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The Danish War started with the planned three-pronged attack which involved a) Christian IV marching into north-west Germany b) Christian of Brunswick marching into the Rhineland c) Mansfeld would fight with Bethlan Gabor in Bohemia.
However, the coalition had one weak line in it before it even started campaigning – Christian IV of Denmark.
Christian was a ruler of land in Holstein and as such was a German prince in his own right. His interest lay not in Bohemia or Bavaria but in gaining control of Lower Saxony and furthering his influence in that area. He was also after the bishoprics of Bremen, Verden, Minden and Halberstadt. For commercial and strategic reasons he also wanted to control the valuable Hansa towns of Hamburg and Lubeck. If Christian could gain control of all of these, then Denmark could monopolise the lucrative Baltic trade.
Christian also found foreign help from the coalition lacking in material kind. The Dutch and English only offered moral support while the Danish king found it very difficult to co-ordinate a military policy with Brunswick and Mansfeld.
How did Ferdinand react to the Coalition’s threat ? As early as 1624, Ferdinand had appointed a military leader who was directly answerable to the emperor. This man was Albert on Waldstein though he is better known as Wallenstein. Tilly was head of the Catholic League which was answerable to Maximillian of Bavaria. If Maximillian decided to pull out of the war now that he was an Elector twice over, Ferdinand could find himself without a known military leader.
Wallenstein was an astute choice. In April 1625, he was created Generlissimo of all the Imperial troops. After recruiting 24,000 troops to fight for the emperor, he was made Duke of Friedland in June 1625. Wallenstein was a complex man but a ruthless tactician. He and Tilly made for a formidable combination and in the Danish War the three-pronged attack of the coalition stuttered to a halt.
In April 1626, Mansfeld was defeated by Wallenstein at the Battle of Dessau Bridge. In April of the same year, Christian was heavily defeated by Tilly at the Battle of Lutter.
In late 1627, Christian was driven back into Denmark. Holstein, Schleswig and Jutland were occupied by Tilly.
After Dessau Bridge, Mansfeld tried to link up with Bethlan Gabor but Gabor had already come to terms with Ferdinand. Mansfeld was left wandering in Balkans with his army. His unpaid troops deserted him and Mansfeld himself died in Sarajevo in November 1626.
In 1628, Wallenstein occupied Mecklenburg. He was made Duke of Mecklenburg and Ferdinand appointed him “General of the whole Imperial Fleet and Lord of the Atlantic and Baltic”. Wismar and Rostock, important and lucrative Baltic ports, fell under Imperial control.
The fall of these two ports gave Olivares the opportunity to put into effect his almirantazgo policy. The plan was simple. By uniting the trading towns of Flanders and the Hansa, Habsburg forces could wrest control of the carrying trade from the Baltic to the ports of Flanders. Dutch sea borne trade would be strangled as the Habsburgs would control movement in the seas off north Europe. This would be a massive boost to Spain’s economy as once again she had gone bankrupt in 1627. It would also undermine the ability of the Dutch to defend themselves as investment in their military would dry up and they would not have the financial clout to pay for mercenaries or buy in foreign troops from the likes of Sweden, for example.
Olivares wanted his plan organised by an Inspectorate for Commerce (Almirantazgo de los paises septentrionales). On paper his plan was good. By bankrupting the Dutch and controlling mercantile trade in the Baltic and the north coast of western Europe, he would re-establish Spain’s economy and elevate the status of the Habsburgs once again throughout Europe. But it had one flaw – the plan depended on the co-operation of Wallenstein and he was not in favour of the plan simply because it took power away from him in the Baltic.
Wallenstein saw the Baltic as his ‘territory’ and he did not want Spanish interference in the region. It was one of Europe’s most lucrative regions and any money made there, Wallenstein wanted to keep. In support of him were the trading towns of Danzig and Lubeck. Wallenstein was also concerned that the building of an Imperial navy to protect Hansa trade, might provoke a response from Sweden. He feared that Gustavus might invade northern Germany to assert his authority in the area. Wallenstein saw north Germany as his and he did not want the region devastated by war as he would lose a great deal of money if this occurred.
This example shows the difficult position Ferdinand was in. The Spanish Habsburg’s via Olivares had what was potentially an excellent plan to re-assert Habsburg power throughout Europe. But the Austrian Habsburg’s , under Ferdinand, seemed to have lost control of their highly successful general Wallenstein who had begun to see himself as a law unto himself.
In July 1628, Wallenstein attacked Stralsund in Pomerania. His claim was that it would extend the emperor’s power – but it would also greatly increase his own as Stralsund was a wealthy city. The attempt failed as Stralsund called on Denmark and Sweden to aid it. Both did, and Wallenstein had to withdraw from besieging Stralsund.
Christian IV – believing that Wallenstein’s forces were weakened – followed up this success by landing a force in Pomerania. In fact, Wallenstein’s force was still very strong and Christian’s army was heavily defeated at Wolgast in September 1628.
However, Wallenstein realised that such a victory might provoke a response by Gustavus of Sweden and he persuaded Ferdinand to agree to generous peace terms with Christian despite the fact that Denmark was incapable of continuing a military campaign.
In the Treaty of Lubeck (June 1629), Denmark was allowed to keep her possessions including the valuable state of Holstein; Christian had to give up his claims on the north German bishoprics and his leadership of the Lower Saxon Circle. He also had to formally withdraw from the war. | <urn:uuid:aa42debb-7020-43fe-af48-269e720e1ace> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/the-thirty-years-war/the-danish-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00241.warc.gz | en | 0.985946 | 1,353 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.2234673351049423... | 8 | The Danish War started with the planned three-pronged attack which involved a) Christian IV marching into north-west Germany b) Christian of Brunswick marching into the Rhineland c) Mansfeld would fight with Bethlan Gabor in Bohemia.
However, the coalition had one weak line in it before it even started campaigning – Christian IV of Denmark.
Christian was a ruler of land in Holstein and as such was a German prince in his own right. His interest lay not in Bohemia or Bavaria but in gaining control of Lower Saxony and furthering his influence in that area. He was also after the bishoprics of Bremen, Verden, Minden and Halberstadt. For commercial and strategic reasons he also wanted to control the valuable Hansa towns of Hamburg and Lubeck. If Christian could gain control of all of these, then Denmark could monopolise the lucrative Baltic trade.
Christian also found foreign help from the coalition lacking in material kind. The Dutch and English only offered moral support while the Danish king found it very difficult to co-ordinate a military policy with Brunswick and Mansfeld.
How did Ferdinand react to the Coalition’s threat ? As early as 1624, Ferdinand had appointed a military leader who was directly answerable to the emperor. This man was Albert on Waldstein though he is better known as Wallenstein. Tilly was head of the Catholic League which was answerable to Maximillian of Bavaria. If Maximillian decided to pull out of the war now that he was an Elector twice over, Ferdinand could find himself without a known military leader.
Wallenstein was an astute choice. In April 1625, he was created Generlissimo of all the Imperial troops. After recruiting 24,000 troops to fight for the emperor, he was made Duke of Friedland in June 1625. Wallenstein was a complex man but a ruthless tactician. He and Tilly made for a formidable combination and in the Danish War the three-pronged attack of the coalition stuttered to a halt.
In April 1626, Mansfeld was defeated by Wallenstein at the Battle of Dessau Bridge. In April of the same year, Christian was heavily defeated by Tilly at the Battle of Lutter.
In late 1627, Christian was driven back into Denmark. Holstein, Schleswig and Jutland were occupied by Tilly.
After Dessau Bridge, Mansfeld tried to link up with Bethlan Gabor but Gabor had already come to terms with Ferdinand. Mansfeld was left wandering in Balkans with his army. His unpaid troops deserted him and Mansfeld himself died in Sarajevo in November 1626.
In 1628, Wallenstein occupied Mecklenburg. He was made Duke of Mecklenburg and Ferdinand appointed him “General of the whole Imperial Fleet and Lord of the Atlantic and Baltic”. Wismar and Rostock, important and lucrative Baltic ports, fell under Imperial control.
The fall of these two ports gave Olivares the opportunity to put into effect his almirantazgo policy. The plan was simple. By uniting the trading towns of Flanders and the Hansa, Habsburg forces could wrest control of the carrying trade from the Baltic to the ports of Flanders. Dutch sea borne trade would be strangled as the Habsburgs would control movement in the seas off north Europe. This would be a massive boost to Spain’s economy as once again she had gone bankrupt in 1627. It would also undermine the ability of the Dutch to defend themselves as investment in their military would dry up and they would not have the financial clout to pay for mercenaries or buy in foreign troops from the likes of Sweden, for example.
Olivares wanted his plan organised by an Inspectorate for Commerce (Almirantazgo de los paises septentrionales). On paper his plan was good. By bankrupting the Dutch and controlling mercantile trade in the Baltic and the north coast of western Europe, he would re-establish Spain’s economy and elevate the status of the Habsburgs once again throughout Europe. But it had one flaw – the plan depended on the co-operation of Wallenstein and he was not in favour of the plan simply because it took power away from him in the Baltic.
Wallenstein saw the Baltic as his ‘territory’ and he did not want Spanish interference in the region. It was one of Europe’s most lucrative regions and any money made there, Wallenstein wanted to keep. In support of him were the trading towns of Danzig and Lubeck. Wallenstein was also concerned that the building of an Imperial navy to protect Hansa trade, might provoke a response from Sweden. He feared that Gustavus might invade northern Germany to assert his authority in the area. Wallenstein saw north Germany as his and he did not want the region devastated by war as he would lose a great deal of money if this occurred.
This example shows the difficult position Ferdinand was in. The Spanish Habsburg’s via Olivares had what was potentially an excellent plan to re-assert Habsburg power throughout Europe. But the Austrian Habsburg’s , under Ferdinand, seemed to have lost control of their highly successful general Wallenstein who had begun to see himself as a law unto himself.
In July 1628, Wallenstein attacked Stralsund in Pomerania. His claim was that it would extend the emperor’s power – but it would also greatly increase his own as Stralsund was a wealthy city. The attempt failed as Stralsund called on Denmark and Sweden to aid it. Both did, and Wallenstein had to withdraw from besieging Stralsund.
Christian IV – believing that Wallenstein’s forces were weakened – followed up this success by landing a force in Pomerania. In fact, Wallenstein’s force was still very strong and Christian’s army was heavily defeated at Wolgast in September 1628.
However, Wallenstein realised that such a victory might provoke a response by Gustavus of Sweden and he persuaded Ferdinand to agree to generous peace terms with Christian despite the fact that Denmark was incapable of continuing a military campaign.
In the Treaty of Lubeck (June 1629), Denmark was allowed to keep her possessions including the valuable state of Holstein; Christian had to give up his claims on the north German bishoprics and his leadership of the Lower Saxon Circle. He also had to formally withdraw from the war. | 1,340 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Macaws are noted for being long lived. Estimates of their life span have reached 60 years or longer. Actually, little documented evidence of their life span exists in the literature. With this in mind, a study of the known ages of the birds in residence at Parrot Jungle, Miami, Florida, was undertaken to provide some documented data on this topic.
Parrot Jungle was founded in 1936 as a tourist attraction. Free flying parrots and macaws were the leading attraction. Birds were allowed to breed freely and a facility was constructed for those birds that did breed. Many of the birds hatched at Parrot Jungle have remained there a11 of their lives, making tracking age possible.
To document the aging in these birds, 57 birds known or estimated to be 25 years or older were examined for three years. Of these, 26 were captive-bred and ranged from 25 to 52 years of age. Thirty-one were wild-caught and had been residents of Parrot Jungle for over 20 years.
The oldest bird at Parrot Jungle was recently euthanized due to severe seizure activity. This was one of the original birds imported in 1936, and was at least 57 years old. This bird, however, had been blind and had a chronic neurologic disorder for many years. The first baby hatched at Parrot Jungle is still in residence and is known to be 52 years old. His sibling died at age 49. Seven captive-bred birds are known to be between 41 and 48 years old. All have cataracts that have obscured or reduced vision. All show degenerative diseases associated with advanced age.
Macaws show physical degeneration progressing with age, becoming evident at about the time their reproductive potential is exceeded. In this study group, Macaws produced offspring between approximately four and 35 years of age.
While age changes were variable as to age and onset, in general, muscle wasting and weight loss was evident in most individuals after about 40 years of age. Some of this muscle deterioration could be attributed to lack of exercise. Typically, older birds, who had been free-flying would resort to walking or resting in a familiar location for most of the day.
Posture changes were not dramatic, however, joint stiffness is evident in many birds over 40 years of age. Spotty depigmentation of the feet was common, and aged Blue & Gold and Green-winged Macaws often showed thinning of the facial feathers. Feather pigmentation was largely unaffected, although feather condition and lustre declined in birds in their mid to late forties.
A large number of disease processes associated with advancing age were evident in these older birds, including eye changes (cataracts, etc.), stroke, chronic heart disease, liver disease, kidney disease, etc. Macaws are long lived and have few natural predators. They reproduce for many years and provide parental care for their young for at least four months, making multiple clutches in the wild unlikely unless of clutch loss. Reports indicate they may not breed every year, or may often rear only a single chick. Theoretically, species, which have a low reproductive rate, can maintain their population in the wild if they have a long reproductive life span.
Wednesday 4th December 2019
Good news from Brazil
Some positive news from Brazil. The breeding station Criadouro Fazenda Cachoeira has hatched since May earlier this year 10 Spix’s Macaws (Cyanopsitta spixii), of which the first two are flying. The breeding station is a state ... Read More »
" Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret "
( If you drive out nature with a pitchfork, she will soon find a way back)
Horace (65-8 BC) | <urn:uuid:acc1f838-dba8-442f-93d1-6959067c9a05> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bluemacaws.org/en-gb/article/aging-in-macaws | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00178.warc.gz | en | 0.980863 | 770 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.3134332001209... | 1 | Macaws are noted for being long lived. Estimates of their life span have reached 60 years or longer. Actually, little documented evidence of their life span exists in the literature. With this in mind, a study of the known ages of the birds in residence at Parrot Jungle, Miami, Florida, was undertaken to provide some documented data on this topic.
Parrot Jungle was founded in 1936 as a tourist attraction. Free flying parrots and macaws were the leading attraction. Birds were allowed to breed freely and a facility was constructed for those birds that did breed. Many of the birds hatched at Parrot Jungle have remained there a11 of their lives, making tracking age possible.
To document the aging in these birds, 57 birds known or estimated to be 25 years or older were examined for three years. Of these, 26 were captive-bred and ranged from 25 to 52 years of age. Thirty-one were wild-caught and had been residents of Parrot Jungle for over 20 years.
The oldest bird at Parrot Jungle was recently euthanized due to severe seizure activity. This was one of the original birds imported in 1936, and was at least 57 years old. This bird, however, had been blind and had a chronic neurologic disorder for many years. The first baby hatched at Parrot Jungle is still in residence and is known to be 52 years old. His sibling died at age 49. Seven captive-bred birds are known to be between 41 and 48 years old. All have cataracts that have obscured or reduced vision. All show degenerative diseases associated with advanced age.
Macaws show physical degeneration progressing with age, becoming evident at about the time their reproductive potential is exceeded. In this study group, Macaws produced offspring between approximately four and 35 years of age.
While age changes were variable as to age and onset, in general, muscle wasting and weight loss was evident in most individuals after about 40 years of age. Some of this muscle deterioration could be attributed to lack of exercise. Typically, older birds, who had been free-flying would resort to walking or resting in a familiar location for most of the day.
Posture changes were not dramatic, however, joint stiffness is evident in many birds over 40 years of age. Spotty depigmentation of the feet was common, and aged Blue & Gold and Green-winged Macaws often showed thinning of the facial feathers. Feather pigmentation was largely unaffected, although feather condition and lustre declined in birds in their mid to late forties.
A large number of disease processes associated with advancing age were evident in these older birds, including eye changes (cataracts, etc.), stroke, chronic heart disease, liver disease, kidney disease, etc. Macaws are long lived and have few natural predators. They reproduce for many years and provide parental care for their young for at least four months, making multiple clutches in the wild unlikely unless of clutch loss. Reports indicate they may not breed every year, or may often rear only a single chick. Theoretically, species, which have a low reproductive rate, can maintain their population in the wild if they have a long reproductive life span.
Wednesday 4th December 2019
Good news from Brazil
Some positive news from Brazil. The breeding station Criadouro Fazenda Cachoeira has hatched since May earlier this year 10 Spix’s Macaws (Cyanopsitta spixii), of which the first two are flying. The breeding station is a state ... Read More »
" Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret "
( If you drive out nature with a pitchfork, she will soon find a way back)
Horace (65-8 BC) | 801 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In addition to social difficulties, autism spectrum disorders usually involve communication problems. In fact, the most prominent feature of classic autism, at least in the minds of most people, is the inability to speak. What is less well understood is that even those with Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism experience some difficulties with communication. This, it turns out, is one of the most confusing parts of the diagnostic puzzle and often leads to misdiagnoses when the child is young. You may have had autism raised as a possibility at some point in your child's life, only to have it "ruled out" or be told later that he or she couldn't possibly be autistic because the child speaks so well. Indeed, it is part of the definition of Asperger syndrome that language be fluent, not only at the age the child is seen for evaluation, but even at ages 2 and 3. A smaller, but not insignificant, number of children with high-functioning autism begin talking early and soon speak articulately in a manner that seems advanced. Parents may first believe their child is gifted based on his or her precocious language skills. Yet there are virtually always differences in the way language is used, particularly in social contexts, that can cause problems. The child, adolescent, or adult with AS-HFA may dominate conversations, talking on and on without giving others the chance to say anything. The pedantic or overly formal manner of speaking that Joseph uses is common in both Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism. At age 7, Joseph begins many statements the way a professor might, saying, "Actually . . . " or "I do believe. . . . " He has a vast vocabulary and loves to use unusual words—the bigger the better. When asked his favorite color, he pointed to a yellow balloon and said with a smile "chartreuse." Clint defines terms that don't need defining. He readily tells people that he is autistic, hastening to add, "Autistic is the adjective for the noun autism" as if we would not know what the word meant without this explanation. While there is nothing technically wrong with phrasing things so formally, it certainly makes Clint and Joseph stand out from their peers and often makes them the target of teasing. Joseph's mother likens his speech patterns to someone who speaks English as a second language: other people can figure out what he is trying to say, but the way he phrases even simple statements makes it seem as if English is not his native tongue.
Some children with AS-HFA memorize things that other people say (or phrases or dialogue from videos and books) and then incorporate them into their own speech. This memorized speech is called delayed echolalia and, while idiosyncratic, does indicate that the child has a well-developed verbal memory. Sometimes the echoed phrases are used in context and make sense, as when Joseph exclaimed, "Oh no, it's my worst nightmare!" (dialogue from a Disney movie) after spilling milk on one of his maps. Other times, the link between the phrase and the context is less clear. Seth's mother reported that as a small child he would say "He's a happy man right there" whenever he put on or took off a hat. For years, she and Seth's dad had no idea where this comment came from or what it meant. Then one day they happened to be watching an old golf video they had taped several years earlier. They were astounded to see one of the golfers make a hole-in-one and then tip his cap to the audience as the announcer said, "He's a happy man right there." Seth had associated this phrase with hats, and the two remained linked in his mind, although the phrase made little sense to others and didn't help him communicate his wants or needs.
Another communication problem for children with AS-HFA is their literal interpretation of what is said. As we all know, often what we say is not exactly what we mean. When his mother sarcastically commented that Seth, who had ignored her request to clean his room, "was doing a really good job," he nodded and continued playing Nintendo. He didn't appreciate his mother's frustration, conveyed by her tone of voice and facial expression, or notice the mismatch between her statement and the context. Another boy, when I called his house and asked if his mother was home, answered "Yes" and then hung up the phone. He took my question literally, rather than understanding it as a polite but indirect way of asking to speak to his mother.
Still another common communication problem of people with AS-HFA is how they speak. Children with these disorders may speak very loudly or, conversely, too softly to be heard well. Words may tumble out of their mouths at breakneck speed or crawl out as if on a recording played at the wrong speed. Or their speech may have an unusual rhythm, with emphasis placed on the wrong words in sentences, a rising conclusion to a statement, making it sound like a question, or little inflection, giving their voice a flat tone. There may be fewer of the natural pauses we usually make in conversation, resulting in run-on speech. Or they may take breaths at unusual points during speaking, such as in the middle of a word or phrase. Often children with AS-HFA are unaware of how different from others they sound.
Was this article helpful?
Autism is a developmental disorder that manifests itself in early childhood and affects the functioning of the brain, primarily in the areas of social interaction and communication. Children with autism look like other children but do not play or behave like other children. They must struggle daily to cope and connect with the world around them. | <urn:uuid:07475e98-9ec8-466c-9087-16b3269f5aae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.doctorabel.us/asperger-syndrome/communication-eloquent-but-inarticulate.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00510.warc.gz | en | 0.983204 | 1,169 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.510019719600... | 1 | In addition to social difficulties, autism spectrum disorders usually involve communication problems. In fact, the most prominent feature of classic autism, at least in the minds of most people, is the inability to speak. What is less well understood is that even those with Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism experience some difficulties with communication. This, it turns out, is one of the most confusing parts of the diagnostic puzzle and often leads to misdiagnoses when the child is young. You may have had autism raised as a possibility at some point in your child's life, only to have it "ruled out" or be told later that he or she couldn't possibly be autistic because the child speaks so well. Indeed, it is part of the definition of Asperger syndrome that language be fluent, not only at the age the child is seen for evaluation, but even at ages 2 and 3. A smaller, but not insignificant, number of children with high-functioning autism begin talking early and soon speak articulately in a manner that seems advanced. Parents may first believe their child is gifted based on his or her precocious language skills. Yet there are virtually always differences in the way language is used, particularly in social contexts, that can cause problems. The child, adolescent, or adult with AS-HFA may dominate conversations, talking on and on without giving others the chance to say anything. The pedantic or overly formal manner of speaking that Joseph uses is common in both Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism. At age 7, Joseph begins many statements the way a professor might, saying, "Actually . . . " or "I do believe. . . . " He has a vast vocabulary and loves to use unusual words—the bigger the better. When asked his favorite color, he pointed to a yellow balloon and said with a smile "chartreuse." Clint defines terms that don't need defining. He readily tells people that he is autistic, hastening to add, "Autistic is the adjective for the noun autism" as if we would not know what the word meant without this explanation. While there is nothing technically wrong with phrasing things so formally, it certainly makes Clint and Joseph stand out from their peers and often makes them the target of teasing. Joseph's mother likens his speech patterns to someone who speaks English as a second language: other people can figure out what he is trying to say, but the way he phrases even simple statements makes it seem as if English is not his native tongue.
Some children with AS-HFA memorize things that other people say (or phrases or dialogue from videos and books) and then incorporate them into their own speech. This memorized speech is called delayed echolalia and, while idiosyncratic, does indicate that the child has a well-developed verbal memory. Sometimes the echoed phrases are used in context and make sense, as when Joseph exclaimed, "Oh no, it's my worst nightmare!" (dialogue from a Disney movie) after spilling milk on one of his maps. Other times, the link between the phrase and the context is less clear. Seth's mother reported that as a small child he would say "He's a happy man right there" whenever he put on or took off a hat. For years, she and Seth's dad had no idea where this comment came from or what it meant. Then one day they happened to be watching an old golf video they had taped several years earlier. They were astounded to see one of the golfers make a hole-in-one and then tip his cap to the audience as the announcer said, "He's a happy man right there." Seth had associated this phrase with hats, and the two remained linked in his mind, although the phrase made little sense to others and didn't help him communicate his wants or needs.
Another communication problem for children with AS-HFA is their literal interpretation of what is said. As we all know, often what we say is not exactly what we mean. When his mother sarcastically commented that Seth, who had ignored her request to clean his room, "was doing a really good job," he nodded and continued playing Nintendo. He didn't appreciate his mother's frustration, conveyed by her tone of voice and facial expression, or notice the mismatch between her statement and the context. Another boy, when I called his house and asked if his mother was home, answered "Yes" and then hung up the phone. He took my question literally, rather than understanding it as a polite but indirect way of asking to speak to his mother.
Still another common communication problem of people with AS-HFA is how they speak. Children with these disorders may speak very loudly or, conversely, too softly to be heard well. Words may tumble out of their mouths at breakneck speed or crawl out as if on a recording played at the wrong speed. Or their speech may have an unusual rhythm, with emphasis placed on the wrong words in sentences, a rising conclusion to a statement, making it sound like a question, or little inflection, giving their voice a flat tone. There may be fewer of the natural pauses we usually make in conversation, resulting in run-on speech. Or they may take breaths at unusual points during speaking, such as in the middle of a word or phrase. Often children with AS-HFA are unaware of how different from others they sound.
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Autism is a developmental disorder that manifests itself in early childhood and affects the functioning of the brain, primarily in the areas of social interaction and communication. Children with autism look like other children but do not play or behave like other children. They must struggle daily to cope and connect with the world around them. | 1,160 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Did you know some explosions that were going on in france were heard in london when the french dug tunnels under the front lines of german trenches? After they were under the trenches they would plant and detonate mines. Sometimes the explosions were so great that the prime minister of london 140 miles away would hear them. Perhaps this technique would never have been thought of if they would have been In a structure. Like a house, hut, or maybe a huge fortress perhaps?Fortresses played a effective role when it came down to them doing their job. Let’s take a look at the eastern front for right now. Russian Forts saved the Tsar’s Army from being destroyed in Poland during 1915. The Russian Army put most of it’s heavy artillery in these forts, and yes they cost huge sums of money, but in the end if you look at the fighting in the East it is very clear the forts were instrumental in holding back the Central Powers. This allowed the Russians to escape the trap ment for them in poland. The war might have ended in 1915 rather than in 1917 if the fort wasn’t there to protect them. The osovets fortress was the key to this salvation of a large portion of the Russian army. For a few months they held back the german forces trying to cut off one of the main escape from a doomed warsaw. A very popular fortress was Fort Douaumont. This fort was part of one of the most circumstantial battles in ww1. On february 25 1916 german troops attacked fort douaumont, the most reliable of the forts guarding the walled city of Verdun, France, four days after the initial attack. The battle of Verdun would go on to be one of the bloodiest battles in ww1, 700,000 deaths in ten months. In 1916 Verdun was defended by 500,00 men stationed in fort Douaumont and Fort Vaux. The germans, commanded by chief of staff Eric Von Falkenhayn sent 1 million men to Verdun in hopes of getting a swift victory that would push the french towards an armistice. The first shot was fired on february 21. By the end of that day the germans had only captured the front line of trenches. The germans realized that this battle was going to be harder than they thought. So, they pushed on and by february 23rd the germans had advanced 2 miles and captured 3,000 french soldiers. By february 24th the germans had taken over the second line of trenches. Fort Douaumont was a massive structure protected by 2 layers of concrete over a meter thick, and surrounded by a 7-meter-deep moat. When it fell on February 25th to the German 24th brandenburg infantry regiment with the kaiser on hand to deliver his personal congratulations, german jubilation was matched only by the french army? shock and sadness. From that point on, Verdun became a cause that the french just couldn’t let go. Public sentiment began to demand the recapture of the symbolic stronghold. The battle stretched on and on, with devastating casualties to both sides. As german resources were diverted to fight the british at the “battle of the somme” and the russians on the eastern front, French forges gradually regained much of the ground that they had lost and eventually took Verdun back over. “…Ending the Battle of Verdun after 10 months and a total of over 200,000 lives lost.”-A & E Television Networks, LLC, This Day in History Feb 25, 2018. | <urn:uuid:da29846a-77fe-4690-b3f4-551a21405881> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://michiganboergoat.org/did-lets-take-a-look-at-the-eastern-front/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00490.warc.gz | en | 0.98156 | 756 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.35187637805... | 2 | Did you know some explosions that were going on in france were heard in london when the french dug tunnels under the front lines of german trenches? After they were under the trenches they would plant and detonate mines. Sometimes the explosions were so great that the prime minister of london 140 miles away would hear them. Perhaps this technique would never have been thought of if they would have been In a structure. Like a house, hut, or maybe a huge fortress perhaps?Fortresses played a effective role when it came down to them doing their job. Let’s take a look at the eastern front for right now. Russian Forts saved the Tsar’s Army from being destroyed in Poland during 1915. The Russian Army put most of it’s heavy artillery in these forts, and yes they cost huge sums of money, but in the end if you look at the fighting in the East it is very clear the forts were instrumental in holding back the Central Powers. This allowed the Russians to escape the trap ment for them in poland. The war might have ended in 1915 rather than in 1917 if the fort wasn’t there to protect them. The osovets fortress was the key to this salvation of a large portion of the Russian army. For a few months they held back the german forces trying to cut off one of the main escape from a doomed warsaw. A very popular fortress was Fort Douaumont. This fort was part of one of the most circumstantial battles in ww1. On february 25 1916 german troops attacked fort douaumont, the most reliable of the forts guarding the walled city of Verdun, France, four days after the initial attack. The battle of Verdun would go on to be one of the bloodiest battles in ww1, 700,000 deaths in ten months. In 1916 Verdun was defended by 500,00 men stationed in fort Douaumont and Fort Vaux. The germans, commanded by chief of staff Eric Von Falkenhayn sent 1 million men to Verdun in hopes of getting a swift victory that would push the french towards an armistice. The first shot was fired on february 21. By the end of that day the germans had only captured the front line of trenches. The germans realized that this battle was going to be harder than they thought. So, they pushed on and by february 23rd the germans had advanced 2 miles and captured 3,000 french soldiers. By february 24th the germans had taken over the second line of trenches. Fort Douaumont was a massive structure protected by 2 layers of concrete over a meter thick, and surrounded by a 7-meter-deep moat. When it fell on February 25th to the German 24th brandenburg infantry regiment with the kaiser on hand to deliver his personal congratulations, german jubilation was matched only by the french army? shock and sadness. From that point on, Verdun became a cause that the french just couldn’t let go. Public sentiment began to demand the recapture of the symbolic stronghold. The battle stretched on and on, with devastating casualties to both sides. As german resources were diverted to fight the british at the “battle of the somme” and the russians on the eastern front, French forges gradually regained much of the ground that they had lost and eventually took Verdun back over. “…Ending the Battle of Verdun after 10 months and a total of over 200,000 lives lost.”-A & E Television Networks, LLC, This Day in History Feb 25, 2018. | 780 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Associates for Biblical Research celebrated the final days of Chanukah with the discovery of 20 ancient coins, half of which date back to the time of the Hasmonean. Led by archeologist Dr. Scott Stripling in ancient Shiloh, Israel, the team dug through dirt that was last checked in the 1980’s to identify artifacts that were missed.
The process they used to find these artifacts is called wet sifting. The first step entailed dry sifting through the materials, then placing the items on a tray and washing the dirt off. After completing this process, the items could clearly be identified. Stripling explained that wet sifting is so important because “Once all the dirt is removed, you can see things that you could not see when it was caked with dirt. For example, small coins covered with dirt are going to be very hard to spot. Even things like scarabs and seal impressions – you can’t find them until you wash the material.” Stripling advocates for this multistep process and hopes to encourage more Israeli archeologists to do it as well since he believes it is a more effective way to find valuable artifacts.
During the time of Chanukah, the Greek-Hellinstic Empire controlled Israel and decreed that Jews may not practice their religion. The Hasmonean was a family of Kohanim that served in the Second Temple. They miraculously overthrew the Greeks, and after reclaiming the Temple, returned to their job of lighting the Menorah every night with oil. However, the oil had to have the seal of the High Priest, but only enough oil to last one night was available. With the help of another miracle, the oil lasted eight nights, until oil with the High Priest’s seal was made available.
The High Priest was John Hyrcanus, also known as Yochanan Kohen Gadol. His eldest son, Aristobulus I, became the first Hasmonean king once they defeated the Greeks and had sovereignty over Israel. When he died, his brother Alexander Jannaeus became the second king, from 103 BCE to 76 BCE. The coins the Associates for Biblical Research discovered were from Jannaeus’s reign.
Stripling said Shiloh was an integral village during the Hasmonean period, and while it was inhabited by both Jews and Christians alike, these coins were favored. Even after Rome conquered Israel in 63 BCE, these coins were still being used as an act of silent protest against the Romans.
One of the coins Stripling’s team found had the signage of King Alexander Jannaeus with a star on it, a messianic symbol representing hope which was used during the time of the Second Temple.
This finding during the holiday of Chanukah holds special significance, as it demonstrates the connection between the land of Israel and the history of the Jewish people. This message is best illustrated through Heart of Israel director A.Y. Katsof’s story. Katsof arrived from California with a supporter of his organization, who was curious to learn about “the connection between the Bible, the history and the land. He wanted to see how it’s connected in the reality of today,” Katsof explained. Given Shiloh’s presence in much of Tanach, having been the home of the Tabernacle, the center of Jewish life prior to the First Temple, and still inhabited by Jews during the First and Second Temple periods, Katsof knew that Shiloh would be the most enlightening place to show his associate. He, his associate, and Stripling’s whole team were astonished to find the coin, after being unsuccessful all day. Katsof explained, “We were blown away…We were talking about the battles of the Hasmoneans, and we found a Hasmonean coin right in front of eyes… For me, it was very special.” | <urn:uuid:71dff745-a1e2-4e99-a964-18bd81c946bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freshinkforteens.com/the-chanukah-discovery/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00509.warc.gz | en | 0.980727 | 814 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.190025597... | 2 | The Associates for Biblical Research celebrated the final days of Chanukah with the discovery of 20 ancient coins, half of which date back to the time of the Hasmonean. Led by archeologist Dr. Scott Stripling in ancient Shiloh, Israel, the team dug through dirt that was last checked in the 1980’s to identify artifacts that were missed.
The process they used to find these artifacts is called wet sifting. The first step entailed dry sifting through the materials, then placing the items on a tray and washing the dirt off. After completing this process, the items could clearly be identified. Stripling explained that wet sifting is so important because “Once all the dirt is removed, you can see things that you could not see when it was caked with dirt. For example, small coins covered with dirt are going to be very hard to spot. Even things like scarabs and seal impressions – you can’t find them until you wash the material.” Stripling advocates for this multistep process and hopes to encourage more Israeli archeologists to do it as well since he believes it is a more effective way to find valuable artifacts.
During the time of Chanukah, the Greek-Hellinstic Empire controlled Israel and decreed that Jews may not practice their religion. The Hasmonean was a family of Kohanim that served in the Second Temple. They miraculously overthrew the Greeks, and after reclaiming the Temple, returned to their job of lighting the Menorah every night with oil. However, the oil had to have the seal of the High Priest, but only enough oil to last one night was available. With the help of another miracle, the oil lasted eight nights, until oil with the High Priest’s seal was made available.
The High Priest was John Hyrcanus, also known as Yochanan Kohen Gadol. His eldest son, Aristobulus I, became the first Hasmonean king once they defeated the Greeks and had sovereignty over Israel. When he died, his brother Alexander Jannaeus became the second king, from 103 BCE to 76 BCE. The coins the Associates for Biblical Research discovered were from Jannaeus’s reign.
Stripling said Shiloh was an integral village during the Hasmonean period, and while it was inhabited by both Jews and Christians alike, these coins were favored. Even after Rome conquered Israel in 63 BCE, these coins were still being used as an act of silent protest against the Romans.
One of the coins Stripling’s team found had the signage of King Alexander Jannaeus with a star on it, a messianic symbol representing hope which was used during the time of the Second Temple.
This finding during the holiday of Chanukah holds special significance, as it demonstrates the connection between the land of Israel and the history of the Jewish people. This message is best illustrated through Heart of Israel director A.Y. Katsof’s story. Katsof arrived from California with a supporter of his organization, who was curious to learn about “the connection between the Bible, the history and the land. He wanted to see how it’s connected in the reality of today,” Katsof explained. Given Shiloh’s presence in much of Tanach, having been the home of the Tabernacle, the center of Jewish life prior to the First Temple, and still inhabited by Jews during the First and Second Temple periods, Katsof knew that Shiloh would be the most enlightening place to show his associate. He, his associate, and Stripling’s whole team were astonished to find the coin, after being unsuccessful all day. Katsof explained, “We were blown away…We were talking about the battles of the Hasmoneans, and we found a Hasmonean coin right in front of eyes… For me, it was very special.” | 810 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The main function of the information room is to reveal copper’s history, locations, affinities, mysteries, and how copper and its ore was used for other purposes.
The story of copper begins when it was discovered, as it was used for tools, weapons, and pigments. The broad use of copper has lead to some of the world’s most amazing mysteries; many of which remain unsolved to this day.
Myths have always surrounded copper, to include the mythical goddess Venus, born on the “island of Copper,” known today as Cyprus. The glyph for copper, women, and Venus is the same, similar to that of iron, men, and Mars. Arizona, known as the “Copper State,” is legendary as it is the largest producer of the metal in the United States. | <urn:uuid:3a163c02-dd0a-4ef0-92b1-cecedf15e0cd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.copperartmuseum.com/historical-information-room | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00536.warc.gz | en | 0.985246 | 173 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.5474616289138... | 13 | The main function of the information room is to reveal copper’s history, locations, affinities, mysteries, and how copper and its ore was used for other purposes.
The story of copper begins when it was discovered, as it was used for tools, weapons, and pigments. The broad use of copper has lead to some of the world’s most amazing mysteries; many of which remain unsolved to this day.
Myths have always surrounded copper, to include the mythical goddess Venus, born on the “island of Copper,” known today as Cyprus. The glyph for copper, women, and Venus is the same, similar to that of iron, men, and Mars. Arizona, known as the “Copper State,” is legendary as it is the largest producer of the metal in the United States. | 162 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ancient Egyptians have long been depicted wearing so-called head cones, but until now, archaeologists had no physical evidence of their existence. Now, two such head cones, made of wax, have been discovered on the skulls of two individuals buried about 3,300 years ago at the site of Amarna in Egypt.
Between 1550 B.C. and 30 B.C., Egyptian art depicted people wearing what look like cones on their heads. Because no examples of these cones had ever been found, archaeologists wondered whether they actually existed or were an artistic motif that had no basis in reality (similar to people with halos over their heads depicted in Christian art).
Related: 25 Grisly Archaeological Discoveries
This new discovery proves that the cones did exist, and provides information on what the cones were made of, a team of archaeologists wrote in a paper published Dec. 10 in the journal Antiquity.
The two cone-wearing individuals were found in separate plots in cemeteries at Amarna. One individual, a woman, was found in 2010; she had died when she was between 20 and 29 years of age. She had "long, thick braids featuring many extensions and end-curls" and "the cone was found in situ, placed on top of the head over the well-preserved hair," the archaeological team wrote in the Antiquity article. The researchers noted that the "overall shape [of the cone] seems to be that of a low dome," originally measuring about 3.1 inches (80 millimeters) high and 3.9 inches (100 mm) across.
The other person buried with a cone, found in 2015, was between 15 and 20 years of age when he or she died (the sex is not known). This individual appeared to have their "hair ended in open, probably unstyled curls," with no braids, the archaeologists wrote, noting that the grave had been robbed at some point.
In both cases, the cones appear cream colored; spectroscopic analysis indicated that the cones were likely made of beeswax. Neither individual appears to have been wealthy; an evaluation of their bones suggested that they both did labor-intensive work and suffered from shortages of food at times in their life.
The purpose of the head cones is still a mystery. In artistic depictions, head cones "are often depicted as being worn by guests, both female and male, in banqueting scenes, including those honoring the dead, or by male tomb owners as they participate in funerary rituals, or are rewarded by the king," the archaeologists wrote. The artistic scenes also showed people wearing cones while hunting, fishing, playing music or taking part in childbirth, the authors added.
"The nature and role of the cones have long been debated. The most enduring interpretation is that the cone is a lump of perfumed unguent that, as it melted, scented and cleansed the hair and body," they wrote.
The new discovery, they said, makes this interpretation problematic, since the cones are made of beeswax, not unguent, and no perfume was detected in the team's tests. Even so, the scientists noted that any perfume on the cones may have completely evaporated by now.
One possibility is that the two individuals buried with the cones had fertility issues, which the head cones were meant to treat in the afterlife, the archaeologists wrote. "Scholars often link the cones specifically with sensuality, sexuality and related notions, as they are frequently associated in imagery with women, sometimes unclothed," they wrote. For instance, the cones have been depicted in scenes showing the fertility goddess Hathor. And in tomb scenes, they are often read as sensual motifs associated with the rebirth of the tomb owner, who is usually male," wrote the archaeological team.
Lise Manniche, a professor emeritus of Egyptology at the University of Copenhagen who was not involved in the current study, agreed with the archaeologists that this is an important discovery. She thinks that cones made of unguent would have been used by the middle or upper classes, but that the two individuals found buried with the cones at Amarna couldn't afford cones made of unguent and instead wore cones made of beeswax.
"I would interpret the two cones as 'dummy cones,' used by less fortunate inhabitants in the city as a substitute for the unguent cones of the middle and upper classes," Manniche said, adding that "by using these dummies, they would have hoped to narrow the social gap in the next life."
Nicola Harrington, an honorary research associate at the University of Sydney's archaeology department, said that "it seems unlikely that the meaning [of the cones] can be tied to fertility and/or rebirth alone because one would expect more people — male and female — to be buried with them."
Harrington, who wasn't involved in the research, suggests that the cones may be "status markers of women who performed ritual dances for the king and his god, the Aten." The injuries the two people with the cones had, stress/compression fractures of the mid-lower spine, are common among dancers, Harrington noted; and the cones could have "marked them as members of a community that served the gods."
Both Harrington and Manniche have published articles in the past on head cones.
- Photos: Mummies and Figurines Discovered in Ancient Cemetery at Luxor
- The 25 Most Mysterious Archaeological Finds on Earth
- Back to the Stone Age: 17 Key Milestones in Paleolithic Life
Originally published on Live Science. | <urn:uuid:c40ef64a-a6b1-49c9-a47d-cd15d2ed5a60> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.livescience.com/ancient-egypt-head-cone-burial.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00021.warc.gz | en | 0.983758 | 1,151 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.092063806951045... | 5 | Ancient Egyptians have long been depicted wearing so-called head cones, but until now, archaeologists had no physical evidence of their existence. Now, two such head cones, made of wax, have been discovered on the skulls of two individuals buried about 3,300 years ago at the site of Amarna in Egypt.
Between 1550 B.C. and 30 B.C., Egyptian art depicted people wearing what look like cones on their heads. Because no examples of these cones had ever been found, archaeologists wondered whether they actually existed or were an artistic motif that had no basis in reality (similar to people with halos over their heads depicted in Christian art).
Related: 25 Grisly Archaeological Discoveries
This new discovery proves that the cones did exist, and provides information on what the cones were made of, a team of archaeologists wrote in a paper published Dec. 10 in the journal Antiquity.
The two cone-wearing individuals were found in separate plots in cemeteries at Amarna. One individual, a woman, was found in 2010; she had died when she was between 20 and 29 years of age. She had "long, thick braids featuring many extensions and end-curls" and "the cone was found in situ, placed on top of the head over the well-preserved hair," the archaeological team wrote in the Antiquity article. The researchers noted that the "overall shape [of the cone] seems to be that of a low dome," originally measuring about 3.1 inches (80 millimeters) high and 3.9 inches (100 mm) across.
The other person buried with a cone, found in 2015, was between 15 and 20 years of age when he or she died (the sex is not known). This individual appeared to have their "hair ended in open, probably unstyled curls," with no braids, the archaeologists wrote, noting that the grave had been robbed at some point.
In both cases, the cones appear cream colored; spectroscopic analysis indicated that the cones were likely made of beeswax. Neither individual appears to have been wealthy; an evaluation of their bones suggested that they both did labor-intensive work and suffered from shortages of food at times in their life.
The purpose of the head cones is still a mystery. In artistic depictions, head cones "are often depicted as being worn by guests, both female and male, in banqueting scenes, including those honoring the dead, or by male tomb owners as they participate in funerary rituals, or are rewarded by the king," the archaeologists wrote. The artistic scenes also showed people wearing cones while hunting, fishing, playing music or taking part in childbirth, the authors added.
"The nature and role of the cones have long been debated. The most enduring interpretation is that the cone is a lump of perfumed unguent that, as it melted, scented and cleansed the hair and body," they wrote.
The new discovery, they said, makes this interpretation problematic, since the cones are made of beeswax, not unguent, and no perfume was detected in the team's tests. Even so, the scientists noted that any perfume on the cones may have completely evaporated by now.
One possibility is that the two individuals buried with the cones had fertility issues, which the head cones were meant to treat in the afterlife, the archaeologists wrote. "Scholars often link the cones specifically with sensuality, sexuality and related notions, as they are frequently associated in imagery with women, sometimes unclothed," they wrote. For instance, the cones have been depicted in scenes showing the fertility goddess Hathor. And in tomb scenes, they are often read as sensual motifs associated with the rebirth of the tomb owner, who is usually male," wrote the archaeological team.
Lise Manniche, a professor emeritus of Egyptology at the University of Copenhagen who was not involved in the current study, agreed with the archaeologists that this is an important discovery. She thinks that cones made of unguent would have been used by the middle or upper classes, but that the two individuals found buried with the cones at Amarna couldn't afford cones made of unguent and instead wore cones made of beeswax.
"I would interpret the two cones as 'dummy cones,' used by less fortunate inhabitants in the city as a substitute for the unguent cones of the middle and upper classes," Manniche said, adding that "by using these dummies, they would have hoped to narrow the social gap in the next life."
Nicola Harrington, an honorary research associate at the University of Sydney's archaeology department, said that "it seems unlikely that the meaning [of the cones] can be tied to fertility and/or rebirth alone because one would expect more people — male and female — to be buried with them."
Harrington, who wasn't involved in the research, suggests that the cones may be "status markers of women who performed ritual dances for the king and his god, the Aten." The injuries the two people with the cones had, stress/compression fractures of the mid-lower spine, are common among dancers, Harrington noted; and the cones could have "marked them as members of a community that served the gods."
Both Harrington and Manniche have published articles in the past on head cones.
- Photos: Mummies and Figurines Discovered in Ancient Cemetery at Luxor
- The 25 Most Mysterious Archaeological Finds on Earth
- Back to the Stone Age: 17 Key Milestones in Paleolithic Life
Originally published on Live Science. | 1,174 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 01/02/2012)
The Governor-General of India or the Viceroy headed the British administration in India. After Indian independence, they became the representative of the Indian monarch. The office of the Governor-General was created in 1773 of the Presidency of Fort William. The officer had direct control only over the Fort. The office of the Governor-General was changed to viceroys in 1876 and they became the direct representatives of the British Crown. Lord Irwin or Lord Edward Frederick Wood Irwin was appointed as the Indian Viceroy in April 1926 and continued his office till 1931.
Lord Irwin was the son of the second Viscount Halifax. He received his education at Eton and also served as a Member of Parliament from 1910 to 1925. The period of Lord Irwin's rule as the Indian Viceroy was regarded as a phase of great political turmoil in the country. He witnessed several important events which included the Simon Commission report, Nehru report, All Parties' Conference, Jinnah's 14 points, Civil Disobedience Movement and Round Table Conferences.
The time when Lord Irwin came to India as the Viceroy, the country was in a state of complete commotion. The Congress had no active programme and the Muslim League was not functioning in cohesion as it was a leaderless organisation at that time. Moreover, India was facing a communal tension as well. Being an able man he tactfully faced these problems when he was appointed as the Viceroy of India.
All the communities in India at that period of time claimed to settle before the India Act was enacted. In addition to that, Congress Party represented many interests in front of the Viceroy. However, in this regard Lord Irwin followed a strategy and had all the leaders of the Congress members behind the bar. Another strategy followed by Lord Irwin was his negotiation with Gandhi. One of the most important events during viceroyalty of Lord Irwin was the signing of the Delhi Pact in January 1931. This pact ended the boycott of British goods too and negotiation resulted in the Gandhi-Irwin pact. This strategy of Lord Irwin suspended the Civil Disobedience Movement.
The agreement between Gandhi and Irwin was signed on March 5, 1931. The features of the Pact are:
Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Congress would participate in the Round Table Conference.
Government would withdraw all ordinances issued to curb the Congress.
Government would withdraw all prosecutions relating to offences not involving violence.
Government would release all persons serving sentences of imprisonment for their activities in the civil disobedience movement.
Other vital contributions of the Indian Viceroy, Lord Irwin include was banning of public gatherings and crush rebellious opposition. Lord Irwin was accepted in India as Viceroy with mixed feelings. However, overall Irwin was a successful Viceroy. He was accepted in his homeland with honour as he demonstrated sternness and independence in his regime. | <urn:uuid:b3d54e4c-0a40-401c-8ced-7a15161faa8d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/42/lord_irwin.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00346.warc.gz | en | 0.985198 | 596 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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The Governor-General of India or the Viceroy headed the British administration in India. After Indian independence, they became the representative of the Indian monarch. The office of the Governor-General was created in 1773 of the Presidency of Fort William. The officer had direct control only over the Fort. The office of the Governor-General was changed to viceroys in 1876 and they became the direct representatives of the British Crown. Lord Irwin or Lord Edward Frederick Wood Irwin was appointed as the Indian Viceroy in April 1926 and continued his office till 1931.
Lord Irwin was the son of the second Viscount Halifax. He received his education at Eton and also served as a Member of Parliament from 1910 to 1925. The period of Lord Irwin's rule as the Indian Viceroy was regarded as a phase of great political turmoil in the country. He witnessed several important events which included the Simon Commission report, Nehru report, All Parties' Conference, Jinnah's 14 points, Civil Disobedience Movement and Round Table Conferences.
The time when Lord Irwin came to India as the Viceroy, the country was in a state of complete commotion. The Congress had no active programme and the Muslim League was not functioning in cohesion as it was a leaderless organisation at that time. Moreover, India was facing a communal tension as well. Being an able man he tactfully faced these problems when he was appointed as the Viceroy of India.
All the communities in India at that period of time claimed to settle before the India Act was enacted. In addition to that, Congress Party represented many interests in front of the Viceroy. However, in this regard Lord Irwin followed a strategy and had all the leaders of the Congress members behind the bar. Another strategy followed by Lord Irwin was his negotiation with Gandhi. One of the most important events during viceroyalty of Lord Irwin was the signing of the Delhi Pact in January 1931. This pact ended the boycott of British goods too and negotiation resulted in the Gandhi-Irwin pact. This strategy of Lord Irwin suspended the Civil Disobedience Movement.
The agreement between Gandhi and Irwin was signed on March 5, 1931. The features of the Pact are:
Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Congress would participate in the Round Table Conference.
Government would withdraw all ordinances issued to curb the Congress.
Government would withdraw all prosecutions relating to offences not involving violence.
Government would release all persons serving sentences of imprisonment for their activities in the civil disobedience movement.
Other vital contributions of the Indian Viceroy, Lord Irwin include was banning of public gatherings and crush rebellious opposition. Lord Irwin was accepted in India as Viceroy with mixed feelings. However, overall Irwin was a successful Viceroy. He was accepted in his homeland with honour as he demonstrated sternness and independence in his regime. | 639 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As one of the major turning points in the twentieth century, the Iranian Revolution of 1979 encapsulated significant cultural and political structural shifts for Iranian women. As the Revolution shifted into an Islamic Republic (contrary to the intentions of those involved in the revolution), this transition brought about doubts as to whether life under Islamic law would be better than life under the Pahlavi reign. Ultimately, the themes of secularism versus clericalism and women’s emancipation versus traditional roles all played out as key junctures during this transition. Through the analysis of policy changes under the Pahlavi monarchy, the transition to traditional penal codes under Khomeini’s rule, and the revolution’s paradoxical phenomenon, reforms during the Revolution served as visual responses to the reaction of the West rather than responses to the demands of women. Women’s fundamental role changes also reflected the underlying utopian visions and trajectories of the Pahlavi monarchy and of Ruhollah Khomeini. In order to better contextualize the motives of Khomeini’s fundamentalist stance and its effect on Iranian women, it is paramount to understand the implemented policies during the Pahlavi reign. Reza Shah, who was the first ruler of Iran after World War I, was determined to reshape the view of Iran as a modern, economically robust, and forward-thinking entity. In many ways, women were instruments, or in more crude terms “puppets,” for the Pahlavi Monarchy to advance its agenda. The “improvements” included westernizing education in ways such as allowing women to attend university and allowing more social mobility in professional status. Moreover, one of the most prominent policy changes was the banning of the veil in public spaces. This visual transformation was described by Shirin Ebadi as a “cultural invasion,” as women had to abandon their indigenous culture. It is also important to note that the Shah’s promotion of women’s rights was not without personal benefits. After all, education was an outlet for the Shah to spread his vision, morals, and programs. Thus, the Shah’s concern and motives for the reforms were not so much for the freedom of women but how Iran was viewed by the West. In essence, improvement of economic and social conditions for Iranian women were merely steps taken to seem more westernized in the international arena. More importantly, these specific reforms were cosmetic, superficial, and fairly ineffective, as they did not include the most important demands of women’s suffrage. Essentially, the reforms were aimed to enhance the regime’s image; women’s needs were secondary concerns in the revolution’s agenda. Indeed, the number of women who received education during the Pahlavi Dynasty increased, but the effects were not uniform among the Iranian female population. Women from traditional families or poor communities did not benefit from westernized education, as the notion of attending school with men was not consistent with conservative families. Thus, cities and villages outside of Tehran most likely did not feel as much of a push for reformation, as most Iranian women were poor, lived in slums, and raised in patriarchal families. Moreover, women with low socioeconomic status likely rebelled against the Shah’s reforms, as these women were casted aside from the westernized urban women with a united sense of alienation and disillusionment. On the other hand, these westernized urban women who were of middle and upper class families were more affected and even tolerant to the secular changes in their communities. Thus, the treatment and benefits under the Reza Shah and Mohammad Reza Shah’s rule were not uniform among the Iranian women population and just illusions of westernization without truly improving women’s lives.In the same way that the Pahlavi Monarchy enveloped women’s rights into modernization and secularization, Khomeini equated women’s reforms to piety and inherent morality. Similar to the Pahlavi leaders, Khomeini targeted women and implemented reforms accordingly to advance his vision of what an Iranian government should look like. Notably, the resurrection of the veil, similar to the push for western clothing under the Pahlavi monarchy, was a visual representation of the shift from secular to religious rule. More importantly, the veil represented backwardness and oppression because for the upper class women under the Shah’s rule, including Ebadi, the emergence of the veil amounted to a shift back towards the domestic sphere. Overall, the veil played an important role as Khomeini wanted to present an image of exoticism to the West; he wanted to prove that the western morality of the Shah was sinful and was not in line with his interpretation of Islam. The attention and efforts that were used to fully mandate the dressing of the veil further perpetuates the notion that Iranian women were also aesthetic symbols of the Islamic Republic to the West. Furthermore, Khomeini installed a cultural and economical context that adhered to a fixed and strict interpretation of Islam. This is supported by Ebadi’s statement, “Enough time had passed that it was clear the system was not going to change in any substantive way. Its ideology was fixed, and for the time being, so was its tolerance threshold for women in government.” Under this strict interpretation, women of high social standings were demoted from their professional positions, while traditional women were instead championed under Islamic rule. Ebadi, who was an accomplished female lawyer, realized the paradoxical nature of the Revolution and asserted “…it took scarcely a month for me Ebadi to realize that, in fact, I had willingly and enthusiastically participated in my own demise. I was a woman, and this revolution’s victory demanded my defeat.” Her demise, as she expressed, can be exemplified in her bus dilemma in Iran Awakening: “‘Khanum, you Ebadi need your parents’ permission to sleep out overnight,’ replied the commanding officer with a shrug.” Even as a grown woman with two children, she was treated more as a child and less than that of her male counterparts. In fact, Ebadi herself states “the value of a woman’s life was half that of a man… the drafters of the penal code had apparently consulted the seventh century for legal advice.” Gender discrimination was also evident when she was called in front of two male judges, one of whom was her subordinate; not only was she dismissed from her position, but she was also insulted on the spot. This is supported by the statement “…and then the unthinkable occurred. They began speaking about women judges as though I were not in the room. ‘They’re disorganized!’ ‘Distracted constantly,’ another murmured. ‘They’re so unmotivated.'” The contradiction posed during the revolution was that the very leader and regime that these women were supporting and protesting for in the streets of 1979 were also the same entities that stripped these women of rank and freedom. On the other hand, the lives of traditional women were improved under Khomeini’s rule. The implementation of traditional penal codes represented an advance for poor women, as they had lived conservative and traditional lifestyles. As a result, they were more comfortable stepping beyond the domestic sphere to fully benefit from new job and education opportunities. However, as Ebadi stated, they were only given “crude tools to advance them.” For example, under Khomeini’s rule, “girls went to class in hijabs and sat in separate classrooms… they slowly found themselves in classrooms, and away from their parents in dormitories in Tehran.” While these women were subjected to single-sex learning environments, the implementation of Islamic rule encouraged schooling among the traditional families, who may have been hesitant to permit their daughters to go to school under the Pahlavi monarchy. After all, Ebadi stated “it became fashionable for the daughters of traditional families to attend college.” The proposed dilemma, however, is that this population of illiterate, uneducated women realized that they perhaps deserved a role in society, yet the way of governance under Khomeini’s Islamic laws restricted their progress to make any significant gains for Iranian women as a whole. Specifically, Ebadi proclaims that allowing women to vote was a channel for these previously oppressed women to have their voices heard; it gave them a surge of unprecedented self-confidence. This is supported in Iran Awakening, “for women who were either illiterate or the first generation to see the inside of a classroom, however, the very act of voting remained powerfully symbolic.” However, their equal access to education did not translate into equal job and career opportunities. According to Ebadi, “the rate of women’s unemployment was three times higher.” Thus, even if the lives of traditional women had improved, the leadership and interests of Khomeini were a greater focus. It was this sense of nationalism that promoted and justified the regime’s rules for Khomeini’s perception of an ideal Islamic woman. As previously stated, the aftermath of the Iranian revolution presented a contradiction with the proposed agenda during the Shah’s rule and reality during Khomeini’s rule. In order words, each critical era in women’s liberation and activism in Iran was followed by disappointment. This is because both rulers failed to treat women’s equality and rights as a separate issue from the political sphere. Women were representations of progress to measure how much of the Shah’s or Khomeini’s vision had been achieved. Thus, the main beneficiary of these reforms was the state rather than women. However, the united sense of struggle and oppression elicited a realization among Iranian women, as the successes and failures of the 1979 Revolution were not apparent until much later. As Ebadi stated, “all these educated women emerging from Iranian universities were no longer content to slip back into their traditional roles.” Iranian women who became more active along with the Revolution experienced a new facet of traditional motherhood under Khomeini’s traditional codes. Not only did they attend university and work in a variety of careers, but they also started to question their roles, as their place in society may have been manipulated by the Pahlavi Dynasty and Khomeini as facades of progressiveness. In order words, women wore veils but also had a presence and voice in the public sphere after the revolution. However, in times of greater danger like the Iran-Iraq War, nationalism and advancing Khomeini’s agenda took away time and planning for a unified women’s movement. To this day, Iranian women are still tools of the government, rarely having the chance to assert their independence and power. Indeed, it is unclear when to appropriately foster a women’s movement, as there was a lack of progression in women’s activism during the 1979 Revolution, Iran-Iraq war, or even during times of peace. | <urn:uuid:cefaa716-0021-4522-99fb-02f3b455db02> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jardinmahoney.com/as-clericalism-and-womens-emancipation-versus-traditional-roles/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00431.warc.gz | en | 0.984757 | 2,262 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.1267451941967... | 2 | As one of the major turning points in the twentieth century, the Iranian Revolution of 1979 encapsulated significant cultural and political structural shifts for Iranian women. As the Revolution shifted into an Islamic Republic (contrary to the intentions of those involved in the revolution), this transition brought about doubts as to whether life under Islamic law would be better than life under the Pahlavi reign. Ultimately, the themes of secularism versus clericalism and women’s emancipation versus traditional roles all played out as key junctures during this transition. Through the analysis of policy changes under the Pahlavi monarchy, the transition to traditional penal codes under Khomeini’s rule, and the revolution’s paradoxical phenomenon, reforms during the Revolution served as visual responses to the reaction of the West rather than responses to the demands of women. Women’s fundamental role changes also reflected the underlying utopian visions and trajectories of the Pahlavi monarchy and of Ruhollah Khomeini. In order to better contextualize the motives of Khomeini’s fundamentalist stance and its effect on Iranian women, it is paramount to understand the implemented policies during the Pahlavi reign. Reza Shah, who was the first ruler of Iran after World War I, was determined to reshape the view of Iran as a modern, economically robust, and forward-thinking entity. In many ways, women were instruments, or in more crude terms “puppets,” for the Pahlavi Monarchy to advance its agenda. The “improvements” included westernizing education in ways such as allowing women to attend university and allowing more social mobility in professional status. Moreover, one of the most prominent policy changes was the banning of the veil in public spaces. This visual transformation was described by Shirin Ebadi as a “cultural invasion,” as women had to abandon their indigenous culture. It is also important to note that the Shah’s promotion of women’s rights was not without personal benefits. After all, education was an outlet for the Shah to spread his vision, morals, and programs. Thus, the Shah’s concern and motives for the reforms were not so much for the freedom of women but how Iran was viewed by the West. In essence, improvement of economic and social conditions for Iranian women were merely steps taken to seem more westernized in the international arena. More importantly, these specific reforms were cosmetic, superficial, and fairly ineffective, as they did not include the most important demands of women’s suffrage. Essentially, the reforms were aimed to enhance the regime’s image; women’s needs were secondary concerns in the revolution’s agenda. Indeed, the number of women who received education during the Pahlavi Dynasty increased, but the effects were not uniform among the Iranian female population. Women from traditional families or poor communities did not benefit from westernized education, as the notion of attending school with men was not consistent with conservative families. Thus, cities and villages outside of Tehran most likely did not feel as much of a push for reformation, as most Iranian women were poor, lived in slums, and raised in patriarchal families. Moreover, women with low socioeconomic status likely rebelled against the Shah’s reforms, as these women were casted aside from the westernized urban women with a united sense of alienation and disillusionment. On the other hand, these westernized urban women who were of middle and upper class families were more affected and even tolerant to the secular changes in their communities. Thus, the treatment and benefits under the Reza Shah and Mohammad Reza Shah’s rule were not uniform among the Iranian women population and just illusions of westernization without truly improving women’s lives.In the same way that the Pahlavi Monarchy enveloped women’s rights into modernization and secularization, Khomeini equated women’s reforms to piety and inherent morality. Similar to the Pahlavi leaders, Khomeini targeted women and implemented reforms accordingly to advance his vision of what an Iranian government should look like. Notably, the resurrection of the veil, similar to the push for western clothing under the Pahlavi monarchy, was a visual representation of the shift from secular to religious rule. More importantly, the veil represented backwardness and oppression because for the upper class women under the Shah’s rule, including Ebadi, the emergence of the veil amounted to a shift back towards the domestic sphere. Overall, the veil played an important role as Khomeini wanted to present an image of exoticism to the West; he wanted to prove that the western morality of the Shah was sinful and was not in line with his interpretation of Islam. The attention and efforts that were used to fully mandate the dressing of the veil further perpetuates the notion that Iranian women were also aesthetic symbols of the Islamic Republic to the West. Furthermore, Khomeini installed a cultural and economical context that adhered to a fixed and strict interpretation of Islam. This is supported by Ebadi’s statement, “Enough time had passed that it was clear the system was not going to change in any substantive way. Its ideology was fixed, and for the time being, so was its tolerance threshold for women in government.” Under this strict interpretation, women of high social standings were demoted from their professional positions, while traditional women were instead championed under Islamic rule. Ebadi, who was an accomplished female lawyer, realized the paradoxical nature of the Revolution and asserted “…it took scarcely a month for me Ebadi to realize that, in fact, I had willingly and enthusiastically participated in my own demise. I was a woman, and this revolution’s victory demanded my defeat.” Her demise, as she expressed, can be exemplified in her bus dilemma in Iran Awakening: “‘Khanum, you Ebadi need your parents’ permission to sleep out overnight,’ replied the commanding officer with a shrug.” Even as a grown woman with two children, she was treated more as a child and less than that of her male counterparts. In fact, Ebadi herself states “the value of a woman’s life was half that of a man… the drafters of the penal code had apparently consulted the seventh century for legal advice.” Gender discrimination was also evident when she was called in front of two male judges, one of whom was her subordinate; not only was she dismissed from her position, but she was also insulted on the spot. This is supported by the statement “…and then the unthinkable occurred. They began speaking about women judges as though I were not in the room. ‘They’re disorganized!’ ‘Distracted constantly,’ another murmured. ‘They’re so unmotivated.'” The contradiction posed during the revolution was that the very leader and regime that these women were supporting and protesting for in the streets of 1979 were also the same entities that stripped these women of rank and freedom. On the other hand, the lives of traditional women were improved under Khomeini’s rule. The implementation of traditional penal codes represented an advance for poor women, as they had lived conservative and traditional lifestyles. As a result, they were more comfortable stepping beyond the domestic sphere to fully benefit from new job and education opportunities. However, as Ebadi stated, they were only given “crude tools to advance them.” For example, under Khomeini’s rule, “girls went to class in hijabs and sat in separate classrooms… they slowly found themselves in classrooms, and away from their parents in dormitories in Tehran.” While these women were subjected to single-sex learning environments, the implementation of Islamic rule encouraged schooling among the traditional families, who may have been hesitant to permit their daughters to go to school under the Pahlavi monarchy. After all, Ebadi stated “it became fashionable for the daughters of traditional families to attend college.” The proposed dilemma, however, is that this population of illiterate, uneducated women realized that they perhaps deserved a role in society, yet the way of governance under Khomeini’s Islamic laws restricted their progress to make any significant gains for Iranian women as a whole. Specifically, Ebadi proclaims that allowing women to vote was a channel for these previously oppressed women to have their voices heard; it gave them a surge of unprecedented self-confidence. This is supported in Iran Awakening, “for women who were either illiterate or the first generation to see the inside of a classroom, however, the very act of voting remained powerfully symbolic.” However, their equal access to education did not translate into equal job and career opportunities. According to Ebadi, “the rate of women’s unemployment was three times higher.” Thus, even if the lives of traditional women had improved, the leadership and interests of Khomeini were a greater focus. It was this sense of nationalism that promoted and justified the regime’s rules for Khomeini’s perception of an ideal Islamic woman. As previously stated, the aftermath of the Iranian revolution presented a contradiction with the proposed agenda during the Shah’s rule and reality during Khomeini’s rule. In order words, each critical era in women’s liberation and activism in Iran was followed by disappointment. This is because both rulers failed to treat women’s equality and rights as a separate issue from the political sphere. Women were representations of progress to measure how much of the Shah’s or Khomeini’s vision had been achieved. Thus, the main beneficiary of these reforms was the state rather than women. However, the united sense of struggle and oppression elicited a realization among Iranian women, as the successes and failures of the 1979 Revolution were not apparent until much later. As Ebadi stated, “all these educated women emerging from Iranian universities were no longer content to slip back into their traditional roles.” Iranian women who became more active along with the Revolution experienced a new facet of traditional motherhood under Khomeini’s traditional codes. Not only did they attend university and work in a variety of careers, but they also started to question their roles, as their place in society may have been manipulated by the Pahlavi Dynasty and Khomeini as facades of progressiveness. In order words, women wore veils but also had a presence and voice in the public sphere after the revolution. However, in times of greater danger like the Iran-Iraq War, nationalism and advancing Khomeini’s agenda took away time and planning for a unified women’s movement. To this day, Iranian women are still tools of the government, rarely having the chance to assert their independence and power. Indeed, it is unclear when to appropriately foster a women’s movement, as there was a lack of progression in women’s activism during the 1979 Revolution, Iran-Iraq war, or even during times of peace. | 2,153 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lost Bird Story SummaryIn the spring or summer of 1890, Lost Bird was born somewhere on the prairies of South Dakota. Fate took her to Wounded Knee Creek on the Pine Ridge Reservation on Dec. 29, 1890.
On that tragic day, hundreds of Lakota men, women and children died in a confrontation with U.S. troops and the woman who likely was the child’s mother was among them. But as she was dying, she and her baby found some scanty shelter from the bitter cold and wind in the bank of a creek.
Four days after the massacre, a rescue party found the infant, miraculously alive, protected by the woman’s frozen body.
The infant was passed from one person to another and her sensational story attracted the attention of powerful white men. Eventually, this living souvenir of Wounded Knee ended up in the hands of a National Guard general.
Lost Bird was adopted by Gen. Leonard Colby and, without her knowledge or consent, his suffragist wife, Clara Bewick Colby. The baby’s original name died on the killing field, along with her chance to grow up in her own culture. She became, literally and figuratively, Zintkala Nuni, the Lost Bird.
So Lost Bird - Zintka, as her adopted mother called her - ended up the daughter of a very socially and historically prominent white couple. She had one big advantage - a mother who came to love her. Though Zintka’s adoption was a surprise to her, Clara Colby took on the duties of motherhood in addition to her work as a suffragette activist, lecturer, publisher and writer.
However, Zintka’s childhood was marred by her exposure to racism, possible abuse from adoptive relatives and the indifference of her father. Poverty entered into the mix when Gen. Colby abandoned his wife for the child’s nursemaid/governess and failed to provide adequate support for Clara Colby and Zintka.
The increasingly restless child endured miserable stays with relatives and at boarding schools and became harder and harder for her mother to control.
At age 17, Zintka was sent back to her father and his new wife in Beatrice, Neb. The result was disastrous. A few months later, Gen. Colby placed his now-pregnant daughter in a stark and severe reformatory. Her son was stillborn, but the girl remained in the facility for a year.
Zintka eventually returned to her mother. At one point, she seemed to have found happiness in marriage, but the relationship disintegrated when she discovered her new husband had given her syphilis, then incurable. She struggled with the effects of that illness for the rest of her life.She had a number a careers during her short life: work with Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show, various entertainment and acting jobs, and possibly prostitution. Three times, she managed to visit South Dakota in search of her roots, but her welcome was cool.
By 1916, Zintka was living in abject poverty. She and her then-husband, who suffered from illness, were trying to make a living in vaudeville. She had had two more children. One died, probably that year, and Zintka gave the other to an Indian woman who was better able to care for him. Later that year, she lost her loving mother, Clara Colby, to pneumonia.
Eventually, Zintka and her husband gave up vaudeville and moved in with his parents in Hanford, Calif., in 1918. Zintka fell ill on Feb. 9, 1920, as an influenza epidemic swept across the nation. On Feb. 14, Valentine’s Day, she died.
Clara Colby tried to raise Zintka as a white girl in an unaccepting society and tried to erase her unceasing attraction to her Lakota culture. In the end, Zintka was rejected by both.
Lost Bird finally came home in 1991, in an effort spurred in part by author Renee Sansom Flood, author of "Lost Bird of Wounded Knee: Spirit of the Lakota." Her grave was found in California and her remains were returned to South Dakota and buried at the grave site at Wounded Knee. Her tragic story led to the organization of the Lost Bird Society, which helps Native Americans who were adopted outside their culture find their roots.
Sources: "Lost Bird of Wounded Knee: Spirit of the Lakota" by Renee Sansom Flood. | <urn:uuid:5d0bf1fc-e1db-4978-ae0d-55e30874d15e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blog.americanindianadoptees.com/2019/12/lost-bird-of-wounded-knee-zintkala-nuni.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00297.warc.gz | en | 0.98477 | 948 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.23721361160278... | 13 | Lost Bird Story SummaryIn the spring or summer of 1890, Lost Bird was born somewhere on the prairies of South Dakota. Fate took her to Wounded Knee Creek on the Pine Ridge Reservation on Dec. 29, 1890.
On that tragic day, hundreds of Lakota men, women and children died in a confrontation with U.S. troops and the woman who likely was the child’s mother was among them. But as she was dying, she and her baby found some scanty shelter from the bitter cold and wind in the bank of a creek.
Four days after the massacre, a rescue party found the infant, miraculously alive, protected by the woman’s frozen body.
The infant was passed from one person to another and her sensational story attracted the attention of powerful white men. Eventually, this living souvenir of Wounded Knee ended up in the hands of a National Guard general.
Lost Bird was adopted by Gen. Leonard Colby and, without her knowledge or consent, his suffragist wife, Clara Bewick Colby. The baby’s original name died on the killing field, along with her chance to grow up in her own culture. She became, literally and figuratively, Zintkala Nuni, the Lost Bird.
So Lost Bird - Zintka, as her adopted mother called her - ended up the daughter of a very socially and historically prominent white couple. She had one big advantage - a mother who came to love her. Though Zintka’s adoption was a surprise to her, Clara Colby took on the duties of motherhood in addition to her work as a suffragette activist, lecturer, publisher and writer.
However, Zintka’s childhood was marred by her exposure to racism, possible abuse from adoptive relatives and the indifference of her father. Poverty entered into the mix when Gen. Colby abandoned his wife for the child’s nursemaid/governess and failed to provide adequate support for Clara Colby and Zintka.
The increasingly restless child endured miserable stays with relatives and at boarding schools and became harder and harder for her mother to control.
At age 17, Zintka was sent back to her father and his new wife in Beatrice, Neb. The result was disastrous. A few months later, Gen. Colby placed his now-pregnant daughter in a stark and severe reformatory. Her son was stillborn, but the girl remained in the facility for a year.
Zintka eventually returned to her mother. At one point, she seemed to have found happiness in marriage, but the relationship disintegrated when she discovered her new husband had given her syphilis, then incurable. She struggled with the effects of that illness for the rest of her life.She had a number a careers during her short life: work with Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show, various entertainment and acting jobs, and possibly prostitution. Three times, she managed to visit South Dakota in search of her roots, but her welcome was cool.
By 1916, Zintka was living in abject poverty. She and her then-husband, who suffered from illness, were trying to make a living in vaudeville. She had had two more children. One died, probably that year, and Zintka gave the other to an Indian woman who was better able to care for him. Later that year, she lost her loving mother, Clara Colby, to pneumonia.
Eventually, Zintka and her husband gave up vaudeville and moved in with his parents in Hanford, Calif., in 1918. Zintka fell ill on Feb. 9, 1920, as an influenza epidemic swept across the nation. On Feb. 14, Valentine’s Day, she died.
Clara Colby tried to raise Zintka as a white girl in an unaccepting society and tried to erase her unceasing attraction to her Lakota culture. In the end, Zintka was rejected by both.
Lost Bird finally came home in 1991, in an effort spurred in part by author Renee Sansom Flood, author of "Lost Bird of Wounded Knee: Spirit of the Lakota." Her grave was found in California and her remains were returned to South Dakota and buried at the grave site at Wounded Knee. Her tragic story led to the organization of the Lost Bird Society, which helps Native Americans who were adopted outside their culture find their roots.
Sources: "Lost Bird of Wounded Knee: Spirit of the Lakota" by Renee Sansom Flood. | 941 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Wednesday, December 11, 2019
Assessments are a staple in all of the educational institutions in the world. There are two main kinds of assessments, summative and formative, and they can be done in many different ways. Summative assessments often come in the form of final exams and papers. Formative assessments, also known as assessments for learning, appear as the usual coursework done by students within a given school year.
Some parents may have the belief that assessing their child’s progress in school is only the responsibility of the teacher, but parents also have a role to play in assessing their own children’s learning. Since parents would want to ensure their child’s success in school, it would be immensely helpful if parents knew that she is not only learning for quizzes but also retaining information for the long-term.
Continue reading to know more about the benefits of doing your own assessments for learning at home and how you can do that.
As this is one of their main purposes, assessments for learning can show areas where a given student can improve on. Teachers are the biggest beneficiaries of this, but as a parent, it would also be useful to know if there are any lessons that your child may have failed to grasp entirely. By making your own assessments, you will be able to oversee the progress of your child better.
With knowledge of your child’s problem areas in school, you can try to do your own supplementary measures at home to improve your child’s understanding or coordinate with her teacher so that he or she can conduct the necessary corrective measures. This can also help fix confidence issues in your child as students may experience many forms of anxiety in school regarding tests, recitation, and the like.
One way of doing a simple assessment at home is by talking to your child. When she comes home from school, ask her how her day went and what she learned in her respective classes. If she can briefly and confidently explain some of the lessons, then that is a positive sign. Asking your children to talk about what they learned not only improves their communication skills but also helps reinforce the knowledge they have gained.
If you want to take it further and employ a more hands-on approach, try to make your own short review quizzes regarding some of the major lessons in school. It would be optimal to focus on some subjects where she is having a hard time. Openly communicating with her teacher is useful in this regard because her teacher can give you specific lessons that need supplementary work.
Make sure to keep it short and not to make it too stressful. Remember to reward her with a commendation or a prize if she answers well.
Conducting your own simple assessments at home is an effective way to reinforce your child’s learning and supplement her teachers’ efforts in educating your child. Don’t forget that parents and teachers must work together to make sure that your child is learning in the best possible way.
By doing so, you are doing your part in giving her a great chance at being successful in school. | <urn:uuid:d2be5cd7-62c9-4b86-bcbf-f74196d411d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://reedleyschool.edu.ph/blog/support-childs-learning-home/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00175.warc.gz | en | 0.980736 | 637 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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Wednesday, December 11, 2019
Assessments are a staple in all of the educational institutions in the world. There are two main kinds of assessments, summative and formative, and they can be done in many different ways. Summative assessments often come in the form of final exams and papers. Formative assessments, also known as assessments for learning, appear as the usual coursework done by students within a given school year.
Some parents may have the belief that assessing their child’s progress in school is only the responsibility of the teacher, but parents also have a role to play in assessing their own children’s learning. Since parents would want to ensure their child’s success in school, it would be immensely helpful if parents knew that she is not only learning for quizzes but also retaining information for the long-term.
Continue reading to know more about the benefits of doing your own assessments for learning at home and how you can do that.
As this is one of their main purposes, assessments for learning can show areas where a given student can improve on. Teachers are the biggest beneficiaries of this, but as a parent, it would also be useful to know if there are any lessons that your child may have failed to grasp entirely. By making your own assessments, you will be able to oversee the progress of your child better.
With knowledge of your child’s problem areas in school, you can try to do your own supplementary measures at home to improve your child’s understanding or coordinate with her teacher so that he or she can conduct the necessary corrective measures. This can also help fix confidence issues in your child as students may experience many forms of anxiety in school regarding tests, recitation, and the like.
One way of doing a simple assessment at home is by talking to your child. When she comes home from school, ask her how her day went and what she learned in her respective classes. If she can briefly and confidently explain some of the lessons, then that is a positive sign. Asking your children to talk about what they learned not only improves their communication skills but also helps reinforce the knowledge they have gained.
If you want to take it further and employ a more hands-on approach, try to make your own short review quizzes regarding some of the major lessons in school. It would be optimal to focus on some subjects where she is having a hard time. Openly communicating with her teacher is useful in this regard because her teacher can give you specific lessons that need supplementary work.
Make sure to keep it short and not to make it too stressful. Remember to reward her with a commendation or a prize if she answers well.
Conducting your own simple assessments at home is an effective way to reinforce your child’s learning and supplement her teachers’ efforts in educating your child. Don’t forget that parents and teachers must work together to make sure that your child is learning in the best possible way.
By doing so, you are doing your part in giving her a great chance at being successful in school. | 612 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Sarajevo Incident
The story of humankind has countless examples of unexpected events that nevertheless have had a profound effect upon the course of history. Just when everything seems to be following a particular course and everyone has a specific end in sight, something can happen out of nowhere, which causes a seismic shift in the trajectory of history.
As students of history know too well, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in 1914, set in motion events that led to the First World War. Ferdinand was visiting Sarajevo, the Bosnian capital when he and his wife were shot and killed by Gavrilo Princip, a young Serbian who belonged to the Black Hand, a group that advocated for Serbian independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The Balkan region was known as the “Powder Keg of Europe” in light of the intensity of nationalistic sentiments held by the people of that part of Europe that was under the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, the Empire declared war upon Serbia. Serbia called upon its ally, Russia and Austria sought help from its own ally, Germany. When Germany invaded Belgium, Great Britain which had signed a treaty with Belgium also declared war upon Germany. One thing led to the other until the whole of Europe and their colonies became engulfed in catastrophic war. It was the Triple Alliance against the Triple Entente. The Great War had devastating effects on Europe and its impact upon the world and the course of history is indelible. It was the Sarajevo Incident, as the assassination is often called, that was the spark that lit the powder keg.
Machiavelli’s Lady Fortuna
And so it is that sometimes, the most unlikely events can be the most fundamental shapers of history. Here, the issue of luck becomes pertinent. Is there such a thing as luck in politics? If so, how influential is it on the course of events? In his oft-quoted work, The Prince, Machiavelli dwells on the relevance of luck in shaping the course of events. He does so through the symbolism of Lady Fortuna (Lady Luck).
During the Renaissance, luck was generally represented in art and literature as a female figure called Fortuna. She could be seen in these artistic representations as a lady holding a turning wheel. The turning wheel represented the fickleness of luck which was constantly changing. Thus, one day you could be at the top of the wheel, enjoying good fortune but you could be at the bottom soon after, just like a turning wheel. Using a metaphor that would not pass the test of political correctness and would indeed disgust many in this day but was perfectly normal during that time, Machiavelli advises that he who wants to control fortune must treat her with boldness and roughness. “I certainly think that it is better to be impetuous than cautious, because fortune is a woman, and if you want to control her, it is necessary to treat her roughly”, wrote Machiavelli. No doubt, it sounds gross to the modern ear, but not only would it be imprudent and unreasonable to judge a 15th Century thinker by the standards of the 21st century but more importantly the critical point should not be lost in the metaphor. What Machiavelli meant was that, even though some things are owed to fortune, it is still possible to control events but one has to be bold and brave. Fortune favours the brave; an adage that is common in modern parlance is a close relation.
In essence, Machiavelli’s advice was that even though luck had a role in the course of human affairs, because there were circumstances and events which were beyond the prince’s direct control, this only accounted for half of human actions. The other half, according to Machiavelli was well within human control. “Nevertheless, so as not to eliminate human freedom, I am disposed to hold that fortune is the arbiter of half our actions, but that it lets us control roughly the other half,” wrote Machiavelli. In other words, it is not everything that is controlled by destiny. One doesn’t have to sit by idly, resigned to the fact that fate controls their destiny. One could do something to influence the course of events.
To make his point, Machiavelli, uses the metaphor of a river in flood. Representing the force of nature, a flooded river could destroy everything in its path causing great harm to the kingdom. But in his view, it doesn’t always have to end so catastrophically. It could be averted by human actions. The river could be tamed and controlled. For example, the prince could build a dam and take other precautions to prevent the flood. Thus while he attributes certain events to luck, Machiavelli emphasises that a person has fifty percent chance to influence the course of events.
The reference to the Sarajevo Incident and to Machiavelli’s Lady Fortuna is relevant in the context of the on-going race to succeed Zimbabwe’s long-serving President, Robert Mugabe. For a start, nothing is decided until the day the successor sits on the throne. Although tensions had been brewing in Europe for some time, no one could have imagined that the assassination of the heir to the Austrian Empire would be the spark that would spark the Great War. Likewise, something could easily happen during the succession race that could tip the scales and transform the course of events. In this regard, we can pick an example from recent history.
Death of the General
No one could have imagined that a highly decorated soldier in the form of Retired General Solomon Mujuru, a survivor of more life-threatening situations, would meet his end in a house fire during an August night in 2011. It was an unexpected death that shocked the entire nation. But, as it turned out, this tragic event had a profound effect on the race to succeed Mugabe, as it tipped the balance of power against his wife, Joice Mujuru who, just 3 years later, lost the Vice Presidency and the chance to replace Mugabe. In the General, Joice Mujuru had a formidable pillar upon which her political fortunes and strength rested. Widely acknowledged as a Kingmaker within ZANU PF, the General had played an important role in his wife’s ascendancy to the Vice Presidency, ahead of rival Emmerson Mnangagwa back in 2004. However, ten years later and 3 years after the death of the General, Mnangagwa was the Vice President and Joice Mujuru had been ignominiously ejected from ZANU PF.
