east became the Byzantine Empire. The Empire began in 306 at the time of Constantine I until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453. • The culture of the Byzantine Empire was a continuation of that from the Roman Empire and was complex and refined. It was a large, ethically diverse Christian state, defended by a mobile specialised army. The Empire was circled by enemies but relied less on military strength and more on persuasion. Even when they did fight, which they often did with skill, they were less inclined to destroy their enemies, rather restrain them as they realised that their current enemies could easily be their next allies. Organisation The Empire began to lose much of its territory to the Arabs but what was left was strengthened by reforms- a new administrative unit introduced along with a system of military land grants and hereditary service that ensured an adequate supply of soldiers. The economy of the Byzantine Empire actually became stronger due to its lack of territory as it gave greater freedom to merchants and agricultural labour. The Byzantine Empire was an autocracy: this means the Emperor maintained complete control over all branches of government, finance and administration, the judiciary and armed forces, as well as having an enormous influence over the Orthodox church and the financial life of the empire. The office of Emperor was never violated as no Byzantine ever seriously thought about any other form of government until the Empire's last days. But there was a very big difference between theories about the Basileus (Ruler of eastern Roman Empire) and the actual position of individual emperors. Byzantium continued with the Roman idea of an elective monarchy (elected rather than hereditary monarch). Emperors were subject to the Empire's laws and even the Emperor Justinian I, an arch-autocrat (ruler with unlimited authority), recognised in his legal codes that the people had in fact simply transferred their complete independence to the Emperor - he did not rule in his own right. Though in theory the emperors held the central, absolute power they were unable to stop the feudalization of the empire and the accumulating wealth of a few powerful families. While these civil disputes were going on new enemies were gaining strength- the Seljuq Turks and the Normans. The Emperor Although several families managed to establish ruling dynasties, Byzantium did not fully develop the notion of hereditary rule. Many able and ambitious men (and at least one woman) from very humble beginnings managed to rise to the top over those who had a 'better' claim in terms of their family background. The Byzantine idea that the Emperor was ultimately selected by God also, wrongly, helped successful rebels and people who illegally seized places of another. If you were able to forcefully remove the existing Emperor and rule in his place you obviously had God's approval - otherwise He would never have allowed you to succeed. • The civil service was part of a whole distinct and semi-independent element within the Byzantine political culture, along with the provincial and military aristocracy, the Orthodox Church and, the Emperor himself. Entry into the civil service was only for the elite in society. To join candidates had to be educated to the highest level (which was only available in Constantinople and received patronage from someone already in an influential position. Another factor that contributed to joining the civil service was being castrated as a child. This was because eunuchs could not rule the empire and so were thought to be more trustworthy, though there were members of the civil service who were not eunuchs.	730	ENGLISH	1
Share Shares Movies like 12 Years a Slave give us a good idea of what the desperate escape to freedom must have been like for many African-American slaves. Harriet Tubman danielled T Her life and legacy will be shared even more widely once the new U. Harriet Tubman will be the first woman and first African American on U. A courageous leader The middle child of nine enslaved siblings, Harriet Tubman was raised by parents who struggled against great odds to keep their family together. She overcame a severe disability, maturing into an expert hunter, lumberjack, and fieldworker. Tubman successfully escaped to Philadelphia in Once free, she became an operator of the Underground Railroad — a secret network of people, places and routes that provided shelter and assistance to escaping slaves. She courageously returned to Maryland at least 13 times over the Harriet young slave girl of a decade to rescue her parents, brothers, family members, and friends, guiding them safely to freedom. Facts About Harriet Tubman She never learned to read or write, but was smart, calculating, and bold—and was never caught during her 13 dangerous missions to lead her friends and family out of slavery. During the Civil War, she became the first woman to lead an armed military raid in June She was also a Union scout, spy, and nurse. Tubman nearly died as a young girl after a traumatic head injury. The rest of her life she suffered from seizures, pain, and other health complications. When she began experiencing visions and vivid dreams, she interpreted them as revelations from God. A dedicated humanitarian Deeply admired by abolitionists in the North, Tubman became a trusted friend and advisor to many, which earned her a role in the Union Army as a scout, spy, nurse and confidante of generals. After the Civil War, she moved to Auburn, NY, where she turned her attention to the plight of the needy, opening her home as a sanctuary for the elderly and ill and those with disabilities. Even before the Civil War, she was fighting for the rights of women, minorities, disabled, and the aged. She became more active with time. She went on to open a nursing home for African Americans on her property in New York. By then, Tubman had become the subject of numerous articles, recollections and an autobiography. One needs only to visit the Byway that bears her name to grasp the significance of her humble beginnings and scale of her achievements. She suffered a traumatic head injury as a young girl, probably in the s. With each trip she risked her life. When the Civil War began, Tubman worked for the Union Army, first as a cook and nurse, and then as an armed scout and spy. Inshe became the first woman to lead an armed expedition in the war, liberating more than slaves. After the Civil War, she moved to property she had purchased in in Auburn, New York, where she cared for her aging parents. She was involved in the suffrage movement, fighting not only for the rights of women, but also for minorities, the disabled, and the aged. She died on March 10, She is buried in Auburn, New York. On April 20,the U. We include some of the myths here, with permission of the author. Harriet Tubman rescued people in 19 trips. During public and private meetings during andTubman repeatedly told people that she had rescued 50 to 60 people in 8 or 9 trips. This was before her very last mission, in Decemberwhen she brought away 7 people. Sarah Bradford exaggerated the numbers in her biography. Bradford never said that Tubman gave her those numbers, but rather, Bradford estimated that was the number. Other friends who were close to Tubman specifically contradicted those numbers. We can name practically every person Tubman helped. In addition to the family and friends, Tubman also gave instruction to another 70 or so freedom seekers from the Eastern Shore who found their way to freedom on their own. Slaveholders on the Eastern Shore of Maryland had no idea it was Harriet Tubman or, Minty Ross, as they knew her who was helping and inspiring people to run away. Harriet Tubman rescued people from all over the South. Tubman returned only to Maryland to bring away loved ones — family and friends she could not live without and whom she could trust. It was too dangerous for her to go places where she did not know people or the landscape. Jackson would be referred to as an agent. Harriet Tubman helped build Stewart's Canal.Sep 01, · Born in , Harriet Jacobs was frequently the victim of brutal sexual assaults from her master, James Norcom. Even when Jacobs took a lover and had two children with him, Norcom’s sexual advances continued. Harriet Tubman (born Araminta Ross, c. – March 10, ) was an American abolitionist and political activist. Born into slavery, Tubman escaped and subsequently made some thirteen missions to rescue approximately seventy enslaved people, family and friends, using the network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad. Page ii. of Auburn, with the exception of two liberal subscriptions by Gerrit Smith, Esq., and Mr. Wendell Phillips. Mr. Wise has also consented, at Mrs. Bradford's request, to act as trustee for Harriet; and will receive, invest, and apply, for her benefit, whatever may accrue from the sale of this book. After nearly seven years hiding in a tiny garret above her grandmother’s home, Harriet Ann Jacobs took a step other slaves dared to dream in ; she secretly boarded a boat in Edenton, N.C., bound for Philadelphia, New York and, eventually, freedom. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. Written by Herself, by Harriet Ann Jacobs, I once saw a young slave girl dying soon after the birth of a child nearly white. In her agony she cried out, "O Lord, come and take me!" Her mistress stood by, and mocked at her like an incarnate fiend.	<urn:uuid:3d909652-5db5-43ba-a4e9-138376535698>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://qyfewylakuqav.monstermanfilm.com/harriet-young-slave-girl-30428al.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00417.warc.gz	en	0.982185	1,245	3.421875	3	[ -0.33342570066452026, 0.21622781455516815, 0.41635894775390625, 0.1323990523815155, -0.07372471690177917, 0.17008374631404877, 0.09399329870939255, -0.19219428300857544, -0.17574112117290497, 0.17679259181022644, 0.47508683800697327, 0.20466554164886475, -0.11607512831687927, 0.09203945845...	1	Share Shares Movies like 12 Years a Slave give us a good idea of what the desperate escape to freedom must have been like for many African-American slaves. Harriet Tubman danielled T Her life and legacy will be shared even more widely once the new U. Harriet Tubman will be the first woman and first African American on U. A courageous leader The middle child of nine enslaved siblings, Harriet Tubman was raised by parents who struggled against great odds to keep their family together. She overcame a severe disability, maturing into an expert hunter, lumberjack, and fieldworker. Tubman successfully escaped to Philadelphia in Once free, she became an operator of the Underground Railroad — a secret network of people, places and routes that provided shelter and assistance to escaping slaves. She courageously returned to Maryland at least 13 times over the Harriet young slave girl of a decade to rescue her parents, brothers, family members, and friends, guiding them safely to freedom. Facts About Harriet Tubman She never learned to read or write, but was smart, calculating, and bold—and was never caught during her 13 dangerous missions to lead her friends and family out of slavery. During the Civil War, she became the first woman to lead an armed military raid in June She was also a Union scout, spy, and nurse. Tubman nearly died as a young girl after a traumatic head injury. The rest of her life she suffered from seizures, pain, and other health complications. When she began experiencing visions and vivid dreams, she interpreted them as revelations from God. A dedicated humanitarian Deeply admired by abolitionists in the North, Tubman became a trusted friend and advisor to many, which earned her a role in the Union Army as a scout, spy, nurse and confidante of generals. After the Civil War, she moved to Auburn, NY, where she turned her attention to the plight of the needy, opening her home as a sanctuary for the elderly and ill and those with disabilities. Even before the Civil War, she was fighting for the rights of women, minorities, disabled, and the aged. She became more active with time. She went on to open a nursing home for African Americans on her property in New York. By then, Tubman had become the subject of numerous articles, recollections and an autobiography. One needs only to visit the Byway that bears her name to grasp the significance of her humble beginnings and scale of her achievements. She suffered a traumatic head injury as a young girl, probably in the s. With each trip she risked her life. When the Civil War began, Tubman worked for the Union Army, first as a cook and nurse, and then as an armed scout and spy. Inshe became the first woman to lead an armed expedition in the war, liberating more than slaves. After the Civil War, she moved to property she had purchased in in Auburn, New York, where she cared for her aging parents. She was involved in the suffrage movement, fighting not only for the rights of women, but also for minorities, the disabled, and the aged. She died on March 10, She is buried in Auburn, New York. On April 20,the U. We include some of the myths here, with permission of the author. Harriet Tubman rescued people in 19 trips. During public and private meetings during andTubman repeatedly told people that she had rescued 50 to 60 people in 8 or 9 trips. This was before her very last mission, in Decemberwhen she brought away 7 people. Sarah Bradford exaggerated the numbers in her biography. Bradford never said that Tubman gave her those numbers, but rather, Bradford estimated that was the number. Other friends who were close to Tubman specifically contradicted those numbers. We can name practically every person Tubman helped. In addition to the family and friends, Tubman also gave instruction to another 70 or so freedom seekers from the Eastern Shore who found their way to freedom on their own. Slaveholders on the Eastern Shore of Maryland had no idea it was Harriet Tubman or, Minty Ross, as they knew her who was helping and inspiring people to run away. Harriet Tubman rescued people from all over the South. Tubman returned only to Maryland to bring away loved ones — family and friends she could not live without and whom she could trust. It was too dangerous for her to go places where she did not know people or the landscape. Jackson would be referred to as an agent. Harriet Tubman helped build Stewart's Canal.Sep 01, · Born in , Harriet Jacobs was frequently the victim of brutal sexual assaults from her master, James Norcom. Even when Jacobs took a lover and had two children with him, Norcom’s sexual advances continued. Harriet Tubman (born Araminta Ross, c. – March 10, ) was an American abolitionist and political activist. Born into slavery, Tubman escaped and subsequently made some thirteen missions to rescue approximately seventy enslaved people, family and friends, using the network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad. Page ii. of Auburn, with the exception of two liberal subscriptions by Gerrit Smith, Esq., and Mr. Wendell Phillips. Mr. Wise has also consented, at Mrs. Bradford's request, to act as trustee for Harriet; and will receive, invest, and apply, for her benefit, whatever may accrue from the sale of this book. After nearly seven years hiding in a tiny garret above her grandmother’s home, Harriet Ann Jacobs took a step other slaves dared to dream in ; she secretly boarded a boat in Edenton, N.C., bound for Philadelphia, New York and, eventually, freedom. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. Written by Herself, by Harriet Ann Jacobs, I once saw a young slave girl dying soon after the birth of a child nearly white. In her agony she cried out, "O Lord, come and take me!" Her mistress stood by, and mocked at her like an incarnate fiend.	1,258	ENGLISH	1
\|16th Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses\| June 1676 –June 1676 \|Preceded by\|\|Augustine Warner Jr.\| \|Succeeded by\|\|Augustine Warner Jr.\| \|Children\|\|Thomas, Edmund, Elizabeth\| \|Residence\|\|Nansemond County, Virginia\| Thomas Godwin (died 1677/8) was a Virginia politician and landowner. He served in the House of Burgesses 1654–55 and 1659, and was its Speaker in the June 1676 session that preceded Bacon's Rebellion. The Colony of Virginia, chartered in 1606 and settled in 1607, was the first enduring English colony in North America, following failed proprietary attempts at settlement on Newfoundland by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1583, and the subsequent further south Roanoke Island by Sir Walter Raleigh in the late 1580s. The Virginia House of Burgesses was formed in 1642/43 by the General Assembly. By its creation, the General Assembly then became bicameral. Bacon's Rebellion was an armed rebellion in 1676 by Virginia settlers led by Nathaniel Bacon against the rule of Governor William Berkeley. The colony's dismissive policy as it related to the political challenges of its western frontier, along with other challenges including leaving Bacon out of his inner circle, refusing to allow Bacon to be a part of his fur trade with Native Americans, and attacks by the Doeg people, helped to motivate a popular uprising against Berkeley, who had failed to address the demands of the colonists regarding their safety. Godwin's birth and early years are undocumented. He partnered with Richard Axom to patent land in York County, Virginia in 1650. By April 1654 he was a member of the Nansemond County Court, and he represented the county in the House of Burgesses that year and next. He was also elected to the session of 1659. York County is a county in the eastern part of the Commonwealth of Virginia, located in the Tidewater. As of the 2010 census, the population was 65,464. The county seat is the unincorporated town of Yorktown. Nansemond is an extinct locality that was located in Virginia Colony and the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States, from 1646 until 1974. It was Nansemond County until 1972, and the independent city of Nansemond from 1972 to 1974. It is now part of the independent city of Suffolk. Among his other land purchases, he patented a tract in Chuckatuck parish in 1668. This farm was expressly included in Nansemond County when the Assembly drew its boundary with Isle of Wight County in 1674. Chuckatuck is a neighborhood of the independent city of Suffolk, Virginia, United States. It is located at the junction of State Route 10/State Route 32 and State Route 125, just south of SR 10/32's crossing of Chuckatuck Creek. Its elevation is 36 feet above mean sea level. The neighborhood is relatively small and consists of such businesses as a garden store, general store, automobile repair shop, three churches, two gas stations, a restaurant, a hardware store, and others. It has a fire department, Suffolk station nine, which is operated as the Chuckatuck Volunteer Fire Department. The community is also located near Lone Star Lakes, a recreational park. Isle of Wight County is a county located in the Hampton Roads region of the U.S. state of Virginia. It was named after the Isle of Wight, in the English Channel, from where many of its early colonists had come. As of the 2010 census, the population was 35,270. Its county seat is Isle of Wight. In March 1676 he was identified as colonel of the Nansemond militia when he was authorized to raise a force to fight Indians. Godwin was not a member of the General Assembly of 1661–76. When it was dissolved and a new Assembly met in June 1676, he was elected Speaker of the House. This Assembly, which met just before the outbreak of Bacon's Rebellion, had all its acts annulled by the Assembly that met the following year, although a number of them were reenacted by that same session. The Virginia General Assembly is the legislative body of the Commonwealth of Virginia, and the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World, established on July 30, 1619. The General Assembly is a bicameral body consisting of a lower house, the Virginia House of Delegates, with 100 members, and an upper house, the Senate of Virginia, with 40 members. Combined together, the General Assembly consists of 140 elected representatives from an equal number of constituent districts across the commonwealth. The House of Delegates is presided over by the Speaker of the House, while the Senate is presided over by the Lieutenant Governor of Virginia. The House and Senate each elect a clerk and sergeant-at-arms. The Senate of Virginia's clerk is known as the "Clerk of the Senate". Godwin's will was dated March 24, 1677 (old style). He named three children as heirs. Old Style (O.S.) and New Style (N.S.) are terms sometimes used with dates to indicate that the calendar convention used at the time described is different from that in use at the time the document was being written. There were two calendar changes in Great Britain and its colonies, which may sometimes complicate matters: the first was to change the start of the year from Lady Day to 1 January; the second was to discard the Julian calendar in favour of the Gregorian calendar. Closely related is the custom of dual dating, where writers gave two consecutive years to reflect differences in the starting date of the year, or to include both the Julian and Gregorian dates. Patrick Henry was an American attorney, planter, and orator best known for his declaration to the Second Virginia Convention (1775): "Give me liberty, or give me death!" A Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia, from 1776 to 1779 and from 1784 to 1786. William Randolph I was an American colonist, landowner, planter, merchant, and politician who played an important role in the history and government of the English colony of Virginia. He moved to Virginia sometime between 1669 and 1673, and married Mary Isham a few years later. His descendants include many prominent individuals including Thomas Jefferson, John Marshall, Paschal Beverly Randolph, Robert E. Lee, Peyton Randolph, Edmund Randolph, John Randolph of Roanoke, George W. Randolph, and Edmund Ruffin. Genealogists have taken an interest in him for his progeny's many marital alliances, referring to him and Mary Isham as "the Adam and Eve of Virginia". Lieutenant-General Josias Fendall, Esq., was the 4th Proprietary Governor of Maryland. He was born in England, and came to the Province of Maryland. He was the progenitor of the Fendall family in America. Colonel Thomas Ballard was a prominent colonial Virginia landowner and politician who played a role in Bacon's Rebellion. He served on the Governor's Council 1670–79 and was Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses 1680–82. Thomas Stegg was a Virginia merchant and politician. He was the first Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses in the 1643 session, when the Burgesses first met as a separate lower house of the Virginia General Assembly. Colonel Edward Hill was a Virginia farmer, soldier and politician. He was Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses three different times. He declared himself acting governor of Maryland while leading an expedition to put down Richard Ingle's 1646 rebellion, ceding to the proper governor, Leonard Calvert, on his return. He also established the current farm at Shirley Plantation in 1638. Lieutenant Colonel Edward Major was a Virginia soldier, landowner and politician. Thomas Dew was a Virginia landowner and politician. He settled in the vicinity of the Nansemond River by 1634, and represented Upper Norfolk County in the General Assembly of 1642. He was elected to the House of Burgesses several times between 1652 and 1656, succeeding his neighbor Edward Major as Speaker in the November 1652 session. Lieutenant Colonel Walter Chiles was a Virginia politician and merchant. He moved to Virginia around 1638, and served as a burgess off and on from 1642 to 1653, representing Charles City County and later James City County. He also served on the Governor's council in 1651, but was removed the following year because of his involvement in illegal trading with the Netherlands. He was elected Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses at the July 1653 session, but the governor forced his resignation the following day. William Whitby was a Virginia politician and landowner. He served as a burgess 1642–44, in the early stages of the English Civil War, and again from 1652–55, after Virginia surrendered to Parliamentary control. During the 1640s he was a justice of the Warwick County court. He served as Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses in the 1653 session, following the one-day speakership of Walter Chiles. Francis Moryson was an English soldier and Virginia colonial official. He was a Royalist in the English Civil War. Robert Wynne (1622–1675) was a Virginia politician and landowner. He served in the House of Burgesses 1658 and 1660–74, and was its Speaker 1662–74, the second longest tenure of any Speaker. Col. Augustine Warner Jr. was a Virginia politician, planter, and landowner. He served in the House of Burgesses 1666–77 and was its Speaker in two separate sessions in 1676 and 1677, before and after Bacon's Rebellion. He then served on the Governor's Council from about October 1677 until his death. Francis Dade, also known as John Smith, was a Virginia politician and landowner. He was an English Royalist who emigrated to Virginia some time after the death of Charles I, possibly after involvement in some plot against Oliver Cromwell. He was notoriously attached to the Stuarts. In Virginia he adopted the name "John Smith". He served as Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1658. He died at sea in 1662. John George (1603–1679) was an early Virginia colonist, landowner, soldier, county court justice and legislative representative (politician). He served at least two terms as a burgess in the Virginia House of Burgesses in the 1640s and 1650s representing Isle of Wight County, Virginia. George Fawdon, also spelled in various sources as George Fawden, George Fawder, George Fadoin, George Faudon, George Fawdoune, George Faudown, George Fawdowne, and George Fowden, was an early Virginia colonist, landowner, militia officer, county court clerk, county clerk justice and legislative representative (politician). He served at least two terms as a burgess in the Virginia House of Burgesses in the 1640s and 1650s representing Isle of Wight County, Virginia. William Hatcher was an English immigrant to America and a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses. \|This article about a Virginia politician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	<urn:uuid:26a9257f-47ba-4f19-969e-f069aafbd11a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikimili.com/en/Thomas_Godwin_(politician)	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00132.warc.gz	en	0.980387	2,378	3.28125	3	[ 0.007659429684281349, 0.041896045207977295, 0.2004041224718094, -0.3295527398586273, 0.16184917092323303, -0.15853917598724365, -0.2920103967189789, -0.19930091500282288, -0.1954588145017624, 0.2584012746810913, -0.18403802812099457, -0.3480331599712372, 0.06513934582471848, 0.072059020400...	1	\|16th Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses\| June 1676 –June 1676 \|Preceded by\|\|Augustine Warner Jr.\| \|Succeeded by\|\|Augustine Warner Jr.\| \|Children\|\|Thomas, Edmund, Elizabeth\| \|Residence\|\|Nansemond County, Virginia\| Thomas Godwin (died 1677/8) was a Virginia politician and landowner. He served in the House of Burgesses 1654–55 and 1659, and was its Speaker in the June 1676 session that preceded Bacon's Rebellion. The Colony of Virginia, chartered in 1606 and settled in 1607, was the first enduring English colony in North America, following failed proprietary attempts at settlement on Newfoundland by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1583, and the subsequent further south Roanoke Island by Sir Walter Raleigh in the late 1580s. The Virginia House of Burgesses was formed in 1642/43 by the General Assembly. By its creation, the General Assembly then became bicameral. Bacon's Rebellion was an armed rebellion in 1676 by Virginia settlers led by Nathaniel Bacon against the rule of Governor William Berkeley. The colony's dismissive policy as it related to the political challenges of its western frontier, along with other challenges including leaving Bacon out of his inner circle, refusing to allow Bacon to be a part of his fur trade with Native Americans, and attacks by the Doeg people, helped to motivate a popular uprising against Berkeley, who had failed to address the demands of the colonists regarding their safety. Godwin's birth and early years are undocumented. He partnered with Richard Axom to patent land in York County, Virginia in 1650. By April 1654 he was a member of the Nansemond County Court, and he represented the county in the House of Burgesses that year and next. He was also elected to the session of 1659. York County is a county in the eastern part of the Commonwealth of Virginia, located in the Tidewater. As of the 2010 census, the population was 65,464. The county seat is the unincorporated town of Yorktown. Nansemond is an extinct locality that was located in Virginia Colony and the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States, from 1646 until 1974. It was Nansemond County until 1972, and the independent city of Nansemond from 1972 to 1974. It is now part of the independent city of Suffolk. Among his other land purchases, he patented a tract in Chuckatuck parish in 1668. This farm was expressly included in Nansemond County when the Assembly drew its boundary with Isle of Wight County in 1674. Chuckatuck is a neighborhood of the independent city of Suffolk, Virginia, United States. It is located at the junction of State Route 10/State Route 32 and State Route 125, just south of SR 10/32's crossing of Chuckatuck Creek. Its elevation is 36 feet above mean sea level. The neighborhood is relatively small and consists of such businesses as a garden store, general store, automobile repair shop, three churches, two gas stations, a restaurant, a hardware store, and others. It has a fire department, Suffolk station nine, which is operated as the Chuckatuck Volunteer Fire Department. The community is also located near Lone Star Lakes, a recreational park. Isle of Wight County is a county located in the Hampton Roads region of the U.S. state of Virginia. It was named after the Isle of Wight, in the English Channel, from where many of its early colonists had come. As of the 2010 census, the population was 35,270. Its county seat is Isle of Wight. In March 1676 he was identified as colonel of the Nansemond militia when he was authorized to raise a force to fight Indians. Godwin was not a member of the General Assembly of 1661–76. When it was dissolved and a new Assembly met in June 1676, he was elected Speaker of the House. This Assembly, which met just before the outbreak of Bacon's Rebellion, had all its acts annulled by the Assembly that met the following year, although a number of them were reenacted by that same session. The Virginia General Assembly is the legislative body of the Commonwealth of Virginia, and the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World, established on July 30, 1619. The General Assembly is a bicameral body consisting of a lower house, the Virginia House of Delegates, with 100 members, and an upper house, the Senate of Virginia, with 40 members. Combined together, the General Assembly consists of 140 elected representatives from an equal number of constituent districts across the commonwealth. The House of Delegates is presided over by the Speaker of the House, while the Senate is presided over by the Lieutenant Governor of Virginia. The House and Senate each elect a clerk and sergeant-at-arms. The Senate of Virginia's clerk is known as the "Clerk of the Senate". Godwin's will was dated March 24, 1677 (old style). He named three children as heirs. Old Style (O.S.) and New Style (N.S.) are terms sometimes used with dates to indicate that the calendar convention used at the time described is different from that in use at the time the document was being written. There were two calendar changes in Great Britain and its colonies, which may sometimes complicate matters: the first was to change the start of the year from Lady Day to 1 January; the second was to discard the Julian calendar in favour of the Gregorian calendar. Closely related is the custom of dual dating, where writers gave two consecutive years to reflect differences in the starting date of the year, or to include both the Julian and Gregorian dates. Patrick Henry was an American attorney, planter, and orator best known for his declaration to the Second Virginia Convention (1775): "Give me liberty, or give me death!" A Founding Father, he served as the first and sixth post-colonial Governor of Virginia, from 1776 to 1779 and from 1784 to 1786. William Randolph I was an American colonist, landowner, planter, merchant, and politician who played an important role in the history and government of the English colony of Virginia. He moved to Virginia sometime between 1669 and 1673, and married Mary Isham a few years later. His descendants include many prominent individuals including Thomas Jefferson, John Marshall, Paschal Beverly Randolph, Robert E. Lee, Peyton Randolph, Edmund Randolph, John Randolph of Roanoke, George W. Randolph, and Edmund Ruffin. Genealogists have taken an interest in him for his progeny's many marital alliances, referring to him and Mary Isham as "the Adam and Eve of Virginia". Lieutenant-General Josias Fendall, Esq., was the 4th Proprietary Governor of Maryland. He was born in England, and came to the Province of Maryland. He was the progenitor of the Fendall family in America. Colonel Thomas Ballard was a prominent colonial Virginia landowner and politician who played a role in Bacon's Rebellion. He served on the Governor's Council 1670–79 and was Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses 1680–82. Thomas Stegg was a Virginia merchant and politician. He was the first Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses in the 1643 session, when the Burgesses first met as a separate lower house of the Virginia General Assembly. Colonel Edward Hill was a Virginia farmer, soldier and politician. He was Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses three different times. He declared himself acting governor of Maryland while leading an expedition to put down Richard Ingle's 1646 rebellion, ceding to the proper governor, Leonard Calvert, on his return. He also established the current farm at Shirley Plantation in 1638. Lieutenant Colonel Edward Major was a Virginia soldier, landowner and politician. Thomas Dew was a Virginia landowner and politician. He settled in the vicinity of the Nansemond River by 1634, and represented Upper Norfolk County in the General Assembly of 1642. He was elected to the House of Burgesses several times between 1652 and 1656, succeeding his neighbor Edward Major as Speaker in the November 1652 session. Lieutenant Colonel Walter Chiles was a Virginia politician and merchant. He moved to Virginia around 1638, and served as a burgess off and on from 1642 to 1653, representing Charles City County and later James City County. He also served on the Governor's council in 1651, but was removed the following year because of his involvement in illegal trading with the Netherlands. He was elected Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses at the July 1653 session, but the governor forced his resignation the following day. William Whitby was a Virginia politician and landowner. He served as a burgess 1642–44, in the early stages of the English Civil War, and again from 1652–55, after Virginia surrendered to Parliamentary control. During the 1640s he was a justice of the Warwick County court. He served as Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses in the 1653 session, following the one-day speakership of Walter Chiles. Francis Moryson was an English soldier and Virginia colonial official. He was a Royalist in the English Civil War. Robert Wynne (1622–1675) was a Virginia politician and landowner. He served in the House of Burgesses 1658 and 1660–74, and was its Speaker 1662–74, the second longest tenure of any Speaker. Col. Augustine Warner Jr. was a Virginia politician, planter, and landowner. He served in the House of Burgesses 1666–77 and was its Speaker in two separate sessions in 1676 and 1677, before and after Bacon's Rebellion. He then served on the Governor's Council from about October 1677 until his death. Francis Dade, also known as John Smith, was a Virginia politician and landowner. He was an English Royalist who emigrated to Virginia some time after the death of Charles I, possibly after involvement in some plot against Oliver Cromwell. He was notoriously attached to the Stuarts. In Virginia he adopted the name "John Smith". He served as Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1658. He died at sea in 1662. John George (1603–1679) was an early Virginia colonist, landowner, soldier, county court justice and legislative representative (politician). He served at least two terms as a burgess in the Virginia House of Burgesses in the 1640s and 1650s representing Isle of Wight County, Virginia. George Fawdon, also spelled in various sources as George Fawden, George Fawder, George Fadoin, George Faudon, George Fawdoune, George Faudown, George Fawdowne, and George Fowden, was an early Virginia colonist, landowner, militia officer, county court clerk, county clerk justice and legislative representative (politician). He served at least two terms as a burgess in the Virginia House of Burgesses in the 1640s and 1650s representing Isle of Wight County, Virginia. William Hatcher was an English immigrant to America and a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses. \|This article about a Virginia politician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	2,609	ENGLISH	1
John F. Kennedy Essay Though John F. Kennedy was only president for a short time, he inspired American patriotism and united a nation behind a common goal for peace. Kennedy was an influential man and a great leader. His faith was tested by the obstacles he had to overcome, but President Kennedy always lead his country with dignity and pride. John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts. Known as “Jack”, he was the second child born to Joseph and Rose Kennedy. Jack was named after his grandfather, John Francis Fitzgerald. He had an older brother named Joe Jr. When Jack was one year old, his sister Rosemary was born. She …show more content… Jack enrolled at Princeton after high school, but had to drop out soon after because of sickness. The next fall he enrolled at Harvard. He was accepted to snobbish social clubs. Jack ruptured his spinal disk in his back while playing football. He had to quit, but he concentrated on swimming instead. In 1938, Joseph Kennedy was appointed ambassador to Great Britain. The next year, World War II began. Jack wrote his senior thesis, Why England Slept, on why England avoided war. After he graduated in 1940, it was published and received many awards. The same year his father resigned as ambassador to Great Britain (Harrison 1-21). After college Jack and Joe Jr., joined the navy. Joe flew planes in Europe while Jack was made Lieutenant and assigned to the South Pacific. He was a commander of a patrol boat, the PT-109. August 2, 1943 a Japanese warship hit the boat and killed two men. Jack saved one man by swimming with his life jacket between his teeth and the man on his back until they safely Hamner 3 reached shore (Weidman 2-3). Jack suffered from aggravated back problems and had contracted a case of malaria. He was hospitalized for a short time. Jack received the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for “extremely heroic conduct as Commanding Officer of Motor Torpedo Boat	<urn:uuid:d0a642ed-45bf-4fa9-8fab-7db209373bf9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cram.com/essay/john-f-kennedy/P3JBANN2SJ	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00319.warc.gz	en	0.993063	421	3.359375	3	[ -0.48627206683158875, 0.3895138204097748, 0.31405144929885864, -0.2661730647087097, 0.10148284584283829, 0.4511071741580963, 0.1691025048494339, 0.2995947003364563, -0.17059990763664246, -0.11829925328493118, -0.0853949785232544, 0.2651742994785309, 0.36224430799484253, 0.46889621019363403...	1	John F. Kennedy Essay Though John F. Kennedy was only president for a short time, he inspired American patriotism and united a nation behind a common goal for peace. Kennedy was an influential man and a great leader. His faith was tested by the obstacles he had to overcome, but President Kennedy always lead his country with dignity and pride. John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts. Known as “Jack”, he was the second child born to Joseph and Rose Kennedy. Jack was named after his grandfather, John Francis Fitzgerald. He had an older brother named Joe Jr. When Jack was one year old, his sister Rosemary was born. She …show more content… Jack enrolled at Princeton after high school, but had to drop out soon after because of sickness. The next fall he enrolled at Harvard. He was accepted to snobbish social clubs. Jack ruptured his spinal disk in his back while playing football. He had to quit, but he concentrated on swimming instead. In 1938, Joseph Kennedy was appointed ambassador to Great Britain. The next year, World War II began. Jack wrote his senior thesis, Why England Slept, on why England avoided war. After he graduated in 1940, it was published and received many awards. The same year his father resigned as ambassador to Great Britain (Harrison 1-21). After college Jack and Joe Jr., joined the navy. Joe flew planes in Europe while Jack was made Lieutenant and assigned to the South Pacific. He was a commander of a patrol boat, the PT-109. August 2, 1943 a Japanese warship hit the boat and killed two men. Jack saved one man by swimming with his life jacket between his teeth and the man on his back until they safely Hamner 3 reached shore (Weidman 2-3). Jack suffered from aggravated back problems and had contracted a case of malaria. He was hospitalized for a short time. Jack received the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for “extremely heroic conduct as Commanding Officer of Motor Torpedo Boat	437	ENGLISH	1
There are those common rights which were respected by Ali himself and he also impressed upon others to respect them. According to him the real duty of the governors of the provinces and other officials was that they should protect these rights and should not allow them to be encroached upon. If Ali appointed anyone as a ruler or removed him from his office, it was for this very reason. According to him these rights carried very wide meanings and were of many kinds. The purport of all of them was, however, that the needs of every person should be met and no one should remain hungry, because remaining hungry is the greatest insult to humanity. There is no harm in violating the laws which cannot eliminate the indigence of the people. Just as in the creed of Ali worship must not estrange man from the society and religion means good behaviour towards the people, and true religious beliefs are those which promote righteousness, in the same manner the laws should be such as meet the needs of the people and ensure elimination of poverty and indigence, so that man may not be humiliated in his own eyes and become dejected. It is not a favour but the duty of a ruler and a law-giver to enact laws which relieve the people of need and indigence, and they are entitled to demand such laws from him. Ali safeguarded the rights of the people so meticulously that it is almost impossible to find any sermon, speech or testament of his in which he may not have mentioned these rights and may not have drawn the attention of the governors and the officials to them. Meeting the needs of the people was undoubtedly the greatest duty of the ruler and the law-giver and the greatest right of the people in the eyes of Ali. It was Ali who considered the greatest sin of Kaiser and Kisra to be this (although the list of their sins is quite long) that they humiliated their subjects, did not look after their rights, deprived them of the bounties of the earth and the comforts of life and tried to make them indigent and despicable. He says: “Think over the agitation and distress of the people when Kaiser and Kisra were their rulers. They had expelled them from fertile lands and the water and verdure of Iraq and transferred them to a place where there was no vegetation and where there was nothing except violent winds, and had made them extremely poor and indigent. Whenever a governor or an official committed breach of trust of public property (whether the amount involved was small or large) Ali threatened him with severe punishment. He was deeply grieved as and when he came to know that a governor or an official had usurped a property or had been guilty of hoarding, and he reprimanded him in very severe terms. He once wrote thus to a governor: “I understand that you have usurped the land belonging to the public treasury and have appropriated what was under your feet and eaten what was in your hands. You should, therefore, send me your account”. The sentence “Send me your account” in the letter of the Commander of the Faithful deserves attention. This sentence carries very vast meanings. He was so keen to enforce justice that he could not tolerate any excuse or slackness in this behalf. Besides possessing a firm faith Ali was a subtle observer and was fully aware of the mysteries of human society, and the mutual relations of the public. He knew which rights had been encroached upon, and which of them were going to be encroached upon. He fully realized that injustice and oppression was harmful for the society internally as well as externally and the oppressors as well as the oppressed were threatened with grave dangers. He considered pleading for justice and administration of justice to be necessary even though it might be disliked by the governors and the officials. He wrote with much annoyance: “Send me your account”. He was informed about another governor having misappropriated public property. He wrote to him immediately as under: “Fear God and return the property of the people to them. If you do not do so and then God grants me control over you I shall acquit myself of my responsibilities in the matter and shall strike you with my sword, and whoever has been the victim of it has always gone direct to Hell. By God, even if Hasan and Husayn had done what you have done I would not have been lenient to them and they would not have been able to make me accede to any wish of theirs till I had taken back the right (of others) from them and had effaced the results arising out of injustice”. The Commander of the Faithful sent a man named Sa`d to Ziad bin Abih to bring some money which was lying with him. The Commander of the Faithful had received information that Ziad was leading a luxurious life and that he was accumulating wealth himself and did not give anything to the widows, the orphans and the indigent. When Sa`d approached Ziad and demanded the money the latter behaved proudly and rebuked him. Sa`d came back and informed Ali about what had happened. Thereupon Ali wrote a letter to Ziad on these lines: “Sa`d has informed me that you have rebuked him without any justification and behaved with him haughtily and proudly, notwithstanding the fact that the Prophet has said that greatness belongs to God only and whoever is proud incurs His wrath. Sa`d has also informed me that you eat food of various kinds and perfume yourself every day. What harm will accrue to you if you also fast for a few days for the sake of God and give away a part of your wealth as charity in the path of God, and eat many times the food which you eat once, or let an indigent person eat it. You, who are rolling in bounties, do not look after your poor neighbours, the weak and needy widows and the orphans. Do you desire, inspite of all this, that you should get the reward of the righteous persons who give alms? Sa`d has also told me that you speak like the righteous but act like the evil-doer? If you really do so you have been cruel to yourself and have wasted your actions. You should repent before God and reform your ways and should be moderate in your acts. You should send forward whatever surplus property you possess for the day on which you will need it, in case you are a true believer. And use perfume on alternate days and that should not be too much. The Prophet has said: “Use perfume on alternate days and do not use it excessively. Peace be on you”. The Commander of the Faithful sent successive orders to the governors and warned them severely against misappropriating public property and taking bribes. He considered such activities to be the worst relationship between the rulers and the ruled and a great barrier between title and the entitled person. He was well aware of the harm which these bad habits were likely to do to the people. Once he received information that a military officer had taken bribe. He held his hand and gave it such a violent jerk that it was about to be dismembered from his body. Then he said to him: “The people earlier than you were annihilated because they deprived the people of their rights and they were, therefore, obliged to acquire their rights by offering bribes. They compelled the people to do invalid things as a result of which falsehood became prevalent”. Once a governor was invited to a feast. The governor accepted the invitation and participated in the party. When the Commander of the Faithful came to know about this he reprimanded the governor severely saying: “Entertaining a governor is bribe. Why was this bribe given? If it was given to establish a right it is the duty of a governor to give the entitled persons their right without taking bribe, or this bribe was given to validate something invalid. If that be the case it is not lawful for a governor to do any such thing even though the entire world may be offered to him as bribe. The second thing is: why did the governor participate in a feast to which the rich were invited but the indigent were ignored and thus discrimination was made between the slaves of Allah? This discrimination pained many persons and also grieved Ali. Of course if the society is prosperous and the people are well-to-do there is no harm in inviting only some persons to a party to the exclusion of others. However, when the conditions are such that there are poor as well as rich persons in the society, does the extension of an invitation to a governor to participate in a feast not amount to giving him bribe? Some persons may think that such severity on the part of Ali with regard to the governors and the officials was not appropriate and they did not deserve to be censured and reprimanded in this manner. However, if such persons become aware of the facilities provided by Ali to the officers which made it absolutely unnecessary for them to take bribes or to resort to misappropriation of funds they will acknowledge that the severity expressed by Ali towards the officials was not unjustified. Another point also deserves attention here and it is that Ali did not consider it permissible that the officials should take advantage of their position vis-a-vis the public even to the extent of a feast, because such an advantage also amounts to theft or bribe. And when Ali did not permit an officer to accept an invitation to a feast by way of bribe, how could he tolerate that he should appropriate a whole city to himself or should take the property of the people from them by way of bribe? A far-sighted person who has an eye on the realities is obliged to be severe and to nip the evil in the bud. Restraint on the officials commenced in the days of Ali and not during the period of Uthman. Ali gave such handsome salaries to the governors as were sufficient for their needs. There could, therefore, be no justification for their taking bribes. If Ali was severe with the corrupt officers he was also affable with the righteous ones. He acknowledged their rights and encouraged them for their devotion towards their Imam and for their services to the Muslims. The letter which he wrote to Umar son of Abi Salma, the governor of Bahrain whereby relieving him of his assignment and asking him to come over to him to accompany him in the Syrian campaign, deserves to be studied. He wrote to him: “I have entrusted the governorship of Bahrain to No`man son of Ajlan Zarqi and have relieved you of it. However, I have not done this because you have been considered to be incompetent or because you have been accused of anything improper. The fact is that you have run the administration very competently and faithfully. You should, therefore, come over here and join me. There is nothing against you. The actual position is this that I have decided to proceed against the Syrian rebels and wish that you should be with me because you are one of those persons who can assist me in fighting against the enemy and erecting the pillar of the faith”. He always adopted this firm policy with regard to the officers. He encouraged those who were righteous and was severe to those who did evil deeds. He neither wavered, nor minced words nor resorted to connivance or deceit. His real object was the welfare of the Muslims and the establishment of justice among all, whether they were the rulers or the ruled. Those officers who did not misappropriate public funds and did not take bribe received salaries from the public treasury according to their needs, and the Commander of the Faithful praised and encouraged them. As regards the dishonest officers, however, Ali reprimanded and censured them in the first instance and then dismissed them. In case their crimes were more serious he also sentenced them to imprisonment. Besides the governors there were some persons who had usurped the property of others and had accumulated large amount of wealth by unlawful means. The Commander of the Faithful subjected them to severe accountability and did not show them any leniency. He severely opposed their greed to accumulate wealth and their sensual and luxurious life, and endeavoured to become a wall between them and their wealth which they were keen to increase. He opposed verbally as well as practically the usurpation of the property of others and severely prohibited hoarding. In the testament addressed to Malik Ashtar he wrote inter alia: “Keep this also in mind that many of these persons are habituated to parsimony and stinginess. They hoard to make profit and weigh lesser and charge more. This thing is harmful for the public and a defect of the rulers. You should, therefore, prevent them from hoarding”. Then he says: “If someone is guilty of hoarding after your having prohibited it you should punish him, but you must ensure that no excess or oppression is done in your action”. As regards occupation of estates and land by the people the view held by Ali was compatible with reason as well as a source of virtue. We have already discussed this matter in the foregoing pages. Subjecting others to forced labour and exploiting their earnings is also a kind of hoarding. Ali did not tolerate this also, and has mentioned it at various places in Nahj al-Balaghah. While describing the condition of the people of his time he says: “There are many persons whose endeavours have been wasted and whose efforts have gone in vain. You people are living in a time when goodness is receding and wickedness coming nearer and nearer. Satanic avarice is killing the people. Wherever you cast your eye you will see indigent persons, who are suffering on account of poverty, or the rich who are guilty of ingratitude to God, or the stingy persons who do not pay God's dues and are keen to increase their wealth. What has happened to your righteous and pious people? Where are those noble and magnanimous persons, who were pious in earning wealth and pure in their actions and conduct?” In fact the Commander of the Faithful had clearly understood this reality by means of his correct thinking, pure disposition and high morality that a system which cannot eliminate the indigence of the people is worthless and a law which cannot do away with class discrimination is useless and undesirable. All those social laws, which give birth to a society, in which people are divided into classes, are a plaything in the hands of those, who call themselves the nobles and the dignitaries and exploit the rights and property of the common man in a most shameless manner. Ali took positive steps to eliminate the poverty of the people. His actions were based on two principles: Firstly that the entire wealth of the public treasury and the lands and property and all means of earning wealth belong to the nation and it is necessary that they should be distributed among all the citizens according to their needs and entitlement. Every person should work and benefit from these resources according to his efforts. None is entitled to appropriate whatever he likes and to convert the public property into his special property. It is also in the interest of the individuals that they should co-operate with the society. They should prove themselves useful for others and should also benefit from them. The benefits which they will derive from the society will be thousands of times more than those which they render to the society. Ali says: “Whoever withholds his hand from doing harm to his people apparently withholds only one hand but actually keeps thousands of hands away from himself”. The government should adopt this just policy in right earnest because the people are like a body and it is necessary for the government to treat every limb of that body according to its needs. It should neither ignore anyone, nor neglect the right of anyone, nor permit any discrimination between them. It is in such circumstances that it can become possible for the government to realize revenue and obtain other rights of the public treasury from the nation and spend it on the projects of public welfare. The second thing on which Ali based his actions was the development of land, because the life of human beings and their welfare depend on land. He was of the view that the governors and officers should take much greater interest in the development of land as compared with the effort which they make to realize government revenue, because if land is not developed from where will the revenue come? A ruler who does not develop land, but wants to realize revenue from the public, is ignorant and unjust. He desires that the cities should be destroyed, the people should be ruined and he himself should lose his dignity and honour. The land is neither developed automatically nor by means of the ignorance or power of the rulers. Development of land does not also mean that magnificent palaces should be erected on it to accommodate rich people. Land is developed with the efforts of the labourers and the residents of villages. The Commander of the Faithful had given strict instructions that if the people were distressed and were not happy with their rulers, revenue should not be realized from them. The principles of kindness to the subjects and philanthropy and the moral values demand that the subjects should pay the revenue voluntarily and not under duress. It is the duty of governors to make the subjects prosperous in the first instance and then to think of collecting the revenue. The Commander of the Faithful has addressed the collectors of revenue in these words: “........ Don't sell the winter or summer clothings of the people or the animals used by them, in order to collect revenue. Don't flog any person or make him stand on his feet for the sake of money, and don't sell any of their things for this purpose, because God has ordered us to take that which is surplus”. He also says: “In the matter of revenue keep in view the interests of those who pay the revenue, because the affairs of others can be set right only by means of taxes and the tax-payers”. These views of the Commander of the Faithful about land and its development and the conclusion drawn by him that the welfare of government depends on the welfare of the people are so true and correct that nothing wrong about them has been found even after the lapse of so many centuries. All the economic and social theories of the modern times also confirm these views. Ali prescribed a general rule for the development of land and the extraction of wealth from its heart which is admitted by the social sciences of our time, to be absolutely correct. During the age of ignorance there was a custom that the powerful persons forced the slaves, prisoners and subordinates to develop their lands. They gave these workers paltry wages at their own sweet will but appropriated the produce of the land themselves without having done any work. According to their law man did not carry any value and his labour did not deserve any reward. The rulers considered the people to be their slaves and subjected them to forced labour. Their very religion was based on making people their slaves or in other words on killing and destroying those helpless and afflicted persons. The people were ignorant and the rulers, taking undue advantage of their ignorance, made them their slaves. The idolatrous priests, who were the religious leaders of those times had also declared slavery to be lawful and had thus strengthened the hands of the rulers. These priests had befooled the people in such a way that they were prepared to make supreme sacrifices for the sake of their rulers to enable them to increase their wealth and add new lands to their territories. All this was done either in the name of the homeland or in the name of the deity, whom they worshipped. The famous British historian H.G. Wells says: “The idolatrous priests told the people that the lands which they tilled did not belong to them. They belonged to the gods whose image they had hung in the temples, and those gods had given those lands to the rulers. Now it depended upon the sweet will of the rulers to give the lands to those servants of theirs whom they liked”. The peasants also began to entertain the belief that the land which they ploughed did not belong to them, but were owned by the god (idol) and it was their duty to surrender a part of the produce of the land to the representative of the god. Or that the god had given the land to the ruler and he was entitled to impose thereon any taxes he liked. Or that the ruler had given the land to the landlord who was their master. If at times the idol, the ruler or the landlord needed the services of the peasant it was his duty to leave other work and carry out the orders of his master. The peasant did not even think that he had any right on the land which he ploughed. In short the peasant neither possessed any freedom of will nor enjoyed any right. The history of Arabia tells us that the persons who assumed the reins of government after Ali monopolized the lands, their produce, and the public treasury for their personal benefit. They used to say: “The entire wealth belongs to God and we are his representatives and vicegerents on earth. It is our prerogative to give this wealth to whomsoever we like. Nobody is entitled to criticize us in this regard”. 1 However, Ali knew the position very well. He was very far-sighted and was well aware that God does not need land or wealth and the land belongs to those who work on it. Ali also knew that if the peasants are indigent the land will become waste and it will be difficult to realize any revenue. Land can be developed only by those people who are its owners and derive profit from its produce. If the peasants know it for certain that they will not be able to enjoy the fruits of their labour and it will reach the treasuries of the extravagant rulers, they will work half-heartedly and will not make any effort to develop the land.2 Consequently they themselves will be in distress and others will also be deprived of the fruits of their labour. In case, however, they know that the more they produce with their hard work the more they themselves and their children will benefit from it, and the rulers too will not distribute the revenue among their friends and relatives, but will spend it on projects of public welfare, they will work whole-heartedly. As a result of this they will become prosperous and additional revenue will also accrue to the government treasury. In the eyes of the Commander of the Faithful the happiness and goodwill of the subjects was the only source of the welfare of the people as well as the good condition of the rulers. He did not believe in coercion and said: “The best source of satisfaction and heartfelt happiness for a ruler is that justice should be established and the love of the subjects for the rulers should become patent. They do not display love so long as there is ill feeling in their hearts and their devotion cannot be relied upon so long as they are not prepared to defend their ruler and do not cease to think that his rule has been burdensome and it will come to an end after a long time”. Ali considered farming and all other professions to be respectable. He prohibited people from remaining idle and considered it essential that a worker should be paid wages commensurate with his work. He exercised much strictness in these matters so that the people might realize that he was not going to pay anything which had not been earned by the person concerned by means of his work. The incident of his real brother Aqil son of Abu Talib is well known. He approached Ali to make him some payment without any work or service, but Ali declined to accede to his request. In the eyes of Ali there was no injustice greater than that a worker should not be paid his wages or that he should be deprived of his right even to the smallest extent. According to him it was also highly improper that the work done by persons belonging to the higher class should be applauded whereas that done by the ordinary persons should be looked down upon. According to him what mattered was the work and its real value whether it was done by a big man or an ordinary person. There were many workers in his time who worked hard but were not rewarded for their labour. The Commander of the Faithful disliked it very much. These words of his are a beacon light in the path of social and moral principles: “Keep eye on the achievement of every person and do not attribute the achievement of one person to another, and do not deprive the real person of the reward to which he is entitled on account of the work done by him. Never treat an ordinary work to be great on account of high position of the doer, and never treat a great work to be ordinary on account of the low position of the person who has done it”. Development of land and payment of full wages, commensurate with the work done, were the two strong pillars on which Ali intended to erect the structure of a good and pious society. Some persons belonging to a particular place came to him and said: “There is a canal in our area which is now filled with dust. If it is dug again it will be very beneficial for us”. They then requested him to write to the governor of the area to make it compulsory for everyone to dig the canal. The Commander of the Faithful approved the digging of the canal but did not accede to their request that the people should be compelled to dig it. He wrote thus to Qarza son of Kaa`b the governor of the area: “Some persons belonging to your area came to me and told me that there was a canal in that region which is now filled with dust. If these people dig the canal once again it will lead to the development of the area and they will be able to pay the revenue. This will also lead to the increase in the income of the Muslims residing in the area. These persons asked me to write a letter to you desiring you to collect the people of that place to dig the canal and to make it obligatory upon them to bear the expenses of the work. I do not consider it appropriate to compel any person to do a work which he does not like to do. You should, therefore, call the people and employ those of them who are willing to do the work. When the canal is ready only those persons who do digging work will be entitled to use it, and those who do not participate in the work will have no right on its water. If those people develop their area and their financial position improves, it is much better than their remaining weak”. Ali did not consider it lawful to subject anyone to forced labour, although a group of persons wished to resort to this practice. The thing which matters is that one should work. Ali, therefore, said to those people: “You have been ordered to work (and not to remain idle). As regards the canal only those persons, who participate in its digging, will be entitled to benefit from it. Those who do not want to do this work cannot be compelled to do it. Work should be done willingly and not under coercion”. This is the principle which Ali followed very strictly. By formulating this rule about work and the workers centuries ago Ali surpassed the western thinkers. The western thinkers are putting forth so vehemently the same thing today which was said by Ali thirteen hundred years ago. He provided a basis for justice and a better basis cannot be imagined. 3 And that basis is that none should be subjected to forced labour, however beneficial the work may be, because taking work by force is an insult to humanity. It reduces the value of man and infringes his inherent freedom. Furthermore, work taken under compulsion loses its value, because one who is forced to perform a job will not perform it whole-heartedly. Ali, however, encouraged the people in another way to do the work by saying that only those persons who participate in digging the canal would be entitled to benefit from it. He said: “The owners of the canal are those persons who participate in digging it and not those who refrain from doing so”.4 This principle enunciated by Ali is the pillar on which the greatest beliefs and ideas of the western thinkers are based. Hence it is necessary for every person to work. None is great or small except through his work. Whoever works shall be rewarded for it. The aristocrats and dignitaries are not entitled to usurp the earnings of others and encroach upon their rights. As said by Ali if God likes any one He likes an honest worker. If a person earns some wealth by hard work it naturally belongs to him because he has worked for it. However, he must also take the interest of the nation into account. The said property will be treated to be his personal property so long as public interests are not jeopardized. If public interests demand that a part of the personal property of the individuals should be taken and spent for public welfare, this will be done. This wealth is meant for the benefit of the individuals as well as for the welfare of the society (it was on this account that revenue was realized from the owners of the canal for the public treasury) when ownership is circumscribed in this manner there will neither be excessive wealth with anyone nor will there be any indigent person in the society. In every nation there are certain persons (for example young orphans) who are not able to do any work. Did Ali ignore such persons, as is done by the western countries, or did he take care of them according to the rules of justice and morality? There is no doubt about the fact that the nation has rights on the individuals and the individuals have rights on the nation. The nation is like a body which is composed of different limbs. It is necessary for every limb to help other limbs. Every person is entitled to enjoy the fruits of his labour. God has given a share of the necessities of life to everyone. None is, therefore, entitled to appropriate the necessities of life to the exclusion of others. However, it is the responsibility of the nation to support those who are unable to earn, for example small children and old persons. 5 It should do justice to the helpless persons in the same manner in which it does justice to others. It is an exclusive right of theirs, and not an act of kindness and the governments and its representatives are responsible to pay this right. Ali Says: “Out of all members of the society these persons are more deserving of justice. Hence you should pay the right of every one of them and equip yourself with an excuse to be presented before God. Take care of the orphans and the old persons who can neither earn their livelihood nor stand before others to beg”. Ali has gone ahead of thousands of western thinkers and philosophers in this matter. He realized the necessity of paying the rights of the helpless persons and made it a responsibility of the government. He did not let it depend on the kindness and generosity of the rich so that the deceitful hypocrites might not get any chance to spread mischief. 