But was the General’s demise Fortuna’s doing or the hand of humankind? Was the death a result of circumstances that were beyond human control – that no one planned - or was it a result of human machinations? The death of the General has never been satisfactorily explained, although an inquest concluded in 2012 that there was no foul play involved. This decision notwithstanding, his family remained doubtful that the fire was merely an accident. In recent years, in her new life as an opposition politician, Joice Mujuru has voiced concerns over her husband’s death suggesting that he was assassinated by political rivals. However, even if Lady Fortuna had a hand in the demise of the General and the subsequent weakening of Joice Mujuru’s base, it required more than luck to remove her from office. That mission was accomplished following a carefully planned and executed course of events with Grace Mugabe at the front of the assault. Perhaps then it might be said, true to Machiavelli’s formula that it was a result of both Lady Fortuna and human actions although if the assassination theory is correct, it was all a result of human action.
Let us now look at two of the most recent events in the succession drama.
In the story of evolution, animals have developed different mechanisms for responding to threats. Some are known to launch ferocious counter-attacks, while others simply flee at the first sign of danger. Others though have learnt to use deception. Thus, when faced with danger, an animal will appear lifeless. It will play dead. Some might even emit the smell of death. The name that scientists give to this phenomenon is thanatosis. “Playing possum” is a figurative expression for the same phenomenon. It derives from the manner by which a creature called the opossum reacts to danger. Apparently, it can remain in that motionless, catatonic state for hours, while emitting an odour suggesting that it is already dead. Predators are not usually attracted to dead prey. They prefer to kill. Playing dead therefore dissuades predators from attacking because there is nothing to kill. Growing up in the village, we encountered a number of such little creatures – the moment they sensed a threat they pretended to be immobile or even dead. It is not just a defensive mechanism in times of danger, as some species use it to trap unsuspecting prey or for amorous purposes, to catch members of the opposite sex in order to facilitate reproduction. It is with this metaphor in mind that one of the recent events could be analysed.
Two weeks ago, Vice President Mnangagwa was rushed to hospital with a case of vomiting and diarrhoea. He was subsequently taken to a private hospital in South Africa for specialist treatment. It then emerged that he had allegedly been poisoned. The government had previously indicated that he had suffered a case of food poisoning after eating bad food. However, Mnangagwa’s supporters have refuted this, pointing out that the doctors had found traces of palladium which had done damage to part of his liver. Mnangagwa was attending Mugabe’s rally in Gwanda when he was taken ill. There he had consumed food and water, along with others. The overriding belief among Mnangagwa’s supporters is that his sudden illness was not a circumstance of nature but that it was the work of political rivals whose primary aim was to eliminate him. Mnangagwa’s faction, Lacoste has been locked in a fierce battle with G40, a faction that has Mugabe’s wife, Grace as its lynchpin.
Mnangagwa’s people do not think his woes have anything to do with bad luck. They believe the case bears the hallmarks of human action, not the hand of Lady Fortuna. Naturally, Mnangagwa’s rivals are not convinced. They believe that it was a case of bad food. But, although it has not been said directly, it might also be that they suspect their rival was playing possum. Could it be a defensive mechanism on the part of Lacoste? To be sure, in recent weeks, Lacoste had been receiving severe battering from their rivals. It was clear that as Mugabe’s Youth Interface rallies progressed, Grace Mugabe would raise the tempo. The pattern was taking familiar note, similar to what had happened to Joice Mujuru in 2014. Mujuru had offered no response. She did not counter-attack. She did not flee. She just stood in her corner while receiving a severe battering from Grace Mugabe and her allies. By the time the December Congress arrived, she had already been knocked out.
Mnangagwa and his allies must have sensed that they were facing a threatening situation that required a quick response. Like Mujuru before him, Mnangagwa has resisted the urge to counter-attack, preferring to maintain a veneer of respectfulness, which the less charitable interpret as timidity. Only his allies, the War Veterans, have decided to fight fire with fire. He has not yet fled, although The Zimbabwe Independent newspaper reported two weeks ago that he had allegedly tendered his resignation, which Mugabe rejected. Could he therefore have decided to play possum, in order to deceive the opponent and buy more time?
The boy who cried wolf
It is important to note that the alleged poisoning is the latest incident in a series of previous ones in the past couple of years in which Mnangagwa has allegedly been a victim of intrusion by unknown intruders. In one incident in October 2014, he was involved in an accident in which he escaped unhurt. However, The Herald newspaper was more dramatic about it, describing him as having “escaped death by a whisker”. There was also a series of incidents in which his government and party offices were broken into by intruders. On one occasion a toxic substance was allegedly planted in his office, causing harm to one of his assistants who had to be hospitalised.
What is odd however is that on each occasion, the intruders evaded security given that government offices are guarded by members of the security services. One would have expected security to have been upgraded after the first incident. Interestingly also, the investigations seem to have gone cold soon after their announcement. Although the state papers announced the incidents in dramatic fashion, there have been no prominent follow-ups to tell what happened next. Could it be that the investigating authorities are incompetent? Or could it be that these were yet more cases of playing possum?
The trouble with these incidents that go cold after so much drama is that when the real thing actually happens, people will struggle to take it seriously. In folklore, the boy who cried wolf too many times while watching village sheep at night did not get attention when he really needed it. On previous occasions he had raised false alarm but when he really faced the threat of a wolf and cried for help, nobody woke up to help because they all thought he was a habitual liar. This may well have been a case of poisoning but the fact that there have been previous incidents of lesser threats which have gone cold means some people will treat it with great circumspection.
However, the recent case of alleged poisoning appears to have worsened relations between the two competing factions in the succession race. The Commander of the Defence Forces, General Constantino Chiwenga certainly played a prominent role in assisting his ally. His hands-on approach and assumption of responsibility reaffirmed the proximity of their relationship. Already Mnangagwa’s supporters are pointing fingers at the G40 faction. While Mnangagwa was in hospital in South Africa a group of his supporters gathered in Harare to pray for his recovery. Politically, this was a show of solidarity and support for the beleaguered presidential aspirant. It was pertinent that among the crowd were persons who have been expelled from ZANU PF, casualties of the succession race.
The walkout by some mourners at the funeral of Shuvai Mahofa while Vice President Mphoko was giving the main address was an important show of protest. There had already been warnings before the funeral that there would be such protests if Mphoko was going to preside over the burial ceremony in Mugabe’s absence. Mugabe did arrive back in Zimbabwe before the funeral ceremony but he left Mphoko to take charge of the event. These incidents and the exchange of accusations and counter-accusations between the two factions demonstrate the deepening rupture which is unlikely to heal. It is fair to say the relationship is at a point where it has broken down irretrievably and the only reason they are still together is that they both still feign allegiance to Mugabe.
Upon arrival from South Africa, Mnangagwa was greeted presidential style by his supporters who lined up to greet him beside the private jet that transported him. It was reminiscent of the customary line-up and welcome routine that Mugabe’s Ministers dutifully perform every time he arrives from one of his numerous foreign trips, whatever the time of day or weather conditions. As Mnangagwa shook hands with each member of his welcoming party, one could not escape the impression that it was some form of rehearsal for what the future holds. The symbolism of the routine would certainly not have gone unnoticed by G40 or Mugabe himself.
One of the outcomes of the alleged poisoning incident is that Mnangagwa’s supporters are becoming more open and daring than they have been before. If it was a strategic move designed to mobilise sympathy and galvanise and embolden the Lacoste troops, then it seems to have worked well. The loud protests against Mphoko (allegedly backing G40) were reminiscent of the protests directed at Mugabe back in 1997 when War Veterans were protesting against alleged neglect by government. Likewise, after dominating social media space for a long period, there seems to be a strong push back against G40, especially Professor Moyo from a contingent of Lacoste troops. As argued before, although Moyo lost control of state media when he was relocated from the Information and Publicity Ministry to Higher Education in 2015, he has strategically occupied social media space and used it to a devastating effect to the point that he was able to set the agenda for traditional media. Lacoste appear to have caught up with this and they now have their own troops targeting Moyo in particular who used Twitter to warn “LACOSTE idiots” that they would be “BLOCKED or IGNORED” if they continued “falling on each other … with utter garbage”. It suggests that Moyo is getting frustrated and irritated by the barrage of attacks from the anonymous pro-Mnangagwa troops who have now joined the fight on social media.
The Grace Mugabe Incident
Much has already been said about the embarrassing incident in which Grace Mugabe allegedly assaulted Gabriella Engels, a young female companion of her two sons during a trip to South Africa. The embarrassing incident threatened to cause a diplomatic fallout between the two Southern African neighbours as citizens of both countries called on South African authorities to enforce the law against Zimbabwe’s First Lady. She only escaped prosecution when the South African government controversially granted her diplomatic immunity. This ended a tempestuous week for Grace Mugabe when she became the main topic of discussion in both countries and her story made news around the world. How though, if at all would it impact upon the succession race in Zimbabwe?
First, the incident reinforced doubts on Grace Mugabe’s suitability as a national leader. There had long been questions over her temperament. It was not the first time that her choleric temper has landed her in trouble in foreign lands. Nearly ten years ago, she allegedly assaulted a journalist and only escaped prosecution when she was granted diplomatic immunity by the Hong Kong authorities. Back in Zimbabwe, she has used the public stage to chide and harass senior government and party officials, often using language far below the station of First Lady. While she has benefited from diplomatic immunity, critics in Zimbabwe argue that it has created a moral hazard in that it has encouraged her to act with impunity. If ever she harboured ambitions to be President, the incident did further damage to her credentials.
Second, the incident has had diversionary and energy-sapping effect on the G40 campaign. The G40 ship was cruising and Lacoste was on the ropes when the incident happened. Mnangagwa had just been taken ill, suffering from alleged poisoning and Lacoste had shown no signs of responding to the relentless attacks from G40. The media storm generated by the incident which involved a key pillar of G40 was not helpful to their cause. For the entire week, the G40 members had to fend off criticism and generate propaganda to limit the damage caused by the incident. G40 did not need that diversion and the consequent energy spent on it was wasteful.
Going back to Machiavelli’s views on luck, it might be said that the Grace Mugabe incident was courtesy of the hand of Lady Fortuna – that the wheel of fortune had turned in Lacoste’s favour. That the key pillar of their rival would go all the way to South Africa and find herself on a sticky wicket is not something that Lacoste could have dreamt of or engineered. But there she was, Grace Mugabe, the lynchpin of G40, landing herself in a legal cesspool, along with the total embarrassment that it brought. It was the best thing that has happened to Lacoste in a while. Not only did it give them a break from G40’s relentless barrage that had been the order of the day for the last few weeks, but it also reduced G40’s estimation in the eyes of the public at a time when Lacoste was gaining some sympathy from Mnangagwa’s alleged poisoning incident. For Lacoste, if the poisoning incident was engineered by the human hand, the Grace Mugabe incident certainly owed more to the hand of Lady Fortuna. They did not engineer it but circumstances fell to their advantage.
Sword of Damocles
Yet, in some ways too, the incident has potential to jolt Grace Mugabe to hasten the rise of her preferred candidate. For Grace Mugabe, personal and family security in the post-Robert Mugabe era is of paramount importance. Her late entry onto the political dancefloor was motivated more by the need to guarantee protection for herself and her children after her husband’s departure. She realised she needed to be a key actor rather than to leave her fate to other hands. So she left the terraces and joined the dancefloor and once there, for better or worse, her presence has been felt by everyone.
Although she escaped prosecution courtesy of a controversial award of diplomatic immunity, the irony is that she has actually become more vulnerable than she was before the incident. She may have left South Africa with the protection of diplomatic immunity but there will always be a sword of Damocles hanging over her head. Already, the survivor of her alleged attack has taken legal action to challenge the award of diplomatic immunity. There is every chance that the courts will lift the diplomatic immunity, exposing her to the possibility of prosecution, whether public or private.
The effect of all this is that the incident has reminded her, if ever she needed a reminder, that she must work hard to secure guarantees for herself and her family after her powerful husband is gone. The title of First Lady, under whose sanctuary she has escaped prosecution for her transgressions in the past, must be replaced by another form of protection and her best is to control the succession race to get a favourable outcome. The enemies she has generated will surely relish their chances against her. To avoid these risks, she knows she needs to guarantee herself protection in the post-Mugabe era. She can do this by placing herself in a position of power or ensuring that her husband is succeeded by a loyal and trusted ally. The incident in South Africa and the future risks it has generated will only embolden her to push her project with greater strength because she knows there is no middle ground.
In this regard, her G40 allies have been strategic in their approach to the South African incident. They surely know that what happened there was wrong and embarrassing. Privately, they too must have been embarrassed and wondered how their lynchpin could have been so reckless. But they had to defend their ally. They had to stand by her and demonstrate undying loyalty, even if it meant that exposed them and cost them their reputations in the court of public opinion. They knew when she looked back at the embarrassing episode, Grace Mugabe would remember those who stood by her and those who laughed with glee or did nothing on her behalf when she was at her lowest.
The incident would have reaffirmed more clearly who her allies and enemies were within the party and if she is going to use her influence to prevail upon her husband it would be to advance the interests of her allies. Strategically, Lacoste could have taken advantage of her low moment to demonstrate to her that they had the power to protect her should the need ever arise in future. Such an approach would have shown her that she and her family would be safe in Mnangagwa’s hands, despite views to the contrary. If however, as it appears, Lacoste stood by, did nothing and said she had got her comeuppance, then perhaps it was an opportunity missed in this game of succession.
Lady Fortuna or the hand of humankind? Machiavelli did not believe that Lady Fortuna has one hundred percent of man’s destiny. He allocated half to Lady Fortuna and the other half to man’s free will. In other words, while half of our lives are controlled by circumstances that are beyond our control, the other half could certainly be prevailed upon by the hand of man. Thus a flood could be contained if man made adequate preparations. For both Lacoste and G40, from time to time, events will happen owing to the hand of Lady Fortuna. But they will both know that they cannot sit by and wait for Lady Fortuna to decide their destiny. They will remember Machiavelli’s advice on how they must approach and control Lady Fortuna. After all fortune favours the brave, something that G40 seems to have understood well but is still to dawn upon Lacoste.
Of the two factions, G40 has so far been more daring, whereas Lacoste has hesitated, perhaps out of respect, perhaps too out of fear or quite simply inability. Machiavelli’s conclusion bears some interesting parallels to the current succession race between Lacoste, which has more of the older generation and G40 which has the much younger stock in its ranks. As to Lady Fortuna, Machiavelli says “it is clear that she is more inclined to yield to men who are impetuous than to those who are calculating. Since fortune is a woman, she is always well disposed towards young men because they are less cautious and more aggressive, and treat her more boldly”. Lacoste, which has been more calculating perhaps needs to take heed and be more adventurous than they have been.
But as they say, it’s never over until the fat lady sings. As I have illustrated, sometimes an event happens that completely changes the course of history, as did the Sarajevo Incident in 1914, which prompted a chain reaction that led to the First World War. This is why despite signs, it remains premature to pronounce judgment on who will succeed Mugabe. The surprise is that many who should know better have often rushed into wrong judgments on this matter. Recent history should have warned observers to avoid rushing in this regard. Until just 3 years ago, everyone seemed convinced that Joice Mujuru was sure to succeed Mugabe. Everyone else had been written off.
And when Mujuru was fired, people again fell into the same trap and made bold pronouncements that Emmerson Mnangagwa was sure to be the successor. Indeed, signs suggested that this would be the case. But this rose-tinted reality was soon to be blown away. Far from being a certainty, Mnangagwa’s rise to the presidency has become mired in great doubt. And even now, as G40 appears to be holding the advantage that is no reason to conclude that they will have it in the end. A Sarajevo incident could happen. In other words, there could be an incident, one that is totally unexpected, which could change the course of the succession race and with it, the course of history. | <urn:uuid:e17b84ce-8cad-4bf2-b988-b612cfb0ea79> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bigsr.co.uk/single-post/2017/08/25/Big-Saturday-Read-Playing-possum-and-Lady-Fortunas-wheel | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00547.warc.gz | en | 0.982588 | 5,699 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.374556332826... | 4 | The Sarajevo Incident
The story of humankind has countless examples of unexpected events that nevertheless have had a profound effect upon the course of history. Just when everything seems to be following a particular course and everyone has a specific end in sight, something can happen out of nowhere, which causes a seismic shift in the trajectory of history.
As students of history know too well, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in 1914, set in motion events that led to the First World War. Ferdinand was visiting Sarajevo, the Bosnian capital when he and his wife were shot and killed by Gavrilo Princip, a young Serbian who belonged to the Black Hand, a group that advocated for Serbian independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The Balkan region was known as the “Powder Keg of Europe” in light of the intensity of nationalistic sentiments held by the people of that part of Europe that was under the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, the Empire declared war upon Serbia. Serbia called upon its ally, Russia and Austria sought help from its own ally, Germany. When Germany invaded Belgium, Great Britain which had signed a treaty with Belgium also declared war upon Germany. One thing led to the other until the whole of Europe and their colonies became engulfed in catastrophic war. It was the Triple Alliance against the Triple Entente. The Great War had devastating effects on Europe and its impact upon the world and the course of history is indelible. It was the Sarajevo Incident, as the assassination is often called, that was the spark that lit the powder keg.
Machiavelli’s Lady Fortuna
And so it is that sometimes, the most unlikely events can be the most fundamental shapers of history. Here, the issue of luck becomes pertinent. Is there such a thing as luck in politics? If so, how influential is it on the course of events? In his oft-quoted work, The Prince, Machiavelli dwells on the relevance of luck in shaping the course of events. He does so through the symbolism of Lady Fortuna (Lady Luck).
During the Renaissance, luck was generally represented in art and literature as a female figure called Fortuna. She could be seen in these artistic representations as a lady holding a turning wheel. The turning wheel represented the fickleness of luck which was constantly changing. Thus, one day you could be at the top of the wheel, enjoying good fortune but you could be at the bottom soon after, just like a turning wheel. Using a metaphor that would not pass the test of political correctness and would indeed disgust many in this day but was perfectly normal during that time, Machiavelli advises that he who wants to control fortune must treat her with boldness and roughness. “I certainly think that it is better to be impetuous than cautious, because fortune is a woman, and if you want to control her, it is necessary to treat her roughly”, wrote Machiavelli. No doubt, it sounds gross to the modern ear, but not only would it be imprudent and unreasonable to judge a 15th Century thinker by the standards of the 21st century but more importantly the critical point should not be lost in the metaphor. What Machiavelli meant was that, even though some things are owed to fortune, it is still possible to control events but one has to be bold and brave. Fortune favours the brave; an adage that is common in modern parlance is a close relation.
In essence, Machiavelli’s advice was that even though luck had a role in the course of human affairs, because there were circumstances and events which were beyond the prince’s direct control, this only accounted for half of human actions. The other half, according to Machiavelli was well within human control. “Nevertheless, so as not to eliminate human freedom, I am disposed to hold that fortune is the arbiter of half our actions, but that it lets us control roughly the other half,” wrote Machiavelli. In other words, it is not everything that is controlled by destiny. One doesn’t have to sit by idly, resigned to the fact that fate controls their destiny. One could do something to influence the course of events.
To make his point, Machiavelli, uses the metaphor of a river in flood. Representing the force of nature, a flooded river could destroy everything in its path causing great harm to the kingdom. But in his view, it doesn’t always have to end so catastrophically. It could be averted by human actions. The river could be tamed and controlled. For example, the prince could build a dam and take other precautions to prevent the flood. Thus while he attributes certain events to luck, Machiavelli emphasises that a person has fifty percent chance to influence the course of events.
The reference to the Sarajevo Incident and to Machiavelli’s Lady Fortuna is relevant in the context of the on-going race to succeed Zimbabwe’s long-serving President, Robert Mugabe. For a start, nothing is decided until the day the successor sits on the throne. Although tensions had been brewing in Europe for some time, no one could have imagined that the assassination of the heir to the Austrian Empire would be the spark that would spark the Great War. Likewise, something could easily happen during the succession race that could tip the scales and transform the course of events. In this regard, we can pick an example from recent history.
Death of the General
No one could have imagined that a highly decorated soldier in the form of Retired General Solomon Mujuru, a survivor of more life-threatening situations, would meet his end in a house fire during an August night in 2011. It was an unexpected death that shocked the entire nation. But, as it turned out, this tragic event had a profound effect on the race to succeed Mugabe, as it tipped the balance of power against his wife, Joice Mujuru who, just 3 years later, lost the Vice Presidency and the chance to replace Mugabe. In the General, Joice Mujuru had a formidable pillar upon which her political fortunes and strength rested. Widely acknowledged as a Kingmaker within ZANU PF, the General had played an important role in his wife’s ascendancy to the Vice Presidency, ahead of rival Emmerson Mnangagwa back in 2004. However, ten years later and 3 years after the death of the General, Mnangagwa was the Vice President and Joice Mujuru had been ignominiously ejected from ZANU PF.
But was the General’s demise Fortuna’s doing or the hand of humankind? Was the death a result of circumstances that were beyond human control – that no one planned - or was it a result of human machinations? The death of the General has never been satisfactorily explained, although an inquest concluded in 2012 that there was no foul play involved. This decision notwithstanding, his family remained doubtful that the fire was merely an accident. In recent years, in her new life as an opposition politician, Joice Mujuru has voiced concerns over her husband’s death suggesting that he was assassinated by political rivals. However, even if Lady Fortuna had a hand in the demise of the General and the subsequent weakening of Joice Mujuru’s base, it required more than luck to remove her from office. That mission was accomplished following a carefully planned and executed course of events with Grace Mugabe at the front of the assault. Perhaps then it might be said, true to Machiavelli’s formula that it was a result of both Lady Fortuna and human actions although if the assassination theory is correct, it was all a result of human action.
Let us now look at two of the most recent events in the succession drama.
In the story of evolution, animals have developed different mechanisms for responding to threats. Some are known to launch ferocious counter-attacks, while others simply flee at the first sign of danger. Others though have learnt to use deception. Thus, when faced with danger, an animal will appear lifeless. It will play dead. Some might even emit the smell of death. The name that scientists give to this phenomenon is thanatosis. “Playing possum” is a figurative expression for the same phenomenon. It derives from the manner by which a creature called the opossum reacts to danger. Apparently, it can remain in that motionless, catatonic state for hours, while emitting an odour suggesting that it is already dead. Predators are not usually attracted to dead prey. They prefer to kill. Playing dead therefore dissuades predators from attacking because there is nothing to kill. Growing up in the village, we encountered a number of such little creatures – the moment they sensed a threat they pretended to be immobile or even dead. It is not just a defensive mechanism in times of danger, as some species use it to trap unsuspecting prey or for amorous purposes, to catch members of the opposite sex in order to facilitate reproduction. It is with this metaphor in mind that one of the recent events could be analysed.
Two weeks ago, Vice President Mnangagwa was rushed to hospital with a case of vomiting and diarrhoea. He was subsequently taken to a private hospital in South Africa for specialist treatment. It then emerged that he had allegedly been poisoned. The government had previously indicated that he had suffered a case of food poisoning after eating bad food. However, Mnangagwa’s supporters have refuted this, pointing out that the doctors had found traces of palladium which had done damage to part of his liver. Mnangagwa was attending Mugabe’s rally in Gwanda when he was taken ill. There he had consumed food and water, along with others. The overriding belief among Mnangagwa’s supporters is that his sudden illness was not a circumstance of nature but that it was the work of political rivals whose primary aim was to eliminate him. Mnangagwa’s faction, Lacoste has been locked in a fierce battle with G40, a faction that has Mugabe’s wife, Grace as its lynchpin.
Mnangagwa’s people do not think his woes have anything to do with bad luck. They believe the case bears the hallmarks of human action, not the hand of Lady Fortuna. Naturally, Mnangagwa’s rivals are not convinced. They believe that it was a case of bad food. But, although it has not been said directly, it might also be that they suspect their rival was playing possum. Could it be a defensive mechanism on the part of Lacoste? To be sure, in recent weeks, Lacoste had been receiving severe battering from their rivals. It was clear that as Mugabe’s Youth Interface rallies progressed, Grace Mugabe would raise the tempo. The pattern was taking familiar note, similar to what had happened to Joice Mujuru in 2014. Mujuru had offered no response. She did not counter-attack. She did not flee. She just stood in her corner while receiving a severe battering from Grace Mugabe and her allies. By the time the December Congress arrived, she had already been knocked out.
Mnangagwa and his allies must have sensed that they were facing a threatening situation that required a quick response. Like Mujuru before him, Mnangagwa has resisted the urge to counter-attack, preferring to maintain a veneer of respectfulness, which the less charitable interpret as timidity. Only his allies, the War Veterans, have decided to fight fire with fire. He has not yet fled, although The Zimbabwe Independent newspaper reported two weeks ago that he had allegedly tendered his resignation, which Mugabe rejected. Could he therefore have decided to play possum, in order to deceive the opponent and buy more time?
The boy who cried wolf
It is important to note that the alleged poisoning is the latest incident in a series of previous ones in the past couple of years in which Mnangagwa has allegedly been a victim of intrusion by unknown intruders. In one incident in October 2014, he was involved in an accident in which he escaped unhurt. However, The Herald newspaper was more dramatic about it, describing him as having “escaped death by a whisker”. There was also a series of incidents in which his government and party offices were broken into by intruders. On one occasion a toxic substance was allegedly planted in his office, causing harm to one of his assistants who had to be hospitalised.
What is odd however is that on each occasion, the intruders evaded security given that government offices are guarded by members of the security services. One would have expected security to have been upgraded after the first incident. Interestingly also, the investigations seem to have gone cold soon after their announcement. Although the state papers announced the incidents in dramatic fashion, there have been no prominent follow-ups to tell what happened next. Could it be that the investigating authorities are incompetent? Or could it be that these were yet more cases of playing possum?
The trouble with these incidents that go cold after so much drama is that when the real thing actually happens, people will struggle to take it seriously. In folklore, the boy who cried wolf too many times while watching village sheep at night did not get attention when he really needed it. On previous occasions he had raised false alarm but when he really faced the threat of a wolf and cried for help, nobody woke up to help because they all thought he was a habitual liar. This may well have been a case of poisoning but the fact that there have been previous incidents of lesser threats which have gone cold means some people will treat it with great circumspection.
However, the recent case of alleged poisoning appears to have worsened relations between the two competing factions in the succession race. The Commander of the Defence Forces, General Constantino Chiwenga certainly played a prominent role in assisting his ally. His hands-on approach and assumption of responsibility reaffirmed the proximity of their relationship. Already Mnangagwa’s supporters are pointing fingers at the G40 faction. While Mnangagwa was in hospital in South Africa a group of his supporters gathered in Harare to pray for his recovery. Politically, this was a show of solidarity and support for the beleaguered presidential aspirant. It was pertinent that among the crowd were persons who have been expelled from ZANU PF, casualties of the succession race.
The walkout by some mourners at the funeral of Shuvai Mahofa while Vice President Mphoko was giving the main address was an important show of protest. There had already been warnings before the funeral that there would be such protests if Mphoko was going to preside over the burial ceremony in Mugabe’s absence. Mugabe did arrive back in Zimbabwe before the funeral ceremony but he left Mphoko to take charge of the event. These incidents and the exchange of accusations and counter-accusations between the two factions demonstrate the deepening rupture which is unlikely to heal. It is fair to say the relationship is at a point where it has broken down irretrievably and the only reason they are still together is that they both still feign allegiance to Mugabe.
Upon arrival from South Africa, Mnangagwa was greeted presidential style by his supporters who lined up to greet him beside the private jet that transported him. It was reminiscent of the customary line-up and welcome routine that Mugabe’s Ministers dutifully perform every time he arrives from one of his numerous foreign trips, whatever the time of day or weather conditions. As Mnangagwa shook hands with each member of his welcoming party, one could not escape the impression that it was some form of rehearsal for what the future holds. The symbolism of the routine would certainly not have gone unnoticed by G40 or Mugabe himself.
One of the outcomes of the alleged poisoning incident is that Mnangagwa’s supporters are becoming more open and daring than they have been before. If it was a strategic move designed to mobilise sympathy and galvanise and embolden the Lacoste troops, then it seems to have worked well. The loud protests against Mphoko (allegedly backing G40) were reminiscent of the protests directed at Mugabe back in 1997 when War Veterans were protesting against alleged neglect by government. Likewise, after dominating social media space for a long period, there seems to be a strong push back against G40, especially Professor Moyo from a contingent of Lacoste troops. As argued before, although Moyo lost control of state media when he was relocated from the Information and Publicity Ministry to Higher Education in 2015, he has strategically occupied social media space and used it to a devastating effect to the point that he was able to set the agenda for traditional media. Lacoste appear to have caught up with this and they now have their own troops targeting Moyo in particular who used Twitter to warn “LACOSTE idiots” that they would be “BLOCKED or IGNORED” if they continued “falling on each other … with utter garbage”. It suggests that Moyo is getting frustrated and irritated by the barrage of attacks from the anonymous pro-Mnangagwa troops who have now joined the fight on social media.
The Grace Mugabe Incident
Much has already been said about the embarrassing incident in which Grace Mugabe allegedly assaulted Gabriella Engels, a young female companion of her two sons during a trip to South Africa. The embarrassing incident threatened to cause a diplomatic fallout between the two Southern African neighbours as citizens of both countries called on South African authorities to enforce the law against Zimbabwe’s First Lady. She only escaped prosecution when the South African government controversially granted her diplomatic immunity. This ended a tempestuous week for Grace Mugabe when she became the main topic of discussion in both countries and her story made news around the world. How though, if at all would it impact upon the succession race in Zimbabwe?
First, the incident reinforced doubts on Grace Mugabe’s suitability as a national leader. There had long been questions over her temperament. It was not the first time that her choleric temper has landed her in trouble in foreign lands. Nearly ten years ago, she allegedly assaulted a journalist and only escaped prosecution when she was granted diplomatic immunity by the Hong Kong authorities. Back in Zimbabwe, she has used the public stage to chide and harass senior government and party officials, often using language far below the station of First Lady. While she has benefited from diplomatic immunity, critics in Zimbabwe argue that it has created a moral hazard in that it has encouraged her to act with impunity. If ever she harboured ambitions to be President, the incident did further damage to her credentials.
Second, the incident has had diversionary and energy-sapping effect on the G40 campaign. The G40 ship was cruising and Lacoste was on the ropes when the incident happened. Mnangagwa had just been taken ill, suffering from alleged poisoning and Lacoste had shown no signs of responding to the relentless attacks from G40. The media storm generated by the incident which involved a key pillar of G40 was not helpful to their cause. For the entire week, the G40 members had to fend off criticism and generate propaganda to limit the damage caused by the incident. G40 did not need that diversion and the consequent energy spent on it was wasteful.
Going back to Machiavelli’s views on luck, it might be said that the Grace Mugabe incident was courtesy of the hand of Lady Fortuna – that the wheel of fortune had turned in Lacoste’s favour. That the key pillar of their rival would go all the way to South Africa and find herself on a sticky wicket is not something that Lacoste could have dreamt of or engineered. But there she was, Grace Mugabe, the lynchpin of G40, landing herself in a legal cesspool, along with the total embarrassment that it brought. It was the best thing that has happened to Lacoste in a while. Not only did it give them a break from G40’s relentless barrage that had been the order of the day for the last few weeks, but it also reduced G40’s estimation in the eyes of the public at a time when Lacoste was gaining some sympathy from Mnangagwa’s alleged poisoning incident. For Lacoste, if the poisoning incident was engineered by the human hand, the Grace Mugabe incident certainly owed more to the hand of Lady Fortuna. They did not engineer it but circumstances fell to their advantage.
Sword of Damocles
Yet, in some ways too, the incident has potential to jolt Grace Mugabe to hasten the rise of her preferred candidate. For Grace Mugabe, personal and family security in the post-Robert Mugabe era is of paramount importance. Her late entry onto the political dancefloor was motivated more by the need to guarantee protection for herself and her children after her husband’s departure. She realised she needed to be a key actor rather than to leave her fate to other hands. So she left the terraces and joined the dancefloor and once there, for better or worse, her presence has been felt by everyone.
Although she escaped prosecution courtesy of a controversial award of diplomatic immunity, the irony is that she has actually become more vulnerable than she was before the incident. She may have left South Africa with the protection of diplomatic immunity but there will always be a sword of Damocles hanging over her head. Already, the survivor of her alleged attack has taken legal action to challenge the award of diplomatic immunity. There is every chance that the courts will lift the diplomatic immunity, exposing her to the possibility of prosecution, whether public or private.
The effect of all this is that the incident has reminded her, if ever she needed a reminder, that she must work hard to secure guarantees for herself and her family after her powerful husband is gone. The title of First Lady, under whose sanctuary she has escaped prosecution for her transgressions in the past, must be replaced by another form of protection and her best is to control the succession race to get a favourable outcome. The enemies she has generated will surely relish their chances against her. To avoid these risks, she knows she needs to guarantee herself protection in the post-Mugabe era. She can do this by placing herself in a position of power or ensuring that her husband is succeeded by a loyal and trusted ally. The incident in South Africa and the future risks it has generated will only embolden her to push her project with greater strength because she knows there is no middle ground.
In this regard, her G40 allies have been strategic in their approach to the South African incident. They surely know that what happened there was wrong and embarrassing. Privately, they too must have been embarrassed and wondered how their lynchpin could have been so reckless. But they had to defend their ally. They had to stand by her and demonstrate undying loyalty, even if it meant that exposed them and cost them their reputations in the court of public opinion. They knew when she looked back at the embarrassing episode, Grace Mugabe would remember those who stood by her and those who laughed with glee or did nothing on her behalf when she was at her lowest.
The incident would have reaffirmed more clearly who her allies and enemies were within the party and if she is going to use her influence to prevail upon her husband it would be to advance the interests of her allies. Strategically, Lacoste could have taken advantage of her low moment to demonstrate to her that they had the power to protect her should the need ever arise in future. Such an approach would have shown her that she and her family would be safe in Mnangagwa’s hands, despite views to the contrary. If however, as it appears, Lacoste stood by, did nothing and said she had got her comeuppance, then perhaps it was an opportunity missed in this game of succession.
Lady Fortuna or the hand of humankind? Machiavelli did not believe that Lady Fortuna has one hundred percent of man’s destiny. He allocated half to Lady Fortuna and the other half to man’s free will. In other words, while half of our lives are controlled by circumstances that are beyond our control, the other half could certainly be prevailed upon by the hand of man. Thus a flood could be contained if man made adequate preparations. For both Lacoste and G40, from time to time, events will happen owing to the hand of Lady Fortuna. But they will both know that they cannot sit by and wait for Lady Fortuna to decide their destiny. They will remember Machiavelli’s advice on how they must approach and control Lady Fortuna. After all fortune favours the brave, something that G40 seems to have understood well but is still to dawn upon Lacoste.
Of the two factions, G40 has so far been more daring, whereas Lacoste has hesitated, perhaps out of respect, perhaps too out of fear or quite simply inability. Machiavelli’s conclusion bears some interesting parallels to the current succession race between Lacoste, which has more of the older generation and G40 which has the much younger stock in its ranks. As to Lady Fortuna, Machiavelli says “it is clear that she is more inclined to yield to men who are impetuous than to those who are calculating. Since fortune is a woman, she is always well disposed towards young men because they are less cautious and more aggressive, and treat her more boldly”. Lacoste, which has been more calculating perhaps needs to take heed and be more adventurous than they have been.
But as they say, it’s never over until the fat lady sings. As I have illustrated, sometimes an event happens that completely changes the course of history, as did the Sarajevo Incident in 1914, which prompted a chain reaction that led to the First World War. This is why despite signs, it remains premature to pronounce judgment on who will succeed Mugabe. The surprise is that many who should know better have often rushed into wrong judgments on this matter. Recent history should have warned observers to avoid rushing in this regard. Until just 3 years ago, everyone seemed convinced that Joice Mujuru was sure to succeed Mugabe. Everyone else had been written off.
And when Mujuru was fired, people again fell into the same trap and made bold pronouncements that Emmerson Mnangagwa was sure to be the successor. Indeed, signs suggested that this would be the case. But this rose-tinted reality was soon to be blown away. Far from being a certainty, Mnangagwa’s rise to the presidency has become mired in great doubt. And even now, as G40 appears to be holding the advantage that is no reason to conclude that they will have it in the end. A Sarajevo incident could happen. In other words, there could be an incident, one that is totally unexpected, which could change the course of the succession race and with it, the course of history. | 5,574 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At Halifax’s Jewish cemetery, a Titanic section
By Marshall Weiss, The Dayton Jewish Observer
No one knows for certain how many Jewish passengers were on board Titanic, let alone how many of them died. Of the more than 1,500 people who went down with Titanic, ships later recovered only 340 bodies. A review of the list of passengers and crew indicates 89 common Jewish surnames.
The White Star Line chartered three ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia and contracted almost every available embalmer in Nova Scotia to recover and embalm the remaining bodies.
At a makeshift morgue set up in the Mayflower Curling Rink in Halifax, family members or representatives on their behalf came to collect the remains that could be identified. Bodies that were neither identified nor claimed would be buried in Halifax.
Ultimately, 10 bodies were buried in a special Titanic plot at Halifax’s Jewish cemetery, the Baron de Hirsch Cemetery. All were male; only three were identified.
The story of how these bodies came to be buried there began on the evening of May 2, 1912. By then, the makeshift morgue had the first 59 bodies ready for burial at Fairview Cemetery, a nonsectarian cemetery. The funeral was to take place the following morning.
As John Eaton and Charles Haas document in Titanic: Triumph and Tragedy, late on the night of May 2, Rabbi Jacob Walter went to the curling rink, inspected as many coffins as he was able, and decided that eight victims had been Jewish. He had their coffins separated for interment at de Hirsch.
The rabbi continued his work the next day, bringing his tally of Jewish bodies to 18. “During the memorial service in town, (Walter) had gone to Fairview Cemetery, where the caskets were arriving from the Mayflower Rink for interment, opened the caskets, satisfied himself that 10 contained victims of the Jewish faith, and directed the undertaker’s team and several leading citizens of Halifax’s Jewish community to take them to the adjacent Baron de Hirsch cemetery.”
Eighteen bodies, presumed to be Jewish, were then at Baron de Hirsch; members of the Nova Scotia Jewish community hastily prepared to dig graves and inter the remains properly before the Sabbath would begin that evening.
When the funeral service began at Fairview, those present realized 10 coffins were missing.
Authorities then prohibited the Jewish community from burying the second set of remains Walter had identified but did allow the burial of the first eight at de Hirsch. Authorities also granted two more burial permits for “Hebrew” victims on May 4.
Walter was allowed to inspect all other bodies at the morgue. He declared there were 44 Jewish bodies in all. But his skills at determining who was Jewish weren’t always reliable.
One victim buried at de Hirsch was a Catholic, Michel Navratil, who traveled under the name “Hoffman.” The White Star Line determined that four of the deceased Walter had identified as Jews were also Catholics; others bodies had been claimed by family members.
In the end, the 10 bodies in question — which had been in the de Hirsch receiving vault since the day they were almost buried — were returned to the curling rink. | <urn:uuid:2a6a43d1-4dbb-4706-8781-42347f6aed83> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://daytonjewishobserver.org/2012/03/at-halifaxs-jewish-cemetery-a-titanic-section/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00234.warc.gz | en | 0.984268 | 680 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.0693425238132... | 3 | At Halifax’s Jewish cemetery, a Titanic section
By Marshall Weiss, The Dayton Jewish Observer
No one knows for certain how many Jewish passengers were on board Titanic, let alone how many of them died. Of the more than 1,500 people who went down with Titanic, ships later recovered only 340 bodies. A review of the list of passengers and crew indicates 89 common Jewish surnames.
The White Star Line chartered three ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia and contracted almost every available embalmer in Nova Scotia to recover and embalm the remaining bodies.
At a makeshift morgue set up in the Mayflower Curling Rink in Halifax, family members or representatives on their behalf came to collect the remains that could be identified. Bodies that were neither identified nor claimed would be buried in Halifax.
Ultimately, 10 bodies were buried in a special Titanic plot at Halifax’s Jewish cemetery, the Baron de Hirsch Cemetery. All were male; only three were identified.
The story of how these bodies came to be buried there began on the evening of May 2, 1912. By then, the makeshift morgue had the first 59 bodies ready for burial at Fairview Cemetery, a nonsectarian cemetery. The funeral was to take place the following morning.
As John Eaton and Charles Haas document in Titanic: Triumph and Tragedy, late on the night of May 2, Rabbi Jacob Walter went to the curling rink, inspected as many coffins as he was able, and decided that eight victims had been Jewish. He had their coffins separated for interment at de Hirsch.
The rabbi continued his work the next day, bringing his tally of Jewish bodies to 18. “During the memorial service in town, (Walter) had gone to Fairview Cemetery, where the caskets were arriving from the Mayflower Rink for interment, opened the caskets, satisfied himself that 10 contained victims of the Jewish faith, and directed the undertaker’s team and several leading citizens of Halifax’s Jewish community to take them to the adjacent Baron de Hirsch cemetery.”
Eighteen bodies, presumed to be Jewish, were then at Baron de Hirsch; members of the Nova Scotia Jewish community hastily prepared to dig graves and inter the remains properly before the Sabbath would begin that evening.
When the funeral service began at Fairview, those present realized 10 coffins were missing.
Authorities then prohibited the Jewish community from burying the second set of remains Walter had identified but did allow the burial of the first eight at de Hirsch. Authorities also granted two more burial permits for “Hebrew” victims on May 4.
Walter was allowed to inspect all other bodies at the morgue. He declared there were 44 Jewish bodies in all. But his skills at determining who was Jewish weren’t always reliable.
One victim buried at de Hirsch was a Catholic, Michel Navratil, who traveled under the name “Hoffman.” The White Star Line determined that four of the deceased Walter had identified as Jews were also Catholics; others bodies had been claimed by family members.
In the end, the 10 bodies in question — which had been in the de Hirsch receiving vault since the day they were almost buried — were returned to the curling rink. | 685 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,276 pages of information and 220,134 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them.
The Iron Bridge crosses the River Severn at the Ironbridge Gorge, by the village of Ironbridge, in Shropshire, England. It was the first bridge of its size in the world to be made out of cast iron.
In the early eighteenth century the only way to cross the Severn Gorge was by ferry. However, the industries that were growing in the area of Coalbrookdale and Broseley needed a more reliable crossing.
Shares were issued to raise the £3,200 required, and Darby agreed to fund any overspend. Although it had been predicted that 300 tons of iron would be needed (costing £7 a ton), in the end 379 tons were used, costing Darby and his company nearly £3,000. There would be many other costs to bear (masonry abutments, assembly etc), so that the project was far more expensive than first envisaged. Darby bore most of the cost over-run, and was in debt for the rest of his short life.
Being the first of its kind, the construction had no precedent; the method chosen to create the structure was therefore based on carpentry. Each member of the frame was cast separately, and fastenings followed those used in woodworking, such as the mortise and tenon and blind dovetail joints. Bolts were used to fasten the half-ribs together at the crown of the arch. Very large parts were needed to create a structure to span 100 feet rising to 60 feet above the river. The largest parts were the half-ribs, each about 70 ft long and weighing 5.25 tons. The bridge comprises more than 800 castings of 12 basic types.
1778 'A few days ago was cast at Colebrooke Dale, one-half of the first rib of the iron bridge, being 71 feet and upwards, and weighing above six tons.'
The bridge was raised in the summer of 1779, and it was opened on New Year's Day 1781.
A few years after the construction of the bridge, cracks were appearing in the masonry abutments, caused by ground movement. Some of the cracks in the cast iron may date from this time, although others may be casting cracks. They were pinned with wrought iron straps.
By 1802, the southern stone abutment had to be demolished, and replaced with temporary wooden arches, before eventually being replaced by iron arches. Many of the cracks visible today in the bridge have been left untouched, however. The bridge was over-designed, and subsequent bridges such as those built by Thomas Telford used much less cast iron. For example, his cast iron arch bridge at Buildwas upstream from Ironbridge, used less than half the weight for a greater span (130 ft span, 170 tons of cast iron). However, it suffered similar problems of abutment movement and was replaced in 1902.
The cast iron bridge at Coalport downstream, built in 1799/1818, is even more impressive because of its lean, streamlined design, and still carries vehicular traffic. It was renovated in 2004.
In 1972 a programme of major repairs took place on the foundations of the bridge. It involved creating a ferro-concrete counter arch under the river. The bridge has been renovated again in 1999-2002, with replacement of the cast iron road plates with steel plates, and a lightweight top surface. Further information on the manufacture of the cast iron parts has emerged. While the smaller parts were cast using wooden patterns, the large ribs were cast freely into excavated moulds in the casting sand.
Vehicular traffic was stopped from crossing the bridge in 1934, but tolls for pedestrians were still collected until 1950, when ownership of the bridge was transferred to Shropshire County Council.
The bridge is a popular tourist attraction, and part of the UNESCO Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage Site. It is a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled Ancient Monument.
2018 English Heritage launches a campaign to make vital repairs to ironwork structure.
Half Size Replica
In 2001 a project was undertaken for the BBC Timewatch programme to investigate aspects of construction by casting and erecting three half-size sections of ribs and uprights using only 18th Century techniques. The castings were produced by H. Downs and Sons, and an excellent account of the production of the castings is available on their website. | <urn:uuid:cf9fc73b-98b9-48e6-be17-f3679fa30a75> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gracesguide.co.uk/Iron_Bridge | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00524.warc.gz | en | 0.982156 | 952 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.01103040110... | 1 | Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,276 pages of information and 220,134 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them.
The Iron Bridge crosses the River Severn at the Ironbridge Gorge, by the village of Ironbridge, in Shropshire, England. It was the first bridge of its size in the world to be made out of cast iron.
In the early eighteenth century the only way to cross the Severn Gorge was by ferry. However, the industries that were growing in the area of Coalbrookdale and Broseley needed a more reliable crossing.
Shares were issued to raise the £3,200 required, and Darby agreed to fund any overspend. Although it had been predicted that 300 tons of iron would be needed (costing £7 a ton), in the end 379 tons were used, costing Darby and his company nearly £3,000. There would be many other costs to bear (masonry abutments, assembly etc), so that the project was far more expensive than first envisaged. Darby bore most of the cost over-run, and was in debt for the rest of his short life.
Being the first of its kind, the construction had no precedent; the method chosen to create the structure was therefore based on carpentry. Each member of the frame was cast separately, and fastenings followed those used in woodworking, such as the mortise and tenon and blind dovetail joints. Bolts were used to fasten the half-ribs together at the crown of the arch. Very large parts were needed to create a structure to span 100 feet rising to 60 feet above the river. The largest parts were the half-ribs, each about 70 ft long and weighing 5.25 tons. The bridge comprises more than 800 castings of 12 basic types.
1778 'A few days ago was cast at Colebrooke Dale, one-half of the first rib of the iron bridge, being 71 feet and upwards, and weighing above six tons.'
The bridge was raised in the summer of 1779, and it was opened on New Year's Day 1781.
A few years after the construction of the bridge, cracks were appearing in the masonry abutments, caused by ground movement. Some of the cracks in the cast iron may date from this time, although others may be casting cracks. They were pinned with wrought iron straps.
By 1802, the southern stone abutment had to be demolished, and replaced with temporary wooden arches, before eventually being replaced by iron arches. Many of the cracks visible today in the bridge have been left untouched, however. The bridge was over-designed, and subsequent bridges such as those built by Thomas Telford used much less cast iron. For example, his cast iron arch bridge at Buildwas upstream from Ironbridge, used less than half the weight for a greater span (130 ft span, 170 tons of cast iron). However, it suffered similar problems of abutment movement and was replaced in 1902.
The cast iron bridge at Coalport downstream, built in 1799/1818, is even more impressive because of its lean, streamlined design, and still carries vehicular traffic. It was renovated in 2004.
In 1972 a programme of major repairs took place on the foundations of the bridge. It involved creating a ferro-concrete counter arch under the river. The bridge has been renovated again in 1999-2002, with replacement of the cast iron road plates with steel plates, and a lightweight top surface. Further information on the manufacture of the cast iron parts has emerged. While the smaller parts were cast using wooden patterns, the large ribs were cast freely into excavated moulds in the casting sand.
Vehicular traffic was stopped from crossing the bridge in 1934, but tolls for pedestrians were still collected until 1950, when ownership of the bridge was transferred to Shropshire County Council.
The bridge is a popular tourist attraction, and part of the UNESCO Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage Site. It is a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled Ancient Monument.
2018 English Heritage launches a campaign to make vital repairs to ironwork structure.
Half Size Replica
In 2001 a project was undertaken for the BBC Timewatch programme to investigate aspects of construction by casting and erecting three half-size sections of ribs and uprights using only 18th Century techniques. The castings were produced by H. Downs and Sons, and an excellent account of the production of the castings is available on their website. | 1,025 | ENGLISH | 1 |
To birders, “looking through the glass” refers to binoculars. Wildlife photographer Glen Apseloff, however, thinks of the phrase as referring to the windows of his house. Using a handheld camera without a flash or special filters, he has photographed enough birds from inside his house, through closed windows, to create two books. Some of the photographs and text in this slideshow can be found in his more recent book, Backyard Birds and More—Looking Through the Glass. All of the birds in this slideshow, like all of those in his books, were taken through closed windows from inside his home in a suburb of Columbus, Ohio.
He wrote each of the captions in the following slideshow.
Northern Flickers are woodpeckers and are year-round residents in Ohio. Males and females appear similar, but males have a black mustache. In Ohio, all Northern Flickers are the yellow-shafted variety; this refers to the color underneath their wings. In western states, the birds are red-shafted and males have a red mustache.The oldest Northern Flicker was a yellow-shafted male banded in Florida and later found dead there; he was at least 9 years and 2 months old. | <urn:uuid:f42973a0-9365-4e80-bb37-a0691b03fac5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.birdwatchingdaily.com/photography/featured-galleries/backyard-birds-photographed-through-windows/nggallery/image/3_male-northern-flicker_7478_72dpi/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.983003 | 254 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.16223821043968... | 1 | To birders, “looking through the glass” refers to binoculars. Wildlife photographer Glen Apseloff, however, thinks of the phrase as referring to the windows of his house. Using a handheld camera without a flash or special filters, he has photographed enough birds from inside his house, through closed windows, to create two books. Some of the photographs and text in this slideshow can be found in his more recent book, Backyard Birds and More—Looking Through the Glass. All of the birds in this slideshow, like all of those in his books, were taken through closed windows from inside his home in a suburb of Columbus, Ohio.
He wrote each of the captions in the following slideshow.
Northern Flickers are woodpeckers and are year-round residents in Ohio. Males and females appear similar, but males have a black mustache. In Ohio, all Northern Flickers are the yellow-shafted variety; this refers to the color underneath their wings. In western states, the birds are red-shafted and males have a red mustache.The oldest Northern Flicker was a yellow-shafted male banded in Florida and later found dead there; he was at least 9 years and 2 months old. | 256 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Written by American author John Steinbeck, Of Mice and Men was first published in 1937. The title of the book comes from a poem by the 18th- century Scottish poet Robbie Burns. It is about a mouse which carefully builds a winter nest in a wheat field, only for it to be destroyed by a ploughman. There is a parallel here with George and Lennie’s joyful fantasy of a farm of their own and its all-too-predictable destruction at the end of the story. Perhaps these also meant to suggest to us how unpredictable our lives are, and how vulnerable to tragedy. The novel is set in a place called Soledad, (a Spanish word meaning solitude or loneliness) in California. The structure of Mice and Men is cyclical – there is a sense of things happening in a certain order and being repeated. This is reflected in the way that the book starts and ends in the same place – the brush by the Salinas River. This gives the reader the impression that the ending is inevitable and nothing can be done to stop it. The sense of repetition created through this element of the structure also creates a sense of hopelessness for the reader, reflecting the lack of choices that itinerant workers like George would have had at the time. The men’s lives are also repetitive and it is only the American dream that gives them any hope of changing this cycle, however, Steinbeck shows at the end that even this dream is pointless. Death is present throughout the novella, from the very beginning where Lennie is carrying a mouse that he has accidentally killed to the very end when he kills Curley’s wife. Lennie’s lack of awareness of his ability to cause harm is presented as being a problem straight away and this escalates: first, he kills a mouse, then a puppy, then finally Curley’s wife. His inability to control himself when panicked is also revealed at different stages (George describes when Lennie grabbed a girl’s dress in Weed and then Lennie crushes Curley’s hand when attacked), adding to the sense that he will inevitably cause destruction. The increasing violence in Of Mice and Men foreshadows the tragic events at the end. Life is not valued in the book; Lennie accidentally kills the pets and Candy’s dog is shot by Carlson when he is no longer useful. The title itself foreshadows the characters’ unhappiness at the end of the book, as it provides a warning that things will not work out for the characters as they hope. On October 29 1929, millions of dollars were wiped out in an event that became known as the Wall Street Crash. It led to the Depression in America which crippled the country from 1930 – 1936. People lost their life savings when firms and banks went bust, and 12 – 15 million men and women – one-third of America’s population – were unemployed.George Milton; He is a small man, but has brains and a quick wit. He has been a good friend to Lennie, ever since he promised Lennie’s Aunt Clara that he would care for him, He looks after all Lennie’s affairs, such as carrying his work card and tries to steer him out of potential trouble. “You gonna have trouble with that Curley guy” Tells us about his wisdom and his ability to judge people. This also foreshadows the future. Friendly advice to try to help Lennie.
“Get `I’m, Lennie” Command to Lennie. it is like a command to an animal and the shortness of the sentence also emphasizes this.
Lennie Small; He is a big man, in contrast to his name. He has limited intelligence, so he relies on George to look after him. He copies George in everything George does and trusts George completely. “Behind him (George) walked his opposite, a huge man, shapeless of face, with large, then the le the eyes, with wide, sloping shoulders; and he walked heavily, dragging his feet a little, the way a bear drags his paws. His arms did not swing at his sides, but hung loosely.” He shares a dream with George to own a piece of land. Lennie’s special job would be to tend the rabbits He likes to pet soft things, like puppies and dead mice. We know this got him into trouble in Weed when he tried to feel a girl’s soft red dress: she thought he was going to attack her. He can be forgetful – George continually has to remind him about important things. He is very gentle and kind, and would never harm anyone or anything deliberately. He is extremely strong: he can work as well as two men at bucking barley. He is often described as a child or an animal -, he, drinks from the pool like a horse and his huge hands are described as paws. “Because I got you to look after me, and you got me to look after you”
Not many people had real friends in the American West in the 1930s – it was a case of every man for himself. That is one of the reasons why the story of George and Lennie’s unusual friendship is so poignant. They have each other. No one else in the novel is so lucky. In the novel, George Melton is present as Small & quick. Strong hands and a thin, bony nose. George is a protective man, who has been caring for his friend Lennie for a long time. The two men are not related but have been friends since they were children, so as well as enjoying his company, George also feels responsible for his welfare. George often talks to Lennie about their dream. Due to Lennie’s mental disability, George has to take responsibility for him and finds this stressful and frustrating at times, due to Lennie getting into trouble. This results in outbursts of anger towards Lennie at certain points in the novel, although George regrets these quickly. George recognizes that his friendship with Lennie is special because men like George would not have had friendships due to moving around so much for work; it would have been very unusual for two men to travel around together due to work being scarce. George is a small, quick-witted man; his intelligence contrasts with Lennie’s throughout the book; as does his size. George often has to think quickly in order to cover up for Lennie’s mistakes. Who is Lennie small, well in the novel he is presented as Lennie is George’s friend and the two travel together Lennie has a mental disability, making him dependent upon George to manage the day to day life in the difficult environment in which they live and work. Lennie is physically very strong (so his name is ironic), but cannot control himself, leading to escalating acts of accidental violence through the book. He is obsessed with stroking soft things, such as animal fur. This starts with mice, which he kills, then leads to his puppy, which he also kills, before the tragic death of Curley’s wife when he strokes her hair. He does not mean to cause harm but is not aware of his own physical power. Lennie is very innocent and sweet-natured; he always means well and is focused on simple pleasures, which his dream with George reminds the reader of. He lacks awareness of social conventions and so does not feel the same racism and prejudice against women that many of the other male characters feel. Lennie only gets angry or aggressive when he feels that his friendship with George is threatened. When discussing the relationship between George and Lennie, a variety of words can be used such as familial bond, companionship and the reason is the relationship between George and Lennie is complicated, Lennie thinks of George as his companion his friend while George, on the other hand, think of Lennie as his small brother, but most importantly he needs because of his physical strength which makes him a good farmer. As friends, Lennie Small and George Milton are misfits, both physically and mentally; and, yet, each is dependent upon the other. However, this dependence creates a certain anxiety.
“I could get along so easy and so nice if I didn’t have you on my tail. I could live so easy and maybe have a girl.”
As he prepares the meal for them, Lennie asks for ketchup that George does not have. When George becomes angry, Lennie says that he will go away and live in a cave or somewhere. But of course, Lennie cannot live by himself, so George has to appease him. Of course, George is always worried that Lennie will overpower the other bindle-stiffs, so he cautions the big man about staying out of trouble. When Curley’s wife stands seductively in the doorway, George takes him by the ear exhorting him, “…She’s a rat trap if I ever saw one.” But, Lennie protests, saying he has not done anything, and he wants to leave, “I don’ like this place, George. This ain’t no good place.” When he pets the puppy given him by Slim, he accidentally kills it. Then, he is anxious about what George will say, “I done a bad thing… George ain’t gonna let me tend no rabbits now.” Later, when he inadvertently chokes Curley’s wife, Lennie becomes extremely anxious about George’s response. knowing his action is a repeat of what had happened in Weed.
George: Compelled to care for Lennie out of a sense of obligation because the man’s aunt has died, George resents Lennie at times; however, even in his irritations at Lennie’s repeatedly asking for a repetition of the dream of owning a farm of their own, George begins to believe in this dream. However, his mistrust of others and anxieties prevent him from letting Lennie really enjoy himself. Instead, he feels the need to scold the big man. When he talks with Slim about Lennie, George explains their friendship in somewhat negative terms which hides the real camaraderie they share,
“‘Course Lennie’s a god damn nuisance most of the time…But you get used to going n’ around with a guy an’ you can’t get rid of him.”
Further, George mentions how he used to tease Lennie until the man nearly drowned. Then, he stopped. Thus, in their relationship, George and Lennie both have feelings of anxiety and negativity toward each other either and Lennie stand out because of their friendship
How does Steinbeck show this?
George and Lennie are the only characters in the novel who have a meaningful relationship. This makes them unique and draws attention to the loneliness of the rest of the characters in the book.
They had walked in single file down the path, and even in the open one stayed behind the other. Both were dressed in denim trousers and in denim coats with brass buttons. Both wore black, shapeless hats and both carried tight blanket rolls slung over their shoulders. This is our first introduction to Lennie and George. On the one hand, we know right away that they’re not equals: one man is walking behind another. On the other hand, they’re dressed identically. Is this a relationship of equals? Or is inequality always a part of friendships?
“Guys like us, that work on ranches, are the loneliest guys in the world. They got no family. They don’t belong to any place… With us, it ain’t like that. We got a future. We got somebody to talk to that gives a damn about us.”
By comparing their situation with others’, George demonstrates that they are very unusual. George uses the pronouns they and we to emphasise how different he and Lennie are from other men who work on ranches from disparagement or fear. This negativity often arises from their alienation and loneliness, which ironically, unites them as well by the hope that their dream of a farm affords them. On Sunday, Lennie accidentally kills a puppy that he has been given by Slim, the leader of a grain team. While he is trying to hide the puppy in the barn, Curley’s wife joins him. She talks to him and invites him to stroke her hair. While doing this, he unintentionally kills her by breaking her neck then runs away.
Curley’s wife’s body is found by Candy. He alerts the other men who go out to look for Lennie with guns, planning to shoot him. George finds him first (in the place they camped at the start of the book) and Lennie asks to repeat the American dream and Lennie tells him to look towards the corner so u can almost imagine it and then George starts to tell Lennie about their American dream and shoots him in the back of the head. For evaluating the ending it made a very big impact on George but on the other hand this was the only option he had, he was forced to kill his friend because if he didn’t Curley and the ranch workers will eventually capture and torture him, this made George very sad that he lost his friend but he was also felt comfortable that he saved from being tortured and personally , I think it’s easier to see your friend dead than being tortured specially if he is being tortured by others , I felt that George has done right thing which was saving Lennie from being tortured by Curley and the ranch workers but still Lennie didn’t achieve his American dream and Overall, I think it was a very meaningful section of the book. It was sad but it was fitting to the whole story. If it ended any other way, I wouldn’t feel that the book was as great as it is with the current ending. The feelings that it caused made it a more powerful book. I think Steinbeck chose the ending of this novel to show the sacrifices u can make for others especially for the people u love whom u care about.My overall point is that, in this novella, Steinbeck was able to show the relationship between two ranch workers in contrast to other ranch workers | <urn:uuid:7810a79b-0af0-404c-8afd-a941f5af44b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://palawanboard.com/written-by-american-author-john-steinbeck/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00204.warc.gz | en | 0.983846 | 2,984 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.2288233339... | 8 | Written by American author John Steinbeck, Of Mice and Men was first published in 1937. The title of the book comes from a poem by the 18th- century Scottish poet Robbie Burns. It is about a mouse which carefully builds a winter nest in a wheat field, only for it to be destroyed by a ploughman. There is a parallel here with George and Lennie’s joyful fantasy of a farm of their own and its all-too-predictable destruction at the end of the story. Perhaps these also meant to suggest to us how unpredictable our lives are, and how vulnerable to tragedy. The novel is set in a place called Soledad, (a Spanish word meaning solitude or loneliness) in California. The structure of Mice and Men is cyclical – there is a sense of things happening in a certain order and being repeated. This is reflected in the way that the book starts and ends in the same place – the brush by the Salinas River. This gives the reader the impression that the ending is inevitable and nothing can be done to stop it. The sense of repetition created through this element of the structure also creates a sense of hopelessness for the reader, reflecting the lack of choices that itinerant workers like George would have had at the time. The men’s lives are also repetitive and it is only the American dream that gives them any hope of changing this cycle, however, Steinbeck shows at the end that even this dream is pointless. Death is present throughout the novella, from the very beginning where Lennie is carrying a mouse that he has accidentally killed to the very end when he kills Curley’s wife. Lennie’s lack of awareness of his ability to cause harm is presented as being a problem straight away and this escalates: first, he kills a mouse, then a puppy, then finally Curley’s wife. His inability to control himself when panicked is also revealed at different stages (George describes when Lennie grabbed a girl’s dress in Weed and then Lennie crushes Curley’s hand when attacked), adding to the sense that he will inevitably cause destruction. The increasing violence in Of Mice and Men foreshadows the tragic events at the end. Life is not valued in the book; Lennie accidentally kills the pets and Candy’s dog is shot by Carlson when he is no longer useful. The title itself foreshadows the characters’ unhappiness at the end of the book, as it provides a warning that things will not work out for the characters as they hope. On October 29 1929, millions of dollars were wiped out in an event that became known as the Wall Street Crash. It led to the Depression in America which crippled the country from 1930 – 1936. People lost their life savings when firms and banks went bust, and 12 – 15 million men and women – one-third of America’s population – were unemployed.George Milton; He is a small man, but has brains and a quick wit. He has been a good friend to Lennie, ever since he promised Lennie’s Aunt Clara that he would care for him, He looks after all Lennie’s affairs, such as carrying his work card and tries to steer him out of potential trouble. “You gonna have trouble with that Curley guy” Tells us about his wisdom and his ability to judge people. This also foreshadows the future. Friendly advice to try to help Lennie.
“Get `I’m, Lennie” Command to Lennie. it is like a command to an animal and the shortness of the sentence also emphasizes this.
Lennie Small; He is a big man, in contrast to his name. He has limited intelligence, so he relies on George to look after him. He copies George in everything George does and trusts George completely. “Behind him (George) walked his opposite, a huge man, shapeless of face, with large, then the le the eyes, with wide, sloping shoulders; and he walked heavily, dragging his feet a little, the way a bear drags his paws. His arms did not swing at his sides, but hung loosely.” He shares a dream with George to own a piece of land. Lennie’s special job would be to tend the rabbits He likes to pet soft things, like puppies and dead mice. We know this got him into trouble in Weed when he tried to feel a girl’s soft red dress: she thought he was going to attack her. He can be forgetful – George continually has to remind him about important things. He is very gentle and kind, and would never harm anyone or anything deliberately. He is extremely strong: he can work as well as two men at bucking barley. He is often described as a child or an animal -, he, drinks from the pool like a horse and his huge hands are described as paws. “Because I got you to look after me, and you got me to look after you”
Not many people had real friends in the American West in the 1930s – it was a case of every man for himself. That is one of the reasons why the story of George and Lennie’s unusual friendship is so poignant. They have each other. No one else in the novel is so lucky. In the novel, George Melton is present as Small & quick. Strong hands and a thin, bony nose. George is a protective man, who has been caring for his friend Lennie for a long time. The two men are not related but have been friends since they were children, so as well as enjoying his company, George also feels responsible for his welfare. George often talks to Lennie about their dream. Due to Lennie’s mental disability, George has to take responsibility for him and finds this stressful and frustrating at times, due to Lennie getting into trouble. This results in outbursts of anger towards Lennie at certain points in the novel, although George regrets these quickly. George recognizes that his friendship with Lennie is special because men like George would not have had friendships due to moving around so much for work; it would have been very unusual for two men to travel around together due to work being scarce. George is a small, quick-witted man; his intelligence contrasts with Lennie’s throughout the book; as does his size. George often has to think quickly in order to cover up for Lennie’s mistakes. Who is Lennie small, well in the novel he is presented as Lennie is George’s friend and the two travel together Lennie has a mental disability, making him dependent upon George to manage the day to day life in the difficult environment in which they live and work. Lennie is physically very strong (so his name is ironic), but cannot control himself, leading to escalating acts of accidental violence through the book. He is obsessed with stroking soft things, such as animal fur. This starts with mice, which he kills, then leads to his puppy, which he also kills, before the tragic death of Curley’s wife when he strokes her hair. He does not mean to cause harm but is not aware of his own physical power. Lennie is very innocent and sweet-natured; he always means well and is focused on simple pleasures, which his dream with George reminds the reader of. He lacks awareness of social conventions and so does not feel the same racism and prejudice against women that many of the other male characters feel. Lennie only gets angry or aggressive when he feels that his friendship with George is threatened. When discussing the relationship between George and Lennie, a variety of words can be used such as familial bond, companionship and the reason is the relationship between George and Lennie is complicated, Lennie thinks of George as his companion his friend while George, on the other hand, think of Lennie as his small brother, but most importantly he needs because of his physical strength which makes him a good farmer. As friends, Lennie Small and George Milton are misfits, both physically and mentally; and, yet, each is dependent upon the other. However, this dependence creates a certain anxiety.
“I could get along so easy and so nice if I didn’t have you on my tail. I could live so easy and maybe have a girl.”
As he prepares the meal for them, Lennie asks for ketchup that George does not have. When George becomes angry, Lennie says that he will go away and live in a cave or somewhere. But of course, Lennie cannot live by himself, so George has to appease him. Of course, George is always worried that Lennie will overpower the other bindle-stiffs, so he cautions the big man about staying out of trouble. When Curley’s wife stands seductively in the doorway, George takes him by the ear exhorting him, “…She’s a rat trap if I ever saw one.” But, Lennie protests, saying he has not done anything, and he wants to leave, “I don’ like this place, George. This ain’t no good place.” When he pets the puppy given him by Slim, he accidentally kills it. Then, he is anxious about what George will say, “I done a bad thing… George ain’t gonna let me tend no rabbits now.” Later, when he inadvertently chokes Curley’s wife, Lennie becomes extremely anxious about George’s response. knowing his action is a repeat of what had happened in Weed.
George: Compelled to care for Lennie out of a sense of obligation because the man’s aunt has died, George resents Lennie at times; however, even in his irritations at Lennie’s repeatedly asking for a repetition of the dream of owning a farm of their own, George begins to believe in this dream. However, his mistrust of others and anxieties prevent him from letting Lennie really enjoy himself. Instead, he feels the need to scold the big man. When he talks with Slim about Lennie, George explains their friendship in somewhat negative terms which hides the real camaraderie they share,
“‘Course Lennie’s a god damn nuisance most of the time…But you get used to going n’ around with a guy an’ you can’t get rid of him.”
Further, George mentions how he used to tease Lennie until the man nearly drowned. Then, he stopped. Thus, in their relationship, George and Lennie both have feelings of anxiety and negativity toward each other either and Lennie stand out because of their friendship
How does Steinbeck show this?
George and Lennie are the only characters in the novel who have a meaningful relationship. This makes them unique and draws attention to the loneliness of the rest of the characters in the book.
They had walked in single file down the path, and even in the open one stayed behind the other. Both were dressed in denim trousers and in denim coats with brass buttons. Both wore black, shapeless hats and both carried tight blanket rolls slung over their shoulders. This is our first introduction to Lennie and George. On the one hand, we know right away that they’re not equals: one man is walking behind another. On the other hand, they’re dressed identically. Is this a relationship of equals? Or is inequality always a part of friendships?
“Guys like us, that work on ranches, are the loneliest guys in the world. They got no family. They don’t belong to any place… With us, it ain’t like that. We got a future. We got somebody to talk to that gives a damn about us.”
By comparing their situation with others’, George demonstrates that they are very unusual. George uses the pronouns they and we to emphasise how different he and Lennie are from other men who work on ranches from disparagement or fear. This negativity often arises from their alienation and loneliness, which ironically, unites them as well by the hope that their dream of a farm affords them. On Sunday, Lennie accidentally kills a puppy that he has been given by Slim, the leader of a grain team. While he is trying to hide the puppy in the barn, Curley’s wife joins him. She talks to him and invites him to stroke her hair. While doing this, he unintentionally kills her by breaking her neck then runs away.
Curley’s wife’s body is found by Candy. He alerts the other men who go out to look for Lennie with guns, planning to shoot him. George finds him first (in the place they camped at the start of the book) and Lennie asks to repeat the American dream and Lennie tells him to look towards the corner so u can almost imagine it and then George starts to tell Lennie about their American dream and shoots him in the back of the head. For evaluating the ending it made a very big impact on George but on the other hand this was the only option he had, he was forced to kill his friend because if he didn’t Curley and the ranch workers will eventually capture and torture him, this made George very sad that he lost his friend but he was also felt comfortable that he saved from being tortured and personally , I think it’s easier to see your friend dead than being tortured specially if he is being tortured by others , I felt that George has done right thing which was saving Lennie from being tortured by Curley and the ranch workers but still Lennie didn’t achieve his American dream and Overall, I think it was a very meaningful section of the book. It was sad but it was fitting to the whole story. If it ended any other way, I wouldn’t feel that the book was as great as it is with the current ending. The feelings that it caused made it a more powerful book. I think Steinbeck chose the ending of this novel to show the sacrifices u can make for others especially for the people u love whom u care about.My overall point is that, in this novella, Steinbeck was able to show the relationship between two ranch workers in contrast to other ranch workers | 2,874 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The children were exploring different textures in the water tray today. We had some gooey red jelly and bicarbonate of soda fizzy ice as well as some fluffy frozen shaving foam.
The children loved feeling the different textures. They were able to use great descriptive words. They could see the bicarbonate ‘bubble’ when it came in contact with the jelly. The ice was SO cold and the shaving foam was like ‘snow’. Then one child said “it’s a big iceberg!” We all watched the iceberg float around our jelly sea before it slowly melted.
After St Andrew’s Day we had a lot of potatoes left and we didn’t want them to go waste. The children got thinking about things we can make with potatoes and they came up with a lot of suggestions. The two favourite ones from the children (and a few members of staff) were potato scones and chips!
The children got to work peeling, washing, chopping and slicing while Val lit the fire. While one group rolled out the potato scones, another group watched the chips cook at the fire.
Tomorrow we will make another of the suggestions, soup, before using the last few potatoes to make some colourful Christmas prints.
Who knew potatoes could be so entertaining!
The children have been exploring the ice that had formed during last week’s cold spell. One child noticed the ice that we found in our water trough looked very different to the ice that had formed on some of our plants and furniture. What a great excuse for an investigation! Could there possibly be different types of ice?
Now, we could have had an experiment to see if ice lollies, ice cream or sorbets were all different but we wanted a challenge; how many types of natural ice are there, and can we make any?
Well, we discovered there are actually 17 different types of ice but could we make any? Of course we could! Jack Frost helped us too, there was sheet ice in the garden and we also found a little bit of rime on the furniture and plants but we had wanted to make our own. We looked in our nature box and found flowers, twigs, leaves, seeds and nuts which we washed so they had a little coating of water and we popped them in the freezer. Everyday we went in and sprayed them with a little more water to see if we could make our own rime. We also put a thin layer of water in a tub to make our own sheet ice. We filled some pots with water to make water ice. Finally, we mixed salt and water to make sea ice which stayed a little bit soft even after 5 days in the freezer.
So, I bet you all want to know, what other types of ice there is that we did not make out of the 17? Pancake, dinner plate, blue, green, black, hoar, névé, chandelier, candle, hail, interstellar, cubic and hexagonal. Wow, so many types!
This activity had the children guessing, thinking, enquiring, exploring and doing in an outdoor environment. We all learned so much and had such a nICE time learning more about the wonders of nature.
The children joined staff at 11 o’clock today to mark Armistice day. The centre fell silent for two minutes to remember the day the First World War ended. The children took the time to think about people that they loved.
It’s hard to believe that we’ve reached week 9 of Forest School. We’ve been so privileged to watch summer slip in to autumn and this morning we had our first taste of winter with frosty patterns to look at and crisp, crunchy sounds underfoot. Seeing the changing seasons in the forest is a wonderful way for children to appreciate the wonders of nature. As forest school practitioners, the changing seasons gives us the opportunity to discuss why these must happen but, the best part for all of us is the visual impact that seasons make in the forest throughout the year. Discussion with your children is endless; colours, changes, temperature, sounds, smells and who wants a hot chocolate! So, we hope that when this block ends after next week’s cook-out we have shared our passion with our budding foresteers and that they will join us for our Big Fit Walk on Saturday 9th November to share their new found appreciation of our beautiful outdoors with you!
The boys and girls were looking around the forest floor at all the leaves and seeds that had started to fall to the ground. Everywhere we looked we found leaves that were green, yellow, orange and brown. The boys and girls began to see patterns in the shape of the leaves, then they decided that they could make their own patterns. They set to work gathering lots of different leaves and acorns and used them to make some lovely nature patterns!
Today the boys and girls got to see the results of all their hard work throughout the year. We have tended our plants from little seeds, nurtured them as they have grown, fed and watered them through the summer and now the time has come to taste some of our vegetables!
First we have to pick the biggest vegetables we can find as we want to make soup.
This looks like a big leek
I have a really big onion
Here is another one!
The potatoes need peeled after being in the muddy ground.
Look at all the roots, this is how the plant gets fed from the ground.
The onions get chopped up and added to our soup pot.
So do the leeks…
Now we need to care for the environment and compost all our waste.
And now it’s time to get our soup cooking on the fire.
And at last, it’s time to taste our home grown soup.
The children are developing new skills each week at the forest. Today our group had the busiest day ever! The boys and girls tried out some mud make up before we learned about being safe around a fire.
We pegged out sticks to make a safe zone where we could all sit, while Val heated water for our hot chocolate on the Kelly Kettle. The children used some fantastic descriptive words for the noises they heard from the fire. ‘Sizzle’, ‘woosh’, ‘hiss’ were just a few of them.
After hot chocolate we went exploring and were so lucky to find a door to a fairy house, we knocked and knocked but nobody was home.
We finished our busy day collecting bags of nature to take back to Cart Mill and show our friends.
We had thought about making little rafts today but the river was just too fast so we decided just to watch it for a little while.
The children had spent the morning at the forest hunting for different types of seeds and brought some back to the centre to show their friends. Some of the children were very inquisitive and wanted to know what all the seeds would grow into.
We decided our favourite was the beech nut as it looked like a baby hedgehog. One of the children noticed that one of our beech nuts was starting to open and we could actually see the tiny seed inside. Val found another beech nut that had opened completely which the children were able to harvest the seed from. They then went to our mini forest and planted it to see if it would grow next year.
We are so lucky to be able to watch our forest grow every year. So far we have; oak trees from acorns we planted last year, apple trees from seeds we gathered during snack and cherry trees that we have grown from cherry stones. The children love learning about nature and are developing their own nurturing skills by caring for their plants.
Last week the children went to our smaller forest school but today we went on a big adventure to our favourite site at Busby Glen. There was so much to explore. The walk was very exciting, we saw a train track and went under a big bridge. We were told by one of the children there were 400 trees on the way. They found some really big trees to climb and had lots of fun but the highlight was definitely the hot chocolate! | <urn:uuid:a735129f-f829-4921-ba2e-b3318cae379b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/er/cartmill/author/gw08macleanvalerieglow-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.98106 | 1,696 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | The children were exploring different textures in the water tray today. We had some gooey red jelly and bicarbonate of soda fizzy ice as well as some fluffy frozen shaving foam.
The children loved feeling the different textures. They were able to use great descriptive words. They could see the bicarbonate ‘bubble’ when it came in contact with the jelly. The ice was SO cold and the shaving foam was like ‘snow’. Then one child said “it’s a big iceberg!” We all watched the iceberg float around our jelly sea before it slowly melted.
After St Andrew’s Day we had a lot of potatoes left and we didn’t want them to go waste. The children got thinking about things we can make with potatoes and they came up with a lot of suggestions. The two favourite ones from the children (and a few members of staff) were potato scones and chips!
The children got to work peeling, washing, chopping and slicing while Val lit the fire. While one group rolled out the potato scones, another group watched the chips cook at the fire.
Tomorrow we will make another of the suggestions, soup, before using the last few potatoes to make some colourful Christmas prints.
Who knew potatoes could be so entertaining!
The children have been exploring the ice that had formed during last week’s cold spell. One child noticed the ice that we found in our water trough looked very different to the ice that had formed on some of our plants and furniture. What a great excuse for an investigation! Could there possibly be different types of ice?
Now, we could have had an experiment to see if ice lollies, ice cream or sorbets were all different but we wanted a challenge; how many types of natural ice are there, and can we make any?
Well, we discovered there are actually 17 different types of ice but could we make any? Of course we could! Jack Frost helped us too, there was sheet ice in the garden and we also found a little bit of rime on the furniture and plants but we had wanted to make our own. We looked in our nature box and found flowers, twigs, leaves, seeds and nuts which we washed so they had a little coating of water and we popped them in the freezer. Everyday we went in and sprayed them with a little more water to see if we could make our own rime. We also put a thin layer of water in a tub to make our own sheet ice. We filled some pots with water to make water ice. Finally, we mixed salt and water to make sea ice which stayed a little bit soft even after 5 days in the freezer.
So, I bet you all want to know, what other types of ice there is that we did not make out of the 17? Pancake, dinner plate, blue, green, black, hoar, névé, chandelier, candle, hail, interstellar, cubic and hexagonal. Wow, so many types!
This activity had the children guessing, thinking, enquiring, exploring and doing in an outdoor environment. We all learned so much and had such a nICE time learning more about the wonders of nature.
The children joined staff at 11 o’clock today to mark Armistice day. The centre fell silent for two minutes to remember the day the First World War ended. The children took the time to think about people that they loved.
It’s hard to believe that we’ve reached week 9 of Forest School. We’ve been so privileged to watch summer slip in to autumn and this morning we had our first taste of winter with frosty patterns to look at and crisp, crunchy sounds underfoot. Seeing the changing seasons in the forest is a wonderful way for children to appreciate the wonders of nature. As forest school practitioners, the changing seasons gives us the opportunity to discuss why these must happen but, the best part for all of us is the visual impact that seasons make in the forest throughout the year. Discussion with your children is endless; colours, changes, temperature, sounds, smells and who wants a hot chocolate! So, we hope that when this block ends after next week’s cook-out we have shared our passion with our budding foresteers and that they will join us for our Big Fit Walk on Saturday 9th November to share their new found appreciation of our beautiful outdoors with you!
The boys and girls were looking around the forest floor at all the leaves and seeds that had started to fall to the ground. Everywhere we looked we found leaves that were green, yellow, orange and brown. The boys and girls began to see patterns in the shape of the leaves, then they decided that they could make their own patterns. They set to work gathering lots of different leaves and acorns and used them to make some lovely nature patterns!
Today the boys and girls got to see the results of all their hard work throughout the year. We have tended our plants from little seeds, nurtured them as they have grown, fed and watered them through the summer and now the time has come to taste some of our vegetables!
First we have to pick the biggest vegetables we can find as we want to make soup.
This looks like a big leek
I have a really big onion
Here is another one!
The potatoes need peeled after being in the muddy ground.
Look at all the roots, this is how the plant gets fed from the ground.
The onions get chopped up and added to our soup pot.
So do the leeks…
Now we need to care for the environment and compost all our waste.
And now it’s time to get our soup cooking on the fire.
And at last, it’s time to taste our home grown soup.
The children are developing new skills each week at the forest. Today our group had the busiest day ever! The boys and girls tried out some mud make up before we learned about being safe around a fire.
We pegged out sticks to make a safe zone where we could all sit, while Val heated water for our hot chocolate on the Kelly Kettle. The children used some fantastic descriptive words for the noises they heard from the fire. ‘Sizzle’, ‘woosh’, ‘hiss’ were just a few of them.
After hot chocolate we went exploring and were so lucky to find a door to a fairy house, we knocked and knocked but nobody was home.
We finished our busy day collecting bags of nature to take back to Cart Mill and show our friends.
We had thought about making little rafts today but the river was just too fast so we decided just to watch it for a little while.
The children had spent the morning at the forest hunting for different types of seeds and brought some back to the centre to show their friends. Some of the children were very inquisitive and wanted to know what all the seeds would grow into.
We decided our favourite was the beech nut as it looked like a baby hedgehog. One of the children noticed that one of our beech nuts was starting to open and we could actually see the tiny seed inside. Val found another beech nut that had opened completely which the children were able to harvest the seed from. They then went to our mini forest and planted it to see if it would grow next year.
We are so lucky to be able to watch our forest grow every year. So far we have; oak trees from acorns we planted last year, apple trees from seeds we gathered during snack and cherry trees that we have grown from cherry stones. The children love learning about nature and are developing their own nurturing skills by caring for their plants.