6 Ali's conscience as well as his intellect were well aware of the reality that all human beings are entitled to live. This right is one of the necessities of social life. Freedom is of no use if sustenance is not available and a good society cannot come into being without it. He promulgated the law that all human beings enjoy equal rights. Then in the light of the same law he decided that the needy persons had preferential rights over the public treasury as compared with the rich persons even though those rich persons might have embraced Islam earlier. It is work which entitles one to wages and it is also work by means of which one can become the owner of land and property. In the orders which the Commander of the Faithful sent to the governors and other officers every now and then he strictly warned them not to harass the people. He directed them not to press the indigent peasants for payment of revenue but to render them assistance so that they might work hard and produce more from the land. Taxes should be realized from the rich so that the income of the public treasury might increase and might be used to help the needy. How great and dignified Ali appears in our eyes when we learn that fourteen hundred years ago he gave emphatic orders to his governors on these lines: “Don't sell the winter or summer dresses of the people, or their cereals, or the animals used by them, to realize revenue. Don't flog any person or make him stand on his feet for the sake of money. Don't sell the household effects of any person to get revenue - and pay more heed to the development of land than to the collection of revenue”. The Commander of the Faithful has mentioned the reason for the distressful condition of the indigent persons of his time in a few brief sentences and has explained their contents in numerous testaments and precepts. He says: “If an indigent person remains hungry it is because the rich man has withheld his share”. This is the greatest reality which is the basis of modern equitable system. Ali had understood this reality fourteen hundred years ago and formulated clear rules and regulations, as were suited to his time. A Lebanese writer who happens to be my friend says that at one time he was residing in a big city of Europe and the movement to put an end to poverty was being carried on there. One day he met the Education Minister of that country and said to him during the course of conversation: “We Arabs realized centuries ago the class discrimination and its disadvantages which you are endeavouring to eliminate now”. The Minister said: “How?” He replied: Fourteen hundred years ago Ali son of Abu Talib said: “I have not seen excessive wealth with anyone except that I have seen simultaneously the right of someone being infringed”. The Minister said: “We are much better than you”. He said: “How?” The Education Minister said: “Because although an Arab had understood this reality fourteen hundred years ago you have not so far endeavoured to eliminate indigence and are still involved in it whereas we are already endeavouring to get rid of poverty. Hence you are fourteen hundred years behind us .i.e. if we had heard this sentence of Ali at that time we would have taken necessary steps in this behalf immediately”. Before we end this chapter, it will be better to recapitulate what has been stated above and to invite the readers to compare the views of Ali on social matters with those of the modern thinkers and to reflect on them judiciously. We can mention the social principles and views of Ali in nine sentences. These principles and views consist of the causes of affluence and indigence and the class differences of the people or in other words the best rules and regulations for eliminating poverty and need, and establishing equality of rights between them. (1) Prevent hoarding. (2) No indigent person remained hungry except because a rich man usurped his share. (3) I have not seen excessive wealth with anyone except that I have seen the right of someone being infringed. (4) You should be more anxious to develop land then to collect revenue. (5) I do not consider it proper that a person should be compelled to do a work which he does not like. (6) The hearts of the pious people are in Paradise and their bodies are busy doing work in the world. (7) The canal belongs to him who participated in its digging and not to him who did not provide physical or financial assistance to dig it. (8) Keep in view the achievement of a person, and do not attribute the achievements of one person to another. (9) Beware! Don't appropriate to yourselves the things in which all have equal rights. If these sentences of Ali are studied carefully it becomes known that the rights of man in the human society can be protected and his freedom can be ensured only by acting on those principles. - 1. The fact is that this policy began to be acted upon during the time of Uthman himself. During the time of the Prophet and the period of the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar everything belonged to the Muslims and they were treated to have equal rights. However, Uthman's attitude changed considerably. He considered everything to be the property of God and considered himself to be the master of the Muslims. He spent public property as he wished and gave it to whomever he liked. The Commander of the Faithful has drawn a picture of this period in these words: “Consequently the third proudly took charge of the caliphate as if it was a private grazing ground and with bloated stomachs he and members of his clan (Bani Umayya) started plundering the wealth of the Muslim world in the same reckless gluttonous manner which characterises a camel when it devours harvest grass. Uthman deprived the lawful claimants of that property which belonged to all the Muslims and gave it to his kith and kin and near and dear ones. On many occasions he uttered words which reflected the beliefs of the age of ignorance according to which the lands and its produce and the public treasury belonged to the ruler and he was entitled to give it to whomsoever he liked. This sentence of his is found in all history books: “This is God's property. I shall give it to whomsoever I like and shall not give it to any one whom I do not like to give. If any person gets annoyed I don't care”. Mu'awiya and other Umayyad caliphs were the relatives and kinsmen of Uthman. Whatever they did during their own times was done by them in imitation of Uthman. - 2. This goes to show that if the peasants are allowed to share the produce with the land-owners they will work hard to earn more profit from the land. However, if their position is that of wage- earners (as in socialism) they will not strive to increase the produce, knowing that they will get the same wages whatever the quantity of the produce may be. Further, the socialist governments are a heavy burden on their subjects. They interfere with all the affairs of the subjects and the subjects, too are not faithful to such government, because they do not have any faith in them. - 3. The western philosophers are divided into two groups on this question. One group considers forced labour to be unjust and unlawful whereas the other group considers it to be necessary. Socialism holds the latter view. - 4. In the beginning of his letter addressed to the governor the Commander of the Faithful had told him that he should encourage the people to dig the canal and bear the expenses of the work. He who could not personally work, should hire someone to work on his behalf. Being `owners of the canal' means that those who participate in its digging physically or financially own its water and so long as their needs are not fulfilled others cannot utilize it. They have a right to prevent others from taking the water or to allow them to take it on payment. This is the purport of the tradition quoted above viz. “The owners of the canal are those persons who participate in digging it and not those who refrain from doing so”. - 5. In the Islamic law zakat has been made mandatory for this very reason. Abdullah bin Sanan has been quoted in Kafi as saying that Imam Ja`far Sadiq said: “God has fixed that share of the indigent persons in the wealth of rich which may suffice them. If He had considered it to be insufficient He would have ordered that more might be paid”. - 6. Meeting the needs of the indigent and helpless person is not the responsibility of the government only as stated by the author. In Islamic law the government as well as the individuals have been made responsible to support the needy. If the collection of zakat and its distribution among the poor had been the responsibility of the government only, there would have been greater chances of maladministration, because the persons nearer to government have benefited to the exclusion of those who had been at a distance from the government, and had no chances of approaching the authorities concerned. It is for this reason that Almighty God has ordered the individuals that they should pay zakat to their kinsmen, neighbours, and the indigent persons of their own town of whose indigence they are aware, and should hand it over to government only when none of their relatives, neighbours, acquaintances, and residents of their town is entitled to it.	<urn:uuid:3c70a5d5-76d3-4667-a8e6-9b88933e001d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.al-islam.org/voice-human-justice-sautul-adalatil-insaniyah-george-jordac/helping-needy	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00341.warc.gz	en	0.985224	8,323	3.34375	3	[ -0.339126318693161, 0.4224487245082855, 0.0840846449136734, -0.5272845029830933, -0.2619840204715729, -0.14802992343902588, 0.9548238515853882, -0.41604331135749817, 0.02461368963122368, 0.09230953454971313, -0.1859348714351654, -0.30089470744132996, 0.22349274158477783, 0.2028693258762359...	5	There are those common rights which were respected by Ali himself and he also impressed upon others to respect them. According to him the real duty of the governors of the provinces and other officials was that they should protect these rights and should not allow them to be encroached upon. If Ali appointed anyone as a ruler or removed him from his office, it was for this very reason. According to him these rights carried very wide meanings and were of many kinds. The purport of all of them was, however, that the needs of every person should be met and no one should remain hungry, because remaining hungry is the greatest insult to humanity. There is no harm in violating the laws which cannot eliminate the indigence of the people. Just as in the creed of Ali worship must not estrange man from the society and religion means good behaviour towards the people, and true religious beliefs are those which promote righteousness, in the same manner the laws should be such as meet the needs of the people and ensure elimination of poverty and indigence, so that man may not be humiliated in his own eyes and become dejected. It is not a favour but the duty of a ruler and a law-giver to enact laws which relieve the people of need and indigence, and they are entitled to demand such laws from him. Ali safeguarded the rights of the people so meticulously that it is almost impossible to find any sermon, speech or testament of his in which he may not have mentioned these rights and may not have drawn the attention of the governors and the officials to them. Meeting the needs of the people was undoubtedly the greatest duty of the ruler and the law-giver and the greatest right of the people in the eyes of Ali. It was Ali who considered the greatest sin of Kaiser and Kisra to be this (although the list of their sins is quite long) that they humiliated their subjects, did not look after their rights, deprived them of the bounties of the earth and the comforts of life and tried to make them indigent and despicable. He says: “Think over the agitation and distress of the people when Kaiser and Kisra were their rulers. They had expelled them from fertile lands and the water and verdure of Iraq and transferred them to a place where there was no vegetation and where there was nothing except violent winds, and had made them extremely poor and indigent. Whenever a governor or an official committed breach of trust of public property (whether the amount involved was small or large) Ali threatened him with severe punishment. He was deeply grieved as and when he came to know that a governor or an official had usurped a property or had been guilty of hoarding, and he reprimanded him in very severe terms. He once wrote thus to a governor: “I understand that you have usurped the land belonging to the public treasury and have appropriated what was under your feet and eaten what was in your hands. You should, therefore, send me your account”. The sentence “Send me your account” in the letter of the Commander of the Faithful deserves attention. This sentence carries very vast meanings. He was so keen to enforce justice that he could not tolerate any excuse or slackness in this behalf. Besides possessing a firm faith Ali was a subtle observer and was fully aware of the mysteries of human society, and the mutual relations of the public. He knew which rights had been encroached upon, and which of them were going to be encroached upon. He fully realized that injustice and oppression was harmful for the society internally as well as externally and the oppressors as well as the oppressed were threatened with grave dangers. He considered pleading for justice and administration of justice to be necessary even though it might be disliked by the governors and the officials. He wrote with much annoyance: “Send me your account”. He was informed about another governor having misappropriated public property. He wrote to him immediately as under: “Fear God and return the property of the people to them. If you do not do so and then God grants me control over you I shall acquit myself of my responsibilities in the matter and shall strike you with my sword, and whoever has been the victim of it has always gone direct to Hell. By God, even if Hasan and Husayn had done what you have done I would not have been lenient to them and they would not have been able to make me accede to any wish of theirs till I had taken back the right (of others) from them and had effaced the results arising out of injustice”. The Commander of the Faithful sent a man named Sa`d to Ziad bin Abih to bring some money which was lying with him. The Commander of the Faithful had received information that Ziad was leading a luxurious life and that he was accumulating wealth himself and did not give anything to the widows, the orphans and the indigent. When Sa`d approached Ziad and demanded the money the latter behaved proudly and rebuked him. Sa`d came back and informed Ali about what had happened. Thereupon Ali wrote a letter to Ziad on these lines: “Sa`d has informed me that you have rebuked him without any justification and behaved with him haughtily and proudly, notwithstanding the fact that the Prophet has said that greatness belongs to God only and whoever is proud incurs His wrath. Sa`d has also informed me that you eat food of various kinds and perfume yourself every day. What harm will accrue to you if you also fast for a few days for the sake of God and give away a part of your wealth as charity in the path of God, and eat many times the food which you eat once, or let an indigent person eat it. You, who are rolling in bounties, do not look after your poor neighbours, the weak and needy widows and the orphans. Do you desire, inspite of all this, that you should get the reward of the righteous persons who give alms? Sa`d has also told me that you speak like the righteous but act like the evil-doer? If you really do so you have been cruel to yourself and have wasted your actions. You should repent before God and reform your ways and should be moderate in your acts. You should send forward whatever surplus property you possess for the day on which you will need it, in case you are a true believer. And use perfume on alternate days and that should not be too much. The Prophet has said: “Use perfume on alternate days and do not use it excessively. Peace be on you”. The Commander of the Faithful sent successive orders to the governors and warned them severely against misappropriating public property and taking bribes. He considered such activities to be the worst relationship between the rulers and the ruled and a great barrier between title and the entitled person. He was well aware of the harm which these bad habits were likely to do to the people. Once he received information that a military officer had taken bribe. He held his hand and gave it such a violent jerk that it was about to be dismembered from his body. Then he said to him: “The people earlier than you were annihilated because they deprived the people of their rights and they were, therefore, obliged to acquire their rights by offering bribes. They compelled the people to do invalid things as a result of which falsehood became prevalent”. Once a governor was invited to a feast. The governor accepted the invitation and participated in the party. When the Commander of the Faithful came to know about this he reprimanded the governor severely saying: “Entertaining a governor is bribe. Why was this bribe given? If it was given to establish a right it is the duty of a governor to give the entitled persons their right without taking bribe, or this bribe was given to validate something invalid. If that be the case it is not lawful for a governor to do any such thing even though the entire world may be offered to him as bribe. The second thing is: why did the governor participate in a feast to which the rich were invited but the indigent were ignored and thus discrimination was made between the slaves of Allah? This discrimination pained many persons and also grieved Ali. Of course if the society is prosperous and the people are well-to-do there is no harm in inviting only some persons to a party to the exclusion of others. However, when the conditions are such that there are poor as well as rich persons in the society, does the extension of an invitation to a governor to participate in a feast not amount to giving him bribe? Some persons may think that such severity on the part of Ali with regard to the governors and the officials was not appropriate and they did not deserve to be censured and reprimanded in this manner. However, if such persons become aware of the facilities provided by Ali to the officers which made it absolutely unnecessary for them to take bribes or to resort to misappropriation of funds they will acknowledge that the severity expressed by Ali towards the officials was not unjustified. Another point also deserves attention here and it is that Ali did not consider it permissible that the officials should take advantage of their position vis-a-vis the public even to the extent of a feast, because such an advantage also amounts to theft or bribe. And when Ali did not permit an officer to accept an invitation to a feast by way of bribe, how could he tolerate that he should appropriate a whole city to himself or should take the property of the people from them by way of bribe? A far-sighted person who has an eye on the realities is obliged to be severe and to nip the evil in the bud. Restraint on the officials commenced in the days of Ali and not during the period of Uthman. Ali gave such handsome salaries to the governors as were sufficient for their needs. There could, therefore, be no justification for their taking bribes. If Ali was severe with the corrupt officers he was also affable with the righteous ones. He acknowledged their rights and encouraged them for their devotion towards their Imam and for their services to the Muslims. The letter which he wrote to Umar son of Abi Salma, the governor of Bahrain whereby relieving him of his assignment and asking him to come over to him to accompany him in the Syrian campaign, deserves to be studied. He wrote to him: “I have entrusted the governorship of Bahrain to No`man son of Ajlan Zarqi and have relieved you of it. However, I have not done this because you have been considered to be incompetent or because you have been accused of anything improper. The fact is that you have run the administration very competently and faithfully. You should, therefore, come over here and join me. There is nothing against you. The actual position is this that I have decided to proceed against the Syrian rebels and wish that you should be with me because you are one of those persons who can assist me in fighting against the enemy and erecting the pillar of the faith”. He always adopted this firm policy with regard to the officers. He encouraged those who were righteous and was severe to those who did evil deeds. He neither wavered, nor minced words nor resorted to connivance or deceit. His real object was the welfare of the Muslims and the establishment of justice among all, whether they were the rulers or the ruled. Those officers who did not misappropriate public funds and did not take bribe received salaries from the public treasury according to their needs, and the Commander of the Faithful praised and encouraged them. As regards the dishonest officers, however, Ali reprimanded and censured them in the first instance and then dismissed them. In case their crimes were more serious he also sentenced them to imprisonment. Besides the governors there were some persons who had usurped the property of others and had accumulated large amount of wealth by unlawful means. The Commander of the Faithful subjected them to severe accountability and did not show them any leniency. He severely opposed their greed to accumulate wealth and their sensual and luxurious life, and endeavoured to become a wall between them and their wealth which they were keen to increase. He opposed verbally as well as practically the usurpation of the property of others and severely prohibited hoarding. In the testament addressed to Malik Ashtar he wrote inter alia: “Keep this also in mind that many of these persons are habituated to parsimony and stinginess. They hoard to make profit and weigh lesser and charge more. This thing is harmful for the public and a defect of the rulers. You should, therefore, prevent them from hoarding”. Then he says: “If someone is guilty of hoarding after your having prohibited it you should punish him, but you must ensure that no excess or oppression is done in your action”. As regards occupation of estates and land by the people the view held by Ali was compatible with reason as well as a source of virtue. We have already discussed this matter in the foregoing pages. Subjecting others to forced labour and exploiting their earnings is also a kind of hoarding. Ali did not tolerate this also, and has mentioned it at various places in Nahj al-Balaghah. While describing the condition of the people of his time he says: “There are many persons whose endeavours have been wasted and whose efforts have gone in vain. You people are living in a time when goodness is receding and wickedness coming nearer and nearer. Satanic avarice is killing the people. Wherever you cast your eye you will see indigent persons, who are suffering on account of poverty, or the rich who are guilty of ingratitude to God, or the stingy persons who do not pay God's dues and are keen to increase their wealth. What has happened to your righteous and pious people? Where are those noble and magnanimous persons, who were pious in earning wealth and pure in their actions and conduct?” In fact the Commander of the Faithful had clearly understood this reality by means of his correct thinking, pure disposition and high morality that a system which cannot eliminate the indigence of the people is worthless and a law which cannot do away with class discrimination is useless and undesirable. All those social laws, which give birth to a society, in which people are divided into classes, are a plaything in the hands of those, who call themselves the nobles and the dignitaries and exploit the rights and property of the common man in a most shameless manner. Ali took positive steps to eliminate the poverty of the people. His actions were based on two principles: Firstly that the entire wealth of the public treasury and the lands and property and all means of earning wealth belong to the nation and it is necessary that they should be distributed among all the citizens according to their needs and entitlement. Every person should work and benefit from these resources according to his efforts. None is entitled to appropriate whatever he likes and to convert the public property into his special property. It is also in the interest of the individuals that they should co-operate with the society. They should prove themselves useful for others and should also benefit from them. The benefits which they will derive from the society will be thousands of times more than those which they render to the society. Ali says: “Whoever withholds his hand from doing harm to his people apparently withholds only one hand but actually keeps thousands of hands away from himself”. The government should adopt this just policy in right earnest because the people are like a body and it is necessary for the government to treat every limb of that body according to its needs. It should neither ignore anyone, nor neglect the right of anyone, nor permit any discrimination between them. It is in such circumstances that it can become possible for the government to realize revenue and obtain other rights of the public treasury from the nation and spend it on the projects of public welfare. The second thing on which Ali based his actions was the development of land, because the life of human beings and their welfare depend on land. He was of the view that the governors and officers should take much greater interest in the development of land as compared with the effort which they make to realize government revenue, because if land is not developed from where will the revenue come? A ruler who does not develop land, but wants to realize revenue from the public, is ignorant and unjust. He desires that the cities should be destroyed, the people should be ruined and he himself should lose his dignity and honour. The land is neither developed automatically nor by means of the ignorance or power of the rulers. Development of land does not also mean that magnificent palaces should be erected on it to accommodate rich people. Land is developed with the efforts of the labourers and the residents of villages. The Commander of the Faithful had given strict instructions that if the people were distressed and were not happy with their rulers, revenue should not be realized from them. The principles of kindness to the subjects and philanthropy and the moral values demand that the subjects should pay the revenue voluntarily and not under duress. It is the duty of governors to make the subjects prosperous in the first instance and then to think of collecting the revenue. The Commander of the Faithful has addressed the collectors of revenue in these words: “........ Don't sell the winter or summer clothings of the people or the animals used by them, in order to collect revenue. Don't flog any person or make him stand on his feet for the sake of money, and don't sell any of their things for this purpose, because God has ordered us to take that which is surplus”. He also says: “In the matter of revenue keep in view the interests of those who pay the revenue, because the affairs of others can be set right only by means of taxes and the tax-payers”. These views of the Commander of the Faithful about land and its development and the conclusion drawn by him that the welfare of government depends on the welfare of the people are so true and correct that nothing wrong about them has been found even after the lapse of so many centuries. All the economic and social theories of the modern times also confirm these views. Ali prescribed a general rule for the development of land and the extraction of wealth from its heart which is admitted by the social sciences of our time, to be absolutely correct. During the age of ignorance there was a custom that the powerful persons forced the slaves, prisoners and subordinates to develop their lands. They gave these workers paltry wages at their own sweet will but appropriated the produce of the land themselves without having done any work. According to their law man did not carry any value and his labour did not deserve any reward. The rulers considered the people to be their slaves and subjected them to forced labour. Their very religion was based on making people their slaves or in other words on killing and destroying those helpless and afflicted persons. The people were ignorant and the rulers, taking undue advantage of their ignorance, made them their slaves. The idolatrous priests, who were the religious leaders of those times had also declared slavery to be lawful and had thus strengthened the hands of the rulers. These priests had befooled the people in such a way that they were prepared to make supreme sacrifices for the sake of their rulers to enable them to increase their wealth and add new lands to their territories. All this was done either in the name of the homeland or in the name of the deity, whom they worshipped. The famous British historian H.G. Wells says: “The idolatrous priests told the people that the lands which they tilled did not belong to them. They belonged to the gods whose image they had hung in the temples, and those gods had given those lands to the rulers. Now it depended upon the sweet will of the rulers to give the lands to those servants of theirs whom they liked”. The peasants also began to entertain the belief that the land which they ploughed did not belong to them, but were owned by the god (idol) and it was their duty to surrender a part of the produce of the land to the representative of the god. Or that the god had given the land to the ruler and he was entitled to impose thereon any taxes he liked. Or that the ruler had given the land to the landlord who was their master. If at times the idol, the ruler or the landlord needed the services of the peasant it was his duty to leave other work and carry out the orders of his master. The peasant did not even think that he had any right on the land which he ploughed. In short the peasant neither possessed any freedom of will nor enjoyed any right. The history of Arabia tells us that the persons who assumed the reins of government after Ali monopolized the lands, their produce, and the public treasury for their personal benefit. They used to say: “The entire wealth belongs to God and we are his representatives and vicegerents on earth. It is our prerogative to give this wealth to whomsoever we like. Nobody is entitled to criticize us in this regard”. 1 However, Ali knew the position very well. He was very far-sighted and was well aware that God does not need land or wealth and the land belongs to those who work on it. Ali also knew that if the peasants are indigent the land will become waste and it will be difficult to realize any revenue. Land can be developed only by those people who are its owners and derive profit from its produce. If the peasants know it for certain that they will not be able to enjoy the fruits of their labour and it will reach the treasuries of the extravagant rulers, they will work half-heartedly and will not make any effort to develop the land.2 Consequently they themselves will be in distress and others will also be deprived of the fruits of their labour. In case, however, they know that the more they produce with their hard work the more they themselves and their children will benefit from it, and the rulers too will not distribute the revenue among their friends and relatives, but will spend it on projects of public welfare, they will work whole-heartedly. As a result of this they will become prosperous and additional revenue will also accrue to the government treasury. In the eyes of the Commander of the Faithful the happiness and goodwill of the subjects was the only source of the welfare of the people as well as the good condition of the rulers. He did not believe in coercion and said: “The best source of satisfaction and heartfelt happiness for a ruler is that justice should be established and the love of the subjects for the rulers should become patent. They do not display love so long as there is ill feeling in their hearts and their devotion cannot be relied upon so long as they are not prepared to defend their ruler and do not cease to think that his rule has been burdensome and it will come to an end after a long time”. Ali considered farming and all other professions to be respectable. He prohibited people from remaining idle and considered it essential that a worker should be paid wages commensurate with his work. He exercised much strictness in these matters so that the people might realize that he was not going to pay anything which had not been earned by the person concerned by means of his work. The incident of his real brother Aqil son of Abu Talib is well known. He approached Ali to make him some payment without any work or service, but Ali declined to accede to his request. In the eyes of Ali there was no injustice greater than that a worker should not be paid his wages or that he should be deprived of his right even to the smallest extent. According to him it was also highly improper that the work done by persons belonging to the higher class should be applauded whereas that done by the ordinary persons should be looked down upon. According to him what mattered was the work and its real value whether it was done by a big man or an ordinary person. There were many workers in his time who worked hard but were not rewarded for their labour. The Commander of the Faithful disliked it very much. These words of his are a beacon light in the path of social and moral principles: “Keep eye on the achievement of every person and do not attribute the achievement of one person to another, and do not deprive the real person of the reward to which he is entitled on account of the work done by him. Never treat an ordinary work to be great on account of high position of the doer, and never treat a great work to be ordinary on account of the low position of the person who has done it”. Development of land and payment of full wages, commensurate with the work done, were the two strong pillars on which Ali intended to erect the structure of a good and pious society. Some persons belonging to a particular place came to him and said: “There is a canal in our area which is now filled with dust. If it is dug again it will be very beneficial for us”. They then requested him to write to the governor of the area to make it compulsory for everyone to dig the canal. The Commander of the Faithful approved the digging of the canal but did not accede to their request that the people should be compelled to dig it. He wrote thus to Qarza son of Kaa`b the governor of the area: “Some persons belonging to your area came to me and told me that there was a canal in that region which is now filled with dust. If these people dig the canal once again it will lead to the development of the area and they will be able to pay the revenue. This will also lead to the increase in the income of the Muslims residing in the area. These persons asked me to write a letter to you desiring you to collect the people of that place to dig the canal and to make it obligatory upon them to bear the expenses of the work. I do not consider it appropriate to compel any person to do a work which he does not like to do. You should, therefore, call the people and employ those of them who are willing to do the work. When the canal is ready only those persons who do digging work will be entitled to use it, and those who do not participate in the work will have no right on its water. If those people develop their area and their financial position improves, it is much better than their remaining weak”. Ali did not consider it lawful to subject anyone to forced labour, although a group of persons wished to resort to this practice. The thing which matters is that one should work. Ali, therefore, said to those people: “You have been ordered to work (and not to remain idle). As regards the canal only those persons, who participate in its digging, will be entitled to benefit from it. Those who do not want to do this work cannot be compelled to do it. Work should be done willingly and not under coercion”. This is the principle which Ali followed very strictly. By formulating this rule about work and the workers centuries ago Ali surpassed the western thinkers. The western thinkers are putting forth so vehemently the same thing today which was said by Ali thirteen hundred years ago. He provided a basis for justice and a better basis cannot be imagined. 3 And that basis is that none should be subjected to forced labour, however beneficial the work may be, because taking work by force is an insult to humanity. It reduces the value of man and infringes his inherent freedom. Furthermore, work taken under compulsion loses its value, because one who is forced to perform a job will not perform it whole-heartedly. Ali, however, encouraged the people in another way to do the work by saying that only those persons who participate in digging the canal would be entitled to benefit from it. He said: “The owners of the canal are those persons who participate in digging it and not those who refrain from doing so”.4 This principle enunciated by Ali is the pillar on which the greatest beliefs and ideas of the western thinkers are based. Hence it is necessary for every person to work. None is great or small except through his work. Whoever works shall be rewarded for it. The aristocrats and dignitaries are not entitled to usurp the earnings of others and encroach upon their rights. As said by Ali if God likes any one He likes an honest worker. If a person earns some wealth by hard work it naturally belongs to him because he has worked for it. However, he must also take the interest of the nation into account. The said property will be treated to be his personal property so long as public interests are not jeopardized. If public interests demand that a part of the personal property of the individuals should be taken and spent for public welfare, this will be done. This wealth is meant for the benefit of the individuals as well as for the welfare of the society (it was on this account that revenue was realized from the owners of the canal for the public treasury) when ownership is circumscribed in this manner there will neither be excessive wealth with anyone nor will there be any indigent person in the society. In every nation there are certain persons (for example young orphans) who are not able to do any work. Did Ali ignore such persons, as is done by the western countries, or did he take care of them according to the rules of justice and morality? There is no doubt about the fact that the nation has rights on the individuals and the individuals have rights on the nation. The nation is like a body which is composed of different limbs. It is necessary for every limb to help other limbs. Every person is entitled to enjoy the fruits of his labour. God has given a share of the necessities of life to everyone. None is, therefore, entitled to appropriate the necessities of life to the exclusion of others. However, it is the responsibility of the nation to support those who are unable to earn, for example small children and old persons. 5 It should do justice to the helpless persons in the same manner in which it does justice to others. It is an exclusive right of theirs, and not an act of kindness and the governments and its representatives are responsible to pay this right. Ali Says: “Out of all members of the society these persons are more deserving of justice. Hence you should pay the right of every one of them and equip yourself with an excuse to be presented before God. Take care of the orphans and the old persons who can neither earn their livelihood nor stand before others to beg”. Ali has gone ahead of thousands of western thinkers and philosophers in this matter. He realized the necessity of paying the rights of the helpless persons and made it a responsibility of the government. He did not let it depend on the kindness and generosity of the rich so that the deceitful hypocrites might not get any chance to spread mischief. 