Last week the children went to our smaller forest school but today we went on a big adventure to our favourite site at Busby Glen. There was so much to explore. The walk was very exciting, we saw a train track and went under a big bridge. We were told by one of the children there were 400 trees on the way. They found some really big trees to climb and had lots of fun but the highlight was definitely the hot chocolate! | 1,632 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This portrait of Sarah Erving Waldo done during the period of British colonization. The artist's intention was to use naturalism and realism as an inspiration to portray and represent gentility and luxury, which is seen on Sarah's dress as well as the style of her hair and her pale skin. The style and color(it is apparent that it is white) of her gown suggests her family comes from a wealthy lifestyle and high class of social structure. Social structure is also seen through the objects in the picture such as satin and lace along with pearls. It is also appropriate to make this assumption because she is sitting at a tea table, a luxurious way of living in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In class, we have discussed this specific time period which included British colonization and many laws which were failed to be carried out such as the Stamp Act and the other many attepts made by Parliament. | <urn:uuid:9183850d-0c0b-4f96-9398-565b80a38562> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://earlyamericanhist.as.ua.edu/webliography/peabody-museum-painting/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00285.warc.gz | en | 0.988759 | 182 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.22622118890285492... | 6 | This portrait of Sarah Erving Waldo done during the period of British colonization. The artist's intention was to use naturalism and realism as an inspiration to portray and represent gentility and luxury, which is seen on Sarah's dress as well as the style of her hair and her pale skin. The style and color(it is apparent that it is white) of her gown suggests her family comes from a wealthy lifestyle and high class of social structure. Social structure is also seen through the objects in the picture such as satin and lace along with pearls. It is also appropriate to make this assumption because she is sitting at a tea table, a luxurious way of living in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In class, we have discussed this specific time period which included British colonization and many laws which were failed to be carried out such as the Stamp Act and the other many attepts made by Parliament. | 178 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V Holy Roman Emperor by Tizian Project is done byNovikova NatashaZagurskaya Anna
Charles V Charles V (24 February 1500 — 21 September 1558) was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I of Spain, of the Spanish realms from 1506 until his abdication in 1556. On the eve of his death in 1558, his realm, which has been described as one in which the sun never sets, spanned almost 4 million square kilometers
He was the son of Philip I of Castile (Philip the Handsome) and Juana of Castile (Joan the Mad of Castile). His maternal grandparents were Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, whose daughter Catherine of Aragon was Queen of England and first wife of Henry VIII. His cousin was Mary I of England, who married his son Philip. His paternal grandparents were the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and Mary of Burgundy, whose daughter Margaret raised him.As the first king to reign in his own right over both Castile and Aragon following the end of the Reconquista, he is often considered as the first King of Spain. Charles I of Spain provided five ships to Ferdinand Magellan and his navigator Juan Sebastian Elcano, after the Portuguese captain was repeatedly turned down by Manuel I of Portugal. The commercial success of the voyage (first circumnavigation of the Earth), temporarily enriched Charles by the sale of its cargo of cloves and laid the foundation for the Pacific oceanic empire of Spain.
Early life Charles and his sister with their Spanish mother, Joanna; though a beauty, she was pronounced mad after the death of her husband. It was through her that Charles gained the powerful country of Spain and all of its rich possessions. Joanna of castile with her children
Charles was born in the Flemish city of Ghent in 1500. The culture and courtly life of the Burgundian Low Countries were an important influence in his early life. He spoke five languages: French, Dutch, later adding an acceptable Spanish (which was required by the Castilian Cortes as a condition for becoming king of Castile) and some German and Italian.From his Burgundian ancestors, he inherited an ambiguous relationship with the Kings of France. Charles shared with France his mother tongue and many cultural forms. In his youth, he made frequent visits to Paris, then the largest city of Western Europe.
Charles was born in the Flemish city of Ghent in 1500. The culture and courtly life of the Burgundian Low Countries were an important influence in his early life. He spoke five languages: French, Dutch, later adding an acceptable Spanish (which was required by the Castilian Cortes as a condition for becoming king of Castile) and some German and Italian.
ReignBurgundy and the Low Countries In 1506, Charles inherited his father's Burgundian territories, most notably the Low Countries and Franche-Comté, most of which were fiefs of the German empire, except his birthplace of Flanders that was still a French fief, a last remnant of what had been a powerful player in the Hundred Years' Wаr. As he was a minor, his aunt Margaret acted as regent until 1515 and soon she found herself at war with France over the question of Charles' requirement to pay homage to the French king for Flanders, as his father had done. The outcome was that France relinquished its ancient claim on Flanders in 1528.From 1515 to 1523, Charles' government in the Netherlands also had to contend with the rebellion of Frisian peasants (led by Pier Gerlofs Donia and Wijard Jelckama). The rebels were initially successful but after series of defeats, the remaining leaders were captured and decapitated in 1523.Charles extended the Burgundian territory with the annexation of Tournai, Artois, Utrecht, Groningen and Guelders. The Seventeen Provinces had been unified by Charles' Burgundian ancestors, but nominally were fiefs of either France or the Holy Roman Empire. In 1549, Charles issued a Pragmatic Sanction, declaring the Low Countries to be a unified entity of which his family would be the heirs.The Low Countries held an important place in the Empire. For Charles V personally, they were the region where he spent his childhood. Because of trade and industry and the rich cities, they were also important for the treasury.
Spain In the Castilian Cortes of Valladolid of 1506, and of Madrid of 1510 he was sworn as prince of Asturias, heir of his mother the queen Joanna. On the other hand, in 1502, the Aragonese Cortes gathered in Saragossa, pledged an oath to his mother Joanna as heiress, but the Archbishop of Saragossa expressed firmly that this oath could not establish jurisprudence, that is to say, without modifying the right of the succession, but by virtue of a formal agreement between the Cortes and the King. So, with the death of his grandfather, the king of Aragon Ferdinand II on 23 January 1516, his mother Joanna inherited the Crown of Aragon, which consisted of Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia; while Charles became Governor General. Nevertheless, the Flemings wished that Charles assume the royal title, and this was supported by his grandfather the emperor Maximilian I and the Pope Leo X, this way, after the celebration of Ferdinand II's obsequies on 14 March 1516, he was proclaimed as king of Castile and of Aragon jointly with his mother. Finally, when the Castilian regent Cardinal Jiménez de Cisneros accepted the fait accompli, he acceded to Charles's desire to be proclaimed king and he imposed his statement along the kingdom. Thus, the cities were recognizing Charles as king jointly with his mother
America During Charles' reign, the territories in New Spain were considerably extended by conquistadores like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, who caused the Aztec and Inca empires to fall in little more than a decade. Combined with the Magellan expedition's circumnavigation of the globe in 1522, these successes convinced Charles of his divine mission to become the leader of a Christian world that still perceived a significant threat from Islam. Of course, the conquests also helped solidify Charles' rule by providing the state treasury with enormous amounts of bullion. As the conquistador Bernal Diaz observed: "We came to serve God and his Majesty, to give light to those in darkness, and also to acquire that wealth which most men covet." In 1550, Charles convened a conference at Valladolid in order to consider the morality of the force used against the indigenous populations of Spanish America.Charles V is credited with the first idea of constructing an American Isthmus canal in Panama as early as 1520
Holy Roman Empire After the death of his paternal grandfather, Maximilian, in 1519, he inherited the Habsburg lands in Austria. He was also the natural candidate of the electors to succeed his grandfather. With the help of the wealthy Fugger family, Charles defeated the candidacy of Francis I of France and was elected on 28 June 1519. In 1530, he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII in Bologna, the last Emperor to receive a papal coronation.Charles was Holy Roman Emperor over the German states, but his real power was limited by the princes. Protestantism gained a strong foothold in Germany, and Charles was determined not to let this happen in the Netherlands. An inquisition was established as early as 1522. In 1550, the death penalty was introduced for all heresy. Political dissent was also firmly controlled, most notably in his place of birth, where Charles, assisted by the Duke of Alva, personally suppressed the Revolt of Ghent in mid-February 1540.Charles abdicated as Emperor in 1556 in favor of his brother Ferdinand; however, due to lengthy debate and bureacratic procedure, the Imperial Diet did not accept the abdication (and thus make it legally valid) until May 3, 1558. Up to that date, Charles continued to use the title of Emperor.
France Much of Charles's reign was taken up by conflicts with France, which found itself encircled by Charles's empire and still maintained ambitions in Italy. The first war with Charles's great nemesis Francis I of France began in 1521. Charles allied with England and Pope Leo X against the French and the Venetians, and was highly successful, driving the French out of Milan and defeating and capturing Francis at the Battle of Pavia in 1525. To gain his freedom, the French king was forced to cede Burgundy to Charles in Treaty of Madrid (1526).When he was released, however, Francis had the Parliament of Paris denounce the treaty because it had been signed under duress. France then joined the League of Cognac that the Pope had formed with Henry VIII of England, the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Milanese to resist imperial domination of Italy. In the ensuing war, Charles's sack of Rome (1527) and virtual imprisonment of Pope Clement VII in 1527 prevented him from annulling the marriage of Henry VIII of England and Charles's aunt Catherine of Aragon, with important consequences. In other respects, the war was inconclusive. In the Treaty of Cambrai (1529), called the "Ladies' Peace" because it was negotiated between Charles's aunt and Francis's mother, Francis renounced his claims in Italy but retained control of Burgundy.A third war erupted in 1535, when, following the death of the last Sforza Duke of Milan, Charles installed his own son, Philip, in the duchy, despite Francis's claims on it. This war too was inconclusive. Francis failed to conquer Milan, but succeeded in conquering most of the lands of Charles's ally the Duke of Savoy, including his capital, Turin. A truce at Nice in 1538 on the basis of uti possidetis ended the war, but lasted only a short time. War resumed in 1542, with Francis now allied with Ottoman Sultan Suleiman I and Charles once again allied with Henry VIII. Despite the conquest of Nice by a Franco-Ottoman fleet, the French remained unable to advance into Milan, while a joint Anglo-Imperial invasion of northern France, led by Charles himself, won some successes but was ultimately abandoned, leading to another peace and restoration of the status quo ante in 1544.
Conflicts with the Ottoman Empire Attempts at forming a Habsburg-Persian alliance against the Ottoman Empire were first initiated by Charles V and Shah Ismail in 1516-19.Charles fought continually with the Ottoman Empire and its sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent. The expeditions of the Ottoman force along the Mediterranean coast posed a threat to Habsburg lands and Christian monopolies on trade in the Mediterranean. In Central Europe, the Turkish advance was halted at Vienna in 1529.Charles V made overtures to the Safavid Persian Empire to open a second front against the Ottomans, in an attempt at creating a Habsburg-Persian alliance. Contacts were positive, but rendered difficult by enormous distances. In effect however, the Safavids entered in conflict with the Ottoman Empire in the Ottoman-Safavid War (1532–1555), forcing it to split its military resources.In 1535 Charles won an important victory at Tunis, but in 1536 Francis I of France allied himself with Suleiman against Charles. While Francis was persuaded to sign a peace treaty in 1538, he again allied himself with the Ottomans in 1542 in a Franco-Ottoman alliance. In 1543 Charles allied himself with Henry VIII and forced Francis to sign the Truce of Crepy-en-Laonnois. Charles later signed a humiliating treaty with the Ottomans to gain him some respite from the huge expenses of their war, although it did not end there. However, the Protestant powers in the Holy Roman Empire Diet often voted against money for his Turkish wars, as many Protestants saw the Muslim advance as a counterweight to the Catholic powers. The great Hungarian defeat at the 1526 Battle of Mohács "sent a wave of terror over Europe."
Humanism and Reformation As Holy Roman Emperor, he called Martin Luther to the Diet of Worms in 1521, promising him safe conduct if he would appear. He initially dismissed Luther's idea of reformation as "An argument between monks". He later outlawed Luther and his followers in that same year but was tied up with other concerns and unable to take action against Protestantism.1524 to 1526 saw the Peasants' Revolt in Germany and in 1531 the formation of the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League. Charles delegated increasing responsibility for Germany to his brother Ferdinand while he concentrated on problems elsewhere.In 1545, the opening of the Council of Trent began the Counter-Reformation, and Charles won to the Catholic cause some of the princes of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1546, he outlawed the Schmalkaldic League (which had occupied the territory of another prince). He drove the League's troops out of southern Germany and at the Battle of Mühlberg defeated John Frederick, Elector of Saxony and imprisoned Philip of Hesse in 1547. At the Augsburg Interim in 1548 he created an interim solution giving certain allowances to Protestants until the Council of Trent would restore unity. However, Protestants mostly resented the Interim and some actively opposed it. Protestant princes, in alliance with Henry II of France, rebelled against Charles in 1552, which caused Charles to retreat to the Netherlands.
Abdication and later life In 1556, Charles abdicated his various titles, giving his Spanish empire (Spain, the Netherlands, Naples, Milan and Spain's possessions in the Americas) to his son, Philip II of Spain. His brother Ferdinand, already in possession of the Austrian lands and Roman King succeeded as Emperor elect. Charles retired to the monastery of Yuste in Extremadura, but continued to correspond widely and kept an interest in the situation of the empire. He suffered from severe gout and some scholars think Charles V decided to abdicate after a gout attack in 1552 forced him to postpone an attempt to recapture the city of Metz, where he was later defeated. He lived alone in a secluded monastery, with clocks lining every wall, which some historians believe symbolises his reign and his lack of time.Charles died on 21 September 1558 from fatal malaria. Twenty-six years later, his remains were transferred to the Royal Pantheon of The Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial | <urn:uuid:7f748719-e9aa-4739-a5bb-1e63f073dc12> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ppt4web.ru/anglijjskijj-jazyk/carles-v-oly-roman-emperor.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00485.warc.gz | en | 0.980073 | 3,093 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.264520406723022... | 6 | Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V Holy Roman Emperor by Tizian Project is done byNovikova NatashaZagurskaya Anna
Charles V Charles V (24 February 1500 — 21 September 1558) was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I of Spain, of the Spanish realms from 1506 until his abdication in 1556. On the eve of his death in 1558, his realm, which has been described as one in which the sun never sets, spanned almost 4 million square kilometers
He was the son of Philip I of Castile (Philip the Handsome) and Juana of Castile (Joan the Mad of Castile). His maternal grandparents were Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, whose daughter Catherine of Aragon was Queen of England and first wife of Henry VIII. His cousin was Mary I of England, who married his son Philip. His paternal grandparents were the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and Mary of Burgundy, whose daughter Margaret raised him.As the first king to reign in his own right over both Castile and Aragon following the end of the Reconquista, he is often considered as the first King of Spain. Charles I of Spain provided five ships to Ferdinand Magellan and his navigator Juan Sebastian Elcano, after the Portuguese captain was repeatedly turned down by Manuel I of Portugal. The commercial success of the voyage (first circumnavigation of the Earth), temporarily enriched Charles by the sale of its cargo of cloves and laid the foundation for the Pacific oceanic empire of Spain.
Early life Charles and his sister with their Spanish mother, Joanna; though a beauty, she was pronounced mad after the death of her husband. It was through her that Charles gained the powerful country of Spain and all of its rich possessions. Joanna of castile with her children
Charles was born in the Flemish city of Ghent in 1500. The culture and courtly life of the Burgundian Low Countries were an important influence in his early life. He spoke five languages: French, Dutch, later adding an acceptable Spanish (which was required by the Castilian Cortes as a condition for becoming king of Castile) and some German and Italian.From his Burgundian ancestors, he inherited an ambiguous relationship with the Kings of France. Charles shared with France his mother tongue and many cultural forms. In his youth, he made frequent visits to Paris, then the largest city of Western Europe.
Charles was born in the Flemish city of Ghent in 1500. The culture and courtly life of the Burgundian Low Countries were an important influence in his early life. He spoke five languages: French, Dutch, later adding an acceptable Spanish (which was required by the Castilian Cortes as a condition for becoming king of Castile) and some German and Italian.
ReignBurgundy and the Low Countries In 1506, Charles inherited his father's Burgundian territories, most notably the Low Countries and Franche-Comté, most of which were fiefs of the German empire, except his birthplace of Flanders that was still a French fief, a last remnant of what had been a powerful player in the Hundred Years' Wаr. As he was a minor, his aunt Margaret acted as regent until 1515 and soon she found herself at war with France over the question of Charles' requirement to pay homage to the French king for Flanders, as his father had done. The outcome was that France relinquished its ancient claim on Flanders in 1528.From 1515 to 1523, Charles' government in the Netherlands also had to contend with the rebellion of Frisian peasants (led by Pier Gerlofs Donia and Wijard Jelckama). The rebels were initially successful but after series of defeats, the remaining leaders were captured and decapitated in 1523.Charles extended the Burgundian territory with the annexation of Tournai, Artois, Utrecht, Groningen and Guelders. The Seventeen Provinces had been unified by Charles' Burgundian ancestors, but nominally were fiefs of either France or the Holy Roman Empire. In 1549, Charles issued a Pragmatic Sanction, declaring the Low Countries to be a unified entity of which his family would be the heirs.The Low Countries held an important place in the Empire. For Charles V personally, they were the region where he spent his childhood. Because of trade and industry and the rich cities, they were also important for the treasury.
Spain In the Castilian Cortes of Valladolid of 1506, and of Madrid of 1510 he was sworn as prince of Asturias, heir of his mother the queen Joanna. On the other hand, in 1502, the Aragonese Cortes gathered in Saragossa, pledged an oath to his mother Joanna as heiress, but the Archbishop of Saragossa expressed firmly that this oath could not establish jurisprudence, that is to say, without modifying the right of the succession, but by virtue of a formal agreement between the Cortes and the King. So, with the death of his grandfather, the king of Aragon Ferdinand II on 23 January 1516, his mother Joanna inherited the Crown of Aragon, which consisted of Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia; while Charles became Governor General. Nevertheless, the Flemings wished that Charles assume the royal title, and this was supported by his grandfather the emperor Maximilian I and the Pope Leo X, this way, after the celebration of Ferdinand II's obsequies on 14 March 1516, he was proclaimed as king of Castile and of Aragon jointly with his mother. Finally, when the Castilian regent Cardinal Jiménez de Cisneros accepted the fait accompli, he acceded to Charles's desire to be proclaimed king and he imposed his statement along the kingdom. Thus, the cities were recognizing Charles as king jointly with his mother
America During Charles' reign, the territories in New Spain were considerably extended by conquistadores like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, who caused the Aztec and Inca empires to fall in little more than a decade. Combined with the Magellan expedition's circumnavigation of the globe in 1522, these successes convinced Charles of his divine mission to become the leader of a Christian world that still perceived a significant threat from Islam. Of course, the conquests also helped solidify Charles' rule by providing the state treasury with enormous amounts of bullion. As the conquistador Bernal Diaz observed: "We came to serve God and his Majesty, to give light to those in darkness, and also to acquire that wealth which most men covet." In 1550, Charles convened a conference at Valladolid in order to consider the morality of the force used against the indigenous populations of Spanish America.Charles V is credited with the first idea of constructing an American Isthmus canal in Panama as early as 1520
Holy Roman Empire After the death of his paternal grandfather, Maximilian, in 1519, he inherited the Habsburg lands in Austria. He was also the natural candidate of the electors to succeed his grandfather. With the help of the wealthy Fugger family, Charles defeated the candidacy of Francis I of France and was elected on 28 June 1519. In 1530, he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII in Bologna, the last Emperor to receive a papal coronation.Charles was Holy Roman Emperor over the German states, but his real power was limited by the princes. Protestantism gained a strong foothold in Germany, and Charles was determined not to let this happen in the Netherlands. An inquisition was established as early as 1522. In 1550, the death penalty was introduced for all heresy. Political dissent was also firmly controlled, most notably in his place of birth, where Charles, assisted by the Duke of Alva, personally suppressed the Revolt of Ghent in mid-February 1540.Charles abdicated as Emperor in 1556 in favor of his brother Ferdinand; however, due to lengthy debate and bureacratic procedure, the Imperial Diet did not accept the abdication (and thus make it legally valid) until May 3, 1558. Up to that date, Charles continued to use the title of Emperor.
France Much of Charles's reign was taken up by conflicts with France, which found itself encircled by Charles's empire and still maintained ambitions in Italy. The first war with Charles's great nemesis Francis I of France began in 1521. Charles allied with England and Pope Leo X against the French and the Venetians, and was highly successful, driving the French out of Milan and defeating and capturing Francis at the Battle of Pavia in 1525. To gain his freedom, the French king was forced to cede Burgundy to Charles in Treaty of Madrid (1526).When he was released, however, Francis had the Parliament of Paris denounce the treaty because it had been signed under duress. France then joined the League of Cognac that the Pope had formed with Henry VIII of England, the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Milanese to resist imperial domination of Italy. In the ensuing war, Charles's sack of Rome (1527) and virtual imprisonment of Pope Clement VII in 1527 prevented him from annulling the marriage of Henry VIII of England and Charles's aunt Catherine of Aragon, with important consequences. In other respects, the war was inconclusive. In the Treaty of Cambrai (1529), called the "Ladies' Peace" because it was negotiated between Charles's aunt and Francis's mother, Francis renounced his claims in Italy but retained control of Burgundy.A third war erupted in 1535, when, following the death of the last Sforza Duke of Milan, Charles installed his own son, Philip, in the duchy, despite Francis's claims on it. This war too was inconclusive. Francis failed to conquer Milan, but succeeded in conquering most of the lands of Charles's ally the Duke of Savoy, including his capital, Turin. A truce at Nice in 1538 on the basis of uti possidetis ended the war, but lasted only a short time. War resumed in 1542, with Francis now allied with Ottoman Sultan Suleiman I and Charles once again allied with Henry VIII. Despite the conquest of Nice by a Franco-Ottoman fleet, the French remained unable to advance into Milan, while a joint Anglo-Imperial invasion of northern France, led by Charles himself, won some successes but was ultimately abandoned, leading to another peace and restoration of the status quo ante in 1544.
Conflicts with the Ottoman Empire Attempts at forming a Habsburg-Persian alliance against the Ottoman Empire were first initiated by Charles V and Shah Ismail in 1516-19.Charles fought continually with the Ottoman Empire and its sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent. The expeditions of the Ottoman force along the Mediterranean coast posed a threat to Habsburg lands and Christian monopolies on trade in the Mediterranean. In Central Europe, the Turkish advance was halted at Vienna in 1529.Charles V made overtures to the Safavid Persian Empire to open a second front against the Ottomans, in an attempt at creating a Habsburg-Persian alliance. Contacts were positive, but rendered difficult by enormous distances. In effect however, the Safavids entered in conflict with the Ottoman Empire in the Ottoman-Safavid War (1532–1555), forcing it to split its military resources.In 1535 Charles won an important victory at Tunis, but in 1536 Francis I of France allied himself with Suleiman against Charles. While Francis was persuaded to sign a peace treaty in 1538, he again allied himself with the Ottomans in 1542 in a Franco-Ottoman alliance. In 1543 Charles allied himself with Henry VIII and forced Francis to sign the Truce of Crepy-en-Laonnois. Charles later signed a humiliating treaty with the Ottomans to gain him some respite from the huge expenses of their war, although it did not end there. However, the Protestant powers in the Holy Roman Empire Diet often voted against money for his Turkish wars, as many Protestants saw the Muslim advance as a counterweight to the Catholic powers. The great Hungarian defeat at the 1526 Battle of Mohács "sent a wave of terror over Europe."
Humanism and Reformation As Holy Roman Emperor, he called Martin Luther to the Diet of Worms in 1521, promising him safe conduct if he would appear. He initially dismissed Luther's idea of reformation as "An argument between monks". He later outlawed Luther and his followers in that same year but was tied up with other concerns and unable to take action against Protestantism.1524 to 1526 saw the Peasants' Revolt in Germany and in 1531 the formation of the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League. Charles delegated increasing responsibility for Germany to his brother Ferdinand while he concentrated on problems elsewhere.In 1545, the opening of the Council of Trent began the Counter-Reformation, and Charles won to the Catholic cause some of the princes of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1546, he outlawed the Schmalkaldic League (which had occupied the territory of another prince). He drove the League's troops out of southern Germany and at the Battle of Mühlberg defeated John Frederick, Elector of Saxony and imprisoned Philip of Hesse in 1547. At the Augsburg Interim in 1548 he created an interim solution giving certain allowances to Protestants until the Council of Trent would restore unity. However, Protestants mostly resented the Interim and some actively opposed it. Protestant princes, in alliance with Henry II of France, rebelled against Charles in 1552, which caused Charles to retreat to the Netherlands.
Abdication and later life In 1556, Charles abdicated his various titles, giving his Spanish empire (Spain, the Netherlands, Naples, Milan and Spain's possessions in the Americas) to his son, Philip II of Spain. His brother Ferdinand, already in possession of the Austrian lands and Roman King succeeded as Emperor elect. Charles retired to the monastery of Yuste in Extremadura, but continued to correspond widely and kept an interest in the situation of the empire. He suffered from severe gout and some scholars think Charles V decided to abdicate after a gout attack in 1552 forced him to postpone an attempt to recapture the city of Metz, where he was later defeated. He lived alone in a secluded monastery, with clocks lining every wall, which some historians believe symbolises his reign and his lack of time.Charles died on 21 September 1558 from fatal malaria. Twenty-six years later, his remains were transferred to the Royal Pantheon of The Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial | 3,256 | ENGLISH | 1 |
More than 7,000 years ago, in what is now northern Poland, a hardy band of farmers came up with a clever way to preserve the milk from their cows.
They poured it into special pottery vessels with holes in the bottom, thereby separating the solids from the precious fluid to make cheese.
That is the conclusion of a study published Thursday in the journal Nature based on a chemical analysis of the pottery - the earliest hard evidence for cheese-making by ancient humans.
The seeds for the discovery were planted decades ago with a string of chance encounters that began with the travels of a young Polish American college student from Philadelphia.
That man, Peter Bogucki, now an associate dean at Princeton University, collaborated on the study with chemists from the University of Bristol in England, illustrating how a simple dairy product was a major economic innovation.
These days, cheese may be a gourmet treat or simply a layer on a sandwich, but for early farmers, it was likely important for survival. The manufacture of cheese allowed for easy storage and transport of a good source of protein, the authors said.
Perhaps equally important, it was digestible. Lactose intolerance was almost universal among adults of that era, but cheese contains little lactose because it is separated during the straining process.
The study authors showed that fatty acid residue on the pottery had come from cow milk by measuring the ratios of two isotopes of carbon, a technique developed by University of Bristol chemist Richard P. Evershed. Other pottery from the same era had fatty residue with a different chemical signature, indicating they were used for cooking meat.
Oliver Craig, an archaeologist at the University of York who was not involved with the research, said the authors had made a convincing case.
"Chemically, it's very eloquent, and very nice work," Craig said.
The discovery got its start in 1973, when Bogucki, then an anthropology undergraduate at the University of Pennsylvania, went to Poland on a summer program. Seeking to impress a young woman on the trip, he invited her to an archaeological museum.
The museum exhibits piqued his curiosity, and later, while doing graduate work at Harvard, Bogucki decided to return to Poland. He participated in excavations that unearthed the pottery with the strange holes, among other artifacts, but he did not immediately know what to make of them.
Fast-forward to the early 1980s, by which time he was married to Virginia, the young woman from the summer program. They were visiting a friend in Vermont who collected 19th-century farm artifacts. One of them, curiously, was a ceramic vessel with holes.
Told that it had been used to make cheese, Bogucki said, "Oh! We have vessels like that from 7,000 years ago in Poland."
He wrote up his theory that the Polish pottery was used to make cheese, marshaling various bits of evidence. For example, he also had found cattle bones at the archaeological sites in Poland. He reasoned that they were dairy cattle because cows take a long time to reach their full weight and they give birth to one calf at a time.
"Keeping cattle was not sensible if all you wanted was meat," Bogucki said.
But it was not until Evershed's chemical evidence that the story was complete, Bogucki said. Evershed and colleague Mélanie Salque took very small samples of the pottery and crushed them, then added solvents to extract the fatty residue. Archeologists from Poland also contributed to the research.
Traces of milk fat have been found in ancient pottery from Turkey, but those containers did not have holes. In the Polish pottery, the combination of the chemical evidence with the holes is conclusive for cheese, the study authors wrote.
They said it was likely to have been soft cheese, which would have been easy to make with those tools. But they were unable to discern the precise type.
One part of the picture does not make complete sense, said Craig, the University of York archaeologist. About the same time the pottery found in Poland was made, some Europeans developed a genetic mutation that allowed them to digest lactose into adulthood. Before then, humans lost the ability to tolerate lactose after early childhood.
So why would both developments be necessary - the ability to digest lactose and the ability to remove the lactose from milk by making cheese?
Good question, Bogucki said. It is possible the two developments arose in different parts of Europe. In any event, whether people needed cheese for its digestibility, it was certainly valuable for its easy storage, Bogucki said - especially with the addition of salt.
He marveled at the progression of events that culminated with the research.
"The string of connections is like out of some Herman Wouk novel or something like that, where people keep crossing and running into things and being in the right place at the right time," Bogucki said.
Though the discovery was made in Poland, the Poles of today have no special reputation for superiority in cheese-making.
A country better known for its fromage is France, a fact acknowledged with some amusement by Salque, who hails from that country.
"Maybe the French are still the first that made cheese," she joked, "but we can't prove it." | <urn:uuid:e0ec876e-579e-40ab-8fc4-e8f7bddb5982> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.inquirer.com/philly/health/20121213_Pottery_find_in_Poland_suggests_ancient_cheese-making.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.981236 | 1,105 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.29697006940841675... | 4 | More than 7,000 years ago, in what is now northern Poland, a hardy band of farmers came up with a clever way to preserve the milk from their cows.
They poured it into special pottery vessels with holes in the bottom, thereby separating the solids from the precious fluid to make cheese.
That is the conclusion of a study published Thursday in the journal Nature based on a chemical analysis of the pottery - the earliest hard evidence for cheese-making by ancient humans.
The seeds for the discovery were planted decades ago with a string of chance encounters that began with the travels of a young Polish American college student from Philadelphia.
That man, Peter Bogucki, now an associate dean at Princeton University, collaborated on the study with chemists from the University of Bristol in England, illustrating how a simple dairy product was a major economic innovation.
These days, cheese may be a gourmet treat or simply a layer on a sandwich, but for early farmers, it was likely important for survival. The manufacture of cheese allowed for easy storage and transport of a good source of protein, the authors said.
Perhaps equally important, it was digestible. Lactose intolerance was almost universal among adults of that era, but cheese contains little lactose because it is separated during the straining process.
The study authors showed that fatty acid residue on the pottery had come from cow milk by measuring the ratios of two isotopes of carbon, a technique developed by University of Bristol chemist Richard P. Evershed. Other pottery from the same era had fatty residue with a different chemical signature, indicating they were used for cooking meat.
Oliver Craig, an archaeologist at the University of York who was not involved with the research, said the authors had made a convincing case.
"Chemically, it's very eloquent, and very nice work," Craig said.
The discovery got its start in 1973, when Bogucki, then an anthropology undergraduate at the University of Pennsylvania, went to Poland on a summer program. Seeking to impress a young woman on the trip, he invited her to an archaeological museum.
The museum exhibits piqued his curiosity, and later, while doing graduate work at Harvard, Bogucki decided to return to Poland. He participated in excavations that unearthed the pottery with the strange holes, among other artifacts, but he did not immediately know what to make of them.
Fast-forward to the early 1980s, by which time he was married to Virginia, the young woman from the summer program. They were visiting a friend in Vermont who collected 19th-century farm artifacts. One of them, curiously, was a ceramic vessel with holes.
Told that it had been used to make cheese, Bogucki said, "Oh! We have vessels like that from 7,000 years ago in Poland."
He wrote up his theory that the Polish pottery was used to make cheese, marshaling various bits of evidence. For example, he also had found cattle bones at the archaeological sites in Poland. He reasoned that they were dairy cattle because cows take a long time to reach their full weight and they give birth to one calf at a time.
"Keeping cattle was not sensible if all you wanted was meat," Bogucki said.
But it was not until Evershed's chemical evidence that the story was complete, Bogucki said. Evershed and colleague Mélanie Salque took very small samples of the pottery and crushed them, then added solvents to extract the fatty residue. Archeologists from Poland also contributed to the research.
Traces of milk fat have been found in ancient pottery from Turkey, but those containers did not have holes. In the Polish pottery, the combination of the chemical evidence with the holes is conclusive for cheese, the study authors wrote.
They said it was likely to have been soft cheese, which would have been easy to make with those tools. But they were unable to discern the precise type.
One part of the picture does not make complete sense, said Craig, the University of York archaeologist. About the same time the pottery found in Poland was made, some Europeans developed a genetic mutation that allowed them to digest lactose into adulthood. Before then, humans lost the ability to tolerate lactose after early childhood.
So why would both developments be necessary - the ability to digest lactose and the ability to remove the lactose from milk by making cheese?
Good question, Bogucki said. It is possible the two developments arose in different parts of Europe. In any event, whether people needed cheese for its digestibility, it was certainly valuable for its easy storage, Bogucki said - especially with the addition of salt.
He marveled at the progression of events that culminated with the research.
"The string of connections is like out of some Herman Wouk novel or something like that, where people keep crossing and running into things and being in the right place at the right time," Bogucki said.
Though the discovery was made in Poland, the Poles of today have no special reputation for superiority in cheese-making.
A country better known for its fromage is France, a fact acknowledged with some amusement by Salque, who hails from that country.
"Maybe the French are still the first that made cheese," she joked, "but we can't prove it." | 1,084 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fives facts for kids
Fives is a British sport believed to come from the same origins as many racket sports. In fives, a ball is propelled against the walls of a special court using gloved or bare hands as though they were a racquet.
The name may be derived from the slang expression "a bunch of fives" (meaning a fist). The game has also been known as hand-tennis and historically was often played between the buttresses of church buildings in England. There are links between Fives and the Irish and North American handball games and indeed, in recent years, British clubs have begun to establish ties with clubs in those countries.
Fives is not the same as Long Fives, which is played in a real tennis court.
There are two main forms of the game Rugby Fives and Eton Fives. Eton Fives is played competitively as a doubles game, whilst Rugby Fives is played as both a singles and a doubles game.
Fives Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:fe2d7f95-7069-49c0-b1ca-a54b67c13fb1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.kiddle.co/Fives | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.991304 | 214 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.1883414685726... | 2 | Fives facts for kids
Fives is a British sport believed to come from the same origins as many racket sports. In fives, a ball is propelled against the walls of a special court using gloved or bare hands as though they were a racquet.
The name may be derived from the slang expression "a bunch of fives" (meaning a fist). The game has also been known as hand-tennis and historically was often played between the buttresses of church buildings in England. There are links between Fives and the Irish and North American handball games and indeed, in recent years, British clubs have begun to establish ties with clubs in those countries.
Fives is not the same as Long Fives, which is played in a real tennis court.
There are two main forms of the game Rugby Fives and Eton Fives. Eton Fives is played competitively as a doubles game, whilst Rugby Fives is played as both a singles and a doubles game.
Fives Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 210 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Mexican Revolution: The Fight for Freedom.
The history of Mexico is one that has been marked by major conflict and frequent change. These archaic civilizations shaped the foundations of Mexico until the first European conquest by Spain in the sixteenth century. Even in the face of continued Spanish oppression and tyrannical rule, which lasted well into the 1800's, these native tribes of Mexico fought violently and emotionally to preserve their independence and their fundamental rights to life. Millions and millions of individuals have fought and sacrificed their lives throughout the course of history in order to achieve freedom and independence. The right to have freedom and independence is the cause of many revolutions in the world today and throughout history. Even Americans fought and died for their freedom and independence of British rule. A very important revolution accredited within Latin American history is the Mexican Revolution of 1910. Several thousands of Mexican's fought and died in provide a free and a spirited independent country in which they could live. Economic, social, political and historical pressures played a major role in the Mexican Revolution.
The Mexican Revolution of 1910 was a revolution led by simple citizens of Mexico rising up and declaring their fundamental rights. The revolution was not only essential to the evolution of human rights and democracy of Mexico, but was also significant because it was the first successful third world revolution. America's Revolutionary War was fought and won because the colonial citizens did not want to pay taxes to the king of England. On the other hand, Mexican citizens wanted to fight the Mexican Revolution not because they were sick and tired of paying taxes, but because they wanted to express their freedom and individuality.
The Mexican Revolution was brought on several factors. Among them was the tremendous disagreement among the Mexican people over the dictatorship of President Porfirio Diaz, who was in office for thirty-one years (The Mexican Revolution, 1). | <urn:uuid:9de8c57d-aa8d-4cd9-bc5f-f74c6c55e036> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/90601.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00372.warc.gz | en | 0.981917 | 364 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.016842521727... | 7 | The Mexican Revolution: The Fight for Freedom.
The history of Mexico is one that has been marked by major conflict and frequent change. These archaic civilizations shaped the foundations of Mexico until the first European conquest by Spain in the sixteenth century. Even in the face of continued Spanish oppression and tyrannical rule, which lasted well into the 1800's, these native tribes of Mexico fought violently and emotionally to preserve their independence and their fundamental rights to life. Millions and millions of individuals have fought and sacrificed their lives throughout the course of history in order to achieve freedom and independence. The right to have freedom and independence is the cause of many revolutions in the world today and throughout history. Even Americans fought and died for their freedom and independence of British rule. A very important revolution accredited within Latin American history is the Mexican Revolution of 1910. Several thousands of Mexican's fought and died in provide a free and a spirited independent country in which they could live. Economic, social, political and historical pressures played a major role in the Mexican Revolution.
The Mexican Revolution of 1910 was a revolution led by simple citizens of Mexico rising up and declaring their fundamental rights. The revolution was not only essential to the evolution of human rights and democracy of Mexico, but was also significant because it was the first successful third world revolution. America's Revolutionary War was fought and won because the colonial citizens did not want to pay taxes to the king of England. On the other hand, Mexican citizens wanted to fight the Mexican Revolution not because they were sick and tired of paying taxes, but because they wanted to express their freedom and individuality.
The Mexican Revolution was brought on several factors. Among them was the tremendous disagreement among the Mexican people over the dictatorship of President Porfirio Diaz, who was in office for thirty-one years (The Mexican Revolution, 1). | 375 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Montgomery bus boycott in Alabama state was as a result of racial segregation which was a city policy governing the public transit system. This was a very bad policy whose aim was to sideline African black Americans. There are two main factors that led to this protest. They include social as well as political factors.
Politically, the protest was held to oppose the law that demanded the blacks to give up seats for the whites in a bus (Aldon, 1984). The blacks also wanted to use this opportunity to push for political reforms that would incorporate some of them into leadership unlike before. In this racial segregation, the public transit system was very discriminative. Therefore, the blacks decided to carry out the protest so that their social status could also be respected and recognized.
Socially, the blacks protested so that they can be treated equally as the whites and their rights respected when using the public transit system. In this public transit system, the procedure was that the blacks were to occupy seats starting from the back towards the front. The whites on the other hand were to occupy seats starting from the front towards the back.
The blacks took this as a racial discrimination and had to fight against it. The blacks could also use the front door of a bus just to pay and then match out to use the back door to boarder the bus. Sometimes the bus could leave before they re-enter. The blacks seating in front rows of the back were to give up seats for the whites coming in late in case they find the front space occupied. The blacks had no option other than standing. These are the kind of events that led to the boycott protest (Aldon, 1984).
The arrest of Rosa Parks who refused to give up her seat for the white American who bordered the bus late also triggered the protest. After the court declared her guilty of disobeying the diver, she decided to appeal the case. On the other hand, the blacks were not happy about this event and decided to protest against it.
It is like they were waiting for this opportunity to fight against this policy. The protest went on for a long period till the authority made a step to change the racial segregation policy. Since then, the discrimination came to an end and anyone could now occupy any seat in the bus (Aldon, 1984). The landmark ruling by the Supreme Court on the case filed by Brown against the education board also contributed to the protest.
There was racial segregation on public schools where whites were given better educational facilities and opportunities than balks. The court declared this unconstitutional. Since the segregation did not only apply to public schools but also to other public facilities including public transit, there was need to carry out protest so that the Supreme Court can also reverse on this law. This is another factor that led to the bus boycott protest in Alabama.
The events that led to development of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee were mainly based on the practice of segregation which was not favorable to the southern blacks.
There were strong physical shackles that ensured that the black southerners remained in a state of mental and physical peonage. In order to break these chains, the students through the American civil rights movement had to come up with this committee. The other event that led to development of SNCC was the discrimination against the roles performed by American southerners.
The whites discriminated the blacks against performing some tasks including employment, voting and other duties. Therefore, this SNCC had to be developed to ensure that the American southerners get the right to perform any task provided that they meet the qualifications for the task. The committee was to ensure that the whites and the blacks get equal opportunities when it comes to performing certain tasks.
The black women were to be empowered just like any other ordinary citizen and their rights as human beings respected. The committee was therefore developed to ensure that there is general equality between the blacks and the whites (Aldon, 1984). The four black student’s lunch counter sit-ins also led to the development of SNCC. They organized nonviolent protests against segregation exercised on the private sector.
The sit-ins later spread and many students joined the protests and this led to development of SNCC to flight against segregation through civil rights movements. The congress of racial equality is another early 1960s organization that led to development of SNCC. Their belief is that every person was created equally and thus works towards ensuring equality among all state members. This is one of the factors that led to development of SNCC to also fight for equality.
The above factors and events made the Supreme Court change its stand on the racial segregation policy that discriminated against the blacks. This led to formation and empowering of the national Civil Rights Movement in the 20th century that saw the rights of blacks respected and racial segregation policy abolished (Aldon, 1984).
Aldon, D. (1984). The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing For Change. New York: The Free Press. | <urn:uuid:71d445c3-446e-485c-9047-194ce7890858> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graceplaceofwillmar.org/u-s-civil-rights-protests-of-the-middle-20th-century/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00414.warc.gz | en | 0.982984 | 1,005 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.120960064232... | 1 | The Montgomery bus boycott in Alabama state was as a result of racial segregation which was a city policy governing the public transit system. This was a very bad policy whose aim was to sideline African black Americans. There are two main factors that led to this protest. They include social as well as political factors.
Politically, the protest was held to oppose the law that demanded the blacks to give up seats for the whites in a bus (Aldon, 1984). The blacks also wanted to use this opportunity to push for political reforms that would incorporate some of them into leadership unlike before. In this racial segregation, the public transit system was very discriminative. Therefore, the blacks decided to carry out the protest so that their social status could also be respected and recognized.
Socially, the blacks protested so that they can be treated equally as the whites and their rights respected when using the public transit system. In this public transit system, the procedure was that the blacks were to occupy seats starting from the back towards the front. The whites on the other hand were to occupy seats starting from the front towards the back.
The blacks took this as a racial discrimination and had to fight against it. The blacks could also use the front door of a bus just to pay and then match out to use the back door to boarder the bus. Sometimes the bus could leave before they re-enter. The blacks seating in front rows of the back were to give up seats for the whites coming in late in case they find the front space occupied. The blacks had no option other than standing. These are the kind of events that led to the boycott protest (Aldon, 1984).
The arrest of Rosa Parks who refused to give up her seat for the white American who bordered the bus late also triggered the protest. After the court declared her guilty of disobeying the diver, she decided to appeal the case. On the other hand, the blacks were not happy about this event and decided to protest against it.
It is like they were waiting for this opportunity to fight against this policy. The protest went on for a long period till the authority made a step to change the racial segregation policy. Since then, the discrimination came to an end and anyone could now occupy any seat in the bus (Aldon, 1984). The landmark ruling by the Supreme Court on the case filed by Brown against the education board also contributed to the protest.
There was racial segregation on public schools where whites were given better educational facilities and opportunities than balks. The court declared this unconstitutional. Since the segregation did not only apply to public schools but also to other public facilities including public transit, there was need to carry out protest so that the Supreme Court can also reverse on this law. This is another factor that led to the bus boycott protest in Alabama.
The events that led to development of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee were mainly based on the practice of segregation which was not favorable to the southern blacks.
There were strong physical shackles that ensured that the black southerners remained in a state of mental and physical peonage. In order to break these chains, the students through the American civil rights movement had to come up with this committee. The other event that led to development of SNCC was the discrimination against the roles performed by American southerners.
The whites discriminated the blacks against performing some tasks including employment, voting and other duties. Therefore, this SNCC had to be developed to ensure that the American southerners get the right to perform any task provided that they meet the qualifications for the task. The committee was to ensure that the whites and the blacks get equal opportunities when it comes to performing certain tasks.
The black women were to be empowered just like any other ordinary citizen and their rights as human beings respected. The committee was therefore developed to ensure that there is general equality between the blacks and the whites (Aldon, 1984). The four black student’s lunch counter sit-ins also led to the development of SNCC. They organized nonviolent protests against segregation exercised on the private sector.
The sit-ins later spread and many students joined the protests and this led to development of SNCC to flight against segregation through civil rights movements. The congress of racial equality is another early 1960s organization that led to development of SNCC. Their belief is that every person was created equally and thus works towards ensuring equality among all state members. This is one of the factors that led to development of SNCC to also fight for equality.
The above factors and events made the Supreme Court change its stand on the racial segregation policy that discriminated against the blacks. This led to formation and empowering of the national Civil Rights Movement in the 20th century that saw the rights of blacks respected and racial segregation policy abolished (Aldon, 1984).
Aldon, D. (1984). The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing For Change. New York: The Free Press. | 1,023 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George Cayley, aka "The Father of Aerodynamics" essentially, invented the field of heavier-than-air aerodynamics and built a number of model and man-carrying gliders, all in the first half of the 19th century. He defined the four forces acting on a plane, understood aerofoils and invented a device to test them. The layout of a modern plane can be traced back to him. He even invented the "tension wheel" to keep undercarriage weight down - an invention still found on virtually all bicycles today.
However he never built a true plane. Two problems alluded him: stability/control, and power. Both problems were only truly cracked by the Wright Brothers, and it could be argued that solving these problems were essentially the Brothers' main achievement.
Cayley had no hope of cracking the power problem. Steam engines were far too heavy and internal combustion engines were decades away (even the Wright Brothers had to build their own engine).
However the problem of stability and control (they are two sides of the same coin) were definitely within his grasp. If you look at the tail on his man-carrying machine, he appears to be thinking along the right lines - his tail is more like that of most aircraft, rather than the split tail used by the Wright Brothers (which was probably the more practical considering the technology available).
So how did he manage to miss this important step? He built a lot of models over an extended period of time (almost 50 years by some estimates) - how come he didn't come up with the idea of warping the wings or adding control surfaces? I think everyone who has built paper aeroplanes has accidentally warped their wings! Isn't Cayley likely to have made essentially the same mistake? | <urn:uuid:7fcceb02-e019-42db-9c87-ad615a557703> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hsm.stackexchange.com/questions/131/why-did-george-cayley-never-crack-the-stability-problem | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00543.warc.gz | en | 0.985011 | 362 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.37964692711830... | 5 | George Cayley, aka "The Father of Aerodynamics" essentially, invented the field of heavier-than-air aerodynamics and built a number of model and man-carrying gliders, all in the first half of the 19th century. He defined the four forces acting on a plane, understood aerofoils and invented a device to test them. The layout of a modern plane can be traced back to him. He even invented the "tension wheel" to keep undercarriage weight down - an invention still found on virtually all bicycles today.
However he never built a true plane. Two problems alluded him: stability/control, and power. Both problems were only truly cracked by the Wright Brothers, and it could be argued that solving these problems were essentially the Brothers' main achievement.
Cayley had no hope of cracking the power problem. Steam engines were far too heavy and internal combustion engines were decades away (even the Wright Brothers had to build their own engine).
However the problem of stability and control (they are two sides of the same coin) were definitely within his grasp. If you look at the tail on his man-carrying machine, he appears to be thinking along the right lines - his tail is more like that of most aircraft, rather than the split tail used by the Wright Brothers (which was probably the more practical considering the technology available).
So how did he manage to miss this important step? He built a lot of models over an extended period of time (almost 50 years by some estimates) - how come he didn't come up with the idea of warping the wings or adding control surfaces? I think everyone who has built paper aeroplanes has accidentally warped their wings! Isn't Cayley likely to have made essentially the same mistake? | 360 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Du Fu Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Du Fu was born on February 12, 712, in Gongyi, Henan, in China. His father was Du Xian, his mother, Cui Haitang. His mother died when he was an infant, and his aunt raised him. Du Fu had a brother who died at a young age. His father remarried, and Du Fu had four half-siblings.
He studied history, poetry, and the Confucian classics of philosophy. Du Fu's education was to prepare him for a career as a civil servant.
Du Fu traveled to Jiangsu/Zhejiang in the early 730s. He sat the examination to become a civil servant, but he failed. Due to this, he went back to traveling.
When his father died in 740, Du Fu could have joined the civil service. Instead of joining himself, Du Fu allowed one of his half-brothers.
In 744, Du Fu met the great poet Li Bai. The two became friends, and it was due to knowing Li Bai that Du Fu's artistic endeavors moved ahead rapidly.
Two years later, in 746, Du Fu sat the civil servant exam again, but he failed again. In 751, 754 and 755, Du Fu applied to the emperor directly rather than re-sit the exams.
Du Fu married in 752, and the couple had five children over the next five years. It was also around this time that Du Fu developed asthma. He moved his family during this period away from the unrest caused by a famine in the region.
In 755, the Crown Prince's Palace invited Du Fu to take up the position of Registrar of the Right Commandant's Office. Although he accepted, he never began work.
War and Poetry
In December 755, the An Lushan Rebellion started. The rebellion took place over the next eight years. In the census of 754, records showed almost 53 million people registered. A decade later, the census recorded only 17 million people.
The rebellion caused the other 36 million people to be killed or displaced. It was during these years that Du Fu became one of the displaced, wandering from place to place. As a result of his experiences, Du Fu became one of the greatest poets of all time.
From 756 to 759 he worked for the court but left before long. He was in financial trouble, but one of his friends helped him out. Du Fu moved to Sichuan province in late 759, and he stayed there for the next five years. He wrote much of his poetry during this period as a result of being settled.
In 765, Du Fu and his family slowly made their way down the Yangtze river. They were returning to Luoyang, the area where he was born. He was in poor health, and the trip was slow.
Du Fu wrote 400 poems during this period.
Du Fu's friend, Bo Maolin, became governor. As a result, he appointed Du Fu as his unofficial secretary. This, in turn, meant financial support for Du Fu.
In 768 when Du Fu continued his voyage, he reached Hunan province. Du Fu died in late 770.
The Encyclopaedia Britannica states that many literary critics consider the writings of Du Fu to be among the best of all time.
Du Fu was a great poet in China during the Tang Dynasty. Not only that, but his work had a profound influence on Japanese literature as well.
Linton Kwesi Johnson
Alphonse de Lamartine | <urn:uuid:c284cf98-8ceb-4bf3-b378-11bd33e8e7f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/d/profile/du-fu/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00065.warc.gz | en | 0.98943 | 743 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.456125736236572... | 1 | Du Fu Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Du Fu was born on February 12, 712, in Gongyi, Henan, in China. His father was Du Xian, his mother, Cui Haitang. His mother died when he was an infant, and his aunt raised him. Du Fu had a brother who died at a young age. His father remarried, and Du Fu had four half-siblings.
He studied history, poetry, and the Confucian classics of philosophy. Du Fu's education was to prepare him for a career as a civil servant.
Du Fu traveled to Jiangsu/Zhejiang in the early 730s. He sat the examination to become a civil servant, but he failed. Due to this, he went back to traveling.
When his father died in 740, Du Fu could have joined the civil service. Instead of joining himself, Du Fu allowed one of his half-brothers.
In 744, Du Fu met the great poet Li Bai. The two became friends, and it was due to knowing Li Bai that Du Fu's artistic endeavors moved ahead rapidly.
Two years later, in 746, Du Fu sat the civil servant exam again, but he failed again. In 751, 754 and 755, Du Fu applied to the emperor directly rather than re-sit the exams.
Du Fu married in 752, and the couple had five children over the next five years. It was also around this time that Du Fu developed asthma. He moved his family during this period away from the unrest caused by a famine in the region.
In 755, the Crown Prince's Palace invited Du Fu to take up the position of Registrar of the Right Commandant's Office. Although he accepted, he never began work.
War and Poetry
In December 755, the An Lushan Rebellion started. The rebellion took place over the next eight years. In the census of 754, records showed almost 53 million people registered. A decade later, the census recorded only 17 million people.
The rebellion caused the other 36 million people to be killed or displaced. It was during these years that Du Fu became one of the displaced, wandering from place to place. As a result of his experiences, Du Fu became one of the greatest poets of all time.
From 756 to 759 he worked for the court but left before long. He was in financial trouble, but one of his friends helped him out. Du Fu moved to Sichuan province in late 759, and he stayed there for the next five years. He wrote much of his poetry during this period as a result of being settled.
In 765, Du Fu and his family slowly made their way down the Yangtze river. They were returning to Luoyang, the area where he was born. He was in poor health, and the trip was slow.
Du Fu wrote 400 poems during this period.
Du Fu's friend, Bo Maolin, became governor. As a result, he appointed Du Fu as his unofficial secretary. This, in turn, meant financial support for Du Fu.
In 768 when Du Fu continued his voyage, he reached Hunan province. Du Fu died in late 770.
The Encyclopaedia Britannica states that many literary critics consider the writings of Du Fu to be among the best of all time.
Du Fu was a great poet in China during the Tang Dynasty. Not only that, but his work had a profound influence on Japanese literature as well.
Linton Kwesi Johnson
Alphonse de Lamartine | 771 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 11/06/2014)
The Panchalas like the Kurus are most intimately connected with the Vedic civilisation of the Brahmana period. The Satapatha Brahmana tells that the Panchalas were called Krivis in the ancient times. Krivi appears as a tribal name in the Rig Veda
. The Vedic
Literature has mentioned several Panchala kings. The Aitareya Brahmana says that Panchala kings had made extensive conquests in every direction. It is said that the first part of the name has been derived from the word Pancha which means five and it is believed that it has such a name because five tribes have been united into the Panchala tribe itself.
As per the details found in the Indian epics the Panchala country is divided into a northern and southern part so that the Panchalas had spread and had added to their country by conquest since the Vedic period. One of the earliest cities of Panchala was Parivakra or Parichakra, where the King Kraivya Panchala had performed his horse sacrifice. Another city which was of importance to the Panchalas was Kampila which has been mentioned in the Yajur Veda
. The Vishnu Purana
and the Bhagavata Purana has said that Kampila was the son of King Haryasva was celebrated as a Panchala King. Kampila on the other hand had become the capital of King Drupada
when he was invested with the sovereignty of the southern Panchala
country. In the Adikanda of Ramayana
it has been said that King Brahmadatta used to live in the city of Kampilya.
It has been found in several records that during the war of Kurukshetra Drupuda, king of the Panchalas had helped the Pandavas with his son Dhristadyumna. Dhrishtadyumna
was the made the commander-in-chief of the entire Pandava force. The Panchala heroes were in the practice of using various kinds of horses during the war.
Panchala continued to be one of the great and powerful countries in Northern India down to the time when Lord Buddha
lived. It is said that the Panchala had a large army consisting of foot soldiers, men skilled in fight and in the use of steel weapons. In the kingdom of Uttara Panchala in the city of Kampila there was a king named Dummukha. Dummukha on the other hand was the name of a powerful Panchala king of the Vedic period. Panchala and its princess also figure in the Jain literature. It is stated in the Uttaradhyayana Sutra that the king of the Panchalas did no fearful actions. The Jain writers also refer to Brahmadatta, king of Panchalas and to Dvimukha of Panchala who was a Pratyekabuddha.
Historical records states that in the post-Ashokan period Panchala was invaded by the Greeks. In the sixth and fifth centuries B.C, the Panchala were a monarchical clan but became a Sangha
in the fourth century, when Kautaliya lived. Coins known as Panchala Mudra testify the presence of the Panchalas in the land of India. They generally weigh 250 grams and the smaller ones weigh around 16 grams. The coins of Panchala sometimes have on the obverse Agni with head of flames. | <urn:uuid:c8c37222-1ffa-40f2-aeab-df16b287ea39> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/46/panchalas.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00024.warc.gz | en | 0.982091 | 752 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.1302085965... | 3 | (Last Updated on : 11/06/2014)
The Panchalas like the Kurus are most intimately connected with the Vedic civilisation of the Brahmana period. The Satapatha Brahmana tells that the Panchalas were called Krivis in the ancient times. Krivi appears as a tribal name in the Rig Veda
. The Vedic
Literature has mentioned several Panchala kings. The Aitareya Brahmana says that Panchala kings had made extensive conquests in every direction. It is said that the first part of the name has been derived from the word Pancha which means five and it is believed that it has such a name because five tribes have been united into the Panchala tribe itself.
As per the details found in the Indian epics the Panchala country is divided into a northern and southern part so that the Panchalas had spread and had added to their country by conquest since the Vedic period. One of the earliest cities of Panchala was Parivakra or Parichakra, where the King Kraivya Panchala had performed his horse sacrifice. Another city which was of importance to the Panchalas was Kampila which has been mentioned in the Yajur Veda
. The Vishnu Purana
and the Bhagavata Purana has said that Kampila was the son of King Haryasva was celebrated as a Panchala King. Kampila on the other hand had become the capital of King Drupada
when he was invested with the sovereignty of the southern Panchala
country. In the Adikanda of Ramayana
it has been said that King Brahmadatta used to live in the city of Kampilya.
It has been found in several records that during the war of Kurukshetra Drupuda, king of the Panchalas had helped the Pandavas with his son Dhristadyumna. Dhrishtadyumna
was the made the commander-in-chief of the entire Pandava force. The Panchala heroes were in the practice of using various kinds of horses during the war.
Panchala continued to be one of the great and powerful countries in Northern India down to the time when Lord Buddha
lived. It is said that the Panchala had a large army consisting of foot soldiers, men skilled in fight and in the use of steel weapons. In the kingdom of Uttara Panchala in the city of Kampila there was a king named Dummukha. Dummukha on the other hand was the name of a powerful Panchala king of the Vedic period. Panchala and its princess also figure in the Jain literature. It is stated in the Uttaradhyayana Sutra that the king of the Panchalas did no fearful actions. The Jain writers also refer to Brahmadatta, king of Panchalas and to Dvimukha of Panchala who was a Pratyekabuddha.
Historical records states that in the post-Ashokan period Panchala was invaded by the Greeks. In the sixth and fifth centuries B.C, the Panchala were a monarchical clan but became a Sangha
in the fourth century, when Kautaliya lived. Coins known as Panchala Mudra testify the presence of the Panchalas in the land of India. They generally weigh 250 grams and the smaller ones weigh around 16 grams. The coins of Panchala sometimes have on the obverse Agni with head of flames. | 750 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 3 (658 words)
Jared diamond and his theory on how and the Europeans were so successful in their conquest of the incans. This was made possible due to the location of Europe. With the inventions of guns, and steel, along with being exposed to many germs before the incans. This gave the conquestidors many advantages over the inca. Once the Spanish conquered the Incas they had weapons that were unseen and unheard of to the indigenous. This was terrifying to the Inca community because they were unaware of the damage these weapons could cause and the power the Spanish had.
The Spanish had been at war with the Mores for approximately 700 years. This gave them experience in fighting and also allowed them to construct the weaponry necessary for war. The Islamic were known to be the first to invent the the gun, but the Chinese invented the gunpowder. These separately were not useful, as the Chinese did not use gunpowder as a weapon. This was when the Spanish decided to combine the two and create what was known as the Harquebus.
It was superior to any other gun known at the time. The Spanish had plenty of experience when they arrived to invade the Incas, was was not new to them. This gave them a possible advantage in weapons and fighting tactics.
Since the Spanish had been at war for so long, they found the need to create more weapons, at which time the sword was invented. This was capable stabbing and slashing with great facility. The process of attempting to find the perfect sword took several hundreds of years. It was known as a family business, in which each person’s desire was to create a better sword than those by their ancestors. It was discovered that Iron infused with carbon was the perfect combination to creating a proper sword. The more carbon the harder the sword, but there must be a precise combination of sufficient flexibility and strength to the sword. The Rapier was seen to be that perfect sword, it was long sharp and strong. It not only became popular for war but also amongst gentlemen, this was the time at which it became common to wear your sword towards the side of your waist. These people were known to have descendants that were knights during the medieval times. There was a long process in Europe in attempting to create that perfect fighting weapon which allowed to kill many in a short amount of time. Once the Rapier was introduced it gave Spain more power in weaponry, which allowed conquistadors to have an enormous advantage. During this time of exploration, slaves were brought to the Americas from Africa and Europe. These were transported in ships, at which time it was discovered that some had diseases which were easily transmitted amongst themselves.
This became an epidemic that was brought to the new lands, and affected the indigenous people. Europe had previously gone through this disease, which was contracted by domestic animals. This caused many deaths, but those who survived became immune to these diseases. Once the epidemic arrived to the Americas, the indigenous became utterly ill. They unlike the Spanish, were not immune to these diseases because of their lack of domestic animals. Approximately 95% of the Inca population died. This completely destroyed their community, and allowed for the Spanish to conquer the lands easily and obtain their gold. The Inca’s numbers decreased almost immediately, which caused them to have a lack of power as well as army. This was an advantage to the Spanish which they used at their favor, taking over completely of the Incas. In conclusion the Europeans were able to conquer the incas easily because of geography and where they were located. They aquired guns first and the germs were around more because of the animals they lived with and how they had many years to perfect their weapons and the steel was aquired first too.
Cite this page
Guns germs and steel. (2016, Mar 10). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/guns-germs-and-steel-essay | <urn:uuid:b1826257-bbe8-476c-9dc3-a9a7a3939ddb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/guns-germs-and-steel-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00222.warc.gz | en | 0.994718 | 811 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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Jared diamond and his theory on how and the Europeans were so successful in their conquest of the incans. This was made possible due to the location of Europe. With the inventions of guns, and steel, along with being exposed to many germs before the incans. This gave the conquestidors many advantages over the inca. Once the Spanish conquered the Incas they had weapons that were unseen and unheard of to the indigenous. This was terrifying to the Inca community because they were unaware of the damage these weapons could cause and the power the Spanish had.
The Spanish had been at war with the Mores for approximately 700 years. This gave them experience in fighting and also allowed them to construct the weaponry necessary for war. The Islamic were known to be the first to invent the the gun, but the Chinese invented the gunpowder. These separately were not useful, as the Chinese did not use gunpowder as a weapon. This was when the Spanish decided to combine the two and create what was known as the Harquebus.
It was superior to any other gun known at the time. The Spanish had plenty of experience when they arrived to invade the Incas, was was not new to them. This gave them a possible advantage in weapons and fighting tactics.
Since the Spanish had been at war for so long, they found the need to create more weapons, at which time the sword was invented. This was capable stabbing and slashing with great facility. The process of attempting to find the perfect sword took several hundreds of years. It was known as a family business, in which each person’s desire was to create a better sword than those by their ancestors. It was discovered that Iron infused with carbon was the perfect combination to creating a proper sword. The more carbon the harder the sword, but there must be a precise combination of sufficient flexibility and strength to the sword. The Rapier was seen to be that perfect sword, it was long sharp and strong. It not only became popular for war but also amongst gentlemen, this was the time at which it became common to wear your sword towards the side of your waist. These people were known to have descendants that were knights during the medieval times. There was a long process in Europe in attempting to create that perfect fighting weapon which allowed to kill many in a short amount of time. Once the Rapier was introduced it gave Spain more power in weaponry, which allowed conquistadors to have an enormous advantage. During this time of exploration, slaves were brought to the Americas from Africa and Europe. These were transported in ships, at which time it was discovered that some had diseases which were easily transmitted amongst themselves.
This became an epidemic that was brought to the new lands, and affected the indigenous people. Europe had previously gone through this disease, which was contracted by domestic animals. This caused many deaths, but those who survived became immune to these diseases. Once the epidemic arrived to the Americas, the indigenous became utterly ill. They unlike the Spanish, were not immune to these diseases because of their lack of domestic animals. Approximately 95% of the Inca population died. This completely destroyed their community, and allowed for the Spanish to conquer the lands easily and obtain their gold. The Inca’s numbers decreased almost immediately, which caused them to have a lack of power as well as army. This was an advantage to the Spanish which they used at their favor, taking over completely of the Incas. In conclusion the Europeans were able to conquer the incas easily because of geography and where they were located. They aquired guns first and the germs were around more because of the animals they lived with and how they had many years to perfect their weapons and the steel was aquired first too.
Cite this page
Guns germs and steel. (2016, Mar 10). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/guns-germs-and-steel-essay | 810 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Brutal. Ruthless. Astute. The Roman army was one of the most notorious military organizations in history. The spreading of their influence and growth of their army was due to all the battles and wars they were able to win against their foes. Training for years, the Spartan army, which was part of rome, had the common citizens and elite military soldiers ready for any type of battle. The Roman army was able to spread its culture due to its organization, wealth revenue in resources, and advanced weaponry.
Within the Roman army, there are a multitude of ranks and groups. Clearly cut ranks were implemented and essential to the organization of the army. For example, there were large groups called Legions which included approximately 5,500 men. In those legions are ten cohorts, which held around 480 men. While only nine cohorts held 480 men, there was the tenth cohort that consisted of about 800 men in the front of the formation. The commander who ruled the overall legion was called the Legatus Legionis. The Legatus Legionis could be appointed by the emperor and were typically ex-tribunes and would serve as the Legatus Legionis for three to seven years. Another rank for instance would be the equites cohortales. They were an infantry with cavalry elements. However, they were considered, “inferior to that of the equites alares” (Tripod, Auxiliary Rank Structure). There was also a multitude of other roles within the Roman army that assisted in the development of Rome such as; Acceneus, Cacula, Aeneator, Clinicus, and many other more.
Burgeoning very quickly, the Roman army had a swift and massive uprising. Rome’s future possibility of becoming an Empire was reassured by Augustus. He wanted to stabilize the
Vaguely defined borders of the Roman Empire. His two ideas included his overcoming military power to take the regions of his boundaries by force, or by negotiating with other places on deciding proper boundaries This shows how Augustus knew his army was more superior than most and could easily overcome such an easy task. However, he particularly wanted to become allies with them so they would provide some sort of protection to Rome’s borders. But, before his army was able to take on conquests, they were typically practicing on small plundering raids. Their leaders could “Possibly be their leaders were the ancestors of those who would become the patricians” (The-Romans PAR 1). One of the first grand scale battles of the roman army was when Romulus was in charge. He kidnapped the Sabine women for his mostly male military to put them in wedlock with them. The Caeninenses king was outraged by this and attacked the roman army. He charged. He lost his army. He lost his life.
Being a large army, cost a lot of money, food, man-power, and supplies in the beginning, but would pay off in the end. The tax rate in rome depended on how much land you had and how much money you acquired. The tax was typically modest and was only about 1%. However, in times of war, or just overall lack of supplies, the tax rate would jump to 3%. Throughout the roman army’s conquests and siege, they had collected a plethora of silver and gold and other valuable resources that they no longer needed to levy a tax on its citizens, in Italy, and solely looked to the provinces for collection. Later, due to roman expansion, Augustus completely reformed tax farming. The tax when the roman army was first coming together was essential to their uprising and supplying of resources.
The Roman uniform and armor helped the soldiers not get wounded in battle. One of the many pieces of armor they wore, was the cassis, or the helmet. This helmet in particular was tactfully made for sword fights. Going around the metal helmet is a protruding piece that would protect against swift attacks to head. Also, the back of the helmet had a guard to defend against blows to the neck. Underneath the guard was a soft scarf to protect against the pressure of the helmet and guard on the neck. The body armor however, protected each side of the soldier, while the helmet only protected the top and back. It was made of overlapping strips of metal. Fastened with hooks and leather straps, the pieces would be pulled to the inside keeping it together. For the clothing aspect of the uniform, it was less complex however. The Roman soldier uniform consisted of a a woolen tunic that went down to their knees underneath their armor. The Romans “believed that it was effeminate to wear trousers”(John), so they would only be allowed to wear the tunic and in some different areas, leather, skin-tight, trousers. These parts of the roman outfit allowed for the best movement, and protection during battles in the Roman army.
One of the best army’s, comes with some of the best military technology advancements. It is said that the Romans were more advanced than their time,“it was undoubtedly the Romans who pushed the scope of progressive technologies and deep tactical developments that directly affected their battlefield effectiveness” (Dattatreya), is one example of people acknowledging the romans technological prowess. One of the Roman’s many military innovations is the, Carroballista. The Ballista mechanism is thought to be invented in the 5th century. Roman torsion catapult gadgets normally resembled a cross-bow in outline and had a wooden or, far superior, metal edge comprising of a stock, winch and base. ArcheoArt has portrayed the weapon in a few points of interest, in view of the reproduction of Michael Lewis:
“The caroballista: a powerful descendent of the Roman ballistae and catapultae. This two-man example is being used at some point in the Dacian War. It shoots heavy bolts, and is an extremely powerful weapon, thanks to the wide sweep of the arms, which transmit a huge amount of stored spring-energy to the ammunition. The sinew-loaded spring frames are made of iron, and have tough leather covers to protect them from enemy fire, and the weather… To shoot, one man turns the windlass to draw back the slider and rope, while his crew-mate holds it steady, and places a bolt on the slider; he then holds the tiller and aims, while the first pulls the trigger-bar. The whole weapon is light enough for its two-man crew to move it around and load it onto a cart when the division has to move; in this way, it is the equivalent of a WW2 Bren-gun.” (Dattatreya)
Another weapon that greatly advanced and assisted the Roman army in battle was the Corvus. Controlling the land, the romans were not able to have control of the mediterranean. They were considered “Relative newcomers to the mediterranean influence” (Dattatreya). So, to help themselves in naval battles, they created the Corvus. The Corvus was an essential piece to letting the romans take their boat battles to more hand to hand combat, which they excelled at, while still on the boats. Being a 12 foot long plank, the Corvus was able to attach to nearby ships and cling to them, allowing the soldiers to swiftly rush across and commence an assault on the enemies ship, typically the Carthaginians.
Passively assisting the romans, roads and pathways provided much swifter routes to other places to which they needed to go. Truth be told, expressways and streets were an inherent piece of the strategic degree kept up by the Roman Empire at its height, to such an extent that the monstrous network of streets following second century AD are about an incredible 250,000 miles, of which more than 50,000 miles were created with stone pavement. About 29 different highways all lead from Rome to other common areas. The many roads, over 340, and highways had an immense impact on the official communications for orders and transporting goods from areas they had conquered and were settling in. The roads were mainly used for military purposes and travelling though. According to Dattatreya, “…highways are estimated to have allowed the Roman legions to travel as fast as 25 miles per day.” This allowed for communication and the sharing of news and intel quickly to Rome and back to the Legions.
Unified. Technological advances. Taxes. These three ideas from Rome and its leaders helped construct Rome’s army to the best it could’ve been. The unity of the army and Rome itself help people identify with each other, protect themselves, and work as a team, or legion if you will. Most of their technological advances were original and surprising to their foes. This kept the Romans with the element of surprise to strike their enemies with when they least expected it. Taxing was also a lively influence on the army that helped its development. The large amounts of revenue flowing in from Rome, and from other areas of which they had control was able to provide food and resources when they needed it, until they found a source of precious metals in Italy. The diverse weaponry, formations, ranks, and people of the roman military lead it to be one of the greatest of the time. Wrapping up, this exemplifies how the roman army paved the ground, literally, for warfare and training at the same time through strategic plans and intense training.
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Brutal. Ruthless. Astute. The Roman army was one of the most notorious military organizations in history. The spreading of their influence and growth of their army was due to all the battles and wars they were able to win against their foes. Training for years, the Spartan army, which was part of rome, had the common citizens and elite military soldiers ready for any type of battle. The Roman army was able to spread its culture due to its organization, wealth revenue in resources, and advanced weaponry.
Within the Roman army, there are a multitude of ranks and groups. Clearly cut ranks were implemented and essential to the organization of the army. For example, there were large groups called Legions which included approximately 5,500 men. In those legions are ten cohorts, which held around 480 men. While only nine cohorts held 480 men, there was the tenth cohort that consisted of about 800 men in the front of the formation. The commander who ruled the overall legion was called the Legatus Legionis. The Legatus Legionis could be appointed by the emperor and were typically ex-tribunes and would serve as the Legatus Legionis for three to seven years. Another rank for instance would be the equites cohortales. They were an infantry with cavalry elements. However, they were considered, “inferior to that of the equites alares” (Tripod, Auxiliary Rank Structure). There was also a multitude of other roles within the Roman army that assisted in the development of Rome such as; Acceneus, Cacula, Aeneator, Clinicus, and many other more.
Burgeoning very quickly, the Roman army had a swift and massive uprising. Rome’s future possibility of becoming an Empire was reassured by Augustus. He wanted to stabilize the
Vaguely defined borders of the Roman Empire. His two ideas included his overcoming military power to take the regions of his boundaries by force, or by negotiating with other places on deciding proper boundaries This shows how Augustus knew his army was more superior than most and could easily overcome such an easy task. However, he particularly wanted to become allies with them so they would provide some sort of protection to Rome’s borders. But, before his army was able to take on conquests, they were typically practicing on small plundering raids. Their leaders could “Possibly be their leaders were the ancestors of those who would become the patricians” (The-Romans PAR 1). One of the first grand scale battles of the roman army was when Romulus was in charge. He kidnapped the Sabine women for his mostly male military to put them in wedlock with them. The Caeninenses king was outraged by this and attacked the roman army. He charged. He lost his army. He lost his life.
Being a large army, cost a lot of money, food, man-power, and supplies in the beginning, but would pay off in the end. The tax rate in rome depended on how much land you had and how much money you acquired. The tax was typically modest and was only about 1%. However, in times of war, or just overall lack of supplies, the tax rate would jump to 3%. Throughout the roman army’s conquests and siege, they had collected a plethora of silver and gold and other valuable resources that they no longer needed to levy a tax on its citizens, in Italy, and solely looked to the provinces for collection. Later, due to roman expansion, Augustus completely reformed tax farming. The tax when the roman army was first coming together was essential to their uprising and supplying of resources.
The Roman uniform and armor helped the soldiers not get wounded in battle. One of the many pieces of armor they wore, was the cassis, or the helmet. This helmet in particular was tactfully made for sword fights. Going around the metal helmet is a protruding piece that would protect against swift attacks to head. Also, the back of the helmet had a guard to defend against blows to the neck. Underneath the guard was a soft scarf to protect against the pressure of the helmet and guard on the neck. The body armor however, protected each side of the soldier, while the helmet only protected the top and back. It was made of overlapping strips of metal. Fastened with hooks and leather straps, the pieces would be pulled to the inside keeping it together. For the clothing aspect of the uniform, it was less complex however. The Roman soldier uniform consisted of a a woolen tunic that went down to their knees underneath their armor. The Romans “believed that it was effeminate to wear trousers”(John), so they would only be allowed to wear the tunic and in some different areas, leather, skin-tight, trousers. These parts of the roman outfit allowed for the best movement, and protection during battles in the Roman army.
One of the best army’s, comes with some of the best military technology advancements. It is said that the Romans were more advanced than their time,“it was undoubtedly the Romans who pushed the scope of progressive technologies and deep tactical developments that directly affected their battlefield effectiveness” (Dattatreya), is one example of people acknowledging the romans technological prowess. One of the Roman’s many military innovations is the, Carroballista. The Ballista mechanism is thought to be invented in the 5th century. Roman torsion catapult gadgets normally resembled a cross-bow in outline and had a wooden or, far superior, metal edge comprising of a stock, winch and base. ArcheoArt has portrayed the weapon in a few points of interest, in view of the reproduction of Michael Lewis:
“The caroballista: a powerful descendent of the Roman ballistae and catapultae. This two-man example is being used at some point in the Dacian War. It shoots heavy bolts, and is an extremely powerful weapon, thanks to the wide sweep of the arms, which transmit a huge amount of stored spring-energy to the ammunition. The sinew-loaded spring frames are made of iron, and have tough leather covers to protect them from enemy fire, and the weather… To shoot, one man turns the windlass to draw back the slider and rope, while his crew-mate holds it steady, and places a bolt on the slider; he then holds the tiller and aims, while the first pulls the trigger-bar. The whole weapon is light enough for its two-man crew to move it around and load it onto a cart when the division has to move; in this way, it is the equivalent of a WW2 Bren-gun.” (Dattatreya)
Another weapon that greatly advanced and assisted the Roman army in battle was the Corvus. Controlling the land, the romans were not able to have control of the mediterranean. They were considered “Relative newcomers to the mediterranean influence” (Dattatreya). So, to help themselves in naval battles, they created the Corvus. The Corvus was an essential piece to letting the romans take their boat battles to more hand to hand combat, which they excelled at, while still on the boats. Being a 12 foot long plank, the Corvus was able to attach to nearby ships and cling to them, allowing the soldiers to swiftly rush across and commence an assault on the enemies ship, typically the Carthaginians.
Passively assisting the romans, roads and pathways provided much swifter routes to other places to which they needed to go. Truth be told, expressways and streets were an inherent piece of the strategic degree kept up by the Roman Empire at its height, to such an extent that the monstrous network of streets following second century AD are about an incredible 250,000 miles, of which more than 50,000 miles were created with stone pavement. About 29 different highways all lead from Rome to other common areas. The many roads, over 340, and highways had an immense impact on the official communications for orders and transporting goods from areas they had conquered and were settling in. The roads were mainly used for military purposes and travelling though. According to Dattatreya, “…highways are estimated to have allowed the Roman legions to travel as fast as 25 miles per day.” This allowed for communication and the sharing of news and intel quickly to Rome and back to the Legions.
Unified. Technological advances. Taxes. These three ideas from Rome and its leaders helped construct Rome’s army to the best it could’ve been. The unity of the army and Rome itself help people identify with each other, protect themselves, and work as a team, or legion if you will. Most of their technological advances were original and surprising to their foes. This kept the Romans with the element of surprise to strike their enemies with when they least expected it. Taxing was also a lively influence on the army that helped its development. The large amounts of revenue flowing in from Rome, and from other areas of which they had control was able to provide food and resources when they needed it, until they found a source of precious metals in Italy. The diverse weaponry, formations, ranks, and people of the roman military lead it to be one of the greatest of the time. Wrapping up, this exemplifies how the roman army paved the ground, literally, for warfare and training at the same time through strategic plans and intense training.
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The Intention (Motivation) Of Oedipus In Oedipus Rex Essay, Research Paper
The intention (motivation) of Oedipus in Oedipus Rex
Oedipus Rex, also known as Oedipus the King, is one of the most ironic plays ever written. Sophocles, the author, is a famous philosopher of the ancient times. The Play is about Oedipus, the king of Thebes, who unwittingly killed his father and married his mother. An oracle warned Laius, the king of Thebes prior to Oedipus, that his son would slay him. Accordingly, when his wife, Jocasta, bore a son, he exposed the baby on Mt. Cithaeron, first pinning his ankles together (hence the name Oedipus, meaning Swell-Foot). A shepherd took pity on the infant, who was adopted by King Polybus of Corinth and his wife and was brought up as their son. In early manhood Oedipus visited Delphi and upon learning that he was fated to kill his father and marry his mother, he resolved never to return to Corinth. Travelling toward Thebes, he encountered Laius, who provoked a quarrel in which Oedipus killed him.
Continuing on his way, Oedipus found Thebes plagued by the Sphinx, who put a riddle to all passersby and destroyed those who could not answer. Oedipus solved the riddle, and the Sphinx killed herself. In reward, he received the throne of Thebes and the hand of the widowed queen, his mother, Jocasta. They had four children: Eteocles, Polyneices, Antigone, and Ismene. Later, when the truth became known, Jocasta committed suicide, and Oedipus, after blinding himself, went into exile, leaving his brother-in-law Creon as regent. The central theme in this work is that one cannot control his/her fate, whether the intentions are good or bad. Oedipus, the main character in this play is motivated to find the truth, and his intentions are good. The motivation is always followed by the intentions, just as the truth is followed by goodness. There are three critical parts to Oedipus s motivation. There is the prophecy, the realization, and the revelation. They will be discussed consecutively.
The beginning of the play opens up with the dilemma of the plague as explained before. Creon, Oedipus s brother in-law (which turns out to be his uncle), comes from the oracle with the advice to end the plague. He explains the previous leader, Laius, had been murdered, and they haven t found the murderer. More importantly, was the way Oedipus handled the situation. He
had Creon explain this out loud so that the public can hear as well. He tells Creon, Speak for all! My heavy load of care more for the sake than for my own I bear . From this, we learn about Oedipus s honest character, and the closeness he tries to share with the public. After this, Oedipus then pledges himself to find and punish the murderer. There is a usage of irony in the method of punishment, in which Oedipus says, But all men from their houses banish him; Since it is he contaminates us all , when actually it is Oedipus, who is the murderer of Laius and he will be the one who is banished. His motivation is innocent, for this reason is what makes it such a tragedy. Oedipus blindly led his life, not having any clue that the prophecy might lead to truth. This would be the prophecy stage Oedipus goes though.
Now comes the realization stage, of which the reader very well knows that Oedipus s prophecy is true, but Oedipus himself does not know. This is a very interesting situation for the reader. That is because the reader stays in suspense to see how Oedipus reacts to the truth. The motivation of Oedipus in this stage is very interesting because it is at this point, we realize that he has one more quality to his character, and that is anger. For this is shown to us twice, once with Tiresias and Creon, and the other time with the old man. In
Oedipus s blind motivation, he becomes angry if the truth is held from him. Anger is a serious flaw in his character because it leads to Laius s death, and the false accusations to Tiresias and Creon. It is odd how motivated Oedipus is for the answer to such a terrible prophecy. Tiresias even says, I will not bring remorse upon myself and upon you. Why do you search these matters? Vain, Vain! I will not tell you . Even when told this by Tiresias, the soothsayer, Oedipus demands an answer. At this moment, the reader knows that the prophecy is true but Oedipus is still blind to it. Many people say that what you do not know, will not hurt you but Oedipus does not feel the same way. He is determined for the truth, and eventually he will achieve this as he further investigates into it.
Oedipus enters the revelation stage, when he realizes that he killed his father and married his mother. This is probably the worst feeling anyone could ever have. It is the most unnatural and unthinkable act to ever commit. Oedipus s realization is so sad, for one can feel his pain by his words. He says, O Light, this be the last time I shall gaze on thee, who am revealed to have been born of those of whom I ought not to have wedded whom I ought not and slain whom I might not slay! He then plucks out his eyes, so he may see the sin he has committed through his children. The realization of the truth is supposed to he good. For when you are a child, to tell the truth was good, but in this case the truth is very grim. This is exactly why the truth has more of an impact on the audience. People understand the truth as being good, where as in this play the truth is bad, and Oedipus is punished for it. Oedipus s motivation takes a different course at this point as we very well can see. In the beginning his motivation was in concern with what was true. When the truth was presented to him, he was primarily concerned for his children and he asked Creon to care for his children.
Of course by the end of the play Oedipus had no motivation, because he had no reason to live. This was a very tragic ending indeed. I admire Oedipus s character, because he took his responsibilities with honor. He tried to control his fate, but couldn t, even though his intentions were good. Oedipus s motivation had always been righteous, and yet he is punished in the end. He chose to live his life in truth, and was motivated for it. He didn t want to live it in a vague mist, and this is an honorable thing to do. Most people would say he is terrible for the acts he committed, but is it really his fault? There is nothing he could have done to change his course, for it was his destiny. I believe Oedipus to be an honorable man, and I respect him for his honesty and courage.
- ... of Oedipus fascinates us because of the spectacle of a man freely choosing, from the highest motives, a series of ... heart and good intentions. However, by seeking justice in the truth, he faces ...
- ... only sees it as what motivates him to be successful and ... in the tribe is now a disgrace to everybody. The rise of a hero with good intentions ... bring about the feelings of both pity and fear in the audience. The tale of Oedipus who ...
- ... Freud?s Interpretation of Dreams. In this Freud suggests the idea of an Oedipus complex. That ... his intentions to kill Claudius. It should be noted that the Ghost ... Gertrude and Ophelia. The melancholy results in a lack of motivation and an outer hatred ...
- ... intention that we regard Oedipus as a “good” man? Oedipus accuses Tiresias and Creon, two ... the harsh realities of Oedipus? life? Oedipus? tale of meeting Laius is another troubling point. In ... that way, motivated by a genuine desire to help the people, but ...
- ... in tragedies such as Oedipus the King, in which Oedipus searches for the person responsible for the ... in a serious way. Task 15. Rewrite the given text keeping to one of the intentions ... | <urn:uuid:4ee57089-59a8-4679-a35a-e451dea16756> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://works.doklad.ru/view/HQTx70BIBHg.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.982384 | 1,915 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.010973954573273... | 2 | Главная > Реферат >Остальные работы
The Intention (Motivation) Of Oedipus In Oedipus Rex Essay, Research Paper
The intention (motivation) of Oedipus in Oedipus Rex
Oedipus Rex, also known as Oedipus the King, is one of the most ironic plays ever written. Sophocles, the author, is a famous philosopher of the ancient times. The Play is about Oedipus, the king of Thebes, who unwittingly killed his father and married his mother. An oracle warned Laius, the king of Thebes prior to Oedipus, that his son would slay him. Accordingly, when his wife, Jocasta, bore a son, he exposed the baby on Mt. Cithaeron, first pinning his ankles together (hence the name Oedipus, meaning Swell-Foot). A shepherd took pity on the infant, who was adopted by King Polybus of Corinth and his wife and was brought up as their son. In early manhood Oedipus visited Delphi and upon learning that he was fated to kill his father and marry his mother, he resolved never to return to Corinth. Travelling toward Thebes, he encountered Laius, who provoked a quarrel in which Oedipus killed him.
Continuing on his way, Oedipus found Thebes plagued by the Sphinx, who put a riddle to all passersby and destroyed those who could not answer. Oedipus solved the riddle, and the Sphinx killed herself. In reward, he received the throne of Thebes and the hand of the widowed queen, his mother, Jocasta. They had four children: Eteocles, Polyneices, Antigone, and Ismene. Later, when the truth became known, Jocasta committed suicide, and Oedipus, after blinding himself, went into exile, leaving his brother-in-law Creon as regent. The central theme in this work is that one cannot control his/her fate, whether the intentions are good or bad. Oedipus, the main character in this play is motivated to find the truth, and his intentions are good. The motivation is always followed by the intentions, just as the truth is followed by goodness. There are three critical parts to Oedipus s motivation. There is the prophecy, the realization, and the revelation. They will be discussed consecutively.
The beginning of the play opens up with the dilemma of the plague as explained before. Creon, Oedipus s brother in-law (which turns out to be his uncle), comes from the oracle with the advice to end the plague. He explains the previous leader, Laius, had been murdered, and they haven t found the murderer. More importantly, was the way Oedipus handled the situation. He
had Creon explain this out loud so that the public can hear as well. He tells Creon, Speak for all! My heavy load of care more for the sake than for my own I bear . From this, we learn about Oedipus s honest character, and the closeness he tries to share with the public. After this, Oedipus then pledges himself to find and punish the murderer. There is a usage of irony in the method of punishment, in which Oedipus says, But all men from their houses banish him; Since it is he contaminates us all , when actually it is Oedipus, who is the murderer of Laius and he will be the one who is banished. His motivation is innocent, for this reason is what makes it such a tragedy. Oedipus blindly led his life, not having any clue that the prophecy might lead to truth. This would be the prophecy stage Oedipus goes though.
Now comes the realization stage, of which the reader very well knows that Oedipus s prophecy is true, but Oedipus himself does not know. This is a very interesting situation for the reader. That is because the reader stays in suspense to see how Oedipus reacts to the truth. The motivation of Oedipus in this stage is very interesting because it is at this point, we realize that he has one more quality to his character, and that is anger. For this is shown to us twice, once with Tiresias and Creon, and the other time with the old man. In
Oedipus s blind motivation, he becomes angry if the truth is held from him. Anger is a serious flaw in his character because it leads to Laius s death, and the false accusations to Tiresias and Creon. It is odd how motivated Oedipus is for the answer to such a terrible prophecy. Tiresias even says, I will not bring remorse upon myself and upon you. Why do you search these matters? Vain, Vain! I will not tell you . Even when told this by Tiresias, the soothsayer, Oedipus demands an answer. At this moment, the reader knows that the prophecy is true but Oedipus is still blind to it. Many people say that what you do not know, will not hurt you but Oedipus does not feel the same way. He is determined for the truth, and eventually he will achieve this as he further investigates into it.
Oedipus enters the revelation stage, when he realizes that he killed his father and married his mother. This is probably the worst feeling anyone could ever have. It is the most unnatural and unthinkable act to ever commit. Oedipus s realization is so sad, for one can feel his pain by his words. He says, O Light, this be the last time I shall gaze on thee, who am revealed to have been born of those of whom I ought not to have wedded whom I ought not and slain whom I might not slay! He then plucks out his eyes, so he may see the sin he has committed through his children. The realization of the truth is supposed to he good. For when you are a child, to tell the truth was good, but in this case the truth is very grim. This is exactly why the truth has more of an impact on the audience. People understand the truth as being good, where as in this play the truth is bad, and Oedipus is punished for it. Oedipus s motivation takes a different course at this point as we very well can see. In the beginning his motivation was in concern with what was true. When the truth was presented to him, he was primarily concerned for his children and he asked Creon to care for his children.
Of course by the end of the play Oedipus had no motivation, because he had no reason to live. This was a very tragic ending indeed. I admire Oedipus s character, because he took his responsibilities with honor. He tried to control his fate, but couldn t, even though his intentions were good. Oedipus s motivation had always been righteous, and yet he is punished in the end. He chose to live his life in truth, and was motivated for it. He didn t want to live it in a vague mist, and this is an honorable thing to do. Most people would say he is terrible for the acts he committed, but is it really his fault? There is nothing he could have done to change his course, for it was his destiny. I believe Oedipus to be an honorable man, and I respect him for his honesty and courage.
- ... of Oedipus fascinates us because of the spectacle of a man freely choosing, from the highest motives, a series of ... heart and good intentions. However, by seeking justice in the truth, he faces ...
- ... only sees it as what motivates him to be successful and ... in the tribe is now a disgrace to everybody. The rise of a hero with good intentions ... bring about the feelings of both pity and fear in the audience. The tale of Oedipus who ...
- ... Freud?s Interpretation of Dreams. In this Freud suggests the idea of an Oedipus complex. That ... his intentions to kill Claudius. It should be noted that the Ghost ... Gertrude and Ophelia. The melancholy results in a lack of motivation and an outer hatred ...
- ... intention that we regard Oedipus as a “good” man? Oedipus accuses Tiresias and Creon, two ... the harsh realities of Oedipus? life? Oedipus? tale of meeting Laius is another troubling point. In ... that way, motivated by a genuine desire to help the people, but ...
- ... in tragedies such as Oedipus the King, in which Oedipus searches for the person responsible for the ... in a serious way. Task 15. Rewrite the given text keeping to one of the intentions ... | 1,878 | ENGLISH | 1 |
National Freedom Day is a holiday which is celebrated annually on February 1st in the United States. The purpose of this holiday is to not only honor the signing of the 13th amendment on February 1, 1865 – an amendment which outlawed slavery – but it is also a day in which all U.S citizens can celebrate the freedom they share with their fellow Americans. It is also a good day to reflect on the fact that the United States is a country that is dedicated to the ideals of freedom, justice, and equality and that all of us citizens should work towards those goals.
History of National Freedom Day
On February 1, 1865, President Abraham Lincoln signed a joint congressional resolution proposing a 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution. This amendment would abolish slavery in the U.S once and for all. However, while the President signed it on the 1st of February, it didn’t become actually become ratified until December 6, 1865. Still, some people believed that February 1st should convey some sort of commemoration to that important signing and one of those people was Richard R. Wright, a former slave who decided to lobby the U.S Congress to make the 1st of February National Freedom Day.
At the time the amendment was signed, Mr. Wright was a nine-year-old slave that was living in Georgia. After the Civil War ended, he was able to attend a freedmen’s school. He would then go on to become a veteran of the Spanish-American War, a banker, and a prominent teacher.
Unfortunately, his request for a National Freedom Day wouldn’t be instituted during his lifetime. It wasn’t until 1947, a year after his death, that the U.S Congress would pass a resolution making February 1st National Freedom Day. On June 30, 1948, President Harry S. Truman would sign this holiday proclamation into law.
Celebrating National Freedom Day
National Freedom Day is celebrated in a variety of different ways. According to 36 U.S. Code § 124, the President of the United States may issue a proclamation that designates February 1st as National Freedom Day to commemorate the signing of the 13th amendment by Abraham Lincoln on February 1, 1865. Each President can decide for themselves if they’re going to proclaim the holiday for that year. On this day, some people take time out of their busy schedules to honor freedom and equality. The day may also be celebrated with breakfasts or BBQs, movie screenings, book readings, and luncheons. In some areas, celebrations are observed with a fireworks display.
When is National Freedom Day?
|This year (2020)||February 1 (Saturday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Next year (2021)||February 1 (Monday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Last year (2019)||February 1 (Friday)||Multiple dates - more| | <urn:uuid:94c977ae-f6d2-4f0b-957c-3af5f6025592> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.holidayscalendar.com/event/national-freedom-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.980039 | 595 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.17125940322875977... | 4 | National Freedom Day is a holiday which is celebrated annually on February 1st in the United States. The purpose of this holiday is to not only honor the signing of the 13th amendment on February 1, 1865 – an amendment which outlawed slavery – but it is also a day in which all U.S citizens can celebrate the freedom they share with their fellow Americans. It is also a good day to reflect on the fact that the United States is a country that is dedicated to the ideals of freedom, justice, and equality and that all of us citizens should work towards those goals.
History of National Freedom Day
On February 1, 1865, President Abraham Lincoln signed a joint congressional resolution proposing a 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution. This amendment would abolish slavery in the U.S once and for all. However, while the President signed it on the 1st of February, it didn’t become actually become ratified until December 6, 1865. Still, some people believed that February 1st should convey some sort of commemoration to that important signing and one of those people was Richard R. Wright, a former slave who decided to lobby the U.S Congress to make the 1st of February National Freedom Day.
At the time the amendment was signed, Mr. Wright was a nine-year-old slave that was living in Georgia. After the Civil War ended, he was able to attend a freedmen’s school. He would then go on to become a veteran of the Spanish-American War, a banker, and a prominent teacher.
Unfortunately, his request for a National Freedom Day wouldn’t be instituted during his lifetime. It wasn’t until 1947, a year after his death, that the U.S Congress would pass a resolution making February 1st National Freedom Day. On June 30, 1948, President Harry S. Truman would sign this holiday proclamation into law.
Celebrating National Freedom Day
National Freedom Day is celebrated in a variety of different ways. According to 36 U.S. Code § 124, the President of the United States may issue a proclamation that designates February 1st as National Freedom Day to commemorate the signing of the 13th amendment by Abraham Lincoln on February 1, 1865. Each President can decide for themselves if they’re going to proclaim the holiday for that year. On this day, some people take time out of their busy schedules to honor freedom and equality. The day may also be celebrated with breakfasts or BBQs, movie screenings, book readings, and luncheons. In some areas, celebrations are observed with a fireworks display.
When is National Freedom Day?
|This year (2020)||February 1 (Saturday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Next year (2021)||February 1 (Monday)||Multiple dates - more|
|Last year (2019)||February 1 (Friday)||Multiple dates - more| | 620 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Photo Galleries Franklin exhibition in London
From The Canadian Press
When the Canadian Museum of History began planning a new exhibition on the Franklin expedition, neither of the voyage's two doomed ships had been found.
But after HMS Erebus was located in 2014 and HMS Terror was found in 2016, curators for the exhibit were given the opportunity to include some of the newly recovered artifacts. The exhibition, now on in the United Kingdom, also highlights the role that Inuit oral history played in finding the shipwrecks.
"We really wanted to give credit where credit was due in the exhibition," said curator Karen Ryan. "The Inuit were in the Arctic long before Europeans went looking for the Northwest Passage.
"What we know up until now about what happened to the Franklin expedition comes largely from Inuit oral history that has been passed down for 170 years."
Ryan noted that Parks Canada and researchers started looking in areas where the Inuit had indicated they had seen ships still inhabited and then later deserted. The expedition led by Sir John Franklin left England in 1845 with 129 men to search for a northern sea route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
No one ever returned, and search missions determined that both ships became icebound and were abandoned. Remains of some of the sailors have been found.
Some theories about the ill-fated voyage include lead poisoning and spoiled tinned preserves. Interest in the mystery has remained strong in the U.K., where some people trace family trees back to Franklin's men. | <urn:uuid:db8f4912-9410-4307-808b-65522aeaa490> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.oceantreasures.org/blog/museum-news/photo-galleries-franklin-exhibition-in-london.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00084.warc.gz | en | 0.987496 | 309 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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From The Canadian Press
When the Canadian Museum of History began planning a new exhibition on the Franklin expedition, neither of the voyage's two doomed ships had been found.
But after HMS Erebus was located in 2014 and HMS Terror was found in 2016, curators for the exhibit were given the opportunity to include some of the newly recovered artifacts. The exhibition, now on in the United Kingdom, also highlights the role that Inuit oral history played in finding the shipwrecks.
"We really wanted to give credit where credit was due in the exhibition," said curator Karen Ryan. "The Inuit were in the Arctic long before Europeans went looking for the Northwest Passage.
"What we know up until now about what happened to the Franklin expedition comes largely from Inuit oral history that has been passed down for 170 years."
Ryan noted that Parks Canada and researchers started looking in areas where the Inuit had indicated they had seen ships still inhabited and then later deserted. The expedition led by Sir John Franklin left England in 1845 with 129 men to search for a northern sea route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
No one ever returned, and search missions determined that both ships became icebound and were abandoned. Remains of some of the sailors have been found.
Some theories about the ill-fated voyage include lead poisoning and spoiled tinned preserves. Interest in the mystery has remained strong in the U.K., where some people trace family trees back to Franklin's men. | 315 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Not much is known about the early life of St. Boniface, whom the Church remembers on September 4. He was elected pope on December 28, 418. It’s believed that he was ordained to the priesthood by Pope Damasus I, and was a representative of Innocent I in Constantinople.
After the death of Pope Zosimus in 418, Boniface and Eulalius were both elected pope, and sent to Rome until the one pope could be determined. Boniface followed these instructions and was recognized as the legitimate pope.
Boniface was known for his charity and his knowledge. He worked hard to bring reform and eliminate corrupt practices, including privileges given to some bishops. St. Augustine dedicated several works to Boniface after he supported him in the fight against Pelagianism.
St. Boniface died in Rome on September 4, 422.
Start your day with Always Forward, our award-winning e-newsletter. Get this smart, handpicked selection of the day’s top news, analysis, and opinion, delivered to your inbox. Sign up absolutely free today! | <urn:uuid:fd75a2b5-889f-447c-bb0e-0818118340a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://angelusnews.com/faith/saint-of-the-day-boniface-i-pope/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00047.warc.gz | en | 0.986614 | 230 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.020614739507... | 4 | Not much is known about the early life of St. Boniface, whom the Church remembers on September 4. He was elected pope on December 28, 418. It’s believed that he was ordained to the priesthood by Pope Damasus I, and was a representative of Innocent I in Constantinople.
After the death of Pope Zosimus in 418, Boniface and Eulalius were both elected pope, and sent to Rome until the one pope could be determined. Boniface followed these instructions and was recognized as the legitimate pope.
Boniface was known for his charity and his knowledge. He worked hard to bring reform and eliminate corrupt practices, including privileges given to some bishops. St. Augustine dedicated several works to Boniface after he supported him in the fight against Pelagianism.
St. Boniface died in Rome on September 4, 422.
Start your day with Always Forward, our award-winning e-newsletter. Get this smart, handpicked selection of the day’s top news, analysis, and opinion, delivered to your inbox. Sign up absolutely free today! | 230 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ancient Olympic Games
The ancient Olympic Games were one of the main athletic gatherings of the classical world, and the most important festival of ancient Greece.
They took place at Olympia, a major sanctuary in the Peloponnese, Greece, dedicated to the God Zeus. They were said to have been founded in 776 BC, and, like the modern Olympic Games, took place every four years. They were open to all free Greek men (though there appear to have been some age limits - there are records of candidates being rejected as too old), and an athlete's success at the Games was almost guaranteed to lead to considerable public honour in his home community, which often gave him a sizeable financial reward. While there were other athletic gatherings, it was the Olympic Games which had pride of place, and the rules governing them set a norm for other contests.
Originally there was just one (running) event. Other races were added during the eighth century BC, and then other types of athletic contest - including boxing, wrestling, chariot racing, horse-racing, and the pentathlon which was a mixed contest consisting of wrestling, running, the long jump, javelin-throwing, and discus-throwing. For most contests competitors generally stripped off, and often covered themselves in olive oil: nudity was normal for participants in sporting events of the classical world.
From 472 BC the Games occupied five days. Greek cities were frequently at war with each other, and an "Olympic truce" was declared for a stated period around the time of the Games.
The Games were the focus of excited interest, and attended by unruly crowds - of men only (women were barred). According to Plutarch, in the second century AD it was only the Spartans who refrained from yelling abuse at judges who did not favour their city's entrants. Poets and orators used the occasion to give recitals. At the end of the Games victors, wearing their crowns, sacrificed to Zeus and there was a banquet during which a chorus sang a victory song composed by an eminent poet.
Following the Christianisation of the Roman Empire, the Games were suppressed as a pagan institution, probably by the emperor Theodosius I in 391 AD.
The four year period between Games was termed an "Olympiad", and was used as a system for dating events: Olympiads were numbered. Sometimes historians dated an event by referring to the year in which so-and-so won a particular contest at the Games.
The Olympic Games were one of four "Panhellenic Games" of the Greek world. The others were:
- the Pythian Games, held at Delphi in honour of the god Apollo in the third year of each Olympiad
- the Isthmian Games, held at Corinth in honour of the god Poseidon in the first and third years of each Olympiad
- the Nemean Games, held at Nemea in the second and fourth years of each Olympiad
- Price, Martin J. (1988). "The Statue of Zeus at Olympia", in Peter A. Clayton and Martin J. Price (eds.) The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Routledge. p 59.
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The ancient Olympic Games were one of the main athletic gatherings of the classical world, and the most important festival of ancient Greece.
They took place at Olympia, a major sanctuary in the Peloponnese, Greece, dedicated to the God Zeus. They were said to have been founded in 776 BC, and, like the modern Olympic Games, took place every four years. They were open to all free Greek men (though there appear to have been some age limits - there are records of candidates being rejected as too old), and an athlete's success at the Games was almost guaranteed to lead to considerable public honour in his home community, which often gave him a sizeable financial reward. While there were other athletic gatherings, it was the Olympic Games which had pride of place, and the rules governing them set a norm for other contests.
Originally there was just one (running) event. Other races were added during the eighth century BC, and then other types of athletic contest - including boxing, wrestling, chariot racing, horse-racing, and the pentathlon which was a mixed contest consisting of wrestling, running, the long jump, javelin-throwing, and discus-throwing. For most contests competitors generally stripped off, and often covered themselves in olive oil: nudity was normal for participants in sporting events of the classical world.
From 472 BC the Games occupied five days. Greek cities were frequently at war with each other, and an "Olympic truce" was declared for a stated period around the time of the Games.
The Games were the focus of excited interest, and attended by unruly crowds - of men only (women were barred). According to Plutarch, in the second century AD it was only the Spartans who refrained from yelling abuse at judges who did not favour their city's entrants. Poets and orators used the occasion to give recitals. At the end of the Games victors, wearing their crowns, sacrificed to Zeus and there was a banquet during which a chorus sang a victory song composed by an eminent poet.
Following the Christianisation of the Roman Empire, the Games were suppressed as a pagan institution, probably by the emperor Theodosius I in 391 AD.
The four year period between Games was termed an "Olympiad", and was used as a system for dating events: Olympiads were numbered. Sometimes historians dated an event by referring to the year in which so-and-so won a particular contest at the Games.
The Olympic Games were one of four "Panhellenic Games" of the Greek world. The others were:
- the Pythian Games, held at Delphi in honour of the god Apollo in the third year of each Olympiad
- the Isthmian Games, held at Corinth in honour of the god Poseidon in the first and third years of each Olympiad
- the Nemean Games, held at Nemea in the second and fourth years of each Olympiad
- Price, Martin J. (1988). "The Statue of Zeus at Olympia", in Peter A. Clayton and Martin J. Price (eds.) The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Routledge. p 59.
- but the ancient games would not have been held in the years of the modern games if they had continued, because there is no year 0 between 1 BC and 1 AD | 701 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to a study published in Nature this week, of the 27 skeletons found in the ancient site located near Kenya’s Lake Turkana, at least 10 showed signs of fatal injuries.
Researchers postulate that the remains, which were of prehistoric-hunter gatherers, were deliberately left unburied after their brutal massacre. The haphazard positioning of the remains is cited as evidence that they were not moved after their deaths.
The remains reportedly show unmistakable signs of blunt force trauma from different weapons including arrows and clubs and stone blades. Some skeletons were found to have sustained wounds to the skulls, knees, hands, necks and ribs.
Despite the violent signs of their deaths, two skeletons did not show signs of fatal injuries. The remains of an old man and a woman, who was about six months pregnant, were found with no injury. However, the woman was bounded by her hands and feet. Researchers say it is very likely they too suffered violent deaths.
“These human remains record the intentional killing of a small band of foragers with no deliberate burial, and provide unique evidence that warfare was part of the repertoire of inter-group relations among some prehistoric hunter-gatherers,” lead author Marta Mirazon Lahr said.
Lahr, a paleoanthropologist with the University of Cambridge, said the attack, which killed the prehistoric people, may have been premeditated and organized by a group of foreign raiders. However, it’s impossible to ascertain who and where the assailants were from. The reason for their fatal attack also remains unknown.
Lahr added that the find is evidence that history of humans and violence is very ancient, although the origin of warfare is widely attributed to developing societies.
“Most scholars have considered that warfare emerged as a result of ownership of land, farming and more complex political systems,” Lahr said. “Our findings show that this hypothesis is incorrect, and that intergroup conflict had a much longer history.”
Archaeologists have discovered other ancient sites that showed examples of violence. However, unlike the find in Kenya, the victims were buried.
The site of the ancient massacre is located about a mile from the shores of Lake Turkana, which fossils records shows was home to several animals such as lions, wild dogs, hyenas, zebras, rhinos, gazelles and hippos. The site, which is also a goldmine of archaeological findings, also had a large population of fishes.
“The edge of the lake must have been an amazing place to live- but also dangerous,” Lahr said. “We have also found several fragments of human fossils at other sites with evidence of having been eaten by carnivores.”
Despite the find, scholars are torn about the origins of warfare among human societies.
Photo: Marta Mirazon Lahr/Fable Lahr | <urn:uuid:d88ea458-072d-423a-aad9-e08bdf86a2e4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.zegabi.com/articles/9982 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.983616 | 601 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.609537303447723... | 2 | According to a study published in Nature this week, of the 27 skeletons found in the ancient site located near Kenya’s Lake Turkana, at least 10 showed signs of fatal injuries.
Researchers postulate that the remains, which were of prehistoric-hunter gatherers, were deliberately left unburied after their brutal massacre. The haphazard positioning of the remains is cited as evidence that they were not moved after their deaths.
The remains reportedly show unmistakable signs of blunt force trauma from different weapons including arrows and clubs and stone blades. Some skeletons were found to have sustained wounds to the skulls, knees, hands, necks and ribs.
Despite the violent signs of their deaths, two skeletons did not show signs of fatal injuries. The remains of an old man and a woman, who was about six months pregnant, were found with no injury. However, the woman was bounded by her hands and feet. Researchers say it is very likely they too suffered violent deaths.
“These human remains record the intentional killing of a small band of foragers with no deliberate burial, and provide unique evidence that warfare was part of the repertoire of inter-group relations among some prehistoric hunter-gatherers,” lead author Marta Mirazon Lahr said.
Lahr, a paleoanthropologist with the University of Cambridge, said the attack, which killed the prehistoric people, may have been premeditated and organized by a group of foreign raiders. However, it’s impossible to ascertain who and where the assailants were from. The reason for their fatal attack also remains unknown.
Lahr added that the find is evidence that history of humans and violence is very ancient, although the origin of warfare is widely attributed to developing societies.
“Most scholars have considered that warfare emerged as a result of ownership of land, farming and more complex political systems,” Lahr said. “Our findings show that this hypothesis is incorrect, and that intergroup conflict had a much longer history.”
Archaeologists have discovered other ancient sites that showed examples of violence. However, unlike the find in Kenya, the victims were buried.
The site of the ancient massacre is located about a mile from the shores of Lake Turkana, which fossils records shows was home to several animals such as lions, wild dogs, hyenas, zebras, rhinos, gazelles and hippos. The site, which is also a goldmine of archaeological findings, also had a large population of fishes.
“The edge of the lake must have been an amazing place to live- but also dangerous,” Lahr said. “We have also found several fragments of human fossils at other sites with evidence of having been eaten by carnivores.”
Despite the find, scholars are torn about the origins of warfare among human societies.
Photo: Marta Mirazon Lahr/Fable Lahr | 567 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|William Merritt Chase|
|Birth Date:||1 November 1849|
|Birth Place:||Nineveh, Indiana|
|Death Place:||New York City|
|Training:||National Academy of Design|
|Influenced By:||James Abbott McNeill Whistler|
|Awards:||Philadelphia Centennial Exposition medal|
William Merritt Chase (November 1, 1849 – October 25, 1916) was an American painter, known as an exponent of Impressionism and as a teacher. He is also responsible for establishing the Chase School, which later would become Parsons School of Design.
William Merritt Chase was born on November 1, 1849, in Williamsburg (now Nineveh), Indiana, to the family of Sarah Swain and David H. Chase, a local businessman. Chase's father moved the family to Indianapolis in 1861, and employed his son as a salesman in the family business. Chase showed an early interest in art, and studied under local, self-taught artists Barton S. Hays and Jacob Cox.
After a brief stint in the Navy, Chase's teachers urged him to travel to New York to further his artistic training. He arrived in New York in 1869, met and studied with Joseph Oriel Eaton for a short time, then enrolled in the National Academy of Design under Lemuel Wilmarth, a student of the famous French artist Jean-Léon Gérôme.
In 1870, declining family fortunes forced Chase to leave New York for St. Louis, Missouri, where his family was then based. While he worked to help support his family he became active in the St. Louis art community, winning prizes for his paintings at a local exhibition. He also exhibited his first painting at the National Academy in 1871. Chase's talent elicited the interest of wealthy St. Louis collectors who arranged for him to visit Europe for two years, in exchange for paintings and Chase's help in securing European art for their collections.
In Europe, Chase settled at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich, a long-standing center of art training that was attracting increasing numbers of Americans and attracted Chase because it had fewer distractions than Paris. He studied under Alexander von Wagner and Karl von Piloty, and befriended American artists Walter Shirlaw, Frank Duveneck, and J(oseph) Frank Currier.
In Munich, Chase employed his rapidly burgeoning talent most often in figurative works that he painted in the loosely brushed style popular with his instructors. In January 1876 one of these figural works, a portrait titled "Keying Up" – The Court Jester (now in the collection of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts) was exhibited at the Boston Art Club; later that year it was exhibited and won a medal at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition, and this success gained Chase his first fame.Chase traveled to Venice, Italy in 1877 with Duveneck and John Henry Twachtman before returning to the United States in the summer of 1878, a highly skilled artist representing the new wave of European-educated American talent. Home in America, he exhibited his painting Ready for the Ride (collection of the Union League Club) with the newly formed Society of American Artists in 1878. He also opened a studio in New York in the Tenth Street Studio Building, home to many of the important painters of the day. He was a member of the Tilers, a group of artists and authors, among whom were some of his notable friends: Winslow Homer, Arthur Quartley and Augustus Saint Gaudens.
Chase cultivated multiple personae: sophisticated cosmopolitan, devoted family man, and esteemed teacher. Chase married Alice Gerson in 1887 and together they raised eight children during Chase's most energetic artistic period. His eldest daughters, Alice Dieudonnee Chase and Dorothy Bremond Chase, often modeled for their father.
In New York City, however, Chase became known for his flamboyance, especially in his dress, his manners, and most of all in his studio. At Tenth Street, Chase had moved into Albert Bierstadt's old studio and had decorated it as an extension of his own art. Chase filled the studio with lavish furniture, decorative objects, stuffed birds, oriental carpets, and exotic musical instruments. The studio served as a focal point for the sophisticated and fashionable members of the New York City art world of the late 19th century. By 1895 the cost of maintaining the studio, in addition to his other residences, forced Chase to close it and auction the contents.
In addition to his painting, Chase actively developed an interest in teaching. Initially he took on private pupils, among his first being Dora Wheeler, a student from 1879 to 1881 who became a professional artist and a lifelong friend. Dora's mother Candace Wheeler wrote in her memoirs of Chase's contagious enthusiasm, "the most generous of teachers, not only giving exhaustively of his stored knowledge of how to do things, but fostering as well the will to do it. Later, somewhat against his will, he was persuaded to take charge of an art-school at Shinnecock Hills, Long Island . . . "
At the instigation of Mrs. William Hoyt, Chase opened the Shinnecock Hills Summer School of Art on eastern Long Island, New York in 1891. He taught there until 1902. Chase adopted the plein air method of painting, and often taught his students in outdoor classes. He also opened the Chase School of Art in 1896, which became the New York School of Art two years later with Chase staying on as instructor until 1907. Chase taught at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts from 1896 to 1909; the Art Students League from 1878 to 1896 and again from 1907 to 1911; and the Brooklyn Art Association in 1887 and from 1891 to 1896. Along with Robert Henri, who became a rival instructor, Chase was the most important teacher of American artists around the turn of the 20th century. In addition to his instruction of East Coast artists like George Bellows, Louise Upton Brumback, Kate Freeman Clark, Jay Hall Connaway, Mariette Leslie Cotton, Charles Demuth, Silas Dustin, Lydia Field Emmet, George Pearse Ennis, Marsden Hartley, Annie Traquair Lang, John Marin, M. Jean McLane, Frances Miller Mumaugh, Georgia O'Keeffe, Leopold Seyffert, Elizabeth Sparhawk-Jones, Joseph Stella and Edward Charles Volkert, he had an important role in influencing California art at the turn of the century, especially in interactions with Arthur Frank Mathews, Xavier Martinez and Percy Gray. He also had an important role in influencing Texan Impressionism: he also taught painter Julian Onderdonk.
After stopping his work at Shinnecock Hills, Chase began taking groups of students overseas in the summer months to tour the important European art centers. In 1903 they visited Haarlem in the Netherlands, where Chase was inspired by a schutterstuk by Frans Hals. He made a self-portrait of himself in the role of one of Hals' schutters, choosing his look-alike Johan Claesz Loo featured in The Officers of the St Adrian Militia Company in 1633.
He is perhaps best known for his portraits, and his sitters including some of the most important men and women of his time. His portrait of painter Lydia Field Emmet in 1892 depicts Emmet in a pose typically reserved for men in old masters' paintings. Emmet's hand is on her hip and she looks over her shoulder at the audience.
Chase also frequently painted his wife Alice and their children, sometimes in individual portraits, and other times in scenes of domestic tranquility: at breakfast in their backyard, or relaxing at their summer home on Long Island, the children playing on the floor or among the sand dunes of Shinnecock. In an 1895 painting titled A Friendly Call, his wife is depicted wearing a yellow dress and entertaining a caller dressed in white.
In addition to painting portraits and full-length figurative works, Chase began painting landscapes in earnest in the late 1880s. His interest in landscape art may have been spawned by the landmark New York exhibit of French impressionist works from Parisian dealer Durand-Ruel in 1886. Chase is best remembered for two series of landscape subjects, both painted in an impressionist manner. The first was his scenes of Prospect and Central Parks in New York; the second were his summer landscapes at Shinnecock. Chase usually featured people prominently in his landscapes. Often he depicted woman and children in leisurely poses, relaxing on a park bench, on the beach, or lying in the summer grass at Shinnecock. The Shinnecock works in particular have come to be thought of by art historians as particularly fine examples of American Impressionism.
In 1903 Chase rented the Villa La Meridiana near Careggi, Florence, to which he would return to paint each summer. Later he bought the Villa Silli, south of the city.
Chase continued to paint still lifes throughout his career as he had done since his student days. Decorative objects filled his studios and homes, and his interior figurative scenes frequently included still life images. He was particularly adept at capturing the effect of light on metallic surfaces such as copper bowls and pitchers. Perhaps Chase's most famous still life subject was dead fish, which he liked to paint against dark backgrounds, limp on a plate as though fresh from a fishmonger's stall. He was known for purchasing the dead fish at the market, painting them quickly, and then returning them before they spoiled.
Chase won many honors at home and abroad, was a member of the National Academy of Design, New York, and from 1885 to 1895 was president of the Society of American Artists. He became a member of the Ten American Painters after John Henry Twachtman died.
Chase's creativity declined in his later years, especially as modern art took hold in America, but he continued to paint and teach into the 1910s. During this period Chase taught such up and coming young artists as Wilhelmina Weber Furlong, Arthur Hill Gilbert, and Edward Hopper.
At Carmel-by-the-Sea from July through September 1914 Chase taught his last summer class, his largest with over one hundred pupils and his most problematic. His former student, Jennie V. Cannon, in conjunction with Chase's business manager C. P. Townsley and Carmel's co-founder Franklin Devendorf, persuaded the esteemed painter to visit the Pacific Coast with promises of generous financial returns. Suffering from declining health (cirrhosis of the liver), Chase took the opportunity shortly after his arrival to meet with the directors of San Francisco's forthcoming Panama-Pacific International Exposition to secure his own exhibition gallery, which he had been denied earlier. He was adored by his Carmel students, several of whom published extensive descriptions of his lectures and teaching methods. Chase found the art colony at Carmel too confining socially and moved his residence to the nearby luxury Hotel Del Monte in Monterey, where he negotiated several important portrait commissions. In mid-August one of his students, Helena Wood Smith, was brutally murdered by her Japanese lover, which caused the cancellation of several classes, near violent hysteria in the art colony, and the early departure of some of his students. Chase continued with his regular teaching schedule, held meetings with important regional artists, such as William Ritschel, painted several local scenes, and experimented with monotypes.
Today his works are in most major museums in the United States. His home and studio at Shinnecock Hills, New York, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 as the William Merritt Chase Homestead. | <urn:uuid:79c05213-7863-4f60-9866-fc8741d5c8d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://everything.explained.today/William_Merritt_Chase/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00475.warc.gz | en | 0.982225 | 2,440 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.28834196925163... | 1 | |William Merritt Chase|
|Birth Date:||1 November 1849|
|Birth Place:||Nineveh, Indiana|
|Death Place:||New York City|
|Training:||National Academy of Design|
|Influenced By:||James Abbott McNeill Whistler|
|Awards:||Philadelphia Centennial Exposition medal|
William Merritt Chase (November 1, 1849 – October 25, 1916) was an American painter, known as an exponent of Impressionism and as a teacher. He is also responsible for establishing the Chase School, which later would become Parsons School of Design.
William Merritt Chase was born on November 1, 1849, in Williamsburg (now Nineveh), Indiana, to the family of Sarah Swain and David H. Chase, a local businessman. Chase's father moved the family to Indianapolis in 1861, and employed his son as a salesman in the family business. Chase showed an early interest in art, and studied under local, self-taught artists Barton S. Hays and Jacob Cox.
After a brief stint in the Navy, Chase's teachers urged him to travel to New York to further his artistic training. He arrived in New York in 1869, met and studied with Joseph Oriel Eaton for a short time, then enrolled in the National Academy of Design under Lemuel Wilmarth, a student of the famous French artist Jean-Léon Gérôme.
In 1870, declining family fortunes forced Chase to leave New York for St. Louis, Missouri, where his family was then based. While he worked to help support his family he became active in the St. Louis art community, winning prizes for his paintings at a local exhibition. He also exhibited his first painting at the National Academy in 1871. Chase's talent elicited the interest of wealthy St. Louis collectors who arranged for him to visit Europe for two years, in exchange for paintings and Chase's help in securing European art for their collections.
In Europe, Chase settled at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich, a long-standing center of art training that was attracting increasing numbers of Americans and attracted Chase because it had fewer distractions than Paris. He studied under Alexander von Wagner and Karl von Piloty, and befriended American artists Walter Shirlaw, Frank Duveneck, and J(oseph) Frank Currier.
In Munich, Chase employed his rapidly burgeoning talent most often in figurative works that he painted in the loosely brushed style popular with his instructors. In January 1876 one of these figural works, a portrait titled "Keying Up" – The Court Jester (now in the collection of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts) was exhibited at the Boston Art Club; later that year it was exhibited and won a medal at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition, and this success gained Chase his first fame.Chase traveled to Venice, Italy in 1877 with Duveneck and John Henry Twachtman before returning to the United States in the summer of 1878, a highly skilled artist representing the new wave of European-educated American talent. Home in America, he exhibited his painting Ready for the Ride (collection of the Union League Club) with the newly formed Society of American Artists in 1878. He also opened a studio in New York in the Tenth Street Studio Building, home to many of the important painters of the day. He was a member of the Tilers, a group of artists and authors, among whom were some of his notable friends: Winslow Homer, Arthur Quartley and Augustus Saint Gaudens.
Chase cultivated multiple personae: sophisticated cosmopolitan, devoted family man, and esteemed teacher. Chase married Alice Gerson in 1887 and together they raised eight children during Chase's most energetic artistic period. His eldest daughters, Alice Dieudonnee Chase and Dorothy Bremond Chase, often modeled for their father.
In New York City, however, Chase became known for his flamboyance, especially in his dress, his manners, and most of all in his studio. At Tenth Street, Chase had moved into Albert Bierstadt's old studio and had decorated it as an extension of his own art. Chase filled the studio with lavish furniture, decorative objects, stuffed birds, oriental carpets, and exotic musical instruments. The studio served as a focal point for the sophisticated and fashionable members of the New York City art world of the late 19th century. By 1895 the cost of maintaining the studio, in addition to his other residences, forced Chase to close it and auction the contents.
In addition to his painting, Chase actively developed an interest in teaching. Initially he took on private pupils, among his first being Dora Wheeler, a student from 1879 to 1881 who became a professional artist and a lifelong friend. Dora's mother Candace Wheeler wrote in her memoirs of Chase's contagious enthusiasm, "the most generous of teachers, not only giving exhaustively of his stored knowledge of how to do things, but fostering as well the will to do it. Later, somewhat against his will, he was persuaded to take charge of an art-school at Shinnecock Hills, Long Island . . . "
At the instigation of Mrs. William Hoyt, Chase opened the Shinnecock Hills Summer School of Art on eastern Long Island, New York in 1891. He taught there until 1902. Chase adopted the plein air method of painting, and often taught his students in outdoor classes. He also opened the Chase School of Art in 1896, which became the New York School of Art two years later with Chase staying on as instructor until 1907. Chase taught at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts from 1896 to 1909; the Art Students League from 1878 to 1896 and again from 1907 to 1911; and the Brooklyn Art Association in 1887 and from 1891 to 1896. Along with Robert Henri, who became a rival instructor, Chase was the most important teacher of American artists around the turn of the 20th century. In addition to his instruction of East Coast artists like George Bellows, Louise Upton Brumback, Kate Freeman Clark, Jay Hall Connaway, Mariette Leslie Cotton, Charles Demuth, Silas Dustin, Lydia Field Emmet, George Pearse Ennis, Marsden Hartley, Annie Traquair Lang, John Marin, M. Jean McLane, Frances Miller Mumaugh, Georgia O'Keeffe, Leopold Seyffert, Elizabeth Sparhawk-Jones, Joseph Stella and Edward Charles Volkert, he had an important role in influencing California art at the turn of the century, especially in interactions with Arthur Frank Mathews, Xavier Martinez and Percy Gray. He also had an important role in influencing Texan Impressionism: he also taught painter Julian Onderdonk.
After stopping his work at Shinnecock Hills, Chase began taking groups of students overseas in the summer months to tour the important European art centers. In 1903 they visited Haarlem in the Netherlands, where Chase was inspired by a schutterstuk by Frans Hals. He made a self-portrait of himself in the role of one of Hals' schutters, choosing his look-alike Johan Claesz Loo featured in The Officers of the St Adrian Militia Company in 1633.
He is perhaps best known for his portraits, and his sitters including some of the most important men and women of his time. His portrait of painter Lydia Field Emmet in 1892 depicts Emmet in a pose typically reserved for men in old masters' paintings. Emmet's hand is on her hip and she looks over her shoulder at the audience.
Chase also frequently painted his wife Alice and their children, sometimes in individual portraits, and other times in scenes of domestic tranquility: at breakfast in their backyard, or relaxing at their summer home on Long Island, the children playing on the floor or among the sand dunes of Shinnecock. In an 1895 painting titled A Friendly Call, his wife is depicted wearing a yellow dress and entertaining a caller dressed in white.
In addition to painting portraits and full-length figurative works, Chase began painting landscapes in earnest in the late 1880s. His interest in landscape art may have been spawned by the landmark New York exhibit of French impressionist works from Parisian dealer Durand-Ruel in 1886. Chase is best remembered for two series of landscape subjects, both painted in an impressionist manner. The first was his scenes of Prospect and Central Parks in New York; the second were his summer landscapes at Shinnecock. Chase usually featured people prominently in his landscapes. Often he depicted woman and children in leisurely poses, relaxing on a park bench, on the beach, or lying in the summer grass at Shinnecock. The Shinnecock works in particular have come to be thought of by art historians as particularly fine examples of American Impressionism.
In 1903 Chase rented the Villa La Meridiana near Careggi, Florence, to which he would return to paint each summer. Later he bought the Villa Silli, south of the city.
Chase continued to paint still lifes throughout his career as he had done since his student days. Decorative objects filled his studios and homes, and his interior figurative scenes frequently included still life images. He was particularly adept at capturing the effect of light on metallic surfaces such as copper bowls and pitchers. Perhaps Chase's most famous still life subject was dead fish, which he liked to paint against dark backgrounds, limp on a plate as though fresh from a fishmonger's stall. He was known for purchasing the dead fish at the market, painting them quickly, and then returning them before they spoiled.
Chase won many honors at home and abroad, was a member of the National Academy of Design, New York, and from 1885 to 1895 was president of the Society of American Artists. He became a member of the Ten American Painters after John Henry Twachtman died.
Chase's creativity declined in his later years, especially as modern art took hold in America, but he continued to paint and teach into the 1910s. During this period Chase taught such up and coming young artists as Wilhelmina Weber Furlong, Arthur Hill Gilbert, and Edward Hopper.
At Carmel-by-the-Sea from July through September 1914 Chase taught his last summer class, his largest with over one hundred pupils and his most problematic. His former student, Jennie V. Cannon, in conjunction with Chase's business manager C. P. Townsley and Carmel's co-founder Franklin Devendorf, persuaded the esteemed painter to visit the Pacific Coast with promises of generous financial returns. Suffering from declining health (cirrhosis of the liver), Chase took the opportunity shortly after his arrival to meet with the directors of San Francisco's forthcoming Panama-Pacific International Exposition to secure his own exhibition gallery, which he had been denied earlier. He was adored by his Carmel students, several of whom published extensive descriptions of his lectures and teaching methods. Chase found the art colony at Carmel too confining socially and moved his residence to the nearby luxury Hotel Del Monte in Monterey, where he negotiated several important portrait commissions. In mid-August one of his students, Helena Wood Smith, was brutally murdered by her Japanese lover, which caused the cancellation of several classes, near violent hysteria in the art colony, and the early departure of some of his students. Chase continued with his regular teaching schedule, held meetings with important regional artists, such as William Ritschel, painted several local scenes, and experimented with monotypes.
Today his works are in most major museums in the United States. His home and studio at Shinnecock Hills, New York, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 as the William Merritt Chase Homestead. | 2,553 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Flavius Valerius Constantinus, better known as Constantine the Great, was born on February 27, 273 or 274. His father was Constantius Chlorus, afterwards Caesar and Augustus, but at the time of Constantine’s birth merely a promising officer in the Roman Army. Constantius belonged to one of the leading families of Moesia and his mother was a niece of the capable and soldierly Claudius, the conqueror of the Goths. Helena is said to have been the daughter of an innkeeper of Drepanum, and Constantine’s enemies lost no opportunity of dwelling upon the obscurity of his ancestry upon mother’s side. But that he was born in wedlock is beyond question. Helena, who later became St. Helena, is still remembered as the Christian Empress. There is, however, nothing to support the assertion sometimes made, that she was already baptized before Constantine’s birth and her early influence ultimately brought him to Christianity. Such facts about her life as are known would suggest the contrary – Eusebius of Caecarea declares that Constantine in fact converted his mother. There are, however, other indications that Helena was not a Christian during her son’s early years. At what date Helena did embrace Christianity remains a mystery. Nor can anyone say with certainly what gods she worshipped during her son’s childhood.
The uncertainty attaching to the year of Constantine’s birth attaches even more to its place. Where he was born is almost not known. The name of the places have been proposed: Colchester in Britain, Drepanum, a city on the shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia on the southern coast of the Bosphorus, and the town of Naissus, now Nish, in the province of Dacia in the Balkans. None of them can certainly be excluded, but Colchester is the least likely of the three. No one now believes that he was born in Britain – a pleasing fiction which was invented by English monks, who delighted to represent his mother Helena as the daughter of a British King, though they were quite at a loss where to locate his kingdom. The only foundation for this was a passage in one of the Panegyrists, who said that Constantine had bestowed luster upon Britain. There is no evidence that Constantius visited Britain before he became Praetorian Prefect to Maximian in 286 or 287. The evidence for Constantine’s birth at Drepanum in northern Asia Minor is not much convincing. It stands mainly on the facts that he renamed the city Helenopolis and its province Helenopontus in his mother’s honor, and that the emperor Justinian beautified the city because his illustrious predecessor had been born there. Justinian’s act of piety was, however, performed two hundred years after Constantine’s death and can scarcely be taken to prove anything. The weight of the evidence favors Naissus as Constantine’s native town. His contemporary, Julius Firmicius, affirms it absolutely, and it is confirmed by the unnamed author quoted by Ammianus late in the fourth century. Naissus was an important city, and it would not be really remarkable that both Claudius should valiantly defend it and Constantius Chlorus’ son be born there. It would held to fix the date and place Constantine’s birth if there were hard evidence pointing to where Helena’s father kept his inn, when Constantius began his service in the south Danubian area, and how long after the start of Helena’s association with him her son was born. It is tempting to speculate that the inn was at or near Naissus, that Constantius met Helena while serving in the Gothic campaign, and that Constantine was born within a few miles of the side of his alleged imperial relation’s greatest victory.
Of Constantine’s early years we know almost nothing, though we may suppose that they were spent in the eastern half of the Empire. In 293 Constantine was betrothed to Fausta the daughter of Maximian, and in this year his father Constantius was made Caesar, and partially master of Gaul with the task assigned him of recovering Britain. Constantine had no learned education and served both the Augustus Diocletian and the Caesar Galerius as a tribune of the bodyguard. Under Galerius, Constantine fought against the Persians (297-298). But Constantine decided to depart from the east and rejoin his | <urn:uuid:fc550d56-7561-42dc-bdc6-f914a9dc4195> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/constantine/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00060.warc.gz | en | 0.985603 | 920 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.22511798143... | 1 | Flavius Valerius Constantinus, better known as Constantine the Great, was born on February 27, 273 or 274. His father was Constantius Chlorus, afterwards Caesar and Augustus, but at the time of Constantine’s birth merely a promising officer in the Roman Army. Constantius belonged to one of the leading families of Moesia and his mother was a niece of the capable and soldierly Claudius, the conqueror of the Goths. Helena is said to have been the daughter of an innkeeper of Drepanum, and Constantine’s enemies lost no opportunity of dwelling upon the obscurity of his ancestry upon mother’s side. But that he was born in wedlock is beyond question. Helena, who later became St. Helena, is still remembered as the Christian Empress. There is, however, nothing to support the assertion sometimes made, that she was already baptized before Constantine’s birth and her early influence ultimately brought him to Christianity. Such facts about her life as are known would suggest the contrary – Eusebius of Caecarea declares that Constantine in fact converted his mother. There are, however, other indications that Helena was not a Christian during her son’s early years. At what date Helena did embrace Christianity remains a mystery. Nor can anyone say with certainly what gods she worshipped during her son’s childhood.
The uncertainty attaching to the year of Constantine’s birth attaches even more to its place. Where he was born is almost not known. The name of the places have been proposed: Colchester in Britain, Drepanum, a city on the shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia on the southern coast of the Bosphorus, and the town of Naissus, now Nish, in the province of Dacia in the Balkans. None of them can certainly be excluded, but Colchester is the least likely of the three. No one now believes that he was born in Britain – a pleasing fiction which was invented by English monks, who delighted to represent his mother Helena as the daughter of a British King, though they were quite at a loss where to locate his kingdom. The only foundation for this was a passage in one of the Panegyrists, who said that Constantine had bestowed luster upon Britain. There is no evidence that Constantius visited Britain before he became Praetorian Prefect to Maximian in 286 or 287. The evidence for Constantine’s birth at Drepanum in northern Asia Minor is not much convincing. It stands mainly on the facts that he renamed the city Helenopolis and its province Helenopontus in his mother’s honor, and that the emperor Justinian beautified the city because his illustrious predecessor had been born there. Justinian’s act of piety was, however, performed two hundred years after Constantine’s death and can scarcely be taken to prove anything. The weight of the evidence favors Naissus as Constantine’s native town. His contemporary, Julius Firmicius, affirms it absolutely, and it is confirmed by the unnamed author quoted by Ammianus late in the fourth century. Naissus was an important city, and it would not be really remarkable that both Claudius should valiantly defend it and Constantius Chlorus’ son be born there. It would held to fix the date and place Constantine’s birth if there were hard evidence pointing to where Helena’s father kept his inn, when Constantius began his service in the south Danubian area, and how long after the start of Helena’s association with him her son was born. It is tempting to speculate that the inn was at or near Naissus, that Constantius met Helena while serving in the Gothic campaign, and that Constantine was born within a few miles of the side of his alleged imperial relation’s greatest victory.
Of Constantine’s early years we know almost nothing, though we may suppose that they were spent in the eastern half of the Empire. In 293 Constantine was betrothed to Fausta the daughter of Maximian, and in this year his father Constantius was made Caesar, and partially master of Gaul with the task assigned him of recovering Britain. Constantine had no learned education and served both the Augustus Diocletian and the Caesar Galerius as a tribune of the bodyguard. Under Galerius, Constantine fought against the Persians (297-298). But Constantine decided to depart from the east and rejoin his | 930 | ENGLISH | 1 |
, Begar and Reet
Indian society underwent many changes after the British came to India. In the 19th century, certain social practices like female infanticide, child marriage, sati, polygamy and a rigid caste system became more prevalent. These practices were against human dignity and values. Women were discriminated against at all stages of life and were the disadvantaged section of the society. They did not have access to any development opportunities to improve their status. Education was limited to a handful of men belonging to the upper castes. Brahmins had access to the Vedas which were written in Sanskrit. Expensive rituals, sacrifices and practices after birth or death were outlined by the priestly class.
When the British came to India, they brought new ideas such as liberty, equality, freedom and human rights from the Renaissance, the Reformation Movement and the various revolutions that took place in Europe. These ideas appealed to some sections of our society and led to several reform movements in different parts of the country. At the forefront of these movements were visionary Indians such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Aruna Asaf Ali and Pandita Ramabai. These movements looked for social unity and strived towards liberty, equality and fraternity. Many legal measures were introduced to improve the status of women. For example, the practice of sati was banned in 1829 by Lord Bentinck, the then Governor General. Widow Remarriage was permitted by a law passed in 1856. A law passed in 1872, sanctioned inter-caste and inter-communal marriages. Sharda Act was passed in 1929 preventing child marriage. The act provided that it was illegal to marry a girl below 14 and a boy below 18 years. All the movements severely criticized the caste system and especially the practice of untouchability.
The impact of the efforts made by these numerous individuals, reform societies, and religious organisations was felt all over and was most evident in the national movement. Women started getting better education opportunities and took up professions and public employment outside their homes. The role of women like Captain Laxmi Sehgal of Indian National Army (INA), Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, Aruna Asaf Ali and many others were extremely important in the freedom struggle.
The British had come to India with the idea of making immense profits. This meant buying of raw materials at very cheap rates and selling finished goods at much higher prices. The British wanted the Indians to be educated and modern enough to consume their goods but not to the extent that it proved detrimental to British interests.
Some of the Britishers believed that Western ideas were modern and superior, while Indian ideas were old and inferior. This was, of course, not true. Indians had a rich traditional learning that was still relevant. By this time in England there was a group of Radicals who had a humanistic ideology towards Indians. They wanted India to be a part of the modern, progressive world of science. But the British government was cautious in undertaking rapid modernisation of India. They feared a reaction among the people if too much interference took place with their religious beliefs and social customs. The English wanted perpetuation of their rule in India and not a reaction among the people. Hence, though they talked about introducing reforms, in reality very few measures were taken and these were also half-hearted.
The Industrial revolution has helped the English merchants accumulate a lot of capital from the countries of Asia, Africa and America. They now wanted to invest this wealth in setting up industries and trade with India. The mass production of goods through machines that we witness today was pioneered through the Industrial Revolution which occurred first in England during the late 18th and the early 19th century. This led to a massive increase in the output of finished products. The East India Company helped in financing and expanding their industrial base. During this time there was a class of manufacturers in England who benefited more from manufacturing than trading. They were interested in having more raw materials from India as well as sending their finished goods back. Between 1793 and 1813, these British manufacturers launched a campaign against the company, its trade monopoly and the privileges it enjoyed. Ultimately, they succeeded in abolishing the East India Company’s monopoly of Indian trade. With this India became an economic colony of Industrial England.
Earlier, Indian handloom had a big market in Europe. Indian textiles such as cotton, linen, silk and woolen goods already had markets in Asia and Africa. With the coming of industrialisation in England, the textile industry there made important headway. There was now a reverse of the direction of textile trade between Britain and India. There was a massive import of machine made clothes from English factories to Indian markets. This import of large amount of products manufactured by mechanical looms in England led to increase threat for the handicraft industries as the British goods were sold at a much cheaper price.
The British succeeded in selling their goods at a cheap price as foreign goods were given free entry in India without paying any duty. On the other hand, Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily when they were sent out of the country. Besides, under the pressure of its industrialists, British government often imposed a protective tariff on the British succeeded in selling their goods at a cheap price as foreign goods were given free entry in India without paying any duty. On the other hand, Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily when they were sent out of the country. Besides, under the pressure of its industrialists, British government often imposed a protective tariff on Indian textiles. Therefore, within a few years, India from being an exporter of clothes became an exporter of raw cotton and an importer of British clothes. This reversal made a huge impact on the Indian handloom weaving industry leading to its virtual collapse. It also created unemployment for a large community of weavers. Many of them migrated to rural areas to work on their lands as agricultural laborers. This in turn put increased pressure on the rural economy and livelihood. This process of uneven competition faced by the Indian handloom industry was later dubbed by the Indian nationalist leaders as de-industrialisation.
Unfree labour was central to agricultural production in pre-colonial India. Under colonial impact, these forms of unfree labour, while retaining their outward form, were radically changed in content. In medieval times, the subjects of the king were never `free’ as in the modern sense and all social classes and groups were linked to each other vertically and horizontally in ties of bondage, dependence and patronage. Under colonialism these ties got removed from their socio – economic context of origin and existence, and functioned differently in the new environment. It would be an attempt of this paper to see how and what changes were brought about in the institution of `Beth‘ – forced labour of unfree lower castes – in the Simla Hills under the impact of British rule.
Beth and its cousin category of Begar were forms of unfree labour of the agricultural castes. While the latter was given by practically every State subject for community and administrative works, the former was only given by the lowest castes to the higher castes and it usually took the form of semi-serf agricultural labour. When the British gained physical control of the Cis-Sutlej hills in 1815, they gave Sanads to the petty States of the region confirming their formal independence under British Paramountcy. These States, eighteen in all, were given almost complete independence in their internal matters. Begar was the only exaction of the colonial state from most of them in the absence of any proper tribute.
There has been almost no attempt to study the agrarian economies, social structures and political institutions of the Western Himalayas except in the few ecology centered works on the region. Beth ( or other forms of the labour of the lowest castes ) has never been considered worthy of even the most preliminary study, though there have been one or two exceptions. Before we begin any discussion of unfree labour in the specificities of the Simla Hill States, it would be useful to place it in the wider context of unfree labour in colonial situations.
Begar a form of social labour without payment. Its origin goes back to the pre-money era when labour was viewed as an important item of exchange. The land of the king and his men and priests were cultivated by peasants in exchange of some tenurial rights in land granted by the king. When the state became a more elaborate and complex affair in later period, the demesne lands of the ruling classes, particularly of the landlords, were worked by their prajas or subjects gratis. This was considered to be a pious act to give free labour to the priestly classes. Village people always gave free labour in working temple lands also. Such a free labour system is not to be confused with the use of slave and bonded labours. Free labour was given either in exchange of some rights obtained in land or some invisible merit obtained from rulers or from priests. It was a social arrangement made possible under the pre-monetised modes of production and social relations.
Begar was the labour which all subjects had to provide the state for fixed periods during the year. It was unfree because there was no choice about wanting to give labour or not. Since agriculture was backward and most areas were not monetised, only a small part of the surplus could be appropriated through cash or kind. It was for this reason that direct labour services were the predominant form of surplus appropriation by the Hill States. There were basically two types of begar taken by the State; one, the regular labour extracted throughout the year and two, the contributions in labour and kind made during special occasions like birth, death and marriage in the Chief’s family. These types of labour had to be provided by all peasant proprietors and other agriculturalists, exceptions being made for members of the royal family, certain Bramhin and Rajput families and most of the village devtas and divinities. This labour service was taken by the State through its officers and the members of the royal family.
Begar was recognised by the British authorities right from 1815, and all the Sanads granted to these Hill States recorded in detail the types, quantities and other requirements of the labour to be provided by the hill people to the British authority. British records of this period have no mention of the term Beth, or other forms of unfree labour, in the Western Himalaya.
In the Shimla Hill States and many adjoining countries such as Mandi, Kullu and Kangra, an obnoxious custom namely Reet was prevalent since time immemorial. It is difficult to give any precise definition of Reet.To some it was a form of marriage but to others, it was the payment usually made on the occasion. Therefore, Reet may be defined as a form of marriage without any ritual or ceremony and was contracted by paying a price. Under this custom, girls and young women were allowed to go for sums usually ranging from Rs.lOO to Rs.500 but sometimes going up to Rs.2,000 by the parents or other guardians in the case of unmarried girls and by husbands in the case of married ones. Thus, the amount paid was known as "Reet' money. After the payment of this money, the first marriage was, ipso facto annulled and concubinage with the second man became a marriage. There was no limit to the number of women, that one might get under Reet nor any restriction as to leaving any of them again, and in this they might change hands any number of times. Therefore, the marriage under "Reet' could be dissolved as easily as it was contracted. From this it is clear that woman was treated as a chattel, a commodity to be brought and sold time and again.
The Reet was prevalent among the Kolis, Chanals, Chamars and other tribes which formed the lowest rung in social stratification. In most of the Hill States, if not at all, it was also prevalent among the Kanets. However, Reet was not observed among the high caste Brahmans and Rajputs.
There were many evil results of "Reet" custom; domestic ties became loose and marriage came to have very insignificant position in the stability of society. Indiscriminate relations of a woman with many men often resulted in her catching syphilla and in return, she transmitted the disease to many persons. Perhaps that is why these contagious diseases became widespread in the hill states. Further, the institution of "Reet' also resulted in the laxity of sexual relations and the total disregard of the laws of chastity. The girls were often used for immoral purposes and this led to a notorious traffic in them, which finally swelled the ranks of prostitutes. While highlighting the bad results of the custom, the "Bombay Chronicle' commented: The effects of such lax relationship, whether on the character of sex-relationship or on racial advancement were disastrous. Since marriage is purely mechanical, being based on money bargain, it is not regarded as a sacred human relationship with the result that the conditions which obtain there are hardly distinguishable from general promiscuity. Divorce is not obtained on some rational grounds such as cruelty or vice or insanity of a mate or even an irreconcilable incompatibility of temperament between the couple, but simply on that of lust backed by economic means. The result is the degradation of the status of women, which, after all a the test of morality and steady racial degeneration among the hill tribes.
CGPCS Notes brings Prelims and Mains programs for CGPCS Prelims and CGPCS Mains Exam preparation. Various Programs initiated by CGPCS Notes are as follows:-
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- CGPCS Detailed Complete Prelims 2020 Notes | <urn:uuid:b619fbb3-0602-4776-9f90-6882e9fef4b3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://chhattisgarh.pscnotes.com/modern-history/social-and-economic-conditions-under-colonial-period-with-special-reference-to-social-practices-of-beth/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.98096 | 2,869 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.050930120... | 1 | , Begar and Reet
Indian society underwent many changes after the British came to India. In the 19th century, certain social practices like female infanticide, child marriage, sati, polygamy and a rigid caste system became more prevalent. These practices were against human dignity and values. Women were discriminated against at all stages of life and were the disadvantaged section of the society. They did not have access to any development opportunities to improve their status. Education was limited to a handful of men belonging to the upper castes. Brahmins had access to the Vedas which were written in Sanskrit. Expensive rituals, sacrifices and practices after birth or death were outlined by the priestly class.
When the British came to India, they brought new ideas such as liberty, equality, freedom and human rights from the Renaissance, the Reformation Movement and the various revolutions that took place in Europe. These ideas appealed to some sections of our society and led to several reform movements in different parts of the country. At the forefront of these movements were visionary Indians such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Aruna Asaf Ali and Pandita Ramabai. These movements looked for social unity and strived towards liberty, equality and fraternity. Many legal measures were introduced to improve the status of women. For example, the practice of sati was banned in 1829 by Lord Bentinck, the then Governor General. Widow Remarriage was permitted by a law passed in 1856. A law passed in 1872, sanctioned inter-caste and inter-communal marriages. Sharda Act was passed in 1929 preventing child marriage. The act provided that it was illegal to marry a girl below 14 and a boy below 18 years. All the movements severely criticized the caste system and especially the practice of untouchability.
The impact of the efforts made by these numerous individuals, reform societies, and religious organisations was felt all over and was most evident in the national movement. Women started getting better education opportunities and took up professions and public employment outside their homes. The role of women like Captain Laxmi Sehgal of Indian National Army (INA), Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, Aruna Asaf Ali and many others were extremely important in the freedom struggle.
The British had come to India with the idea of making immense profits. This meant buying of raw materials at very cheap rates and selling finished goods at much higher prices. The British wanted the Indians to be educated and modern enough to consume their goods but not to the extent that it proved detrimental to British interests.
Some of the Britishers believed that Western ideas were modern and superior, while Indian ideas were old and inferior. This was, of course, not true. Indians had a rich traditional learning that was still relevant. By this time in England there was a group of Radicals who had a humanistic ideology towards Indians. They wanted India to be a part of the modern, progressive world of science. But the British government was cautious in undertaking rapid modernisation of India. They feared a reaction among the people if too much interference took place with their religious beliefs and social customs. The English wanted perpetuation of their rule in India and not a reaction among the people. Hence, though they talked about introducing reforms, in reality very few measures were taken and these were also half-hearted.
The Industrial revolution has helped the English merchants accumulate a lot of capital from the countries of Asia, Africa and America. They now wanted to invest this wealth in setting up industries and trade with India. The mass production of goods through machines that we witness today was pioneered through the Industrial Revolution which occurred first in England during the late 18th and the early 19th century. This led to a massive increase in the output of finished products. The East India Company helped in financing and expanding their industrial base. During this time there was a class of manufacturers in England who benefited more from manufacturing than trading. They were interested in having more raw materials from India as well as sending their finished goods back. Between 1793 and 1813, these British manufacturers launched a campaign against the company, its trade monopoly and the privileges it enjoyed. Ultimately, they succeeded in abolishing the East India Company’s monopoly of Indian trade. With this India became an economic colony of Industrial England.
Earlier, Indian handloom had a big market in Europe. Indian textiles such as cotton, linen, silk and woolen goods already had markets in Asia and Africa. With the coming of industrialisation in England, the textile industry there made important headway. There was now a reverse of the direction of textile trade between Britain and India. There was a massive import of machine made clothes from English factories to Indian markets. This import of large amount of products manufactured by mechanical looms in England led to increase threat for the handicraft industries as the British goods were sold at a much cheaper price.
The British succeeded in selling their goods at a cheap price as foreign goods were given free entry in India without paying any duty. On the other hand, Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily when they were sent out of the country. Besides, under the pressure of its industrialists, British government often imposed a protective tariff on the British succeeded in selling their goods at a cheap price as foreign goods were given free entry in India without paying any duty. On the other hand, Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily when they were sent out of the country. Besides, under the pressure of its industrialists, British government often imposed a protective tariff on Indian textiles. Therefore, within a few years, India from being an exporter of clothes became an exporter of raw cotton and an importer of British clothes. This reversal made a huge impact on the Indian handloom weaving industry leading to its virtual collapse. It also created unemployment for a large community of weavers. Many of them migrated to rural areas to work on their lands as agricultural laborers. This in turn put increased pressure on the rural economy and livelihood. This process of uneven competition faced by the Indian handloom industry was later dubbed by the Indian nationalist leaders as de-industrialisation.
Unfree labour was central to agricultural production in pre-colonial India. Under colonial impact, these forms of unfree labour, while retaining their outward form, were radically changed in content. In medieval times, the subjects of the king were never `free’ as in the modern sense and all social classes and groups were linked to each other vertically and horizontally in ties of bondage, dependence and patronage. Under colonialism these ties got removed from their socio – economic context of origin and existence, and functioned differently in the new environment. It would be an attempt of this paper to see how and what changes were brought about in the institution of `Beth‘ – forced labour of unfree lower castes – in the Simla Hills under the impact of British rule.
Beth and its cousin category of Begar were forms of unfree labour of the agricultural castes. While the latter was given by practically every State subject for community and administrative works, the former was only given by the lowest castes to the higher castes and it usually took the form of semi-serf agricultural labour. When the British gained physical control of the Cis-Sutlej hills in 1815, they gave Sanads to the petty States of the region confirming their formal independence under British Paramountcy. These States, eighteen in all, were given almost complete independence in their internal matters. Begar was the only exaction of the colonial state from most of them in the absence of any proper tribute.
There has been almost no attempt to study the agrarian economies, social structures and political institutions of the Western Himalayas except in the few ecology centered works on the region. Beth ( or other forms of the labour of the lowest castes ) has never been considered worthy of even the most preliminary study, though there have been one or two exceptions. Before we begin any discussion of unfree labour in the specificities of the Simla Hill States, it would be useful to place it in the wider context of unfree labour in colonial situations.
Begar a form of social labour without payment. Its origin goes back to the pre-money era when labour was viewed as an important item of exchange. The land of the king and his men and priests were cultivated by peasants in exchange of some tenurial rights in land granted by the king. When the state became a more elaborate and complex affair in later period, the demesne lands of the ruling classes, particularly of the landlords, were worked by their prajas or subjects gratis. This was considered to be a pious act to give free labour to the priestly classes. Village people always gave free labour in working temple lands also. Such a free labour system is not to be confused with the use of slave and bonded labours. Free labour was given either in exchange of some rights obtained in land or some invisible merit obtained from rulers or from priests. It was a social arrangement made possible under the pre-monetised modes of production and social relations.
Begar was the labour which all subjects had to provide the state for fixed periods during the year. It was unfree because there was no choice about wanting to give labour or not. Since agriculture was backward and most areas were not monetised, only a small part of the surplus could be appropriated through cash or kind. It was for this reason that direct labour services were the predominant form of surplus appropriation by the Hill States. There were basically two types of begar taken by the State; one, the regular labour extracted throughout the year and two, the contributions in labour and kind made during special occasions like birth, death and marriage in the Chief’s family. These types of labour had to be provided by all peasant proprietors and other agriculturalists, exceptions being made for members of the royal family, certain Bramhin and Rajput families and most of the village devtas and divinities. This labour service was taken by the State through its officers and the members of the royal family.
Begar was recognised by the British authorities right from 1815, and all the Sanads granted to these Hill States recorded in detail the types, quantities and other requirements of the labour to be provided by the hill people to the British authority. British records of this period have no mention of the term Beth, or other forms of unfree labour, in the Western Himalaya.
In the Shimla Hill States and many adjoining countries such as Mandi, Kullu and Kangra, an obnoxious custom namely Reet was prevalent since time immemorial. It is difficult to give any precise definition of Reet.To some it was a form of marriage but to others, it was the payment usually made on the occasion. Therefore, Reet may be defined as a form of marriage without any ritual or ceremony and was contracted by paying a price. Under this custom, girls and young women were allowed to go for sums usually ranging from Rs.lOO to Rs.500 but sometimes going up to Rs.2,000 by the parents or other guardians in the case of unmarried girls and by husbands in the case of married ones. Thus, the amount paid was known as "Reet' money. After the payment of this money, the first marriage was, ipso facto annulled and concubinage with the second man became a marriage. There was no limit to the number of women, that one might get under Reet nor any restriction as to leaving any of them again, and in this they might change hands any number of times. Therefore, the marriage under "Reet' could be dissolved as easily as it was contracted. From this it is clear that woman was treated as a chattel, a commodity to be brought and sold time and again.
The Reet was prevalent among the Kolis, Chanals, Chamars and other tribes which formed the lowest rung in social stratification. In most of the Hill States, if not at all, it was also prevalent among the Kanets. However, Reet was not observed among the high caste Brahmans and Rajputs.
There were many evil results of "Reet" custom; domestic ties became loose and marriage came to have very insignificant position in the stability of society. Indiscriminate relations of a woman with many men often resulted in her catching syphilla and in return, she transmitted the disease to many persons. Perhaps that is why these contagious diseases became widespread in the hill states. Further, the institution of "Reet' also resulted in the laxity of sexual relations and the total disregard of the laws of chastity. The girls were often used for immoral purposes and this led to a notorious traffic in them, which finally swelled the ranks of prostitutes. While highlighting the bad results of the custom, the "Bombay Chronicle' commented: The effects of such lax relationship, whether on the character of sex-relationship or on racial advancement were disastrous. Since marriage is purely mechanical, being based on money bargain, it is not regarded as a sacred human relationship with the result that the conditions which obtain there are hardly distinguishable from general promiscuity. Divorce is not obtained on some rational grounds such as cruelty or vice or insanity of a mate or even an irreconcilable incompatibility of temperament between the couple, but simply on that of lust backed by economic means. The result is the degradation of the status of women, which, after all a the test of morality and steady racial degeneration among the hill tribes.
CGPCS Notes brings Prelims and Mains programs for CGPCS Prelims and CGPCS Mains Exam preparation. Various Programs initiated by CGPCS Notes are as follows:-
- CGPCS Mains 2020 Tests and Notes Program
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- CGPCS Detailed Complete Prelims 2020 Notes | 2,878 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Discovery of Christopher Columbus
“In 1492 he sailed the ocean blue..” we’ve all heard this saying. Christopher Columbus has always received credit for the founding of America, but does he deserve it? Before Columbus even thought about discovering the “new world” there were already people here so why does he get the credit. America was already home to over a million natives. Although Columbus does deserve credit for bringing some things to the new world he did not discover America!
Does he deserve it? Well to start Columbus was actually looking for a new route to Asia, he thought if he went west he could reach it because he assumed the circumference of the earth was much smaller. When he sailed west instead of finding a new route to Asia he “discovered america”, that’s what you think Columbus actually discovered what we now call the Bahamas. Did you know Columbus never actually stepped foot on North America? But there was a viking explorer who did years before.
Leif Ericson, ever heard of him? Well his dad Erik the Red actually founded Greenland which is located in Canada. He actually stepped foot on North American soil and made settlement. Columbus didn't even step foot on North American soil and even if Columbus actually did he still did not deserve the credit because Erik actually saw American. Almost 500 years before Columbus Leif Ericson began settlement in America. Leif Ericson settled in a region he called Vinland which is now present day Greenland. Not only did Ericson settle, but he actually began to grow and use some of our main resources today. Ericson was later forced to leave due to war with the natives, which is why Columbus thought he discovered America.
So yes Columbus did discover some American islands but let's talk about the troubles he brought along with him. Nearly 90% of Native Americans were killed by diseases such as smallpox, measles, and the flu because they were not immune. Not only were the diseases killing these people he later forced the natives to work on plantations, search for gold, and not to mention that he also sent many natives to be “servants” and sold in Spain. Many of those natives died on the trip to Spain. And to give credit where credits is due Columbus did start one huge trade system in which bought many great but bad things to the New World. Many crops and animals were introduced, but slavery was also started which had a very negative affect that continued many years later.
As you can see there is a lot of controversy about the foundings of America. But one thing is for sure Columbus definetly did not discover America. We may not know exactly who found America and when, but many explorers were here before. Erik the Red and Leif Ericson his son touched the mainland at least 500 years before. Columbus did start a trading system that benefited and bought America down in many ways.He may have also seen some islands in which people were already there. Although Columbus does deserve credit for bringing some things to the new world he did not discover America!
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- The Renaissance Essay Example | <urn:uuid:269aef1c-3e80-4e53-a93a-f88473707fff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://samples.essaytopicsmasters.com/informative/the-discovery-of-christopher-columbus-essay-example | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00046.warc.gz | en | 0.982291 | 726 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.39588600397... | 1 | The Discovery of Christopher Columbus
“In 1492 he sailed the ocean blue..” we’ve all heard this saying. Christopher Columbus has always received credit for the founding of America, but does he deserve it? Before Columbus even thought about discovering the “new world” there were already people here so why does he get the credit. America was already home to over a million natives. Although Columbus does deserve credit for bringing some things to the new world he did not discover America!
Does he deserve it? Well to start Columbus was actually looking for a new route to Asia, he thought if he went west he could reach it because he assumed the circumference of the earth was much smaller. When he sailed west instead of finding a new route to Asia he “discovered america”, that’s what you think Columbus actually discovered what we now call the Bahamas. Did you know Columbus never actually stepped foot on North America? But there was a viking explorer who did years before.
Leif Ericson, ever heard of him? Well his dad Erik the Red actually founded Greenland which is located in Canada. He actually stepped foot on North American soil and made settlement. Columbus didn't even step foot on North American soil and even if Columbus actually did he still did not deserve the credit because Erik actually saw American. Almost 500 years before Columbus Leif Ericson began settlement in America. Leif Ericson settled in a region he called Vinland which is now present day Greenland. Not only did Ericson settle, but he actually began to grow and use some of our main resources today. Ericson was later forced to leave due to war with the natives, which is why Columbus thought he discovered America.
So yes Columbus did discover some American islands but let's talk about the troubles he brought along with him. Nearly 90% of Native Americans were killed by diseases such as smallpox, measles, and the flu because they were not immune. Not only were the diseases killing these people he later forced the natives to work on plantations, search for gold, and not to mention that he also sent many natives to be “servants” and sold in Spain. Many of those natives died on the trip to Spain. And to give credit where credits is due Columbus did start one huge trade system in which bought many great but bad things to the New World. Many crops and animals were introduced, but slavery was also started which had a very negative affect that continued many years later.
As you can see there is a lot of controversy about the foundings of America. But one thing is for sure Columbus definetly did not discover America. We may not know exactly who found America and when, but many explorers were here before. Erik the Red and Leif Ericson his son touched the mainland at least 500 years before. Columbus did start a trading system that benefited and bought America down in many ways.He may have also seen some islands in which people were already there. Although Columbus does deserve credit for bringing some things to the new world he did not discover America!
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- The Renaissance Essay Example | 702 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of the Old Outhouse
As people settled on the Great Plains, a need for sanitary facilities arose. In order to meet this need, outhouses were constructed using lumber or bricks. Outhouses were a type of “folk architecture” and soon became commonplace.
Contrary to need, some people didn’t like outhouses and considered them indecent and an affront to the sensibilities of civilized frontier people. However, they eventually realized they were necessary.
These small buildings had many different names, including little house, privy, back house, water closet, latrine, and in Australia, dunny.
Location & Maintenance
Outhouses were located in backyards, placed a distance away from the house, yet close enough for easy access. They were also situated away from wells to minimize risk of ground water pollution, contamination, and disease.
Some owners camouflaged the structures with plantings of hollyhocks, trumpet vine, wisteria, and honeysuckle. Sometimes the structures were placed near the family’s wood pile, so users, on their way back to the house, could pick up and carry in an armload of wood, so there would always be wood to feed the stove.
Most outhouses were cleaned periodically. On certain wash days, leftover soapy water was carried to the outhouse and used to scrub everything down. In addition, some outhouse owners kept a bag of lime with a tin can in the outhouse, and occasionally dumped some down the holes to control the odor.
Outhouses were built over a pit, which was usually three to six feet deep. When the pits became full, most outhouses were moved to another open pit, and the filled pit was covered with soil. At times, however, professionals, called gong farmers, were called in to empty the pits. This was a dangerous job, sometimes resulting in suffocation or illness.
Since toilet tissue was practically unknown, and even nonexistent in some areas, corn cobs, leaves, newspaper, and catalogs served that purpose. Some used pages from The Farmer’s Almanac because it had a hole on the left side so it could be hung from a nail.
Fumbles, Bumbles & Disasters
Women and children were often terrified when they saw a spider, salamander, bee, wasp, or snake in the outhouse, and their screams and yells brought fathers and brothers to their rescue, carrying hoes or other weapons.
Outhouses were often damaged by wind and hail. They were also frequent targets for pranksters. Upsetting outhouses damaged most of them, and it was difficult to set them up again.
Style & Construction
Outhouses were not always pretty, but they were functional. These facilities varied in design, including some hexagonal shapes, but most were three to four feet square and about seven feet tall. There were no windows, heat, or electricity. Some had a door on the lower level to allow the pit contents to be removed, but most were built of light lumber, so they could be moved easily. Wealthy families, however, often built brick outhouses with a cupola or gingerbread trim.
Cut-outs were frequently included on outhouse doors for light and ventilation. In addition, the symbols indicated users for public outhouses – a star indicated that the outhouse was for men, while a crescent moon meant it was to be used only by women. According to historical records, this symbolism originated in early times, when the circle represented the sun, which symbolized masculinity, and the moon, which was more subdued and submissive, represented femininity. Also, since widespread illiteracy prevailed in the early days, these symbols helped folks choose the correct outhouse.
The holes were sometimes of different sizes – larger for adults and smaller for children – and outhouses oftentimes had more than one hole. It’s been said that one hotel in Montana had an outhouse with 12 holes.
Many outhouses were kept simple, while others were either built to be unique or were decorated to be fancy. Thomas Jefferson, for instance, had two eight-sided, well-constructed outhouses. Other folks, typically women, wallpapered the interior of the outhouse, upholstered the bench seats, and even carpeted the floor.
Double-decker outhouses were built near better homes, hotels, and rooming houses. One level was built farther out than the lower level or levels, and some were built onto existing structures so people wouldn’t have to venture out into inclement weather to use the facilities.
In Bryant Pond, Maine, a three-story outhouse is attached to the Masonic Lodge. In 2000, the owner finally installed a flush toilet on the lowest level. In Dover, Arkansas, the Booger Hollow Trading Post, which was a popular tourist attraction before it closed in 2004, features a double-decker outhouse. The outhouse doors on the ground floor are marked “Maw” and “Paw,” and a sign warns “Upstairs closed ‘til we figure out plummin.”
During the 1930s, under the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt and the guidance of the Works Progress Administration (WPA), thousands of unemployed people worked on a variety of projects. One project, promoted by Eleanor Roosevelt, was the building of solid, reliable outhouses. These structures could be built in about 20 hours, at a cost of $5 to $17, and included concrete floors and screened ventilation. These WPA outhouses were known as “Roosevelt toilets.”
Now Just Memories
Outhouses, like many other necessities of the early days, are now memories for most of us. These small outbuildings were not only a part of our architectural heritage, but they served a purpose. At times, we laugh about incidents that occurred in the outhouse or near it. However, most of us also recall the winter visits when we shivered in the cold and filled our shoes with snow as we walked to and from the outhouse. We also recall the days of summer, when the outhouse was smoldering hot, and we had sweat pouring off of us. However, outhouses served a need and represented better sanitation. They were invaluable and memorable for all who used them. | <urn:uuid:fd4c5d92-934f-4c59-871a-f4de251e9260> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cappersfarmer.com/humor-and-nostalgia/outhouses/old-outhouse-history-zm0z17suzsgre | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00369.warc.gz | en | 0.990337 | 1,315 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.2031241506338119... | 2 | History of the Old Outhouse
As people settled on the Great Plains, a need for sanitary facilities arose. In order to meet this need, outhouses were constructed using lumber or bricks. Outhouses were a type of “folk architecture” and soon became commonplace.
Contrary to need, some people didn’t like outhouses and considered them indecent and an affront to the sensibilities of civilized frontier people. However, they eventually realized they were necessary.
These small buildings had many different names, including little house, privy, back house, water closet, latrine, and in Australia, dunny.
Location & Maintenance
Outhouses were located in backyards, placed a distance away from the house, yet close enough for easy access. They were also situated away from wells to minimize risk of ground water pollution, contamination, and disease.
Some owners camouflaged the structures with plantings of hollyhocks, trumpet vine, wisteria, and honeysuckle. Sometimes the structures were placed near the family’s wood pile, so users, on their way back to the house, could pick up and carry in an armload of wood, so there would always be wood to feed the stove.
Most outhouses were cleaned periodically. On certain wash days, leftover soapy water was carried to the outhouse and used to scrub everything down. In addition, some outhouse owners kept a bag of lime with a tin can in the outhouse, and occasionally dumped some down the holes to control the odor.
Outhouses were built over a pit, which was usually three to six feet deep. When the pits became full, most outhouses were moved to another open pit, and the filled pit was covered with soil. At times, however, professionals, called gong farmers, were called in to empty the pits. This was a dangerous job, sometimes resulting in suffocation or illness.
Since toilet tissue was practically unknown, and even nonexistent in some areas, corn cobs, leaves, newspaper, and catalogs served that purpose. Some used pages from The Farmer’s Almanac because it had a hole on the left side so it could be hung from a nail.
Fumbles, Bumbles & Disasters
Women and children were often terrified when they saw a spider, salamander, bee, wasp, or snake in the outhouse, and their screams and yells brought fathers and brothers to their rescue, carrying hoes or other weapons.
Outhouses were often damaged by wind and hail. They were also frequent targets for pranksters. Upsetting outhouses damaged most of them, and it was difficult to set them up again.
Style & Construction
Outhouses were not always pretty, but they were functional. These facilities varied in design, including some hexagonal shapes, but most were three to four feet square and about seven feet tall. There were no windows, heat, or electricity. Some had a door on the lower level to allow the pit contents to be removed, but most were built of light lumber, so they could be moved easily. Wealthy families, however, often built brick outhouses with a cupola or gingerbread trim.
Cut-outs were frequently included on outhouse doors for light and ventilation. In addition, the symbols indicated users for public outhouses – a star indicated that the outhouse was for men, while a crescent moon meant it was to be used only by women. According to historical records, this symbolism originated in early times, when the circle represented the sun, which symbolized masculinity, and the moon, which was more subdued and submissive, represented femininity. Also, since widespread illiteracy prevailed in the early days, these symbols helped folks choose the correct outhouse.
The holes were sometimes of different sizes – larger for adults and smaller for children – and outhouses oftentimes had more than one hole. It’s been said that one hotel in Montana had an outhouse with 12 holes.
Many outhouses were kept simple, while others were either built to be unique or were decorated to be fancy. Thomas Jefferson, for instance, had two eight-sided, well-constructed outhouses. Other folks, typically women, wallpapered the interior of the outhouse, upholstered the bench seats, and even carpeted the floor.