6 Ali's conscience as well as his intellect were well aware of the reality that all human beings are entitled to live. This right is one of the necessities of social life. Freedom is of no use if sustenance is not available and a good society cannot come into being without it. He promulgated the law that all human beings enjoy equal rights. Then in the light of the same law he decided that the needy persons had preferential rights over the public treasury as compared with the rich persons even though those rich persons might have embraced Islam earlier. It is work which entitles one to wages and it is also work by means of which one can become the owner of land and property. In the orders which the Commander of the Faithful sent to the governors and other officers every now and then he strictly warned them not to harass the people. He directed them not to press the indigent peasants for payment of revenue but to render them assistance so that they might work hard and produce more from the land. Taxes should be realized from the rich so that the income of the public treasury might increase and might be used to help the needy. How great and dignified Ali appears in our eyes when we learn that fourteen hundred years ago he gave emphatic orders to his governors on these lines: “Don't sell the winter or summer dresses of the people, or their cereals, or the animals used by them, to realize revenue. Don't flog any person or make him stand on his feet for the sake of money. Don't sell the household effects of any person to get revenue - and pay more heed to the development of land than to the collection of revenue”. The Commander of the Faithful has mentioned the reason for the distressful condition of the indigent persons of his time in a few brief sentences and has explained their contents in numerous testaments and precepts. He says: “If an indigent person remains hungry it is because the rich man has withheld his share”. This is the greatest reality which is the basis of modern equitable system. Ali had understood this reality fourteen hundred years ago and formulated clear rules and regulations, as were suited to his time. A Lebanese writer who happens to be my friend says that at one time he was residing in a big city of Europe and the movement to put an end to poverty was being carried on there. One day he met the Education Minister of that country and said to him during the course of conversation: “We Arabs realized centuries ago the class discrimination and its disadvantages which you are endeavouring to eliminate now”. The Minister said: “How?” He replied: Fourteen hundred years ago Ali son of Abu Talib said: “I have not seen excessive wealth with anyone except that I have seen simultaneously the right of someone being infringed”. The Minister said: “We are much better than you”. He said: “How?” The Education Minister said: “Because although an Arab had understood this reality fourteen hundred years ago you have not so far endeavoured to eliminate indigence and are still involved in it whereas we are already endeavouring to get rid of poverty. Hence you are fourteen hundred years behind us .i.e. if we had heard this sentence of Ali at that time we would have taken necessary steps in this behalf immediately”. Before we end this chapter, it will be better to recapitulate what has been stated above and to invite the readers to compare the views of Ali on social matters with those of the modern thinkers and to reflect on them judiciously. We can mention the social principles and views of Ali in nine sentences. These principles and views consist of the causes of affluence and indigence and the class differences of the people or in other words the best rules and regulations for eliminating poverty and need, and establishing equality of rights between them. (1) Prevent hoarding. (2) No indigent person remained hungry except because a rich man usurped his share. (3) I have not seen excessive wealth with anyone except that I have seen the right of someone being infringed. (4) You should be more anxious to develop land then to collect revenue. (5) I do not consider it proper that a person should be compelled to do a work which he does not like. (6) The hearts of the pious people are in Paradise and their bodies are busy doing work in the world. (7) The canal belongs to him who participated in its digging and not to him who did not provide physical or financial assistance to dig it. (8) Keep in view the achievement of a person, and do not attribute the achievements of one person to another. (9) Beware! Don't appropriate to yourselves the things in which all have equal rights. If these sentences of Ali are studied carefully it becomes known that the rights of man in the human society can be protected and his freedom can be ensured only by acting on those principles. - 1. The fact is that this policy began to be acted upon during the time of Uthman himself. During the time of the Prophet and the period of the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar everything belonged to the Muslims and they were treated to have equal rights. However, Uthman's attitude changed considerably. He considered everything to be the property of God and considered himself to be the master of the Muslims. He spent public property as he wished and gave it to whomever he liked. The Commander of the Faithful has drawn a picture of this period in these words: “Consequently the third proudly took charge of the caliphate as if it was a private grazing ground and with bloated stomachs he and members of his clan (Bani Umayya) started plundering the wealth of the Muslim world in the same reckless gluttonous manner which characterises a camel when it devours harvest grass. Uthman deprived the lawful claimants of that property which belonged to all the Muslims and gave it to his kith and kin and near and dear ones. On many occasions he uttered words which reflected the beliefs of the age of ignorance according to which the lands and its produce and the public treasury belonged to the ruler and he was entitled to give it to whomsoever he liked. This sentence of his is found in all history books: “This is God's property. I shall give it to whomsoever I like and shall not give it to any one whom I do not like to give. If any person gets annoyed I don't care”. Mu'awiya and other Umayyad caliphs were the relatives and kinsmen of Uthman. Whatever they did during their own times was done by them in imitation of Uthman. - 2. This goes to show that if the peasants are allowed to share the produce with the land-owners they will work hard to earn more profit from the land. However, if their position is that of wage- earners (as in socialism) they will not strive to increase the produce, knowing that they will get the same wages whatever the quantity of the produce may be. Further, the socialist governments are a heavy burden on their subjects. They interfere with all the affairs of the subjects and the subjects, too are not faithful to such government, because they do not have any faith in them. - 3. The western philosophers are divided into two groups on this question. One group considers forced labour to be unjust and unlawful whereas the other group considers it to be necessary. Socialism holds the latter view. - 4. In the beginning of his letter addressed to the governor the Commander of the Faithful had told him that he should encourage the people to dig the canal and bear the expenses of the work. He who could not personally work, should hire someone to work on his behalf. Being `owners of the canal' means that those who participate in its digging physically or financially own its water and so long as their needs are not fulfilled others cannot utilize it. They have a right to prevent others from taking the water or to allow them to take it on payment. This is the purport of the tradition quoted above viz. “The owners of the canal are those persons who participate in digging it and not those who refrain from doing so”. - 5. In the Islamic law zakat has been made mandatory for this very reason. Abdullah bin Sanan has been quoted in Kafi as saying that Imam Ja`far Sadiq said: “God has fixed that share of the indigent persons in the wealth of rich which may suffice them. If He had considered it to be insufficient He would have ordered that more might be paid”. - 6. Meeting the needs of the indigent and helpless person is not the responsibility of the government only as stated by the author. In Islamic law the government as well as the individuals have been made responsible to support the needy. If the collection of zakat and its distribution among the poor had been the responsibility of the government only, there would have been greater chances of maladministration, because the persons nearer to government have benefited to the exclusion of those who had been at a distance from the government, and had no chances of approaching the authorities concerned. It is for this reason that Almighty God has ordered the individuals that they should pay zakat to their kinsmen, neighbours, and the indigent persons of their own town of whose indigence they are aware, and should hand it over to government only when none of their relatives, neighbours, acquaintances, and residents of their town is entitled to it.	8,232	ENGLISH	1
Fort Reno was established near Darlington Indian Agency in July, 1875. At the time, the fort was located within the Cheyenne-Arapaho Reservation in the federal territory that was officially known as Indian Territory. The fort was established in response to the Cheyenne Uprising of 1874. The 9th and 10th U.S. Cavalry Buffalo Soldiers and the all Black 4th and 25th Infantry units served here.The fort served in many capacities through the years, transitioning from a frontier outpost to a facility operated by the US Army. Many historic buildings remain and have been restored. Some of which are used by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. As a remount station horses and mules were raised here for other military units. In later years the Fort became a gathering place for local community events ,rodeo and polo matches The government continues to maintain a cemetery at this location, the final resting place of Native American scouts, soldiers, and German and Italian prisoners of war. The Historic Fort Reno corporation holds community events at the Fort. There are tours and special programs. On November 11, each year a memorial service is held at the Fort. Fort Reno was built in 1874 to assist the Darlington Indian Agency with keeping the peace with the Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians. After the Indian Wars in the Southern Plans ended the troops stationed at the fort were in evolved with protecting other tribes settled in the Indian Territory from attacks by warring tribes from further west and southwest.The Cheyenne and Arapaho were encouraged to camp around Fort Reno with some of them being employed as guides on some of the western campaigns It was during this time period that the Buffalo Soldiers were also passing though. They often traveled with the herds of cattle moving from Texas along the Chisholm Trail to the railroads in Kansas.Fort Reno served as a Remount Station raising and breeding horses and mules for military units serving in mountainous country nowhere roads were limited There were periods when the Fort would have rodeos and there was a polo matches. The polo grounds no longer exist.During World War II Fort Reno was used as a prisoner of war camp for German and Italian Soldiers. The Chapel on the grounds was built by German soldiers. North of the parade grounds there is the Post Cemetery and is separated by a low stone wall where 70 German and Italian prisoners of war were laid to rest.	<urn:uuid:f4894b05-3409-4ed6-8658-6c67a2a3197e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/14807	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00492.warc.gz	en	0.986815	498	3.40625	3	[ 0.05264943093061447, 0.14896410703659058, 0.5245121717453003, -0.021267978474497795, -0.43279600143432617, -0.14054274559020996, 0.09362310916185379, 0.0037303909193724394, -0.33232083916664124, -0.17184443771839142, 0.20426200330257416, -0.36050963401794434, 0.14057879149913788, 0.5482543...	2	Fort Reno was established near Darlington Indian Agency in July, 1875. At the time, the fort was located within the Cheyenne-Arapaho Reservation in the federal territory that was officially known as Indian Territory. The fort was established in response to the Cheyenne Uprising of 1874. The 9th and 10th U.S. Cavalry Buffalo Soldiers and the all Black 4th and 25th Infantry units served here.The fort served in many capacities through the years, transitioning from a frontier outpost to a facility operated by the US Army. Many historic buildings remain and have been restored. Some of which are used by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. As a remount station horses and mules were raised here for other military units. In later years the Fort became a gathering place for local community events ,rodeo and polo matches The government continues to maintain a cemetery at this location, the final resting place of Native American scouts, soldiers, and German and Italian prisoners of war. The Historic Fort Reno corporation holds community events at the Fort. There are tours and special programs. On November 11, each year a memorial service is held at the Fort. Fort Reno was built in 1874 to assist the Darlington Indian Agency with keeping the peace with the Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians. After the Indian Wars in the Southern Plans ended the troops stationed at the fort were in evolved with protecting other tribes settled in the Indian Territory from attacks by warring tribes from further west and southwest.The Cheyenne and Arapaho were encouraged to camp around Fort Reno with some of them being employed as guides on some of the western campaigns It was during this time period that the Buffalo Soldiers were also passing though. They often traveled with the herds of cattle moving from Texas along the Chisholm Trail to the railroads in Kansas.Fort Reno served as a Remount Station raising and breeding horses and mules for military units serving in mountainous country nowhere roads were limited There were periods when the Fort would have rodeos and there was a polo matches. The polo grounds no longer exist.During World War II Fort Reno was used as a prisoner of war camp for German and Italian Soldiers. The Chapel on the grounds was built by German soldiers. North of the parade grounds there is the Post Cemetery and is separated by a low stone wall where 70 German and Italian prisoners of war were laid to rest.	504	ENGLISH	1
Although Mehmet II initially intended to allow the traditional three-day rape, pillage and looting of the city, as was the custom of all armies during that age, he changed his mind after seeing the great structures of the city being destroyed and stopped the activities after 24 hours. Unfortunately, at that point a large part of the populace was either raped, despoiled, or enslaved. Of the estimated 50,000 persons residing in the city at the time of its capture, approximately half were still free when Mehmet issued his order to cease the pillage of the city. Luckily, however, valuable Christian treasures were later returned to the Church intact, such as the precious Gifts of the Three Magi. After the area was secured, Mehmed entered the city in a ceremonial procession where the local population brought him flowers in congratulations. In Mehmet's view, he was the successor to the Roman Emperor, but he was nicknamed "the Conqueror", and Constantinople became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. [[Hagia Sophia (Constantinople)\|Hagia Sophia]] was converted into a mosque, although the [[Church of Constantinople]] remained intact, and [[ Gennadius II (Scholarius) of Constantinople\|Gennadius Scholarius]] was appointed [[Patriarch]] of Constantinople. The Peloponnesian fortress of Mystras held out until 1460, and the autonomous Byzantine state in Trebizond did not fall until 1461. Many Greeks fled the city and found refuge in Italy, bringing with them many ancient Greek writings that had been lost in the West. These helped contribute to the European Renaissance. Those Greeks who stayed behind were mostly confined to the [[Phanar]] and Galata districts. The Phanariots, as they were called, often provided capable advisors to the Ottoman sultans, but were just as often seen as traitors by other Greeks.	<urn:uuid:2a2d1afc-0501-4322-bd8f-f5c01be92345>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://orthodoxwiki.org/Special:MobileDiff/95280	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00155.warc.gz	en	0.984415	392	3.453125	3	[ 0.0082769226282835, 0.28014272451400757, 0.14544706046581268, -0.1934758424758911, -0.11485296487808228, -0.5590333342552185, -0.07438457012176514, 0.2481299489736557, -0.07251115888357162, -0.10343638807535172, -0.3651115298271179, -0.3628782629966736, -0.12198971956968307, -0.18068361282...	4	Although Mehmet II initially intended to allow the traditional three-day rape, pillage and looting of the city, as was the custom of all armies during that age, he changed his mind after seeing the great structures of the city being destroyed and stopped the activities after 24 hours. Unfortunately, at that point a large part of the populace was either raped, despoiled, or enslaved. Of the estimated 50,000 persons residing in the city at the time of its capture, approximately half were still free when Mehmet issued his order to cease the pillage of the city. Luckily, however, valuable Christian treasures were later returned to the Church intact, such as the precious Gifts of the Three Magi. After the area was secured, Mehmed entered the city in a ceremonial procession where the local population brought him flowers in congratulations. In Mehmet's view, he was the successor to the Roman Emperor, but he was nicknamed "the Conqueror", and Constantinople became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. [[Hagia Sophia (Constantinople)\|Hagia Sophia]] was converted into a mosque, although the [[Church of Constantinople]] remained intact, and [[ Gennadius II (Scholarius) of Constantinople\|Gennadius Scholarius]] was appointed [[Patriarch]] of Constantinople. The Peloponnesian fortress of Mystras held out until 1460, and the autonomous Byzantine state in Trebizond did not fall until 1461. Many Greeks fled the city and found refuge in Italy, bringing with them many ancient Greek writings that had been lost in the West. These helped contribute to the European Renaissance. Those Greeks who stayed behind were mostly confined to the [[Phanar]] and Galata districts. The Phanariots, as they were called, often provided capable advisors to the Ottoman sultans, but were just as often seen as traitors by other Greeks.	404	ENGLISH	1
Kameron Harris. Mrs. Thompson. Hist 102-10. 2 May 2017. 824 WordsMar 22, 20174 Pages 2 May 2017 Conspiracy Behind the Legacy Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy were two America’s greatest presidents. Many know Abraham Lincoln as the 16th President of America, face of US currency such as the bronze penny and five-dollar bill, and the President who freed the slaves. JFK was the 35th President of America, household favorite, and the President who saved the world from nuclear destruction. But deep inside the walls of the White House, the two Presidents had other motives for that occurred during their term and many people believe that it led to both of their assassination. JFK and Abraham Lincoln were American Icons, and their secret past seem to hurt their legacy in the afterlife.…show more content… During his time in office, he was faced with major issues including the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Speed Race, and the creation of Peace Corps. He also played a huge role in the Civil Rights movement such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that Lyndon B. Johnson took over shortly after JFK’s assassination. During his presidency, there were a lot of speculations about how JFK was elected. The Kennedys had mob times with Sam Ginacana, a notorious mob boss in Chicago. It is said that JFK’s father, Joseph Kennedy, was affiliated with Ginacana during the Prohibition bootlegging alcohol. The stories from numerous sources state that the mob helped Kennedy win Virginia in the 1960 Presidential Election. Frank Sinatra, the famous singer, was the mutual connection between both parties. So, when people put the clues together, they figured JFK had some affiliation with the mob and he did. But was the universe hinting a possible parallel life between the two great Presidents? Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy had a parallel life pattern, which makes their lives an even greater mystery. First, JFK was elected one hundred years after Abraham Lincoln. As far as the world could see, they both impacted the black community from freeing the slaves to embracing civil rights. But even to this day in the South, anyone or public figure trying to help the African American society will face the fate of death. The South has	<urn:uuid:7a9e28be-2893-45bb-bd0e-16e3f387f8db>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Kameron-Harris-Mrs-Thompson-Hist-102-10-FKVDCTKLD4HW	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00173.warc.gz	en	0.982212	461	3.34375	3	[ -0.3733312487602234, 0.5142642855644226, -0.05598697438836098, -0.2952187955379486, -0.12552961707115173, 0.4253426492214203, 0.3319161534309387, -0.1503763049840927, -0.026106219738721848, 0.06251005828380585, -0.10506632924079895, 0.5843597054481506, -0.20833374559879303, 0.2833212614059...	1	Kameron Harris. Mrs. Thompson. Hist 102-10. 2 May 2017. 824 WordsMar 22, 20174 Pages 2 May 2017 Conspiracy Behind the Legacy Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy were two America’s greatest presidents. Many know Abraham Lincoln as the 16th President of America, face of US currency such as the bronze penny and five-dollar bill, and the President who freed the slaves. JFK was the 35th President of America, household favorite, and the President who saved the world from nuclear destruction. But deep inside the walls of the White House, the two Presidents had other motives for that occurred during their term and many people believe that it led to both of their assassination. JFK and Abraham Lincoln were American Icons, and their secret past seem to hurt their legacy in the afterlife.…show more content… During his time in office, he was faced with major issues including the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Speed Race, and the creation of Peace Corps. He also played a huge role in the Civil Rights movement such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that Lyndon B. Johnson took over shortly after JFK’s assassination. During his presidency, there were a lot of speculations about how JFK was elected. The Kennedys had mob times with Sam Ginacana, a notorious mob boss in Chicago. It is said that JFK’s father, Joseph Kennedy, was affiliated with Ginacana during the Prohibition bootlegging alcohol. The stories from numerous sources state that the mob helped Kennedy win Virginia in the 1960 Presidential Election. Frank Sinatra, the famous singer, was the mutual connection between both parties. So, when people put the clues together, they figured JFK had some affiliation with the mob and he did. But was the universe hinting a possible parallel life between the two great Presidents? Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy had a parallel life pattern, which makes their lives an even greater mystery. First, JFK was elected one hundred years after Abraham Lincoln. As far as the world could see, they both impacted the black community from freeing the slaves to embracing civil rights. But even to this day in the South, anyone or public figure trying to help the African American society will face the fate of death. The South has	484	ENGLISH	1
History of Islam Muslim history began in Arabia when Muhammad the Quran in the 7th century. The historical development of Islam has affected political, economic, and military trends both inside and outside the Islamic world. As with Christianity, the concept of an Islamic world is useful when one looks at different periods of human history. Early Muslim historyEdit After Muhammad died, the Muslim leadership was assumed by Abu Bakr. He was followed by Umar, Uthman ibn Affan and then Ali. These four are called the Rashidun caliphs which means The Righteous Caliphs. The word caliph means religious and spiritual leader. Under these caliphs Islam became one of the most important religions of the middle East. Administrative offices of the Muslim nation were established. Under Umar more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire was conquered by the Muslims. Umar also started the Muslim calendar. Islamic civil warsEdit The First FitnaEdit The first civil war in Islam, also known as the First Fitna broke out in Islam during the rule of the fourth caliph Ali and lasted throughout his caliphate. The third caliph Uthman ibn Affan had been murdered by rebel Muslim groups who had political motives. After Ali took over, the most important problem he faced was that of punishing those responsible for murder. However many people felt that before accepting the position of the caliph, Ali should have focused his attention on finding and punishing the murderers. A group of people led by Muhammad's wife Aisha, her brothers in law Talhah and Zubair ibn al-Awam refused to recognize Ali's caliphate. They instead raised an army which met Ali's army at Basra in Iraq, originally for the purposes of negotiations. In the night, some fighting broke out, probably out of confusion or due to rebel groups who were involved in the infamous murder. This led to the Battle of Bassorah (also known as Battle of the Camel) in which Ali's party emerged victorious. Aisha was escorted back to Medina honorably after the battle by Ali. This battle however did not entirely finish the tension in the Muslim empire. Ali was soon challenged by Muawiyah, the governor of the Muslim provinces of Syria. He too raised the issue of punishing Uthman's murderers and refused to acknowledge Ali as caliph until the issue had been solved. Muawiyah was a kinsman of Uthman and his army pledged to bring to justice the murderers and those who sheltered them. This reference to people who are sheltering the murderers was towards Ali and his followers. Accordingly, the two groups met and fought a battle, called the Battle of Siffin. This battle ended in a draw and so both groups decided on arbitration which also did not lead to any concrete decision. Another group of Muslims, The Kharijites who had previously been with Ali, meanwhile rejected him because they felt that he was not following true Islam and conducting business over the caliphate as if it were his own property. In the following years Ali's governors could not prevent his losing provinces to Muawiyah who increased his strength by further expanding his army. Ali had shifted the capital of the caliphate from Medina to Kufa in 656. He was killed by a Kharijite assassin in Kufa in 661.	<urn:uuid:89778f3c-0cb8-4a08-89f6-d439eee881d0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islam	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00353.warc.gz	en	0.987132	671	3.6875	4	[ -0.06002798303961754, 0.5260436534881592, 0.18276725709438324, 0.10554841160774231, -0.31895971298217773, 0.05492182821035385, 0.09841907024383545, -0.05351601541042328, 0.1794310212135315, 0.08476091921329498, 0.1620689332485199, -0.13578815758228302, -0.01681610569357872, -0.010389615781...	2	History of Islam Muslim history began in Arabia when Muhammad the Quran in the 7th century. The historical development of Islam has affected political, economic, and military trends both inside and outside the Islamic world. As with Christianity, the concept of an Islamic world is useful when one looks at different periods of human history. Early Muslim historyEdit After Muhammad died, the Muslim leadership was assumed by Abu Bakr. He was followed by Umar, Uthman ibn Affan and then Ali. These four are called the Rashidun caliphs which means The Righteous Caliphs. The word caliph means religious and spiritual leader. Under these caliphs Islam became one of the most important religions of the middle East. Administrative offices of the Muslim nation were established. Under Umar more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire was conquered by the Muslims. Umar also started the Muslim calendar. Islamic civil warsEdit The First FitnaEdit The first civil war in Islam, also known as the First Fitna broke out in Islam during the rule of the fourth caliph Ali and lasted throughout his caliphate. The third caliph Uthman ibn Affan had been murdered by rebel Muslim groups who had political motives. After Ali took over, the most important problem he faced was that of punishing those responsible for murder. However many people felt that before accepting the position of the caliph, Ali should have focused his attention on finding and punishing the murderers. A group of people led by Muhammad's wife Aisha, her brothers in law Talhah and Zubair ibn al-Awam refused to recognize Ali's caliphate. They instead raised an army which met Ali's army at Basra in Iraq, originally for the purposes of negotiations. In the night, some fighting broke out, probably out of confusion or due to rebel groups who were involved in the infamous murder. This led to the Battle of Bassorah (also known as Battle of the Camel) in which Ali's party emerged victorious. Aisha was escorted back to Medina honorably after the battle by Ali. This battle however did not entirely finish the tension in the Muslim empire. Ali was soon challenged by Muawiyah, the governor of the Muslim provinces of Syria. He too raised the issue of punishing Uthman's murderers and refused to acknowledge Ali as caliph until the issue had been solved. Muawiyah was a kinsman of Uthman and his army pledged to bring to justice the murderers and those who sheltered them. This reference to people who are sheltering the murderers was towards Ali and his followers. Accordingly, the two groups met and fought a battle, called the Battle of Siffin. This battle ended in a draw and so both groups decided on arbitration which also did not lead to any concrete decision. Another group of Muslims, The Kharijites who had previously been with Ali, meanwhile rejected him because they felt that he was not following true Islam and conducting business over the caliphate as if it were his own property. In the following years Ali's governors could not prevent his losing provinces to Muawiyah who increased his strength by further expanding his army. Ali had shifted the capital of the caliphate from Medina to Kufa in 656. He was killed by a Kharijite assassin in Kufa in 661.	691	ENGLISH	1
Tax Day isn’t a holiday in the United States. Instead, it’s a day in which tax payers have to have their Income Tax information submitted to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). This day usually falls on April 15th but severe weather conditions or holidays may cause Tax Day to be switched to another day. History of Tax Day In 1861, the very first Income tax was started in the United States. This initial income tax was used to fund the American Civil War effort by levying a 3% tax on all households which made over $800 a year. Although it was wildly successful, many Americans didn’t like it and by 1872 it was repealed as being unconstitutional. However, the idea of taxing personal income didn’t go away. Instead, it was reintroduced in 1894 under the Revenue Act. This tax levied a 2% tax on all personal income. Many people at the time didn’t believe that the federal government should be able to levy taxes on personal income. In 1913, the issue was solved once and for all when the 16th amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified. This gave the federal government the power it needed to levy income taxes and allowed for the creation of a more modern tax system. Over the years, the federal income tax has changed dramatically. During WWII, the top income brackets were heavily taxed. Nowadays, the upper income pay significantly less tax–although the top brackets make significantly more money than they ever did. The very poor traditionally do not pay an income tax and may, in fact, get some form of rebate or subsidy from the federal government. Originally, the deadline for filing federal taxes, or Tax Day, was on March 1st. However, it changed to different dates over the years. After WWI, it was moved to March 15th and eventually was changed to April 15th during the 1950s. However, if that date falls on the weekend or on a holiday, then it is extended to the next business day. Tax Day Customs & Traditions In the United States, Tax Day is not a federal or state holiday. Therefore, schools, businesses, and other organization remain open. Some post offices stay open later to ensure that people can have their tax returns postmarked before midnight. Post offices may be extremely congested on this day – depending on their location. When is Tax Day? \|This year (2020)\|\|April 15 (Wednesday)\|\|Multiple dates - more\| \|Next year (2021)\|\|April 15 (Thursday)\|\|Multiple dates - more\| \|Last year (2019)\|\|April 15 (Monday)\|\|Multiple dates - more\|	<urn:uuid:7c4cc165-058c-4047-902d-9fde30018da5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.holidayscalendar.com/event/tax-day/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00501.warc.gz	en	0.980881	551	3.84375	4	[ -0.4867176413536072, -0.0755363404750824, 0.16364872455596924, -0.1250585913658142, -0.1116226464509964, 0.16894492506980896, -0.30724215507507324, 0.1559470295906067, -0.08688545972108841, 0.5337000489234924, 0.608877420425415, 0.7461612224578857, 0.036016616970300674, 0.5190299153327942,...	4	Tax Day isn’t a holiday in the United States. Instead, it’s a day in which tax payers have to have their Income Tax information submitted to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). This day usually falls on April 15th but severe weather conditions or holidays may cause Tax Day to be switched to another day. History of Tax Day In 1861, the very first Income tax was started in the United States. This initial income tax was used to fund the American Civil War effort by levying a 3% tax on all households which made over $800 a year. Although it was wildly successful, many Americans didn’t like it and by 1872 it was repealed as being unconstitutional. However, the idea of taxing personal income didn’t go away. Instead, it was reintroduced in 1894 under the Revenue Act. This tax levied a 2% tax on all personal income. Many people at the time didn’t believe that the federal government should be able to levy taxes on personal income. In 1913, the issue was solved once and for all when the 16th amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified. This gave the federal government the power it needed to levy income taxes and allowed for the creation of a more modern tax system. Over the years, the federal income tax has changed dramatically. During WWII, the top income brackets were heavily taxed. Nowadays, the upper income pay significantly less tax–although the top brackets make significantly more money than they ever did. The very poor traditionally do not pay an income tax and may, in fact, get some form of rebate or subsidy from the federal government. Originally, the deadline for filing federal taxes, or Tax Day, was on March 1st. However, it changed to different dates over the years. After WWI, it was moved to March 15th and eventually was changed to April 15th during the 1950s. However, if that date falls on the weekend or on a holiday, then it is extended to the next business day. Tax Day Customs & Traditions In the United States, Tax Day is not a federal or state holiday. Therefore, schools, businesses, and other organization remain open. Some post offices stay open later to ensure that people can have their tax returns postmarked before midnight. Post offices may be extremely congested on this day – depending on their location. When is Tax Day? \|This year (2020)\|\|April 15 (Wednesday)\|\|Multiple dates - more\| \|Next year (2021)\|\|April 15 (Thursday)\|\|Multiple dates - more\| \|Last year (2019)\|\|April 15 (Monday)\|\|Multiple dates - more\|	570	ENGLISH	1