Double-decker outhouses were built near better homes, hotels, and rooming houses. One level was built farther out than the lower level or levels, and some were built onto existing structures so people wouldn’t have to venture out into inclement weather to use the facilities.
In Bryant Pond, Maine, a three-story outhouse is attached to the Masonic Lodge. In 2000, the owner finally installed a flush toilet on the lowest level. In Dover, Arkansas, the Booger Hollow Trading Post, which was a popular tourist attraction before it closed in 2004, features a double-decker outhouse. The outhouse doors on the ground floor are marked “Maw” and “Paw,” and a sign warns “Upstairs closed ‘til we figure out plummin.”
During the 1930s, under the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt and the guidance of the Works Progress Administration (WPA), thousands of unemployed people worked on a variety of projects. One project, promoted by Eleanor Roosevelt, was the building of solid, reliable outhouses. These structures could be built in about 20 hours, at a cost of $5 to $17, and included concrete floors and screened ventilation. These WPA outhouses were known as “Roosevelt toilets.”
Now Just Memories
Outhouses, like many other necessities of the early days, are now memories for most of us. These small outbuildings were not only a part of our architectural heritage, but they served a purpose. At times, we laugh about incidents that occurred in the outhouse or near it. However, most of us also recall the winter visits when we shivered in the cold and filled our shoes with snow as we walked to and from the outhouse. We also recall the days of summer, when the outhouse was smoldering hot, and we had sweat pouring off of us. However, outhouses served a need and represented better sanitation. They were invaluable and memorable for all who used them. | 1,313 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Car seat technology has come a long way since the mid-20th century. For instance, we don’t use steel slabs for babies anymore…
When cars were first on the roads, there were no restraints for adults or children. As parents realized that children could be distracting in the car, restraints were invented to keep the child immobile. However, there did not seem to be much knowledge or concession towards safety in these seats. They were very basic in design and features.
As time passed, car manufacturers put more effort into making cars safer. Seat belts were introduced and infant car seats became more rigid and tolerant to impact. Eventually, laws were introduced to enforce car seat use and to ensure that the seats were assembled and fitted correctly.
Here is a look at the first attempts available to keep the little one in their seat. | <urn:uuid:09f5ba39-d155-4f6c-94ea-c1d7b565cb18> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vintagenewsdaily.com/12-strange-vintage-baby-car-seat-ads-from-the-mid-20th-century/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00031.warc.gz | en | 0.993796 | 171 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.3774848282337... | 5 | Car seat technology has come a long way since the mid-20th century. For instance, we don’t use steel slabs for babies anymore…
When cars were first on the roads, there were no restraints for adults or children. As parents realized that children could be distracting in the car, restraints were invented to keep the child immobile. However, there did not seem to be much knowledge or concession towards safety in these seats. They were very basic in design and features.
As time passed, car manufacturers put more effort into making cars safer. Seat belts were introduced and infant car seats became more rigid and tolerant to impact. Eventually, laws were introduced to enforce car seat use and to ensure that the seats were assembled and fitted correctly.
Here is a look at the first attempts available to keep the little one in their seat. | 169 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At the University of Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines in France, paleontologists recreated the appearance of Cro-Magnon, who lived about 30,000 years ago. Remains of Cro-Magnon 1 were found in 1868 in Cro-Magnon cave in south-west France, and bone damage was found on the frontal part of the skull. What caused this damage, it was possible to establish only now.
Thanks to magnetic resonance imaging, scientists found that the ancient man suffered from a genetic disease of neurofibromatosis, in which benign tumors are formed on the face and body. The whole face Cro-Magnon, who died at the age of 50, was covered with cones, the largest of which was on his forehead. | <urn:uuid:37d8793f-ae0b-43de-9c4e-bc781212ba76> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hybridtechcar.com/2018/04/02/scientists-have-recreated-the-appearance-cro-magnon-who-lived-30-thousand-years-ago-2-photos/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00335.warc.gz | en | 0.982198 | 162 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.3167606592178345,... | 4 | At the University of Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines in France, paleontologists recreated the appearance of Cro-Magnon, who lived about 30,000 years ago. Remains of Cro-Magnon 1 were found in 1868 in Cro-Magnon cave in south-west France, and bone damage was found on the frontal part of the skull. What caused this damage, it was possible to establish only now.
Thanks to magnetic resonance imaging, scientists found that the ancient man suffered from a genetic disease of neurofibromatosis, in which benign tumors are formed on the face and body. The whole face Cro-Magnon, who died at the age of 50, was covered with cones, the largest of which was on his forehead. | 165 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frida Kahlo was developed on September 6th, 1907, Coyoacán, Mexico City, Mexico in her father's much loved ‘Blue Property. 1' Your woman died at the age of 47 in her precious blue home on Tuesday, July 13th, 1954. Frida Kahlo is usually one of Mexico's most famous artists and represents strength and durability. She was obviously a surrealist and her art work reflected visual honesty. As a result of her weak and sensitive body following her accident she went through 30 procedures on her backbone and made frequent visits for the hospital. In spite of so much pain Frida Kahlo channeled that and her feelings into her art. Frida Kahlo experienced these paradoxical qualities, exactly where on the one hand she's this goddess that presents strength and resilience whereas on the other hand she can was similar to a man, she was crude like men; she smoked, consumed alcohol, swore and told dirty comedies to scare guests. Even though Frida suffered an enormous amount of physical and emotional discomfort she was always a great outgoing person. People were stunned by her beauty and wherever the girl went, people stopped into stare by her. Men wanted her and women wanted to be her. Beautiful, intelligent, and extremely accomplished Kahlo was considered one of the most desirable women of her time. The lady was romantically linked with celebrities, artists, and politicians of several different ethnicities. During her separation from Diego, Frida engaged in many affairs with both men and women. Diego turned a blind eyesight at her relationships with women unfortunately he enraged by her love affairs with men. �
At the age of 6 Kahlo's got polio and her right lower leg and ft . became deformed despite her father's work to restore some muscle tissue the leg remained deformed which Kahlo covered with firm dresses and skirts. 1 She a new limp her whole life and received the nick brand ‘peg-leg-Frida' because of how slim her right leg was. During 1922 the Mexican Renaissance movement began as well as the government sponsored local designers to paint murals in churches, educational institutions, libraries and public complexes. Diego Rivera, a man who does play a major role in Kahlo's your life, painted decals while Kahlo would conceal, since college students were not allowed to be in the auditorium, and watch him for hours. Rivera was often called ‘panzon' which means fat belly being when he was a three hundred pound guy.
Kahlo got into an accident while on a bus with Alejandro upon September seventeenth, 1925. The accident will change her life. A common pipe went through her hip bone fragments and out the pelvic cuboid as a result your woman broke her pelvic bone, spinal column and sustained various other severe accidents which the doctors believed she would not make it through. Kahlo suffered 30 functions in her lifetime to fix the damage from your accident. Doctors said she would never get pregnant a child total term as a result of her broken pelvis. Kahlo originally prepared for becoming a doctor but now bedridden for several weeks she received paints and brushes via her daddy, her mother had a father construct and easel to position on her pickup bed and an image was also installed on the canopy over her thus she can paint self-portraits. Kahlo's dad Wilhelm Kahlo thought Frida to be his favourite from the four children he provides with her mother Matilde Calderón Kahlo. Frida Kahlo's father often said, " She is the most intelligent coming from all my daughters and the potential me. 2” Out of the 143 painting Frida Kahlo do in her lifetime fifty five were self-portraits of her. She generally said, " I paint self-portraits because I am so frequently alone mainly because I are the subject I know best. 2” Near the end of 1927 Kahlo's life returned into a sort of ‘normal' state in addition to 1928 at a party Kahlo – from afar - observed Diego Regato again the first time since the crash. Later Kahlo gave Rivera some of her work which in turn he respected and informed her she got talent. Kahlo said, " I hardly ever paint dreams, I decorated my own fact, I paint whatever goes by through me without any other consideration. 2”
Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera did marry on August 21st, 1929, a detrimental ceremony was... | <urn:uuid:6dcdd4b4-acb0-42b1-9eea-ddc297fb916a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://redupexal-de.com/frida-kahlo-biography/69576-frida-kahlo-biography-dissertation.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00390.warc.gz | en | 0.983232 | 903 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.21552297472953796,... | 1 | Frida Kahlo was developed on September 6th, 1907, Coyoacán, Mexico City, Mexico in her father's much loved ‘Blue Property. 1' Your woman died at the age of 47 in her precious blue home on Tuesday, July 13th, 1954. Frida Kahlo is usually one of Mexico's most famous artists and represents strength and durability. She was obviously a surrealist and her art work reflected visual honesty. As a result of her weak and sensitive body following her accident she went through 30 procedures on her backbone and made frequent visits for the hospital. In spite of so much pain Frida Kahlo channeled that and her feelings into her art. Frida Kahlo experienced these paradoxical qualities, exactly where on the one hand she's this goddess that presents strength and resilience whereas on the other hand she can was similar to a man, she was crude like men; she smoked, consumed alcohol, swore and told dirty comedies to scare guests. Even though Frida suffered an enormous amount of physical and emotional discomfort she was always a great outgoing person. People were stunned by her beauty and wherever the girl went, people stopped into stare by her. Men wanted her and women wanted to be her. Beautiful, intelligent, and extremely accomplished Kahlo was considered one of the most desirable women of her time. The lady was romantically linked with celebrities, artists, and politicians of several different ethnicities. During her separation from Diego, Frida engaged in many affairs with both men and women. Diego turned a blind eyesight at her relationships with women unfortunately he enraged by her love affairs with men. �
At the age of 6 Kahlo's got polio and her right lower leg and ft . became deformed despite her father's work to restore some muscle tissue the leg remained deformed which Kahlo covered with firm dresses and skirts. 1 She a new limp her whole life and received the nick brand ‘peg-leg-Frida' because of how slim her right leg was. During 1922 the Mexican Renaissance movement began as well as the government sponsored local designers to paint murals in churches, educational institutions, libraries and public complexes. Diego Rivera, a man who does play a major role in Kahlo's your life, painted decals while Kahlo would conceal, since college students were not allowed to be in the auditorium, and watch him for hours. Rivera was often called ‘panzon' which means fat belly being when he was a three hundred pound guy.
Kahlo got into an accident while on a bus with Alejandro upon September seventeenth, 1925. The accident will change her life. A common pipe went through her hip bone fragments and out the pelvic cuboid as a result your woman broke her pelvic bone, spinal column and sustained various other severe accidents which the doctors believed she would not make it through. Kahlo suffered 30 functions in her lifetime to fix the damage from your accident. Doctors said she would never get pregnant a child total term as a result of her broken pelvis. Kahlo originally prepared for becoming a doctor but now bedridden for several weeks she received paints and brushes via her daddy, her mother had a father construct and easel to position on her pickup bed and an image was also installed on the canopy over her thus she can paint self-portraits. Kahlo's dad Wilhelm Kahlo thought Frida to be his favourite from the four children he provides with her mother Matilde Calderón Kahlo. Frida Kahlo's father often said, " She is the most intelligent coming from all my daughters and the potential me. 2” Out of the 143 painting Frida Kahlo do in her lifetime fifty five were self-portraits of her. She generally said, " I paint self-portraits because I am so frequently alone mainly because I are the subject I know best. 2” Near the end of 1927 Kahlo's life returned into a sort of ‘normal' state in addition to 1928 at a party Kahlo – from afar - observed Diego Regato again the first time since the crash. Later Kahlo gave Rivera some of her work which in turn he respected and informed her she got talent. Kahlo said, " I hardly ever paint dreams, I decorated my own fact, I paint whatever goes by through me without any other consideration. 2”
Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera did marry on August 21st, 1929, a detrimental ceremony was... | 940 | ENGLISH | 1 |
AP Language, period 1 Kaitlyn Vallance
SOAPSTONE CHART -The Gettysburg Address 30 August 2010
SPEAKER | Abraham Lincoln was the sixteenth president of the United States of America and he help office during the Civil War. During the Civil War, the North and South split into two sides – the Union in the north led by president Lincoln and the Confederacy in the south led by president Davis. Originally, the Civil War was not an attempt by Lincoln to abolish slavery and emancipate the slaves, but to preserve and protect the Union, but later Lincoln decided that ending slavery was a key step necessary to winning the war. He was assassinated on April 15, 1865 by John Wilkes Booth. | OCCASION | Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg address in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania on November 19, 1863. Lincoln was there for a dedication of a national cemetery in Gettysburg to commemorate the soldiers who lost their lives during the pivotal Battle of Gettysburg that stated on July 1, 1963 to July 3, 1963. It was both a joyous and tragic occasion: so many had lost their lives, but they did so in order to halt the advancement of Confederate soldiers into Union territory. | AUDIENCE | Lincoln was addressing the families of the deceased soldiers, surviving soldiers and other politicians who had showed up to offer their own words of hope and grief. The crowd that Lincoln stood before had been disheartened and depressed by the staggering losses on their side – even if it had meant victory for the Union. Lincoln attempted to embody a sense of grief, to console the families and pay respect to the dead, and a sense of determination, to rally the people and convince them that continuing the war and being victorious were the only options for keeping their nation alive. | PURPOSE | The purpose of the Gettysburg address was to honor the dead and make it clear to the other citizens of the Union that their deaths had not been in vain. The war they were fighting was the only way to ensure the longevity of their nation and the continuation of the American Dream. Since the spirits of the families and remaining soldiers in the Union had been dampened, it was imperative that Lincoln rally the people back together despite the losses and convince them that the deaths had been for a great cause – the maintenance and victory of the Union against the Confederacy. | SUBJECT | President Lincoln wrote a very brief speech that changed the way the men and women of the Union saw the war. Before he delivered the Gettysburg Address to the public, they had regarded the war as simply a fight for property and constitutionality, but Lincoln turned it into a war for democracy and freedom with a few hundred words. | TONE | The tone of this speech is pride and conviction. Lincoln states “the world will little note nor remember what we say here, but it can never forget what [the soldiers] did here.” Lincoln is proud that the Union soldiers were willing to give their lives in order to ensure the preservation of the Union, even if their lives were an outstanding price to pay for such a thing, and he illustrates this pride by declaring that these men will never be forgotten for their courage. Lincoln also says that the Union needs to devote themselves more fully to ensure the nation become united and the government be for the people so “that these dead shall not have died in vain.” He is trying to convince the people of the Union that in order to honor the sacrifice the soldiers made to turn the tides of the war in the Union's favor, they must be willing to go even further than before and reunite the nation as one and, in doing such, a new birth of freedom may being in America. |
It is true that president Lincoln felt deep grief over the loss of thousands of Union soldiers in a battle against the Confederacy in order to turn the tides of war and keep the Confederate soldiers from encroaching on Union soil. The...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:34a193d5-ea61-4d58-b0b9-25e2664b80f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Abraham-Lincoln-Civil-War-63698416.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00496.warc.gz | en | 0.980398 | 806 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | AP Language, period 1 Kaitlyn Vallance
SOAPSTONE CHART -The Gettysburg Address 30 August 2010
SPEAKER | Abraham Lincoln was the sixteenth president of the United States of America and he help office during the Civil War. During the Civil War, the North and South split into two sides – the Union in the north led by president Lincoln and the Confederacy in the south led by president Davis. Originally, the Civil War was not an attempt by Lincoln to abolish slavery and emancipate the slaves, but to preserve and protect the Union, but later Lincoln decided that ending slavery was a key step necessary to winning the war. He was assassinated on April 15, 1865 by John Wilkes Booth. | OCCASION | Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg address in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania on November 19, 1863. Lincoln was there for a dedication of a national cemetery in Gettysburg to commemorate the soldiers who lost their lives during the pivotal Battle of Gettysburg that stated on July 1, 1963 to July 3, 1963. It was both a joyous and tragic occasion: so many had lost their lives, but they did so in order to halt the advancement of Confederate soldiers into Union territory. | AUDIENCE | Lincoln was addressing the families of the deceased soldiers, surviving soldiers and other politicians who had showed up to offer their own words of hope and grief. The crowd that Lincoln stood before had been disheartened and depressed by the staggering losses on their side – even if it had meant victory for the Union. Lincoln attempted to embody a sense of grief, to console the families and pay respect to the dead, and a sense of determination, to rally the people and convince them that continuing the war and being victorious were the only options for keeping their nation alive. | PURPOSE | The purpose of the Gettysburg address was to honor the dead and make it clear to the other citizens of the Union that their deaths had not been in vain. The war they were fighting was the only way to ensure the longevity of their nation and the continuation of the American Dream. Since the spirits of the families and remaining soldiers in the Union had been dampened, it was imperative that Lincoln rally the people back together despite the losses and convince them that the deaths had been for a great cause – the maintenance and victory of the Union against the Confederacy. | SUBJECT | President Lincoln wrote a very brief speech that changed the way the men and women of the Union saw the war. Before he delivered the Gettysburg Address to the public, they had regarded the war as simply a fight for property and constitutionality, but Lincoln turned it into a war for democracy and freedom with a few hundred words. | TONE | The tone of this speech is pride and conviction. Lincoln states “the world will little note nor remember what we say here, but it can never forget what [the soldiers] did here.” Lincoln is proud that the Union soldiers were willing to give their lives in order to ensure the preservation of the Union, even if their lives were an outstanding price to pay for such a thing, and he illustrates this pride by declaring that these men will never be forgotten for their courage. Lincoln also says that the Union needs to devote themselves more fully to ensure the nation become united and the government be for the people so “that these dead shall not have died in vain.” He is trying to convince the people of the Union that in order to honor the sacrifice the soldiers made to turn the tides of the war in the Union's favor, they must be willing to go even further than before and reunite the nation as one and, in doing such, a new birth of freedom may being in America. |
It is true that president Lincoln felt deep grief over the loss of thousands of Union soldiers in a battle against the Confederacy in order to turn the tides of war and keep the Confederate soldiers from encroaching on Union soil. The...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 842 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thanksgiving (United States)
Thanksgiving is a holiday celebrated once a year on the fourth Thursday of November.
History[change | change source]
Half of the Pilgrims died during their first winter in North America. They were cold and did not have enough food. The following year, though, the Native Americans, who were from the Wampanoag tribe, helped them grow crops. At harvest time in the autumn of 1621 they were very thankful that they had a good crop of food to eat during the coming winter. They thanked God and the Native Americans for teaching them how to grow the local foods.
They invited three of the Wampanoags who had helped them to their feast. They were Squanto, Samoset, and Chief Massasoit. The Wampanoags brought their families. This was over 90 people. There were so many people that the Pilgrims did not have enough food to make the meal, so the Wampanoags brought along their own food for the feast.
The Wampanoags brought turkey, duck, fish, deer, berries, squash, and cornbread. They also brought vegetables that they had farmed and shown the Pilgrims how to care for.
Thanksgiving today[change | change source]
In the United States, the Thanksgiving holiday is a four-day holiday over a weekend, starting on Thanksgiving Thursday and ending on Sunday. Families and friends usually eat a special meal together (usually with a turkey as the main dish). This meal also usually includes mashed potatoes, cranberry sauce, pumpkin pie, several casseroles, and stuffing. The food eaten today for Thanksgiving is very different from the food that was eaten at the First Thanksgiving in 1621.
Related pages[change | change source]
|U.S. federal holidays|
|New Year's Day | Martin Luther King, Jr. Day | Presidents' Day | Memorial Day | Independence Day |
Labor Day | Columbus Day | Veterans Day | Thanksgiving Day | Christmas Day | <urn:uuid:01338d25-2c0f-4186-bec7-edd39f5ceb7b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanksgiving_(United_States) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.980177 | 414 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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Thanksgiving is a holiday celebrated once a year on the fourth Thursday of November.
History[change | change source]
Half of the Pilgrims died during their first winter in North America. They were cold and did not have enough food. The following year, though, the Native Americans, who were from the Wampanoag tribe, helped them grow crops. At harvest time in the autumn of 1621 they were very thankful that they had a good crop of food to eat during the coming winter. They thanked God and the Native Americans for teaching them how to grow the local foods.
They invited three of the Wampanoags who had helped them to their feast. They were Squanto, Samoset, and Chief Massasoit. The Wampanoags brought their families. This was over 90 people. There were so many people that the Pilgrims did not have enough food to make the meal, so the Wampanoags brought along their own food for the feast.
The Wampanoags brought turkey, duck, fish, deer, berries, squash, and cornbread. They also brought vegetables that they had farmed and shown the Pilgrims how to care for.
Thanksgiving today[change | change source]
In the United States, the Thanksgiving holiday is a four-day holiday over a weekend, starting on Thanksgiving Thursday and ending on Sunday. Families and friends usually eat a special meal together (usually with a turkey as the main dish). This meal also usually includes mashed potatoes, cranberry sauce, pumpkin pie, several casseroles, and stuffing. The food eaten today for Thanksgiving is very different from the food that was eaten at the First Thanksgiving in 1621.
Related pages[change | change source]
|U.S. federal holidays|
|New Year's Day | Martin Luther King, Jr. Day | Presidents' Day | Memorial Day | Independence Day |
Labor Day | Columbus Day | Veterans Day | Thanksgiving Day | Christmas Day | 414 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When played, the bassist has to read the bass line composed for the part of cello, even though the sounds made are much lower than the notes being read. Some of the techniques for playing the double bass are: Arc – also known as bowing. This kind of playing technique is similar to the way a violin and/or a cello is played. Pizzicato – also known as striking. The musician strikes the strings to produce sound. This kind of style is typically used by Jazz players. Slap Bass The musician plucks or pulls the strings and releases it.
As the strings slap or hit the finger board, creating unique array of sounds with notes that have an added “click” to it. Occasionally the double bass is played as part of symphonic orchestras, but is most often played in Jazz and dance bands. 3. Has it always been made the same way or had the same form? The double bass has never really had one standard shape. Since the 16th century, its shape has changed more than any other stringed instruments. One is like a violin (although much larger), sometimes with a curved back, sometimes with a flat back, which makes playing it a whole lot easier, and higher ‘shoulders’ attached to the neck.
Don’t waste your time!
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The other is more like the shape of a viol with a flat back and ‘shoulders’ that slope more quickly and steeply away from the neck. Sound holes in the shape of a backwards “C” are also apparent in almost all double basses, to obtain a much louder sound. 4. Are there some known manufacturers that produce top of the line instruments hat are expensive? Thomas and George Martin hand-crafted double basses are priced at $20,000. The Kara Model Upton Double Bass is another well-known maker of the double bass, with prices starting at $5,350. . Who are some famous people who play your instrument? | <urn:uuid:5ebe8032-9254-494d-bcd9-2b48155f28a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://anyassignment.com/music/music-history-assignment-45539/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00263.warc.gz | en | 0.985354 | 415 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.12744300067... | 3 | When played, the bassist has to read the bass line composed for the part of cello, even though the sounds made are much lower than the notes being read. Some of the techniques for playing the double bass are: Arc – also known as bowing. This kind of playing technique is similar to the way a violin and/or a cello is played. Pizzicato – also known as striking. The musician strikes the strings to produce sound. This kind of style is typically used by Jazz players. Slap Bass The musician plucks or pulls the strings and releases it.
As the strings slap or hit the finger board, creating unique array of sounds with notes that have an added “click” to it. Occasionally the double bass is played as part of symphonic orchestras, but is most often played in Jazz and dance bands. 3. Has it always been made the same way or had the same form? The double bass has never really had one standard shape. Since the 16th century, its shape has changed more than any other stringed instruments. One is like a violin (although much larger), sometimes with a curved back, sometimes with a flat back, which makes playing it a whole lot easier, and higher ‘shoulders’ attached to the neck.
Don’t waste your time!
Order your assignment!
The other is more like the shape of a viol with a flat back and ‘shoulders’ that slope more quickly and steeply away from the neck. Sound holes in the shape of a backwards “C” are also apparent in almost all double basses, to obtain a much louder sound. 4. Are there some known manufacturers that produce top of the line instruments hat are expensive? Thomas and George Martin hand-crafted double basses are priced at $20,000. The Kara Model Upton Double Bass is another well-known maker of the double bass, with prices starting at $5,350. . Who are some famous people who play your instrument? | 409 | ENGLISH | 1 |
10000 Japanese people singing the ending choir of Symphony No. 9 by Ludwig van Beethoven (Ode to Joy).
Every year during the holiday season, around 10000 Japanese people gather to perform Beethoven 9th Symphony. But why?
Beethoven’s 9th Symphony ending choir or beethoven “Ode To Joy” choir is deeply beloved by the Japanese people. They sometimes call it Daiku” or “Big Nine”. Yukata Sado, the conductor of this 10000 Japanese choir, notes that this tradition began from the time of the First World War.
For, it was German prisoners of war who were heard singing the Ninth Symphony in captivity. The Germans and Japanese were enemies in the First World War. Since then, Sado says, the vibrant symphony has empowered Japanese people through good times and the bad. Today, it is sung as a way to honor achievement throughout the year. It has become a Japanese New Year tradition.
By the time Beethoven’s final complete Symphony No. 9, with its huge ‘Ode to Joy’ climax, was premiered on 7 May 1824, the composer was profoundly deaf.
This Symphony is regarded by many critics and musicologists as one of Beethoven’s greatest works and one of the supreme achievements in the history of western music.In the 2010s, it stands as one of the most performed symphonies in the world.
The symphony was the first example of a major composer using voices in a symphony. The words, which are sung during the final (4th) movement (also known as ‘Ode to Joy’ ) were taken from the “Ode to Joy”, a poem written by German poet and historian Friedrich Schiller, with text additions made by Beethoven.
This famous hymnal theme to Symphony No. 9 finale has symbolized hope, unity and fellowship – across borders and through conflicts. It is a masterful musical celebration of the human race and a massive work that makes all who hear it feel better about life. And yet, Beethoven himself never actually heard it.
If you like this video, maybe you would like to listen Beethoven’s moonlight sonata played on rocks instrument. | <urn:uuid:88b4c94d-62f7-4738-953c-6130e402b052> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.chosic.com/10000-japanese-beethoven-symphony-9th-ode-to-joy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00499.warc.gz | en | 0.982069 | 475 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.24705542623... | 1 | 10000 Japanese people singing the ending choir of Symphony No. 9 by Ludwig van Beethoven (Ode to Joy).
Every year during the holiday season, around 10000 Japanese people gather to perform Beethoven 9th Symphony. But why?
Beethoven’s 9th Symphony ending choir or beethoven “Ode To Joy” choir is deeply beloved by the Japanese people. They sometimes call it Daiku” or “Big Nine”. Yukata Sado, the conductor of this 10000 Japanese choir, notes that this tradition began from the time of the First World War.
For, it was German prisoners of war who were heard singing the Ninth Symphony in captivity. The Germans and Japanese were enemies in the First World War. Since then, Sado says, the vibrant symphony has empowered Japanese people through good times and the bad. Today, it is sung as a way to honor achievement throughout the year. It has become a Japanese New Year tradition.
By the time Beethoven’s final complete Symphony No. 9, with its huge ‘Ode to Joy’ climax, was premiered on 7 May 1824, the composer was profoundly deaf.
This Symphony is regarded by many critics and musicologists as one of Beethoven’s greatest works and one of the supreme achievements in the history of western music.In the 2010s, it stands as one of the most performed symphonies in the world.
The symphony was the first example of a major composer using voices in a symphony. The words, which are sung during the final (4th) movement (also known as ‘Ode to Joy’ ) were taken from the “Ode to Joy”, a poem written by German poet and historian Friedrich Schiller, with text additions made by Beethoven.
This famous hymnal theme to Symphony No. 9 finale has symbolized hope, unity and fellowship – across borders and through conflicts. It is a masterful musical celebration of the human race and a massive work that makes all who hear it feel better about life. And yet, Beethoven himself never actually heard it.
If you like this video, maybe you would like to listen Beethoven’s moonlight sonata played on rocks instrument. | 462 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Global civilizations have varied ways they use to revere women and pick specific ways to pass down the tales to their generations and to the rest of the world, which explain these chosen ways exhaustively. Teachings are enhanced and emphasized on how women should be regarded and on the ways of improving this perception. In order to determine how civilized the nation is and what level of morality and spiritualism a certain culture has, it is best define how its people consider and value their women. In traditional or ancient tales, it was common to pair female and male gods in spiritual representation so as to use and combine the influence and attributes each held in the best way; thus we come to our two examples of Dido and Aeneas and of Sita and Rama.
Buy Sita's Self Immolation or Dido's Suicide essay paper online
Sita hailed from King Janaka, who ruled over Mithila (Naravan 5). The king actively participated in farming to assist in food production that would meet the needs of his subjects during the famine. While he was farming, he was using a golden plough and once he dug up a pitcher from which Sita emerged. The name given to her was the name of the edge of a plough, thus it meant ‘borne of the plough’. At that instant an evil spirit named Ravana had collected his dues from the local wise men, which had put in that buried pitcher their blood. When the pitcher was dug out, the force of life represented by the wisemen’s blood brought Sita into existence, thus the reason for Ravana’s demolition. She was married to Lord Rama, but the two were exiled by the Rama’s father due to a promise made to his younger wife, who did not want Rama to inherit the throne. When they wandered the forest, Ravana kidnapped Sita and tried to make her accept marriage to him, but she did not do that. Rama and his brother searched for her and discovered Ravana’s ploy, they got to his place and rescued Sita, while destroying Ravana. Some doubts arose about the purity of Sita, who has spent so much time with Ravana, and Rama had to exile her into the forest, where she gave birth to twin sons. Sita is depicted as an innocent and uncontaminated woman, who maintained this through her difficult life (Naravan 5). She surrendered all comfort for her faithful and moral service to Rama, her husband. She had to withstand fire and resist burning to prove her fidelity to her husband and protect Rama’s image as a king, as if her ordeal with Ravana was not a torture enough. She did this lovingly and willingly for her husband’s sake.
Dido, a Carthage queen, on the other hand, died for the love’s sake. She could not stand Aeneas departure for duty in Troy, thus committed suicide, which she preferred to living without him. He, in turn, understood her reaction long before his departure (Vigil 127). She was a princess in the State of Tyre. When her father, the King, passed away, her evil brother murdered her husband, who was wealthy. The husband’s Ghost later revealed his death and showed Dido where his treasures were hidden. She took the treasure and fled to Carthage; and we see how intelligent she is, when she exchanges her wealth for what she could contain with a skin from a bull. She stripped the skin and formed an arc with it shaping out a land that curved towards the sea and so came to reign over the land as the queen. This is how Aeneas met her through his goddess mother, who made Dido fall in love with him.
The two tales therefore represent two different cultures, whereby women are highlighted in the lives of two great men on a mission, which is considered as great and important for their husbands. This shows that both societies had recognition for the man’s purpose and determination to pursue it; also their wives or women in their lives understand that and support them. It is evident that women had little choice in the decision made and were not meant to act as obstacles, but appreciate and acknowledge the husbands quests. The women in both cultures are shown to endure or face hostile situations for the sake of abiding by their husband’s or men’s will. Both societies and cultures recognize this supportive role and depict women’s submissive nature. It should be noted that both women are born royal and can easily get a man and life they desire, but they take an alternative route that is meant to serve their men as long as they are alive.
The contrast is in how the two women react. In Sita’s case, she totally devotes her service and life to exalt her husband and even though her final position is in doubt, she stays faithful to bear sons for the king. Dido, on the other hand, could not handle her rejection and resorts to suicide. This is symbolic of the two societies. It reflects the difference in reactions and strength of the women and thus the whole society. Despite her position of power as a Queen, Dido cannot use her powers to stop Aeneas from leaving. She understands his course and decides to stay back and suffers in silence. She has material wealth and power more than the man in her life, but she maintained a submissive role. Sita had virtue, righteousness, faithfulness, and loyalty of service and considered the husband as being right. Her case was different because the husband had the power. She still could have stayed back and left when asked to, but she stayed on out of respect for the man she loved and for the sake of her children.
Therefore Sita’s immolation represented her willingness to go to any length to prove her fidelity, as well as save the image of her husband, while Dido’s suicide serves to show her devotion and recognition of the fact that life was not worth living without her man Aeneas. Both endings are meant to indicate the fact that women are given the powers that men quest for, but they are responsible for using them in a respectful manner and sharing this knowledge with the rest of the society.
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0.16637489199638367... | 1 | Global civilizations have varied ways they use to revere women and pick specific ways to pass down the tales to their generations and to the rest of the world, which explain these chosen ways exhaustively. Teachings are enhanced and emphasized on how women should be regarded and on the ways of improving this perception. In order to determine how civilized the nation is and what level of morality and spiritualism a certain culture has, it is best define how its people consider and value their women. In traditional or ancient tales, it was common to pair female and male gods in spiritual representation so as to use and combine the influence and attributes each held in the best way; thus we come to our two examples of Dido and Aeneas and of Sita and Rama.
Buy Sita's Self Immolation or Dido's Suicide essay paper online
Sita hailed from King Janaka, who ruled over Mithila (Naravan 5). The king actively participated in farming to assist in food production that would meet the needs of his subjects during the famine. While he was farming, he was using a golden plough and once he dug up a pitcher from which Sita emerged. The name given to her was the name of the edge of a plough, thus it meant ‘borne of the plough’. At that instant an evil spirit named Ravana had collected his dues from the local wise men, which had put in that buried pitcher their blood. When the pitcher was dug out, the force of life represented by the wisemen’s blood brought Sita into existence, thus the reason for Ravana’s demolition. She was married to Lord Rama, but the two were exiled by the Rama’s father due to a promise made to his younger wife, who did not want Rama to inherit the throne. When they wandered the forest, Ravana kidnapped Sita and tried to make her accept marriage to him, but she did not do that. Rama and his brother searched for her and discovered Ravana’s ploy, they got to his place and rescued Sita, while destroying Ravana. Some doubts arose about the purity of Sita, who has spent so much time with Ravana, and Rama had to exile her into the forest, where she gave birth to twin sons. Sita is depicted as an innocent and uncontaminated woman, who maintained this through her difficult life (Naravan 5). She surrendered all comfort for her faithful and moral service to Rama, her husband. She had to withstand fire and resist burning to prove her fidelity to her husband and protect Rama’s image as a king, as if her ordeal with Ravana was not a torture enough. She did this lovingly and willingly for her husband’s sake.
Dido, a Carthage queen, on the other hand, died for the love’s sake. She could not stand Aeneas departure for duty in Troy, thus committed suicide, which she preferred to living without him. He, in turn, understood her reaction long before his departure (Vigil 127). She was a princess in the State of Tyre. When her father, the King, passed away, her evil brother murdered her husband, who was wealthy. The husband’s Ghost later revealed his death and showed Dido where his treasures were hidden. She took the treasure and fled to Carthage; and we see how intelligent she is, when she exchanges her wealth for what she could contain with a skin from a bull. She stripped the skin and formed an arc with it shaping out a land that curved towards the sea and so came to reign over the land as the queen. This is how Aeneas met her through his goddess mother, who made Dido fall in love with him.
The two tales therefore represent two different cultures, whereby women are highlighted in the lives of two great men on a mission, which is considered as great and important for their husbands. This shows that both societies had recognition for the man’s purpose and determination to pursue it; also their wives or women in their lives understand that and support them. It is evident that women had little choice in the decision made and were not meant to act as obstacles, but appreciate and acknowledge the husbands quests. The women in both cultures are shown to endure or face hostile situations for the sake of abiding by their husband’s or men’s will. Both societies and cultures recognize this supportive role and depict women’s submissive nature. It should be noted that both women are born royal and can easily get a man and life they desire, but they take an alternative route that is meant to serve their men as long as they are alive.
The contrast is in how the two women react. In Sita’s case, she totally devotes her service and life to exalt her husband and even though her final position is in doubt, she stays faithful to bear sons for the king. Dido, on the other hand, could not handle her rejection and resorts to suicide. This is symbolic of the two societies. It reflects the difference in reactions and strength of the women and thus the whole society. Despite her position of power as a Queen, Dido cannot use her powers to stop Aeneas from leaving. She understands his course and decides to stay back and suffers in silence. She has material wealth and power more than the man in her life, but she maintained a submissive role. Sita had virtue, righteousness, faithfulness, and loyalty of service and considered the husband as being right. Her case was different because the husband had the power. She still could have stayed back and left when asked to, but she stayed on out of respect for the man she loved and for the sake of her children.
Therefore Sita’s immolation represented her willingness to go to any length to prove her fidelity, as well as save the image of her husband, while Dido’s suicide serves to show her devotion and recognition of the fact that life was not worth living without her man Aeneas. Both endings are meant to indicate the fact that women are given the powers that men quest for, but they are responsible for using them in a respectful manner and sharing this knowledge with the rest of the society.
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William Wallace Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Sir William Wallace was one of the Scottish knights that were born on April 3, 1270. In his lifetime he was one of the few Scotts that took up the duty to fight for free Scotland from the British rule. Therefore, he was also one of the leaders that led the revolution against the English and won so many times. Williams' first significant defeat of the English was at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. Therefore, the Scotts pushed him into power.
Thereby, they made him one of the first leaders to ever unite Scotland under one leader. In his capacity as the Guardian of Scotland, William ruled until they beat him at the Battle of Falkirk. This was in the year 1298 in July. The English managed to capture, the fantastic William in the year 1305 in Robroyston, Glasgow. The King, Edward I of England, therefore, found him guilty of multiple offenses.
Some of these offenses include crimes against English citizens and high treason. Therefore, the King made sure that he hanged William for his ‘offences.’ Upon his death, the Scotts have bestowed upon his name great glory. Therefore, William became one of the legends and heroes of Scotland ever since. Also, a film made to honor his memory, Braveheart that went on to win an Academy Award.
Sir William Wallace was a member of the noble families in Scotland. However, his nobility status was one that was of minor importance. Therefore, most of his family early life is not clear as per historical findings and events. Although some of the historians have made an effort to unearth most of the early life of William. Some even state that Sir William Wallace was born to a crown tenant by the name Allan Wallace.
However, others also claim that William was the son of Sir Malcolm of Elderslie. Therefore, as per this fact, William was born in Elderslie, Scotland. On the other hand, there are some of the historians that state that the Williams family were English immigrants to Scotland. Hence Williams surname name Wallace to mean foreigner.
The Cause of the Rebellion
As a young man, William Wallace grew up under the rule of King Alexander III. During King Alexander's rule, there was a lot of peace and harmony in Scotland. Also, the economy of the region was stable enough to support members of the Scottish kingdom. However, the king died, and some of the Lord of Scotland set up a government of guardians. The guardians were to rule Scotland till Margret would be able to take over as the new Queen of Scotland.
However, the new queen fell ill and died before ascending to the throne. Her death led to a gap that the Scotts refer to as the Great Cause. After failing to have a clear ruler in Scotland, the Lords invited King Edward to help them arbitrate. However, up his arrival, Edward demanded that the Lord recognize him as the Lord Paramount of Scotland. Also, he belittled the then sitting King John who later renounced his claim to the throne of Scotland. The English king then launched a series of attacks on the Scotts defeating them at the Battle of Dunbar.
After a year of oppression by the new regime of English men, William Wallace assassinated an English High Sheriff of Lanark. In due time, William together with some of his allies then started out carrying attacks on the English men across Scotland. However, during this period, the Scottish noblemen paid homage to the English King. This treacherous act brought back the efforts of the rebellion. However, William and his friends did not pay tribute to the King. Therefore, they went on to carry savage attacks on the English men. Later the rebels including William and Moray joined up and merged their forces.
Victory at Stirling Bridge
This is one of the battles that saw the English men appreciate the efforts of the Scottish men in the matters of war. So, on September 11th, of the year 1297, both sides went to war. Both William and Moray with their joined forces dealt the English a deafening blow. The incredible part of the story is that the English had a more significant power than the Scotts. However, the Scotts had much better generals in the war front with better tactics. In no time William and his army defeated the English.
Guardian of Scotland
Upon the end of the war, William Wallace and his ally Moray were named the Guardians of Scotland on behalf of King Balliol. However, Moray died soon after from his battle wounds. The English did not take their defeat of the army well. Therefore, they were angry and wanted reparations. Moreover, they said that the Battle of Stirling Bridge was more of luck.
The Last Battle
After some time, King Edward made sure to send a new invading party to Scotland. The Scotts under William Wallace did not want to engage in any open battles. Therefore, they waited for the English soldiers to run out of supplies and money. After sometime William made his move against the English men at Falkirk. However, the English were well organized at that time around. Therefore, Williams forces were defeated.
After his defeat at the Battle of Falkirk, William Wallace went into hiding from the English soldiers. However, he was captured and taken to King Edward I by some English loyalist. They took him to London where he was put on trial for high treason. After he was found guilty of all the charges and sentenced to hang. So, they hanged, but before he could die took him down, tortured him then beheaded him. Sir William Wallace, the Guardian of Scotland, died on the 23rd of August 1305.
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Frederick Gowland Hopkins | <urn:uuid:899b2a3b-baa8-4166-9778-c5e97de3ac53> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/william-wallace/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00082.warc.gz | en | 0.986684 | 1,248 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.0600484... | 1 | William Wallace Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Sir William Wallace was one of the Scottish knights that were born on April 3, 1270. In his lifetime he was one of the few Scotts that took up the duty to fight for free Scotland from the British rule. Therefore, he was also one of the leaders that led the revolution against the English and won so many times. Williams' first significant defeat of the English was at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. Therefore, the Scotts pushed him into power.
Thereby, they made him one of the first leaders to ever unite Scotland under one leader. In his capacity as the Guardian of Scotland, William ruled until they beat him at the Battle of Falkirk. This was in the year 1298 in July. The English managed to capture, the fantastic William in the year 1305 in Robroyston, Glasgow. The King, Edward I of England, therefore, found him guilty of multiple offenses.
Some of these offenses include crimes against English citizens and high treason. Therefore, the King made sure that he hanged William for his ‘offences.’ Upon his death, the Scotts have bestowed upon his name great glory. Therefore, William became one of the legends and heroes of Scotland ever since. Also, a film made to honor his memory, Braveheart that went on to win an Academy Award.
Sir William Wallace was a member of the noble families in Scotland. However, his nobility status was one that was of minor importance. Therefore, most of his family early life is not clear as per historical findings and events. Although some of the historians have made an effort to unearth most of the early life of William. Some even state that Sir William Wallace was born to a crown tenant by the name Allan Wallace.
However, others also claim that William was the son of Sir Malcolm of Elderslie. Therefore, as per this fact, William was born in Elderslie, Scotland. On the other hand, there are some of the historians that state that the Williams family were English immigrants to Scotland. Hence Williams surname name Wallace to mean foreigner.
The Cause of the Rebellion
As a young man, William Wallace grew up under the rule of King Alexander III. During King Alexander's rule, there was a lot of peace and harmony in Scotland. Also, the economy of the region was stable enough to support members of the Scottish kingdom. However, the king died, and some of the Lord of Scotland set up a government of guardians. The guardians were to rule Scotland till Margret would be able to take over as the new Queen of Scotland.
However, the new queen fell ill and died before ascending to the throne. Her death led to a gap that the Scotts refer to as the Great Cause. After failing to have a clear ruler in Scotland, the Lords invited King Edward to help them arbitrate. However, up his arrival, Edward demanded that the Lord recognize him as the Lord Paramount of Scotland. Also, he belittled the then sitting King John who later renounced his claim to the throne of Scotland. The English king then launched a series of attacks on the Scotts defeating them at the Battle of Dunbar.
After a year of oppression by the new regime of English men, William Wallace assassinated an English High Sheriff of Lanark. In due time, William together with some of his allies then started out carrying attacks on the English men across Scotland. However, during this period, the Scottish noblemen paid homage to the English King. This treacherous act brought back the efforts of the rebellion. However, William and his friends did not pay tribute to the King. Therefore, they went on to carry savage attacks on the English men. Later the rebels including William and Moray joined up and merged their forces.
Victory at Stirling Bridge
This is one of the battles that saw the English men appreciate the efforts of the Scottish men in the matters of war. So, on September 11th, of the year 1297, both sides went to war. Both William and Moray with their joined forces dealt the English a deafening blow. The incredible part of the story is that the English had a more significant power than the Scotts. However, the Scotts had much better generals in the war front with better tactics. In no time William and his army defeated the English.
Guardian of Scotland
Upon the end of the war, William Wallace and his ally Moray were named the Guardians of Scotland on behalf of King Balliol. However, Moray died soon after from his battle wounds. The English did not take their defeat of the army well. Therefore, they were angry and wanted reparations. Moreover, they said that the Battle of Stirling Bridge was more of luck.
The Last Battle
After some time, King Edward made sure to send a new invading party to Scotland. The Scotts under William Wallace did not want to engage in any open battles. Therefore, they waited for the English soldiers to run out of supplies and money. After sometime William made his move against the English men at Falkirk. However, the English were well organized at that time around. Therefore, Williams forces were defeated.
After his defeat at the Battle of Falkirk, William Wallace went into hiding from the English soldiers. However, he was captured and taken to King Edward I by some English loyalist. They took him to London where he was put on trial for high treason. After he was found guilty of all the charges and sentenced to hang. So, they hanged, but before he could die took him down, tortured him then beheaded him. Sir William Wallace, the Guardian of Scotland, died on the 23rd of August 1305.
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Frederick Gowland Hopkins | 1,257 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bimbisara (c. 545/544 BCE - c. 493/492 BCE) was a king of the Magadha Kingdom who is credited with establishing imperial dominance in the Indian subcontinent. Son of a minor king called Bhattiya, he belonged to the Haryanka Dynasty, which is said to be the second imperial dynasty of Magadha. However, it is only from Bimbisara’s reign that the historicity of different Indian kings can be verified with any certainty. Before the Haryanka Dynasty, the accounts of various Indian kings are mythical and cannot be verified with any archaeological evidence.
Bimbisara ruled at a time when Gautama Buddha (c. 563 BCE - c. 483 BCE) and Mahavira Vardhamana (c. 599 BCE - c. 527 BCE as per the Jaina tradition), the respective founders of Buddhism and Jainism, both started their teachings. Bimbisara has been given much importance in the early Buddhist and Jaina sources because he probably endorsed both these religions equally. He ruled from a place called Girivraja which was also known as Rajagriha and is identified with modern Rajgir in the state of Bihar today. It is said that the city of Rajagriha was built by Bimbisara himself. The city was covered on all sides by five hills creating a natural fortification, and later on Bimbisara's son, Ajatashatru covered the gaps with stone walls.
Early Life & Rise to Power
Around the time of Bimbisara, the Indian subcontinent was forming into two major political units, the Mahajanapadas and the Janapadas. There were 16 Mahajanapadas (the name roughly means great footholds of people); these were the greater kingdoms. Some were republics ruled by a committee, while others were monarchies ruled by a dynasty. During the initial years of the Haryanka Dynasty, the Indian civilization was being refocused from the northwest to the eastern and central zones of India with four great kingdoms on the rise there – Kosala, Avanti, Vatsa, and finally Magadha. Ancient Kosala corresponds to the modern-day Uttar Pradesh state of India, Avanti was roughly present-day central India, mostly the state of Madhya Pradesh, Vatsa was also some part of present-day Uttar Pradesh state, while the ancient Magadha Empire roughly corresponds to the present-day state of Bihar, Jharkhand, some parts of West Bengal, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, and the countries of Nepal and Bangladesh.
Bimbisara was born c. 559/558 BCE and was also known as Shrenika. During his childhood, Bimbisara saw his father carrying a futile military campaign against the Anga King Brahmadatta. So when he came to power at a very early age of 15, the first thing he sought was revenge on Brahmadatta. He was also motivated by the commercial potential of annexing Anga which was strategically located near the Bay of Bengal. Hence his first campaign was attacking that kingdom. Being an able general and trained for ancient Indian warfare right from his childhood, he could defeat the Anga forces easily. Bimbisara then made his son Ajatashatru the governor of Anga. This way he gained access to the oceanic routes of Anga which brought flourishing overseas trade to his kingdom and he also provided his natural heir with some valuable insights into the workings of commerce and administration by placing him in command there.
Conquests & Marriage Alliances
After placing his warrior son Ajatashatru there and thereby securing complete hold over Anga (roughly modern-day Bengal and Bangladesh with some parts of Odisha), Bimbisara shifted his focus to the other powerful kingdoms of the subcontinent. He was a very able military general but, aware of the limitations of his forces against the greater kingdoms of his time, he also sought marriage alliances with kingdoms which he could not subdue in order to increase his sphere of influence. Soon, he secured the alliance of the powerful Kosala kingdom by marrying their king Prasanajita’s sister and thereby also gaining the holy city of Kashi as a dowry. Being one of the holiest places in Hinduism and consequently a good source of income, Kashi further strengthened the coffers of Magadha.
Next, Bimbisara married a Licchavi princess, Chellana, daughter of one of their kings Chetaka from the powerful confederation of the Vrijjis. She was the mother of his son Ajatashatru, Bimbisara's successor. Bimbisara also married a princess from the Madri clan of middle Punjab. With his position strengthened, Bimbisara set his eyes on the most powerful kingdom of that time – Avanti, with its capital at Ujjain. But even after several battles, neither Bimbisara nor King Pradyota of Avanti emerged victorious. This deadlock would also continue during Ajatashatru’s reign. However, being the sound strategist he was, Bimbisara soon formed a friendship with King Pradyota. Buddhist sources also state that when King Pradyota once fell ill, it was Bimbisara who sent him a specialised apothecary and got him treated to recovery.
Though Bimbisara’s conquests and military exploits were limited, his greatest achievement was the system of government and administration established during his rule, which would be followed by many of the subsequent dynasties of Magadha. Bimbisara established a chain of command of officials which ensured proper taxation and collections. He was said to have been in possession of around 80,000 villages which had a village headman in charge of each. Those headmen were entrusted with the collection of taxes as well as with the responsibility of running the administration. Bimbisara also appointed high ranking officials for judicial, military, and financial administration. Any official found lazy and a non-performer was replaced, but otherwise, he also listened to the sound advice of his closest high-ranking ministers.
Magadha’s prosperity during Bimbisara was not only affected by his foresight and intelligent administration, it was assisted by other factors too. Magadha was traditionally rich in minerals and iron ores, and the region was full of wooded forests. That provided armaments, elephants and ample wood for the army, and the fertile Gangetic plains always provided a surplus to the farmers. Bimbisara maintained the Indian tradition of having four divisions in his army – infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants. After annexing Anga, he also probably formed some units of navy there. All these were inherited by Ajatashatru who would strengthen it by further conquests and armaments.
Magadha, unlike the north and northwest of India, at that time was outside the ambit of the Vedic Corpus and was sometimes looked down upon by the high-caste Hindu Brahmins. Not only that, since Magadha endorsed many other religions other than Hinduism (like Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikaism, etc.), they were disdainfully insulted in many circles and in contemporary literature by the Brahmins. The Buddhist chronicles mention Bimbisara as a follower of Buddha, while the Jaina sources make a similar claim. What we know is that Buddha probably visited Girivraja during his rule, where he received much assistance from Bimbisara who hosted him and his disciples.
Bimbisara was said to have supported the monks of all religions who came to visit him. He also supported religion by making many services free in his kingdom for the ascetics and monks. He is also said to have constructed many hermitages for them and, especially, made the ferry services free to them. Since Magadha was the centre of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, the river transport was one of the most important aspects of the kingdom then. There are also various legends associated with Bimbisara and his association with Gautama Buddha. Even some of his wives were apparently Buddhist followers, and according to Buddhist chronicles, Bimbisara’s son Ajatashatru also became a follower of Gautama Buddha later in his life. There is a legend that Ajatashatru sought the counsel of Buddha to help him in his long battle with the Licchavis.
Death & Legacy
Bimbisara for all his astuteness had the follies of an early Indian king too. He always believed in his son blindly and never checked on him. Ajatashatru was ambitious right from a very young age, and he was egged on to commit patricide by other factors too. According to Buddhist sources, Ajatashatru was continuously ill-advised by Gautama Buddha’s wicked cousin Devadatta. Devadatta wanted a position for himself in the kingdom and he saw Buddha’s growing influence on Bimbisara as a detriment to that ambition. So he tricked and convinced Ajatashatru to usurp the throne by deposing and executing his own father, which Ajatashatru did. However, there is also a legend which says Bimbisara took his own life after being imprisoned. Whatever the case, Bimbisara’s queen from the Kosala kingdom also died in a short while either in grief or by committing suicide. Ajatashatru soon realised his mistake and upon that, he supposedly met Gautama Buddha. This event is depicted in a sculpture recovered from Bharhut in India, which now adorns the gallery of the Indian Museum in the city of Kolkata.
Bimbisara, in a way, unified the Magadha Empire. He sowed the seeds which later saw others taking Magadha into greater heights, and uniting an entire subcontinent. He started a policy of religious tolerance by enabling any religion which came to his kingdom to flourish and also encouraged arts and crafts in his kingdom. He has been very highly spoken of in the Buddhist and the Jaina sources he is known to have made a positive cultural impact on his citizens. He established a solid foundation of administration and trade in his kingdom and has been remembered in Indian history not only as an able ruler who founded the supremacy of the Magadha Kingdom but also the first major ruler of India whose existence can be established with any certainty. He was succeeded by Ajatashatru (r. c. 494/493 BCE - c. 462 BCE) who was then succeeded by his son Udaya again after committing patricide. | <urn:uuid:808698bf-1e68-479d-b439-662bfd70e181> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ancient.eu/Bimbisara/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00055.warc.gz | en | 0.985581 | 2,240 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.05546081066... | 6 | Bimbisara (c. 545/544 BCE - c. 493/492 BCE) was a king of the Magadha Kingdom who is credited with establishing imperial dominance in the Indian subcontinent. Son of a minor king called Bhattiya, he belonged to the Haryanka Dynasty, which is said to be the second imperial dynasty of Magadha. However, it is only from Bimbisara’s reign that the historicity of different Indian kings can be verified with any certainty. Before the Haryanka Dynasty, the accounts of various Indian kings are mythical and cannot be verified with any archaeological evidence.
Bimbisara ruled at a time when Gautama Buddha (c. 563 BCE - c. 483 BCE) and Mahavira Vardhamana (c. 599 BCE - c. 527 BCE as per the Jaina tradition), the respective founders of Buddhism and Jainism, both started their teachings. Bimbisara has been given much importance in the early Buddhist and Jaina sources because he probably endorsed both these religions equally. He ruled from a place called Girivraja which was also known as Rajagriha and is identified with modern Rajgir in the state of Bihar today. It is said that the city of Rajagriha was built by Bimbisara himself. The city was covered on all sides by five hills creating a natural fortification, and later on Bimbisara's son, Ajatashatru covered the gaps with stone walls.
Early Life & Rise to Power
Around the time of Bimbisara, the Indian subcontinent was forming into two major political units, the Mahajanapadas and the Janapadas. There were 16 Mahajanapadas (the name roughly means great footholds of people); these were the greater kingdoms. Some were republics ruled by a committee, while others were monarchies ruled by a dynasty. During the initial years of the Haryanka Dynasty, the Indian civilization was being refocused from the northwest to the eastern and central zones of India with four great kingdoms on the rise there – Kosala, Avanti, Vatsa, and finally Magadha. Ancient Kosala corresponds to the modern-day Uttar Pradesh state of India, Avanti was roughly present-day central India, mostly the state of Madhya Pradesh, Vatsa was also some part of present-day Uttar Pradesh state, while the ancient Magadha Empire roughly corresponds to the present-day state of Bihar, Jharkhand, some parts of West Bengal, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, and the countries of Nepal and Bangladesh.
Bimbisara was born c. 559/558 BCE and was also known as Shrenika. During his childhood, Bimbisara saw his father carrying a futile military campaign against the Anga King Brahmadatta. So when he came to power at a very early age of 15, the first thing he sought was revenge on Brahmadatta. He was also motivated by the commercial potential of annexing Anga which was strategically located near the Bay of Bengal. Hence his first campaign was attacking that kingdom. Being an able general and trained for ancient Indian warfare right from his childhood, he could defeat the Anga forces easily. Bimbisara then made his son Ajatashatru the governor of Anga. This way he gained access to the oceanic routes of Anga which brought flourishing overseas trade to his kingdom and he also provided his natural heir with some valuable insights into the workings of commerce and administration by placing him in command there.
Conquests & Marriage Alliances
After placing his warrior son Ajatashatru there and thereby securing complete hold over Anga (roughly modern-day Bengal and Bangladesh with some parts of Odisha), Bimbisara shifted his focus to the other powerful kingdoms of the subcontinent. He was a very able military general but, aware of the limitations of his forces against the greater kingdoms of his time, he also sought marriage alliances with kingdoms which he could not subdue in order to increase his sphere of influence. Soon, he secured the alliance of the powerful Kosala kingdom by marrying their king Prasanajita’s sister and thereby also gaining the holy city of Kashi as a dowry. Being one of the holiest places in Hinduism and consequently a good source of income, Kashi further strengthened the coffers of Magadha.
Next, Bimbisara married a Licchavi princess, Chellana, daughter of one of their kings Chetaka from the powerful confederation of the Vrijjis. She was the mother of his son Ajatashatru, Bimbisara's successor. Bimbisara also married a princess from the Madri clan of middle Punjab. With his position strengthened, Bimbisara set his eyes on the most powerful kingdom of that time – Avanti, with its capital at Ujjain. But even after several battles, neither Bimbisara nor King Pradyota of Avanti emerged victorious. This deadlock would also continue during Ajatashatru’s reign. However, being the sound strategist he was, Bimbisara soon formed a friendship with King Pradyota. Buddhist sources also state that when King Pradyota once fell ill, it was Bimbisara who sent him a specialised apothecary and got him treated to recovery.
Though Bimbisara’s conquests and military exploits were limited, his greatest achievement was the system of government and administration established during his rule, which would be followed by many of the subsequent dynasties of Magadha. Bimbisara established a chain of command of officials which ensured proper taxation and collections. He was said to have been in possession of around 80,000 villages which had a village headman in charge of each. Those headmen were entrusted with the collection of taxes as well as with the responsibility of running the administration. Bimbisara also appointed high ranking officials for judicial, military, and financial administration. Any official found lazy and a non-performer was replaced, but otherwise, he also listened to the sound advice of his closest high-ranking ministers.
Magadha’s prosperity during Bimbisara was not only affected by his foresight and intelligent administration, it was assisted by other factors too. Magadha was traditionally rich in minerals and iron ores, and the region was full of wooded forests. That provided armaments, elephants and ample wood for the army, and the fertile Gangetic plains always provided a surplus to the farmers. Bimbisara maintained the Indian tradition of having four divisions in his army – infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants. After annexing Anga, he also probably formed some units of navy there. All these were inherited by Ajatashatru who would strengthen it by further conquests and armaments.
Magadha, unlike the north and northwest of India, at that time was outside the ambit of the Vedic Corpus and was sometimes looked down upon by the high-caste Hindu Brahmins. Not only that, since Magadha endorsed many other religions other than Hinduism (like Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikaism, etc.), they were disdainfully insulted in many circles and in contemporary literature by the Brahmins. The Buddhist chronicles mention Bimbisara as a follower of Buddha, while the Jaina sources make a similar claim. What we know is that Buddha probably visited Girivraja during his rule, where he received much assistance from Bimbisara who hosted him and his disciples.
Bimbisara was said to have supported the monks of all religions who came to visit him. He also supported religion by making many services free in his kingdom for the ascetics and monks. He is also said to have constructed many hermitages for them and, especially, made the ferry services free to them. Since Magadha was the centre of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, the river transport was one of the most important aspects of the kingdom then. There are also various legends associated with Bimbisara and his association with Gautama Buddha. Even some of his wives were apparently Buddhist followers, and according to Buddhist chronicles, Bimbisara’s son Ajatashatru also became a follower of Gautama Buddha later in his life. There is a legend that Ajatashatru sought the counsel of Buddha to help him in his long battle with the Licchavis.
Death & Legacy
Bimbisara for all his astuteness had the follies of an early Indian king too. He always believed in his son blindly and never checked on him. Ajatashatru was ambitious right from a very young age, and he was egged on to commit patricide by other factors too. According to Buddhist sources, Ajatashatru was continuously ill-advised by Gautama Buddha’s wicked cousin Devadatta. Devadatta wanted a position for himself in the kingdom and he saw Buddha’s growing influence on Bimbisara as a detriment to that ambition. So he tricked and convinced Ajatashatru to usurp the throne by deposing and executing his own father, which Ajatashatru did. However, there is also a legend which says Bimbisara took his own life after being imprisoned. Whatever the case, Bimbisara’s queen from the Kosala kingdom also died in a short while either in grief or by committing suicide. Ajatashatru soon realised his mistake and upon that, he supposedly met Gautama Buddha. This event is depicted in a sculpture recovered from Bharhut in India, which now adorns the gallery of the Indian Museum in the city of Kolkata.
Bimbisara, in a way, unified the Magadha Empire. He sowed the seeds which later saw others taking Magadha into greater heights, and uniting an entire subcontinent. He started a policy of religious tolerance by enabling any religion which came to his kingdom to flourish and also encouraged arts and crafts in his kingdom. He has been very highly spoken of in the Buddhist and the Jaina sources he is known to have made a positive cultural impact on his citizens. He established a solid foundation of administration and trade in his kingdom and has been remembered in Indian history not only as an able ruler who founded the supremacy of the Magadha Kingdom but also the first major ruler of India whose existence can be established with any certainty. He was succeeded by Ajatashatru (r. c. 494/493 BCE - c. 462 BCE) who was then succeeded by his son Udaya again after committing patricide. | 2,211 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Roman soldiers were given one pound of meat daily. For an army 120 sheep were killed a day just for the meat ration. Or 60 hogs. Huge flocks of livestock were herded and grazing alongside an army. Roman soldiers were a mule more than anything else. They carried very heavy gear, on bad roads.
“Decimation” means “removal of a tenth” in Latin, and refers to a Roman practice in which military commanders punished units for capital offenses by having soldiers execute 1 in 10 of their comrades.
During the Punic Wars, the Romans realized they had no clue how to build ships. They decided to rent row boats, run aground a Carthaginian ship, and plagiarize the designs. The entire first fleet of their new Navy was based off this ship, but learning to row proved more challenging.
Julius Caesar would personally conduct espionage on his enemies. Once, he even dressed up as a Gaul and snuck behind enemy lines. When his soldiers failed to sneak him back, he boarded a Gaul ship blockading the Romans and sailed back into Roman territory without anyone noticing.
Salt was so precious in ancient Rome, it made up a portion of a soldier’s pay, which is where we get the word salary from, (from the Latin for salt, sal).
Ancient Romans recycled their pee. They peed in pots and emptied them in a barrel which they left on the street when filled. A public service would pick it up to turn the pee into ammonia which they used as bleach, mouthwash and more.
Despite ancient Roman bridges being the first large and lasting bridges ever built, many are still used despite being around 2,000 years old.
Ancient Rome had no concept of a limited-liability corporation, so entrepreneurs got around it by appointing a slave as the CEO. A master was not legally liable for a slave’s debts, so this allowed the owner to control the company while avoiding personal liability in case of bankruptcy.
In Ancient Rome, commoners would evacuate whole cities in acts of revolt called “Secessio plebis”, leaving the elite in the city to fend for themselves. | <urn:uuid:7245dc2e-2af9-4ffb-8ba9-5ebd9b014db1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://crazyfacts.com/tag/ancient-rome/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00554.warc.gz | en | 0.98077 | 446 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.3205425441265... | 1 | Roman soldiers were given one pound of meat daily. For an army 120 sheep were killed a day just for the meat ration. Or 60 hogs. Huge flocks of livestock were herded and grazing alongside an army. Roman soldiers were a mule more than anything else. They carried very heavy gear, on bad roads.
“Decimation” means “removal of a tenth” in Latin, and refers to a Roman practice in which military commanders punished units for capital offenses by having soldiers execute 1 in 10 of their comrades.
During the Punic Wars, the Romans realized they had no clue how to build ships. They decided to rent row boats, run aground a Carthaginian ship, and plagiarize the designs. The entire first fleet of their new Navy was based off this ship, but learning to row proved more challenging.
Julius Caesar would personally conduct espionage on his enemies. Once, he even dressed up as a Gaul and snuck behind enemy lines. When his soldiers failed to sneak him back, he boarded a Gaul ship blockading the Romans and sailed back into Roman territory without anyone noticing.
Salt was so precious in ancient Rome, it made up a portion of a soldier’s pay, which is where we get the word salary from, (from the Latin for salt, sal).
Ancient Romans recycled their pee. They peed in pots and emptied them in a barrel which they left on the street when filled. A public service would pick it up to turn the pee into ammonia which they used as bleach, mouthwash and more.
Despite ancient Roman bridges being the first large and lasting bridges ever built, many are still used despite being around 2,000 years old.
Ancient Rome had no concept of a limited-liability corporation, so entrepreneurs got around it by appointing a slave as the CEO. A master was not legally liable for a slave’s debts, so this allowed the owner to control the company while avoiding personal liability in case of bankruptcy.
In Ancient Rome, commoners would evacuate whole cities in acts of revolt called “Secessio plebis”, leaving the elite in the city to fend for themselves. | 441 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get to know the importance of perfume in ancient Egypt, and how the making of this unique product became an art form in those times.
Perfume was at the centre of aesthetics and therapeutics for both men and women in Ancient Egypt. Although the techniques used are mostly unrecorded, historians look to the literature of Greek and Roman writers and relief paintings and artefacts to determine the production, fashions and uses of perfume in this fascinating era.
The act of making perfume was considered an art form in Ancient Egypt. The craftsperson was considered to be an artist and the profession was open to women as well as men. The perfume making process of extraction can be determined by reliefs on the walls of tombs in Petosiris. These show that perfume making had an overseer, workers who completed the extraction and a professional tester who completed rigorous testing using the sense of smell.
The reliefs also pictorially detail two extraction processes. The first process shown was an ancient mechanical extraction process which was similar to wine production. This required a large bag and two staffs which were used as a press. The second was a form of chemical extraction with the assistance of heat and soaking in alcohol. The processes are early versions of modern perfume extraction techniques that have only really advanced in terms of equipment available and synthetic ingredients.
The reliefs also show red berries poured from a container, which details the nature of the products used to extract different scents. The ingredients used in perfume were usually plant in origin such as henna and cinnamon. The ancient natural philosopher, Pliny the Elder, records floral scents such as iris, bitter almond and lilies in his Natural History as being used in abundance. Myrrh which is a resin from shrubs and other aromatic woods were used. Animal fats such as musk are also recorded as being used in some perfumes. Some Egyptian recipes are still in existence though they are difficult to replicate.
However, the Egyptians had typically exotic tastes, and in addition to home grown essences, they also imported aromatics such as ladanum from Arabia and East Africa, galbanum from Persia, and the coveted frankincense due to unsuccessful attempts to grow it in Egyptian climes. The fact that ingredients were imported even in ancient times shows the importance of perfume. The imported varieties were expensive and initially reserved for the use of the gods or export only.
Excavated reliefs show that from ancient times the blend and quantity of perfume was as important as how long the scent would last. Perfume was a major export material in ancient times with various countries battling to produce the highest quality. Susinum was a particular favourite, and the competitive nature shows that in ancient times, some form of uniformity and standard was expected. Pliny the Elder described an Egyptian perfume that retained its scent after 8 years, and the ancient Greek botanist, Dioscorides, agreed that Egyptian perfume was far superior to that made by other civilisations.
Egyptian perfumes were usually named after the town of production or the main ingredient. Storage was in glass or stone vessels, with alabaster being the most coveted. The decoration was ornate and often bejewelled, with packaging reflecting modern day requirements of functionality and attractiveness.
Perfume was burnt as incense, as named in documents from the reign of Thutmose III which detail different varieties such as green incense and white incense. Perfume was worn for aesthetic reasons, in the form of oil based liquid infusions, or wax and fat for creams and salves. This suggests there was also a medicinal purpose recognised. Perfume was mainly for the elite classes until the Golden age. It was used by kings who were believed to be of divine descent as it was believed that the gods favoured perfume. High officials were anointed with perfume when they were appointed to office to call the favour of the gods. Incense was used to hide the smell of animal sacrifice during ceremonies. Balms were seen as medicinal as perfume was thought to repel demons and win the favour of the gods. Perfume was also an important part of death and burial rites. Bodies were perfumed during mummification as it was believed the soul would visit the gods and so perfume would repel demons. Interestingly, 3300 years after Tutankhamen death Feature Articles, scent could still be detected in his tomb. | <urn:uuid:58ffae2c-c77f-4357-af32-b140a0f3e45e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.journeytoegypt.com/en/blog/perfume-in-ancient-egypt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00275.warc.gz | en | 0.986969 | 899 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.2009316831... | 1 | Get to know the importance of perfume in ancient Egypt, and how the making of this unique product became an art form in those times.
Perfume was at the centre of aesthetics and therapeutics for both men and women in Ancient Egypt. Although the techniques used are mostly unrecorded, historians look to the literature of Greek and Roman writers and relief paintings and artefacts to determine the production, fashions and uses of perfume in this fascinating era.
The act of making perfume was considered an art form in Ancient Egypt. The craftsperson was considered to be an artist and the profession was open to women as well as men. The perfume making process of extraction can be determined by reliefs on the walls of tombs in Petosiris. These show that perfume making had an overseer, workers who completed the extraction and a professional tester who completed rigorous testing using the sense of smell.
The reliefs also pictorially detail two extraction processes. The first process shown was an ancient mechanical extraction process which was similar to wine production. This required a large bag and two staffs which were used as a press. The second was a form of chemical extraction with the assistance of heat and soaking in alcohol. The processes are early versions of modern perfume extraction techniques that have only really advanced in terms of equipment available and synthetic ingredients.
The reliefs also show red berries poured from a container, which details the nature of the products used to extract different scents. The ingredients used in perfume were usually plant in origin such as henna and cinnamon. The ancient natural philosopher, Pliny the Elder, records floral scents such as iris, bitter almond and lilies in his Natural History as being used in abundance. Myrrh which is a resin from shrubs and other aromatic woods were used. Animal fats such as musk are also recorded as being used in some perfumes. Some Egyptian recipes are still in existence though they are difficult to replicate.
However, the Egyptians had typically exotic tastes, and in addition to home grown essences, they also imported aromatics such as ladanum from Arabia and East Africa, galbanum from Persia, and the coveted frankincense due to unsuccessful attempts to grow it in Egyptian climes. The fact that ingredients were imported even in ancient times shows the importance of perfume. The imported varieties were expensive and initially reserved for the use of the gods or export only.
Excavated reliefs show that from ancient times the blend and quantity of perfume was as important as how long the scent would last. Perfume was a major export material in ancient times with various countries battling to produce the highest quality. Susinum was a particular favourite, and the competitive nature shows that in ancient times, some form of uniformity and standard was expected. Pliny the Elder described an Egyptian perfume that retained its scent after 8 years, and the ancient Greek botanist, Dioscorides, agreed that Egyptian perfume was far superior to that made by other civilisations.
Egyptian perfumes were usually named after the town of production or the main ingredient. Storage was in glass or stone vessels, with alabaster being the most coveted. The decoration was ornate and often bejewelled, with packaging reflecting modern day requirements of functionality and attractiveness.
Perfume was burnt as incense, as named in documents from the reign of Thutmose III which detail different varieties such as green incense and white incense. Perfume was worn for aesthetic reasons, in the form of oil based liquid infusions, or wax and fat for creams and salves. This suggests there was also a medicinal purpose recognised. Perfume was mainly for the elite classes until the Golden age. It was used by kings who were believed to be of divine descent as it was believed that the gods favoured perfume. High officials were anointed with perfume when they were appointed to office to call the favour of the gods. Incense was used to hide the smell of animal sacrifice during ceremonies. Balms were seen as medicinal as perfume was thought to repel demons and win the favour of the gods. Perfume was also an important part of death and burial rites. Bodies were perfumed during mummification as it was believed the soul would visit the gods and so perfume would repel demons. Interestingly, 3300 years after Tutankhamen death Feature Articles, scent could still be detected in his tomb. | 890 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Montessori Method of education, developed by Dr. Maria Montessori, is a child-centered educational approach based on scientific observations of children from birth to adulthood. It is a view of the child as one who is naturally eager for knowledge and capable of initiating learning in a supportive, thoughtfully prepared learning environment.
Oftentimes, students can impart Based on the belief that a young child possessed innate qualities that would unfold gradually within a natural setting, he established kindergartens where free expression, creativity, social interaction, motor activity and learning by doing were the focus.
Many of these same tenets can be found in our contemporary early childhood programs. She was dedicated to improving the way in which children were educated.
Her methods included an emphasis on the enjoyment of the arts and the study of great artists and musicians. Many of her educational practices were well suited to home education and her methods have become the foundation of many homeschooling families.
Jean Piaget Pioneer of How Children Learn Anyone who has taken a child psychology class will have studied the developmental and learning theories of Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist.
Fascinated with how children reasoned, he began researching and writing books on the subject of child psychology. When he later married and fathered three children, he was supplied with enough data to write three more books!
His research and subsequent theories have become the basis and foundation of our understanding of normal child development. At the age of 25, she embarked on a courageous and lonely endeavor by opening the first private People who influenced maria montessori school in Haddonfield, New Jersey, for children with developmental delays.
She believed that disabled children needed special schools, adapted material, and well trained teachers rather than to be sent to institutions. Under her influence, the medical profession began to awaken to their responsibility to help correct defects and disabilities in children.
Admirers of her skill came to train and later became leaders in the field of special education. He was leader of the college from its infancy to the time of his death. He became a dominant and influential figure among politicians and the general public and did much to pave the way for later civil rights and desegregation of public education.
He also believed that schools were places where children should learn to live cooperatively. Maria Montessori Pioneer of Individualized Education Montessori methods remain the popular choice for many parents who seek an alternative education for their children, especially for the early childhood through the primary years.
Before she took an interest in education, Montessori was the first woman in Italy to obtain the training to become a doctor. Beginning with a daycare facility in one of the poorest neighborhoods in Rome, Montessori put her theories into practice.
Her methods were influenced by her previous training in medicine, education, and anthropology. The results were extraordinary and soon drew much attention from many parts of the world, including America.
The rest, as they say, is history. As an educator, he became convinced that the present system stifled the learning of most children mainly because of fear. Disillusioned by the inability to bring reform and improvement to public schools, Holt left teaching and devoted his time to the promotion of his ideas.
He believed that children learn best when allowed to follow their own interests rather than having learning imposed upon them.
His books had a profound impact on the growth of the home schooling sector. Her methods of teaching reading and written language have swept through the United States and other English speaking nations since their inception three decades ago.
The reading recovery component was developed as a means of lifting the low achieving first grader to a place alongside the average learner. The structure of the program calls for close observation of the student by the teacher to design lessons that constantly build on what a child already knows and taking them to the next level.
Children are surrounded by a language rich environment and encouraged to choose reading books that align with their personal interests.
His discovery learning theory is based on the assumption that children learn and remember better what they discover for themselves and that they are better able to remember new information if they connect it to something that they already know.
His research and subsequent theories on child development closely aligns with the work of Jean Piaget.Nov 17, · Montessori, Maria (märē'ä mōntās-sô'rē), , Italian educator and physician.
She was the originator of the Montessori method of education for young children and was the first woman to receive () a medical degree in lausannecongress2018.com: Resolved. Maria Montessori was born on August 31, , in Chiaravalle, Italy. In she was placed in charge of the Casa dei Bambini school.
By , more than 1, Montessori schools had opened in the Born: Aug 31, Maria Montessori was an Italian physician and educator who developed the approach of education that carries her name.
She opened the first Montessori school over a century ago in Rome, and today there are several schools all over the world which follow her way of teaching. Maria Montessori was an Italian physician, educator, and innovator, acclaimed for her educational method that builds on the way children naturally learn.
She opened the first Montessori school—the Casa dei Bambini, or Children’s House—in Rome on January 6, It’s interesting to see how many famous people have been influenced in one way or another by Maria Montessori’s philosophy and method of education..
Famous People Who Were Montessori Students.
The famous individuals most obviously influenced by Montessori are former Montessori students. It’s interesting to see how many famous people have been influenced in one way or another by Maria Montessori’s philosophy and method of education.. Famous People Who Were Montessori Students. The famous individuals most obviously influenced by Montessori are former Montessori students. | <urn:uuid:38f62275-7485-418f-abb3-ed56242e6626> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://xyzowemesyr.lausannecongress2018.com/people-who-influenced-maria-montessori-27044up.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00549.warc.gz | en | 0.981237 | 1,234 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.6461769938468... | 2 | The Montessori Method of education, developed by Dr. Maria Montessori, is a child-centered educational approach based on scientific observations of children from birth to adulthood. It is a view of the child as one who is naturally eager for knowledge and capable of initiating learning in a supportive, thoughtfully prepared learning environment.
Oftentimes, students can impart Based on the belief that a young child possessed innate qualities that would unfold gradually within a natural setting, he established kindergartens where free expression, creativity, social interaction, motor activity and learning by doing were the focus.
Many of these same tenets can be found in our contemporary early childhood programs. She was dedicated to improving the way in which children were educated.
Her methods included an emphasis on the enjoyment of the arts and the study of great artists and musicians. Many of her educational practices were well suited to home education and her methods have become the foundation of many homeschooling families.
Jean Piaget Pioneer of How Children Learn Anyone who has taken a child psychology class will have studied the developmental and learning theories of Jean Piaget, the Swiss psychologist.
Fascinated with how children reasoned, he began researching and writing books on the subject of child psychology. When he later married and fathered three children, he was supplied with enough data to write three more books!
His research and subsequent theories have become the basis and foundation of our understanding of normal child development. At the age of 25, she embarked on a courageous and lonely endeavor by opening the first private People who influenced maria montessori school in Haddonfield, New Jersey, for children with developmental delays.
She believed that disabled children needed special schools, adapted material, and well trained teachers rather than to be sent to institutions. Under her influence, the medical profession began to awaken to their responsibility to help correct defects and disabilities in children.
Admirers of her skill came to train and later became leaders in the field of special education. He was leader of the college from its infancy to the time of his death. He became a dominant and influential figure among politicians and the general public and did much to pave the way for later civil rights and desegregation of public education.
He also believed that schools were places where children should learn to live cooperatively. Maria Montessori Pioneer of Individualized Education Montessori methods remain the popular choice for many parents who seek an alternative education for their children, especially for the early childhood through the primary years.
Before she took an interest in education, Montessori was the first woman in Italy to obtain the training to become a doctor. Beginning with a daycare facility in one of the poorest neighborhoods in Rome, Montessori put her theories into practice.
Her methods were influenced by her previous training in medicine, education, and anthropology. The results were extraordinary and soon drew much attention from many parts of the world, including America.
The rest, as they say, is history. As an educator, he became convinced that the present system stifled the learning of most children mainly because of fear. Disillusioned by the inability to bring reform and improvement to public schools, Holt left teaching and devoted his time to the promotion of his ideas.
He believed that children learn best when allowed to follow their own interests rather than having learning imposed upon them.
His books had a profound impact on the growth of the home schooling sector. Her methods of teaching reading and written language have swept through the United States and other English speaking nations since their inception three decades ago.
The reading recovery component was developed as a means of lifting the low achieving first grader to a place alongside the average learner. The structure of the program calls for close observation of the student by the teacher to design lessons that constantly build on what a child already knows and taking them to the next level.
Children are surrounded by a language rich environment and encouraged to choose reading books that align with their personal interests.
His discovery learning theory is based on the assumption that children learn and remember better what they discover for themselves and that they are better able to remember new information if they connect it to something that they already know.
His research and subsequent theories on child development closely aligns with the work of Jean Piaget.Nov 17, · Montessori, Maria (märē'ä mōntās-sô'rē), , Italian educator and physician.
She was the originator of the Montessori method of education for young children and was the first woman to receive () a medical degree in lausannecongress2018.com: Resolved. Maria Montessori was born on August 31, , in Chiaravalle, Italy. In she was placed in charge of the Casa dei Bambini school.
By , more than 1, Montessori schools had opened in the Born: Aug 31, Maria Montessori was an Italian physician and educator who developed the approach of education that carries her name.
She opened the first Montessori school over a century ago in Rome, and today there are several schools all over the world which follow her way of teaching. Maria Montessori was an Italian physician, educator, and innovator, acclaimed for her educational method that builds on the way children naturally learn.
She opened the first Montessori school—the Casa dei Bambini, or Children’s House—in Rome on January 6, It’s interesting to see how many famous people have been influenced in one way or another by Maria Montessori’s philosophy and method of education..
Famous People Who Were Montessori Students.
The famous individuals most obviously influenced by Montessori are former Montessori students. It’s interesting to see how many famous people have been influenced in one way or another by Maria Montessori’s philosophy and method of education.. Famous People Who Were Montessori Students. The famous individuals most obviously influenced by Montessori are former Montessori students. | 1,198 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By: Colleen vonVorys-Norton
The Civil War changed the ideas that surrounded burial. For the first time in American history, the nation was faced with having to care for the 600,000 soldiers who died. No longer were each of the men able to receive a proper funeral and instead had to buried in mass graves on the battlefield. This went against the burial practices of the day because it was frowned upon if the dirt was touching the body. It was believed that having the deceased body not just in dirt was one of the things that separated humans from animals.
With the massive amounts of casualties there was no possible way for the opposing sides to retrieve the dead. Not only that, but also with keeping records of who passed. Due to the fast moving nature of many of the battles, “armies did not have time to attend to the dead but had to depend on the humanity of their opponents, who predictably gave precedence to their own casualties“ (Faust 70). Having to rely on the opposing side to bury both sides bodies usually lead to their side being buried first.
Many of the soldiers were not able to even have headstones or markers. If they are buried on the battlefield, sometimes the living would be able to leave behind how many were buried there but it was on a simple piece of wood. Headstones act as a monument for the individual or the family. Wealthier families would be able to have more extravagant stones where the lower class may not even be able to afford a stone at all. Back in the Civil War era, there was not a Department of Veterans Affairs and so if an individual was injured in war, there was no program that was designed to help the returned.
Since headstones are the most common type of memorial, there is a lot of diversity within them. The easiest way to see this is in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia. Even though the idea of Arlington is the rows and rows of identical white headstones, there is a small subsection where some 482 Confederate soldiers are buried. Interestingly, even though the Confederate soldiers fought against the union, they were still considered veterans and according to Congress Public Law 85-425, “the term ‘veteran’ includes a person who served in the military or naval forces of the Confederate States of America”. This clarification is within a law that declares that Confederate soldiers will get the same pension as Union soldiers. Even though they are buried in Arlington, they are arranged in a different way. Their graves are in “concentric circles around the Confederate Monument, and their graves are marked with headstones that are distinct for their pointed tops. Legend attributes these pointed-top tombstones to a Confederate belief that the points would ‘keep Yankees from sitting on them’”. This visually marks the clear distinction between the two armies.
But should they be there in the first place? This is where I reach a contradiction. Even though Congress declared that they were veterans, the soldiers were fighting to start another country. I am confused on why the Confederates are not viewed as traitors. But I am fine with having the bodies still be there. But, I am not fine with confederate flags and imagery on or near the graves. It is one thing to have their rank and regiment on the stone, I believe that is acceptable, but I do not believe that a confederate flag should be placed outside the grave. Especially since the flag is very much a hate symbol, it has no place in a cemetery that not only contains people of color who served for the United States but also enslaved individuals are buried there.
The coffins aside, there is a confederate memorial that stands in the center of the circles. There are six vignettes in the statute with the Goddess of War and Wisdom at the top. The six show the different types of people who were affected by the war. The one that I would like to bring to light is that there is a domestic enslaved woman on the monument, holding a soldier’s child as he goes off to war. I do not believe that their should be a large Confederate memorial in the cemetery, especially one with an enslaved woman on it. I can accept the burial of the soldiers and the official title of veteran and having them buried in Arlington, but having a large monument I believe is unnecessary. I understand the desire to have something symbolizing those who have fallen, but I believe that even just removing the part of the statue that has the six vignettes and keep the female figure would be much more tasteful and more respectful.