Pages that link here: Tower Mills represent the most famous windmill design of all time. These very expensive windmills were first popularized in 12th century when only the rich nobles had the funds to erect them on their territories. Windmills are useful for many things, but one of their most popular use case scenarios is their ability to transform the wind power into powering water pumps. With efficient designs being made for several centuries, windpump mills have been made more than million times all over the world. History of wind power reaches all the way back to the 4th millennia BC when first sailing ships were created in the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia. From there inventors utilized similar principles to move sails of windmills, which fueled industrial revolution of Middle East, Asia, Europe and entire world. First examples of windmills that were created in Europe were of Post Mill design. They appeared first around 11th and 12th century, and they never went out of fashion even when other more efficient designs rose in popularity.	<urn:uuid:156f4867-d6bf-4752-84f3-d6db797057a0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.historyofwindmills.com/picture/picture-of-windmill-house/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00114.warc.gz	en	0.98148	212	3.328125	3	[ -0.30593881011009216, 0.3023235499858856, 0.01282405387610197, -0.2724131643772125, -0.3100900650024414, -0.048470545560121536, -0.2297258824110031, -0.055131103843450546, -0.03953641280531883, -0.20506155490875244, -0.12029403448104858, -0.03655517101287842, -0.22236882150173187, -0.39121...	1	Pages that link here: Tower Mills represent the most famous windmill design of all time. These very expensive windmills were first popularized in 12th century when only the rich nobles had the funds to erect them on their territories. Windmills are useful for many things, but one of their most popular use case scenarios is their ability to transform the wind power into powering water pumps. With efficient designs being made for several centuries, windpump mills have been made more than million times all over the world. History of wind power reaches all the way back to the 4th millennia BC when first sailing ships were created in the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia. From there inventors utilized similar principles to move sails of windmills, which fueled industrial revolution of Middle East, Asia, Europe and entire world. First examples of windmills that were created in Europe were of Post Mill design. They appeared first around 11th and 12th century, and they never went out of fashion even when other more efficient designs rose in popularity.	216	ENGLISH	1
In this edition of our miniseries, marking the 300th anniversary of the birth of Empress Maria Theresa, we look at one of the most important reforms she introduced: compulsory schooling for all, which set the foundations for a centralized education system, the basics of which remain to this day. Empress Maria Theresa liked order and this trait was highly prominent in many of the reforms she undertook be it the running of the state administration, the introduction of numbers for houses in place of names which made it easier to find an address or the fact that she ordered the first ever census of the population, albeit concerned only men and cattle in those days. She was equally methodical in introducing compulsory education for all, ordering that all children, boys and girls alike between the age of 6 and 12 years should attend school or receive a private education. Magdalena Šustová of the Museum of Pedagogics says that, while a vast number of people were illiterate at the time, it was actually poverty that prompted the empress to introduce compulsory schooling. “Soon after ascending the throne Maria Theresa was unwillingly dragged into wars and conflicts and paradoxically it was the consequences of those wars that led her to introduce her school reform. The war left many orphans and impoverished families and created areas which today we would call “socially excluded areas”. Many people had no livelihood and one of the instruments that was to reduce poverty in all the empress’ dominions was education and the reform of the school system.” Up until then, education was almost exclusively in the hands of religious orders and only accessible to the higher classes. Maria Theresa changed that. She introduced compulsory education for boys and girls across the board, establishing the first network of public schools, and giving them their first curricula by stating what subjects should be taught and overseeing the introduction of the first school book. The reform was not popular with the lower classes, who sent their children to work in the field, but the empress pushed it through with force, threatening to throw parents who refused to send their children to school in prison. The rich, who could afford tutors, were free to secure their children’s education by private means. “Her biggest inspiration came from Prussia, from the education reform in Prussia. Although she fought against Prussia she was smart enough to learn from them and commissioned a respected Prussian scholar –Abbot Ignaz Felbiger to draft an education reform plan which she then implemented. So her main inspiration was Prussia.” In 1774 Felbiger came to Vienna and was appointed General Commissioner of Education for all of Maria Theresa’s Habsburg dominions. The school reforms were aimed to create a sense of national unity of the population of the Austrian Empire and set higher education standards. The same year he issued a common school ordinance and in 1775 produced a school methodology book: Methodenbuch für Lehrer der deutschen Schulen. It contained instructions regarding the methodology of teaching, and introduced the practice of questioning pupils. It was a revolution in the field of education, which until then relied heavily on memorizing. In fact, in 1774 there were many teachers who themselves could not read and write. Schools were gradually established around the monarchy and the education system was centralized. Magdalena Šustová explains: “Children were taught to read, write and count and they were taught religion – back then it was the Catholic religion but during the reign of Josef II who decreed religious tolerance also Lutheran or Calvin. Compulsory school education lasted for six years. In the bigger towns the schools were of a higher standard and pupils were taught German as a second language, but in village schools pupils were taught in their native language –so here it was Czech or German in areas where the majority population was German. In secondary schools all subjects were taught in German and it was the same at universities. So a higher education meant you had to learn German.” Despite her busy schedule, Maria Theresa closely monitored the school reform and her own sixteen children were subjected to a demanding regime. She was a hard disciplinarian who controlled every minute of their time, following their progress and sending their tutors lengthy instructions regarding which areas needed to be improved. She criticized their speech, their behaviour, the fact that they slouched or rested their elbows on their desks. In later life she kept up the stream of letters telling her daughters how to improve their marriage and hold their husband’s interest. She insisted that girls be equally well educated as boys with only a few minor differences. “Compulsory education was the same for boys and girls. The only area where the education differed was in handwork where girls usually took sowing classes or needlework while the boys were taught things like beekeeping and crop growing. But it is true that the foundations for an equal education were laid down by Empress Maria Theresa.” The education reform is one of the most highly valued reforms introduced by the empress. When she came to the throne the level of illiteracy was very high and although the progress made was gradual historians say that ten years after it was launched seventy percent of children in her dominions attended school. Czech IT specialists organize “hackathon” to give government online motorway vignette sales system for free Minister: Czech Republic won’t take in 40 child refugees from Greek camps CzechTourism head hints attracting tourists no longer agency’s main goal Three Czechs trapped in Wuhan due to coronavirus EU, Russia row over WWII, with Poles and Czechs on front lines	<urn:uuid:e1827e24-0020-4cbf-8145-0e8f50d0b452>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://m.radio.cz/en/section/czech-history/empress-maria-theresa-an-enlightened-ruler-who-recognized-the-value-of-education-for-all	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00089.warc.gz	en	0.983355	1,169	3.578125	4	[ -0.1176738366484642, 0.03435158357024193, 0.3640916049480438, -0.3218728303909302, -0.03554493933916092, 0.1686737984418869, -0.4849588871002197, 0.48696091771125793, 0.14068982005119324, 0.03764398768544197, 0.10976782441139221, -0.42773306369781494, -0.2642439603805542, 0.199875488877296...	1	In this edition of our miniseries, marking the 300th anniversary of the birth of Empress Maria Theresa, we look at one of the most important reforms she introduced: compulsory schooling for all, which set the foundations for a centralized education system, the basics of which remain to this day. Empress Maria Theresa liked order and this trait was highly prominent in many of the reforms she undertook be it the running of the state administration, the introduction of numbers for houses in place of names which made it easier to find an address or the fact that she ordered the first ever census of the population, albeit concerned only men and cattle in those days. She was equally methodical in introducing compulsory education for all, ordering that all children, boys and girls alike between the age of 6 and 12 years should attend school or receive a private education. Magdalena Šustová of the Museum of Pedagogics says that, while a vast number of people were illiterate at the time, it was actually poverty that prompted the empress to introduce compulsory schooling. “Soon after ascending the throne Maria Theresa was unwillingly dragged into wars and conflicts and paradoxically it was the consequences of those wars that led her to introduce her school reform. The war left many orphans and impoverished families and created areas which today we would call “socially excluded areas”. Many people had no livelihood and one of the instruments that was to reduce poverty in all the empress’ dominions was education and the reform of the school system.” Up until then, education was almost exclusively in the hands of religious orders and only accessible to the higher classes. Maria Theresa changed that. She introduced compulsory education for boys and girls across the board, establishing the first network of public schools, and giving them their first curricula by stating what subjects should be taught and overseeing the introduction of the first school book. The reform was not popular with the lower classes, who sent their children to work in the field, but the empress pushed it through with force, threatening to throw parents who refused to send their children to school in prison. The rich, who could afford tutors, were free to secure their children’s education by private means. “Her biggest inspiration came from Prussia, from the education reform in Prussia. Although she fought against Prussia she was smart enough to learn from them and commissioned a respected Prussian scholar –Abbot Ignaz Felbiger to draft an education reform plan which she then implemented. So her main inspiration was Prussia.” In 1774 Felbiger came to Vienna and was appointed General Commissioner of Education for all of Maria Theresa’s Habsburg dominions. The school reforms were aimed to create a sense of national unity of the population of the Austrian Empire and set higher education standards. The same year he issued a common school ordinance and in 1775 produced a school methodology book: Methodenbuch für Lehrer der deutschen Schulen. It contained instructions regarding the methodology of teaching, and introduced the practice of questioning pupils. It was a revolution in the field of education, which until then relied heavily on memorizing. In fact, in 1774 there were many teachers who themselves could not read and write. Schools were gradually established around the monarchy and the education system was centralized. Magdalena Šustová explains: “Children were taught to read, write and count and they were taught religion – back then it was the Catholic religion but during the reign of Josef II who decreed religious tolerance also Lutheran or Calvin. Compulsory school education lasted for six years. In the bigger towns the schools were of a higher standard and pupils were taught German as a second language, but in village schools pupils were taught in their native language –so here it was Czech or German in areas where the majority population was German. In secondary schools all subjects were taught in German and it was the same at universities. So a higher education meant you had to learn German.” Despite her busy schedule, Maria Theresa closely monitored the school reform and her own sixteen children were subjected to a demanding regime. She was a hard disciplinarian who controlled every minute of their time, following their progress and sending their tutors lengthy instructions regarding which areas needed to be improved. She criticized their speech, their behaviour, the fact that they slouched or rested their elbows on their desks. In later life she kept up the stream of letters telling her daughters how to improve their marriage and hold their husband’s interest. She insisted that girls be equally well educated as boys with only a few minor differences. “Compulsory education was the same for boys and girls. The only area where the education differed was in handwork where girls usually took sowing classes or needlework while the boys were taught things like beekeeping and crop growing. But it is true that the foundations for an equal education were laid down by Empress Maria Theresa.” The education reform is one of the most highly valued reforms introduced by the empress. When she came to the throne the level of illiteracy was very high and although the progress made was gradual historians say that ten years after it was launched seventy percent of children in her dominions attended school. Czech IT specialists organize “hackathon” to give government online motorway vignette sales system for free Minister: Czech Republic won’t take in 40 child refugees from Greek camps CzechTourism head hints attracting tourists no longer agency’s main goal Three Czechs trapped in Wuhan due to coronavirus EU, Russia row over WWII, with Poles and Czechs on front lines	1,137	ENGLISH	1
Location: along the shore of Lake Ontario between Burlington and Hamilton The Beach Strip is a large sandbar lying at the western extremity of Lake Ontario. It separates the lake from Burlington Bay, a land-locked harbour of 10,000 acres of calm and protected waters. The elevation of the sand strip is no more than ten feet above the lake, while its length is approximately four miles. Long before the first white settlers appeared in Upper Canada, the Beach was known to local aboriginals as “Daonasedao” which means “where the sand forms a bar.” There is no evidence of the aboriginals actually inhabiting the Beach, though the area was clearly visited by them for its abundant fish and game. Local tribes also met along the Beach to trade. The Beach Strip was a very beautiful location. Its shoreline was overhung with willow trees and inhabited by herons, loons, kingfishers, swans, speckled plovers and ducks. Among the numerous fish that swam the waters were perch, whitefish, trout, sturgeon, bass and salmon. These fish proved to foster a rich fishing industry once the first white settlers came to the area. As Hamilton was being settled, a shallow area of water connecting the lake to the bay became a portage and loading zone. The Beach also became the main trail between the settlements of York (Toronto) and Newark (Niagara-on-the Lake). In 1794, John Graves Simcoe, who was appointed Upper Canada’s first Governor, decided to build a large two-storey frame house on the Beach, to serve as a government inn. This structure was named the King’s Head and served as a government house and inn for the area. The King’s Head was also used for military purposes, as a depot for stores and provisions as well as a rendezvous for militia and regular troops. During the War of 1812, the Beach Strip was visited by American troops. Two American schooners landed at the Beach in 1813 and let off close to two hundred men. These men fought back the troops stationed at the King’s Head and the then ransacked and set fire to it, burning it to the ground. After this, they quickly left the area. In 1994, a plaque was unveiled at the site of the King’s Head Inn, recognizing it as a historic landmark. In 1823, “An Act to Provide for Constructing a Navigable Canal Between Burlington Bay and Lake Ontario” was passed. This was the first canal project attempted in Upper Canada and was a major undertaking in terms of both financing and engineering. Labourers were imported by the hundreds to work as diggers at the canal. Initially, the completed canal was only 60 feet wide. Alterations were made to allow for the passage of larger vessels and by 1850 the canal had expanded to being 120 feet in width. It was later expanded again, in 1930, to a width of 300 feet with two channels. 1830 saw the construction of a 21-foot swing bridge over the canal. A schooner crashed into the bridge not long after its construction and put it out of operation. The bridge was replaced by a scow-ferry service which continued to be in use until 1896, transporting people and animals across the canal free of charge. A 40-foot high wooden lighthouse was constructed on the south bank of the Beach in the mid-1830’s. It was used to guide vessels into Hamilton. Taverns and inns began springing up along the Beach Strip and visitors began to frequent the area, arriving by steamboat from Toronto. The Dynes Tavern, built in 1846, is still on the Beach today and is the oldest operating tavern in Ontario. In the late 1850’s, a limestone lighthouse was built by the beach canal. It still stands today. A luxurious resort hotel known as the Ocean House was opened on the Beach on May 24, 1875. It became a popular entertainment spot in Hamilton, and with its construction the Beach was well on its way to becoming known as a resort rather than a residential area. The Beach became popular for summer fun, with such activities as rowing, swimming, sailing, riding the steamers, sunbathing, strolling along the piers and boardwalks, dining, bowling and billiards. More luxury hotels were built, including the Perry House, which was built in the same year as the Ocean House. Perry House eventually burned down, but the Lakeside hotel opened on the same site only months later, in 1918. A railway was installed in 1876. This made the Beach much more accessible to people who were not local residents. The first engine arrived on the new track on November 8, 1876. In July, 1879, Bethel Church (Methodist) was constructed to serve the spiritual needs of the many residents on the Beach Strip. The church was a major landmark until it was demolished in 1958. Next to the church, a two-storey summer sanitarium for sick children was also built. It became known as Elsinore, a “place where women and children needing a rest could go without charge.” By 1890, the Beach Strip had assumed the look of a well-laid-out summer resort, complete with wooden sidewalks, oil lamp posts, lakeside lawns and plenty of trees. The Royal Hamilton Yacht Club was soon built across from Ocean House, with an official opening in May, 1892. Three years later, the Ocean House burned to the ground and was replaced by a new structure, Brant House, which opened in November, 1899. In 1915, the yacht club also burned to the ground. In 1896, an electric radial line was built, offering more and better transportation around the Beach. An electronically operated swing bridge was built across the canal, with modern sidewalks for pedestrians. At this time, the ferry service ceased operation. An amusement park was opened on the Beach in 1903. Canal Amusement Park, as it was known, was opened by the Canada Amusement Company. The park consisted of nineteen rides by the time it closed in 1978, including a 1912 ferris wheel and a 1914 merry-go-round. In 1905, a group of women from the Anglican Church founded the Girls’ Friendly Society Holiday House. They provided accommodations on the Beach for girls and women needing rest or a change of air and surroundings. Most of these girls and women paid, but some were given free lodgings. The holiday house was quite popular initially, but had lost its appeal to young women by 1942 and was sold. In 1907, the province, recognizing the Beach’s uniqueness, drafted the Burlington Beach Act and established a Beach Commission government to take care of the Beach and its residents in much the same way as a municipal government would. By 1910, the Beach had become quite popular, both as a summer resort and a permanent dwelling place. People would come from miles around to spend time at the Beach and have fun. Partially to accommodate the increased popularity of the Beach, another church was built on the site in 1915. A year later, in 1916, construction of the Beach Bungalow School was completed. This was a sure sign that the Beach was growing as a community. The building, which cost a total of $4,000 to build, was a one-room frame schoolhouse with an initial attendance of forty-five students. By 1940, this had grown to 289 students, with a staff of six. As the number of students attending the school increased, the Masonic Hall next to the school had to be used for classrooms. In 1950, the school caught fire and was destroyed. A new school, named Bell Cairn School, was built, with construction being completed in 1952. This school included eleven classrooms, a shop, a kitchen, an assembly hall, a staff room, two lunch rooms and a clinic. This school, despite being larger than the previous one, was overcrowded from the start, with 456 students in attendance upon its opening. Control of the school was transferred from the Beach Commission to the Hamilton Board of Education in 1957 and in 1972 an addition to the building was constructed. Not long after the school’s new addition was completed, enrollment in the school dropped considerably. By 1980 there were only eighty-eight students attending the school. Because of the low number of students, a decision was made in January of 1981 to close the school. By 1916, the popularity of the Beach had already reached its peak. Whereas people had once flocked to the Beach by the thousands, with the development of new methods of transportation, such as the automobile, they were now visiting resorts elsewhere. This change caused the Beach to become less of a resort area and more of a residential part of Hamilton. Permanent homes on the Beach Strip became more popular than ever. The swing bridge, which had replaced the ferry service some years earlier, was replaced in 1930 by a bascule bridge. The bridge connected Hamilton to Burlington and Toronto, opening laterally to allow sailing vessels through the canal. On closing its arms, the bridge provided a roadway for heavy trucks and other motorists crossing the canal. This new bridge would continue to be in service until 1952 when it was rammed by a sand boat and damaged, at which time a Baillie bridge was erected as a temporary replacement. Over the years, traffic volume steadily increased and the Burlington Bay Skyway Bridge was eventually constructed to handle the increase. In 1943, the Beach was faced with a flood problem. This was not the first time or the last time Beach property owners would experience floods. The flooding was a result of the fluctuation of Lake Ontario’s water levels due to heavy rains and snowfalls. Many homes had their basements flooded. Carp splashed about in people’s backyards and basements and boats were used on the bayside street. At the time, the Beach was nicknamed Little Venice. Similar flooding occurred in 1947, 1952, 1954 and 1955. On August 5, 1946, Beach War Veteran’s Memorial Park, located along the Strip, was dedicated. A grand ceremony was held which included a fireworks display and sporting events such as boat races. In the 1950’s, traffic along the Beach Strip was a problem and residents complained about the high number of trucks which were creating a lot of noise in the area as well as unsettling fumes. The Burlington Beach Commission was disbanded on January 1, 1957, when the City of Hamilton decided to assume responsibility of the Beach. Residents of the Beach Strip had mixed feelings over this, and many would later claim that the City did not do nearly as well a job at looking after their needs as the Commission had and that the community spirit which once flourished within the Beach Strip had dissipated. In 1964, the City of Burlington was awarded the section of the Beach Strip north of the canal. This annexation was granted by the Ontario Municipal Board, despite the City of Hamilton’s strong opposition. This same year, two hundred women and children of the Beach barricaded Beach Boulevard at both ends, protesting the trucks which were allowed on the Beach. “The Baby Buggy Barricade,” as it became known, was effective. The following September, it was declared that trucks would no longer be permitted on the Beach Strip. By the late 1960’s, a new group, the Hamilton Beach Community Council, had formed to take the role of protecting Beach residents rights. Their duties ranged from voicing general complaints to the City to beautifying the area and re-creating the lost village-like atmosphere. The 1970’s began on a low note for the Beach Strip. Pollution, which had been an issue for over twenty years but had never been extremely serious, was now making headlines. In June, 1970, protesters complained of the large number of dead fish in the Beach area and of the large number of maggots and flies which were being attracted to the rotting fish. The odor along the Strip was quite upsetting for many residents. The City responded by spraying the area with malathion, a pesticide approved by the federal government which would not pollute the lake, but would help rid the Beach of its fly and maggot problem. The problem of dead fish resurfaced the following June. This time the City responded by having work crews spend more than three weeks removing 150,000 pounds of rotting fish daily. Another major problem which was bothering citizens at the same time as the rotting fish incident was the fact that there were not enough sewers in the Beach area. Residents had been pleading with the City for years, but nothing was done about the matter. Finally, some residents sought financial aid from the federal government, for the required sewers along the strip. The federal government agreed that it would donate funds, but the City still refused to look into the matter, claiming that the unique sandy soils of the Beach made it impossible to provide sewers without incurring a great cost. In 1973, the Beach Strip was faced with yet another serious flood problem. Water seeped up through basements, damaging property. By September, 1973, the City was seeking provincial and federal support in purchasing the homes of all the people on the Beach Strip who wished to sell their property. These homes (between forty and fifty of them) would have been very difficult to sell if the government did not help out. The Ontario Municipal Board gave its approval to the City’s plans and in 1974 the City agreed to purchase thirteen damaged homes on the Strip. The City planned to purchase as many of the homes as possible, over a twenty year period and then clear the land and turn it into a beautiful park. This plan, despite the arguing between City officials and residents, eventually fell through and was not acted upon. Action on the Beach seemed to be turning towards preservation in the late 1970’s. In 1976, a Spring Clean-Up campaign was organized and the Hamilton Beach Preservation Committee was formed not long after. The major aim of this group was to promote and foster better relations between the Beach Strip, the City and the Region, by affording residents a vehicle through which they could voice their complaints. In 1976, the Dofasco steel company was to blame for covering the Beach Strip in black coal dust. Even the interiors of residents’ homes were not safe from the coal dust, and five hundred locals signed a petition protesting pollution in their area, demanding that something be done. Following this, the Minister of the Environment assured residents that the incident would not be repeated. On January 27, 1977, a more severe reoccurrence of the black coal dust incident occurred. This time, claims were filed against two steel companies, Stelco and Dofasco. These companies were given sixty days to devise alternative methods of controlling the black coal dust and an agreement for immediate damage compensation was made. In 1979, Interflow Systems Ltd. was charged under the Environmental Protection Act for the nuisance created by a light colour ash originating from their company which covered the Beach. Smoke concentrations from the company were so severe that visibility on the Skyway Bridge was impaired. Hamilton City Council decided to have the Beach Strip turned into parkland and have its residential status officially sanctioned in 1983. Many residents were upset by this plan and arguments over it went on for years. Throughout the summer months of the 1980’s, bacteria warnings persisted at the Beach. The bacteria made the water unsafe to swim in and Beach-goers were warned that if they swam, it was at their own risk. In 1989, a number of dead and dying ducks were found along the Beach Strip. Officials believed that the ducks indicated a serious environmental problem and that the matter should be looked into further. In May, 1992, an unidentified human arm was found washed up on the Beach by a man walking his dog. Local residents claimed that a number of strange things had turned up on the shore before but that this was one of the strangest. Police investigated the matter further. Pollution at the Beach continued to present a problem even into the late-1990’s. In 1995, the water at the Beach Strip was reported to be comparable to black paint. This was caused by overnight industrial air pollution that landed in the water. Despite the Beach becoming more polluted in recent years, it is a very significant cultural landmark of Hamilton and an important part of Hamilton’s history. Hamilton Beach Scrapbooks. Special Collections, HPL. McCowell, Lewis. Hamilton Beach In Retrospect. Summer, 1981. Special Collections, HPL. Turcotte, Dorothy. The Sand Strip. St. Catharines: Stonehouse Publications, 1987. Link to original article – http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/200/301/ic/can_digital_collections/cultural_landmarks/beach.htm	<urn:uuid:a00cc3ca-1847-4ec5-9deb-68f683193517>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.teamsmulders.com/hamilton-beach-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00241.warc.gz	en	0.984087	3,512	3.453125	3	[ 0.16532009840011597, 0.16689977049827576, 0.19245263934135437, -0.1560133993625641, -0.35594600439071655, -0.17620015144348145, 0.47764700651168823, 0.08110645413398743, -0.1929195672273636, 0.19217684864997864, -0.05192572996020317, -0.5042235255241394, -0.24473990499973297, 0.41806501150...	2	Location: along the shore of Lake Ontario between Burlington and Hamilton The Beach Strip is a large sandbar lying at the western extremity of Lake Ontario. It separates the lake from Burlington Bay, a land-locked harbour of 10,000 acres of calm and protected waters. The elevation of the sand strip is no more than ten feet above the lake, while its length is approximately four miles. Long before the first white settlers appeared in Upper Canada, the Beach was known to local aboriginals as “Daonasedao” which means “where the sand forms a bar.” There is no evidence of the aboriginals actually inhabiting the Beach, though the area was clearly visited by them for its abundant fish and game. Local tribes also met along the Beach to trade. The Beach Strip was a very beautiful location. Its shoreline was overhung with willow trees and inhabited by herons, loons, kingfishers, swans, speckled plovers and ducks. Among the numerous fish that swam the waters were perch, whitefish, trout, sturgeon, bass and salmon. These fish proved to foster a rich fishing industry once the first white settlers came to the area. As Hamilton was being settled, a shallow area of water connecting the lake to the bay became a portage and loading zone. The Beach also became the main trail between the settlements of York (Toronto) and Newark (Niagara-on-the Lake). In 1794, John Graves Simcoe, who was appointed Upper Canada’s first Governor, decided to build a large two-storey frame house on the Beach, to serve as a government inn. This structure was named the King’s Head and served as a government house and inn for the area. The King’s Head was also used for military purposes, as a depot for stores and provisions as well as a rendezvous for militia and regular troops. During the War of 1812, the Beach Strip was visited by American troops. Two American schooners landed at the Beach in 1813 and let off close to two hundred men. These men fought back the troops stationed at the King’s Head and the then ransacked and set fire to it, burning it to the ground. After this, they quickly left the area. In 1994, a plaque was unveiled at the site of the King’s Head Inn, recognizing it as a historic landmark. In 1823, “An Act to Provide for Constructing a Navigable Canal Between Burlington Bay and Lake Ontario” was passed. This was the first canal project attempted in Upper Canada and was a major undertaking in terms of both financing and engineering. Labourers were imported by the hundreds to work as diggers at the canal. Initially, the completed canal was only 60 feet wide. Alterations were made to allow for the passage of larger vessels and by 1850 the canal had expanded to being 120 feet in width. It was later expanded again, in 1930, to a width of 300 feet with two channels. 