Faust, Drew Gilpin. This republic of suffering: death and the American civil war. Alfred A. Knopf, 2008. | <urn:uuid:ee166292-3dd8-40a8-8fe8-d48e3bebfd49> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://americanstudiesmediacultureprogram.wordpress.com/2017/12/01/headstones-the-most-common-monument/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.980585 | 965 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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0.362792313098... | 5 | By: Colleen vonVorys-Norton
The Civil War changed the ideas that surrounded burial. For the first time in American history, the nation was faced with having to care for the 600,000 soldiers who died. No longer were each of the men able to receive a proper funeral and instead had to buried in mass graves on the battlefield. This went against the burial practices of the day because it was frowned upon if the dirt was touching the body. It was believed that having the deceased body not just in dirt was one of the things that separated humans from animals.
With the massive amounts of casualties there was no possible way for the opposing sides to retrieve the dead. Not only that, but also with keeping records of who passed. Due to the fast moving nature of many of the battles, “armies did not have time to attend to the dead but had to depend on the humanity of their opponents, who predictably gave precedence to their own casualties“ (Faust 70). Having to rely on the opposing side to bury both sides bodies usually lead to their side being buried first.
Many of the soldiers were not able to even have headstones or markers. If they are buried on the battlefield, sometimes the living would be able to leave behind how many were buried there but it was on a simple piece of wood. Headstones act as a monument for the individual or the family. Wealthier families would be able to have more extravagant stones where the lower class may not even be able to afford a stone at all. Back in the Civil War era, there was not a Department of Veterans Affairs and so if an individual was injured in war, there was no program that was designed to help the returned.
Since headstones are the most common type of memorial, there is a lot of diversity within them. The easiest way to see this is in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia. Even though the idea of Arlington is the rows and rows of identical white headstones, there is a small subsection where some 482 Confederate soldiers are buried. Interestingly, even though the Confederate soldiers fought against the union, they were still considered veterans and according to Congress Public Law 85-425, “the term ‘veteran’ includes a person who served in the military or naval forces of the Confederate States of America”. This clarification is within a law that declares that Confederate soldiers will get the same pension as Union soldiers. Even though they are buried in Arlington, they are arranged in a different way. Their graves are in “concentric circles around the Confederate Monument, and their graves are marked with headstones that are distinct for their pointed tops. Legend attributes these pointed-top tombstones to a Confederate belief that the points would ‘keep Yankees from sitting on them’”. This visually marks the clear distinction between the two armies.
But should they be there in the first place? This is where I reach a contradiction. Even though Congress declared that they were veterans, the soldiers were fighting to start another country. I am confused on why the Confederates are not viewed as traitors. But I am fine with having the bodies still be there. But, I am not fine with confederate flags and imagery on or near the graves. It is one thing to have their rank and regiment on the stone, I believe that is acceptable, but I do not believe that a confederate flag should be placed outside the grave. Especially since the flag is very much a hate symbol, it has no place in a cemetery that not only contains people of color who served for the United States but also enslaved individuals are buried there.
The coffins aside, there is a confederate memorial that stands in the center of the circles. There are six vignettes in the statute with the Goddess of War and Wisdom at the top. The six show the different types of people who were affected by the war. The one that I would like to bring to light is that there is a domestic enslaved woman on the monument, holding a soldier’s child as he goes off to war. I do not believe that their should be a large Confederate memorial in the cemetery, especially one with an enslaved woman on it. I can accept the burial of the soldiers and the official title of veteran and having them buried in Arlington, but having a large monument I believe is unnecessary. I understand the desire to have something symbolizing those who have fallen, but I believe that even just removing the part of the statue that has the six vignettes and keep the female figure would be much more tasteful and more respectful.
Faust, Drew Gilpin. This republic of suffering: death and the American civil war. Alfred A. Knopf, 2008. | 959 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In many ways, WWII was the beginning of unbridled mechanized combat — and the development of Hitler's Gustav gun only added to that legacy. The Gustav arm was like nothing else anyone had ever seen before: At a whopping four-stories high and weighing in at over 1,350 tons, the giant tank-like machine had destructive abilities that put it in a class of its own. But it did have its downsides.
The giant device was hugely impractical and was not at all subtle in the German countryside, leaving its operators incredibly vulnerable to storm from Allied planes overhead — not to mention the fact that the arm could only be fired 14 times a day based on the tedious nature of its operation.
Despite the fact that only two of these were ever manufactured, and that they were sent to the junk yard within a year, the Gustav remains one of the most devastatingly impressive methods of firepower ever developed, and without a doubt one of the largest.
Near the beginning of WWII, Germany set its sights on overtaking its western neighbor, France. France's military defenses relied on rather archaic methods recycled from WWI, so Germany decided to get creative.
France's only real defense against the Third Reich's army was its Maginot Line, which was essentially "a great line of fortifications that spanned France's borders with several neighbors," forming, "a glorified trench." And despite the fact that the line itself was strongest along France's boarder with Germany, it was naively outdated when it came to the mechanized fighting that was ushered in by WWII.
Though Hitler eventually had his armies simply bypass the Maginot Line, he still continued the development of the device that would have allowed him to end the line altogether.
The creation of the Gustav began with Hitler employing the expertise of the Friedrich Krupp A.G. company out of Essen, Germany, with the intent of developing a railway gun capable of devastating the French trench. The result was a four-story, 1,350-ton gun that was capable of firing off both 10,000-pound shells and "16,540-pound concrete-piercing shells — roughly the weight of an unladen 71-passenger school bus, traveling at 2700ft/s."
The device's precision was also remarkably high — it could hit a target as far as 29 miles away and could break through as much as 264 feet of reinforced concrete with a single blow.
The Gustav and its sister machine, the Dora, only saw brief action. In total, the Gustav fired off a little over 300 rounds in its lifetime before its bulky self was seized by the Allies. Dora's fared no better: The Germans quickly dismantled it for fear of it being taken and used against them.
The failure of the device within just a year's time can be credited to both its enormously impractical size as well as its slow recovery time. The Gustav not only had to be transported from place to place via railway, but was so large that it had to be partially disassembled as well, adding to the time required to simply get it into firing position. Once it was ready to go, it would only end up being able to fire around 14 rounds per day, thanks to how involved the process of loading it was. Plus, it could hardly be considered stealthy and was particularly vulnerable to Allied war planes. | <urn:uuid:3def94aa-2d7f-49ab-8719-2e9863d433ea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ranker.com/list/fuhrer-gustav-facts/kellie-kreiss?ref=browse_list&l=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00439.warc.gz | en | 0.987736 | 686 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.484188258... | 2 | In many ways, WWII was the beginning of unbridled mechanized combat — and the development of Hitler's Gustav gun only added to that legacy. The Gustav arm was like nothing else anyone had ever seen before: At a whopping four-stories high and weighing in at over 1,350 tons, the giant tank-like machine had destructive abilities that put it in a class of its own. But it did have its downsides.
The giant device was hugely impractical and was not at all subtle in the German countryside, leaving its operators incredibly vulnerable to storm from Allied planes overhead — not to mention the fact that the arm could only be fired 14 times a day based on the tedious nature of its operation.
Despite the fact that only two of these were ever manufactured, and that they were sent to the junk yard within a year, the Gustav remains one of the most devastatingly impressive methods of firepower ever developed, and without a doubt one of the largest.
Near the beginning of WWII, Germany set its sights on overtaking its western neighbor, France. France's military defenses relied on rather archaic methods recycled from WWI, so Germany decided to get creative.
France's only real defense against the Third Reich's army was its Maginot Line, which was essentially "a great line of fortifications that spanned France's borders with several neighbors," forming, "a glorified trench." And despite the fact that the line itself was strongest along France's boarder with Germany, it was naively outdated when it came to the mechanized fighting that was ushered in by WWII.
Though Hitler eventually had his armies simply bypass the Maginot Line, he still continued the development of the device that would have allowed him to end the line altogether.
The creation of the Gustav began with Hitler employing the expertise of the Friedrich Krupp A.G. company out of Essen, Germany, with the intent of developing a railway gun capable of devastating the French trench. The result was a four-story, 1,350-ton gun that was capable of firing off both 10,000-pound shells and "16,540-pound concrete-piercing shells — roughly the weight of an unladen 71-passenger school bus, traveling at 2700ft/s."
The device's precision was also remarkably high — it could hit a target as far as 29 miles away and could break through as much as 264 feet of reinforced concrete with a single blow.
The Gustav and its sister machine, the Dora, only saw brief action. In total, the Gustav fired off a little over 300 rounds in its lifetime before its bulky self was seized by the Allies. Dora's fared no better: The Germans quickly dismantled it for fear of it being taken and used against them.
The failure of the device within just a year's time can be credited to both its enormously impractical size as well as its slow recovery time. The Gustav not only had to be transported from place to place via railway, but was so large that it had to be partially disassembled as well, adding to the time required to simply get it into firing position. Once it was ready to go, it would only end up being able to fire around 14 rounds per day, thanks to how involved the process of loading it was. Plus, it could hardly be considered stealthy and was particularly vulnerable to Allied war planes. | 711 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the early stages of the Cold War, the US military developed huge road trains to transport heavy machinery and strategic weapons across the region. Since most of the military movement was still dependent on the rail networks, the strategists pointed out the vulnerability in the plan by proposing a scenario where the rails were damaged or rendered useless by a Russian attack. Thus, the need for the road trains was firmly established.
These massive wheeled land-based trains are one of the longest road vehicles ever built, with the largest of them reaching almost six hundred feet. Nearly all of these road trains were manufactured by the Texan company, LeTourneau. Although, modern road-based trains are still being used for various operations, these are not as huge as the vintage ones. Plus, the older road trains were designed for off-road expeditions as well.
When tasked with creating a machine of such massive size, LeTourneau designed a diesel-electric transmission to drive the endless number of wheels in each road train. Each wheel had its own separate electric motor to produce the traction needed.
In many ways, these land-trains were quite similar to the diesel-electric locomotives being used on the rails around the same time. The only major difference was the huge rubber tires that stretched about six hundred feet. Various models of the road trains were manufactured by the heavy machinery company for different military purposes. Some of them are:
1.LeTourneau SnowTrain 1
The idea of the road trains was quite popular with the Army and in 1954, they commissioned the LeTourneau company to make a larger and even more powerful version of the vehicle. The resulting vehicle was named TC-497 Overland Mark II in 1961.
Mark II included a number features allowing it to be resized, unlike the fixed number of buggies in the previous models of the road trains. The overland train was driven by one engine of 600hp. To reduce the weight and improve the speed, the frame was primarily made of Aluminium.
To reduce the weight and improve the speed, the frame was primarily made of Aluminium. The turning mechanism of the train was quite fascinating as such an enormous length cannot be operated by a single steering wheel. Thus, several wheels were installed in multiple bogies and by directing all of them to turn in unison, the land train was able to turn around corners. The locomotives became very popular among the Army brass in the 1960s due to their ability to carry heavy military loads across the country. The idea eventually died out as the heavy lift helicopters became operational.
3. TC-497 Overland Train MK II
The US military was so impressed with the performance of these land trains that they decided to go for an even more ambitious TC-497 Overland Train Mk II. The key feature of the new train was that it could be used to string together as many bogeys as needed because its 1,170 horsepower engines were adequately distributed throughout the length.
More engines could easily be added or removed according to the requirements. Welded Aluminium made the trains lighter than the previous ones thus, enhancing their speed. Also, the problem of steering these trains was resolved by making all of the bogeys independently steerable.
To take a turn, military drivers would turn in unison on these bogeys and achieve the difficult task of turning round corners. Mark II had been designed to travel long distances, so it came equipped with sleeping quarters for six, toilets and even a gallery. Each cabin was 30 feet tall and radiated a feeling of extreme monstrosity. The overland train was handed over to the Army in 1962. Slowly, most of these trains phased out.
Although the Mark II was eventually sold for scraps, it still holds the record for the longest onland transport vehicle. Judging by the sheer size and length of the monster train, I am sure this record will stand for a long time! | <urn:uuid:d5176b37-ec2b-4cf5-b2ac-3df2480b30ca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wonderfulengineering.com/these-mammoth-land-trains-of-the-us-army-were-too-big-to-be-true/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00423.warc.gz | en | 0.982984 | 798 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.08454355597496... | 9 | During the early stages of the Cold War, the US military developed huge road trains to transport heavy machinery and strategic weapons across the region. Since most of the military movement was still dependent on the rail networks, the strategists pointed out the vulnerability in the plan by proposing a scenario where the rails were damaged or rendered useless by a Russian attack. Thus, the need for the road trains was firmly established.
These massive wheeled land-based trains are one of the longest road vehicles ever built, with the largest of them reaching almost six hundred feet. Nearly all of these road trains were manufactured by the Texan company, LeTourneau. Although, modern road-based trains are still being used for various operations, these are not as huge as the vintage ones. Plus, the older road trains were designed for off-road expeditions as well.
When tasked with creating a machine of such massive size, LeTourneau designed a diesel-electric transmission to drive the endless number of wheels in each road train. Each wheel had its own separate electric motor to produce the traction needed.
In many ways, these land-trains were quite similar to the diesel-electric locomotives being used on the rails around the same time. The only major difference was the huge rubber tires that stretched about six hundred feet. Various models of the road trains were manufactured by the heavy machinery company for different military purposes. Some of them are:
1.LeTourneau SnowTrain 1
The idea of the road trains was quite popular with the Army and in 1954, they commissioned the LeTourneau company to make a larger and even more powerful version of the vehicle. The resulting vehicle was named TC-497 Overland Mark II in 1961.
Mark II included a number features allowing it to be resized, unlike the fixed number of buggies in the previous models of the road trains. The overland train was driven by one engine of 600hp. To reduce the weight and improve the speed, the frame was primarily made of Aluminium.
To reduce the weight and improve the speed, the frame was primarily made of Aluminium. The turning mechanism of the train was quite fascinating as such an enormous length cannot be operated by a single steering wheel. Thus, several wheels were installed in multiple bogies and by directing all of them to turn in unison, the land train was able to turn around corners. The locomotives became very popular among the Army brass in the 1960s due to their ability to carry heavy military loads across the country. The idea eventually died out as the heavy lift helicopters became operational.
3. TC-497 Overland Train MK II
The US military was so impressed with the performance of these land trains that they decided to go for an even more ambitious TC-497 Overland Train Mk II. The key feature of the new train was that it could be used to string together as many bogeys as needed because its 1,170 horsepower engines were adequately distributed throughout the length.
More engines could easily be added or removed according to the requirements. Welded Aluminium made the trains lighter than the previous ones thus, enhancing their speed. Also, the problem of steering these trains was resolved by making all of the bogeys independently steerable.
To take a turn, military drivers would turn in unison on these bogeys and achieve the difficult task of turning round corners. Mark II had been designed to travel long distances, so it came equipped with sleeping quarters for six, toilets and even a gallery. Each cabin was 30 feet tall and radiated a feeling of extreme monstrosity. The overland train was handed over to the Army in 1962. Slowly, most of these trains phased out.
Although the Mark II was eventually sold for scraps, it still holds the record for the longest onland transport vehicle. Judging by the sheer size and length of the monster train, I am sure this record will stand for a long time! | 816 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leonardo’s “Mona Lisa” was not serve solely as an icon status. Mona Lisa wears no jewelry and she does not appear wealthy. Renaissance etiquette stated that a women she never stare directly into a man’s eyes. The portrait is supposed to engage the audience psychologically. Most artist in Italy drew on parchment or on velum. 14th and 15th century artist were very detailed and meticulously executed. Da Vinci’s Mona Lisa is an expression of humanistic values because in the renaissance, artists would paint woman working, cooking or caring for their babies and they usually looked depressed and sad.Order now
The way Leonardo painted this portrait deviated from the traditional way women were painted like this in Italy. Renaissance artist showed individuals how they really look. Humanism was a basic concept of the Italian Renaissance, an era following the Middle Ages when the life and achievements of an individual were not reckoned to be important, only his religious beliefs which would prepare him for the next world. Central to humanist ideals was the importance of secular not religious life was stressed.
The humanist ideal asserted the right of a man to make use of his own reason, to read and learn. It stressed his importance as individual in this world, not the next. In line with these ideals, is the choice of a non-religious subject for this painting which is actually that of a young Florentine Noble Woman. She painted not as a stiff figure, as she would have been in the middle Ages but as a real person. Part of humanistic ideals was also the encouragement of study into such things as the human body produced the impression of a real flesh and blood person.
Another humanistic ideal was a striving for harmony and order. This was reflected in the desire to produce beautiful imagery and clear and ordered compositions. In this case he chose a pyramidal composition – with ML’s face and body at its center. This gave the work symmetry and stability – both humanistic ideals. The background recedes in depth. This is known as linear perceptive – a Renaissance innovation- with the point where the lines meet occurring behind Mona Lisa’s head. | <urn:uuid:01902086-1e18-476e-8803-b2072c5929ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://artscolumbia.org/artists/da-vinci/leonardo-and-the-mona-lisa-53164/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00271.warc.gz | en | 0.980058 | 444 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.3483274579048157,... | 4 | Leonardo’s “Mona Lisa” was not serve solely as an icon status. Mona Lisa wears no jewelry and she does not appear wealthy. Renaissance etiquette stated that a women she never stare directly into a man’s eyes. The portrait is supposed to engage the audience psychologically. Most artist in Italy drew on parchment or on velum. 14th and 15th century artist were very detailed and meticulously executed. Da Vinci’s Mona Lisa is an expression of humanistic values because in the renaissance, artists would paint woman working, cooking or caring for their babies and they usually looked depressed and sad.Order now
The way Leonardo painted this portrait deviated from the traditional way women were painted like this in Italy. Renaissance artist showed individuals how they really look. Humanism was a basic concept of the Italian Renaissance, an era following the Middle Ages when the life and achievements of an individual were not reckoned to be important, only his religious beliefs which would prepare him for the next world. Central to humanist ideals was the importance of secular not religious life was stressed.
The humanist ideal asserted the right of a man to make use of his own reason, to read and learn. It stressed his importance as individual in this world, not the next. In line with these ideals, is the choice of a non-religious subject for this painting which is actually that of a young Florentine Noble Woman. She painted not as a stiff figure, as she would have been in the middle Ages but as a real person. Part of humanistic ideals was also the encouragement of study into such things as the human body produced the impression of a real flesh and blood person.
Another humanistic ideal was a striving for harmony and order. This was reflected in the desire to produce beautiful imagery and clear and ordered compositions. In this case he chose a pyramidal composition – with ML’s face and body at its center. This gave the work symmetry and stability – both humanistic ideals. The background recedes in depth. This is known as linear perceptive – a Renaissance innovation- with the point where the lines meet occurring behind Mona Lisa’s head. | 431 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Many people question why it is important to learn Shakespeare. The reason why is to learn about the themes and messages that he conveys in his plays that are also in real life. A few of them include greediness, betrayal and love which can all be found in Shakespeare. King Claudius in Hamlet is greedy as he kills the old monarch so he can be the new king. Betrayal as King is the brother of the old king yet jet still kills him. Love as King Claudius shows love to Gertrude. Hamlet also shows another kind of love to his mother Gertrude. This is why we need to study Shakespeare.
A theme Shakespeare relates to is greediness. An example King Claudius in Hamlet. He is extremely greedy as he murders his brother. Hamlet to be king. Back in those times it was illegal to do that. He even will kill other people such as Hamlet who know he did the murder, who pose a threat to him just for him to stay as king and he will conspire the darkest plans to do so such as the rigged fencing match between Hamlet and Laerties. Because of this he kills many people who were also innocent dies too such as Gueen Gertrude who drank from a poisoned cup that was meant to be for Hamlet. Thankfully he dies at the end to Hamlet as Claudius ruling the kingdom will not end well. This is how greediness is portrayed in Shakespeare.
Another theme Shakespeare communicates is betrayal. In Shakespearean times, it was common for betrayal although it is illegal because of the stages of life which is you stay the role you were born with. You cannot do anything else to become anything else. Kings would murder kings and brothers will murder brothers. For example, Claudius murders the first Hamlet so he can be King although they are brothers. This is illegal as Claudius is born not to be a king yet he still murders to be king. Hamlets friends also betray Hamlet as they are the ones who carries out his death orders. Ophelia also betrays Hamlet because she spies on his to see what is wrong with him. Claudius also kills Hamlet without him knowing showing how betrayal is shown n Shakespeare.
There is love in Hamlet. For example, Gertrude loves Claudius and Hamlet loves his girlfriend Ophelia. Gertrude shows little love to Hamlet despite being his mother and Hamlet shows no love to his uncle Claudius. However, all these love relationships change throughout the play. There are two types of love shown in Hamlet the family relationship and the love relationship. The family relationship used to be between Hamlet and his mother Gertrude. Hamlet no longer loves her as he feels as she has betrayed him and his father by marring Claudius. A love relationship is between Hamlet and Ophelia. Gertrude and Claudius is both. This is how the theme of love is in Shakespeare.
There are many themes that Shakespeare communicates through his writing. One is greediness as King Claudius is a good example. He murders the old king so he can be the new king. Shakespeare also communicates betrayal in his works. An example is how Claudius betrayed his brother by killing him. Shakespeare also communicates love in Hamlet for example Claudius loves Gertrude and Hamlet loves Ophelia. Hamlet also used to love Gertrude as in family love. This is why learning what Shakespeare conveys in his texts are important. | <urn:uuid:9147f67b-95f8-41fd-ab24-0d9c72a48d27> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://paperap.com/many-people-question-why-it-is-important-to-learn-shakespeare-best-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00236.warc.gz | en | 0.985525 | 726 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.20230892300605... | 2 | Many people question why it is important to learn Shakespeare. The reason why is to learn about the themes and messages that he conveys in his plays that are also in real life. A few of them include greediness, betrayal and love which can all be found in Shakespeare. King Claudius in Hamlet is greedy as he kills the old monarch so he can be the new king. Betrayal as King is the brother of the old king yet jet still kills him. Love as King Claudius shows love to Gertrude. Hamlet also shows another kind of love to his mother Gertrude. This is why we need to study Shakespeare.
A theme Shakespeare relates to is greediness. An example King Claudius in Hamlet. He is extremely greedy as he murders his brother. Hamlet to be king. Back in those times it was illegal to do that. He even will kill other people such as Hamlet who know he did the murder, who pose a threat to him just for him to stay as king and he will conspire the darkest plans to do so such as the rigged fencing match between Hamlet and Laerties. Because of this he kills many people who were also innocent dies too such as Gueen Gertrude who drank from a poisoned cup that was meant to be for Hamlet. Thankfully he dies at the end to Hamlet as Claudius ruling the kingdom will not end well. This is how greediness is portrayed in Shakespeare.
Another theme Shakespeare communicates is betrayal. In Shakespearean times, it was common for betrayal although it is illegal because of the stages of life which is you stay the role you were born with. You cannot do anything else to become anything else. Kings would murder kings and brothers will murder brothers. For example, Claudius murders the first Hamlet so he can be King although they are brothers. This is illegal as Claudius is born not to be a king yet he still murders to be king. Hamlets friends also betray Hamlet as they are the ones who carries out his death orders. Ophelia also betrays Hamlet because she spies on his to see what is wrong with him. Claudius also kills Hamlet without him knowing showing how betrayal is shown n Shakespeare.
There is love in Hamlet. For example, Gertrude loves Claudius and Hamlet loves his girlfriend Ophelia. Gertrude shows little love to Hamlet despite being his mother and Hamlet shows no love to his uncle Claudius. However, all these love relationships change throughout the play. There are two types of love shown in Hamlet the family relationship and the love relationship. The family relationship used to be between Hamlet and his mother Gertrude. Hamlet no longer loves her as he feels as she has betrayed him and his father by marring Claudius. A love relationship is between Hamlet and Ophelia. Gertrude and Claudius is both. This is how the theme of love is in Shakespeare.
There are many themes that Shakespeare communicates through his writing. One is greediness as King Claudius is a good example. He murders the old king so he can be the new king. Shakespeare also communicates betrayal in his works. An example is how Claudius betrayed his brother by killing him. Shakespeare also communicates love in Hamlet for example Claudius loves Gertrude and Hamlet loves Ophelia. Hamlet also used to love Gertrude as in family love. This is why learning what Shakespeare conveys in his texts are important. | 712 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Physical activity is important at all stages of life. It prevents obesity, improves well-being and reduces the risk of many chronic conditions, such as heart disease, arthritis and diabetes. Evidence shows that being active at a young age tracks into adulthood, and that physical activity behaviours adopted when young are likely to carry through life. And now our study of babies’ activity levels has shown how different factors, including sleep and diet, link together to improve baby health from the day they are born.
For our research project, we tracked the physical activity of 141 12-month-old infants (77 boys and 64 girls) using accelerometers, which they wore on their ankles for a week. We looked at how active the children were during the day and at night. Then we compared the different characteristics of the most and least active children. This involved using the accelerometer data, information that we collected from measuring the infants at home – things like weight and diet diaries were included in this – and medical records from the mothers’ pregnancy, as well as the the infants’ own birth and GP records.
Overall, the research showed that getting the right start means that other healthy behaviours fall in to place more easily. Across the board we found that active babies are healthy, are of good weight and are born full term. In addition, the larger babies who had been born full term were more active.
We found that diet is an important factor when it comes to being an active child. The children who were breastfed (breastfeeding has been associated with higher fitness levels in childhood) and those who ate more vegetables were more active. Infants who were less active had a more adult style diet, with juice rather than milk and adult crisps.
As well as improving their activity levels, healthy eating behaviours, such as having a higher vegetable intake, adopted at this age are likely to be carried through life too. This, when combined with another finding that infants born prematurely, and who do not put on weight well after birth, move less, also suggests that preterm and low birthweight infants should be breastfed for longer, and that a healthy diet of milk and vegetables is even more important for them. | <urn:uuid:0e81f03c-fad4-4e4d-b974-f51ea4931b97> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.iol.co.za/lifestyle/family/baby/babies-with-healthier-diets-are-more-active-and-sleep-better-study-19282127 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00435.warc.gz | en | 0.984802 | 446 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.16221739351... | 1 | Physical activity is important at all stages of life. It prevents obesity, improves well-being and reduces the risk of many chronic conditions, such as heart disease, arthritis and diabetes. Evidence shows that being active at a young age tracks into adulthood, and that physical activity behaviours adopted when young are likely to carry through life. And now our study of babies’ activity levels has shown how different factors, including sleep and diet, link together to improve baby health from the day they are born.
For our research project, we tracked the physical activity of 141 12-month-old infants (77 boys and 64 girls) using accelerometers, which they wore on their ankles for a week. We looked at how active the children were during the day and at night. Then we compared the different characteristics of the most and least active children. This involved using the accelerometer data, information that we collected from measuring the infants at home – things like weight and diet diaries were included in this – and medical records from the mothers’ pregnancy, as well as the the infants’ own birth and GP records.
Overall, the research showed that getting the right start means that other healthy behaviours fall in to place more easily. Across the board we found that active babies are healthy, are of good weight and are born full term. In addition, the larger babies who had been born full term were more active.
We found that diet is an important factor when it comes to being an active child. The children who were breastfed (breastfeeding has been associated with higher fitness levels in childhood) and those who ate more vegetables were more active. Infants who were less active had a more adult style diet, with juice rather than milk and adult crisps.
As well as improving their activity levels, healthy eating behaviours, such as having a higher vegetable intake, adopted at this age are likely to be carried through life too. This, when combined with another finding that infants born prematurely, and who do not put on weight well after birth, move less, also suggests that preterm and low birthweight infants should be breastfed for longer, and that a healthy diet of milk and vegetables is even more important for them. | 443 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Li also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods.
Although transformed over time, it is still the substance of learning, the source of values, and the social code of the Chinese.
The faith in the possibility of ordinary human beings to become awe-inspiring sages and worthies is deeply rooted in the Confucian heritage, and the insistence that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour is typically Confucian.
Confucius was born in the 22nd year of the reign of Duke Xiang of Lu bce. Confucius was born in Qufu in the small feudal state of Lu in what is now Shandong province, which was noted for its preservation of the traditions of ritual and music of the Zhou civilization. His family name was Kong and his personal name Qiu, but he is referred to as either Kongzi or Kongfuzi Master Kong throughout Chinese history.
His father died when Confucius was only three years old. Instructed first by his mother, Confucius then distinguished himself as an indefatigable learner in his teens.
He recalled toward the end of his life that at age 15 his heart was set upon learning. A historical account notes that, even though he was already known as an informed young scholar, he felt it appropriate to inquire about everything while visiting the Grand Temple.
Confucius had served in minor government posts managing stables and keeping books for granaries before he married a woman of similar background when he was His mastery of the six arts—ritual, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and arithmetic—and his familiarity with the classical traditions, notably poetry and history, enabled him to start a brilliant teaching career in his 30s.
Confucius is known as the first teacher in China who wanted to make education broadly available and who was instrumental in establishing the art of teaching as a vocation, indeed as a way of life.
Before Confucius, aristocratic families had hired tutors to educate their sons in specific arts, and government officials had instructed their subordinates in the necessary techniques, but he was the first person to devote his whole life to learning and teaching for the purpose of transforming and improving society.
He believed that all human beings could benefit from self-cultivation. He inaugurated a humanities program for potential leaders, opened the doors of education to all, and defined learning not merely as the acquisition of knowledge but also as character building. For Confucius the primary function of education was to provide the proper way of training exemplary persons junzia process that involved constant self-improvement and continuous social interaction.
For decades Confucius tried to be actively involved in politicswishing to put his humanist ideas into practice through governmental channels. In his late 40s and early 50s Confucius served first as a magistrate, then as an assistant minister of public worksand eventually as minister of justice in the state of Lu.
It is likely that he accompanied King Lu as his chief minister on one of the diplomatic missions.
At 56, when he realized that his superiors were uninterested in his policies, Confucius left the country in an attempt to find another feudal state to which he could render his service.
Despite his political frustration he was accompanied by an expanding circle of students during this self-imposed exile of almost 12 years.
His reputation as a man of vision and mission spread. Indeed, Confucius was perceived as the heroic conscience who knew realistically that he might not succeed but, fired by a righteous passion, continuously did the best he could.
At the age of 67 he returned home to teach and to preserve his cherished classical traditions by writing and editing. He died in bce, at the age of Learn More in these related Britannica articles:Confucius' philosophy was predominately a moral and political one.
It was founded on the belief that heaven and earth coexist in harmony and balanced strength whilst maintaining a perpetual dynamism. Confucius (?? BCE), according to Chinese tradition, was a thinker, political figure, educator, and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought.
His teachings, preserved in the Lunyu or Analects, form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the education and comportment of the ideal man, how such an individual should live his life and interact with others, and the.
Confucius (?? BCE), according to Chinese tradition, was a thinker, political figure, educator, and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought.
His teachings, preserved in the Lunyu or Analects, form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the education and comportment of the ideal man, how such an individual should live . Confucius.
Confucius (/ BC) was a Chinese teacher, philosopher and politician during the so-called Hundred Schools of Thought era. He was the founder of Confucianism, ethical and philosophical system that still has many followers in China. Confucianism is often characterized as a system of social and ethical philosophy rather than a religion.
In fact, Confucianism built on an ancient religious foundation to establish the social values, institutions, and transcendent ideals of traditional Chinese society. Sources for the historical recovery of Confucius' life and thought are limited to texts that postdate his traditional lifetime ( BCE) by a few decades at least and several centuries at most.
Confucius' appearances in Chinese texts are a sign of his popularity and utility among literate elites. | <urn:uuid:b15a59be-bdd7-415b-99a7-fc160cba0dcc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gilihacuvidakolud.pfmlures.com/confucius-philosophy-26835av.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00535.warc.gz | en | 0.984608 | 1,146 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.28981536626... | 1 | Li also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods.
Although transformed over time, it is still the substance of learning, the source of values, and the social code of the Chinese.
The faith in the possibility of ordinary human beings to become awe-inspiring sages and worthies is deeply rooted in the Confucian heritage, and the insistence that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour is typically Confucian.
Confucius was born in the 22nd year of the reign of Duke Xiang of Lu bce. Confucius was born in Qufu in the small feudal state of Lu in what is now Shandong province, which was noted for its preservation of the traditions of ritual and music of the Zhou civilization. His family name was Kong and his personal name Qiu, but he is referred to as either Kongzi or Kongfuzi Master Kong throughout Chinese history.
His father died when Confucius was only three years old. Instructed first by his mother, Confucius then distinguished himself as an indefatigable learner in his teens.
He recalled toward the end of his life that at age 15 his heart was set upon learning. A historical account notes that, even though he was already known as an informed young scholar, he felt it appropriate to inquire about everything while visiting the Grand Temple.
Confucius had served in minor government posts managing stables and keeping books for granaries before he married a woman of similar background when he was His mastery of the six arts—ritual, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and arithmetic—and his familiarity with the classical traditions, notably poetry and history, enabled him to start a brilliant teaching career in his 30s.
Confucius is known as the first teacher in China who wanted to make education broadly available and who was instrumental in establishing the art of teaching as a vocation, indeed as a way of life.
Before Confucius, aristocratic families had hired tutors to educate their sons in specific arts, and government officials had instructed their subordinates in the necessary techniques, but he was the first person to devote his whole life to learning and teaching for the purpose of transforming and improving society.
He believed that all human beings could benefit from self-cultivation. He inaugurated a humanities program for potential leaders, opened the doors of education to all, and defined learning not merely as the acquisition of knowledge but also as character building. For Confucius the primary function of education was to provide the proper way of training exemplary persons junzia process that involved constant self-improvement and continuous social interaction.
For decades Confucius tried to be actively involved in politicswishing to put his humanist ideas into practice through governmental channels. In his late 40s and early 50s Confucius served first as a magistrate, then as an assistant minister of public worksand eventually as minister of justice in the state of Lu.
It is likely that he accompanied King Lu as his chief minister on one of the diplomatic missions.
At 56, when he realized that his superiors were uninterested in his policies, Confucius left the country in an attempt to find another feudal state to which he could render his service.
Despite his political frustration he was accompanied by an expanding circle of students during this self-imposed exile of almost 12 years.
His reputation as a man of vision and mission spread. Indeed, Confucius was perceived as the heroic conscience who knew realistically that he might not succeed but, fired by a righteous passion, continuously did the best he could.
At the age of 67 he returned home to teach and to preserve his cherished classical traditions by writing and editing. He died in bce, at the age of Learn More in these related Britannica articles:Confucius' philosophy was predominately a moral and political one.
It was founded on the belief that heaven and earth coexist in harmony and balanced strength whilst maintaining a perpetual dynamism. Confucius (?? BCE), according to Chinese tradition, was a thinker, political figure, educator, and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought.
His teachings, preserved in the Lunyu or Analects, form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the education and comportment of the ideal man, how such an individual should live his life and interact with others, and the.
Confucius (?? BCE), according to Chinese tradition, was a thinker, political figure, educator, and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought.
His teachings, preserved in the Lunyu or Analects, form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the education and comportment of the ideal man, how such an individual should live . Confucius.
Confucius (/ BC) was a Chinese teacher, philosopher and politician during the so-called Hundred Schools of Thought era. He was the founder of Confucianism, ethical and philosophical system that still has many followers in China. Confucianism is often characterized as a system of social and ethical philosophy rather than a religion.
In fact, Confucianism built on an ancient religious foundation to establish the social values, institutions, and transcendent ideals of traditional Chinese society. Sources for the historical recovery of Confucius' life and thought are limited to texts that postdate his traditional lifetime ( BCE) by a few decades at least and several centuries at most.
Confucius' appearances in Chinese texts are a sign of his popularity and utility among literate elites. | 1,136 | ENGLISH | 1 |
January 21, 2020
WILDLIFE AND MANKIND IN PUSLINCHBy Marjorie Clark
The relationship between the pioneers and the wildlife of Puslinch does not make a pleasant story for the nature lover. In fact, the settlers’ treatment of the natural world could only be termed painfully destructive. To understand why our ancestors responded to God’s command of stewardship as they did, it is necessary to know what they faced, when they arrived in the New World and how it differed from the rural landscapes, which they knew as normal in England, Scotland, Ireland and Germany.
By the 19th century, the countries, from which they emigrated, had an established agrarian life for many previous centuries, where families grew crops and kept livestock on sections of land. In Europe, wildlife had long been looked upon as an impediment to farming and larger species had been either isolated to forested areas and non-arable land or eradicated altogether, as was the case with bears and wolves. This was the order that the settlers were familiar with and which they did not question but accepted as proper.
By contrast, in North America, native peoples were not settled on plots of land and did not engage in extensive crop cultivation or keep large herds of livestock. Instead, they lived largely by harvesting wild animals, with some temporary cultivation of plots of land. Therefore, it was in their interest to live in harmony with nature, ensuring that a balance was maintained. When the wildlife had been hunted and the earth been tilled for for some years in an area, the First Nations peoples moved to a new district to allow the former to regenerate. This ensured a healthy balance of nature.
When the European settlers arrived in Puslinch, they found a country replete with wildlife, in the main, unafraid of man. John Winer reported of those early days in The McPhatter Letters:
“I have seen deer run through the bush like big flocks of sheep and very often chased closely by a pack of wolves”.
John Arkell wrote, in February 1831, to Thomas Arkell in England that:
“The flocks of long-tailed pigeons, which arrive here in spring and leave again in the fall, are beyond description.”
He was referring, of course, to the passenger pigeon.
While they found this useful to sustain them during those first difficult years, when they lacked everything else, they also found large wild animals, to which they were not accustomed, threatening. As well, the mammals were detrimental to their hard-earned, domesticated livestock and their crops, upon which the lives of the pioneers’ very large families depended. Thus generally, like the great forests, they were viewed as a hindrance to progress, pests or fearsome predators, to be destroyed.
Selections from The McPhatter Letters, a collection of stories from the pioneer generations made by Matthew McPhatter in 1897, edited by Anna Jackson and published by the Puslinch Historical Society almost one hundred years later, illustrate this point well.
Charles Callfas, whose parents settled at Morriston, related that his father, John Callfas, built a shanty, 16 feet square, which housed eighteen members of the Callfas family, as well as the Morlock family, for several months, until a second shanty could be erected.
“The wolves stationed themselves on a hill near by and kept up howling until the light was put out; then they would pace around the shanty in flocks. In broad daylight, bears came looking through the windows and took pigs out of the pen. …….. The cattle bravely defended the sheep against the wolves but even then, they could scarcely be kept.”
Shortly after the family settled in Badenoch, John Clark Sr. bought a pair of steers in Flamborough. That very night, the wolves killed and devoured them. Felix Hanlon related how, when carrying flour home from the mill in Guelph, wolves overtook him in the bush. He climbed a tree and stayed there until the morning, leaving the bag of flour at the bottom, where the wolves trampled it until irrecoverable.
Chris Morlock of Morriston of Morriston told this story:
“I can remember the first young cattle my father owned. They were killed by the wolves and in hunting for them, we found the remains of one of them and my father and Mr. John Wise went out to watch the carcass and shoot the wolves on their return for another feed. All of a sudden they saw about 25 wolves and they were so afraid of them, being so numerous, that they quietly took to their heels for home and never fired a shot at them.”
Given these experiences, then it is perhaps not surprising, that the first mention of wildlife in Puslinch in a newspaper is “A Bear Hunt in Puslinch”, in the Thursday, Jan. 6, 1853 issue.
“A large bear having been seen a few days since, near the residence of John Cockburn, Esquire, on Saturday last, a few of the inhabitants turned out in hopes of finding his whereabouts and after traversing a large swamp for three or four hours, one of the party got the chance of a shot at him, within about thirty yards but which failed taking effect. Just as it was getting a little dark, Mr. Richard Ellis, who was one of the party, conceived that he saw Bruin lying right before him in the swamp and immediately fired into an old log, which of course, lay dead upon the spot. Thus ended the first day’s sport.”
By this point in time, bears were scarce in Puslinch; old-timers reported that there was never a bear seen in Puslinch after 1855. Determined to eradicate them completely, the hunting party of ten men and dogs set out and succeeded in killing the animal the following Monday. They estimated that the bear was seven feet, ten inches in length, very large and powerful, although not as fat as bears usually were at that season. The next day, the carcass was sent to Hamilton, where it was sold to a butcher named Duff for $12. | <urn:uuid:61c388cf-a9ec-4154-a0e4-7251cca6c63a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.puslinchtoday.ca/2017/07/20/wildlife-and-mankind-in-puslinch/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00524.warc.gz | en | 0.984982 | 1,304 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.071124240756... | 1 | January 21, 2020
WILDLIFE AND MANKIND IN PUSLINCHBy Marjorie Clark
The relationship between the pioneers and the wildlife of Puslinch does not make a pleasant story for the nature lover. In fact, the settlers’ treatment of the natural world could only be termed painfully destructive. To understand why our ancestors responded to God’s command of stewardship as they did, it is necessary to know what they faced, when they arrived in the New World and how it differed from the rural landscapes, which they knew as normal in England, Scotland, Ireland and Germany.
By the 19th century, the countries, from which they emigrated, had an established agrarian life for many previous centuries, where families grew crops and kept livestock on sections of land. In Europe, wildlife had long been looked upon as an impediment to farming and larger species had been either isolated to forested areas and non-arable land or eradicated altogether, as was the case with bears and wolves. This was the order that the settlers were familiar with and which they did not question but accepted as proper.
By contrast, in North America, native peoples were not settled on plots of land and did not engage in extensive crop cultivation or keep large herds of livestock. Instead, they lived largely by harvesting wild animals, with some temporary cultivation of plots of land. Therefore, it was in their interest to live in harmony with nature, ensuring that a balance was maintained. When the wildlife had been hunted and the earth been tilled for for some years in an area, the First Nations peoples moved to a new district to allow the former to regenerate. This ensured a healthy balance of nature.
When the European settlers arrived in Puslinch, they found a country replete with wildlife, in the main, unafraid of man. John Winer reported of those early days in The McPhatter Letters:
“I have seen deer run through the bush like big flocks of sheep and very often chased closely by a pack of wolves”.
John Arkell wrote, in February 1831, to Thomas Arkell in England that:
“The flocks of long-tailed pigeons, which arrive here in spring and leave again in the fall, are beyond description.”
He was referring, of course, to the passenger pigeon.
While they found this useful to sustain them during those first difficult years, when they lacked everything else, they also found large wild animals, to which they were not accustomed, threatening. As well, the mammals were detrimental to their hard-earned, domesticated livestock and their crops, upon which the lives of the pioneers’ very large families depended. Thus generally, like the great forests, they were viewed as a hindrance to progress, pests or fearsome predators, to be destroyed.
Selections from The McPhatter Letters, a collection of stories from the pioneer generations made by Matthew McPhatter in 1897, edited by Anna Jackson and published by the Puslinch Historical Society almost one hundred years later, illustrate this point well.
Charles Callfas, whose parents settled at Morriston, related that his father, John Callfas, built a shanty, 16 feet square, which housed eighteen members of the Callfas family, as well as the Morlock family, for several months, until a second shanty could be erected.
“The wolves stationed themselves on a hill near by and kept up howling until the light was put out; then they would pace around the shanty in flocks. In broad daylight, bears came looking through the windows and took pigs out of the pen. …….. The cattle bravely defended the sheep against the wolves but even then, they could scarcely be kept.”
Shortly after the family settled in Badenoch, John Clark Sr. bought a pair of steers in Flamborough. That very night, the wolves killed and devoured them. Felix Hanlon related how, when carrying flour home from the mill in Guelph, wolves overtook him in the bush. He climbed a tree and stayed there until the morning, leaving the bag of flour at the bottom, where the wolves trampled it until irrecoverable.
Chris Morlock of Morriston of Morriston told this story:
“I can remember the first young cattle my father owned. They were killed by the wolves and in hunting for them, we found the remains of one of them and my father and Mr. John Wise went out to watch the carcass and shoot the wolves on their return for another feed. All of a sudden they saw about 25 wolves and they were so afraid of them, being so numerous, that they quietly took to their heels for home and never fired a shot at them.”
Given these experiences, then it is perhaps not surprising, that the first mention of wildlife in Puslinch in a newspaper is “A Bear Hunt in Puslinch”, in the Thursday, Jan. 6, 1853 issue.
“A large bear having been seen a few days since, near the residence of John Cockburn, Esquire, on Saturday last, a few of the inhabitants turned out in hopes of finding his whereabouts and after traversing a large swamp for three or four hours, one of the party got the chance of a shot at him, within about thirty yards but which failed taking effect. Just as it was getting a little dark, Mr. Richard Ellis, who was one of the party, conceived that he saw Bruin lying right before him in the swamp and immediately fired into an old log, which of course, lay dead upon the spot. Thus ended the first day’s sport.”
By this point in time, bears were scarce in Puslinch; old-timers reported that there was never a bear seen in Puslinch after 1855. Determined to eradicate them completely, the hunting party of ten men and dogs set out and succeeded in killing the animal the following Monday. They estimated that the bear was seven feet, ten inches in length, very large and powerful, although not as fat as bears usually were at that season. The next day, the carcass was sent to Hamilton, where it was sold to a butcher named Duff for $12. | 1,287 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Everything is possible if you keep the eye on the goal. One essential element to this is attitude of setting high expectations. A child with a disability may not be able to do what their peers do but they can learn to be functional and a contributing member of society. This only occurs when we have high expectations for our children. Low expectations lead to poor outcomes, especially in special education. Schools need to prepare children with disabilities for further education, employment, and independent living. (Purpose of IDEA at 20 U.S.C. 1400(d))
Congress found the following as they stated in IDEA:
“(1) Disability is a natural part of the human experience and in no way diminishes the right of individuals to participate in or contribute to society. Improving educational results for children with disabilities is an essential element of our national policy of ensuring equality of opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic self-sufficiency for individuals with disabilities…
(5) Almost 30 years of research and experience has demonstrated that the education of children with disabilities can be made more effective by (A) having high expectations for such children and ensuring their access to the general education curriculum in the regular classroom, to the maximum extent possible, in order to—(i) meet developmental goals and, to the maximum extent possible, the challenging expectations that have been established for all children; and (ii) be prepared to lead productive and independent adult lives, to the maximum extent possible.” 20 U.S.C. 1401(c)(5)(A)
In the official U.S Department of Education Blog, Michael Yudin, Acting Assistant Secretary for the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services at the U.S. Department of Education says, "While the vast majority of students in special education do not have significant cognitive impairments that prohibit them from learning rigorous academic content, fewer than 10 percent of eighth graders with disabilities are proficient in reading and math on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). Too often, students’ educational opportunities are limited by low expectations."
Only 11 states DID NOT MEET compliance documetation as submitted. This is reflected in this graph above. When you add the data as to how the students were actually performing! Only 18 states and territories MEET IDEA requirements in 2014 as reflected in the graph below.
Michael Yudin goes on to say, "In enacting IDEA, Congress recognized that improving educational results for children with disabilities is an essential element of our national policy of ensuring equality of opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic self-sufficiency for individuals with disabilities. We must do everything we can to support states, school districts, and educators to improve results for students with disabilities. We must have higher expectations for our children, and hold ourselves as a nation accountable for their success."
On a personal note, my oldest son, was non verbal and rocking in the corner. At 2.5 years old, he lost all of his advanced language and social awareness over a several week period. It was devastating. So devastating that his biological father could not handle it. He left after we visited the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, where we were told that our son had Autism. As a single mother of a little boy with profoundly Autism, I struggled to get him services. It did not matter that I was an administrator at one the country’s most prominent hospitals. I could not find the right interventions to help him learn! Throughout this journey I chose to never look back and always keep my eye on the goals, even when they seemed soooooooooooo far away. I had high expectations for him and I was not going to let them go. He would come come from school and we would work until 9pm on homework, speech and language, physical therapy, occupational therapy... and then he would go to bed.
He presents with lots of labels including, Autism, ADD, fine motor deficits, dysgraphia, anxiety, depression, expressive, receptive and pragmatic language disorders, motor planning deficits, executive functioning deficits, specific learning disorders in math, reading and writing, dyslexia, visual scanning deficits and post traumatic stress disorder … The list goes on and on. One day his developmental pediatrician said to me, “ I’m just not going to give him any more diagnoses – there are only 10 lines on the form and he has already filled it 2xs over.”
• When he was 4.5 years old, I was told by the school psychologist, at four meetings, that he was not educatable and would need to be institutionalized.
He went to the public school, then to a special school, and successfully graduated.
• We were told by the school that he would never ever read and they begged me to remove his reading goal from his IEP.
As a teenager he finally learned to read with a 6th grade comprehension level. He became a lector at church and loves to read to others, even though this is an area of weakness.
• We were told he could not participate in sports at school.
He became a Junior Olympic champion in skating and traveled all over the country with his coach.
• We were told that he had significant fine motor issues and we should not give him music lessons.
At 3.5 years old he had his first piano recital. He plays the violin and has competed successfully in many American Fiddle competitions.
• He brought his Junior Olympic Skating medals to school one day and was brutally beaten by a “normal kid”, who broke his eye orbit and punctured his eye. It took us 6 months to save the eye. He could no longer see the rink lines and could not compete any longer in national competitions.
He started to ice skate with Special Olympics and was asked by the Gold Medalist, Scott Hamilton to skate at the opening of the Gretchen Wilson Concert on Ice, in Philadelphia, with other Olympic Stars, who graciously included and supported him.
• He was told at church he could not acolyte, “He will never be able to follow such a complex set of rules.”
He became a wonderful acolyte and even served at the National Cathedral. He then began to train acolytes at church.
• At church he met all the requirements, over 2 years, to go on the class pilgrimage. Not one other child met all these requirements. We were told that he could not go on the Ireland pilgrimage because he took medications. He was able to manage his own medications appropriately, so why was that a barrier? I told the school director that if that was the criteria that I was going to disclose all the medications that others in the group took and that her actions were a form of discrimination.
He went on his pilgrimage to Ireland with his neuro typical-peers successfully. As per the chaperones he was the best behaved of all the students and a true ambassador with everyone he met.
• His school’s vocational program told us that he was not good enough to get an independent job, due to his pragmatic language deficits and his desire to socialize at work. They refused to assist him in job placement.
He got his own job at a national company and kept it for 8 years. He earned employee of the year and a rewards dinner in NYC.
Because of his social nature he was able to get many of his friends jobs by selling them to prospective employers.
He is the social butterfly in a large social group (20+) of individuals with special needs. He has a better social life than I ever did or will and includes everyone. He has moved on to a better job and continues to love to talk to everyone.
There were many times my son’s step-father and I were stuck as to how to assist him. He would hit a plateau and not progress, no matter how many professionals we brought in. The key to progress was to always have high expectations and never never give up. One or the other of us would figure out how the situation would look from his prospective and integrate his strengths into the picture. Working forward from there we always had a breakthrough.
Our son has the determination to win over any challenge. When it took 1000 times for him to learn a single word with fluency, he would do it. He never gave up. I can’t imagine where the world would be today it we all had his determination and motivation. He still has significant anxiety and can get taken advantage of, but he surrounds himself with good-hearted people. He is a fine young man - who still refuses to make his bed. But, as we all know a mother needs to choose her battles.
Copyright 2015 Marie Lewis | <urn:uuid:7ef246ae-6aa2-45f5-b940-828b67b7ce0d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.marieclewis.com/single-post/2015/05/30/High-Expectations-are-Key | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.986306 | 1,796 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.13194894790... | 3 | Everything is possible if you keep the eye on the goal. One essential element to this is attitude of setting high expectations. A child with a disability may not be able to do what their peers do but they can learn to be functional and a contributing member of society. This only occurs when we have high expectations for our children. Low expectations lead to poor outcomes, especially in special education. Schools need to prepare children with disabilities for further education, employment, and independent living. (Purpose of IDEA at 20 U.S.C. 1400(d))
Congress found the following as they stated in IDEA:
“(1) Disability is a natural part of the human experience and in no way diminishes the right of individuals to participate in or contribute to society. Improving educational results for children with disabilities is an essential element of our national policy of ensuring equality of opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic self-sufficiency for individuals with disabilities…
(5) Almost 30 years of research and experience has demonstrated that the education of children with disabilities can be made more effective by (A) having high expectations for such children and ensuring their access to the general education curriculum in the regular classroom, to the maximum extent possible, in order to—(i) meet developmental goals and, to the maximum extent possible, the challenging expectations that have been established for all children; and (ii) be prepared to lead productive and independent adult lives, to the maximum extent possible.” 20 U.S.C. 1401(c)(5)(A)
In the official U.S Department of Education Blog, Michael Yudin, Acting Assistant Secretary for the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services at the U.S. Department of Education says, "While the vast majority of students in special education do not have significant cognitive impairments that prohibit them from learning rigorous academic content, fewer than 10 percent of eighth graders with disabilities are proficient in reading and math on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). Too often, students’ educational opportunities are limited by low expectations."
Only 11 states DID NOT MEET compliance documetation as submitted. This is reflected in this graph above. When you add the data as to how the students were actually performing! Only 18 states and territories MEET IDEA requirements in 2014 as reflected in the graph below.
Michael Yudin goes on to say, "In enacting IDEA, Congress recognized that improving educational results for children with disabilities is an essential element of our national policy of ensuring equality of opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic self-sufficiency for individuals with disabilities. We must do everything we can to support states, school districts, and educators to improve results for students with disabilities. We must have higher expectations for our children, and hold ourselves as a nation accountable for their success."
On a personal note, my oldest son, was non verbal and rocking in the corner. At 2.5 years old, he lost all of his advanced language and social awareness over a several week period. It was devastating. So devastating that his biological father could not handle it. He left after we visited the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, where we were told that our son had Autism. As a single mother of a little boy with profoundly Autism, I struggled to get him services. It did not matter that I was an administrator at one the country’s most prominent hospitals. I could not find the right interventions to help him learn! Throughout this journey I chose to never look back and always keep my eye on the goals, even when they seemed soooooooooooo far away. I had high expectations for him and I was not going to let them go. He would come come from school and we would work until 9pm on homework, speech and language, physical therapy, occupational therapy... and then he would go to bed.
He presents with lots of labels including, Autism, ADD, fine motor deficits, dysgraphia, anxiety, depression, expressive, receptive and pragmatic language disorders, motor planning deficits, executive functioning deficits, specific learning disorders in math, reading and writing, dyslexia, visual scanning deficits and post traumatic stress disorder … The list goes on and on. One day his developmental pediatrician said to me, “ I’m just not going to give him any more diagnoses – there are only 10 lines on the form and he has already filled it 2xs over.”
• When he was 4.5 years old, I was told by the school psychologist, at four meetings, that he was not educatable and would need to be institutionalized.
He went to the public school, then to a special school, and successfully graduated.
• We were told by the school that he would never ever read and they begged me to remove his reading goal from his IEP.
As a teenager he finally learned to read with a 6th grade comprehension level. He became a lector at church and loves to read to others, even though this is an area of weakness.
• We were told he could not participate in sports at school.
He became a Junior Olympic champion in skating and traveled all over the country with his coach.
• We were told that he had significant fine motor issues and we should not give him music lessons.
At 3.5 years old he had his first piano recital. He plays the violin and has competed successfully in many American Fiddle competitions.
• He brought his Junior Olympic Skating medals to school one day and was brutally beaten by a “normal kid”, who broke his eye orbit and punctured his eye. It took us 6 months to save the eye. He could no longer see the rink lines and could not compete any longer in national competitions.
He started to ice skate with Special Olympics and was asked by the Gold Medalist, Scott Hamilton to skate at the opening of the Gretchen Wilson Concert on Ice, in Philadelphia, with other Olympic Stars, who graciously included and supported him.
• He was told at church he could not acolyte, “He will never be able to follow such a complex set of rules.”
He became a wonderful acolyte and even served at the National Cathedral. He then began to train acolytes at church.
• At church he met all the requirements, over 2 years, to go on the class pilgrimage. Not one other child met all these requirements. We were told that he could not go on the Ireland pilgrimage because he took medications. He was able to manage his own medications appropriately, so why was that a barrier? I told the school director that if that was the criteria that I was going to disclose all the medications that others in the group took and that her actions were a form of discrimination.
He went on his pilgrimage to Ireland with his neuro typical-peers successfully. As per the chaperones he was the best behaved of all the students and a true ambassador with everyone he met.
• His school’s vocational program told us that he was not good enough to get an independent job, due to his pragmatic language deficits and his desire to socialize at work. They refused to assist him in job placement.
He got his own job at a national company and kept it for 8 years. He earned employee of the year and a rewards dinner in NYC.
Because of his social nature he was able to get many of his friends jobs by selling them to prospective employers.
He is the social butterfly in a large social group (20+) of individuals with special needs. He has a better social life than I ever did or will and includes everyone. He has moved on to a better job and continues to love to talk to everyone.
There were many times my son’s step-father and I were stuck as to how to assist him. He would hit a plateau and not progress, no matter how many professionals we brought in. The key to progress was to always have high expectations and never never give up. One or the other of us would figure out how the situation would look from his prospective and integrate his strengths into the picture. Working forward from there we always had a breakthrough.
Our son has the determination to win over any challenge. When it took 1000 times for him to learn a single word with fluency, he would do it. He never gave up. I can’t imagine where the world would be today it we all had his determination and motivation. He still has significant anxiety and can get taken advantage of, but he surrounds himself with good-hearted people. He is a fine young man - who still refuses to make his bed. But, as we all know a mother needs to choose her battles.
Copyright 2015 Marie Lewis | 1,770 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the medieval times, wars and invasions were common and thus special attention was paid on the construction of castle parts which were reserved for defence. Some of the important castle parts designed specifically for defence purposes included moat, castle keep, machicolations, arrow loops, and others. Amongst these parts a medieval castle barbican was of particular significance and served as a fortified outpost of the castle.
Definition of a Medieval Castle Barbican
A medieval castle barbican was among those castle parts which served as the first line of defence. It was construed in the form of a tower or a gateway over the gate or bridge of the castle. The connection between a barbican and the castle walls was maintained by a walled road which was called “the neck”. This narrow passage was also called the “death trap” because it trapped the invading enemy and made them an easy target.
Medieval Castle Barbican Location
The most common location of a medieval castle barbican was adjacent to the main gates of the castle. It served as an exterior walled passage which was deliberately kept narrow to trap the invading enemy. The distance between a medieval castle barbican and the castle gate was not more than a few meters.
Who Was in Charge of The Medieval Castle Barbican
Only a small number of men were used to defend the medieval castle barbican because of limited space. The knights and soldiers inside the castle were responsible for the defence of the castle and thus they also overlooked the defence at the barbican. A single knight could be in charge with several soldiers obeying his orders.
Purpose of a Medieval Castles Barbican
A castle barbican was among those castle parts which served multiple purposes. The most obvious one was the confinement of the invading enemy in the narrow passage and making them an easy target. Barbicans often had “murder holes” which were holes in the ceiling and could be used to throw heavy missiles or boiling liquids on the invading enemy. On either side of the narrow medieval castle barbican, there were also arrow-slits used to shoot arrows at the enemy. Due to the multiple defence purposes that a medieval castle barbican served, coupled with its lethal nature, it was also called a “Death Trap”.
Lewes Medieval Castle Medieval Barbican
How did a Medieval Castle Barbican Work
A medieval castle barbican could also work in certain other ways for defence. For instance, it was not unusual to suspend a heavy grilled door from the barbican. This grilled door was called a Portcullis and could be lowered on the enemy when attacked. It had spikes on it was dropped on the enemy, it would injure multiple people and block the passageway. Thus a medieval castle barbican worked in several ways and could serve multiple useful defence purposes for the medieval castle.
Medieval Castle Barbican Summary
A medieval castle barbican had central importance in the parts of a medieval castle which were used for defence purposes. Since it consisted of a narrow passage, the invading army passing through it was an easy target for arrow, stones, and other missiles in addition to boiling liquids. Further, a medieval castle barbican could also be used to suddenly lower the lethal grilled door called “Portcullis” to injure the enemy soldiers. Due to its multiple and effective defence purposes, a medieval castle barbican was also called a Death Trap. | <urn:uuid:c3c2e558-1764-4694-916e-b949e9097f2a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-castles/medieval-castle-parts/medieval-castle-barbican/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00087.warc.gz | en | 0.980843 | 693 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.0495602339... | 6 | During the medieval times, wars and invasions were common and thus special attention was paid on the construction of castle parts which were reserved for defence. Some of the important castle parts designed specifically for defence purposes included moat, castle keep, machicolations, arrow loops, and others. Amongst these parts a medieval castle barbican was of particular significance and served as a fortified outpost of the castle.
Definition of a Medieval Castle Barbican
A medieval castle barbican was among those castle parts which served as the first line of defence. It was construed in the form of a tower or a gateway over the gate or bridge of the castle. The connection between a barbican and the castle walls was maintained by a walled road which was called “the neck”. This narrow passage was also called the “death trap” because it trapped the invading enemy and made them an easy target.
Medieval Castle Barbican Location
The most common location of a medieval castle barbican was adjacent to the main gates of the castle. It served as an exterior walled passage which was deliberately kept narrow to trap the invading enemy. The distance between a medieval castle barbican and the castle gate was not more than a few meters.
Who Was in Charge of The Medieval Castle Barbican
Only a small number of men were used to defend the medieval castle barbican because of limited space. The knights and soldiers inside the castle were responsible for the defence of the castle and thus they also overlooked the defence at the barbican. A single knight could be in charge with several soldiers obeying his orders.
Purpose of a Medieval Castles Barbican
A castle barbican was among those castle parts which served multiple purposes. The most obvious one was the confinement of the invading enemy in the narrow passage and making them an easy target. Barbicans often had “murder holes” which were holes in the ceiling and could be used to throw heavy missiles or boiling liquids on the invading enemy. On either side of the narrow medieval castle barbican, there were also arrow-slits used to shoot arrows at the enemy. Due to the multiple defence purposes that a medieval castle barbican served, coupled with its lethal nature, it was also called a “Death Trap”.
Lewes Medieval Castle Medieval Barbican
How did a Medieval Castle Barbican Work
A medieval castle barbican could also work in certain other ways for defence. For instance, it was not unusual to suspend a heavy grilled door from the barbican. This grilled door was called a Portcullis and could be lowered on the enemy when attacked. It had spikes on it was dropped on the enemy, it would injure multiple people and block the passageway. Thus a medieval castle barbican worked in several ways and could serve multiple useful defence purposes for the medieval castle.
Medieval Castle Barbican Summary
A medieval castle barbican had central importance in the parts of a medieval castle which were used for defence purposes. Since it consisted of a narrow passage, the invading army passing through it was an easy target for arrow, stones, and other missiles in addition to boiling liquids. Further, a medieval castle barbican could also be used to suddenly lower the lethal grilled door called “Portcullis” to injure the enemy soldiers. Due to its multiple and effective defence purposes, a medieval castle barbican was also called a Death Trap. | 693 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Image: © 2000 Aeragon; all rights reserved.
Some of the earliest manufactured ammunition consisted of solid lead, copper, brass, bronze or iron balls called shot. At the beginning of the age of explosively-powered artillery, metal ammunition was too costly and difficult to make to be common. One important factor that limited the use of metal shot was that it generally weighed about three times more than stone, so the propellant charge had to be increased a corresponding amount. The brass and bronze cannon of the day were barely able to withstand use with stone projectiles, let alone anything heavier. Another practical limitation to using more black powder per round was the fact that it was very difficult and expensive to produce, and therefore scarce, until the 1800s. Shot made of lead was found most frequently in smaller caliber weapons. Stone and iron shot were sometimes covered with lead to help preserve the interior of the guns and to improve the fit between the shot and the gun. Generally, just one ball of the proper caliber was used at a time. By the time that spherical shot fell into disuse, after about 1870, cast iron shot was the most common type of solid projectile for large guns. | <urn:uuid:ae56cfbc-6c1a-4301-941e-e645f17bbca6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://aeragon.com/pre-modern/early-ammunition-black-powder-artillery-metal-shot.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00240.warc.gz | en | 0.982897 | 237 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.252921015024... | 6 | Image: © 2000 Aeragon; all rights reserved.
Some of the earliest manufactured ammunition consisted of solid lead, copper, brass, bronze or iron balls called shot. At the beginning of the age of explosively-powered artillery, metal ammunition was too costly and difficult to make to be common. One important factor that limited the use of metal shot was that it generally weighed about three times more than stone, so the propellant charge had to be increased a corresponding amount. The brass and bronze cannon of the day were barely able to withstand use with stone projectiles, let alone anything heavier. Another practical limitation to using more black powder per round was the fact that it was very difficult and expensive to produce, and therefore scarce, until the 1800s. Shot made of lead was found most frequently in smaller caliber weapons. Stone and iron shot were sometimes covered with lead to help preserve the interior of the guns and to improve the fit between the shot and the gun. Generally, just one ball of the proper caliber was used at a time. By the time that spherical shot fell into disuse, after about 1870, cast iron shot was the most common type of solid projectile for large guns. | 247 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Archimedes of Syracuse
(278 B.C.E. - 212 B.C.E.)
"The importance of the role played by Archimedes in the history of science can scarcely be exaggerated. He was emulated and admired in his own day and at successive periods in later times" (Clagett, 1).
During the time period before Archimedes, Aristotle had already effectively drawn a line between philosophy and mathematics. After his date philosophy is carried on without mathematical inspiration. There is an outbreak, known as the Golden Age of Greek mathematics, that just happens to occur in Alexandria during the period 300 to 200 B.C.E.. This period lasted only a short time however because philosophic faith in mathematics gradually disappeared. Philosophers were more inclined to use their intellect to come up with explanations based on simply theoretical assumptions and by faith (Ginsburg, 57). Since philosophy had been around long before mathematics was thought up, it remained the more publicly acceptable way to answer questions. By not linking the two, "they missed a grand opportunity to blow open the secrets of the universe to science, and they bequeathed to posterity, a heavy obstacle to the progress of science as a whole" (Ginsburg, 58). Archimedes works at this time are therefore described as magical and mysterious, rather than explained in the words of a modern day scientist.
"Had he been born in another age... had he come into a different cultural inheritance and had the seeds of his own work fallen upon more favorable soil, he might also have ranked as the greatest of all time" (Ginsburg, 56).
In his time, Archimedes served as a mathematician, physicist, and inventor. Unlike other mathematicians of his day, Archimedes was able to achieve some fame during his lifetime, and many references are made to him in works of this time period. Although, it is important to point out that this acquisition of fame wasn't primarily owed to mathematical or enlightening discoveries, but rather his ability to develop advanced weapons of destruction that were used for warfare. The people of his day were more interested in practical purposes rather than their physical or mathematical implications. As told in a book concerning Greek history "Archimedes emerged as a figure larger than life in the popular imagination, legendary for the seeming miracles he performed through his mechanical inventions" (Brunschwig, 544). Aside from the creation of these weapons Archimedes achieved many advances in the various fields in which he was involved. One example of this is Archimedes' use of an exhaustion method, cutting up shapes into infinitely small pieces to discover their volumes. This method paved the way for what we now call integral calculus, which was later perfected by 16th and 17th century scientists such as Kepler and Newton (Grande, 240). Many of his exploits and achievements have been passed down for generations and oftentimes find themselves being retold in colorful and... | <urn:uuid:d0886355-f795-49ab-8473-5c849f2f4f6d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/archimedes-of-syracuse | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.983188 | 601 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.31977316737... | 1 | Archimedes of Syracuse
(278 B.C.E. - 212 B.C.E.)
"The importance of the role played by Archimedes in the history of science can scarcely be exaggerated. He was emulated and admired in his own day and at successive periods in later times" (Clagett, 1).
During the time period before Archimedes, Aristotle had already effectively drawn a line between philosophy and mathematics. After his date philosophy is carried on without mathematical inspiration. There is an outbreak, known as the Golden Age of Greek mathematics, that just happens to occur in Alexandria during the period 300 to 200 B.C.E.. This period lasted only a short time however because philosophic faith in mathematics gradually disappeared. Philosophers were more inclined to use their intellect to come up with explanations based on simply theoretical assumptions and by faith (Ginsburg, 57). Since philosophy had been around long before mathematics was thought up, it remained the more publicly acceptable way to answer questions. By not linking the two, "they missed a grand opportunity to blow open the secrets of the universe to science, and they bequeathed to posterity, a heavy obstacle to the progress of science as a whole" (Ginsburg, 58). Archimedes works at this time are therefore described as magical and mysterious, rather than explained in the words of a modern day scientist.
"Had he been born in another age... had he come into a different cultural inheritance and had the seeds of his own work fallen upon more favorable soil, he might also have ranked as the greatest of all time" (Ginsburg, 56).
In his time, Archimedes served as a mathematician, physicist, and inventor. Unlike other mathematicians of his day, Archimedes was able to achieve some fame during his lifetime, and many references are made to him in works of this time period. Although, it is important to point out that this acquisition of fame wasn't primarily owed to mathematical or enlightening discoveries, but rather his ability to develop advanced weapons of destruction that were used for warfare. The people of his day were more interested in practical purposes rather than their physical or mathematical implications. As told in a book concerning Greek history "Archimedes emerged as a figure larger than life in the popular imagination, legendary for the seeming miracles he performed through his mechanical inventions" (Brunschwig, 544). Aside from the creation of these weapons Archimedes achieved many advances in the various fields in which he was involved. One example of this is Archimedes' use of an exhaustion method, cutting up shapes into infinitely small pieces to discover their volumes. This method paved the way for what we now call integral calculus, which was later perfected by 16th and 17th century scientists such as Kepler and Newton (Grande, 240). Many of his exploits and achievements have been passed down for generations and oftentimes find themselves being retold in colorful and... | 616 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lord of the flies contrast essay
Lord of the flies comparison to other books
I agree that people really are controlled by their environment Piggy, the heavy, asthmatic, nearsighted boy, was often teased and ridiculed, however Golding made it obvious to the reader that Piggy was indeed the super ego The gap between them becomes so strained that Jack feels his only option is to kill Ralph. In addition, characters can often be looked at with a psychological approach to literature in order to better determine or understand their symbolic significance. Show how the texts reflect the ideas and beliefs of its own author and the period in which it was written. William Golding novel- Lord of the Flies — was an award winning Noble- Prize published in tells a story about a group of British schoolboys who stuck on an inhabited island because of a plane crash William Golding portrays these same ideas in his novel, Lord of the Flies, only Golding portrays these natural desires with english schoolchildren stranded on a tropical island paradise. It also gives the impression that the boys are slightly uncivilized to begin with, as the vulgarity is improper of English young men. While diving further into the novel the reader begins to realize that the acts of the boys are not far from the crimes of mankind. The boys establish rules to keep everything on the island under control. Authors often show how humans select this stronger person, in order to give an understanding of the different powers that some people can posses over others. They have no discipline. The novels All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque and Lord of the Flies by William Golding are both examples of works that demonstrate their author's view of man, as well his opinion of war. Ralph leads the boys to advancement while Jack stands as his opposition, both using other symbols of power to assist them Although a good leader may not be as charismatic as a poor one, it is important to choose the leader who will meet the needs of the people.
Cut her throat. Each different character in the book has a strong characteristic, which makes them represent different types of people in the world.
How does jack relate to ralph in lord of the flies
In Pleasantville, Fahrenheit , and Lord of the Flies, there have been so called "rebels" and these rebels were looked down upon for their different points of view. Through the use of the literary elements of plots, characters, symbols, and additional plots, both pieces illustrate how, by torturing people and driving them to rash decisions, jealousy is the most destructive emotion Jack leaves the group and starts a tribe with the boys and is a savage. The manners that are so commonly used in public are rarely practiced in private Since he was young, he tried to write a novel. All three crash of scupper on or near the island they eventually live on Piggy then points out that a little boy is now missing as the fire is spreading. How to cite this page Choose cite format:. The genre of the post-apocalypse is becoming ever more popular in the post World War Two English speaking world. Ralph watched envious, and resentful. She has never seen the ghost but she is still afraid of the possibility that it might be there Then there is Jack, who is extremely controlling and does not follow any of Ralph's rules.
Piggy is the weakest of the group and is therefore treated unfairly much of the time. They also know that they can boss the 'littluns' around and have everything their way.
In the novel, Ralph even admits that he cannot think like Piggy. One of Golding's unorthodox views is that only one aspect of the modern world keeps people from reverting back to savagery and that is society.
During their time on the island they turn their backs on being civil and become savages.
His main focus throughout the book is getting rescued and he puts much emphasis on this. Golding wrote in his books about the things going on in the world, like the holocaust and World War II.
He was always surrounded by cannibals and constant chaos. Piggy, the heavy, asthmatic, nearsighted boy, was often teased and ridiculed, however Golding made it obvious to the reader that Piggy was indeed the super ego Ballantyne were two books about British boys who were stuck on an island.
This part of the story showed that Ralph can come up with ideas and knows his geological facts. Reed who died in the room a long time ago.
There are as many different, valid ways of reading a book as there are books in the world. Man has long believed that he is somehow morally superior to all other creatures, motivated by a higher source than basic instincts. Life of Pi was produced and made into a movie in He was always surrounded by cannibals and constant chaos. These variations between the book and movie can completely alter the impressions the story gives and its overall plot development. Both are used to show the many cases of irony in the stories. The cycle of man's rise to power, or righteousness, and his inevitable fall from grace is an important point that Golding proves again and again in many of his works, often comparing man with characters from the Bible to give a more vivid picture of his descent. Jack treats the boys as slaves and inferiors. When Jack gets meat from hunting, he gives everyone some except for Piggy. In all of these cases, change was feared and thought impossible, but eventually these changes happened, and there was a better civilization because of it Jack and Ralph were the oldest so they went into debate. The student who claims to have dashed off an 'A ' essay at one in the morning the night before it was due is either a liar or a genius.
based on 24 review | <urn:uuid:884bf7b9-cf9c-441d-8c25-5f91662f8b05> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pavysidonifa.whatshanesaid.com/lord-of-the-flies-contrast-essay250351848ej.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00329.warc.gz | en | 0.982667 | 1,182 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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Lord of the flies comparison to other books
I agree that people really are controlled by their environment Piggy, the heavy, asthmatic, nearsighted boy, was often teased and ridiculed, however Golding made it obvious to the reader that Piggy was indeed the super ego The gap between them becomes so strained that Jack feels his only option is to kill Ralph. In addition, characters can often be looked at with a psychological approach to literature in order to better determine or understand their symbolic significance. Show how the texts reflect the ideas and beliefs of its own author and the period in which it was written. William Golding novel- Lord of the Flies — was an award winning Noble- Prize published in tells a story about a group of British schoolboys who stuck on an inhabited island because of a plane crash William Golding portrays these same ideas in his novel, Lord of the Flies, only Golding portrays these natural desires with english schoolchildren stranded on a tropical island paradise. It also gives the impression that the boys are slightly uncivilized to begin with, as the vulgarity is improper of English young men. While diving further into the novel the reader begins to realize that the acts of the boys are not far from the crimes of mankind. The boys establish rules to keep everything on the island under control. Authors often show how humans select this stronger person, in order to give an understanding of the different powers that some people can posses over others. They have no discipline. The novels All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque and Lord of the Flies by William Golding are both examples of works that demonstrate their author's view of man, as well his opinion of war. Ralph leads the boys to advancement while Jack stands as his opposition, both using other symbols of power to assist them Although a good leader may not be as charismatic as a poor one, it is important to choose the leader who will meet the needs of the people.
Cut her throat. Each different character in the book has a strong characteristic, which makes them represent different types of people in the world.
How does jack relate to ralph in lord of the flies
In Pleasantville, Fahrenheit , and Lord of the Flies, there have been so called "rebels" and these rebels were looked down upon for their different points of view. Through the use of the literary elements of plots, characters, symbols, and additional plots, both pieces illustrate how, by torturing people and driving them to rash decisions, jealousy is the most destructive emotion Jack leaves the group and starts a tribe with the boys and is a savage. The manners that are so commonly used in public are rarely practiced in private Since he was young, he tried to write a novel. All three crash of scupper on or near the island they eventually live on Piggy then points out that a little boy is now missing as the fire is spreading. How to cite this page Choose cite format:. The genre of the post-apocalypse is becoming ever more popular in the post World War Two English speaking world. Ralph watched envious, and resentful. She has never seen the ghost but she is still afraid of the possibility that it might be there Then there is Jack, who is extremely controlling and does not follow any of Ralph's rules.
Piggy is the weakest of the group and is therefore treated unfairly much of the time. They also know that they can boss the 'littluns' around and have everything their way.
In the novel, Ralph even admits that he cannot think like Piggy. One of Golding's unorthodox views is that only one aspect of the modern world keeps people from reverting back to savagery and that is society.
During their time on the island they turn their backs on being civil and become savages.
His main focus throughout the book is getting rescued and he puts much emphasis on this. Golding wrote in his books about the things going on in the world, like the holocaust and World War II.
He was always surrounded by cannibals and constant chaos. Piggy, the heavy, asthmatic, nearsighted boy, was often teased and ridiculed, however Golding made it obvious to the reader that Piggy was indeed the super ego Ballantyne were two books about British boys who were stuck on an island.
This part of the story showed that Ralph can come up with ideas and knows his geological facts. Reed who died in the room a long time ago.
There are as many different, valid ways of reading a book as there are books in the world. Man has long believed that he is somehow morally superior to all other creatures, motivated by a higher source than basic instincts. Life of Pi was produced and made into a movie in He was always surrounded by cannibals and constant chaos. These variations between the book and movie can completely alter the impressions the story gives and its overall plot development. Both are used to show the many cases of irony in the stories. The cycle of man's rise to power, or righteousness, and his inevitable fall from grace is an important point that Golding proves again and again in many of his works, often comparing man with characters from the Bible to give a more vivid picture of his descent. Jack treats the boys as slaves and inferiors. When Jack gets meat from hunting, he gives everyone some except for Piggy. In all of these cases, change was feared and thought impossible, but eventually these changes happened, and there was a better civilization because of it Jack and Ralph were the oldest so they went into debate. The student who claims to have dashed off an 'A ' essay at one in the morning the night before it was due is either a liar or a genius.
based on 24 review | 1,179 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Methodist churches first came into existence in the 18th century with a different approach to Christianity. The United Methodist Churches was formed by the Protestants who were motivated by the doctrine and notes of John Wesley and his brother Charles Wesley. The two Wesley brothers and George Whitefield were also significant leaders in the movement. Here are the ten facts that you did not know about Methodist churches before.
First began as the reformation of the Church of England
The first few men of the Methodist ideology formed a small group for the reformation of the Church of England. The Wesley brothers formed the Holy Club in the University of Oxford to share their thoughts on living a methodic life. The term “Methodist” was first used as a mockery John Wesley turned into a title of honour.
The Four key points
John Wesley taught four key points to the members of the Methodist church as the fundamentals.
A person is free to accept or reject salvation on their own will.
Everyone who becomes obedient to the gospel will be saved.
The holy spirit assures a Christian directly of their salvation through inner learning and experience.
Christians in this life can achieve Christian perfection in this life and are commanded by God himself to pursue it.
The Methodist Music
The Methodist churches give huge attention and importance to music, which is why they are well-known for creating the best hymns in Christianity. Charles Wesley made over 6,000 hymns in his lifetime which are translated to many languages today. His work was recognized by the Gospel Music Association in 1995, and his name was also included in the Gospel Music Hall of Fame.
The Methodist denomination
During their lifetime, the Wesley brother saw the growth of Methodist church member from four to over a hundred thousand. Started from a small group at Oxford, known as the Holy Club, they had a constant growth until 1791 when John Wesley passed away. At this time the group has 72,000 members in the British Empire and 60,000 members in America. Today the number of members has grown over 40 million members around the world, including countries such as India, Brazil, and Congo.
John Wesley was the first one to say “Agree to disagree.”
John Wesley attended several conferences and had countless debates with people over the ideology of the Methodist Church. He has heated theological disputes with another renowned preacher named George Whitefield. The first-ever documented use of the phrase “Agree to disagree” is noted to be from a debate between George and John. This term was used by John Wesley to indicate that he wanted to stick to his convictions while being polite and maintaining the connection with whom he debated and disagreed. | <urn:uuid:318fe8ec-b8f5-4c53-8fa3-05afb69696e5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.hanoverumc.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00559.warc.gz | en | 0.98414 | 543 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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-0.2266535758972168... | 2 | The Methodist churches first came into existence in the 18th century with a different approach to Christianity. The United Methodist Churches was formed by the Protestants who were motivated by the doctrine and notes of John Wesley and his brother Charles Wesley. The two Wesley brothers and George Whitefield were also significant leaders in the movement. Here are the ten facts that you did not know about Methodist churches before.
First began as the reformation of the Church of England
The first few men of the Methodist ideology formed a small group for the reformation of the Church of England. The Wesley brothers formed the Holy Club in the University of Oxford to share their thoughts on living a methodic life. The term “Methodist” was first used as a mockery John Wesley turned into a title of honour.
The Four key points
John Wesley taught four key points to the members of the Methodist church as the fundamentals.
A person is free to accept or reject salvation on their own will.
Everyone who becomes obedient to the gospel will be saved.
The holy spirit assures a Christian directly of their salvation through inner learning and experience.
Christians in this life can achieve Christian perfection in this life and are commanded by God himself to pursue it.
The Methodist Music
The Methodist churches give huge attention and importance to music, which is why they are well-known for creating the best hymns in Christianity. Charles Wesley made over 6,000 hymns in his lifetime which are translated to many languages today. His work was recognized by the Gospel Music Association in 1995, and his name was also included in the Gospel Music Hall of Fame.
The Methodist denomination
During their lifetime, the Wesley brother saw the growth of Methodist church member from four to over a hundred thousand. Started from a small group at Oxford, known as the Holy Club, they had a constant growth until 1791 when John Wesley passed away. At this time the group has 72,000 members in the British Empire and 60,000 members in America. Today the number of members has grown over 40 million members around the world, including countries such as India, Brazil, and Congo.
John Wesley was the first one to say “Agree to disagree.”
John Wesley attended several conferences and had countless debates with people over the ideology of the Methodist Church. He has heated theological disputes with another renowned preacher named George Whitefield. The first-ever documented use of the phrase “Agree to disagree” is noted to be from a debate between George and John. This term was used by John Wesley to indicate that he wanted to stick to his convictions while being polite and maintaining the connection with whom he debated and disagreed. | 545 | ENGLISH | 1 |
French Expeditions to Ireland 1796 - 1798
Expedition of 1796
As part of the First Coalition united against the French Republic and its ideals, the government of Great Britain continued to fund the Coalition powers and their campaigns against France. Furthermore, Great Britain continued to aid French royalists seeking to destroy the republic, and the British had more recently supported the French rebels in the Vendée. French General Hoche, who had successfully pacified the royalist rebellion in the Vendée in 1795, dreamt of leading an expedition to British shores as payback. But instead of attacking England directly, Hoche was convinced by Irish patriots in France that a more suitable target would be Ireland. Irish soldiers had served faithfully in French regiments for more than a hundred years and Ireland was ripe for revolt due to oppressive religious and taxation laws. The hope was that if the French could land a force in Ireland, then Great Britain would be forced onto the defensive, Irish forces would rise up in revolt, and a sister republic to the French Republic could be established.
Hoche took his considerable influence as a successful general to the French Directory and convinced them to support the expedition to Ireland. Having gained the necessary political support, Hoche then relied on Minister of Marine Admiral Truguet to ensure the navy could get the army to Ireland. Unfortunately for Hoche, the expedition was to be launched from Brest where Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse was in command. Villaret-Joyeuse did not believe the expedition could be successful and he repeatedly stalled and delayed preparations, costing months of valuable time. After Hoche's repeated complaints to the Minister of Marine, Truguet replaced Villaret-Joyeuse with Admiral Morard de Galles who began the preparations in earnest.