1830 saw the construction of a 21-foot swing bridge over the canal. A schooner crashed into the bridge not long after its construction and put it out of operation. The bridge was replaced by a scow-ferry service which continued to be in use until 1896, transporting people and animals across the canal free of charge. A 40-foot high wooden lighthouse was constructed on the south bank of the Beach in the mid-1830’s. It was used to guide vessels into Hamilton. Taverns and inns began springing up along the Beach Strip and visitors began to frequent the area, arriving by steamboat from Toronto. The Dynes Tavern, built in 1846, is still on the Beach today and is the oldest operating tavern in Ontario. In the late 1850’s, a limestone lighthouse was built by the beach canal. It still stands today. A luxurious resort hotel known as the Ocean House was opened on the Beach on May 24, 1875. It became a popular entertainment spot in Hamilton, and with its construction the Beach was well on its way to becoming known as a resort rather than a residential area. The Beach became popular for summer fun, with such activities as rowing, swimming, sailing, riding the steamers, sunbathing, strolling along the piers and boardwalks, dining, bowling and billiards. More luxury hotels were built, including the Perry House, which was built in the same year as the Ocean House. Perry House eventually burned down, but the Lakeside hotel opened on the same site only months later, in 1918. A railway was installed in 1876. This made the Beach much more accessible to people who were not local residents. The first engine arrived on the new track on November 8, 1876. In July, 1879, Bethel Church (Methodist) was constructed to serve the spiritual needs of the many residents on the Beach Strip. The church was a major landmark until it was demolished in 1958. Next to the church, a two-storey summer sanitarium for sick children was also built. It became known as Elsinore, a “place where women and children needing a rest could go without charge.” By 1890, the Beach Strip had assumed the look of a well-laid-out summer resort, complete with wooden sidewalks, oil lamp posts, lakeside lawns and plenty of trees. The Royal Hamilton Yacht Club was soon built across from Ocean House, with an official opening in May, 1892. Three years later, the Ocean House burned to the ground and was replaced by a new structure, Brant House, which opened in November, 1899. In 1915, the yacht club also burned to the ground. In 1896, an electric radial line was built, offering more and better transportation around the Beach. An electronically operated swing bridge was built across the canal, with modern sidewalks for pedestrians. At this time, the ferry service ceased operation. An amusement park was opened on the Beach in 1903. Canal Amusement Park, as it was known, was opened by the Canada Amusement Company. The park consisted of nineteen rides by the time it closed in 1978, including a 1912 ferris wheel and a 1914 merry-go-round. In 1905, a group of women from the Anglican Church founded the Girls’ Friendly Society Holiday House. They provided accommodations on the Beach for girls and women needing rest or a change of air and surroundings. Most of these girls and women paid, but some were given free lodgings. The holiday house was quite popular initially, but had lost its appeal to young women by 1942 and was sold. In 1907, the province, recognizing the Beach’s uniqueness, drafted the Burlington Beach Act and established a Beach Commission government to take care of the Beach and its residents in much the same way as a municipal government would. By 1910, the Beach had become quite popular, both as a summer resort and a permanent dwelling place. People would come from miles around to spend time at the Beach and have fun. Partially to accommodate the increased popularity of the Beach, another church was built on the site in 1915. A year later, in 1916, construction of the Beach Bungalow School was completed. This was a sure sign that the Beach was growing as a community. The building, which cost a total of $4,000 to build, was a one-room frame schoolhouse with an initial attendance of forty-five students. By 1940, this had grown to 289 students, with a staff of six. As the number of students attending the school increased, the Masonic Hall next to the school had to be used for classrooms. In 1950, the school caught fire and was destroyed. A new school, named Bell Cairn School, was built, with construction being completed in 1952. This school included eleven classrooms, a shop, a kitchen, an assembly hall, a staff room, two lunch rooms and a clinic. This school, despite being larger than the previous one, was overcrowded from the start, with 456 students in attendance upon its opening. Control of the school was transferred from the Beach Commission to the Hamilton Board of Education in 1957 and in 1972 an addition to the building was constructed. Not long after the school’s new addition was completed, enrollment in the school dropped considerably. By 1980 there were only eighty-eight students attending the school. Because of the low number of students, a decision was made in January of 1981 to close the school. By 1916, the popularity of the Beach had already reached its peak. Whereas people had once flocked to the Beach by the thousands, with the development of new methods of transportation, such as the automobile, they were now visiting resorts elsewhere. This change caused the Beach to become less of a resort area and more of a residential part of Hamilton. Permanent homes on the Beach Strip became more popular than ever. The swing bridge, which had replaced the ferry service some years earlier, was replaced in 1930 by a bascule bridge. The bridge connected Hamilton to Burlington and Toronto, opening laterally to allow sailing vessels through the canal. On closing its arms, the bridge provided a roadway for heavy trucks and other motorists crossing the canal. This new bridge would continue to be in service until 1952 when it was rammed by a sand boat and damaged, at which time a Baillie bridge was erected as a temporary replacement. Over the years, traffic volume steadily increased and the Burlington Bay Skyway Bridge was eventually constructed to handle the increase. In 1943, the Beach was faced with a flood problem. This was not the first time or the last time Beach property owners would experience floods. The flooding was a result of the fluctuation of Lake Ontario’s water levels due to heavy rains and snowfalls. Many homes had their basements flooded. Carp splashed about in people’s backyards and basements and boats were used on the bayside street. At the time, the Beach was nicknamed Little Venice. Similar flooding occurred in 1947, 1952, 1954 and 1955. On August 5, 1946, Beach War Veteran’s Memorial Park, located along the Strip, was dedicated. A grand ceremony was held which included a fireworks display and sporting events such as boat races. In the 1950’s, traffic along the Beach Strip was a problem and residents complained about the high number of trucks which were creating a lot of noise in the area as well as unsettling fumes. The Burlington Beach Commission was disbanded on January 1, 1957, when the City of Hamilton decided to assume responsibility of the Beach. Residents of the Beach Strip had mixed feelings over this, and many would later claim that the City did not do nearly as well a job at looking after their needs as the Commission had and that the community spirit which once flourished within the Beach Strip had dissipated. In 1964, the City of Burlington was awarded the section of the Beach Strip north of the canal. This annexation was granted by the Ontario Municipal Board, despite the City of Hamilton’s strong opposition. This same year, two hundred women and children of the Beach barricaded Beach Boulevard at both ends, protesting the trucks which were allowed on the Beach. “The Baby Buggy Barricade,” as it became known, was effective. The following September, it was declared that trucks would no longer be permitted on the Beach Strip. By the late 1960’s, a new group, the Hamilton Beach Community Council, had formed to take the role of protecting Beach residents rights. Their duties ranged from voicing general complaints to the City to beautifying the area and re-creating the lost village-like atmosphere. The 1970’s began on a low note for the Beach Strip. Pollution, which had been an issue for over twenty years but had never been extremely serious, was now making headlines. In June, 1970, protesters complained of the large number of dead fish in the Beach area and of the large number of maggots and flies which were being attracted to the rotting fish. The odor along the Strip was quite upsetting for many residents. The City responded by spraying the area with malathion, a pesticide approved by the federal government which would not pollute the lake, but would help rid the Beach of its fly and maggot problem. The problem of dead fish resurfaced the following June. This time the City responded by having work crews spend more than three weeks removing 150,000 pounds of rotting fish daily. Another major problem which was bothering citizens at the same time as the rotting fish incident was the fact that there were not enough sewers in the Beach area. Residents had been pleading with the City for years, but nothing was done about the matter. Finally, some residents sought financial aid from the federal government, for the required sewers along the strip. The federal government agreed that it would donate funds, but the City still refused to look into the matter, claiming that the unique sandy soils of the Beach made it impossible to provide sewers without incurring a great cost. In 1973, the Beach Strip was faced with yet another serious flood problem. Water seeped up through basements, damaging property. By September, 1973, the City was seeking provincial and federal support in purchasing the homes of all the people on the Beach Strip who wished to sell their property. These homes (between forty and fifty of them) would have been very difficult to sell if the government did not help out. The Ontario Municipal Board gave its approval to the City’s plans and in 1974 the City agreed to purchase thirteen damaged homes on the Strip. The City planned to purchase as many of the homes as possible, over a twenty year period and then clear the land and turn it into a beautiful park. This plan, despite the arguing between City officials and residents, eventually fell through and was not acted upon. Action on the Beach seemed to be turning towards preservation in the late 1970’s. In 1976, a Spring Clean-Up campaign was organized and the Hamilton Beach Preservation Committee was formed not long after. The major aim of this group was to promote and foster better relations between the Beach Strip, the City and the Region, by affording residents a vehicle through which they could voice their complaints. In 1976, the Dofasco steel company was to blame for covering the Beach Strip in black coal dust. Even the interiors of residents’ homes were not safe from the coal dust, and five hundred locals signed a petition protesting pollution in their area, demanding that something be done. Following this, the Minister of the Environment assured residents that the incident would not be repeated. On January 27, 1977, a more severe reoccurrence of the black coal dust incident occurred. This time, claims were filed against two steel companies, Stelco and Dofasco. These companies were given sixty days to devise alternative methods of controlling the black coal dust and an agreement for immediate damage compensation was made. In 1979, Interflow Systems Ltd. was charged under the Environmental Protection Act for the nuisance created by a light colour ash originating from their company which covered the Beach. Smoke concentrations from the company were so severe that visibility on the Skyway Bridge was impaired. Hamilton City Council decided to have the Beach Strip turned into parkland and have its residential status officially sanctioned in 1983. Many residents were upset by this plan and arguments over it went on for years. Throughout the summer months of the 1980’s, bacteria warnings persisted at the Beach. The bacteria made the water unsafe to swim in and Beach-goers were warned that if they swam, it was at their own risk. In 1989, a number of dead and dying ducks were found along the Beach Strip. Officials believed that the ducks indicated a serious environmental problem and that the matter should be looked into further. In May, 1992, an unidentified human arm was found washed up on the Beach by a man walking his dog. Local residents claimed that a number of strange things had turned up on the shore before but that this was one of the strangest. Police investigated the matter further. Pollution at the Beach continued to present a problem even into the late-1990’s. In 1995, the water at the Beach Strip was reported to be comparable to black paint. This was caused by overnight industrial air pollution that landed in the water. Despite the Beach becoming more polluted in recent years, it is a very significant cultural landmark of Hamilton and an important part of Hamilton’s history. Hamilton Beach Scrapbooks. Special Collections, HPL. McCowell, Lewis. Hamilton Beach In Retrospect. Summer, 1981. Special Collections, HPL. Turcotte, Dorothy. The Sand Strip. St. Catharines: Stonehouse Publications, 1987. Link to original article – http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/200/301/ic/can_digital_collections/cultural_landmarks/beach.htm	3,689	ENGLISH	1
The history of the Jews How the Jews emerged The Jews traced their origins back to the great cities of Mesopotamia, specifically to Ur of the Chaldees, where their proto-ancestors, Abraham and Isaac lived, some time in the second millennium BC. However Abraham migrated to the land of the Canaanites, where God made a covenant with him and gave the land of Israel to him and his descendents. However there is no sign in the archaeology of the presence of Abraham: Palestine at the time was simply a typical Bronze Age society. However there was a great famine and they were driven south to take refuge in Egypt, where they flourished under a remarkable leader called Joseph who gained favour with the Pharaohs by prophesying seven good years followed by seven bad years. But then they fell into slavery from which they were delivered by a leader called Moses who punished the Egyptians with Ten Plagues to escape from which the Egyptians allowed him to lead his people out of Egypt, escaping across the Red Sea and then wandering for many years in the Sinai desert until they eventually reached the ‘promised land’. Moses is a crucial figure in the story of Judaism. According to the Bible he lived for 120 years, but if he did all the various things attributed to him in the various different books in the Bible, he must have lived much longer than that; so there is much debate as to who is the pharaoh of the Exodus. Ahmose I at the very beginning of the New Kingdom is sometimes suggested but he is surely too early. The film The Ten Commandments made Rameses II into the relevant pharaoh, but there is little evidence for this. I rather feel we should place it at the end of the New Kingdom. Somewhere around 1200 BC, the Bronze Age kingdoms came to an end. In Egypt this is marked by the attacks of the Sea Peoples, and at roughly the same time the Hittite, the Minoans and the Mycenaean empires all came to an end. And at a date traditionally given as 1184, the Trojan War finally came to an end. The ensuing period, roughly from 1200 – 800 BC, is generally considered to be a ‘Dark age’. During such Dark ages, the memories of an earlier golden age sometimes survives. In Greece, some time around 800 – 700 BC, these memories of an earlier age were brought together to form the two great heroic poems of the Iliad and the Odyssey.. Did something similar happen in Judaism? Should we place Moses alongside Achilles and Odysseus as the last heroic figures of the Bronze Age dimly remembered through the Dark ages? (Could a similar story be made out for King Arthur in the sixth century AD , the last Roman defender of Roman Britain whose short-lived success was followed by the Anglo Saxon conquest, but whose name was resurrected to heroic effect half a millennium later?). Moses having led the people of Israel to the ‘promised land’ found that the ‘promised land’ was already occupied by Canaanites and Philistines. The next centuries were occupied by fighting as is recorded in the Book of Judges, though the judges were not judges in the modern sense but rather local chieftains fighting against the Canaanites. It is a period of the greatest obscurity but we should remember that apart from the Egyptians who did maintain some sort of history through the Third Intermediate Period, the Jews were the only people who had any sort of account of what happened in this ‘dark age’ period. This period comes to an end with the charismatic figure of King David, his successor and son Solomon, and his predecessor Saul. David was apparently a shepherd boy who was a good singer who then became a military champion by killing Goliath, the champion of the Philistines, with a well aimed sling stone. He and his successor Solomon established their capital at Jerusalem where they built a magnificent temple. However archaeologists are not convinced: David is usually dated to around 1000 BC which is rather too early: it is in the middle of the dark age, when no major towns were being built in the East Mediterranean. Indeed, only a small scatter of 10th century has been found in Jerusalem. Thus the two leading scholars of the period, Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman have argued that either David and Solomon should be pushed down to the Eighth century, or they should be promoted to being minor tribal leaders at a time when Jerusalem was only a small village. There is a big dispute between the ‘minimalists’ who want to downgrade both Solomon and the temple, and the ‘traditionalists’, who do not trust the archaeology. The minimalists suspect that the whole story of David and Solomon was somewhat exaggerated, and was essentially built up several centuries later when it was finally written down. Israel and Judah split But following David and Solomon, the kingdom split, between Israel to the north which is a larger and more fertile and generally richer area, but where they had a tendency to go off and worship other gods; and Judah, to the south, which was smaller and more impoverished and where therefore there was less temptation to go a-whoring after other gods – and where the future capital, Jerusalem, was situated. The most powerful king at this time was probably Omri, the great King of Israel, who is barely mentioned in the Bible, except in hostile references, and whose daughter-in-law Jezebel became the typical wicked woman. Omri made Samaria his capital and founded other great cities such as Samaria, Hazor and Jezreel. However in around 722 BC Israel had its comeuppance when it was defeated by the Assyrians and its leaders were carried off to Assyria. However Judah continued to be semi-independent — though probably coming under the dominance of Egypt. The fall of the kingdom of Israel left the smaller Kingdom of Judah as the centre of the Jewish religion. Here the crucial figure seems to be that of Josiah, a king who reigned for all of 18 years, (639 to 609 BC). He plays a fairly modest role in the Bible, but modern scholars suspect that he was one of the most important kings of all, for it was under him that Judaism began to acquire some of its most important characteristics, and that the Old Testament, as we know it, began to be put together. This was the time when Jerusalem reached its greatest extent and the temple was rebuilt. During the rebuilding of the Temple, a document was discovered known as the Book of the Law which is sometimes thought to be an early version of the book of Deuteronomy. This had the fortunate advice that sacrifice should only be offered in one central place, and that place was obviously Jerusalem, so all the other shrines in Judah had to be closed, and everything was concentrated on the Temple. Finkelstein and Silberman in their minimalist version of Jewish history, suspect that it was at the time of Josiah that the story of David and Solomon was concocted, or rather given greater prominence, and that two perhaps rather minor rulers were elevated into being great warriors and great kings who ruled over a United Monarchy and formed a convenient precedent for his own centralising tendencies. David and Solomon no doubt existed, but only as rulers of a small village, which was all that Jerusalem was at the time; but it was very convenient to turn them into very important kings. But there seems to be little doubt that Josiah marks a major turning point in the evolution of the Jewish religion, in that hence forward there was not just one god, but also just one temple at Jerusalem. From now on, Judaism was a very centralised religion. Following Josiah there is a sad story of weak and vacillating Kings until in 587 a great disaster occurred that marked the second great stage in the evolution of the Jewish religion, in that Judah itself was conquered by the Babylonians under their expansionist King, Nebuchadnezzar and the leading families were carried off to exile in Babylon. This could have meant the end of the Jewish religion in that their god had clearly failed to protect the Jews and his temple at Jerusalem which was pulled down and destroyed by the Babylonian conquerors. However, the exile had the reverse effect. They took it as evidence that they had fallen short and that they were being punished for their misdeeds. And during their exile they became even more extreme in their religion. The exile only lasted for 60 years for 539 the Persians under their new King Cyrus the Great overthrew the Assyrians. Cyrus was a remarkable king who sought to consolidate his power by ruling lightly and he encouraged all the exiles whom the Assyrians had brought to Babylon as hostages to return home. This was a mixed blessing for the Jews. Some of them stayed in Babylon forming a strong Jewish outpost, but those that returned found that many of their compatriots were still there. Only the leading families had been taken into exile and those that remained did not always welcome the returning families. Nevertheless the return was a turning point in Jewish history. The temple was rebuilt after considerable delays and was hence forth known as the Second Temple. The social structure also changed. The kings died out, the line of David became no more and instead the Jews were led by the priests and the high priest became the chief spokesman, though in practice power lay with the governor imposed by the Persians. The Bible has several traditions It was at this time too that the Old Testament received what became its canonical form. Two main traditions had come down reflecting alternative versions of Jewish history as seen in Judah (the Yahwist source, J), and in Israel (the Elohist version E) , but now these were put together by priestly editors to produce what 19th century German scholars called the P or Priestly version of the Old Testament. Although books continued to be added, henceforth most effort went into interpreting the Bible in the form of the Torah. This time of the 6th and 5th centuries saw the beginnings of historical writings in the Eastern Mediterranean, for final recension took place at the same time as Herodotus in Greece was also writing the better known stories of Cyrus the Great. The problem now for the Jews lay in the all pervasive influence of the Hellenistic culture spreading outwards from Greece and infecting every culture with which it came into contact. This culture was based on the edifice of the new market economy which brought with it the new flatter, more open society that proved extremely attractive to those who came into contact with it. In the Levant, the turning point came with Alexander the Great who, following his defeat of the Persians at the Battle of Issus in 332 BC, became the ruler of the former Persian Empire including their province of Judah. Following Alexander’s death, his Empire split into three rival powers: Judah at first came within the Empire of the Ptolemies ruling from Egypt, but in around 200 BC they became part of the Seleucid Empire with its centre in Antioch in the north. This was a time of considerable prosperity for the area, even if the politics was complicated. Hellenistic culture became dangerously attractive. In particular the Book of Maccabees reports that young men were attracted by the gymnasia and the whole concept of practising athletics naked. This as always greatly upset the traditional Jews (though where their objection to nakedness came from, I have never been able to make out: the other great religions to the East: the Hindus, Buddhists and Confucians do not have the same objection). However, in 166 they rose in revolt against the Seleucids, led by one Maccabeus and a new line of kings was established known as the Hasmoneans. By now, external pressure came no longer from the Greeks but from the Romans and the Hasmoneans survived by becoming client kings of the Romans. First Antipater became a client king of Pompey, but the most successful, though the most ruthless of all, was his son, Herod the Great who became the Client King under Augustus and who rebuilt the temple and indeed much of the rest of his kingdom, in what we would call the Classical style. And it was into this milieu, of Jewish traditionalists being faced with the being incorporated into the Roman Empire and Roman civilisation, that Christ was born. On to The Jews and Rome,	<urn:uuid:5bb32028-e780-422f-a13b-c912184d6d18>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.civilization.org.uk/the-bible-2/history-of-the-jews	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00036.warc.gz	en	0.987214	2,554	3.890625	4	[ -0.27102556824684143, 0.6737020015716553, 0.1855822205543518, 0.09963385760784149, -0.4086804687976837, -0.004088080488145351, -0.0013925819657742977, 0.04272468388080597, -0.17325381934642792, 0.18952348828315735, -0.009551224298775196, -0.5724760890007019, -0.21839872002601624, 0.2514274...	1	The history of the Jews How the Jews emerged The Jews traced their origins back to the great cities of Mesopotamia, specifically to Ur of the Chaldees, where their proto-ancestors, Abraham and Isaac lived, some time in the second millennium BC. However Abraham migrated to the land of the Canaanites, where God made a covenant with him and gave the land of Israel to him and his descendents. However there is no sign in the archaeology of the presence of Abraham: Palestine at the time was simply a typical Bronze Age society. However there was a great famine and they were driven south to take refuge in Egypt, where they flourished under a remarkable leader called Joseph who gained favour with the Pharaohs by prophesying seven good years followed by seven bad years. But then they fell into slavery from which they were delivered by a leader called Moses who punished the Egyptians with Ten Plagues to escape from which the Egyptians allowed him to lead his people out of Egypt, escaping across the Red Sea and then wandering for many years in the Sinai desert until they eventually reached the ‘promised land’. Moses is a crucial figure in the story of Judaism. According to the Bible he lived for 120 years, but if he did all the various things attributed to him in the various different books in the Bible, he must have lived much longer than that; so there is much debate as to who is the pharaoh of the Exodus. Ahmose I at the very beginning of the New Kingdom is sometimes suggested but he is surely too early. The film The Ten Commandments made Rameses II into the relevant pharaoh, but there is little evidence for this. I rather feel we should place it at the end of the New Kingdom. Somewhere around 1200 BC, the Bronze Age kingdoms came to an end. In Egypt this is marked by the attacks of the Sea Peoples, and at roughly the same time the Hittite, the Minoans and the Mycenaean empires all came to an end. And at a date traditionally given as 1184, the Trojan War finally came to an end. The ensuing period, roughly from 1200 – 800 BC, is generally considered to be a ‘Dark age’. During such Dark ages, the memories of an earlier golden age sometimes survives. In Greece, some time around 800 – 700 BC, these memories of an earlier age were brought together to form the two great heroic poems of the Iliad and the Odyssey.. Did something similar happen in Judaism? Should we place Moses alongside Achilles and Odysseus as the last heroic figures of the Bronze Age dimly remembered through the Dark ages? (Could a similar story be made out for King Arthur in the sixth century AD , the last Roman defender of Roman Britain whose short-lived success was followed by the Anglo Saxon conquest, but whose name was resurrected to heroic effect half a millennium later?). Moses having led the people of Israel to the ‘promised land’ found that the ‘promised land’ was already occupied by Canaanites and Philistines. The next centuries were occupied by fighting as is recorded in the Book of Judges, though the judges were not judges in the modern sense but rather local chieftains fighting against the Canaanites. It is a period of the greatest obscurity but we should remember that apart from the Egyptians who did maintain some sort of history through the Third Intermediate Period, the Jews were the only people who had any sort of account of what happened in this ‘dark age’ period. This period comes to an end with the charismatic figure of King David, his successor and son Solomon, and his predecessor Saul. David was apparently a shepherd boy who was a good singer who then became a military champion by killing Goliath, the champion of the Philistines, with a well aimed sling stone. He and his successor Solomon established their capital at Jerusalem where they built a magnificent temple. However archaeologists are not convinced: David is usually dated to around 1000 BC which is rather too early: it is in the middle of the dark age, when no major towns were being built in the East Mediterranean. Indeed, only a small scatter of 10th century has been found in Jerusalem. Thus the two leading scholars of the period, Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman have argued that either David and Solomon should be pushed down to the Eighth century, or they should be promoted to being minor tribal leaders at a time when Jerusalem was only a small village. There is a big dispute between the ‘minimalists’ who want to downgrade both Solomon and the temple, and the ‘traditionalists’, who do not trust the archaeology. The minimalists suspect that the whole story of David and Solomon was somewhat exaggerated, and was essentially built up several centuries later when it was finally written down. Israel and Judah split But following David and Solomon, the kingdom split, between Israel to the north which is a larger and more fertile and generally richer area, but where they had a tendency to go off and worship other gods; and Judah, to the south, which was smaller and more impoverished and where therefore there was less temptation to go a-whoring after other gods – and where the future capital, Jerusalem, was situated. The most powerful king at this time was probably Omri, the great King of Israel, who is barely mentioned in the Bible, except in hostile references, and whose daughter-in-law Jezebel became the typical wicked woman. Omri made Samaria his capital and founded other great cities such as Samaria, Hazor and Jezreel. However in around 722 BC Israel had its comeuppance when it was defeated by the Assyrians and its leaders were carried off to Assyria. However Judah continued to be semi-independent — though probably coming under the dominance of Egypt. The fall of the kingdom of Israel left the smaller Kingdom of Judah as the centre of the Jewish religion. Here the crucial figure seems to be that of Josiah, a king who reigned for all of 18 years, (639 to 609 BC). He plays a fairly modest role in the Bible, but modern scholars suspect that he was one of the most important kings of all, for it was under him that Judaism began to acquire some of its most important characteristics, and that the Old Testament, as we know it, began to be put together. This was the time when Jerusalem reached its greatest extent and the temple was rebuilt. During the rebuilding of the Temple, a document was discovered known as the Book of the Law which is sometimes thought to be an early version of the book of Deuteronomy. This had the fortunate advice that sacrifice should only be offered in one central place, and that place was obviously Jerusalem, so all the other shrines in Judah had to be closed, and everything was concentrated on the Temple. Finkelstein and Silberman in their minimalist version of Jewish history, suspect that it was at the time of Josiah that the story of David and Solomon was concocted, or rather given greater prominence, and that two perhaps rather minor rulers were elevated into being great warriors and great kings who ruled over a United Monarchy and formed a convenient precedent for his own centralising tendencies. David and Solomon no doubt existed, but only as rulers of a small village, which was all that Jerusalem was at the time; but it was very convenient to turn them into very important kings. But there seems to be little doubt that Josiah marks a major turning point in the evolution of the Jewish religion, in that hence forward there was not just one god, but also just one temple at Jerusalem. From now on, Judaism was a very centralised religion. Following Josiah there is a sad story of weak and vacillating Kings until in 587 a great disaster occurred that marked the second great stage in the evolution of the Jewish religion, in that Judah itself was conquered by the Babylonians under their expansionist King, Nebuchadnezzar and the leading families were carried off to exile in Babylon. This could have meant the end of the Jewish religion in that their god had clearly failed to protect the Jews and his temple at Jerusalem which was pulled down and destroyed by the Babylonian conquerors. However, the exile had the reverse effect. They took it as evidence that they had fallen short and that they were being punished for their misdeeds. And during their exile they became even more extreme in their religion. The exile only lasted for 60 years for 539 the Persians under their new King Cyrus the Great overthrew the Assyrians. Cyrus was a remarkable king who sought to consolidate his power by ruling lightly and he encouraged all the exiles whom the Assyrians had brought to Babylon as hostages to return home. This was a mixed blessing for the Jews. Some of them stayed in Babylon forming a strong Jewish outpost, but those that returned found that many of their compatriots were still there. Only the leading families had been taken into exile and those that remained did not always welcome the returning families. Nevertheless the return was a turning point in Jewish history. The temple was rebuilt after considerable delays and was hence forth known as the Second Temple. The social structure also changed. The kings died out, the line of David became no more and instead the Jews were led by the priests and the high priest became the chief spokesman, though in practice power lay with the governor imposed by the Persians. The Bible has several traditions It was at this time too that the Old Testament received what became its canonical form. Two main traditions had come down reflecting alternative versions of Jewish history as seen in Judah (the Yahwist source, J), and in Israel (the Elohist version E) , but now these were put together by priestly editors to produce what 19th century German scholars called the P or Priestly version of the Old Testament. Although books continued to be added, henceforth most effort went into interpreting the Bible in the form of the Torah. This time of the 6th and 5th centuries saw the beginnings of historical writings in the Eastern Mediterranean, for final recension took place at the same time as Herodotus in Greece was also writing the better known stories of Cyrus the Great. The problem now for the Jews lay in the all pervasive influence of the Hellenistic culture spreading outwards from Greece and infecting every culture with which it came into contact. This culture was based on the edifice of the new market economy which brought with it the new flatter, more open society that proved extremely attractive to those who came into contact with it. In the Levant, the turning point came with Alexander the Great who, following his defeat of the Persians at the Battle of Issus in 332 BC, became the ruler of the former Persian Empire including their province of Judah. Following Alexander’s death, his Empire split into three rival powers: Judah at first came within the Empire of the Ptolemies ruling from Egypt, but in around 200 BC they became part of the Seleucid Empire with its centre in Antioch in the north. This was a time of considerable prosperity for the area, even if the politics was complicated. Hellenistic culture became dangerously attractive. In particular the Book of Maccabees reports that young men were attracted by the gymnasia and the whole concept of practising athletics naked. This as always greatly upset the traditional Jews (though where their objection to nakedness came from, I have never been able to make out: the other great religions to the East: the Hindus, Buddhists and Confucians do not have the same objection). However, in 166 they rose in revolt against the Seleucids, led by one Maccabeus and a new line of kings was established known as the Hasmoneans. By now, external pressure came no longer from the Greeks but from the Romans and the Hasmoneans survived by becoming client kings of the Romans. First Antipater became a client king of Pompey, but the most successful, though the most ruthless of all, was his son, Herod the Great who became the Client King under Augustus and who rebuilt the temple and indeed much of the rest of his kingdom, in what we would call the Classical style. And it was into this milieu, of Jewish traditionalists being faced with the being incorporated into the Roman Empire and Roman civilisation, that Christ was born. On to The Jews and Rome,	2,592	ENGLISH	1
What Is Sympathy? A Compassion Essay Example Empathy is the awareness of others feelings and perspective; and it is the key to understanding emotion. Humans are able to share their thoughts, recognize emotion, and react based on those feelings. Empathy also allows people to show compassion for others and to forgive others for the actions that they had done. A main lesson that a reader learns in the novel To Kill A Mockingbird, by Harper Lee, is the lesson of empathy. Atticus Finch, a character in the book, expresses this theme of empathy when he is talking to his daughter, Scout. He’s says to Scout, “You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view--… --until you climb into his skin and walk around in it" (Lee 39). This quote explains to the reader and especially Scout, that in order to judge someone he or she must first understand what the other person is going through and what they experience. This lesson can also be learned in the essay titled, “The Necessity of Compassion,” through a little boy named Kevin Myer’s story and his mother. In the essay the boy learns the lesson of compassion that has helped him to live a more fulfilled life. In addition, this theme of understanding is also learned by readers in the short story, “Thank You, Ma’am,” by Langston Hughes. The story portrays the unusual trust between a boy, Roger and an old woman of the name of Mrs. Jones, at the time when the boy tries to steals her purse and fails. These readings emphasize the purpose of empathy, which is something humans need in their lives so they can understand others’ perspectives through the expression of compassion and forgiveness. Throughout the story, Atticus and Calpurnia, the Finches housekeeper, both try to give wisdom to Scout about understanding the reasons for why people act the way they do, like Walter Cunningham and his eating style. The reader firsts sees Scout as non-empathetic towards Walter, the son of the very poor Cunningham family, and his manners. Calpurnia, as Scout’s female influence, tells her “there’s some folks who don’t eat like us...but you ain’t called on to contradict ‘em at the table when they don’t” (Lee 32). Throughout the book, Calpurnia and Atticus both try to help Scout develop empathy, but it is seen that Scout still needs to learn how she should judge others; since she is still a young kid and has not experienced the world and the people in it very much. However, Scout does learn empathy through the punishment that Jem receives for damaging Mrs.Dubose’s, a bitter old woman who lived down the street, flowers. Even though, Mrs. Dubose treated both Scout and Jem so badly, by bad mouthing them and Atticus, the kids didn't realize that Mrs. Dubose was also going through hard times of getting over her addiction of morphine. However, after she died there was a lesson that was learned that Atticus revealed to the children. “I wanted you to see what real courage is,instead of getting the idea that courage is man with a gun in his hand” (Lee 149). The lesson that Atticus teaches Jem and Scout is in life, in order to have courage, you don't need to have physical courage or hardships, it can come within and to have compassion for those who need it, and courage can come from depositing a popular opinion. With this lesson coming from the events of Mrs. Dubose, Atticus also explained to them what was going on with Mrs. Dubose and that there was a reason behind the way she acted, since she was trying to quit her addiction with morphine. To conclude, Atticus gives valuable pieces of advice that can be learned by the reader through Scout and the lessons that she learns from the interactions between Mrs. Dubose and Walter Cunningham . In the essay from This I Believe, “The Necessity of Compassion” by Kevin Myers, it explains how hard life was for Kevin and his family, especially his mother, and how after all of the pain of his childhood, he still learned how to have compassion. Even though they didn’t have much of money and even family support, their mother still taught her kids the value of compassion and how it can help them to live a proper and fulfilled life. Kevin needs this lesson of empathy since he fights before he has even thought about his actions, especially when someone is disrespecting their parent, One day she and I stood on the sidewalk waiting for the welfare office to open; two men drove by in a work truck and yelled, “Get a job!” I was maybe seven years old, but I was so filled with rage that I knew I could have killed those men with my bare hands.” When the men in the truck said something degrading towards his mother, all Kevin could think of doing was to attack them. However, the mother teaches her son that he should understand the situation from the men’s perspective, like the mother explains, “She told me that I should have compassion for those men because they didn’t understand the pain they caused a small boy. She told me that if I couldn’t forgive them that I risked becoming like them.” The lesson that the mother teaches her son helps him to view people's actions the right way by understanding the reason for why people do the actions that they do. Kevin learns that even during the hard times of his life, he should still have the capability of understanding situations from others point of view. In real life circumstances, this lesson is displayed in even the toughest of times, when people should especially have compassion for everyone because people don’t know what other people are experiencing for themselves. In addition, Kevin, even though he didn’t know it at the time, realizes the advice that his mother gave him as a child, actually helped him out throughout his life. He states in the essay “Her determination gave us a better quality of life, but learning compassion raised her spirit above the cruelty and pettiness of those who made her life so much harder than it needed to be.” This realization teaches the reader and Kevin that to have a more purposeful and better quality of life, they need compassion for other people. Though To Kill a Mockingbird teaches the readers about empathy, the essay “The Necessity of Compassion” by Kevin Myers, also explains that in order to live a life of worth, people need to have compassion for other people. The lesson of understanding others perspective can also be learned in other stories, such as “Thank You, Ma’am” by Langston Hughes. In the story, the reader is taught forgiveness through the unfortunate events of an old woman and a boy. After the boy, Roger attempts to steal a woman’s purse, she takes him to her house to get cleaned up instead of turning him into the police, “‘Um-hum! And your face is dirty. I got a great mind to wash your face for you.’ The woman had to stop and listen to the boy to realize why he stole the purse, which was to get something that he didn’t have or could never get. In’t you got nobody home to tell you to wash your face?” “No’m,” said the boy. “Then it will get washed this evening,” said the large woman starting up the street, dragging the frightened boy behind her.” The actions taking by Mrs. Jones in order to help him out, expresses the lesson of forgiveness, because at first she thinks of Roger as a thief. However, once she realizes that he actually doesn’t have a family of his own to take care of him, Mrs. Jones takes the boy home with her to show Roger that she cares and that she is willing to help him get clean and fed. As well as the forgiveness that the woman shows the boy, she also teaches him how to not judge someone before he got to know someone. When at Mrs. Jones’s house, the boy is told that she has done things that she is ashamed of as well, “‘I have done things, too, which I would not tell you, son — neither tell God, if he didn’t already know.” Mrs. Jones telling the truth about her past shows that even though she might not seem like it, she also made mistakes in her past, which results in her being aware of what Roger is experiencing. Mrs. Jones’s past makes Roger have empathy for her because he recognizes that she also made bad decisions in her past years and he realizes that she too has felt what he is feeling. Lastly, Mrs. Jones goes into the other room not knowing what Roger will do or if he will just run away. “Mrs. Jones got up and went behind the screen. The woman did not watch the boy to see if he was going to run now, nor did she watch her purse which she left behind her on the day-bed. But the boy took care to sit on the far side of the room where he thought she could easily see him out of the corner of her eye, if she wanted to.” This scene shows that Mrs. Jones, who let a stranger into her house, now trusts and forgives him for attempting to steal her purse. Additionally, Roger doesn’t try to run or steal from her, and he knows that he has gained her forgiveness and trust, and he doesn’t want to risk that. Now that Roger has gotten to know Mrs. Jones truly as a person, he regrets that he tried to steal her purse in the first place. Roger is also appreciative towards her for not turning him in and for letting him come into her house and be able to clean himself up. The lesson of forgiveness, is taught through the short story of “Thank You, Ma’am” by Langston Hugh by the actions of Mrs. Jones and Roger understanding each other once they have gotten to know each other. Ultimately, an important lesson of empathy is taught by Atticus to Scout and additionally the readers of To Kill a Mockingbird, by Harper Lee. However, understanding what people go through can also be seen in the essay of “Necessity of Compassion,” which is about a boy who learns compassion from his mother through unfortunate, but teachable, events. Furthermore, knowledge of forgiveness can also be seen in the story “Thank You, Ma’am” by Langston Hughes, when a boy tries stealing from a woman and in the end she forgives and trusts him and teaches him the value of judging people after they get to know them. The lessons that characters such as Scout, Jem, Kevin, and Roger have learned in these readings demonstrate the need for empathy, understanding, compassion, and forgiveness in order to be a proper citizen in society. With these lessons of empathy a person’s life will become more fulfilled and perhaps he or she will be able to show empathy towards people instead of judging or even hating others before they know the person. - A Modern Princess Essay - An Analytical Juxtaposition of Summer and Winter Essay Example - Food Trucks Vs. Restaurants Essay - How I Learn Best Essay Example - Review of Simon vs. the Homo Sapiens Agenda - The Comparison Analysis of Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher Essay Example - The Devil and Tom Walker Essay Example - The Differences Between Mechanical And Philosophical Knowledge - What Is Sympathy? A Compassion Essay Example - Women in Film Essay Example	<urn:uuid:914c5b1f-ea81-4586-a0d4-50da0245a5d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://samples.essaytopicsmasters.com/compare-and-contrast/what-is-sympathy-a-compassion-essay-example	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00157.warc.gz	en	0.9832	2,463	3.8125	4	[ -0.029671352356672287, 0.18053537607192993, 0.08679249882698059, -0.15977279841899872, -0.10621126741170883, 0.04047558084130287, 0.6722773313522339, 0.11968150734901428, -0.25014129281044006, -0.31331050395965576, 0.41373389959335327, -0.20610252022743225, 0.08410865813493729, 0.274773299...	1	What Is Sympathy? A Compassion Essay Example Empathy is the awareness of others feelings and perspective; and it is the key to understanding emotion. Humans are able to share their thoughts, recognize emotion, and react based on those feelings. Empathy also allows people to show compassion for others and to forgive others for the actions that they had done. A main lesson that a reader learns in the novel To Kill A Mockingbird, by Harper Lee, is the lesson of empathy. Atticus Finch, a character in the book, expresses this theme of empathy when he is talking to his daughter, Scout. He’s says to Scout, “You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view--… --until you climb into his skin and walk around in it" (Lee 39). This quote explains to the reader and especially Scout, that in order to judge someone he or she must first understand what the other person is going through and what they experience. This lesson can also be learned in the essay titled, “The Necessity of Compassion,” through a little boy named Kevin Myer’s story and his mother. In the essay the boy learns the lesson of compassion that has helped him to live a more fulfilled life. In addition, this theme of understanding is also learned by readers in the short story, “Thank You, Ma’am,” by Langston Hughes. The story portrays the unusual trust between a boy, Roger and an old woman of the name of Mrs. Jones, at the time when the boy tries to steals her purse and fails. These readings emphasize the purpose of empathy, which is something humans need in their lives so they can understand others’ perspectives through the expression of compassion and forgiveness. Throughout the story, Atticus and Calpurnia, the Finches housekeeper, both try to give wisdom to Scout about understanding the reasons for why people act the way they do, like Walter Cunningham and his eating style. The reader firsts sees Scout as non-empathetic towards Walter, the son of the very poor Cunningham family, and his manners. Calpurnia, as Scout’s female influence, tells her “there’s some folks who don’t eat like us...but you ain’t called on to contradict ‘em at the table when they don’t” (Lee 32). Throughout the book, Calpurnia and Atticus both try to help Scout develop empathy, but it is seen that Scout still needs to learn how she should judge others; since she is still a young kid and has not experienced the world and the people in it very much. However, Scout does learn empathy through the punishment that Jem receives for damaging Mrs.Dubose’s, a bitter old woman who lived down the street, flowers. Even though, Mrs. Dubose treated both Scout and Jem so badly, by bad mouthing them and Atticus, the kids didn't realize that Mrs. Dubose was also going through hard times of getting over her addiction of morphine. However, after she died there was a lesson that was learned that Atticus revealed to the children. “I wanted you to see what real courage is,instead of getting the idea that courage is man with a gun in his hand” (Lee 149). The lesson that Atticus teaches Jem and Scout is in life, in order to have courage, you don't need to have physical courage or hardships, it can come within and to have compassion for those who need it, and courage can come from depositing a popular opinion. With this lesson coming from the events of Mrs. Dubose, Atticus also explained to them what was going on with Mrs. Dubose and that there was a reason behind the way she acted, since she was trying to quit her addiction with morphine. To conclude, Atticus gives valuable pieces of advice that can be learned by the reader through Scout and the lessons that she learns from the interactions between Mrs. Dubose and Walter Cunningham . In the essay from This I Believe, “The Necessity of Compassion” by Kevin Myers, it explains how hard life was for Kevin and his family, especially his mother, and how after all of the pain of his childhood, he still learned how to have compassion. Even though they didn’t have much of money and even family support, their mother still taught her kids the value of compassion and how it can help them to live a proper and fulfilled life. Kevin needs this lesson of empathy since he fights before he has even thought about his actions, especially when someone is disrespecting their parent, One day she and I stood on the sidewalk waiting for the welfare office to open; two men drove by in a work truck and yelled, “Get a job!” I was maybe seven years old, but I was so filled with rage that I knew I could have killed those men with my bare hands.” When the men in the truck said something degrading towards his mother, all Kevin could think of doing was to attack them. However, the mother teaches her son that he should understand the situation from the men’s perspective, like the mother explains, “She told me that I should have compassion for those men because they didn’t understand the pain they caused a small boy. She told me that if I couldn’t forgive them that I risked becoming like them.” The lesson that the mother teaches her son helps him to view people's actions the right way by understanding the reason for why people do the actions that they do. Kevin learns that even during the hard times of his life, he should still have the capability of understanding situations from others point of view. In real life circumstances, this lesson is displayed in even the toughest of times, when people should especially have compassion for everyone because people don’t know what other people are experiencing for themselves. In addition, Kevin, even though he didn’t know it at the time, realizes the advice that his mother gave him as a child, actually helped him out throughout his life. He states in the essay “Her determination gave us a better quality of life, but learning compassion raised her spirit above the cruelty and pettiness of those who made her life so much harder than it needed to be.” This realization teaches the reader and Kevin that to have a more purposeful and better quality of life, they need compassion for other people. Though To Kill a Mockingbird teaches the readers about empathy, the essay “The Necessity of Compassion” by Kevin Myers, also explains that in order to live a life of worth, people need to have compassion for other people. The lesson of understanding others perspective can also be learned in other stories, such as “Thank You, Ma’am” by Langston Hughes. In the story, the reader is taught forgiveness through the unfortunate events of an old woman and a boy. After the boy, Roger attempts to steal a woman’s purse, she takes him to her house to get cleaned up instead of turning him into the police, “‘Um-hum! And your face is dirty. I got a great mind to wash your face for you.’ The woman had to stop and listen to the boy to realize why he stole the purse, which was to get something that he didn’t have or could never get. In’t you got nobody home to tell you to wash your face?” “No’m,” said the boy. “Then it will get washed this evening,” said the large woman starting up the street, dragging the frightened boy behind her.” The actions taking by Mrs. Jones in order to help him out, expresses the lesson of forgiveness, because at first she thinks of Roger as a thief. However, once she realizes that he actually doesn’t have a family of his own to take care of him, Mrs. Jones takes the boy home with her to show Roger that she cares and that she is willing to help him get clean and fed. As well as the forgiveness that the woman shows the boy, she also teaches him how to not judge someone before he got to know someone. When at Mrs. Jones’s house, the boy is told that she has done things that she is ashamed of as well, “‘I have done things, too, which I would not tell you, son — neither tell God, if he didn’t already know.” Mrs. Jones telling the truth about her past shows that even though she might not seem like it, she also made mistakes in her past, which results in her being aware of what Roger is experiencing. Mrs. Jones’s past makes Roger have empathy for her because he recognizes that she also made bad decisions in her past years and he realizes that she too has felt what he is feeling. Lastly, Mrs. Jones goes into the other room not knowing what Roger will do or if he will just run away. “Mrs. Jones got up and went behind the screen. The woman did not watch the boy to see if he was going to run now, nor did she watch her purse which she left behind her on the day-bed. But the boy took care to sit on the far side of the room where he thought she could easily see him out of the corner of her eye, if she wanted to.” This scene shows that Mrs. Jones, who let a stranger into her house, now trusts and forgives him for attempting to steal her purse. Additionally, Roger doesn’t try to run or steal from her, and he knows that he has gained her forgiveness and trust, and he doesn’t want to risk that. Now that Roger has gotten to know Mrs. Jones truly as a person, he regrets that he tried to steal her purse in the first place. Roger is also appreciative towards her for not turning him in and for letting him come into her house and be able to clean himself up. The lesson of forgiveness, is taught through the short story of “Thank You, Ma’am” by Langston Hugh by the actions of Mrs. Jones and Roger understanding each other once they have gotten to know each other. Ultimately, an important lesson of empathy is taught by Atticus to Scout and additionally the readers of To Kill a Mockingbird, by Harper Lee. However, understanding what people go through can also be seen in the essay of “Necessity of Compassion,” which is about a boy who learns compassion from his mother through unfortunate, but teachable, events. Furthermore, knowledge of forgiveness can also be seen in the story “Thank You, Ma’am” by Langston Hughes, when a boy tries stealing from a woman and in the end she forgives and trusts him and teaches him the value of judging people after they get to know them. The lessons that characters such as Scout, Jem, Kevin, and Roger have learned in these readings demonstrate the need for empathy, understanding, compassion, and forgiveness in order to be a proper citizen in society. With these lessons of empathy a person’s life will become more fulfilled and perhaps he or she will be able to show empathy towards people instead of judging or even hating others before they know the person. - A Modern Princess Essay - An Analytical Juxtaposition of Summer and Winter Essay Example - Food Trucks Vs. Restaurants Essay - How I Learn Best Essay Example - Review of Simon vs. the Homo Sapiens Agenda - The Comparison Analysis of Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher Essay Example - The Devil and Tom Walker Essay Example - The Differences Between Mechanical And Philosophical Knowledge - What Is Sympathy? A Compassion Essay Example - Women in Film Essay Example	2,343	ENGLISH	1
Although rare, tsunamis can occur on the Atlantic coast of North America October 22, 2014 Did you know that, although rare, tsunamis can occur on the Atlantic coast of North America? Unlike large Pacific tsunamis that are generated by subduction zone earthquakes along the "Ring of Fire," Atlantic tsunamis are typically caused by earthquake-triggered underwater landslides. Perhaps the best-known was generated by the M7.2 earthquake that struck 250 km south of Newfoundland on November 18, 1929. The temblor severed a dozen transatlantic cables and initiated a tsunami that was recorded as far away as South Carolina and Portugal. Three waves were noted, causing local sea levels to rise between 2 and 7 meters and to reach as high as 13 meters at the heads of several long, narrow bays on the coast of Nova Scotia. Houses, ships, and businesses in more than 40 communities were destroyed, and losses were estimated at the time to be more than one million dollars. Twenty-eight people were killed.	<urn:uuid:ddbed4ee-e55a-435c-914a-d5320422eaee>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.air-worldwide.com/publications/air-currents/did-you-know/although-rare-tsunamis-can-occur-on-the-atlantic-coast-of-north-america/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00209.warc.gz	en	0.986936	211	3.765625	4	[ -0.21021223068237305, 0.21180975437164307, -0.08890886604785919, -0.2827824056148529, 0.12704157829284668, 0.21404807269573212, -0.3048320710659027, 0.18774060904979706, -0.11130553483963013, -0.08383361995220184, 0.3722531795501709, -0.24919971823692322, -0.07602141797542572, 0.2952343523...	3	Although rare, tsunamis can occur on the Atlantic coast of North America October 22, 2014 Did you know that, although rare, tsunamis can occur on the Atlantic coast of North America? Unlike large Pacific tsunamis that are generated by subduction zone earthquakes along the "Ring of Fire," Atlantic tsunamis are typically caused by earthquake-triggered underwater landslides. Perhaps the best-known was generated by the M7.2 earthquake that struck 250 km south of Newfoundland on November 18, 1929. The temblor severed a dozen transatlantic cables and initiated a tsunami that was recorded as far away as South Carolina and Portugal. Three waves were noted, causing local sea levels to rise between 2 and 7 meters and to reach as high as 13 meters at the heads of several long, narrow bays on the coast of Nova Scotia. Houses, ships, and businesses in more than 40 communities were destroyed, and losses were estimated at the time to be more than one million dollars. Twenty-eight people were killed.	233	ENGLISH	1
The true value of the Egyptian navy was intimidation of potential invaders and transport of land troops quickly. Afterwards, Cambyses II is said to have thrown cats from a sack into the faces of the Egyptians in contempt. Sekenre was succeeded by Kamose, who also attempted to battle the Hyksos, but spent only three years on the throne, before probably being killed in battle. How many troops were involved and how long they served remains unknown This was followed by an attack by the Sea Peoples naval fleet. Under this new organization, the chain of command in a division, from the lowest to highest rung, was strictly hierarchical. They are part of the same military, however they each have different command structures. They had a single curvature and were strung with animal sinews or strings made of plant fiber. If they were proficient with a bow, then they would become an archer. Although Ramesses II emphasized his victory in a sea battle, it was actually a land battle fought on water. Although later Egyptian and Greek writers characterized the time of the Hyksos as a dark age of chaos and destruction, the foreign kings introduced a number of significant innovations to the culture, especially concerning warfare and weaponry. No armor was used during the 3rd and early 2nd Millennium BC. As usual, this pharaoh spared no expense in lavishing his new capital with adornments and monuments, temples to the gods, and beautiful buildings but, as Egyptologist Toby Wilkinson explains, there was more going on at Per-Ramesses than architectural advancements and religious festivals: While the court scribes and poets lauded Per-Ramesses as a great royal residence, filled with exuberance and joy, there was also a more menacing side to this most ambitious of royal projects. Moreover, they were also expected to receive and absorb the charging momentum of the enemy chariots with their loose formations and potent projectiles. Weapons Probably the most important weapon in the Egyptian army was the bow and arrow.	<urn:uuid:df2b0037-51c4-48d0-82ff-c17d80e72d7a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fomalogaxapoxizot.whatshanesaid.com/the-military-in-new-kingdom-egypt163615423ro.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00101.warc.gz	en	0.982538	407	3.390625	3	[ -0.2892664968967438, 0.9327965378761292, 0.10693152248859406, -0.2421458661556244, -0.22801275551319122, -0.28609153628349304, 0.4146653413772583, 0.46513259410858154, -0.36594095826148987, 0.3794453740119934, -0.08078473806381226, -0.580314040184021, 0.2661679983139038, 0.2632346451282501...	1	The true value of the Egyptian navy was intimidation of potential invaders and transport of land troops quickly. Afterwards, Cambyses II is said to have thrown cats from a sack into the faces of the Egyptians in contempt. Sekenre was succeeded by Kamose, who also attempted to battle the Hyksos, but spent only three years on the throne, before probably being killed in battle. How many troops were involved and how long they served remains unknown This was followed by an attack by the Sea Peoples naval fleet. Under this new organization, the chain of command in a division, from the lowest to highest rung, was strictly hierarchical. They are part of the same military, however they each have different command structures. They had a single curvature and were strung with animal sinews or strings made of plant fiber. If they were proficient with a bow, then they would become an archer. Although Ramesses II emphasized his victory in a sea battle, it was actually a land battle fought on water. Although later Egyptian and Greek writers characterized the time of the Hyksos as a dark age of chaos and destruction, the foreign kings introduced a number of significant innovations to the culture, especially concerning warfare and weaponry. No armor was used during the 3rd and early 2nd Millennium BC. As usual, this pharaoh spared no expense in lavishing his new capital with adornments and monuments, temples to the gods, and beautiful buildings but, as Egyptologist Toby Wilkinson explains, there was more going on at Per-Ramesses than architectural advancements and religious festivals: While the court scribes and poets lauded Per-Ramesses as a great royal residence, filled with exuberance and joy, there was also a more menacing side to this most ambitious of royal projects. Moreover, they were also expected to receive and absorb the charging momentum of the enemy chariots with their loose formations and potent projectiles. Weapons Probably the most important weapon in the Egyptian army was the bow and arrow.	400	ENGLISH	1
Grounded between the Late Renaissance and the emerging Mannerist art movement is the coveted work of Greek painter Doménikos Theotokópoulous (1541-1614). The artist—who was more widely known as El Greco (“The Greek”), a nickname he earned during his life abroad in Italy and Spain—had an individual style. His work featured elongated figures and expressionist color, which was inspired by several schools of art that were active during his lifetime, including the Post-Byzantine tradition in his home of Crete. Although his art was regarded as quite radical and out of place while he was alive, El Greco’s legacy had lasting impacts on the development of both Expressionist and Cubist art movements. Here, we follow the artist’s itinerant life and how it produced exceptionally unique art that impressed successors like Paul Cézanne and Pablo Picasso. El Greco was born on October 1, 1541 to a wealthy family in the Kingdom of Candia—modern-day Crete—which was a colony of the Republic of Venice. Little is known about his early years, except that El Greco began training as an icon painter of the Post-Byzantine style at a young age. By the time he was 22, the artist was a master in the style and fulfilling commissions at local Orthodox churches. Studying in Italy When El Greco was about 26 years of age he left Crete to further his career in Venice. There, the young artist is believed to have found apprenticeship under the venerable master Titian and learned the Venetian style of color-driven painting. In 1570, El Greco moved to Rome where he sought inspiration from the works of Mannerist painters like Parmigianino. As a result, El Greco added Mannerist elements to his own artwork, such as elongated figures and distorted perspective. Working in Spain After several years spent in Rome, El Greco moved to Spain in 1577. He settled in the religious hub of Toledo and spent some time working on commissions for King Philip II of Spain in hopes of becoming a court painter. However, the king rejected El Greco’s stylistic painting. As a result, El Greco focused his creative efforts within Toledo and soon garnered a respectable reputation. Over time, he was able to establish a successful workshop with assistants, capable of fulfilling altar commissions for churches in Toledo and elsewhere in Spain. Style & Legacy Although El Greco was exposed to several schools of art, he was also determined to forge his own path. Consequently, his expressive, dramatic style stands out from his contemporaries as highly unique. For this reason, many historians hesitate to associate him with any one school. After his death in 1614, El Greco’s art dwindled in popularity. The Baroque painters that succeeded him rejected the chaotic nature of his paintings. It wasn’t until the 1800s that El Greco’s work was rediscovered by artists like Paul Cézanne, who was greatly inspired by El Greco’s loosely defined backgrounds. Additionally, Pablo Picasso studied El Greco’s art extensively during his Blue Period and Cubist explorations. In fact, historians have compared El Greco’s painting The Opening of the Fifth Seal to Picasso’s famous Les Demoiselles d’Avignon—noticing significant similarities in composition and form. Despite not being fully accepted during his own lifetime, El Greco nonetheless left a lasting legacy on the course of modern art. His free, unnatural style laid the foundation for Expressionist art movements, including the Blaue Reiter group.	<urn:uuid:a2259bed-3731-458f-a818-f24421b651da>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://viralbandit.com/wow/the-radical-art-of-the-renaissance-painter-known-as-el-greco/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00162.warc.gz	en	0.981935	773	3.453125	3	[ -0.12662090361118317, 0.16055220365524292, 0.5079163908958435, 0.050708238035440445, -0.7021529674530029, -0.08490844070911407, -0.21832174062728882, 0.3965561091899872, -0.19925245642662048, 0.05438891425728798, -0.23000429570674896, 0.16319423913955688, -0.140064537525177, 0.374528408050...	5	Grounded between the Late Renaissance and the emerging Mannerist art movement is the coveted work of Greek painter Doménikos Theotokópoulous (1541-1614). The artist—who was more widely known as El Greco (“The Greek”), a nickname he earned during his life abroad in Italy and Spain—had an individual style. His work featured elongated figures and expressionist color, which was inspired by several schools of art that were active during his lifetime, including the Post-Byzantine tradition in his home of Crete. Although his art was regarded as quite radical and out of place while he was alive, El Greco’s legacy had lasting impacts on the development of both Expressionist and Cubist art movements. Here, we follow the artist’s itinerant life and how it produced exceptionally unique art that impressed successors like Paul Cézanne and Pablo Picasso. El Greco was born on October 1, 1541 to a wealthy family in the Kingdom of Candia—modern-day Crete—which was a colony of the Republic of Venice. Little is known about his early years, except that El Greco began training as an icon painter of the Post-Byzantine style at a young age. By the time he was 22, the artist was a master in the style and fulfilling commissions at local Orthodox churches. Studying in Italy When El Greco was about 26 years of age he left Crete to further his career in Venice. There, the young artist is believed to have found apprenticeship under the venerable master Titian and learned the Venetian style of color-driven painting. In 1570, El Greco moved to Rome where he sought inspiration from the works of Mannerist painters like Parmigianino. As a result, El Greco added Mannerist elements to his own artwork, such as elongated figures and distorted perspective. Working in Spain After several years spent in Rome, El Greco moved to Spain in 1577. He settled in the religious hub of Toledo and spent some time working on commissions for King Philip II of Spain in hopes of becoming a court painter. However, the king rejected El Greco’s stylistic painting. As a result, El Greco focused his creative efforts within Toledo and soon garnered a respectable reputation. Over time, he was able to establish a successful workshop with assistants, capable of fulfilling altar commissions for churches in Toledo and elsewhere in Spain. Style & Legacy Although El Greco was exposed to several schools of art, he was also determined to forge his own path. Consequently, his expressive, dramatic style stands out from his contemporaries as highly unique. For this reason, many historians hesitate to associate him with any one school. After his death in 1614, El Greco’s art dwindled in popularity. The Baroque painters that succeeded him rejected the chaotic nature of his paintings. It wasn’t until the 1800s that El Greco’s work was rediscovered by artists like Paul Cézanne, who was greatly inspired by El Greco’s loosely defined backgrounds. Additionally, Pablo Picasso studied El Greco’s art extensively during his Blue Period and Cubist explorations. In fact, historians have compared El Greco’s painting The Opening of the Fifth Seal to Picasso’s famous Les Demoiselles d’Avignon—noticing significant similarities in composition and form. Despite not being fully accepted during his own lifetime, El Greco nonetheless left a lasting legacy on the course of modern art. His free, unnatural style laid the foundation for Expressionist art movements, including the Blaue Reiter group.	756	ENGLISH	1