Once preparations were complete, the French fleet set sail from Brest on December 15, 1796 with approximately 15,000 soldiers on a variety of ships of the line, frigates, and transports. Once at sea, the weather did not cooperate and the French ships were scattered by a storm. Rear Admiral Bouvet gathered a number of ships and made his way to the designated rendezvous of Bantry Bay, but the flagship Fraternité, carrying the commander-in-chief General Hoche and Admiral Morard de Galles, was nowhere to be found. General Grouchy, second in command of the army, and Admiral Bouvet, leading the gathered ships, were unsure if they should land the troops without their respective commanders. Serving alongside Grouchy was Hoche's chief of staff, General Chérin. Chérin repeatedly implored Grouchy to disembark the troops, but Grouchy would not do so, and Chérin grew so frustrated that he allegedly contemplated throwing Grouchy overboard to force the matter. Grouchy instead did nothing and waited upon the arrival of Hoche. Grouchy's inaction without orders from above was curiously predictive of his abilities as a commander when years later in 1815 he failed to respond to the Battle of Waterloo. While the French fleet awaited its commanders and took no action, Admiral Bouvet grew anxious due to the weather, the possibility of encountering the British navy, and the lack of drive of the army. Bouvet waited a few days and then ordered the assembled fleet to return to Brest.
Meanwhile, the flagship Fraternité carrying General Hoche and Admiral Morard de Galles had been driven westward by the storm and then chased by a British cruiser, further delaying their arrival at Bantry Bay. Their ship arrived alone at Bantry Bay and after speaking with an Irish fisherman Hoche learned that much of the French fleet had arrived, waited a few days, and then departed for France. Furious, Hoche returned to France, where the Directory absolved him of blame and gave him command of the Army of the Sambre and Meuse. Hoche wrote to Admiral Truguet that he would not abandon the Irish people, but he died in 1797 before ever getting another chance to land in Ireland.
Dutch Expedition of 1797
The Batavian Republic, the Dutch sister republic of the French Republic, attempted the next possible expedition to Ireland. In June of 1797, at the insistence of their French allies, the Dutch prepared a fleet for an expedition to Ireland. Admiral de Winter was placed in charge of the navy and General Daendels in charge of the army. However, the weather again did not cooperate, forcing the fleet to stay in port. After failing to sail out of port for a number of days, the troops were disembarked and the plans for the expedition were abandoned. Despite the troops having been disembarked, that October Admiral de Winter led the Dutch fleet out from Texel in attempt to reach Brest and unite with the French fleet. However, the Dutch were intercepted by a British fleet and defeated at the Battle of Camperdown, costing the Batavian Republic much of its navy.
French Expedition of 1798
Without French intervention, Ireland rose in revolt against British rule in May of 1798. This raised the pressure on the French Directory to land troops in Ireland to support the rebels, but the French government had already expended considerable resources in supporting General Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt which had set sail earlier that month. Therefore, they could not immediately equip and launch a force to support the rebels. The Directory decided to create three forces which would launch in turn when funds, troops, and equipment became available. The first force under General Humbert would be composed of approximately 1000 soldiers and carry extra arms and supplies for the Irish rebels. The second force under General Hardy would number approximately 3000 soldiers, while the main force under General Kilmaine would arrive last and number approximately 6000 soldiers.
Unfortunately for both the Irish and the French, the Irish rebels scored only a few successes and were mostly defeated in June and finally subdued by July. By this time the French hadn't even launched their first force, but they were unaware of the extent of the defeat of the Irish rebellion. Humbert's initial force set sail from La Rochelle on August 4, 1798 aboard three ships commanded by Daniel Savary. Humbert, originally a rabbit trader before the Revolution, had risen to the rank of general during the early Revolutionary Wars. He also had some past experience with Ireland, having participated in Hoche's 1796 expedition to Ireland and survived the shipwreck of Droits de l'Homme on the return voyage.
Humbert's expedition arrived at Killala on August 22nd, with the ships initially flying British colors to deceive any enemies. After landing the troops, they quickly dispatched the local militia. Humbert immediately issued a proclamation to encourage the Irish people to rise up against British rule, but he also established rules of warfare to enforce that sectarian violence between Catholics and Protestants would not be tolerated. Humbert's proclamation was somewhat ironic coming from French revolutionaries who had rejected the Catholic Church yet were now allies with the oppressed and predominantly Catholic Irish. Nevertheless, Humbert enforced discipline with his seasoned French troops, for in the coming days he was intolerant of looting and even had the most egregious Irish offenders shot by firing squad.
Humbert promoted one of his leading officers, Colonel Sarrazin, to général de brigade for taking Killala and then the next day Humbert sent Sarrazin to the south to ensure the enemy could not counterattack their landing. Sarrazin hurried south to Ballina where he surprised and drove out the British forces that had come up upon first learning of the French landing. Afterwards, Sarrazin and his men returned to Killala.
Humbert's landing immediately drew a few thousand Irish patriots into his force, but facing them was a much more daunting foe. About 150,000 British troops were spread throughout the entirety of Ireland, commanded by Lord Cornwallis. Lord Cornwallis, famous in American history for his surrender to the Americans and French at the Siege of Yorktown in 1781, was a distinguished and respected leader. He had been appointed the British military and civilian commander in Ireland only a month before in an effort to curb the excesses of violence brought about by the Irish uprising. He was also tasked with investigating and reforming the underlying causes of the rebellion. As soon as Cornwallis learned of the French landing, he began concentrating his forces with the goal of cornering and defeating the French forces. However, he could not bring the entirety of his soldiers to bear on the French for fear of Irish uprisings and the need to maintain garrisons throughout the land.
Meanwhile on August 24th Humbert led his main force south to Ballina, intent on taking the strategic crossroads of Castlebar. At Ballina they encountered a force of British troops under Major Kerr holding a defensive position. Sarrazin led a frontal attack with French troops while another French detachment moved to turn the British flank. The British began to withdraw to avoid being surrounded, but then Humbert charged with cavalry and the British withdrawal turned into a rout.
Battle of Castlebar
On August 26th Humbert and his men left Ballina, marching for Castlebar south along the Foxford road. However, in an attempt to surprise the British, once darkness fell they turned and took the less traversable road to Crossmolina. Meanwhile, a large number of British troops had been ordered to Castlebar to throw the French out of Ireland, and on the 26th they numbered about 6000 men. General Lake, known for his brutality during the Irish rebellion only a few months before, had been sent to Castlebar by Cornwallis to take overall command of the area. Once Lake learned of the small size of Humbert's force, he disdainfully disregarded maps of the area and confidently assumed that the French would be crushed as soon they arrived at Castlebar. Unfortunately for the French, a civilian loyal to Great Britain had spotted the French movement early in the morning on the 27th and warned the British at Castlebar. While this report was initially disbelieved, once it was confirmed the British were temporarily thrown into confusion as they were quickly forced to alter their defensive positions to receive an attack from the north instead of the east.
Around eight in the morning of the 27th, Humbert and his force came within sight of Castlebar and realized that their surprise had failed when they saw the British formed in defensive positions against them. Nevertheless, Humbert resolved to attack despite his much smaller force. Humbert first sent forward the Irish volunteers and right behind them he placed the French grenadiers under Sarrazin. The Irish successfully drove back the British outposts and then rushed towards the British line. The British line patiently waited until the attackers were in close range and then opened fire with a single devastating volley, scattering and destroying the momentum of the charge. The Irish volunteers who survived this volley fled from the scene while the French grenadiers took cover behind a nearby house.
However, after that initial volley, the British began firing sporadically and without unison, and Humbert recognized that they were not coordinated well. In response he formed his remaining troops in a long, thin line and ordered a bayonet charge. As the French approached, Sarrazin ordered the remaining grenadiers to charge and the French successfully took the British artillery position. Seeing the loss of his artillery position, General Lake ordered his men to fall back, but by now the British lost all cohesion. The impact of the bayonet charge overwhelmed the British and various units broke and fled. In their haste to escape the bayonet, the British soldiers crowded into the town of Castlebar where a bottleneck formed at the main bridge across the river. As the French pursued, British soldiers were killed in the panic to cross the bridge, but a few British units maintained their composure and formed a rearguard to hold the bridge. The French took cover in the buildings and fired into the rearguard before eventually charging and sweeping the British from the town. Despite the odds, Humbert had won the Battle of Castlebar, which became known as the "Races of Castlebar" due to the speed of the British retreat.
Now in control of Castlebar, Humbert worked with the Irish for the next few days to establish the Republic of Connacht as the new government of Ireland. However, he was well aware of the the numerical inferiority of his troops against the British stationed throughout Ireland and he knew that the British would be returning to Castlebar soon. Humbert wished to seize Dublin to inspire the Irish people, but he also needed to avoid pitched battles to buy more time. With enough time, the second French force under General Hardy would land in Ireland and more of the Irish people would rise up. Learning of a sizeable British force gathered to the southeast at Athlone and blocking his route to Dublin, Humbert decided to abandon Castlebar and head northeast to Sligo. On the night of September 3rd, he and his force abandoned Castlebar and released their British prisoners, one of whom promptly went to the British army and informed them of the French departure.
The Trap Closes
Humbert's force marched towards Sligo via Swinford and then Tobercurry. They marched unopposed until September 5th when the French arrived at the town of Collooney less than ten miles south of Sligo. Colonel Vereker commanding the 600 British troops garrisoned at Sligo had brought his troops south to Collooney to try and stop the French. On the north side of Collooney, the two opposing forces formed in lines and prepared for battle. Vereker attacked first despite having less troops and for a time the British held their own until the French began to flank them. Vereker then ordered a retreat and the British began an orderly withdrawal while Humbert did not pursue. As it turned out, both commanders believed they had repulsed the enemy's advance guard and a stronger force was just behind. Therefore, Vereker fell back towards Sligo while Humbert turned east to avoid a larger confrontation.
In the meantime, a large contingent of British troops commanded by the vengeful General Lake continued to pursue Humbert, intent on bringing him to battle and crushing his small force. Humbert abandoned his artillery to speed his march and the British arrived at Collooney only hours after the French and Irish had departed. Humbert's force made their way to Manor Hamilton where he learned that an Irish force of rebels was concentrated at Granard. Aware that the British were now behind him and no longer blocking the road to Dublin, he hoped to join with the Irish force at Granard and race to Dublin to spur the Irish uprising. Humbert turned south and marched to Drumshanbo and then east to Ballinamore. Between these two towns the French rearguard repulsed the British cavalry's pursuit, inflicting some losses. Next Humbert turned south and made his way to Cloone where his men arrived at nightfall on September 7th. An Irishman arrived and informed Humbert that the Irish he had hoped to join with at Granard had been defeated, but the Irish messenger also claimed that groups of Irish rebels remained scattered in the area. Humbert's force snatched a few hours of sleep and then left Cloone the next morning at the same time as the as the British began to arrive on the other side of town.
Humbert hurriedly marched south, still intent on reaching Granard and then Dublin, but the British pursuit continually harassed his rearguard. Lord Cornwallis had guessed Humbert's strategy of rushing to Dublin and the British commander moved his main force of 20,000 men to block the path. He also ordered General Lake's forces pursuing the French to attack at once, trying to drive them into his trap. Finally, Humbert accepted that his men could not outrun their pursuers and he ordered his army to stop at Ballinamuck and form up for battle. Aware that he was being surrounded and they could not win against the superior numbers of the British, Humbert nonetheless ordered his army into a defensive position on a hill. To preserve French honor, he refused to surrender without first giving the British a bit of a fight. General Sarrazin, in command of the French rear guard, almost immediately surrendered. After some initial maneuvers to get into position, the British assaulted the French line with infantry and dragoons and Humbert surrendered. However, the Irish contingent of his army expected little mercy and refused to surrender, nor were they offered the opportunity to surrender. While the French stood by having surrendered, the British army relentlessly assaulted and chased the Irish rebels, slaughtering all they could. The few Irish rebels who did surrender were later executed.
Contrary to the brutal treatment towards the Irish rebels, the French of Humbert's force were well treated by the British as prisoners of wars. In particular, the British admired that the French had restrained their Irish contingent from sectarian reprisals and looting. However, French officers of Irish birth, such as Humbert's aide-de-camp Bartholomew Teeling and Matthew Tone, brother of Irish patriot Wolfe Tone, were separated from the French and identified as traitors. Teeling in particular had served throughout the Revolutionary Wars in France and risen through the ranks on his own merit. Humbert informed the British that these officers were members of the French military and insisted that they be treated as French, and Humbert initially accompanied Teeling to prison and refused to leave his side. Humbert was then separated from his aide and he wrote a letter for clemency for his Irish-born French officers, but in the end his aide Teeling and the others were executed. These officers went to their execution dressed in their French uniforms, and the French people were incensed upon learning of the fate of these prisoners of war. The writer Thomas Paine wrote a letter to the French Directory arguing for retaliation against British prisoners of war held by the French, but the Directory declined to take such measures.
While Humbert's main force had been defeated, he had committed a few French officers to command the Irish rebels at Ballina and Killala. On September 22nd a large number of British troops approached Ballina and the French and Irish there withdrew to Killala. The French officers considered it their duty to lead the Irish rebels despite the odds against them, and on the 23rd the British attacked Killala and defeated the last of the rebel forces.
Back in France, preparations had continued for the second force under General Hardy to be landed in Ireland by a fleet commanded by Admiral Bompart. This force set sail from Brest on September 17th, unaware that Humbert had surrendered on September 8th. Hardy, Bompart, and the Irish patriot and leader Wolfe Tone were aboard the French flagship named Hoche in honor of the deceased general. The French fleet was spotted enroute to Ireland and pursued by a few British ships, but eventually the French believed they had evaded and lost their pursuers. However, the British were still hunting for the French fleet, and on October 11th a British fleet under Sir John Borlase Warren spotted the French and gave chase. The next day Admiral Bompart ordered his fleet to turn and engage in battle, and over the course of a few hours the French fleet was defeated in what became known as the Battle of Lough Swilly. Some of the French ships, including Hoche, were captured while some ships managed to escape. The commanders Bompart, Hardy, and Tone were all taken prisoner, and as a leader of the Irish rebellion Wolfe Tone was tried and sentenced to execution. When his request to be executed by firing squad was denied, Tone committed suicide in prison before his execution could be carried out.
After the failure of the expedition to Ireland of 1798, the French government made no more attempts to help liberate Ireland from British rule. As for the principal French participants during the expeditions to Ireland, Hoche, Humbert, and Sarrazin all left their unique marks on history.
In 1797 General Hoche and the Army of the Sambre and Meuse traveled to Paris and met up with a contingent of General Bonaparte's Army of Italy commanded by General Augereau. Concerned about the recent surge in power of royalists in the government, both Hoche and Bonaparte sent their troops to support the the republicans in power and the Directory. With these generals backing them, the Directory succeeded in ousting and exiling the royalists from France. This coup became known as the coup of 18 Fructidor, but only two weeks later Hoche died under mysterious circumstances, having made a fair number of enemies in both royalist and republican circles.
General Humbert took part in the French expedition to retake Saint-Domingue in 1802, but he was sent back to France before long. Rumors swirled that Pauline Bonaparte and Humbert had formed an intimate relationship, but this was never proven. Given Napoleon's eye for talent, it is suspicious that Humbert was never employed in Napoleon's empire. Humbert eventually traveled to the United States where he took part in the Battle of New Orleans in 1815, helping the Americans repulse the British attack on that city during the inaptly named War of 1812.
Humbert's subordinate Sarrazin had his 1798 promotion from Humbert nullified by the Directory, but Sarrazin was later promoted to général de brigade in 1799. Much like Sarrazin's friend General Bernadotte, Sarrazin intrigued against the French Empire, though Sarrazin never rose as high as Bernadotte. While Bernadotte eventually became Crown Prince of Sweden and led Swedish troops against the French Empire in 1813, Sarrazin's treachery was much less notable. Sarrazin was sent to Boulogne in 1809 and the next year he defected to the British, taking some intelligence but little else. Sarrazin returned to France after the Bourbon Restoration of 1814 and he was later tried and convicted of bigamy.
In conclusion, each French expedition failed to achieve the goal of liberating Ireland, but their failures were due more to poor timing and weather than the superiority of the British navy. Humbert's expedition in 1798 successfully landed French troops in Ireland, becoming the only enemy force to land troops on the British Isles in modern history. Against all odds, Humbert led his small force halfway across Ireland before being surrounded and defeated by superior British numbers. Had the French Directory acted sooner and in conjunction with the Irish uprising in May of 1798, events may have turned out very differently. In the years following the Irish uprising, Lord Cornwallis led reforms to alleviate some of the underlying causes of the Irish rebellion of 1798, but the Irish would spend another century striving for independence.
- Baines, Edward. History of the Wars of the French Revolution. London: Forgotten Books, 2012.
- Chandler, David G. Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1979.
- Deléry, Simone de la Souchère. Napoleon's Soldiers in America. Gretna: Pelican Publishing Company, 1950.
- Gribayedoff, Valerian. The French Invasion of Ireland in '98. Whitefish: Kessinger Legacy Reprints, 2010.
- Griffiths, Arthur George Frederick. French Revolutionary Generals. London: Forgotten Books, 2012.
- Haythornthwaite, Philip J. Who Was Who in the Napoleonic Wars. London: Arms & Armour, 1998.
- Pakenham, Thomas. The Year of Liberty: The Great Irish Rebellion of 1798. New York: Random House, 1998.
- Six, Georges. Dictionnaire Biographique des Généraux & Amiraux Français de la Révolution et de l'Empire (1792-1814). 2 vols. Paris: Gaston Saffroy, 2003.
- Williams, James. The Naval History of Great Britain. London: Harding, Lepard and Co, 1826.
Updated September 2019
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0.4176388978958... | 3 | French Expeditions to Ireland 1796 - 1798
Expedition of 1796
As part of the First Coalition united against the French Republic and its ideals, the government of Great Britain continued to fund the Coalition powers and their campaigns against France. Furthermore, Great Britain continued to aid French royalists seeking to destroy the republic, and the British had more recently supported the French rebels in the Vendée. French General Hoche, who had successfully pacified the royalist rebellion in the Vendée in 1795, dreamt of leading an expedition to British shores as payback. But instead of attacking England directly, Hoche was convinced by Irish patriots in France that a more suitable target would be Ireland. Irish soldiers had served faithfully in French regiments for more than a hundred years and Ireland was ripe for revolt due to oppressive religious and taxation laws. The hope was that if the French could land a force in Ireland, then Great Britain would be forced onto the defensive, Irish forces would rise up in revolt, and a sister republic to the French Republic could be established.
Hoche took his considerable influence as a successful general to the French Directory and convinced them to support the expedition to Ireland. Having gained the necessary political support, Hoche then relied on Minister of Marine Admiral Truguet to ensure the navy could get the army to Ireland. Unfortunately for Hoche, the expedition was to be launched from Brest where Admiral Villaret-Joyeuse was in command. Villaret-Joyeuse did not believe the expedition could be successful and he repeatedly stalled and delayed preparations, costing months of valuable time. After Hoche's repeated complaints to the Minister of Marine, Truguet replaced Villaret-Joyeuse with Admiral Morard de Galles who began the preparations in earnest.
Once preparations were complete, the French fleet set sail from Brest on December 15, 1796 with approximately 15,000 soldiers on a variety of ships of the line, frigates, and transports. Once at sea, the weather did not cooperate and the French ships were scattered by a storm. Rear Admiral Bouvet gathered a number of ships and made his way to the designated rendezvous of Bantry Bay, but the flagship Fraternité, carrying the commander-in-chief General Hoche and Admiral Morard de Galles, was nowhere to be found. General Grouchy, second in command of the army, and Admiral Bouvet, leading the gathered ships, were unsure if they should land the troops without their respective commanders. Serving alongside Grouchy was Hoche's chief of staff, General Chérin. Chérin repeatedly implored Grouchy to disembark the troops, but Grouchy would not do so, and Chérin grew so frustrated that he allegedly contemplated throwing Grouchy overboard to force the matter. Grouchy instead did nothing and waited upon the arrival of Hoche. Grouchy's inaction without orders from above was curiously predictive of his abilities as a commander when years later in 1815 he failed to respond to the Battle of Waterloo. While the French fleet awaited its commanders and took no action, Admiral Bouvet grew anxious due to the weather, the possibility of encountering the British navy, and the lack of drive of the army. Bouvet waited a few days and then ordered the assembled fleet to return to Brest.
Meanwhile, the flagship Fraternité carrying General Hoche and Admiral Morard de Galles had been driven westward by the storm and then chased by a British cruiser, further delaying their arrival at Bantry Bay. Their ship arrived alone at Bantry Bay and after speaking with an Irish fisherman Hoche learned that much of the French fleet had arrived, waited a few days, and then departed for France. Furious, Hoche returned to France, where the Directory absolved him of blame and gave him command of the Army of the Sambre and Meuse. Hoche wrote to Admiral Truguet that he would not abandon the Irish people, but he died in 1797 before ever getting another chance to land in Ireland.
Dutch Expedition of 1797
The Batavian Republic, the Dutch sister republic of the French Republic, attempted the next possible expedition to Ireland. In June of 1797, at the insistence of their French allies, the Dutch prepared a fleet for an expedition to Ireland. Admiral de Winter was placed in charge of the navy and General Daendels in charge of the army. However, the weather again did not cooperate, forcing the fleet to stay in port. After failing to sail out of port for a number of days, the troops were disembarked and the plans for the expedition were abandoned. Despite the troops having been disembarked, that October Admiral de Winter led the Dutch fleet out from Texel in attempt to reach Brest and unite with the French fleet. However, the Dutch were intercepted by a British fleet and defeated at the Battle of Camperdown, costing the Batavian Republic much of its navy.
French Expedition of 1798
Without French intervention, Ireland rose in revolt against British rule in May of 1798. This raised the pressure on the French Directory to land troops in Ireland to support the rebels, but the French government had already expended considerable resources in supporting General Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt which had set sail earlier that month. Therefore, they could not immediately equip and launch a force to support the rebels. The Directory decided to create three forces which would launch in turn when funds, troops, and equipment became available. The first force under General Humbert would be composed of approximately 1000 soldiers and carry extra arms and supplies for the Irish rebels. The second force under General Hardy would number approximately 3000 soldiers, while the main force under General Kilmaine would arrive last and number approximately 6000 soldiers.
Unfortunately for both the Irish and the French, the Irish rebels scored only a few successes and were mostly defeated in June and finally subdued by July. By this time the French hadn't even launched their first force, but they were unaware of the extent of the defeat of the Irish rebellion. Humbert's initial force set sail from La Rochelle on August 4, 1798 aboard three ships commanded by Daniel Savary. Humbert, originally a rabbit trader before the Revolution, had risen to the rank of general during the early Revolutionary Wars. He also had some past experience with Ireland, having participated in Hoche's 1796 expedition to Ireland and survived the shipwreck of Droits de l'Homme on the return voyage.
Humbert's expedition arrived at Killala on August 22nd, with the ships initially flying British colors to deceive any enemies. After landing the troops, they quickly dispatched the local militia. Humbert immediately issued a proclamation to encourage the Irish people to rise up against British rule, but he also established rules of warfare to enforce that sectarian violence between Catholics and Protestants would not be tolerated. Humbert's proclamation was somewhat ironic coming from French revolutionaries who had rejected the Catholic Church yet were now allies with the oppressed and predominantly Catholic Irish. Nevertheless, Humbert enforced discipline with his seasoned French troops, for in the coming days he was intolerant of looting and even had the most egregious Irish offenders shot by firing squad.
Humbert promoted one of his leading officers, Colonel Sarrazin, to général de brigade for taking Killala and then the next day Humbert sent Sarrazin to the south to ensure the enemy could not counterattack their landing. Sarrazin hurried south to Ballina where he surprised and drove out the British forces that had come up upon first learning of the French landing. Afterwards, Sarrazin and his men returned to Killala.
Humbert's landing immediately drew a few thousand Irish patriots into his force, but facing them was a much more daunting foe. About 150,000 British troops were spread throughout the entirety of Ireland, commanded by Lord Cornwallis. Lord Cornwallis, famous in American history for his surrender to the Americans and French at the Siege of Yorktown in 1781, was a distinguished and respected leader. He had been appointed the British military and civilian commander in Ireland only a month before in an effort to curb the excesses of violence brought about by the Irish uprising. He was also tasked with investigating and reforming the underlying causes of the rebellion. As soon as Cornwallis learned of the French landing, he began concentrating his forces with the goal of cornering and defeating the French forces. However, he could not bring the entirety of his soldiers to bear on the French for fear of Irish uprisings and the need to maintain garrisons throughout the land.
Meanwhile on August 24th Humbert led his main force south to Ballina, intent on taking the strategic crossroads of Castlebar. At Ballina they encountered a force of British troops under Major Kerr holding a defensive position. Sarrazin led a frontal attack with French troops while another French detachment moved to turn the British flank. The British began to withdraw to avoid being surrounded, but then Humbert charged with cavalry and the British withdrawal turned into a rout.
Battle of Castlebar
On August 26th Humbert and his men left Ballina, marching for Castlebar south along the Foxford road. However, in an attempt to surprise the British, once darkness fell they turned and took the less traversable road to Crossmolina. Meanwhile, a large number of British troops had been ordered to Castlebar to throw the French out of Ireland, and on the 26th they numbered about 6000 men. General Lake, known for his brutality during the Irish rebellion only a few months before, had been sent to Castlebar by Cornwallis to take overall command of the area. Once Lake learned of the small size of Humbert's force, he disdainfully disregarded maps of the area and confidently assumed that the French would be crushed as soon they arrived at Castlebar. Unfortunately for the French, a civilian loyal to Great Britain had spotted the French movement early in the morning on the 27th and warned the British at Castlebar. While this report was initially disbelieved, once it was confirmed the British were temporarily thrown into confusion as they were quickly forced to alter their defensive positions to receive an attack from the north instead of the east.
Around eight in the morning of the 27th, Humbert and his force came within sight of Castlebar and realized that their surprise had failed when they saw the British formed in defensive positions against them. Nevertheless, Humbert resolved to attack despite his much smaller force. Humbert first sent forward the Irish volunteers and right behind them he placed the French grenadiers under Sarrazin. The Irish successfully drove back the British outposts and then rushed towards the British line. The British line patiently waited until the attackers were in close range and then opened fire with a single devastating volley, scattering and destroying the momentum of the charge. The Irish volunteers who survived this volley fled from the scene while the French grenadiers took cover behind a nearby house.
However, after that initial volley, the British began firing sporadically and without unison, and Humbert recognized that they were not coordinated well. In response he formed his remaining troops in a long, thin line and ordered a bayonet charge. As the French approached, Sarrazin ordered the remaining grenadiers to charge and the French successfully took the British artillery position. Seeing the loss of his artillery position, General Lake ordered his men to fall back, but by now the British lost all cohesion. The impact of the bayonet charge overwhelmed the British and various units broke and fled. In their haste to escape the bayonet, the British soldiers crowded into the town of Castlebar where a bottleneck formed at the main bridge across the river. As the French pursued, British soldiers were killed in the panic to cross the bridge, but a few British units maintained their composure and formed a rearguard to hold the bridge. The French took cover in the buildings and fired into the rearguard before eventually charging and sweeping the British from the town. Despite the odds, Humbert had won the Battle of Castlebar, which became known as the "Races of Castlebar" due to the speed of the British retreat.
Now in control of Castlebar, Humbert worked with the Irish for the next few days to establish the Republic of Connacht as the new government of Ireland. However, he was well aware of the the numerical inferiority of his troops against the British stationed throughout Ireland and he knew that the British would be returning to Castlebar soon. Humbert wished to seize Dublin to inspire the Irish people, but he also needed to avoid pitched battles to buy more time. With enough time, the second French force under General Hardy would land in Ireland and more of the Irish people would rise up. Learning of a sizeable British force gathered to the southeast at Athlone and blocking his route to Dublin, Humbert decided to abandon Castlebar and head northeast to Sligo. On the night of September 3rd, he and his force abandoned Castlebar and released their British prisoners, one of whom promptly went to the British army and informed them of the French departure.
The Trap Closes
Humbert's force marched towards Sligo via Swinford and then Tobercurry. They marched unopposed until September 5th when the French arrived at the town of Collooney less than ten miles south of Sligo. Colonel Vereker commanding the 600 British troops garrisoned at Sligo had brought his troops south to Collooney to try and stop the French. On the north side of Collooney, the two opposing forces formed in lines and prepared for battle. Vereker attacked first despite having less troops and for a time the British held their own until the French began to flank them. Vereker then ordered a retreat and the British began an orderly withdrawal while Humbert did not pursue. As it turned out, both commanders believed they had repulsed the enemy's advance guard and a stronger force was just behind. Therefore, Vereker fell back towards Sligo while Humbert turned east to avoid a larger confrontation.
In the meantime, a large contingent of British troops commanded by the vengeful General Lake continued to pursue Humbert, intent on bringing him to battle and crushing his small force. Humbert abandoned his artillery to speed his march and the British arrived at Collooney only hours after the French and Irish had departed. Humbert's force made their way to Manor Hamilton where he learned that an Irish force of rebels was concentrated at Granard. Aware that the British were now behind him and no longer blocking the road to Dublin, he hoped to join with the Irish force at Granard and race to Dublin to spur the Irish uprising. Humbert turned south and marched to Drumshanbo and then east to Ballinamore. Between these two towns the French rearguard repulsed the British cavalry's pursuit, inflicting some losses. Next Humbert turned south and made his way to Cloone where his men arrived at nightfall on September 7th. An Irishman arrived and informed Humbert that the Irish he had hoped to join with at Granard had been defeated, but the Irish messenger also claimed that groups of Irish rebels remained scattered in the area. Humbert's force snatched a few hours of sleep and then left Cloone the next morning at the same time as the as the British began to arrive on the other side of town.
Humbert hurriedly marched south, still intent on reaching Granard and then Dublin, but the British pursuit continually harassed his rearguard. Lord Cornwallis had guessed Humbert's strategy of rushing to Dublin and the British commander moved his main force of 20,000 men to block the path. He also ordered General Lake's forces pursuing the French to attack at once, trying to drive them into his trap. Finally, Humbert accepted that his men could not outrun their pursuers and he ordered his army to stop at Ballinamuck and form up for battle. Aware that he was being surrounded and they could not win against the superior numbers of the British, Humbert nonetheless ordered his army into a defensive position on a hill. To preserve French honor, he refused to surrender without first giving the British a bit of a fight. General Sarrazin, in command of the French rear guard, almost immediately surrendered. After some initial maneuvers to get into position, the British assaulted the French line with infantry and dragoons and Humbert surrendered. However, the Irish contingent of his army expected little mercy and refused to surrender, nor were they offered the opportunity to surrender. While the French stood by having surrendered, the British army relentlessly assaulted and chased the Irish rebels, slaughtering all they could. The few Irish rebels who did surrender were later executed.
Contrary to the brutal treatment towards the Irish rebels, the French of Humbert's force were well treated by the British as prisoners of wars. In particular, the British admired that the French had restrained their Irish contingent from sectarian reprisals and looting. However, French officers of Irish birth, such as Humbert's aide-de-camp Bartholomew Teeling and Matthew Tone, brother of Irish patriot Wolfe Tone, were separated from the French and identified as traitors. Teeling in particular had served throughout the Revolutionary Wars in France and risen through the ranks on his own merit. Humbert informed the British that these officers were members of the French military and insisted that they be treated as French, and Humbert initially accompanied Teeling to prison and refused to leave his side. Humbert was then separated from his aide and he wrote a letter for clemency for his Irish-born French officers, but in the end his aide Teeling and the others were executed. These officers went to their execution dressed in their French uniforms, and the French people were incensed upon learning of the fate of these prisoners of war. The writer Thomas Paine wrote a letter to the French Directory arguing for retaliation against British prisoners of war held by the French, but the Directory declined to take such measures.
While Humbert's main force had been defeated, he had committed a few French officers to command the Irish rebels at Ballina and Killala. On September 22nd a large number of British troops approached Ballina and the French and Irish there withdrew to Killala. The French officers considered it their duty to lead the Irish rebels despite the odds against them, and on the 23rd the British attacked Killala and defeated the last of the rebel forces.
Back in France, preparations had continued for the second force under General Hardy to be landed in Ireland by a fleet commanded by Admiral Bompart. This force set sail from Brest on September 17th, unaware that Humbert had surrendered on September 8th. Hardy, Bompart, and the Irish patriot and leader Wolfe Tone were aboard the French flagship named Hoche in honor of the deceased general. The French fleet was spotted enroute to Ireland and pursued by a few British ships, but eventually the French believed they had evaded and lost their pursuers. However, the British were still hunting for the French fleet, and on October 11th a British fleet under Sir John Borlase Warren spotted the French and gave chase. The next day Admiral Bompart ordered his fleet to turn and engage in battle, and over the course of a few hours the French fleet was defeated in what became known as the Battle of Lough Swilly. Some of the French ships, including Hoche, were captured while some ships managed to escape. The commanders Bompart, Hardy, and Tone were all taken prisoner, and as a leader of the Irish rebellion Wolfe Tone was tried and sentenced to execution. When his request to be executed by firing squad was denied, Tone committed suicide in prison before his execution could be carried out.
After the failure of the expedition to Ireland of 1798, the French government made no more attempts to help liberate Ireland from British rule. As for the principal French participants during the expeditions to Ireland, Hoche, Humbert, and Sarrazin all left their unique marks on history.
In 1797 General Hoche and the Army of the Sambre and Meuse traveled to Paris and met up with a contingent of General Bonaparte's Army of Italy commanded by General Augereau. Concerned about the recent surge in power of royalists in the government, both Hoche and Bonaparte sent their troops to support the the republicans in power and the Directory. With these generals backing them, the Directory succeeded in ousting and exiling the royalists from France. This coup became known as the coup of 18 Fructidor, but only two weeks later Hoche died under mysterious circumstances, having made a fair number of enemies in both royalist and republican circles.
General Humbert took part in the French expedition to retake Saint-Domingue in 1802, but he was sent back to France before long. Rumors swirled that Pauline Bonaparte and Humbert had formed an intimate relationship, but this was never proven. Given Napoleon's eye for talent, it is suspicious that Humbert was never employed in Napoleon's empire. Humbert eventually traveled to the United States where he took part in the Battle of New Orleans in 1815, helping the Americans repulse the British attack on that city during the inaptly named War of 1812.
Humbert's subordinate Sarrazin had his 1798 promotion from Humbert nullified by the Directory, but Sarrazin was later promoted to général de brigade in 1799. Much like Sarrazin's friend General Bernadotte, Sarrazin intrigued against the French Empire, though Sarrazin never rose as high as Bernadotte. While Bernadotte eventually became Crown Prince of Sweden and led Swedish troops against the French Empire in 1813, Sarrazin's treachery was much less notable. Sarrazin was sent to Boulogne in 1809 and the next year he defected to the British, taking some intelligence but little else. Sarrazin returned to France after the Bourbon Restoration of 1814 and he was later tried and convicted of bigamy.
In conclusion, each French expedition failed to achieve the goal of liberating Ireland, but their failures were due more to poor timing and weather than the superiority of the British navy. Humbert's expedition in 1798 successfully landed French troops in Ireland, becoming the only enemy force to land troops on the British Isles in modern history. Against all odds, Humbert led his small force halfway across Ireland before being surrounded and defeated by superior British numbers. Had the French Directory acted sooner and in conjunction with the Irish uprising in May of 1798, events may have turned out very differently. In the years following the Irish uprising, Lord Cornwallis led reforms to alleviate some of the underlying causes of the Irish rebellion of 1798, but the Irish would spend another century striving for independence.
- Baines, Edward. History of the Wars of the French Revolution. London: Forgotten Books, 2012.
- Chandler, David G. Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1979.
- Deléry, Simone de la Souchère. Napoleon's Soldiers in America. Gretna: Pelican Publishing Company, 1950.
- Gribayedoff, Valerian. The French Invasion of Ireland in '98. Whitefish: Kessinger Legacy Reprints, 2010.
- Griffiths, Arthur George Frederick. French Revolutionary Generals. London: Forgotten Books, 2012.
- Haythornthwaite, Philip J. Who Was Who in the Napoleonic Wars. London: Arms & Armour, 1998.
- Pakenham, Thomas. The Year of Liberty: The Great Irish Rebellion of 1798. New York: Random House, 1998.
- Six, Georges. Dictionnaire Biographique des Généraux & Amiraux Français de la Révolution et de l'Empire (1792-1814). 2 vols. Paris: Gaston Saffroy, 2003.
- Williams, James. The Naval History of Great Britain. London: Harding, Lepard and Co, 1826.
Updated September 2019
© Nathan D. Jensen | 5,105 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mathematical discovery of planets
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The first planet to be discovered was Uranus by William and Caroline Herschel on 13 March 1781. It was discovered by the fact that it showed a disk when viewed through even a fairly low powered telescope. The only other planets which have been discovered are Neptune and Pluto. These were predicted using ingenious mathematical arguments based on Newton's laws of gravitation and then observed near their predicted locations.
In fact Neptune could have been discovered without the mathematical arguments. It very nearly was discovered by Galileo, the first person who could possibly have discovered a new planet. Galileo turned his telescope on the planets and was immediately fascinated by the system of Jupiter and its moons which he observed. While he was observing the Jupiter system on 28 December 1612 he recorded Neptune as an 8th magnitude star. Just over a month later on 27 January 1613, he recorded two stars in his field of view. One was Neptune and the other a genuine star. Remarkably, Galileo observed the pair again the following night when he noted that the two stars appeared to be further apart. How close he was at that point to discovering that one of the stars was the planet Neptune. See .
You can see Galileo's notes about this observation at THIS LINK.
Neptune was to be recorded several more times, without being recognised as a planet, over the following years. Lalande (1732-1807), a French astronomer whose tables of the planetary positions were the most accurate until the 19th Century, recorded Neptune on the 8th and 10th of May 1795 without recognising that it was not a star. John Herschel, who we shall see in a moment was to be involved with the discovery of Neptune, recorded Neptune on 14 July 1830 believing it to be a star.
Von Lamont (1805-1879), a Scottish born astronomer who lived most of his life in Munich, is famed for his determination of the orbits of moons of Saturn and Uranus, and also for discovering the periodic fluctuation of the Earth's magnetic field. He recorded Neptune on at least three occasions, namely on 25 October 1845, 7 September 1846 and 11 September 1846. As a highly skilled observer, one might have expected that von Lamont would have recognised the motion of Neptune over the four day period. However he failed to do so, only days before Neptune was discovered.
The discovery of Neptune however did not come from any of these chance observations. Rather it came from a mathematical analysis of the deviation of Uranus from its predicted orbit. Delambre computed tables of planetary positions Tables du Soleil, de Jupiter, de Saturne, d'Uranus et des satellites de Jupiter Ⓣ published in 1792. However discrepancies began to arise in the predicted position of Uranus. Bouvard (1767-1843), a French astronomer who was director of the Paris Observatory, had already published accurate tables of the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn in 1808 and he now undertook to produce a corrected version of Delambre's tables for Uranus. However he could not make all the observations fit, even after taking the perturbations of the other planets into account. He published his new tables of Uranus in 1821 but wrote
... I leave it to the future the task of discovering whether the difficulty of reconciling [the data] is connected with the ancient observations, or whether it depends on some foreign and unperceived cause which may have been acting upon the planet.Although Bouvard had used the latest data to determine the orbit of Uranus, it soon became apparent that it was deviating from the position given in his tables. On 3 July 1841 Adams, while still an undergraduate at Cambridge, wrote
Formed a design in the beginning of this week, of investigating, as soon as possible after taking my degree, the irregularities of the motion of Uranus, which are yet unaccounted for; in order to find out whether they may be attributed to the action of an undiscovered planet beyond it; and if possible thence to determine the elements of its orbit, etc.. approximately, which would probably lead to its discovery.Not everyone however attributed the problems of Uranus's orbit to an unknown planet beyond it. Airy, the Astronomer Royal, believed in another popular theory, namely that the inverse square law of gravitation began to break down over large distances. However after Adams had made an initial investigation of the effect that an undiscovered planet might have on Uranus, he was greatly encouraged in his belief that he was on the right track, and he obtained from Airy the Greenwich data on Uranus in February 1844.
In June 1845 Arago, the director of the Paris observatory, persuaded Le Verrier to start work on the problem of Uranus's orbit. Le Verrier quickly decided to devote himself fully to the problem and set aside the work he had been doing on comets. Neither Le Verrier nor Adams knew that the other was working on the problem.
By September 1845 Adams had made a more detailed study of the problem and deduced an orbit for the perturbing planet. As well as the orbit he had calculated the mass of the planet and its position on 1 October 1845. He sent has predictions to James Challis, the director of the Cambridge Observatory.
Adams was breaking new mathematical ground here. Newton's theory of gravitation had been used many times to calculate the effects of bodies on one another but never had it been used to predict the position of a body from observations of the effects of its gravity on other bodies. Nevertheless Adams was very confident in his theory and referred to the "new planet". An attempt by Adams to give Airy information on the "new planet" failed when Adams visited Greenwich on 23 September on his way between his home in Laneast, Cornwall and Cambridge since Airy was in France at the time.
On 21 October 1845 Adams made a second attempt to visit Airy on his way to Cambridge. He was told that Airy was in London but would be back soon. Adams returned in the afternoon but Airy was at dinner. In fact Airy had the rather unusual habit of eating dinner at 3.30 every afternoon so Adams was turned away. Adams left a manuscript with his research on the orbit of Uranus in which he showed that, given the orbit which he proposed for the new planet, the errors in Uranus's position were extremely small.
In fact Airy was clearly interested in Adams' work for, on 5 November, he wrote to Adams asking what appeared to be a somewhat technical question. He wanted to know whether the postulated "new planet" explained not only the discrepancies in the longitude of Uranus but also the discrepancies in its radius vector. This question was designed to try to distinguish between the "new planet" theory and the "failure of the inverse square law" theory. However Adams, already cross at what he saw was Airy's refusal to see him, made no answer. He decided to search for the new planet himself:-
I could not expect, however, that practical astronomers, who were already fully occupied with important labours, would feel as much confidence in the results of my investigation, as I myself did; and I therefore had our instruments put in order, with the express purpose, if no one else took up the subject, of undertaking the search for the planet myself, with the small means afforded by our observatory at St John's.On 10 November Le Verrier published his first paper on his investigations. In it he showed that the perturbations on the orbit of Uranus due to Jupiter and Saturn could not explain the observations. On 1 June 1846 Le Verrier published a second paper in which he showed that a variety of other possible causes could not explain the orbit of Uranus, and deduced that the only possible cause could be a planet further from the Sun than Uranus. He gave some details of a possible orbit of the "new planet" with a predicted position for the beginning of 1847. Le Verrier approached the Paris Observatory to search for the planet but after a very brief search they lost interest.
On 23 June the results of Le Verrier's paper reached Airy who immediately saw that Le Verrier's prediction and Adams prediction for the position of the "new planet" were almost identical. Three days later he wrote to Le Verrier asking the same question about the radius vector as he had asked Adams. Strangely Airy, who now knew that both Adams and Le Verrier had come to almost identical solutions to the same problem, did not tell either of them about the other, nor did he tell Le Verrier of his plans to begin a search. Le Verrier replied to Airy's questions convincing him that the deviations were indeed due to a "new planet". On 29 June Airy met with Challis and John Herschel in Greenwich and told them of
...the extreme probability of now discovering a new planet in a very short time, provided the powers of one observatory could be directed to search for it.On 9 July Airy asked Challis to begin a search at the Cambridge Observatory. He was somewhat reluctant: as he later wrote:-
It was so novel a thing to undertake observations in reliance upon merely theoretical deductions; and that while much labour was certain, success appeared very doubtful.Despite his reservations, Challis began the search on 29 July 1846, recording stars in the area of Adams's prediction. He observed on the nights of 29, 30 July, 4, 12 August and recorded the results. He checked out his methods by comparing the first 39 stars recorded on 12 August and checking that they appeared on his 30 July records. If he had continued his comparison he would have discovered the "new planet" which he had recorded on 12 August but which had not been in the search area on 30 July. He had also recorded the planet on 4 August but he never compared these records.
Later in August John Herschel visited an amateur astronomer William Dawes and told him of the "new planet" but, since Dawes had only a small telescope, he thought it not worth searching.
On 31 August Le Verrier published his third paper on the "new planet". This time he gave full details of the predicted orbit and the mass. He also deduced the angular diameter and wrote:-
It should be possible to see the new planet in good telescopes and also to distinguish it by the size of its disk. This is a very important point .... if a simple study of its physical appearance can replace the rigorous determination of the positions of all the stars, the search will proceed much more rapidly.Adams wrote to Airy on 2 September giving a more through analysis of the problem. His first solution had depended on assuming a distance for the "new planet" of twice that of Uranus from the Sun. He was unhappy with this arbitrary part of his solution and he had redone the mathematical analysis finding a better estimate of the distance of the "new planet" by testing different distances against the observed perturbations of Uranus.
Dawes, although thinking (wrongly) that he could not observe the "new planet", suddenly had a thought. His friend William Lassell, another anateur astronomer and a brewer by trade, had just completed building a large telescope that would be able to record the disk of the planet. He wrote to Lassell giving him Adams's predicted position. However Lassell had sprained his ankle and was confined to bed. He read the letter which he gave to his maid who then promptly lost it. His ankle was sufficiently recovered on the next night and he looked in vain for the letter with the predicted position. His chance of fame had gone!
On 10 September John Herschel addressed a meeting of the British Association in Southampton. He spoke of the "new planet" saying:-
We see it as Columbus saw America from the shores of Spain. Its movements have been felt, trembling along the far-reaching line of our analysis, with a certainty hardly inferior to that of ocular demonstration.Herschel was a very fine mathematician and clearly had a faith in the mathematical analysis which many astronomers failed to have. Adams intended to present a paper on his researches at the Southampton meeting. However Section A of the British Association ended its session one day before he expected and Adams arrived in Southampton too late to announce his predictions.
Le Verrier wrote to the German astronomer Galle on 18 September asking him to search for the "new planet" at his predicted location. Galle received the letter on 23 September and together with his assistant Heinrich d'Arrest began a search that night at the Royal Observatory in Berlin. D'Arrest suggested they use the latest star chart which had only just been produced. It took them less than 30 minutes to locate a star not on their map. Of course they knew that they had found the "new planet" but they confirmed it the following night by observing it had moved relative to the stars.
You can see a diagram showing the predicted and actual positions at THIS LINK.
Galle wrote to Le Verrier on 25 September, saying:-
Monsieur, the planet of which you indicated the position really exists.Le Verrier replied:-
I thank you for the alacrity with which you applied my instructions. We are thereby, thanks to you, definitely in possession of a new world.On 29 September Le Verrier's paper of 31 August reached Challis. He observed that night, searching the predicted position for the disk of the planet. He noted that only one from 300 stars in the region appeared to show a disk. Of course he had observed the planet but, a cautious man by nature, he waited until he could confirm the result by showing the motion of the planet. He did not observe again before 1 October when The Times carried the announcement of Galle's discovery with the headline Le Verrier's Planet Found.
As soon as he read the headline, Herschel wrote to Lassell saying
Look out for satellites with all possible expedition.Lassell began observing on 2 October and on 10 October he discovered Neptune's moon Triton.
It was on 3 October that Herschel wrote to the Athenaeum making public the role of Adams in the discovery of Neptune. The subsequent argument over the priority and naming of the planet is discussed in the article on Orbits and Gravitation. The full story of the contributions of Adams, Challis and Airy were published at the 13 November meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society. Challis and Airy each reported on the story of Adams's predictions and Adams himself published his memoir An explanation of the observed irregularities in the motion of Uranus, on the hypothesis of disturbances caused by a more distant planet; with a determination of the mass, orbit, and position of the disturbing body.
Once the orbit of Neptune was worked out sufficiently well, older records were searched to see if it had been recorded earlier. When Lalande's observations of Neptune on the 8th and 10th of May 1795 were discovered it was noted that Lalande had rejected the 8 May position and recorded a star in the 10 May position of Neptune, but marked it as doubtful. He never bothered to make a further observation to confirm the data which would have certainly resulted in his discovery of Neptune. When Airy learnt of this he wrote to Adams saying
Let no one after this blame Challis.Once the orbit of Neptune was computed it was seen that both Adams and Le Verrier had been quite lucky with their predictions. Both had predicted positions which were very close to the actual position but both had predicted orbits which meant that Neptune would only be close to its predicted position around 1840-1850 while at other times (it takes about 165 years to complete one orbit and has not yet completed one since its discovery) it would be far from the positions predicted by both Adams and Le Verrier.
A cartoon about the discovery of Neptune is at THIS LINK
The solar system did not, however, behave as expected. Neptune did not follow the orbit computed, even after taking the gravitational attraction of all the other known planets into account. To a lesser extent neither did Uranus and Saturn. Percival Lowell (1855-1916), an American astronomer, was interested in Mars. He built a private observatory at Flagstaff, Arizona specifically to study the planet. He began a mathematical analysis of the orbit of Uranus which was known more accurately than that of Neptune and yet failed to follow its predicted path. In 1905 Lowell completed his analysis of the data and predicted the existence of a planet beyond Neptune which was responsible for the perturbations.
By 1905, of course, astronomical observations had greatly improved due to photography. A search was begun at the Flagstaff Observatory in 1915 and for two years they photographed the area of the sky in which "Planet X", as Lowell called it, was predicted. Nothing was found. Lowell redid his mathematical analysis and, between 1914 and 1916, he again photographed the area of the sky where his predictions showed that Planet X would lie. In fact there are images of Pluto (Lowell's Planet X) on these plates but they are faint and were not recognised.
Lowell presented has paper Memoir on a Trans-Neptunian Planet to the American Academy on 13 January 1915. He wrote to his chief observer at Flagstaff:-
I am giving my work before the Academy on January 13. It would be thoughtful of you to announce discovery at the same time.No discovery was made however and, as Lowell's brother later wrote:-
That X was not found was the sharpest disappointment of his life.Another American astronomer, William Henry Pickering (1858-1938), actually constructed Lowell's Flagstaff Observatory in 1894. He moved to the Harvard College Observatory and, in 1919, he also predicted a position of a trans-Neptunian planet using the discrepancies in both the orbits of Uranus and Neptune as data. A search of photographs taken at the Mount Wilson Observatory failed to find the planet at the position predicted by Pickering.
In January 1929 Clyde W Tombaugh (1906- ) joined the staff at Flagstaff, with the task of finding Planet X. He used a new technique, namely comparing two plates taken some time apart by "blinking", that is shining a light successively through one plate and then the other so that objects on both plates remained steady while an object on one plate but not the other blinked. Tombaugh wrote:-
... on the afternoon of February 18, 1930, I suddenly came upon the images of Pluto! The experience was an intense thrill, because the nature of the object was apparent at first sight.The planet was photographed every night from then on to confirm the observation and on 13 March 1930, the 75th anniversary of Lowell's birth and the 149th anniversary of Uranus's discovery (it is a remarkable coincidence that these should be the same day), an announcement was made from Flagstaff. In May 1930 the Flagstaff Observatory proposed the name Pluto for Planet X. They proposed a symbol consisting of interlocking letters P and L. It is interesting after the arguments about the naming of Neptune, that they managed to work Percival Lowell's initials into the planet name in such a major way.
This looked like another fantastic piece of mathematical theory by Lowell. However Brown reviewed the data which Lowell had used and showed that there was no way that he could have made the correct prediction based on the data. Russell, a leading American astronomer, wrote:-
The question arises ... why is there an actual planet moving in an orbit which is so uncannily like the one predicted?... There seems no escape from the conclusion that this is a matter of chance. That so close a set of chance coincidences should occur is almost incredible, but the evidence employed by Brown permits of no other conclusion...The mass of Pluto is now known accurately since a satellite Charon has been discovered. Pluto's mass is 0.002 Earth masses, while Lowell required Planet X to have seven Earth masses to produce the effects on the other planets. The mystery remains as to how Lowell was able to predict the orbit so accurately and the mystery also remains as to why the outer planets fail to keep to their correct orbits.
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|Mathematical Astronomy index||History Topics Index|
The first planet to be discovered was Uranus by William and Caroline Herschel on 13 March 1781. It was discovered by the fact that it showed a disk when viewed through even a fairly low powered telescope. The only other planets which have been discovered are Neptune and Pluto. These were predicted using ingenious mathematical arguments based on Newton's laws of gravitation and then observed near their predicted locations.
In fact Neptune could have been discovered without the mathematical arguments. It very nearly was discovered by Galileo, the first person who could possibly have discovered a new planet. Galileo turned his telescope on the planets and was immediately fascinated by the system of Jupiter and its moons which he observed. While he was observing the Jupiter system on 28 December 1612 he recorded Neptune as an 8th magnitude star. Just over a month later on 27 January 1613, he recorded two stars in his field of view. One was Neptune and the other a genuine star. Remarkably, Galileo observed the pair again the following night when he noted that the two stars appeared to be further apart. How close he was at that point to discovering that one of the stars was the planet Neptune. See .
You can see Galileo's notes about this observation at THIS LINK.
Neptune was to be recorded several more times, without being recognised as a planet, over the following years. Lalande (1732-1807), a French astronomer whose tables of the planetary positions were the most accurate until the 19th Century, recorded Neptune on the 8th and 10th of May 1795 without recognising that it was not a star. John Herschel, who we shall see in a moment was to be involved with the discovery of Neptune, recorded Neptune on 14 July 1830 believing it to be a star.
Von Lamont (1805-1879), a Scottish born astronomer who lived most of his life in Munich, is famed for his determination of the orbits of moons of Saturn and Uranus, and also for discovering the periodic fluctuation of the Earth's magnetic field. He recorded Neptune on at least three occasions, namely on 25 October 1845, 7 September 1846 and 11 September 1846. As a highly skilled observer, one might have expected that von Lamont would have recognised the motion of Neptune over the four day period. However he failed to do so, only days before Neptune was discovered.
The discovery of Neptune however did not come from any of these chance observations. Rather it came from a mathematical analysis of the deviation of Uranus from its predicted orbit. Delambre computed tables of planetary positions Tables du Soleil, de Jupiter, de Saturne, d'Uranus et des satellites de Jupiter Ⓣ published in 1792. However discrepancies began to arise in the predicted position of Uranus. Bouvard (1767-1843), a French astronomer who was director of the Paris Observatory, had already published accurate tables of the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn in 1808 and he now undertook to produce a corrected version of Delambre's tables for Uranus. However he could not make all the observations fit, even after taking the perturbations of the other planets into account. He published his new tables of Uranus in 1821 but wrote
... I leave it to the future the task of discovering whether the difficulty of reconciling [the data] is connected with the ancient observations, or whether it depends on some foreign and unperceived cause which may have been acting upon the planet.Although Bouvard had used the latest data to determine the orbit of Uranus, it soon became apparent that it was deviating from the position given in his tables. On 3 July 1841 Adams, while still an undergraduate at Cambridge, wrote
Formed a design in the beginning of this week, of investigating, as soon as possible after taking my degree, the irregularities of the motion of Uranus, which are yet unaccounted for; in order to find out whether they may be attributed to the action of an undiscovered planet beyond it; and if possible thence to determine the elements of its orbit, etc.. approximately, which would probably lead to its discovery.Not everyone however attributed the problems of Uranus's orbit to an unknown planet beyond it. Airy, the Astronomer Royal, believed in another popular theory, namely that the inverse square law of gravitation began to break down over large distances. However after Adams had made an initial investigation of the effect that an undiscovered planet might have on Uranus, he was greatly encouraged in his belief that he was on the right track, and he obtained from Airy the Greenwich data on Uranus in February 1844.
In June 1845 Arago, the director of the Paris observatory, persuaded Le Verrier to start work on the problem of Uranus's orbit. Le Verrier quickly decided to devote himself fully to the problem and set aside the work he had been doing on comets. Neither Le Verrier nor Adams knew that the other was working on the problem.
By September 1845 Adams had made a more detailed study of the problem and deduced an orbit for the perturbing planet. As well as the orbit he had calculated the mass of the planet and its position on 1 October 1845. He sent has predictions to James Challis, the director of the Cambridge Observatory.
Adams was breaking new mathematical ground here. Newton's theory of gravitation had been used many times to calculate the effects of bodies on one another but never had it been used to predict the position of a body from observations of the effects of its gravity on other bodies. Nevertheless Adams was very confident in his theory and referred to the "new planet". An attempt by Adams to give Airy information on the "new planet" failed when Adams visited Greenwich on 23 September on his way between his home in Laneast, Cornwall and Cambridge since Airy was in France at the time.
On 21 October 1845 Adams made a second attempt to visit Airy on his way to Cambridge. He was told that Airy was in London but would be back soon. Adams returned in the afternoon but Airy was at dinner. In fact Airy had the rather unusual habit of eating dinner at 3.30 every afternoon so Adams was turned away. Adams left a manuscript with his research on the orbit of Uranus in which he showed that, given the orbit which he proposed for the new planet, the errors in Uranus's position were extremely small.
In fact Airy was clearly interested in Adams' work for, on 5 November, he wrote to Adams asking what appeared to be a somewhat technical question. He wanted to know whether the postulated "new planet" explained not only the discrepancies in the longitude of Uranus but also the discrepancies in its radius vector. This question was designed to try to distinguish between the "new planet" theory and the "failure of the inverse square law" theory. However Adams, already cross at what he saw was Airy's refusal to see him, made no answer. He decided to search for the new planet himself:-
I could not expect, however, that practical astronomers, who were already fully occupied with important labours, would feel as much confidence in the results of my investigation, as I myself did; and I therefore had our instruments put in order, with the express purpose, if no one else took up the subject, of undertaking the search for the planet myself, with the small means afforded by our observatory at St John's.On 10 November Le Verrier published his first paper on his investigations. In it he showed that the perturbations on the orbit of Uranus due to Jupiter and Saturn could not explain the observations. On 1 June 1846 Le Verrier published a second paper in which he showed that a variety of other possible causes could not explain the orbit of Uranus, and deduced that the only possible cause could be a planet further from the Sun than Uranus. He gave some details of a possible orbit of the "new planet" with a predicted position for the beginning of 1847. Le Verrier approached the Paris Observatory to search for the planet but after a very brief search they lost interest.
On 23 June the results of Le Verrier's paper reached Airy who immediately saw that Le Verrier's prediction and Adams prediction for the position of the "new planet" were almost identical. Three days later he wrote to Le Verrier asking the same question about the radius vector as he had asked Adams. Strangely Airy, who now knew that both Adams and Le Verrier had come to almost identical solutions to the same problem, did not tell either of them about the other, nor did he tell Le Verrier of his plans to begin a search. Le Verrier replied to Airy's questions convincing him that the deviations were indeed due to a "new planet". On 29 June Airy met with Challis and John Herschel in Greenwich and told them of
...the extreme probability of now discovering a new planet in a very short time, provided the powers of one observatory could be directed to search for it.On 9 July Airy asked Challis to begin a search at the Cambridge Observatory. He was somewhat reluctant: as he later wrote:-
It was so novel a thing to undertake observations in reliance upon merely theoretical deductions; and that while much labour was certain, success appeared very doubtful.Despite his reservations, Challis began the search on 29 July 1846, recording stars in the area of Adams's prediction. He observed on the nights of 29, 30 July, 4, 12 August and recorded the results. He checked out his methods by comparing the first 39 stars recorded on 12 August and checking that they appeared on his 30 July records. If he had continued his comparison he would have discovered the "new planet" which he had recorded on 12 August but which had not been in the search area on 30 July. He had also recorded the planet on 4 August but he never compared these records.
Later in August John Herschel visited an amateur astronomer William Dawes and told him of the "new planet" but, since Dawes had only a small telescope, he thought it not worth searching.
On 31 August Le Verrier published his third paper on the "new planet". This time he gave full details of the predicted orbit and the mass. He also deduced the angular diameter and wrote:-
It should be possible to see the new planet in good telescopes and also to distinguish it by the size of its disk. This is a very important point .... if a simple study of its physical appearance can replace the rigorous determination of the positions of all the stars, the search will proceed much more rapidly.Adams wrote to Airy on 2 September giving a more through analysis of the problem. His first solution had depended on assuming a distance for the "new planet" of twice that of Uranus from the Sun. He was unhappy with this arbitrary part of his solution and he had redone the mathematical analysis finding a better estimate of the distance of the "new planet" by testing different distances against the observed perturbations of Uranus.
Dawes, although thinking (wrongly) that he could not observe the "new planet", suddenly had a thought. His friend William Lassell, another anateur astronomer and a brewer by trade, had just completed building a large telescope that would be able to record the disk of the planet. He wrote to Lassell giving him Adams's predicted position. However Lassell had sprained his ankle and was confined to bed. He read the letter which he gave to his maid who then promptly lost it. His ankle was sufficiently recovered on the next night and he looked in vain for the letter with the predicted position. His chance of fame had gone!
On 10 September John Herschel addressed a meeting of the British Association in Southampton. He spoke of the "new planet" saying:-
We see it as Columbus saw America from the shores of Spain. Its movements have been felt, trembling along the far-reaching line of our analysis, with a certainty hardly inferior to that of ocular demonstration.Herschel was a very fine mathematician and clearly had a faith in the mathematical analysis which many astronomers failed to have. Adams intended to present a paper on his researches at the Southampton meeting. However Section A of the British Association ended its session one day before he expected and Adams arrived in Southampton too late to announce his predictions.
Le Verrier wrote to the German astronomer Galle on 18 September asking him to search for the "new planet" at his predicted location. Galle received the letter on 23 September and together with his assistant Heinrich d'Arrest began a search that night at the Royal Observatory in Berlin. D'Arrest suggested they use the latest star chart which had only just been produced. It took them less than 30 minutes to locate a star not on their map. Of course they knew that they had found the "new planet" but they confirmed it the following night by observing it had moved relative to the stars.
You can see a diagram showing the predicted and actual positions at THIS LINK.
Galle wrote to Le Verrier on 25 September, saying:-
Monsieur, the planet of which you indicated the position really exists.Le Verrier replied:-
I thank you for the alacrity with which you applied my instructions. We are thereby, thanks to you, definitely in possession of a new world.On 29 September Le Verrier's paper of 31 August reached Challis. He observed that night, searching the predicted position for the disk of the planet. He noted that only one from 300 stars in the region appeared to show a disk. Of course he had observed the planet but, a cautious man by nature, he waited until he could confirm the result by showing the motion of the planet. He did not observe again before 1 October when The Times carried the announcement of Galle's discovery with the headline Le Verrier's Planet Found.
As soon as he read the headline, Herschel wrote to Lassell saying
Look out for satellites with all possible expedition.Lassell began observing on 2 October and on 10 October he discovered Neptune's moon Triton.
It was on 3 October that Herschel wrote to the Athenaeum making public the role of Adams in the discovery of Neptune. The subsequent argument over the priority and naming of the planet is discussed in the article on Orbits and Gravitation. The full story of the contributions of Adams, Challis and Airy were published at the 13 November meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society. Challis and Airy each reported on the story of Adams's predictions and Adams himself published his memoir An explanation of the observed irregularities in the motion of Uranus, on the hypothesis of disturbances caused by a more distant planet; with a determination of the mass, orbit, and position of the disturbing body.
Once the orbit of Neptune was worked out sufficiently well, older records were searched to see if it had been recorded earlier. When Lalande's observations of Neptune on the 8th and 10th of May 1795 were discovered it was noted that Lalande had rejected the 8 May position and recorded a star in the 10 May position of Neptune, but marked it as doubtful. He never bothered to make a further observation to confirm the data which would have certainly resulted in his discovery of Neptune. When Airy learnt of this he wrote to Adams saying
Let no one after this blame Challis.Once the orbit of Neptune was computed it was seen that both Adams and Le Verrier had been quite lucky with their predictions. Both had predicted positions which were very close to the actual position but both had predicted orbits which meant that Neptune would only be close to its predicted position around 1840-1850 while at other times (it takes about 165 years to complete one orbit and has not yet completed one since its discovery) it would be far from the positions predicted by both Adams and Le Verrier.
A cartoon about the discovery of Neptune is at THIS LINK
The solar system did not, however, behave as expected. Neptune did not follow the orbit computed, even after taking the gravitational attraction of all the other known planets into account. To a lesser extent neither did Uranus and Saturn. Percival Lowell (1855-1916), an American astronomer, was interested in Mars. He built a private observatory at Flagstaff, Arizona specifically to study the planet. He began a mathematical analysis of the orbit of Uranus which was known more accurately than that of Neptune and yet failed to follow its predicted path. In 1905 Lowell completed his analysis of the data and predicted the existence of a planet beyond Neptune which was responsible for the perturbations.
By 1905, of course, astronomical observations had greatly improved due to photography. A search was begun at the Flagstaff Observatory in 1915 and for two years they photographed the area of the sky in which "Planet X", as Lowell called it, was predicted. Nothing was found. Lowell redid his mathematical analysis and, between 1914 and 1916, he again photographed the area of the sky where his predictions showed that Planet X would lie. In fact there are images of Pluto (Lowell's Planet X) on these plates but they are faint and were not recognised.
Lowell presented has paper Memoir on a Trans-Neptunian Planet to the American Academy on 13 January 1915. He wrote to his chief observer at Flagstaff:-
I am giving my work before the Academy on January 13. It would be thoughtful of you to announce discovery at the same time.No discovery was made however and, as Lowell's brother later wrote:-
That X was not found was the sharpest disappointment of his life.Another American astronomer, William Henry Pickering (1858-1938), actually constructed Lowell's Flagstaff Observatory in 1894. He moved to the Harvard College Observatory and, in 1919, he also predicted a position of a trans-Neptunian planet using the discrepancies in both the orbits of Uranus and Neptune as data. A search of photographs taken at the Mount Wilson Observatory failed to find the planet at the position predicted by Pickering.
In January 1929 Clyde W Tombaugh (1906- ) joined the staff at Flagstaff, with the task of finding Planet X. He used a new technique, namely comparing two plates taken some time apart by "blinking", that is shining a light successively through one plate and then the other so that objects on both plates remained steady while an object on one plate but not the other blinked. Tombaugh wrote:-
... on the afternoon of February 18, 1930, I suddenly came upon the images of Pluto! The experience was an intense thrill, because the nature of the object was apparent at first sight.The planet was photographed every night from then on to confirm the observation and on 13 March 1930, the 75th anniversary of Lowell's birth and the 149th anniversary of Uranus's discovery (it is a remarkable coincidence that these should be the same day), an announcement was made from Flagstaff. In May 1930 the Flagstaff Observatory proposed the name Pluto for Planet X. They proposed a symbol consisting of interlocking letters P and L. It is interesting after the arguments about the naming of Neptune, that they managed to work Percival Lowell's initials into the planet name in such a major way.
This looked like another fantastic piece of mathematical theory by Lowell. However Brown reviewed the data which Lowell had used and showed that there was no way that he could have made the correct prediction based on the data. Russell, a leading American astronomer, wrote:-
The question arises ... why is there an actual planet moving in an orbit which is so uncannily like the one predicted?... There seems no escape from the conclusion that this is a matter of chance. That so close a set of chance coincidences should occur is almost incredible, but the evidence employed by Brown permits of no other conclusion...The mass of Pluto is now known accurately since a satellite Charon has been discovered. Pluto's mass is 0.002 Earth masses, while Lowell required Planet X to have seven Earth masses to produce the effects on the other planets. The mystery remains as to how Lowell was able to predict the orbit so accurately and the mystery also remains as to why the outer planets fail to keep to their correct orbits.
Article by: J J O'Connor and E F Robertson | 4,406 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The definition of family is defined in various ways to many different people.Many people may say their family includes the family of orientation, extended family, and family of procreation.It all depends on how the child is raised.
Three important factors, out of six, that I consider to be the main functions of family are socialization, economic cooperation, and care, protection, and intimacy.
Some families may very well address these functions, while others may not. And because of that, family may be quite hard to define because it goes above and beyond the surface.According to Swartz and Scott (2009), family is defined as a group of people related to each other by blood, marriage, adoption or being sexually open in a relationship. The definition also extends to couples who are committed to each other and are capable of providing internal and external factors ranging from emotional to economic support. Because of my culture, how I was raised, and where I grew up, I define family in a complicated matter. The definition of family, according to me, is the family of orientation.It does not include my aunts, uncles, or cousins, even though we are somewhat related by blood.
However, I do consider them as a part of my extended family. The family of orientation includes my parents and three younger siblings. I consider this to be family because this is where I was born into, rose, and grew up with. Of course, the definition of family will change over time for me because I am not yet married. To my belief, I will have a change in families after I get married to my husband with kids, which is also known as the family of procreation.This is when my new journey and definition of family begins. I do not believe a family is complete without children or pets, or anything or anyone that my husband and I, as a couple, could look forward to and love to keep the relationship lasting.
To be considered as my family, the person does not have to be blood related. What matters is the fair amount of love and care that is provided. The emotional support is what I lean more towards when it comes to family. I believe there is a way to everything when it comes to economic factors, such as dealing with our finance, having shelter, clothing, and food.Emotional support is needed when hard times come, and if the person or people are willing to go through with the bad, they are definitely considered family. Nobody would want to live through the hardship, so that is why I value love and care most in a family. No matter what I go through, I know that person or people will still be there.
There are three families of functions that I can relate to. They are socialization, economic cooperation, and care, protection, and intimacy.Socialization is defined as a lifetime process “of social interaction through which people learn those elements of culture that are essential for effective participate in social life” (Swartz & Scott, 2009, p. 6). Socializing is a way of learning what society expects such as norms and values and develops the behavior of how one thinks, feels, and acts (Swartz & Scott, 2009). Children socialize to be able to better communicate through their own language, culture, and the mass media such as the television and radio.Ever since I was young, from infancy to child age, my parents communicated with me in our language, Vietnamese.
We practiced our traditions and cultures through foods and celebrating holidays. I have learned what the Vietnamese community expects when it comes to holidays, elders, and food. Once I was enrolled into pre-school, I started to learn English, which counts as another form of socializing. Communicating was hard for me because I did not speak a word of it. However, my parents started to teach me what they could in the language.They taught me basics such as singing the alphabet, counting, and naming certain animals. Simple terms like stating my name, learning my address, and asking to use the restroom were a start to a new way of socializing and a start of a new culture.
Enrolling into school helped me shape the way to act, think, and feel. I was on my best behavior. And there was no such thing as always being happy like I was when I am at home with my parents. I learned what it was like to be picked on, be mad, angry, happy, and develop friendships.I think my family addressed this function well, because I have matured to be able to communicate and socialize with all those around me, which includes how to act and feel. Economic cooperation involves a family’s responsibility to provide for everyone’s physical and economic well being (Swartz & Scott, 2009). In history, families work in the field, as agriculturists and farmers to provide food.
They also sold products that were farmed to provide money, shelter, and clothes. However, it is different nowadays.Now, both or either men and or women go to work to receive an income to help provide for their families. When I was younger, my mom stayed home and worked at home and earned little income, while my dad worked at a factory and earned most of the income. But as our family grew, and the children got older, there were certain necessities needed such as bigger clothes, shoes, more food, and a bigger home. Therefore, my mom had to find a different job with a higher pay. Both of my parents did work and still work to provide most of the income for our family.
When I got older and turned the legal age to work full time, I helped provide my parents the income in the family to help pay for small bills such as electricity, phone, and gas. I also helped pay for my two years of tuition at a small community college with my parents’ help. Not only did they provide for me through my college years, but also for my other younger siblings. My younger siblings are now twenty, eighteen, and seventeen. I believe my parents have successfully played a role in the family function, economic cooperation. My and my siblings’ ages are very close to each other, which produces a lot of issues.At a certain point in time, all of us were teens, where our needs need to be met.
An example of what I am talking about would be providing cars, car insurance, and overall health insurance. The third family function is care, protection, and intimacy. Everyone in a family needs emotional support, and care provided since infancy to adulthood. For many people, families are where we turn to when we are in trouble, to find comfort and emotional support throughout our lives (Swartz & Scott, 2009). In my family, emotional support is rarely provided.My parents provide emotional support for each other and the kids bond to provide emotional support for each other. Some of us seek emotional support from our close girlfriends and guy friends.
My parents show a different kind of care when it comes to emotions. Not much emotion is shown from my father, but more from my mother. My dad would never over react to certain situations, while my mom would. High school was a great challenge for me. It was the place where I learned the most, academically and socially wise. I needed the most emotional support and felt the need to feel the emotional support and care.It was hard to maintain and stabilize my emotions in high school and was constantly down.
I could not seek emotional support from many people in my life since they had their own problems. I always felt high school counselors were not a big help. They always told me, “it’s okay,” and ended up telling my parents. However, I was never depressed. Most of my care and emotional support came from the peers on my high school tennis team and the sport itself. Exercising and playing the sport helped me relieve all the pressure I had built inside.I do not sbelieve my parents have played a very big role in this area of the family function.
However, they were there whenever I was in trouble with the school, with other parents, or the law. Because they were so busy working and trying to provide for the family, less time was spent with the kids. My younger siblings were able to come to me for emotional support and I helped them provide the care they need to feel. My parents were not very expressive in this family function due a completed socialization process and a great amount of time put into the economic cooperation.Family is a group of people who will always be there in your life, at least mine. The word family is different to very many groups of people. Some people do not consider their real parents to be a part of their family and some do.
It all depends on how their life was lived, and most importantly, the relationships that were developed between the people they were living with. The family of functions are sub-categories of what a family is and I believe they are what fully describe what a family should be. | <urn:uuid:2d37728f-6623-4019-9455-8971a8ba0c5d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://phdessay.com/family-function/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.987364 | 1,849 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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-0.169594168663024... | 1 | The definition of family is defined in various ways to many different people.Many people may say their family includes the family of orientation, extended family, and family of procreation.It all depends on how the child is raised.
Three important factors, out of six, that I consider to be the main functions of family are socialization, economic cooperation, and care, protection, and intimacy.
Some families may very well address these functions, while others may not. And because of that, family may be quite hard to define because it goes above and beyond the surface.According to Swartz and Scott (2009), family is defined as a group of people related to each other by blood, marriage, adoption or being sexually open in a relationship. The definition also extends to couples who are committed to each other and are capable of providing internal and external factors ranging from emotional to economic support. Because of my culture, how I was raised, and where I grew up, I define family in a complicated matter. The definition of family, according to me, is the family of orientation.It does not include my aunts, uncles, or cousins, even though we are somewhat related by blood.
However, I do consider them as a part of my extended family. The family of orientation includes my parents and three younger siblings. I consider this to be family because this is where I was born into, rose, and grew up with. Of course, the definition of family will change over time for me because I am not yet married. To my belief, I will have a change in families after I get married to my husband with kids, which is also known as the family of procreation.This is when my new journey and definition of family begins. I do not believe a family is complete without children or pets, or anything or anyone that my husband and I, as a couple, could look forward to and love to keep the relationship lasting.
To be considered as my family, the person does not have to be blood related. What matters is the fair amount of love and care that is provided. The emotional support is what I lean more towards when it comes to family. I believe there is a way to everything when it comes to economic factors, such as dealing with our finance, having shelter, clothing, and food.Emotional support is needed when hard times come, and if the person or people are willing to go through with the bad, they are definitely considered family. Nobody would want to live through the hardship, so that is why I value love and care most in a family. No matter what I go through, I know that person or people will still be there.
There are three families of functions that I can relate to. They are socialization, economic cooperation, and care, protection, and intimacy.Socialization is defined as a lifetime process “of social interaction through which people learn those elements of culture that are essential for effective participate in social life” (Swartz & Scott, 2009, p. 6). Socializing is a way of learning what society expects such as norms and values and develops the behavior of how one thinks, feels, and acts (Swartz & Scott, 2009). Children socialize to be able to better communicate through their own language, culture, and the mass media such as the television and radio.Ever since I was young, from infancy to child age, my parents communicated with me in our language, Vietnamese.
We practiced our traditions and cultures through foods and celebrating holidays. I have learned what the Vietnamese community expects when it comes to holidays, elders, and food. Once I was enrolled into pre-school, I started to learn English, which counts as another form of socializing. Communicating was hard for me because I did not speak a word of it. However, my parents started to teach me what they could in the language.They taught me basics such as singing the alphabet, counting, and naming certain animals. Simple terms like stating my name, learning my address, and asking to use the restroom were a start to a new way of socializing and a start of a new culture.
Enrolling into school helped me shape the way to act, think, and feel. I was on my best behavior. And there was no such thing as always being happy like I was when I am at home with my parents. I learned what it was like to be picked on, be mad, angry, happy, and develop friendships.I think my family addressed this function well, because I have matured to be able to communicate and socialize with all those around me, which includes how to act and feel. Economic cooperation involves a family’s responsibility to provide for everyone’s physical and economic well being (Swartz & Scott, 2009). In history, families work in the field, as agriculturists and farmers to provide food.
They also sold products that were farmed to provide money, shelter, and clothes. However, it is different nowadays.Now, both or either men and or women go to work to receive an income to help provide for their families. When I was younger, my mom stayed home and worked at home and earned little income, while my dad worked at a factory and earned most of the income. But as our family grew, and the children got older, there were certain necessities needed such as bigger clothes, shoes, more food, and a bigger home. Therefore, my mom had to find a different job with a higher pay. Both of my parents did work and still work to provide most of the income for our family.
When I got older and turned the legal age to work full time, I helped provide my parents the income in the family to help pay for small bills such as electricity, phone, and gas. I also helped pay for my two years of tuition at a small community college with my parents’ help. Not only did they provide for me through my college years, but also for my other younger siblings. My younger siblings are now twenty, eighteen, and seventeen. I believe my parents have successfully played a role in the family function, economic cooperation. My and my siblings’ ages are very close to each other, which produces a lot of issues.At a certain point in time, all of us were teens, where our needs need to be met.
An example of what I am talking about would be providing cars, car insurance, and overall health insurance. The third family function is care, protection, and intimacy. Everyone in a family needs emotional support, and care provided since infancy to adulthood. For many people, families are where we turn to when we are in trouble, to find comfort and emotional support throughout our lives (Swartz & Scott, 2009). In my family, emotional support is rarely provided.My parents provide emotional support for each other and the kids bond to provide emotional support for each other. Some of us seek emotional support from our close girlfriends and guy friends.
My parents show a different kind of care when it comes to emotions. Not much emotion is shown from my father, but more from my mother. My dad would never over react to certain situations, while my mom would. High school was a great challenge for me. It was the place where I learned the most, academically and socially wise. I needed the most emotional support and felt the need to feel the emotional support and care.It was hard to maintain and stabilize my emotions in high school and was constantly down.
I could not seek emotional support from many people in my life since they had their own problems. I always felt high school counselors were not a big help. They always told me, “it’s okay,” and ended up telling my parents. However, I was never depressed. Most of my care and emotional support came from the peers on my high school tennis team and the sport itself. Exercising and playing the sport helped me relieve all the pressure I had built inside.I do not sbelieve my parents have played a very big role in this area of the family function.
However, they were there whenever I was in trouble with the school, with other parents, or the law. Because they were so busy working and trying to provide for the family, less time was spent with the kids. My younger siblings were able to come to me for emotional support and I helped them provide the care they need to feel. My parents were not very expressive in this family function due a completed socialization process and a great amount of time put into the economic cooperation.Family is a group of people who will always be there in your life, at least mine. The word family is different to very many groups of people. Some people do not consider their real parents to be a part of their family and some do.
It all depends on how their life was lived, and most importantly, the relationships that were developed between the people they were living with. The family of functions are sub-categories of what a family is and I believe they are what fully describe what a family should be. | 1,829 | ENGLISH | 1 |
People - Ancient Greece: Demaratus He was a king of Sparta who ruled from 515 until 491
Demarātus in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities
The son and successor of Ariston on the throne of Sparta, B.C. 516. He was deposed, through the intrigues of Cleomenes, his colleague, on the ground of his being illegitimate. After his deposition he was chosen and held the office of magistrate; but being insultingly derided on one occasion by Leotychides, who had been appointed king in his stead, he crossed over into Asia to Darius, who received him honourably and presented him with lands and cities (Herod.vi. 65Herod., 70). He enabled Xerxes subsequently to obtain the nomination to the empire, in preference to his elder brother Artabazarnes, by suggesting to him an argument, the justice of which was acknowledged by Darius (Herod.vii. 3). We find him after this, though an exile from his country, yet sending the first intelligence to Sparta of the designs of Xerxes against Greece. He accompanied that monarch on his expedition, frankly praised the discipline of the Greeks, and especially that of the Spartans; and before the battle of Thermopylae explained to him some of the warlike customs of the last-mentioned people. We learn also that he advised Xerxes to seize, with his fleet, the island of Cythera, off the coast of Laconia, from which he might continually ravage the shores of that country. The monarch did not adopt his suggestion, but still always regarded the exile Spartan as a friend, and treated him accordingly.
Demaratus in Wikipedia
Demaratus (Greek: Δημάρατος) was a king of Sparta from 515 until 491 BC, of the Eurypontid line, successor to his father Ariston. As king, he is known chiefly for his opposition to the other, co-ruling Spartan king, Cleomenes I.
When Cleomenes attempted to make Isagoras tyrant in Athens, Demaratus tried unsuccessfully to frustrate his plans. In 501 BC, Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission (earth and water) to Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I crossed over to the island to arrest those responsible. His first attempt was unsuccessful, due to interference from Demaratus, who did his utmost to bring Cleomenes into disfavour at home.
In retaliation, Cleomenes urged Leotychidas, a relative and personal enemy of Demaratus, to claim the throne on the ground that the latter was not really the son of Ariston, but of Agetus, his mother's first husband. Cleomenes bribed the Delphic oracle, to pronounce in favor of Leotychidas, who became king in 491 BC.
After the deposition of Demaratus, Cleomenes visited the island of Aegina for a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages.
On his abdication, Demaratus was forced to flee. He went to the court of the Persian king Darius I, who gave him the cities of Pergamum, Teuthrania and Halisarna, where his descendants still ruled at the beginning of the 4th century.
He accompanied Xerxes I on his invasion of Greece in 480 BC and is alleged to have warned Xerxes not to underestimate the Spartans before the Battle of Thermopylae:
" The same goes for the Spartans. One-against-one, they are as good as anyone in the world. But when they fight in a body, they are the best of all. For though they are free men, they are not entirely free. They accept Law as their master. And they respect this master more than your subjects respect you. Whatever he commands, they do. And his command never changes: It forbids them to flee in battle, whatever the number of their foes. He requires them to stand firm -- to conquer or die. O king, if I seem to speak foolishly, I am content from this time forward to remain silent. I only spoke now because you commanded me to. I do hope that everything turns out according to your wishes. "
In The 300 Spartans, Demaratus appears as a guest of Xerxes I of Persia, whose warnings about the Spartans Xerxes ignores. Demaratus was played by Ivan Triesault. | <urn:uuid:7fa4b409-ea01-46bc-a209-ffc5490b4ab1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bible-history.com/links.php?cat=48&sub=3940&cat_name=People+-+Ancient+Greece&subcat_name=Demaratus | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00096.warc.gz | en | 0.981688 | 967 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.3636379539966583... | 1 | People - Ancient Greece: Demaratus He was a king of Sparta who ruled from 515 until 491
Demarātus in Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities
The son and successor of Ariston on the throne of Sparta, B.C. 516. He was deposed, through the intrigues of Cleomenes, his colleague, on the ground of his being illegitimate. After his deposition he was chosen and held the office of magistrate; but being insultingly derided on one occasion by Leotychides, who had been appointed king in his stead, he crossed over into Asia to Darius, who received him honourably and presented him with lands and cities (Herod.vi. 65Herod., 70). He enabled Xerxes subsequently to obtain the nomination to the empire, in preference to his elder brother Artabazarnes, by suggesting to him an argument, the justice of which was acknowledged by Darius (Herod.vii. 3). We find him after this, though an exile from his country, yet sending the first intelligence to Sparta of the designs of Xerxes against Greece. He accompanied that monarch on his expedition, frankly praised the discipline of the Greeks, and especially that of the Spartans; and before the battle of Thermopylae explained to him some of the warlike customs of the last-mentioned people. We learn also that he advised Xerxes to seize, with his fleet, the island of Cythera, off the coast of Laconia, from which he might continually ravage the shores of that country. The monarch did not adopt his suggestion, but still always regarded the exile Spartan as a friend, and treated him accordingly.