The interventions that were experienced in the 1700s like cotton gin indeed increased the eagerness for the slaves. All the enthusiasm, therefore, rose from a one-man named Eli Whitney who came up with the story of gin. He happened to introduce a new principle to ginning that required workers to use their teeth to pull staples via a comb that happened to retain the seed (Lechner, 57). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Interventions During 1700s" essay for youCreate order The gin introduced was one of the most sophisticated tools that required massive artistry for its efficient performance. The tool one used a wire tooth but later on replacement is done using saws that were circular through the notches of the comb. “It is faster when performing its duty,” claimed Eli Whitney. Almost seven hundred and fifty pounds of cotton could be cleaned using the power saw that was available. Damages were experienced on the fiber such that the roller gin failed to catch the right way. Eli Whitney also said that “Absence of the saw gin could, therefore, result in more expensive situations.” Many people were therefore required to run and operate the gin. As a result, cases of slavery increased in return (Lechner, 57). Some hope was expected after the revolution that took place on independence. It was thought that some blacks were going to get equity in comparison to the whites in the United States of America. The hope suddenly died when cotton gin was invented in the 1700s (Ridgely, 11). Availability of gin which had a shorter engine could facilitate cleaning of the raw cotton. In due course, cotton, later on, became a crop that earned a lot of profit to the owners. The southern economy was therefore substantially transformed in the process, and in turn, the dynamics of slavery also changed in return. Many slaves were to operate in those firms since the work had now increased. According to the census carried out in 1970, the number of slaves was reported to amount to almost six hundred and ninety thousand. “The same figure happened to increase by almost seventy percent amounting to 1.2 million by the year 1810,” the author of the article said. New cotton plantations emerged leading in the territories of the western zones. As a result, the workforce was necessary for this case hence need for more slaves (Ridgely, 11). By the year 1830, more cotton plantations were all over in almost over a half of the continent. Putting into the use of the cotton gin, there was a significant rise of crops in the US to about 8 million dollars from a lower figure of approximately $150, 000 dollars. Successive increase in plantations made it more difficult for the slaves to obtain freedom from their masters (Wharton & Roger, 26). “Worse situations, therefore, increases in consideration to the slaves,” the author claimed. Increase in crop firms simply implied that many slaves were required to work in those companies. Later on, textile industries developed all over as a result of high cotton production. New England, therefore, experienced many textile industries due to cotton inventions. The 19th century was a remarkable century in the American history. It is because it was this century that later on reported a vast revolution as far as industries are concerned. Increase in the revolution of sectors in the United States of America just implied that many slaves were required to work in those industries. As a result, many blacks were therefore abducted to work on the firms (Wharton & Roger, 26). About a hundred thousand slaves moved to new lands of cotton that were located in the West as well as in the South between 1790 and 1810. From the year 1810 until when the civil war took place, almost a hundred thousand slaves were forced towards the West in ten years. “It amounted to almost a half a million” the author put across. Spreading of the entire cultivation on cotton in the US, made those who owned slaves more so in the firms of tobacco and failed to realize considerable profits to sell those slaves to cotton firm owners (Lechner, 57).The trade of slavery only constituted the black families only. It as well indicated discrimination among the blacks. The number of those Americans who were born as slaves on the plantations were denied the opportunity of freely interacting with the rest of the family members and however transported to other farms which were located miles away. Many children were, therefore, rejected their parental care since they could associate with them anymore. It was indeed disgusting, and it shows how inventions in the 1700s brought more challenges to the blacks increasing slavery (Ridgely, 11). According to Boodry (2), danger increased upon the blacks since many of them were demanded to work on those firms. The northern free blacks faced many threats at that moment. Many cases of kidnapping increased all over upon the blacks. The Fugitive Slave Act that was passed in 1793 authorized the whites to abduct and claim the blacks unless there was a different testifying situation from the colleagues who were the white alone. All the blacks had no right of testifying upon the whites before a court of law; it was a law that was put in place in the Southern. A one Absalom Jones went ahead to petition to the Congress against the oppression of the blacks. At the moment, many children were highly kidnapped (Boodry, 2). Some ended up getting endangered in the process as struggles could erupt between them and the kidnappers. Some of the employers of those children could, in turn, give them a deaf ear and assume that they disappeared to join their families who were far away from them. Many changes took place among children since nobody could quickly recognize them as they grew and went through many changes. Those kidnapped could then join other slavery imported to lower South. The conditions were however unhealthy and challenging (Boodry, 2). There was a high demand that the United States of America abolish slave trade that took place internationally. Many organizations rose to defend these claims (Kindell & Elizabeth, 17). They fought in an attempt to protect human rights that were being violated by cotton firm owners. Some of the organizations that came up to defend protection of human rights included organizations like Quakers in New York and The Pennsylvania Abolition Society. They went ahead to present to the Congress the anti-slave memorials of trade. The fight against slave trade never ended (Boodry, 2). Other black people located in the Philadelphia also went ahead to petition to the Congress advocating for the end of the slave trade. In 1803, a significant number of slaves was reported to be imported to the South of Carolina as well as Georgia from Africa. The number of slaves amounted to almost twenty thousand salves. After a series of petitions filed, the Congress later came to ban slavery in the US. The banning of slavery took place in the year 1808 in January. It was the added in the constitution of America (Acs, 3). The African church from Philadelphia led by Absalom Jones happened to lead a sermon that commemorated a thanksgiving day concerning the decision that was made by the Congress. It was quite a joyous event to them. However, despite the ban, some of the international slave trade continued to with the illegal business (May et al., 12). As cases of slavery continued after its burn in the Congress, some members of the Congress became unhappy about the same. A bitter debate, therefore, emerged in the Congress concerning the same. Entry of a new state into the union was anticipated to tip the balance between voting blocs that were free as well as the proslavery. In the year 1820, there was a compromise of situation where Missouri happened to resolve the crisis against the admission of the Missouri into a slave state. A boundary was therefore established for the lands of the slaves towards the West and then across the territories of Louisiana. Compromising was anticipated to prove an increase in cases of fragility (May et al., 12). The religion played a significant role. Many slaves relied on it for endurance despite all the brutal life situations they encountered in the plantations. Some owners of slaves, however, went ahead to misuse the entire aspect of religion as they went up to use so that slaves could, in turn, obey them (Acs, 3). Slaves went ahead to express their beliefs upon them in respect of the religion. Some of the slaves ended up resisting their owners. They managed to run away from them. Some ended up breaking the tools that they were to use, however. “Others fought back and even killed their owners” (Acs, 3). The Turner, on the other hand, led to a rebellion among slaves. The rebellion that took place in Virginia led to the killing of many whites almost fifty-five in number. The trail was therefore made followed by hanging. The whites feared, but they became vengeful. Some international bodies were concerned that what Monroe was going to deal with. Monroe was therefore worried that Portugal and Spain were going to retain the colonies that fought for the independence (Acs, 3). The entire situation of the invention of the cotton gin in the United States of America brought more eagerness in the acquisition of many slaves that could take part in the business. As a result, many people rose and also other events that could be used to prove that the intervention of the same was quite risky to the black Americans (Kindell & Elizabeth, 17). Some cases like isolationism rose that came up with a policy that was used to avoid an alliance between political and also an economic alliance with other foreign nations. It was, therefore, necessary so that slaves could not get freedom. Another situation that was also experienced was an eruption of free enterprise or capitalism. It was applied so that people could freely participate in the business which was illegal in that matter without any interference from the government (Kindell & Elizabeth, 17). In this case, the company was unlawful smuggling of slaves and also kidnapping them despite the Congress burning the same. This invention by Whitney concerning cotton gin brought about many disadvantages towards the black people. They were treated as slaves and also imported others from other countries to work on the cotton plantations and industries that were now making huge profits hence increasing slavery (Kindell & Elizabeth, 17). Acs, Zoltan J. Why philanthropy matters: How the wealthy give, and what it means for our economic well-being. Princeton University Press, 2013. Boodry, Ksathryn Susan. The common thread: Slavery, cotton and atlantic finance from the louisiana purchase to reconstruction. Harvard University, 2014. Kindell, Alexandra, and Elizabeth S. Demers, eds. Encyclopedia of Populism in America: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO, 2014. Lechner, Frank J. “”People of Plenty”: The American Economic Exception.” The American Exception, Volume 2. Palgrave Macmillan US, 2017. 1-60. May, Robert E. Slavery, Race, and Conquest in the Tropics: Lincoln, Douglas, and the Future of Latin America. Cambridge University Press, 2013. Ridgely, Joseph Vincent. Nineteenth-century Southern literature. University Press of Kentucky, 2015. Wharton, Mary E., and Roger W. Barbour. Bluegrass land and life: land character, plants, and animals of the Inner Bluegrass Region of Kentucky: past, present, and future. University Press of Kentucky, 2015. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	<urn:uuid:552827f7-3e2d-4e7a-827c-ea8794388d81>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/interventions-during-1700s/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00482.warc.gz	en	0.981417	2,374	3.9375	4	[ -0.6669876575469971, -0.04663565754890442, 0.3636520504951477, 0.1392536759376526, -0.141815185546875, -0.09876307845115662, -0.18206679821014404, 0.1588394194841385, -0.0016199331730604172, 0.35424092411994934, 0.46213245391845703, 0.10807980597019196, -0.132041335105896, 0.09695308655500...	1	The interventions that were experienced in the 1700s like cotton gin indeed increased the eagerness for the slaves. All the enthusiasm, therefore, rose from a one-man named Eli Whitney who came up with the story of gin. He happened to introduce a new principle to ginning that required workers to use their teeth to pull staples via a comb that happened to retain the seed (Lechner, 57). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Interventions During 1700s" essay for youCreate order The gin introduced was one of the most sophisticated tools that required massive artistry for its efficient performance. The tool one used a wire tooth but later on replacement is done using saws that were circular through the notches of the comb. “It is faster when performing its duty,” claimed Eli Whitney. Almost seven hundred and fifty pounds of cotton could be cleaned using the power saw that was available. Damages were experienced on the fiber such that the roller gin failed to catch the right way. Eli Whitney also said that “Absence of the saw gin could, therefore, result in more expensive situations.” Many people were therefore required to run and operate the gin. As a result, cases of slavery increased in return (Lechner, 57). Some hope was expected after the revolution that took place on independence. It was thought that some blacks were going to get equity in comparison to the whites in the United States of America. The hope suddenly died when cotton gin was invented in the 1700s (Ridgely, 11). Availability of gin which had a shorter engine could facilitate cleaning of the raw cotton. In due course, cotton, later on, became a crop that earned a lot of profit to the owners. The southern economy was therefore substantially transformed in the process, and in turn, the dynamics of slavery also changed in return. Many slaves were to operate in those firms since the work had now increased. According to the census carried out in 1970, the number of slaves was reported to amount to almost six hundred and ninety thousand. “The same figure happened to increase by almost seventy percent amounting to 1.2 million by the year 1810,” the author of the article said. New cotton plantations emerged leading in the territories of the western zones. As a result, the workforce was necessary for this case hence need for more slaves (Ridgely, 11). By the year 1830, more cotton plantations were all over in almost over a half of the continent. Putting into the use of the cotton gin, there was a significant rise of crops in the US to about 8 million dollars from a lower figure of approximately $150, 000 dollars. Successive increase in plantations made it more difficult for the slaves to obtain freedom from their masters (Wharton & Roger, 26). “Worse situations, therefore, increases in consideration to the slaves,” the author claimed. Increase in crop firms simply implied that many slaves were required to work in those companies. Later on, textile industries developed all over as a result of high cotton production. New England, therefore, experienced many textile industries due to cotton inventions. The 19th century was a remarkable century in the American history. It is because it was this century that later on reported a vast revolution as far as industries are concerned. Increase in the revolution of sectors in the United States of America just implied that many slaves were required to work in those industries. As a result, many blacks were therefore abducted to work on the firms (Wharton & Roger, 26). About a hundred thousand slaves moved to new lands of cotton that were located in the West as well as in the South between 1790 and 1810. From the year 1810 until when the civil war took place, almost a hundred thousand slaves were forced towards the West in ten years. “It amounted to almost a half a million” the author put across. Spreading of the entire cultivation on cotton in the US, made those who owned slaves more so in the firms of tobacco and failed to realize considerable profits to sell those slaves to cotton firm owners (Lechner, 57).The trade of slavery only constituted the black families only. It as well indicated discrimination among the blacks. The number of those Americans who were born as slaves on the plantations were denied the opportunity of freely interacting with the rest of the family members and however transported to other farms which were located miles away. Many children were, therefore, rejected their parental care since they could associate with them anymore. It was indeed disgusting, and it shows how inventions in the 1700s brought more challenges to the blacks increasing slavery (Ridgely, 11). According to Boodry (2), danger increased upon the blacks since many of them were demanded to work on those firms. The northern free blacks faced many threats at that moment. Many cases of kidnapping increased all over upon the blacks. The Fugitive Slave Act that was passed in 1793 authorized the whites to abduct and claim the blacks unless there was a different testifying situation from the colleagues who were the white alone. All the blacks had no right of testifying upon the whites before a court of law; it was a law that was put in place in the Southern. A one Absalom Jones went ahead to petition to the Congress against the oppression of the blacks. At the moment, many children were highly kidnapped (Boodry, 2). Some ended up getting endangered in the process as struggles could erupt between them and the kidnappers. Some of the employers of those children could, in turn, give them a deaf ear and assume that they disappeared to join their families who were far away from them. Many changes took place among children since nobody could quickly recognize them as they grew and went through many changes. Those kidnapped could then join other slavery imported to lower South. The conditions were however unhealthy and challenging (Boodry, 2). There was a high demand that the United States of America abolish slave trade that took place internationally. Many organizations rose to defend these claims (Kindell & Elizabeth, 17). They fought in an attempt to protect human rights that were being violated by cotton firm owners. Some of the organizations that came up to defend protection of human rights included organizations like Quakers in New York and The Pennsylvania Abolition Society. They went ahead to present to the Congress the anti-slave memorials of trade. The fight against slave trade never ended (Boodry, 2). Other black people located in the Philadelphia also went ahead to petition to the Congress advocating for the end of the slave trade. In 1803, a significant number of slaves was reported to be imported to the South of Carolina as well as Georgia from Africa. The number of slaves amounted to almost twenty thousand salves. After a series of petitions filed, the Congress later came to ban slavery in the US. The banning of slavery took place in the year 1808 in January. It was the added in the constitution of America (Acs, 3). The African church from Philadelphia led by Absalom Jones happened to lead a sermon that commemorated a thanksgiving day concerning the decision that was made by the Congress. It was quite a joyous event to them. However, despite the ban, some of the international slave trade continued to with the illegal business (May et al., 12). As cases of slavery continued after its burn in the Congress, some members of the Congress became unhappy about the same. A bitter debate, therefore, emerged in the Congress concerning the same. Entry of a new state into the union was anticipated to tip the balance between voting blocs that were free as well as the proslavery. In the year 1820, there was a compromise of situation where Missouri happened to resolve the crisis against the admission of the Missouri into a slave state. A boundary was therefore established for the lands of the slaves towards the West and then across the territories of Louisiana. Compromising was anticipated to prove an increase in cases of fragility (May et al., 12). The religion played a significant role. Many slaves relied on it for endurance despite all the brutal life situations they encountered in the plantations. Some owners of slaves, however, went ahead to misuse the entire aspect of religion as they went up to use so that slaves could, in turn, obey them (Acs, 3). Slaves went ahead to express their beliefs upon them in respect of the religion. Some of the slaves ended up resisting their owners. They managed to run away from them. Some ended up breaking the tools that they were to use, however. “Others fought back and even killed their owners” (Acs, 3). The Turner, on the other hand, led to a rebellion among slaves. The rebellion that took place in Virginia led to the killing of many whites almost fifty-five in number. The trail was therefore made followed by hanging. The whites feared, but they became vengeful. Some international bodies were concerned that what Monroe was going to deal with. Monroe was therefore worried that Portugal and Spain were going to retain the colonies that fought for the independence (Acs, 3). The entire situation of the invention of the cotton gin in the United States of America brought more eagerness in the acquisition of many slaves that could take part in the business. As a result, many people rose and also other events that could be used to prove that the intervention of the same was quite risky to the black Americans (Kindell & Elizabeth, 17). Some cases like isolationism rose that came up with a policy that was used to avoid an alliance between political and also an economic alliance with other foreign nations. It was, therefore, necessary so that slaves could not get freedom. Another situation that was also experienced was an eruption of free enterprise or capitalism. It was applied so that people could freely participate in the business which was illegal in that matter without any interference from the government (Kindell & Elizabeth, 17). In this case, the company was unlawful smuggling of slaves and also kidnapping them despite the Congress burning the same. This invention by Whitney concerning cotton gin brought about many disadvantages towards the black people. They were treated as slaves and also imported others from other countries to work on the cotton plantations and industries that were now making huge profits hence increasing slavery (Kindell & Elizabeth, 17). Acs, Zoltan J. Why philanthropy matters: How the wealthy give, and what it means for our economic well-being. Princeton University Press, 2013. Boodry, Ksathryn Susan. The common thread: Slavery, cotton and atlantic finance from the louisiana purchase to reconstruction. Harvard University, 2014. Kindell, Alexandra, and Elizabeth S. Demers, eds. Encyclopedia of Populism in America: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO, 2014. Lechner, Frank J. “”People of Plenty”: The American Economic Exception.” The American Exception, Volume 2. Palgrave Macmillan US, 2017. 1-60. May, Robert E. Slavery, Race, and Conquest in the Tropics: Lincoln, Douglas, and the Future of Latin America. Cambridge University Press, 2013. Ridgely, Joseph Vincent. Nineteenth-century Southern literature. University Press of Kentucky, 2015. Wharton, Mary E., and Roger W. Barbour. Bluegrass land and life: land character, plants, and animals of the Inner Bluegrass Region of Kentucky: past, present, and future. University Press of Kentucky, 2015. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	2,477	ENGLISH	1
This article is the first in a series that exams the African American experience with America’s education system. Part one will examine the education of Blacks during the times of slavery. Education for African Americans during slavery was mainly illegal. Whites feared that a literate slave population would be a threat to the institution of slavery. Therefore, laws were passed that forbid Blacks to learn to read and write. It was considered a crime for anyone to teach Blacks to read and write. Those who were caught teaching Blacks were fined, imprisoned, run out of town, or beaten or tortured. Slaves were not allowed access to paper or other materials that could be used to learn. There were several reasons that whites were reluctant to allow Blacks access to education. One primary reason was the perception that Blacks were intellectually inferior and therefore lacked the mental capacity to learn. Other reasons were the fear that Blacks would learn to create documents such as freedom papers and passes that would allow them safe travels to free states. Finally, whites were afraid that Blacks would learn to read the writings of abolitionists, which would then lead to violent revolutions. Two such revolutions occurred during the Stone Rebellion of 1739, in which slaves seeking to escape to Florida killed over 20 whites. The second event was a revolt led by Nat Turner in Southampton County, Virginia, that resulted in over 65 whites and over 100 slaves killed. However, despite these fears, some slave owners did seek to allow Blacks access to literature. People in both the South and more so in the North granted Blacks access to one particular piece of writing, the Bible. The idea of the Bible as an entryway to literacy is itself ironic since many whites also utilized the Bible as a means to justify the institution of slavery. Slave owners pointed to the existence of slavery in the Bible as a means to reinforce their oppressive behavior. Another reason was some whites believed that allowing slaves access to the Bible was critical to the salvation of the slaves. Other slaves were taught basic literacy and counting so that they could be more productive workers. Needless to say, when given the opportunity, Blacks made the most of their opportunities. One such individual was Phyllis Wheatley, an African slave who became one of the more well-known poets in pre-19th century America. With an emphasis on the Bible and the salvation of slaves, in some instances, Blacks were allowed to gather in worship. It was during these gatherings that Blacks began to secretly organize and develop signals and secret messages that were unknown to whites. They would eventually start to blend their African rhythmic heritage with the teaching of the Bible to establish a call and response style that would become the basis for preaching and spirituals. Again, unbeknownst to the slave masters, these sermons and spirituals had multiple meanings. These gatherings were not limited to salvation, but also literacy and freedom, ideals that would become issues at the forefront of America, following the end of slavery.	<urn:uuid:373dcb90-0c06-4820-a4b8-f2f2345ce537>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://thecommunityword.com/online/blog/2019/11/27/the-lions-den-part-i-african-american-education-during-slavery/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00070.warc.gz	en	0.988673	593	3.75	4	[ -0.07316660135984421, 0.4678841829299927, -0.2257552444934845, 0.10772185772657394, -0.11192723363637924, 0.031182754784822464, -0.06630299985408783, -0.14600905776023865, 0.10965558886528015, 0.13588817417621613, 0.015656089410185814, 0.20780833065509796, -0.2373685985803604, 0.2562817335...	2	This article is the first in a series that exams the African American experience with America’s education system. Part one will examine the education of Blacks during the times of slavery. Education for African Americans during slavery was mainly illegal. Whites feared that a literate slave population would be a threat to the institution of slavery. Therefore, laws were passed that forbid Blacks to learn to read and write. It was considered a crime for anyone to teach Blacks to read and write. Those who were caught teaching Blacks were fined, imprisoned, run out of town, or beaten or tortured. Slaves were not allowed access to paper or other materials that could be used to learn. There were several reasons that whites were reluctant to allow Blacks access to education. One primary reason was the perception that Blacks were intellectually inferior and therefore lacked the mental capacity to learn. Other reasons were the fear that Blacks would learn to create documents such as freedom papers and passes that would allow them safe travels to free states. Finally, whites were afraid that Blacks would learn to read the writings of abolitionists, which would then lead to violent revolutions. Two such revolutions occurred during the Stone Rebellion of 1739, in which slaves seeking to escape to Florida killed over 20 whites. The second event was a revolt led by Nat Turner in Southampton County, Virginia, that resulted in over 65 whites and over 100 slaves killed. However, despite these fears, some slave owners did seek to allow Blacks access to literature. People in both the South and more so in the North granted Blacks access to one particular piece of writing, the Bible. The idea of the Bible as an entryway to literacy is itself ironic since many whites also utilized the Bible as a means to justify the institution of slavery. Slave owners pointed to the existence of slavery in the Bible as a means to reinforce their oppressive behavior. Another reason was some whites believed that allowing slaves access to the Bible was critical to the salvation of the slaves. Other slaves were taught basic literacy and counting so that they could be more productive workers. Needless to say, when given the opportunity, Blacks made the most of their opportunities. One such individual was Phyllis Wheatley, an African slave who became one of the more well-known poets in pre-19th century America. With an emphasis on the Bible and the salvation of slaves, in some instances, Blacks were allowed to gather in worship. It was during these gatherings that Blacks began to secretly organize and develop signals and secret messages that were unknown to whites. They would eventually start to blend their African rhythmic heritage with the teaching of the Bible to establish a call and response style that would become the basis for preaching and spirituals. Again, unbeknownst to the slave masters, these sermons and spirituals had multiple meanings. These gatherings were not limited to salvation, but also literacy and freedom, ideals that would become issues at the forefront of America, following the end of slavery.	596	ENGLISH	1
During this week we had our introduction to the Music area of the Expressive Arts. We first acknowledged the importance of music in classrooms. My knowledge of music is very minimal and so learning that incorporating music in classroom can have educational benefits was interesting. I learned that music can be incorporated in the most subtle yet effective ways. During the workshop we listened to different pieces of music and were asked to write down one word describing how the music made us feel. This was interesting as it made me realise that different types of music can elicit different emotions. I was able to make a connection back to my placement last year where the teacher would play “cleaning up music” as the children tidied the classrooms. The music being fun and playful made the children feel energetic and they didn’t feel bad about cleaning. Another case in where the teacher used music to extract a desired emotion from the children was after lunch or a P.E class when she felt the children were too jumpy and overexcited. The teacher would play relaxing and soft music where the children would get a couple of minuets to wind down. This allowed them to feel more relaxed and adapt back to the classroom. Music is beneficial as it allows children to develop their communication and collaboration skills (Dumont et al, 2017). Music is not a solitary subject, through music children play together and they sing together. music allows children to build their social skills. Musical experiences are all about participation, participating in something that is bigger than us. It is when every small role equates to something bigger and more meaningful, making every participant and every learner equally important. Through music children learn to compose, they learn to improvise, and they learn to perform. The power of music helps children become successful learners, effective contributors and responsible citizens. Music allows a gateway to learn about different cultures through native instruments such as the Sitar in India, the Bagpipes in Scotland and the Erhu in China. Through these instruments’ children can explore the musical and social cultures of each country. Later, during the music workshop we were played an instrumental piece that varied in tone, volume and speed. We were to create a short story that reacted to the music. For example, my short story was about a little boy that was being chased by a bully, where the music went faster, I depicted that the bully was getting closer to the boy. Where the music was much slower, I described the boy hiding out catching his breath. This was interesting activity as meant that I was actively listening to the changes in the music and creating a story that fit it. I feel this would be a good lesson to pitch to children in classrooms as it gives them an opportunity to explore the variations of the music and still use their creativity to come up with a interesting story. Later we got into groups and picked a story that we all agreed on, we picked my peers story about a boy that loses his kite and chases it into the sea with a shark. We created a comic strip and later presented it to the class. This activity allows children to work on their collaboration skills as they must agree on one story to create. Children also develop their presentation skills when delivering the story to the rest of class and explaining what parts of the music piece they reacted to. This allows them to develop their confidence in a short and comfortable setting as it is not a solo presentation, which is one of the reasons why I was comfortable presenting to my class. During the drama workshop it was my groups week to present our micro-teaching lesson. We decided to base our lesson on a movie called “Inside Out”. One of my peers decided this topic and we all agreed straight away, making that process very short and easy. Inside Out is about a young girl that has just moved to a new house, this sudden change has a bigger impact on her emotions than she and her family are aware of. I felt this movie would be a good inspiration piece as children would most likely be familiar with it making it more relevant and interesting. By basing our lesson on the movie, it meant that we were able to touch on the topic of emotions and the importance of being able to express yourself in an honest way. One of our lessons was handing out Inside Out certain characters to different groups that represented an emotion and asked each group to portray the emotion with out using words. I felt this activity went well as all groups participated fully. Applying on the feedback that Andrew gave to previous groups from last week, I tried to interact with the groups by asking what there thought process was. this meant that I was not just standing at the top of the room and giving out instructions but was involving myself in the activities. One part of our lesson that did not go according to plan was when we attempted to show the class a trailer of the movie so that those that were not aware of the movie would have a feel of what it was about. However, the audio was not working and so we gave the class a verbal synopsis of the movie. This minor set back was frustrating in the sense that we had to change our plans on such short notice, although it taught me no never fully rely on technology and always have a backup plan. Dumont, E., Syurina, E., Feron, F. and van Hooren, S. (2017). Music Interventions and Child Development: A Critical Review and Further Directions. Frontiers in Psychology, 8.	<urn:uuid:598e19e6-b8d0-41af-9873-83af4401945a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/glowblogs/agregatedepdp/tag/ba18-19/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00243.warc.gz	en	0.984594	1,110	3.890625	4	[ 0.2356838434934616, -0.25644898414611816, 0.5908215045928955, -0.42654097080230713, -0.5458759069442749, 0.42777612805366516, 0.06547490507364273, -0.11151915788650513, 0.034871309995651245, -0.21557843685150146, 0.16008779406547546, 0.15249238908290863, 0.355400025844574, 0.25356870889663...	4	During this week we had our introduction to the Music area of the Expressive Arts. We first acknowledged the importance of music in classrooms. My knowledge of music is very minimal and so learning that incorporating music in classroom can have educational benefits was interesting. I learned that music can be incorporated in the most subtle yet effective ways. During the workshop we listened to different pieces of music and were asked to write down one word describing how the music made us feel. This was interesting as it made me realise that different types of music can elicit different emotions. I was able to make a connection back to my placement last year where the teacher would play “cleaning up music” as the children tidied the classrooms. The music being fun and playful made the children feel energetic and they didn’t feel bad about cleaning. Another case in where the teacher used music to extract a desired emotion from the children was after lunch or a P.E class when she felt the children were too jumpy and overexcited. The teacher would play relaxing and soft music where the children would get a couple of minuets to wind down. This allowed them to feel more relaxed and adapt back to the classroom. Music is beneficial as it allows children to develop their communication and collaboration skills (Dumont et al, 2017). Music is not a solitary subject, through music children play together and they sing together. music allows children to build their social skills. Musical experiences are all about participation, participating in something that is bigger than us. It is when every small role equates to something bigger and more meaningful, making every participant and every learner equally important. Through music children learn to compose, they learn to improvise, and they learn to perform. The power of music helps children become successful learners, effective contributors and responsible citizens. Music allows a gateway to learn about different cultures through native instruments such as the Sitar in India, the Bagpipes in Scotland and the Erhu in China. Through these instruments’ children can explore the musical and social cultures of each country. Later, during the music workshop we were played an instrumental piece that varied in tone, volume and speed. We were to create a short story that reacted to the music. For example, my short story was about a little boy that was being chased by a bully, where the music went faster, I depicted that the bully was getting closer to the boy. Where the music was much slower, I described the boy hiding out catching his breath. This was interesting activity as meant that I was actively listening to the changes in the music and creating a story that fit it. I feel this would be a good lesson to pitch to children in classrooms as it gives them an opportunity to explore the variations of the music and still use their creativity to come up with a interesting story. Later we got into groups and picked a story that we all agreed on, we picked my peers story about a boy that loses his kite and chases it into the sea with a shark. We created a comic strip and later presented it to the class. This activity allows children to work on their collaboration skills as they must agree on one story to create. Children also develop their presentation skills when delivering the story to the rest of class and explaining what parts of the music piece they reacted to. This allows them to develop their confidence in a short and comfortable setting as it is not a solo presentation, which is one of the reasons why I was comfortable presenting to my class. During the drama workshop it was my groups week to present our micro-teaching lesson. We decided to base our lesson on a movie called “Inside Out”. One of my peers decided this topic and we all agreed straight away, making that process very short and easy. Inside Out is about a young girl that has just moved to a new house, this sudden change has a bigger impact on her emotions than she and her family are aware of. I felt this movie would be a good inspiration piece as children would most likely be familiar with it making it more relevant and interesting. By basing our lesson on the movie, it meant that we were able to touch on the topic of emotions and the importance of being able to express yourself in an honest way. One of our lessons was handing out Inside Out certain characters to different groups that represented an emotion and asked each group to portray the emotion with out using words. I felt this activity went well as all groups participated fully. Applying on the feedback that Andrew gave to previous groups from last week, I tried to interact with the groups by asking what there thought process was. this meant that I was not just standing at the top of the room and giving out instructions but was involving myself in the activities. One part of our lesson that did not go according to plan was when we attempted to show the class a trailer of the movie so that those that were not aware of the movie would have a feel of what it was about. However, the audio was not working and so we gave the class a verbal synopsis of the movie. This minor set back was frustrating in the sense that we had to change our plans on such short notice, although it taught me no never fully rely on technology and always have a backup plan. Dumont, E., Syurina, E., Feron, F. and van Hooren, S. (2017). Music Interventions and Child Development: A Critical Review and Further Directions. Frontiers in Psychology, 8.	1,101	ENGLISH	1

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