Demaratus in Wikipedia
Demaratus (Greek: Δημάρατος) was a king of Sparta from 515 until 491 BC, of the Eurypontid line, successor to his father Ariston. As king, he is known chiefly for his opposition to the other, co-ruling Spartan king, Cleomenes I.
When Cleomenes attempted to make Isagoras tyrant in Athens, Demaratus tried unsuccessfully to frustrate his plans. In 501 BC, Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission (earth and water) to Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I crossed over to the island to arrest those responsible. His first attempt was unsuccessful, due to interference from Demaratus, who did his utmost to bring Cleomenes into disfavour at home.
In retaliation, Cleomenes urged Leotychidas, a relative and personal enemy of Demaratus, to claim the throne on the ground that the latter was not really the son of Ariston, but of Agetus, his mother's first husband. Cleomenes bribed the Delphic oracle, to pronounce in favor of Leotychidas, who became king in 491 BC.
After the deposition of Demaratus, Cleomenes visited the island of Aegina for a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages.
On his abdication, Demaratus was forced to flee. He went to the court of the Persian king Darius I, who gave him the cities of Pergamum, Teuthrania and Halisarna, where his descendants still ruled at the beginning of the 4th century.
He accompanied Xerxes I on his invasion of Greece in 480 BC and is alleged to have warned Xerxes not to underestimate the Spartans before the Battle of Thermopylae:
" The same goes for the Spartans. One-against-one, they are as good as anyone in the world. But when they fight in a body, they are the best of all. For though they are free men, they are not entirely free. They accept Law as their master. And they respect this master more than your subjects respect you. Whatever he commands, they do. And his command never changes: It forbids them to flee in battle, whatever the number of their foes. He requires them to stand firm -- to conquer or die. O king, if I seem to speak foolishly, I am content from this time forward to remain silent. I only spoke now because you commanded me to. I do hope that everything turns out according to your wishes. "
In The 300 Spartans, Demaratus appears as a guest of Xerxes I of Persia, whose warnings about the Spartans Xerxes ignores. Demaratus was played by Ivan Triesault. | 998 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Give us day by day our daily bread.
It is well known that many of the good men who were driven from England to America by persecution, in the seventeenth century, had to endure great privations. A numerous party, who came out about 1620, were for a time supplied with food from England, and from the natives of the western wilderness. Bat as these resources were uncertain, they began to cultivate the ground. In the spring of 1623 they planted more corn than ever before, but by the time they had done planting their food was spent. They daily prayed, "Give us this day our daily bread"; and, in some way or other, the prayer was always answered. With a single boat and fishing-net they caught bass, and when these failed they dug for clams. In the month of June their hopes of a harvest were nearly blasted by a drought, which withered up the corn, and made the grass look like hay. All expected to perish with hunger. In their distress the pilgrims set apart a day for humiliation and prayer, and continued their worship for eight or nine hours. God heard their prayers, and answered them in a way which excited universal admiration. Although the morning of that day was clear, and the weather very hot and dry during the whole forenoon, yet before night it began to rain, and gentle showers continued to fall for many days, so that the ground became thoroughly soaked, and the drooping corn revived.
Parallel VersesKJV: Give us day by day our daily bread. | <urn:uuid:9ef5bd92-a111-4784-8ac7-3cb827a2dc23> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biblehub.com/sermons/pub/the_pilgrim_fathers_and_the_drought.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00171.warc.gz | en | 0.990735 | 314 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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It is well known that many of the good men who were driven from England to America by persecution, in the seventeenth century, had to endure great privations. A numerous party, who came out about 1620, were for a time supplied with food from England, and from the natives of the western wilderness. Bat as these resources were uncertain, they began to cultivate the ground. In the spring of 1623 they planted more corn than ever before, but by the time they had done planting their food was spent. They daily prayed, "Give us this day our daily bread"; and, in some way or other, the prayer was always answered. With a single boat and fishing-net they caught bass, and when these failed they dug for clams. In the month of June their hopes of a harvest were nearly blasted by a drought, which withered up the corn, and made the grass look like hay. All expected to perish with hunger. In their distress the pilgrims set apart a day for humiliation and prayer, and continued their worship for eight or nine hours. God heard their prayers, and answered them in a way which excited universal admiration. Although the morning of that day was clear, and the weather very hot and dry during the whole forenoon, yet before night it began to rain, and gentle showers continued to fall for many days, so that the ground became thoroughly soaked, and the drooping corn revived.
Parallel VersesKJV: Give us day by day our daily bread. | 317 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Union General McDowell was wary about this sort of action, as his men were inexperienced and green, just like the Confederate forces. Intense political pressure eventually pushed McDowell to march into action, against his better judgement. He set out with a large force of 35,000 men, hoping to send two columnns to attack the Confederate line of Bull Run to occupy their attention. His plan was to then send the third columnn to the rear of the Confederate line, cutting off their supply line to Richmond. McDowell's plan was designed to force a Confederate retreat and relieve some pressure on the Capital.
This plan, however, was poorly executed by McDowell's subordinate officers; they took too long positioning themselves. The surprise flank attack was nonetheless effective, putting the Confederate forces into dire straits. The time it took the Union troops to position themselves became troublesome, as it allowed Confederate reinforcements to arrive by rail. These reinforcements were fresh. They did not have to march a great distance to the battlefield and had not been involved in the pitched combat.
The arrival of Confederate General Johnston from the Shenandoah Valley quickly turned the tide of the battle. It was at this point Stonewall Jackson and his famous brigade held the line (it was here he earned his nickname). Morever, during Stonewall's attack on Henry House Hill, the charging Confederates led out terrifying high pitched battle cries, which later became known as the rebel yell.
The Confederate counterattack was strong and forced a Union retreat. Due to the inexperience of the soldiers, however, this retreat quickly turned into a disastrous and disorganized rout. The resulting bloody Confederate victory was a clear sign to many that the war would not end quickly, as was popular notion. | <urn:uuid:d2cb5471-6cff-4ee6-8d43-06ed453bd166> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/25538 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00135.warc.gz | en | 0.990544 | 352 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.038600906729... | 2 | Union General McDowell was wary about this sort of action, as his men were inexperienced and green, just like the Confederate forces. Intense political pressure eventually pushed McDowell to march into action, against his better judgement. He set out with a large force of 35,000 men, hoping to send two columnns to attack the Confederate line of Bull Run to occupy their attention. His plan was to then send the third columnn to the rear of the Confederate line, cutting off their supply line to Richmond. McDowell's plan was designed to force a Confederate retreat and relieve some pressure on the Capital.
This plan, however, was poorly executed by McDowell's subordinate officers; they took too long positioning themselves. The surprise flank attack was nonetheless effective, putting the Confederate forces into dire straits. The time it took the Union troops to position themselves became troublesome, as it allowed Confederate reinforcements to arrive by rail. These reinforcements were fresh. They did not have to march a great distance to the battlefield and had not been involved in the pitched combat.
The arrival of Confederate General Johnston from the Shenandoah Valley quickly turned the tide of the battle. It was at this point Stonewall Jackson and his famous brigade held the line (it was here he earned his nickname). Morever, during Stonewall's attack on Henry House Hill, the charging Confederates led out terrifying high pitched battle cries, which later became known as the rebel yell.
The Confederate counterattack was strong and forced a Union retreat. Due to the inexperience of the soldiers, however, this retreat quickly turned into a disastrous and disorganized rout. The resulting bloody Confederate victory was a clear sign to many that the war would not end quickly, as was popular notion. | 353 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Few centuries ago Afghanistan became part of Mughal empire during reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar, he had sent his able General to conquer NWFP, its adjacent tribal areas and Afghanistan, tribesmen were defeated by his army and his rule was established till Afghanistan. Emperor Akbar was quite secular, he had introduced a new religion Deen I Ilahi and was married to Hindu wives, and his Hindu wife Maharani Jodha Bai was having great influence on him.
Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir of Mughal dynasty was quite religious and during his era his misadventure in Afghanistan was resulted in economic disaster for Mughal Empire. Secular Akbar was quite successful in establishing his rule all over subcontinent but Islamic minded emperor Aurangzeb had failed to keep the empire intact. Decline of Mughal Empire was started during reign of emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir when all his military adventures in Afghanistan were failed and exchequer of empire was spent on these failed military adventures.
The myth of invincibility of tribal areas along the border of Afghanistan was created during British Raj in Subcontinent known as India during Mughal and British Raj, British Raj was established after 1857 uprising against rule of East India Company in result of which Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was dethroned and sent to exile in Rangoon capital of Burma.
British Indian Army had fought numerous battles in tribal areas to establish their control but was defeated both in tribal areas and in Afghanistan. In 1947 British rulers had left sub continent after creating two independent states of India and Pakistan. During British Raj people of subcontinent were exposed to plunder and atrocities of their colonial masters as many historians had pointed out, but the fact remains that era of enlightenment was commenced with arrival of British colonial rule over subcontinent, communications systems developed by British rulers, in shape of roads, rail road bridges and water and sanitation system in cities are still in good shape. Scientific education is also a favor of British rulers of subcontinent; universities and colleges were established during British rule as parallel educational system to already established religious seminaries.
‘British Army Officers when had failed to conquer Orakzai Agency tribal area, had sent their British colleagues in disguise of Mullahs, these British Officers were taught Pushto language by Mr. Zareef Khan of Kohat, in disguise of Muslim religious scholars British army officers had entered in Teerah valley had established themselves their by getting married to Pushtoon girls, after 1947 they all went back but had left their wives and children in Teerah valley,’ a source has said.
The myth of invincibility of Afghanistan and tribal areas of Pakistan was further established during recent military misadventure of Soviets in Afghanistan. From 1947 onwards tribal areas of Pakistan located at Pak-Afghan border from Waziristan till Bajure are maintaining their semi-independent status government writ was never established in these tribal areas, the tribal areas are administered through political administration under FCR.
People of Pakistan tribal areas including Afghanistan is as vulnerable as any other part of the world can be it was proved centuries ago by a General of Mughal Empire during reign of Emperor Akbar, even Pakistan Security forces, had currently established its hold in Khyber Agency, Dara Adam Khel and Waziristan tribal areas, in Waziristan causalities of Pakistan security forces were quite high, in Dara Adam Khel also good number of security forces men were killed but in Khyber agency so far only four security forces men are killed. Taliban militants present in these areas offer resistance but local population welcome the security forces men. In present age of advance technology to wipe out few militants and to establish government writ in these tribal areas is not a mission impossible. | <urn:uuid:8af03f8a-588d-43e8-8ac1-b4e6a409b030> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.groundreport.com/myth-of-invincibility/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.989764 | 781 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.3274140655994... | 2 | Few centuries ago Afghanistan became part of Mughal empire during reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar, he had sent his able General to conquer NWFP, its adjacent tribal areas and Afghanistan, tribesmen were defeated by his army and his rule was established till Afghanistan. Emperor Akbar was quite secular, he had introduced a new religion Deen I Ilahi and was married to Hindu wives, and his Hindu wife Maharani Jodha Bai was having great influence on him.
Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir of Mughal dynasty was quite religious and during his era his misadventure in Afghanistan was resulted in economic disaster for Mughal Empire. Secular Akbar was quite successful in establishing his rule all over subcontinent but Islamic minded emperor Aurangzeb had failed to keep the empire intact. Decline of Mughal Empire was started during reign of emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir when all his military adventures in Afghanistan were failed and exchequer of empire was spent on these failed military adventures.
The myth of invincibility of tribal areas along the border of Afghanistan was created during British Raj in Subcontinent known as India during Mughal and British Raj, British Raj was established after 1857 uprising against rule of East India Company in result of which Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was dethroned and sent to exile in Rangoon capital of Burma.
British Indian Army had fought numerous battles in tribal areas to establish their control but was defeated both in tribal areas and in Afghanistan. In 1947 British rulers had left sub continent after creating two independent states of India and Pakistan. During British Raj people of subcontinent were exposed to plunder and atrocities of their colonial masters as many historians had pointed out, but the fact remains that era of enlightenment was commenced with arrival of British colonial rule over subcontinent, communications systems developed by British rulers, in shape of roads, rail road bridges and water and sanitation system in cities are still in good shape. Scientific education is also a favor of British rulers of subcontinent; universities and colleges were established during British rule as parallel educational system to already established religious seminaries.
‘British Army Officers when had failed to conquer Orakzai Agency tribal area, had sent their British colleagues in disguise of Mullahs, these British Officers were taught Pushto language by Mr. Zareef Khan of Kohat, in disguise of Muslim religious scholars British army officers had entered in Teerah valley had established themselves their by getting married to Pushtoon girls, after 1947 they all went back but had left their wives and children in Teerah valley,’ a source has said.
The myth of invincibility of Afghanistan and tribal areas of Pakistan was further established during recent military misadventure of Soviets in Afghanistan. From 1947 onwards tribal areas of Pakistan located at Pak-Afghan border from Waziristan till Bajure are maintaining their semi-independent status government writ was never established in these tribal areas, the tribal areas are administered through political administration under FCR.
People of Pakistan tribal areas including Afghanistan is as vulnerable as any other part of the world can be it was proved centuries ago by a General of Mughal Empire during reign of Emperor Akbar, even Pakistan Security forces, had currently established its hold in Khyber Agency, Dara Adam Khel and Waziristan tribal areas, in Waziristan causalities of Pakistan security forces were quite high, in Dara Adam Khel also good number of security forces men were killed but in Khyber agency so far only four security forces men are killed. Taliban militants present in these areas offer resistance but local population welcome the security forces men. In present age of advance technology to wipe out few militants and to establish government writ in these tribal areas is not a mission impossible. | 787 | ENGLISH | 1 |
José Clemente Orozco (1883-1949) was a Social Realist painter who helped revive the Mexican Muralism movement in the 1920s. His work often depicted human suffering, and his murals are known for being complex, tragic and political.
We had a look at some of his life’s work from his well-known murals to his lesser-known oil paintings and lithographs.
After the overthrow of President Díaz in 1911 and subsequent outbreak of the Mexican Revolution, the new government employed artists in an attempt to redefine Mexican identity and celebrate their revolutionary spirit. Orozco became well-known with muralists Diego Riviera and David Alfaro Siqueiros as “Los Tres Grandes” (The Great Three) for creating beautiful and political art.
In the mural above, Orozco depicts the Battle of Puebla where outnumbered Mexican troops defeated the French on 5th May 1962, a date now celebrated with the Cinco de Mayo holiday.
Although still a dedicated revolutionary, Orozco differed from his peers in that he often depicted the darker side of the revolution. In Katharsis (1934), he depicts the violence, prostitution, and death brought about by war and technology.
After the Revolution, Orozco travelled to America to continue his political work. Between 1932 and 1934, he painted the Epic of American Civilisation, which consists of 26 panels depicting early Native American migration and subsequent European colonialism. He received international attention from it, and the mural remains one of his best-known works today. In the panel above he depicts Hernán Cortés, the Spanish Conquistador who led the 1518 expedition that led to the fall of the Aztec Empire. This event widely considered the first phase of Spanish colonisation of the Americas, and is portrayed here as a brutal subjugation of the indigenous population.
During the Revolution, not everyone had access to murals on government buildings in the city, so “Los Tres Grandes” also made lithograph prints which could be produced in mass and posted both around cities and in the countryside.
However, not all of Orozco’s prints were intended for Mexican revolutionaries, as he was interested in selling his art to an American audience. For this reason, he often decided against depicting violence and horror of the revolution, instead focusing on the resulting loss and sadness. Requiem (1928) depicts mourners at a candle-lit mass, with the ambiguous identities of the figures creating a sense of universality and timelessness.
Orozco saw architecture as a powerful image of human narratives and history. While his murals use the walls of buildings to acknowledge this, many of his prints depict buildings to utilise this imagery.
Many of Orozco’s early oil paintings were also intended for an American audience, as he sought to challenge U.S. stereotypes of Mexican art.
Despite his appreciation for modern New York architecture, many of his paintings instead focused on the human side of the sprawling urban city. In The Unemployment (c.1928-1930), completed after the Wall Street Crash, he depicts three ambiguous figures against a dark grey wall, a commentary on unemployment as a result of capitalism.
From 1940-1944, although he was still a highly sought-after muralist, Orozco turned more to oil painting in order to revisit themes from his murals. Like in much of his life’s work, he used Christian figures and myths to reflect on contemporary politics, as he was interested in the dynamic and repeating nature of history. | <urn:uuid:dbdf4d18-a9a0-4503-a14d-d00b664931d9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blog.bridgemanimages.com/the-works-of-jose-clemente-orozco/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00040.warc.gz | en | 0.980123 | 745 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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-0.1075105890... | 3 | José Clemente Orozco (1883-1949) was a Social Realist painter who helped revive the Mexican Muralism movement in the 1920s. His work often depicted human suffering, and his murals are known for being complex, tragic and political.
We had a look at some of his life’s work from his well-known murals to his lesser-known oil paintings and lithographs.
After the overthrow of President Díaz in 1911 and subsequent outbreak of the Mexican Revolution, the new government employed artists in an attempt to redefine Mexican identity and celebrate their revolutionary spirit. Orozco became well-known with muralists Diego Riviera and David Alfaro Siqueiros as “Los Tres Grandes” (The Great Three) for creating beautiful and political art.
In the mural above, Orozco depicts the Battle of Puebla where outnumbered Mexican troops defeated the French on 5th May 1962, a date now celebrated with the Cinco de Mayo holiday.
Although still a dedicated revolutionary, Orozco differed from his peers in that he often depicted the darker side of the revolution. In Katharsis (1934), he depicts the violence, prostitution, and death brought about by war and technology.
After the Revolution, Orozco travelled to America to continue his political work. Between 1932 and 1934, he painted the Epic of American Civilisation, which consists of 26 panels depicting early Native American migration and subsequent European colonialism. He received international attention from it, and the mural remains one of his best-known works today. In the panel above he depicts Hernán Cortés, the Spanish Conquistador who led the 1518 expedition that led to the fall of the Aztec Empire. This event widely considered the first phase of Spanish colonisation of the Americas, and is portrayed here as a brutal subjugation of the indigenous population.
During the Revolution, not everyone had access to murals on government buildings in the city, so “Los Tres Grandes” also made lithograph prints which could be produced in mass and posted both around cities and in the countryside.
However, not all of Orozco’s prints were intended for Mexican revolutionaries, as he was interested in selling his art to an American audience. For this reason, he often decided against depicting violence and horror of the revolution, instead focusing on the resulting loss and sadness. Requiem (1928) depicts mourners at a candle-lit mass, with the ambiguous identities of the figures creating a sense of universality and timelessness.
Orozco saw architecture as a powerful image of human narratives and history. While his murals use the walls of buildings to acknowledge this, many of his prints depict buildings to utilise this imagery.
Many of Orozco’s early oil paintings were also intended for an American audience, as he sought to challenge U.S. stereotypes of Mexican art.
Despite his appreciation for modern New York architecture, many of his paintings instead focused on the human side of the sprawling urban city. In The Unemployment (c.1928-1930), completed after the Wall Street Crash, he depicts three ambiguous figures against a dark grey wall, a commentary on unemployment as a result of capitalism.
From 1940-1944, although he was still a highly sought-after muralist, Orozco turned more to oil painting in order to revisit themes from his murals. Like in much of his life’s work, he used Christian figures and myths to reflect on contemporary politics, as he was interested in the dynamic and repeating nature of history. | 759 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When World War 1 broke out in 1914, the United States attempted to remain neutral and was a strong advocate the neutral rights of nations. The U.S. liked to believe that the war was strictly a European conflict, but they would soon understand that they were inadvertently part of the war effort and entering war was inevitable. The U.S. was never truly neutral in the first place, but in fact supporting Europe the whole time. The reasons for breaking neutrality were more political and economical. It was the United State's best interest to abandon its neutrality, and choose to go to war on the side of the allies for the future protection of American assets and welfare.
The U.S. supplied the Allies financially and was afraid that if the Allies lost the war, their debts would not be paid. America has to make sure that it was still able to collect loans from Britain and be able to help out the French government by also giving them loans. Also the abrupt increase of the amount of exports for the Allies and hasty decrease to Germany was a clear sign of favoritism. For a neutral nation to have so much economic influence over belligerent nations was a clearly biased in favor of Britain and France (document 1 & 2). The U.S. was clearly profiting the most from the war though they were neutral. These acts of discrimination exposed the faults of capitalism and farther fueled the communist cause against capitalism as pointed out in Document 3. .
Then there was the Zimmermann Note, which revealed the German plot to ally with Mexico in the event that the United States the entered the war. Though the note was simply a contingency plan if U.S. were to enter the war, nevertheless it would pose a direct threat to the United States. The note was intercepted by British intelligence and created a public uproar that demanded that U.S. direct involvement into the war. The public played a great role in U.S. entry in to WW1. Also, British propaganda brain-washed the public through exaggerated stories of Germany atrocities trying to rile up the nation. | <urn:uuid:1218fd2d-8715-4a0e-bb99-69a9ccb6d69a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/38576.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00277.warc.gz | en | 0.98264 | 417 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.460644751787185... | 3 | When World War 1 broke out in 1914, the United States attempted to remain neutral and was a strong advocate the neutral rights of nations. The U.S. liked to believe that the war was strictly a European conflict, but they would soon understand that they were inadvertently part of the war effort and entering war was inevitable. The U.S. was never truly neutral in the first place, but in fact supporting Europe the whole time. The reasons for breaking neutrality were more political and economical. It was the United State's best interest to abandon its neutrality, and choose to go to war on the side of the allies for the future protection of American assets and welfare.
The U.S. supplied the Allies financially and was afraid that if the Allies lost the war, their debts would not be paid. America has to make sure that it was still able to collect loans from Britain and be able to help out the French government by also giving them loans. Also the abrupt increase of the amount of exports for the Allies and hasty decrease to Germany was a clear sign of favoritism. For a neutral nation to have so much economic influence over belligerent nations was a clearly biased in favor of Britain and France (document 1 & 2). The U.S. was clearly profiting the most from the war though they were neutral. These acts of discrimination exposed the faults of capitalism and farther fueled the communist cause against capitalism as pointed out in Document 3. .
Then there was the Zimmermann Note, which revealed the German plot to ally with Mexico in the event that the United States the entered the war. Though the note was simply a contingency plan if U.S. were to enter the war, nevertheless it would pose a direct threat to the United States. The note was intercepted by British intelligence and created a public uproar that demanded that U.S. direct involvement into the war. The public played a great role in U.S. entry in to WW1. Also, British propaganda brain-washed the public through exaggerated stories of Germany atrocities trying to rile up the nation. | 420 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In England and much of Europe, many landowners were practiced trappers and hunters. Those who did not own land lived on vegetables, grain, eggs and milk. The wealthy considered meat to be the core of a wholesome diet. What both classes had in common, however, was their love of beer. It was the family beverage of choice as water was considered unhealthy, and rightly so at the time, especially in urban areas.
Both had something else in common: they were not well versed in the art of cultivating large parcels of land for sustenance. This is a skill the well-to-do and common folks had to learn once the set foot in their New England. So here you have two groups of people from the same culture, and yet with very different dietary experiences, now learning to feed themselves on equal terms, or shall we say common grounds.
Water was possibly one of the first cultural shifts they had to contend with. While some of the early settlers knew how to produce beer, they could not accomplish this on a wide scale at first. In England, even children drank beer at mealtime. In America, they had to fill their cups with water. It is said that letters from settlers to family in Europe report noticeable health benefits in children who were now consuming more water.
It could take up to a full year for supplies from Europe, such as spices, sugar, butter and farm animals, to be delivered to the colonies. A letter listing required supplies would first have to be shipped across one way, delivered to the proper authorities, supplies rounded up and passage back secured.
Colonists relied on preservation methods to extend the life of some of their food supplies. Salting and drying were commonly used. With no landlords, the land was open to all for hunting and trapping at will. They also took advantage of the fruits of sea, lakes and rivers, though many had to learn to fish. But with no established markets as supply hubs, careful portioning and preservation were at the forefront of meal planning. Colonists were not so much concerned with the proverbial, “What’s for dinner?” as with, “What will we eat this coming winter?”
What about growing their own food? They learned much from the Native People and over time produced a surprisingly wide variety of foods, including barley (at last allowing them to produce a small quantity of beer), beans, wheat, oats and corn. They also grew carrots, turnips, pumpkins, peas, onions and even spinach and parsley. Onions and spinach were boiled and served with sugar, vinegar, currants and butter. These accompanied the various meats available to the colonies such as venison, wild turkey and beaver.
And what of dessert? We owe our love of a good homemade American pie to the hard labor and homesteading skills of our forefathers. As Thanksgiving comes to mind, we imagine their own relationship to a well garnished table and a good dessert to conclude a meal in the most satisfactory fashion. Pumpkins were not turned into pies. Instead, they were diced, stewed, seasoned with cinnamon or ginger in a buttery sauce and served as a small tart. Most satisfying indeed. | <urn:uuid:21902969-629c-4a0b-b48b-3b0765fdf5aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://158main.com/2019/11/04/dinner-in-new-england-17th-century-style/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00326.warc.gz | en | 0.9872 | 656 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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-0.0981034114956... | 10 | In England and much of Europe, many landowners were practiced trappers and hunters. Those who did not own land lived on vegetables, grain, eggs and milk. The wealthy considered meat to be the core of a wholesome diet. What both classes had in common, however, was their love of beer. It was the family beverage of choice as water was considered unhealthy, and rightly so at the time, especially in urban areas.
Both had something else in common: they were not well versed in the art of cultivating large parcels of land for sustenance. This is a skill the well-to-do and common folks had to learn once the set foot in their New England. So here you have two groups of people from the same culture, and yet with very different dietary experiences, now learning to feed themselves on equal terms, or shall we say common grounds.
Water was possibly one of the first cultural shifts they had to contend with. While some of the early settlers knew how to produce beer, they could not accomplish this on a wide scale at first. In England, even children drank beer at mealtime. In America, they had to fill their cups with water. It is said that letters from settlers to family in Europe report noticeable health benefits in children who were now consuming more water.
It could take up to a full year for supplies from Europe, such as spices, sugar, butter and farm animals, to be delivered to the colonies. A letter listing required supplies would first have to be shipped across one way, delivered to the proper authorities, supplies rounded up and passage back secured.
Colonists relied on preservation methods to extend the life of some of their food supplies. Salting and drying were commonly used. With no landlords, the land was open to all for hunting and trapping at will. They also took advantage of the fruits of sea, lakes and rivers, though many had to learn to fish. But with no established markets as supply hubs, careful portioning and preservation were at the forefront of meal planning. Colonists were not so much concerned with the proverbial, “What’s for dinner?” as with, “What will we eat this coming winter?”
What about growing their own food? They learned much from the Native People and over time produced a surprisingly wide variety of foods, including barley (at last allowing them to produce a small quantity of beer), beans, wheat, oats and corn. They also grew carrots, turnips, pumpkins, peas, onions and even spinach and parsley. Onions and spinach were boiled and served with sugar, vinegar, currants and butter. These accompanied the various meats available to the colonies such as venison, wild turkey and beaver.
And what of dessert? We owe our love of a good homemade American pie to the hard labor and homesteading skills of our forefathers. As Thanksgiving comes to mind, we imagine their own relationship to a well garnished table and a good dessert to conclude a meal in the most satisfactory fashion. Pumpkins were not turned into pies. Instead, they were diced, stewed, seasoned with cinnamon or ginger in a buttery sauce and served as a small tart. Most satisfying indeed. | 640 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How Did Spy Services Develop in the United States?
Many Americans today would see that espionage work and spying by the United States is critical for their national security. The history of the services that have provided this, however, is more complex, and often mirrored the development and transformations that affected the US. Through its development as an independent state to one that expanded across the West, and its experiences in the Civil War and World Wars, history has shaped what spying means to the US.
What is different from many other powers that developed spying services is the relatively short history of the US. The experiences, therefore, are different in how they have influenced government's approach to spying. One of the first spy groups derived prior to the American Revolutionary War in 1765. The Sons of Liberty formed as a group that fought against the Stamp Act and would observe British troop movements in Boston and other places. This included well known revolutionaries such as Samuel Adams and John Hancock. During the Revolutionary War, George Washington was one of the first to write and recognize the need for espionage. Threats to the colonists/revolutionaries, and eventual early US military, were from Britain. War espionage depended on a network of spies throughout different areas, where Washington wanted to stay one step ahead of the pursuing British Army. This included using Native Americans who were adept at secretive observation that Washington had first hand experience with during the French and Indian War. Washington also used a cryptanalyst Samuel West to read secretive letters. Double agents were also used by the British to counter Washington, such as Dr. Benjamin Church who fed important information about the revolutionaries.
Benjamin Franklin was placed in charge of the Committee of Secret Correspondence, which worked to change sentiment about the Revolution in European states so that the revolutionaries would gain increasing support. His most successful efforts were with the French, who ultimately helped aid the revolutionaries in fighting the British. This proved crucial in helping turning the tide, where French troops and aid greatly helped the revolutionaries to successfully fight.
After the war, American spying took a downturn as the country was preoccupied with building the young country. In fact, the US was ill prepared for the war of 1812, where US soldiers were often unaware even where the frontier with Canada was even located. It was the Civil War where things changed once again. The North, in the Civil War, developed a network of spies who were able to cross between the borders with the South, such as William Alvin Lloyd. The North also developed two spying agencies, including one run by Allan Pinkerton and another run by Lafayette Baker. There was two due to infighting between generals who depended on the different spy heads. This often lead to information not being shared and sometimes counterproductive efforts that sometimes even led to the arrest of spies working for the other agency. There were some notable successes in troop movement observations, but often the information did not have a clear chain where the intelligence could be used for actionable purposes. The South had some notable successes, often creating an elaborate network in major northern cities. The most successful group was the so-called Canadian Cabinet, which ran a Southern spy network from Montreal. It is likely John Wilkes Booth, Lincoln's assassin, derived from this group. They also succeeded in several sabotage operations and creating fires in major cities.
Rise of Modern Spying
Modern American espionage begins in the late 19th century when Grover Cleveland called for assigning military attachés in foreign countries to gather more information about different countries. John Wilkie became head of the US Secret Service in the 1890s and became noted for breaking up a Spanish spy ring in Montreal during the Spanish-American War. Teh Secret Service was created as a result of the Civil War and for its first few decades mostly focused on combating counterfeiting of the US currency and other acts that could sabotage the US economy, such as smuggling. In 1908, the Bureau of Investigation, what eventually became as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), was formed. Initially, they focused on policing activities and against organized criminal activities such as prostitution. However, they also engaged in domestic surveillance. This was tested in World War I, where they were able to discover German agents and saboteurs. Nevertheless, in World War I, the US was still not effective in foreign espionage. Most intelligence from World War I depended on British spy services that were established.
After World War I, most activity focused on domestic surveillance, particularly against communists and others deemed as threats. In the 1920s, modern cryptography developed in the US. William Friedman, a Russian immigrant, was appointed as cryptanalyst for the Army Signal Intelligence Service, which was successful in breaking the Japanese code used in their diplomatic cables. This enabled the US to be aware that an attack like Pearl Harbor was going to occur, although they were not able to determine where it would occur. World War II, particularly with the attack on Pearl Harbor, led to major new developments in intelligence gathering in the US. The US Navy's Combat Intelligence Unit was appointed with creating a a code breaking unit called "Magic." This work help lead to early developments of computers, such as it had in Britain by work conducted by Allan Turning during World War II. World War II also began the long relationship between private industry and government for espionage work, with IBM developing their punch card machines to help in cracking Japanese code used in the war. This culminated in the Battle of Midway, where the US had advance knowledge of the battle and were able to defeat the Japanese because they had known when and where the attack would take place. During World War II, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) began to coordinate special operations and spying activity.
The 1947 National Security Act created the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and led to the National Security Council (NSC) that had authority over it. The 1950s and 1960s saw the CIA leading many anti-communist and Soviet activities, where the US began to get far more involved in foreign politics, such as elections of left-wing leaders in different states. The most noted success was the uncovering of nuclear missiles sent to Cuba in the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. In the 1960s, the Directorate of Science and Technology (DST) was created to coordinate technology efforts to aid in spying, including the production of spy satellites and other technologies. Meanwhile, the FBI became more active in domestic surveillance, where communism as well as organized crime were of keen interest. The next major change was the Patriot Act of 2001, which gave the government increased authority to collect and analyze private data. There was also a mandate to better coordinate foreign and domestic intelligence. This was in reaction to the September 11th attacks on New York and Washington. Since then, controversies have often revolved how much private information should the government posses and the balance of security and counter-terrorism efforts.
Spying has had many phases in the United States. It started before the Revolutionary War as an ad hoc network of spies that then evolved into more elaborate agencies in the Civil War. However, that period showed deficiencies by not coordinating activities. By the late 19th century, the Secret Service became the central spy service and later the FBI emerged as the agency that conducted forms of domestic surveillance. During World War II, there was an increased need to develop better foreign espionage. This led to the emergence of the CIA. Modern spying has also increasingly led to closer coordination between foreign and domestic surveillance.
- For more on spying during the American Revolutionary War, see: Sulick, Michael J. 2014. Spying in America: Espionage from the Revolutionary War to the Dawn of the Cold War. Georgetown University Press.
- For more on Benjamin Franklin's work during the war, see: Isaacson, Walter. 2004. Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks.
- For more on US spying between the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, see: Mickolus, Edward F. 2015. The Counterintelligence Chronology: Spying by and against the United States from the 1700s through 2014. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. | <urn:uuid:91cd0d75-5784-4261-be38-51c4ffba5c74> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=How_Did_Spy_Services_Develop_in_the_United_States%3F&oldid=10127 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00150.warc.gz | en | 0.980558 | 1,644 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.026737917214632... | 1 | How Did Spy Services Develop in the United States?
Many Americans today would see that espionage work and spying by the United States is critical for their national security. The history of the services that have provided this, however, is more complex, and often mirrored the development and transformations that affected the US. Through its development as an independent state to one that expanded across the West, and its experiences in the Civil War and World Wars, history has shaped what spying means to the US.
What is different from many other powers that developed spying services is the relatively short history of the US. The experiences, therefore, are different in how they have influenced government's approach to spying. One of the first spy groups derived prior to the American Revolutionary War in 1765. The Sons of Liberty formed as a group that fought against the Stamp Act and would observe British troop movements in Boston and other places. This included well known revolutionaries such as Samuel Adams and John Hancock. During the Revolutionary War, George Washington was one of the first to write and recognize the need for espionage. Threats to the colonists/revolutionaries, and eventual early US military, were from Britain. War espionage depended on a network of spies throughout different areas, where Washington wanted to stay one step ahead of the pursuing British Army. This included using Native Americans who were adept at secretive observation that Washington had first hand experience with during the French and Indian War. Washington also used a cryptanalyst Samuel West to read secretive letters. Double agents were also used by the British to counter Washington, such as Dr. Benjamin Church who fed important information about the revolutionaries.
Benjamin Franklin was placed in charge of the Committee of Secret Correspondence, which worked to change sentiment about the Revolution in European states so that the revolutionaries would gain increasing support. His most successful efforts were with the French, who ultimately helped aid the revolutionaries in fighting the British. This proved crucial in helping turning the tide, where French troops and aid greatly helped the revolutionaries to successfully fight.
After the war, American spying took a downturn as the country was preoccupied with building the young country. In fact, the US was ill prepared for the war of 1812, where US soldiers were often unaware even where the frontier with Canada was even located. It was the Civil War where things changed once again. The North, in the Civil War, developed a network of spies who were able to cross between the borders with the South, such as William Alvin Lloyd. The North also developed two spying agencies, including one run by Allan Pinkerton and another run by Lafayette Baker. There was two due to infighting between generals who depended on the different spy heads. This often lead to information not being shared and sometimes counterproductive efforts that sometimes even led to the arrest of spies working for the other agency. There were some notable successes in troop movement observations, but often the information did not have a clear chain where the intelligence could be used for actionable purposes. The South had some notable successes, often creating an elaborate network in major northern cities. The most successful group was the so-called Canadian Cabinet, which ran a Southern spy network from Montreal. It is likely John Wilkes Booth, Lincoln's assassin, derived from this group. They also succeeded in several sabotage operations and creating fires in major cities.
Rise of Modern Spying
Modern American espionage begins in the late 19th century when Grover Cleveland called for assigning military attachés in foreign countries to gather more information about different countries. John Wilkie became head of the US Secret Service in the 1890s and became noted for breaking up a Spanish spy ring in Montreal during the Spanish-American War. Teh Secret Service was created as a result of the Civil War and for its first few decades mostly focused on combating counterfeiting of the US currency and other acts that could sabotage the US economy, such as smuggling. In 1908, the Bureau of Investigation, what eventually became as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), was formed. Initially, they focused on policing activities and against organized criminal activities such as prostitution. However, they also engaged in domestic surveillance. This was tested in World War I, where they were able to discover German agents and saboteurs. Nevertheless, in World War I, the US was still not effective in foreign espionage. Most intelligence from World War I depended on British spy services that were established.
After World War I, most activity focused on domestic surveillance, particularly against communists and others deemed as threats. In the 1920s, modern cryptography developed in the US. William Friedman, a Russian immigrant, was appointed as cryptanalyst for the Army Signal Intelligence Service, which was successful in breaking the Japanese code used in their diplomatic cables. This enabled the US to be aware that an attack like Pearl Harbor was going to occur, although they were not able to determine where it would occur. World War II, particularly with the attack on Pearl Harbor, led to major new developments in intelligence gathering in the US. The US Navy's Combat Intelligence Unit was appointed with creating a a code breaking unit called "Magic." This work help lead to early developments of computers, such as it had in Britain by work conducted by Allan Turning during World War II. World War II also began the long relationship between private industry and government for espionage work, with IBM developing their punch card machines to help in cracking Japanese code used in the war. This culminated in the Battle of Midway, where the US had advance knowledge of the battle and were able to defeat the Japanese because they had known when and where the attack would take place. During World War II, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) began to coordinate special operations and spying activity.
The 1947 National Security Act created the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and led to the National Security Council (NSC) that had authority over it. The 1950s and 1960s saw the CIA leading many anti-communist and Soviet activities, where the US began to get far more involved in foreign politics, such as elections of left-wing leaders in different states. The most noted success was the uncovering of nuclear missiles sent to Cuba in the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. In the 1960s, the Directorate of Science and Technology (DST) was created to coordinate technology efforts to aid in spying, including the production of spy satellites and other technologies. Meanwhile, the FBI became more active in domestic surveillance, where communism as well as organized crime were of keen interest. The next major change was the Patriot Act of 2001, which gave the government increased authority to collect and analyze private data. There was also a mandate to better coordinate foreign and domestic intelligence. This was in reaction to the September 11th attacks on New York and Washington. Since then, controversies have often revolved how much private information should the government posses and the balance of security and counter-terrorism efforts.
Spying has had many phases in the United States. It started before the Revolutionary War as an ad hoc network of spies that then evolved into more elaborate agencies in the Civil War. However, that period showed deficiencies by not coordinating activities. By the late 19th century, the Secret Service became the central spy service and later the FBI emerged as the agency that conducted forms of domestic surveillance. During World War II, there was an increased need to develop better foreign espionage. This led to the emergence of the CIA. Modern spying has also increasingly led to closer coordination between foreign and domestic surveillance.
- For more on spying during the American Revolutionary War, see: Sulick, Michael J. 2014. Spying in America: Espionage from the Revolutionary War to the Dawn of the Cold War. Georgetown University Press.
- For more on Benjamin Franklin's work during the war, see: Isaacson, Walter. 2004. Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks.
- For more on US spying between the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, see: Mickolus, Edward F. 2015. The Counterintelligence Chronology: Spying by and against the United States from the 1700s through 2014. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. | 1,708 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Martin Luther King Day is a national holiday. The holiday is the third Monday in January. Martin Luther King, Junior’s birthday is January 15, 1929. He was assassinated in 1968. A holiday in his honor was first proposed in 1968. It became law in 1983 when President Ronald Reagan signed the document. It was first observed January 20, 1986. Some states fought the idea, and it was first observed in all 50 states in 2000. Lately people have proposed that the day become a day of service and not just a holiday. Some organizations paint/repair community buildings. Others improve parks and highways. Others work with charity groups. Children could learn more about the Martin Luther King Day of Service at: http://mlkday.gov/.
First basketball game was played in 1892. James Naismith was working at the School for Christian Workers, now Springfield College, in Springfield, Massachusetts. He was told to develop a new game to keep athletes fit in the winter months. Using a soccer ball and two peach bushel baskets, he created the game of Basket Ball. Idea: Children could organize a basketball mini-tournament. Children can read more about the original rules of the game at: Basketball Rules. Children could also read John Coy’s Hoop Genius: How a Desperate Teacher and a Rowdy Gym Class Invented Basketball.
Tedd Arnold (born Elmira, New York, 1949) has written and/or illustrated over 50 books for children. His book Rat Life received the 2008 Edgar Award for Best Young Adult Novel. He is well known for his Fly Guy series. Children can find coloring pages and book marks at his website: Tedd Arnold.
Buzz Aldrin (born Edwin Aldrin in Montclair, New Jersey, 1930) is an astronaut and the second person to walk on the moon. On July 20, 1969, he followed Neil Armstrong and walked on the moon’s surface. Older children can visit his website at: Buzz Aldrin.
Richard Henry Lee (born Virginia, 1732; died Virginia, June 19, 1794) signed Declaration of Independence. Born into a very wealthy family, he received some of his education in England. His family was steeped in politics, and Lee was elected to the House of Burgesses in 1758. He was one of the first leaders to advocate independence. On June 7, 1776, he spoke to the Continental Congress and proposed, “that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States.” That speech started the process of independence. During the Revolutionary War, he was president of Congress, making him the leader of the new country. After the Revolutionary War, he was one of Virginia’s senators. He resigned from the Senate in 1792 due to illness and an accident. | <urn:uuid:f700db69-4465-4379-aa37-9f8f07439598> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.celebrateandlearn.com/?m=20200120 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.983475 | 578 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.23501653969287... | 2 | Martin Luther King Day is a national holiday. The holiday is the third Monday in January. Martin Luther King, Junior’s birthday is January 15, 1929. He was assassinated in 1968. A holiday in his honor was first proposed in 1968. It became law in 1983 when President Ronald Reagan signed the document. It was first observed January 20, 1986. Some states fought the idea, and it was first observed in all 50 states in 2000. Lately people have proposed that the day become a day of service and not just a holiday. Some organizations paint/repair community buildings. Others improve parks and highways. Others work with charity groups. Children could learn more about the Martin Luther King Day of Service at: http://mlkday.gov/.
First basketball game was played in 1892. James Naismith was working at the School for Christian Workers, now Springfield College, in Springfield, Massachusetts. He was told to develop a new game to keep athletes fit in the winter months. Using a soccer ball and two peach bushel baskets, he created the game of Basket Ball. Idea: Children could organize a basketball mini-tournament. Children can read more about the original rules of the game at: Basketball Rules. Children could also read John Coy’s Hoop Genius: How a Desperate Teacher and a Rowdy Gym Class Invented Basketball.
Tedd Arnold (born Elmira, New York, 1949) has written and/or illustrated over 50 books for children. His book Rat Life received the 2008 Edgar Award for Best Young Adult Novel. He is well known for his Fly Guy series. Children can find coloring pages and book marks at his website: Tedd Arnold.
Buzz Aldrin (born Edwin Aldrin in Montclair, New Jersey, 1930) is an astronaut and the second person to walk on the moon. On July 20, 1969, he followed Neil Armstrong and walked on the moon’s surface. Older children can visit his website at: Buzz Aldrin.
Richard Henry Lee (born Virginia, 1732; died Virginia, June 19, 1794) signed Declaration of Independence. Born into a very wealthy family, he received some of his education in England. His family was steeped in politics, and Lee was elected to the House of Burgesses in 1758. He was one of the first leaders to advocate independence. On June 7, 1776, he spoke to the Continental Congress and proposed, “that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States.” That speech started the process of independence. During the Revolutionary War, he was president of Congress, making him the leader of the new country. After the Revolutionary War, he was one of Virginia’s senators. He resigned from the Senate in 1792 due to illness and an accident. | 630 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Diwan (the Register of Pensions)
It was first instituted in 636 or 638. The need arose since the war-spoils were too much to be handled informally.
It wasn’t just war spoils, but the land-tax revenue that non-Muslims generated from their lands. Jizya came into this too.
Each Muslims would get a share according to his relationship to Prophet and then by his services to the State.
Conquerors or commanders were forbidden from acquiring lands at conquered places. They were to devote themselves to Islamic cause. The lavish revenues would have blinded them to the expansion cause.
The state would provide them handsomely from the Diwan.
Diwan was distinctive from Bayt al-Mal in a sense that it included Jizya, war spoils, al-Fay, and Kharaj. Now it was formally decided who would receive what amount.
Nonetheless, the principle remained the same as that followed by the Prophet and then by Abu Bakr.
It was indeed Islam’s “socialism.”
- Military was, for the first time, arranged formally too.
- Ranks were assigned according to experience and achievement.
- Military men would receive from the Diwan.
- Islamic State had now a standing army.
For complete Islamic history notes click here. | <urn:uuid:363c4a44-7847-4359-9657-4a96a2bb1d36> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ssznotes.com/2019/01/11/umars-institutions-and-reforms/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.987888 | 283 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.40958964824... | 4 | The Diwan (the Register of Pensions)
It was first instituted in 636 or 638. The need arose since the war-spoils were too much to be handled informally.
It wasn’t just war spoils, but the land-tax revenue that non-Muslims generated from their lands. Jizya came into this too.
Each Muslims would get a share according to his relationship to Prophet and then by his services to the State.
Conquerors or commanders were forbidden from acquiring lands at conquered places. They were to devote themselves to Islamic cause. The lavish revenues would have blinded them to the expansion cause.
The state would provide them handsomely from the Diwan.
Diwan was distinctive from Bayt al-Mal in a sense that it included Jizya, war spoils, al-Fay, and Kharaj. Now it was formally decided who would receive what amount.
Nonetheless, the principle remained the same as that followed by the Prophet and then by Abu Bakr.
It was indeed Islam’s “socialism.”
- Military was, for the first time, arranged formally too.
- Ranks were assigned according to experience and achievement.
- Military men would receive from the Diwan.
- Islamic State had now a standing army.
For complete Islamic history notes click here. | 267 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dates and times
Eighty years ago the SS Athenia was outbound from Glasgow, Liverpool and Belfast to Montreal, Canada with over 1,000 passengers on board. On the day World War 2 was declared in September 1939 it was attacked and sunk, becoming the first maritime casualty of the war. 122 people lost their lives. The deliberate sinking of the SS Athenia by a German submarine changed American public opinion, which ultimately lead to the US offering Britain and France support during WW2.
Riverside has a display dedicated to the ship and tells the story of the sinking. The ship was built in Glasgow in 1923 for the Anchor-Donaldson Line, which later became the Donaldson Atlantic Line. She worked between the United Kingdom and the east coast of Canada until September 1939.
In 2019 Rosemary Cass Beggs, the last British survivor of the sinking, donated a very personal memento to Riverside. As a 3 year old Rosemary was put into a lifeboat by her parents. Her father couldn’t swim, and her mother insisted they stay together, but save their child. Rosemary has vivid memories of being barefoot in the lifeboat, before being transferred to a ship that travelled on to Canada. While on board the ship to Canada other passengers made her tiny canvas shoes to protect her feet. When she was reunited with her parents some weeks later Rosemary’s family kept one shoe and gave one to the lady who had looked after her.
The tiny treasured shoe is
now on show in Riverside. Such personal objects help bring the stories we tell
in our museums to life and we are very grateful to Rosemary for her kind gift. | <urn:uuid:786ed2f8-6f42-425d-a9d1-167d0a72a278> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.glasgowlife.org.uk/event/1/treasured-shoe-added-to-athenia-display-on-80th-anniversary-of-the-sinking | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.982552 | 344 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.369948595... | 2 | Dates and times
Eighty years ago the SS Athenia was outbound from Glasgow, Liverpool and Belfast to Montreal, Canada with over 1,000 passengers on board. On the day World War 2 was declared in September 1939 it was attacked and sunk, becoming the first maritime casualty of the war. 122 people lost their lives. The deliberate sinking of the SS Athenia by a German submarine changed American public opinion, which ultimately lead to the US offering Britain and France support during WW2.
Riverside has a display dedicated to the ship and tells the story of the sinking. The ship was built in Glasgow in 1923 for the Anchor-Donaldson Line, which later became the Donaldson Atlantic Line. She worked between the United Kingdom and the east coast of Canada until September 1939.
In 2019 Rosemary Cass Beggs, the last British survivor of the sinking, donated a very personal memento to Riverside. As a 3 year old Rosemary was put into a lifeboat by her parents. Her father couldn’t swim, and her mother insisted they stay together, but save their child. Rosemary has vivid memories of being barefoot in the lifeboat, before being transferred to a ship that travelled on to Canada. While on board the ship to Canada other passengers made her tiny canvas shoes to protect her feet. When she was reunited with her parents some weeks later Rosemary’s family kept one shoe and gave one to the lady who had looked after her.
The tiny treasured shoe is
now on show in Riverside. Such personal objects help bring the stories we tell
in our museums to life and we are very grateful to Rosemary for her kind gift. | 356 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On October 23 & 24, 1850, the National Women's Rights Convention was held at Brinley Hall in Worcester, Massachusetts. Men and women from across the country are in attendance. Of the 268 names of those who signed-in, 186 were from Massachusetts.
The National Women's Rights Convention was an annual series of meetings that increased the visibility of the early women's rights movement in the United States. The National Women's Rights Convention combined both male and female leadership, and attracted a wide base of support including temperance advocates and abolitionists. Speeches were given on the subjects of equal wages, expanded education and career opportunities, women's property rights, marriage reform and temperance. Chief among the concerns discussed at the convention was the passage of laws that would give suffrage to women.
For additional information about the National Women's Rights Conventions, read more here. | <urn:uuid:9569b249-55b6-47eb-bc5a-816996b32939> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blog.the-bac.edu/2011/03/womens-history-national-womens-rights.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00153.warc.gz | en | 0.980757 | 176 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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-0.24355988... | 2 | On October 23 & 24, 1850, the National Women's Rights Convention was held at Brinley Hall in Worcester, Massachusetts. Men and women from across the country are in attendance. Of the 268 names of those who signed-in, 186 were from Massachusetts.
The National Women's Rights Convention was an annual series of meetings that increased the visibility of the early women's rights movement in the United States. The National Women's Rights Convention combined both male and female leadership, and attracted a wide base of support including temperance advocates and abolitionists. Speeches were given on the subjects of equal wages, expanded education and career opportunities, women's property rights, marriage reform and temperance. Chief among the concerns discussed at the convention was the passage of laws that would give suffrage to women.
For additional information about the National Women's Rights Conventions, read more here. | 187 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Reading Level: Middle School
“The boisterous sea of liberty is never without a wave.”
Lawyer. Father. Scientist. Author. Governor. Vice-president. President. Philosopher. Architect. Slave Owner.
Many words describe Thomas Jefferson. He is best remembered as the author of the Declaration of Independence and the third president of the United States.
“My father’s education had been quite neglected; but being of sound mind, sound judgment and eager after information, he read much and improved himself . . .”
Jefferson’s early life helped shape his career and accomplishments. He was born April 13, 1743 at Shadwell, a plantation in central Virginia where enslaved people grew tobacco. He was the third child of Peter Jefferson, a planter and surveyor, and Jane Randolph Jefferson, the daughter of a well-known Virginia family. His father died when Jefferson was fourteen but left him with a love of books, mathematics and the outdoors.
Jefferson studied Latin, Greek and French. In 1760, he entered the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. He liked to study for fifteen hours a day. After graduating, he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1767. He practiced law for a number of years. He was described as “tall, loose-jointed, sandy-haired and freckled,” and a skilled horseman and gifted musician.
“I know of no condition happier than that of a Virginia Farmer”
When his father died, Jefferson inherited about three thousand acres of land and about thirty slaves. He later inherited more land and more people from his father-in-law. When Jefferson was twenty-six years old, enslaved and free people began building Monticello (which means little mountain in Italian). The house, gardens, working farms and workshops were designed by Jefferson.
Jefferson was at the head of a 5,000 acre working plantation. It was made up of four quarter farms and about 200 enslaved people at any given point in time. Enslaved people performed various kinds of forced labor at and around Monticello, growing tobacco and wheat, and supporting the plantation in other ways.
For fifty years, the care and building of the plantation occupied Jefferson’s attention and imagination. He recorded everything that went on at Monticello. This included notes about what he bought and sold, what he observed on the plantation, and the rations he gave to the enslaved people. He was described as the “father of weather observers,” noting daily rainfall and temperatures, and he kept a gardening diary. These records are valuable information about life at Monticello.
“no society is so precious as that of one’s own family.”
New Year’s Day in 1772, Jefferson married Martha Wayles Skelton, a widow. Martha was a “very agreeable sensible and accomplished lady.” She brought to the marriage land, slaves, and her father’s debts. In the ten years they were married, the Jeffersons had six children. Two daughters and a son died as infants. Two-year-old Lucy died from whooping cough. Two daughters, Martha and Maria, survived to adulthood. In 1782, his wife Martha died, leaving three daughters, Martha, Maria and Lucy. Jefferson was overcome with sadness by the death of his wife. He became a devoted father to his daughters and never remarried.
Jefferson later had at least six children with a woman named Sally Hemings. She was enslaved by Jefferson at Monticello, and their four surviving children were also enslaved until they were young adults. Beverley and Harriet were the two oldest, and they left Monticello without being freed officially by their father. Madison and Eston were the two youngest and their father freed them when he died. Their mother, Sally Hemings, was not freed but she was allowed to live with her sons in Charlottesville for the rest of her life. Jefferson and Hemings never wrote about their connection, but their son Madison Hemings and others who lived at or visited Monticello did.
” . . . life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.”
In 1775, Jefferson was elected to the Continental Congress. While a member, he was picked to write the Declaration of Independence. The document stated the importance of individual rights and liberties, and the equality of man. It declared the reasons the colonists wanted to be free from the King of England’s rule.
Jefferson believed in the ideals of the Declaration of Independence, and yet he enslaved over 600 people over the course of his life. This is a great complexity about Jefferson. He, and his peers, had prejudices against people who were not white men, and these wrong ideas contributed to their justification for slavery.
Jefferson believed that everyone should have the freedom to practice whatever religion they chose, so he drafted the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom, which established religious freedom in Virginia. In 1786, twenty-five years later, the bill passed.
Jefferson was elected governor of Virginia from 1779-1781. When he was elected, the American people had been fighting the Revolutionary War for four years. After being governor, he went back to Monticello and tended his plantation.
“so ask the traveled inhabitant of any nation, In what country on earth would you rather live?—certainly in my own, where are all my friends, my relations, and the earliest & sweetest affections and recollections of my life.—which would be your second choice?—France.”
In 1785, Jefferson was appointed minister to France. In the five years he lived in France, which was ruled by a king, he observed the poverty of the lower class. This strengthened his democratic beliefs. He also loved French culture and sent books, seeds, art and scientific instruments back to Monticello.
Jefferson left France in 1789. President George Washington appointed him as the first Secretary of State under the new government. In the presidential election of 1796, Jefferson lost to John Adams. Jefferson, with the second highest number of votes, became vice president.
“Let us, then, fellow-citizens, unite with one heart and mind.”
Four years later, Jefferson became the President of the United States. In 1800, he ran as a Democratic-Republican against John Adams, a Federalist, and won.
Jefferson served two terms. During his presidency, he engineered the Louisiana Purchase, which added 827,000 square miles to the United States. He sent Lewis and Clark to explore the western lands and gather information. On their journey, they met over forty Native American nations whose people had lived there for thousands of years.
During Jefferson’s presidency, conflicts grew between Britain and France. Jefferson tried to keep the United States neutral, but relationships with Britain grew worse. In response, Jefferson enacted the Embargo Act of 1807, which prohibited American ships from trading in all foreign ports.
“though an old man, I am but a young gardener.”
Jefferson remained busy after his presidency. He designed and founded the University of Virginia, serving as its first rector (president). He spent his days amongst his family at Monticello. There he was free to pursue his interests in astronomy, reading, gardening, designing and landscaping.
“. .. all my wishes end where I hope my days will end, at Monticello.”
Jefferson died July 4th 1826 at Monticello at the age of eighty-three. The date was also the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Because Jefferson died in debt, his house, his land, and most of his belongings were sold. He freed his enslaved sons and three other men in his will, but 130 other enslaved people were sold at auction.
On his tomb stone Jefferson wished to be remembered for the things he had given the American people:
HERE WAS BURIED
AUTHOR OF THE
STATUTE OF VIRGINIA
AND FATHER OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA | <urn:uuid:927da5dd-5e34-47a0-bbf6-b5469e35ed02> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://classroom.monticello.org/view/middle/75218/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00342.warc.gz | en | 0.984371 | 1,701 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.30549147725105286... | 13 | Reading Level: Middle School
“The boisterous sea of liberty is never without a wave.”
Lawyer. Father. Scientist. Author. Governor. Vice-president. President. Philosopher. Architect. Slave Owner.
Many words describe Thomas Jefferson. He is best remembered as the author of the Declaration of Independence and the third president of the United States.
“My father’s education had been quite neglected; but being of sound mind, sound judgment and eager after information, he read much and improved himself . . .”
Jefferson’s early life helped shape his career and accomplishments. He was born April 13, 1743 at Shadwell, a plantation in central Virginia where enslaved people grew tobacco. He was the third child of Peter Jefferson, a planter and surveyor, and Jane Randolph Jefferson, the daughter of a well-known Virginia family. His father died when Jefferson was fourteen but left him with a love of books, mathematics and the outdoors.
Jefferson studied Latin, Greek and French. In 1760, he entered the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. He liked to study for fifteen hours a day. After graduating, he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1767. He practiced law for a number of years. He was described as “tall, loose-jointed, sandy-haired and freckled,” and a skilled horseman and gifted musician.
“I know of no condition happier than that of a Virginia Farmer”
When his father died, Jefferson inherited about three thousand acres of land and about thirty slaves. He later inherited more land and more people from his father-in-law. When Jefferson was twenty-six years old, enslaved and free people began building Monticello (which means little mountain in Italian). The house, gardens, working farms and workshops were designed by Jefferson.
Jefferson was at the head of a 5,000 acre working plantation. It was made up of four quarter farms and about 200 enslaved people at any given point in time. Enslaved people performed various kinds of forced labor at and around Monticello, growing tobacco and wheat, and supporting the plantation in other ways.
For fifty years, the care and building of the plantation occupied Jefferson’s attention and imagination. He recorded everything that went on at Monticello. This included notes about what he bought and sold, what he observed on the plantation, and the rations he gave to the enslaved people. He was described as the “father of weather observers,” noting daily rainfall and temperatures, and he kept a gardening diary. These records are valuable information about life at Monticello.
“no society is so precious as that of one’s own family.”
New Year’s Day in 1772, Jefferson married Martha Wayles Skelton, a widow. Martha was a “very agreeable sensible and accomplished lady.” She brought to the marriage land, slaves, and her father’s debts. In the ten years they were married, the Jeffersons had six children. Two daughters and a son died as infants. Two-year-old Lucy died from whooping cough. Two daughters, Martha and Maria, survived to adulthood. In 1782, his wife Martha died, leaving three daughters, Martha, Maria and Lucy. Jefferson was overcome with sadness by the death of his wife. He became a devoted father to his daughters and never remarried.
Jefferson later had at least six children with a woman named Sally Hemings. She was enslaved by Jefferson at Monticello, and their four surviving children were also enslaved until they were young adults. Beverley and Harriet were the two oldest, and they left Monticello without being freed officially by their father. Madison and Eston were the two youngest and their father freed them when he died. Their mother, Sally Hemings, was not freed but she was allowed to live with her sons in Charlottesville for the rest of her life. Jefferson and Hemings never wrote about their connection, but their son Madison Hemings and others who lived at or visited Monticello did.
” . . . life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.”
In 1775, Jefferson was elected to the Continental Congress. While a member, he was picked to write the Declaration of Independence. The document stated the importance of individual rights and liberties, and the equality of man. It declared the reasons the colonists wanted to be free from the King of England’s rule.
Jefferson believed in the ideals of the Declaration of Independence, and yet he enslaved over 600 people over the course of his life. This is a great complexity about Jefferson. He, and his peers, had prejudices against people who were not white men, and these wrong ideas contributed to their justification for slavery.
Jefferson believed that everyone should have the freedom to practice whatever religion they chose, so he drafted the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom, which established religious freedom in Virginia. In 1786, twenty-five years later, the bill passed.
Jefferson was elected governor of Virginia from 1779-1781. When he was elected, the American people had been fighting the Revolutionary War for four years. After being governor, he went back to Monticello and tended his plantation.
“so ask the traveled inhabitant of any nation, In what country on earth would you rather live?—certainly in my own, where are all my friends, my relations, and the earliest & sweetest affections and recollections of my life.—which would be your second choice?—France.”
In 1785, Jefferson was appointed minister to France. In the five years he lived in France, which was ruled by a king, he observed the poverty of the lower class. This strengthened his democratic beliefs. He also loved French culture and sent books, seeds, art and scientific instruments back to Monticello.
Jefferson left France in 1789. President George Washington appointed him as the first Secretary of State under the new government. In the presidential election of 1796, Jefferson lost to John Adams. Jefferson, with the second highest number of votes, became vice president.
“Let us, then, fellow-citizens, unite with one heart and mind.”
Four years later, Jefferson became the President of the United States. In 1800, he ran as a Democratic-Republican against John Adams, a Federalist, and won.
Jefferson served two terms. During his presidency, he engineered the Louisiana Purchase, which added 827,000 square miles to the United States. He sent Lewis and Clark to explore the western lands and gather information. On their journey, they met over forty Native American nations whose people had lived there for thousands of years.
During Jefferson’s presidency, conflicts grew between Britain and France. Jefferson tried to keep the United States neutral, but relationships with Britain grew worse. In response, Jefferson enacted the Embargo Act of 1807, which prohibited American ships from trading in all foreign ports.
“though an old man, I am but a young gardener.”
Jefferson remained busy after his presidency. He designed and founded the University of Virginia, serving as its first rector (president). He spent his days amongst his family at Monticello. There he was free to pursue his interests in astronomy, reading, gardening, designing and landscaping.
“. .. all my wishes end where I hope my days will end, at Monticello.”
Jefferson died July 4th 1826 at Monticello at the age of eighty-three. The date was also the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Because Jefferson died in debt, his house, his land, and most of his belongings were sold. He freed his enslaved sons and three other men in his will, but 130 other enslaved people were sold at auction.
On his tomb stone Jefferson wished to be remembered for the things he had given the American people:
HERE WAS BURIED
AUTHOR OF THE
STATUTE OF VIRGINIA
AND FATHER OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA | 1,671 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi or Mahatma Gandhi, as he is famously called, was born on October 2 in the year 1869. In India, his birthday is celebrated as Gandhi Jayanti.
He was fondly known as 'Bapu' and is considered as the Father of the Nation due to his selfless contribution towards India's struggle for Independence from the British rule.
The chief advocate of non-violence, Mahatma Gandhi, was assassinated by Nathu Ram Godse on January 30, 1948. Just a few months after his efforts, along with that of others materialized and India gained independence. He was 78.
Early lifeHe was married to Kasturba Gandhi at the age of 13. To fulfill his parent's wish he went to London to study Law and got enrolled at the University College London, at the age of 18.
Following admission to the English Bar, he returned to India, to only take up a year's contract to work for an Indian Firm in South Africa.
ApartheidIn South Africa, he first hand experienced 'Apartheid'. One of the most common instances of his facing apartheid is when he was pushed out of a first class train carriage despite having a valid ticket. This incident left a lasting impact on his mind and he vowed to fight segregation at all levels.
Although, he had come for only a year to South Africa, he stayed in the country for about 21 years and started a political movement Natal Indian Congress.
Return to IndiaOn his return to India in 1916, he continued with his practice of non-violence protest or Satyagraha. He started raising awareness against the oppressive practices of the British masters in Bihar. He led peaceful strikes and protests.
Eventually his fame spread all over India and his political influence increased. By the year 1921, he became the leader of the Indian National Congress and instigated a boycott of British goods and institutions. His encouragement of mass civil disobedience eventually got him arrested on March 10 1922. After a trial on sedition charges he served 2 years, of a 6-year prison sentence.
When the British introduced a tax on salt in 1930, Mahatma Gandhi responded with a Dandi March to the sea to collect his own salt.
On the eve of Gandhi Jayanti, we bring to you 8 famous quotes by the Father of the Nation on education:
Interested in General Knowledge and Current Affairs? Click here to stay informed and know what is happening around the world with our G.K. and Current Affairs section.
To get more updates on Current Affairs, send in your query by mail to email@example.com | <urn:uuid:c5d87c23-ae3a-4683-a3a2-21f50e0f28d0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/gandhi-jayanti-mahatma-gandhi-1054265-2017-09-28 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00044.warc.gz | en | 0.982761 | 542 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.39215806... | 1 | Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi or Mahatma Gandhi, as he is famously called, was born on October 2 in the year 1869. In India, his birthday is celebrated as Gandhi Jayanti.
He was fondly known as 'Bapu' and is considered as the Father of the Nation due to his selfless contribution towards India's struggle for Independence from the British rule.
The chief advocate of non-violence, Mahatma Gandhi, was assassinated by Nathu Ram Godse on January 30, 1948. Just a few months after his efforts, along with that of others materialized and India gained independence. He was 78.
Early lifeHe was married to Kasturba Gandhi at the age of 13. To fulfill his parent's wish he went to London to study Law and got enrolled at the University College London, at the age of 18.
Following admission to the English Bar, he returned to India, to only take up a year's contract to work for an Indian Firm in South Africa.
ApartheidIn South Africa, he first hand experienced 'Apartheid'. One of the most common instances of his facing apartheid is when he was pushed out of a first class train carriage despite having a valid ticket. This incident left a lasting impact on his mind and he vowed to fight segregation at all levels.
Although, he had come for only a year to South Africa, he stayed in the country for about 21 years and started a political movement Natal Indian Congress.
Return to IndiaOn his return to India in 1916, he continued with his practice of non-violence protest or Satyagraha. He started raising awareness against the oppressive practices of the British masters in Bihar. He led peaceful strikes and protests.
Eventually his fame spread all over India and his political influence increased. By the year 1921, he became the leader of the Indian National Congress and instigated a boycott of British goods and institutions. His encouragement of mass civil disobedience eventually got him arrested on March 10 1922. After a trial on sedition charges he served 2 years, of a 6-year prison sentence.
When the British introduced a tax on salt in 1930, Mahatma Gandhi responded with a Dandi March to the sea to collect his own salt.
On the eve of Gandhi Jayanti, we bring to you 8 famous quotes by the Father of the Nation on education:
Interested in General Knowledge and Current Affairs? Click here to stay informed and know what is happening around the world with our G.K. and Current Affairs section.
To get more updates on Current Affairs, send in your query by mail to email@example.com | 564 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Thank you so much. Tonight, more than 200 years after a former colony won the right to determine its own destiny, the task of perfecting our union moves forward,” said Obama, which was the first sentence of his remarks in Chicago, Ill.
Before the United States won its independence from Great Britain in 1781, it was made up of 13 separate colonies, and apparently was not viewed by the British or the Americans as a single colonial entity.
From 1775-1776, the delegates of the Continental Congress worked to establish a consensus for declaring independence from the British Crown, on behalf of the 13 colonies.
The United States of America was viewed as a single country only after the 13 colonies won their independence and formed a new nation.
Source material can be found at this site. | <urn:uuid:a714fa97-e044-4ce9-94e4-1683d7c4fb55> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://conservativepapers.com/news/2014/02/20/looking-back-at-obamas-re-election-blunder-obama-called-united-states-a-former-colony/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00018.warc.gz | en | 0.981854 | 165 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.34659165143966675,... | 3 | “Thank you so much. Tonight, more than 200 years after a former colony won the right to determine its own destiny, the task of perfecting our union moves forward,” said Obama, which was the first sentence of his remarks in Chicago, Ill.
Before the United States won its independence from Great Britain in 1781, it was made up of 13 separate colonies, and apparently was not viewed by the British or the Americans as a single colonial entity.
From 1775-1776, the delegates of the Continental Congress worked to establish a consensus for declaring independence from the British Crown, on behalf of the 13 colonies.
The United States of America was viewed as a single country only after the 13 colonies won their independence and formed a new nation.
Source material can be found at this site. | 175 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Hawaiian Islands in the early-1800s were in a state of social and political upheaval. With Kamehameha’s death in 1819, the subsequent breaking of the kapu by Liholiho and the acceptance of the missionaries and their beliefs meant significant changes were taking place.
The first visit to the Hawaiian Islands by the US Navy was in 1826 when the warship USS Dolphin came into port in Honolulu. Commanding the ship was Lieutenant John Percival (aka “Mad Jack” Percival.)
Percival had been sent to the Pacific to bring the mutineers of a whaling ship to justice and to enforce the settlement of debts owed by Hawaiʻi’s ruling chiefs to American sandalwood dealers.
As the ship sailed into Honolulu Bay, these objectives were not uppermost on the minds of the crew, however. The men of the Dolphin, like mariners then, had expectations of female companionship while in port.
They arrived on January 16, 1826, and were surprised to find the port unusually tranquil and utterly devoid of the welcoming maidens the crew had anticipated.
After making inquiries in the village they learned that, under the influence of the missionaries, the chiefs had not only forbidden the women to swim out to the ships, but had restricted the sale of alcohol. His men were outraged.
In a frenzy, Percival demanded to see the Queen in person, warning that if the leader of the missionaries (Hiram Bingham) interfered, he “will shoot him: that he was ready to fight, for though his vessel was small, she was just like fire.”
Percival attempted to persuade the Queen to release her women, reasoning that “It is not good to taboo the women. It is not so in America!”
The Queen replied, in a letter, that she had a “right to control her own subjects in this matter; that in enforcing the tabu she had not sought for money … she had done no injustice to other nations, or the foreigners who belonged to other nations; and that while seeking specially to save the nation from vice and ruin, they had been lenient to strangers … (and) that strangers, passing from one country to another, are bound, while they remain in a country, to conform to its laws.” (Bingham)
Percival said, “Why tabu the women? Take heed. My people will come: if the women are not forthcoming they will not obey my word. Take care of your men, and I will take care of mine. By and by they will come to get women, and if they do not obtain them, they will fight, and my vessel is just like fire.” (Bingham)
Kaʻahumanu replied, “Why make war upon us without a fault of ours as to restraining our women? We love the Word of God, and therefore hold back our women. Why then would you fight us without cause?” (Bingham)
Finally, able to hold his temper no longer, Percival clenched his fists with rage and shouted that the next day he would issue his men rum and turn them loose, where, if they were still denied, they would pull down the houses of the missionaries and take any women they pleased by force.
Kaʻahumanu replied, “Why are you angry with us for laying a tabu on the women of our own country? Had you brought American women with you, and we had tabued them, you might then justly be displeased with us.” (Bingham)
There were several other crews in port, of whom many sympathized with this commander and a large part of his crew. On a Sunday, the commander of the Dolphin allowed double the usual number of his men to spend the day on shore at Honolulu. The violent among them, and the violent of other crews, attempted to form a coalition to “knock off the tabu.”
First, they knocked out seventy of the windows at Kalanimōkū’s house (where church service was being held, with Kaʻahumanu, Kalanimōkū, Nāmāhana and Boki in attendance.) Then, the mob went on to the home of Hiram Bingham, the leader of the missionaries.
When the mob surged forward and one of the sailors struck Bingham, the riot ended as the Hawaiians responded by clubbing the ringleaders unconscious and overcame the remainder.
Shortly thereafter, the captain was back at the palace, admitting that his men may have overreacted, however, repeated their demands for prostitutes. He then told the Queen that the Dolphin would not leave port until his men were taken care of.
The Hawaiians by this time were very anxious to see the end of this and fearful of further violence, agreed to lift the taboo.
The prostitutes then came to the ship, and apparently the Navy’s Hawaiian mission was accomplished. Captain Percival arranged for the repair of the damaged homes and put two of the most violent sailors in irons.
After a visit of about three months, the Dolphin sailed, having obtained the name of “the mischief making man-of-war.” The incident was quickly christened “The Battle of Honolulu.”
Mad Jack’s actions were later renounced by the United States and resulted in the sending of an envoy to King Kamehameha III.
Kalanimōku wrote a letter to Hiram Bingham concerning the battle – in it he notes, “Here is my message to all of you, our missionary teachers. I am telling you that I do not see your wrongdoing. If I should see you to be wrong, I would tell you all. No, you should all just be good.”
“Give us literacy and we will teach it; and give us the word of God, and we will heed it. Our women are restricted, for we have learned the word of God.”
“Then foreigners come, doing damage to our land, foreigners of America and Britain. Do not be angry, for it is we who are to blame for you being faulted, and not you foreigners.” (Kalanimōku to Bingham, October 28, 1826)
You may see that letter (written in Hawaiian) and its translation in the Ali‘i Letters Collection at Hawaiian Mission Houses – here: https://hmha.missionhouses.org/collections/show/178. | <urn:uuid:36903485-baeb-4a89-ad38-d902b481dea7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://imagesofoldhawaii.com/tag/hiram-bingham/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00066.warc.gz | en | 0.981123 | 1,373 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.19283783435... | 15 | The Hawaiian Islands in the early-1800s were in a state of social and political upheaval. With Kamehameha’s death in 1819, the subsequent breaking of the kapu by Liholiho and the acceptance of the missionaries and their beliefs meant significant changes were taking place.
The first visit to the Hawaiian Islands by the US Navy was in 1826 when the warship USS Dolphin came into port in Honolulu. Commanding the ship was Lieutenant John Percival (aka “Mad Jack” Percival.)
Percival had been sent to the Pacific to bring the mutineers of a whaling ship to justice and to enforce the settlement of debts owed by Hawaiʻi’s ruling chiefs to American sandalwood dealers.
As the ship sailed into Honolulu Bay, these objectives were not uppermost on the minds of the crew, however. The men of the Dolphin, like mariners then, had expectations of female companionship while in port.
They arrived on January 16, 1826, and were surprised to find the port unusually tranquil and utterly devoid of the welcoming maidens the crew had anticipated.
After making inquiries in the village they learned that, under the influence of the missionaries, the chiefs had not only forbidden the women to swim out to the ships, but had restricted the sale of alcohol. His men were outraged.
In a frenzy, Percival demanded to see the Queen in person, warning that if the leader of the missionaries (Hiram Bingham) interfered, he “will shoot him: that he was ready to fight, for though his vessel was small, she was just like fire.”
Percival attempted to persuade the Queen to release her women, reasoning that “It is not good to taboo the women. It is not so in America!”
The Queen replied, in a letter, that she had a “right to control her own subjects in this matter; that in enforcing the tabu she had not sought for money … she had done no injustice to other nations, or the foreigners who belonged to other nations; and that while seeking specially to save the nation from vice and ruin, they had been lenient to strangers … (and) that strangers, passing from one country to another, are bound, while they remain in a country, to conform to its laws.” (Bingham)
Percival said, “Why tabu the women? Take heed. My people will come: if the women are not forthcoming they will not obey my word. Take care of your men, and I will take care of mine. By and by they will come to get women, and if they do not obtain them, they will fight, and my vessel is just like fire.” (Bingham)
Kaʻahumanu replied, “Why make war upon us without a fault of ours as to restraining our women? We love the Word of God, and therefore hold back our women. Why then would you fight us without cause?” (Bingham)
Finally, able to hold his temper no longer, Percival clenched his fists with rage and shouted that the next day he would issue his men rum and turn them loose, where, if they were still denied, they would pull down the houses of the missionaries and take any women they pleased by force.
Kaʻahumanu replied, “Why are you angry with us for laying a tabu on the women of our own country? Had you brought American women with you, and we had tabued them, you might then justly be displeased with us.” (Bingham)
There were several other crews in port, of whom many sympathized with this commander and a large part of his crew. On a Sunday, the commander of the Dolphin allowed double the usual number of his men to spend the day on shore at Honolulu. The violent among them, and the violent of other crews, attempted to form a coalition to “knock off the tabu.”
First, they knocked out seventy of the windows at Kalanimōkū’s house (where church service was being held, with Kaʻahumanu, Kalanimōkū, Nāmāhana and Boki in attendance.) Then, the mob went on to the home of Hiram Bingham, the leader of the missionaries.
When the mob surged forward and one of the sailors struck Bingham, the riot ended as the Hawaiians responded by clubbing the ringleaders unconscious and overcame the remainder.
Shortly thereafter, the captain was back at the palace, admitting that his men may have overreacted, however, repeated their demands for prostitutes. He then told the Queen that the Dolphin would not leave port until his men were taken care of.
The Hawaiians by this time were very anxious to see the end of this and fearful of further violence, agreed to lift the taboo.
The prostitutes then came to the ship, and apparently the Navy’s Hawaiian mission was accomplished. Captain Percival arranged for the repair of the damaged homes and put two of the most violent sailors in irons.
After a visit of about three months, the Dolphin sailed, having obtained the name of “the mischief making man-of-war.” The incident was quickly christened “The Battle of Honolulu.”
Mad Jack’s actions were later renounced by the United States and resulted in the sending of an envoy to King Kamehameha III.
Kalanimōku wrote a letter to Hiram Bingham concerning the battle – in it he notes, “Here is my message to all of you, our missionary teachers. I am telling you that I do not see your wrongdoing. If I should see you to be wrong, I would tell you all. No, you should all just be good.”
“Give us literacy and we will teach it; and give us the word of God, and we will heed it. Our women are restricted, for we have learned the word of God.”
“Then foreigners come, doing damage to our land, foreigners of America and Britain. Do not be angry, for it is we who are to blame for you being faulted, and not you foreigners.” (Kalanimōku to Bingham, October 28, 1826)
You may see that letter (written in Hawaiian) and its translation in the Ali‘i Letters Collection at Hawaiian Mission Houses – here: https://hmha.missionhouses.org/collections/show/178. | 1,310 | ENGLISH | 1 |
TERRY GROSS, HOST:
This is FRESH AIR. I'm Terry Gross. The American South in the post-Reconstruction era was a land of broken promises and brutal oppression for African Americans, as white leaders stripped former slaves of many of the civil and voting rights they'd won after the Civil War. But in the 1890s, the port city of Wilmington, N.C., was an exception. It had a thriving black middle class, a large black electorate and a local government that included black aldermen, police officers and magistrates.
That ended in 1898 with a bloody campaign of violence and intimidation by white supremacists, which our guest journalist David Zucchino calls America's first and only armed overthrow of a legally elected government. Zucchino chronicles the events in a new book called "Wilmington's Lie: The Murderous Coup Of 1898 And The Rise Of White Supremacy." David Zucchino is a contributing writer for The New York Times. He's covered war and civil conflicts in more than three dozen countries and was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for his reporting from apartheid South Africa. He spoke with FRESH AIR's Dave Davies.
DAVE DAVIES, BYLINE: Well, David Zucchino, welcome to FRESH AIR. This is an amazing story. And it's set in Wilmington, N.C., in the 1890s. It's a coastal city, then the largest city in North Carolina - right? - and remarkable for the status that African Americans held at that city at a, you know - which was a city in the Deep South. Give us a sense of where black citizens stood in Wilmington then.
DAVID ZUCCHINO: Wilmington was really an outlier. It was really a unique city in the South at that time. It was - first of all, it was a majority black city, and it was probably one of the very, very few major cities in the South that had a black majority. It was 56% black. There was a multiracial government at the time, where blacks served in positions of power, and that was extremely rare in the South at that time. There were three black aldermen. There were 10 black policemen. There were black magistrates. There was a daily black newspaper, which was very unusual in the South. There weren't that many because the white media really dominated.
This was, really, more than the white supremacists could bear. They had been in power in North Carolina since Reconstruction but had lost control of Wilmington and the state Legislature in 1894 through a combination of the Populist Party, which was made up of poor whites, abandoning the Democratic Party and going over to the Republican Party and aligning themselves with not only white republicans but black Republicans, and the blacks were the ones that had put the Republicans in power.
And so that's how they had reached this status in Wilmington with a burgeoning black middle class, with black doctors, black lawyers, black professionals. It was quite an unusual situation and, again, something that white supremacists were not going to allow to stand.
DAVIES: Right. And to remind people who may not remember 19th century politics as well, back then, the Democrats were the party of white supremacy; the Republicans were the ones that African Americans joined and supported. So you had this black middle class and meaningful representation in government. How did whites handle this? What were race relations like in the city?
ZUCCHINO: It was interesting. Take the black newspaper for example, The Daily Record, white businessmen bought ads in the paper. There were ads in the newspaper that appealed to both blacks and whites. Blacks worked in white businesses, with the whites clearly in charge but with fairly cordial relations. There was racial segregation at the time, but Wilmington was unusual in that a lot of the neighborhoods were mixed, where you had blacks and whites living together, even in the working classes, which was, again, a little unusual for a city in the South at that time.
DAVIES: Obviously, there were whites who resented this. And a plan arose to to retake Wilmington and much of the state from this combination of Republicans and populists, which had given African Americans a meaningful role in government. The violence occurred in the November 1898 election, but the planning started months ahead of time. What happened?
ZUCCHINO: It started in the spring, when the publisher of The News & Observer, which was the most powerful and influential paper in North Carolina, met with the head of the Democratic Party, a man named Furnifold Simmons. And they came up with a plan to overthrow the government in Wilmington, which was the largest and most important city. But they had a larger goal in mind, and that was to deprive the blacks of the vote and deprive them of the ability to serve in elected or appointed office ever again. And this plan was hatched over a period of several months during the spring, summer and fall of 1898, leading up to the elections in November.
And the way they did this was to set up sort of a military formation in Wilmington, where they had block captains and block lieutenants assigned. They brought in weapons from as far away as Richmond and Baltimore. Whites armed themselves with shotguns and Winchesters. They did not allow blacks, on the other hand, to buy any weapons. The merchants of the city bought a new rapid-fire Colt machine gun for the state militia.
And this was a very important point that people don't realize, that the white leadership had control of two state militias, the Wilmington Light Infantry and the city's naval reserves. These were both state militias that purportedly answered to the governor in Raleigh. They were basically the National Guard of the day. But they were made up of white supremacists, and they were controlled by the white supremacist leadership. And at the same time, the city's merchants would buy guns for poor whites who couldn't afford the guns. So the city was incredibly well-armed and prepared for the day when the leadership had set aside after the election to overthrow the government.
DAVIES: Right. So there were clearly preparations for a military assault. But there was a huge effort here also in propaganda, in information, in disinformation, fake news, if you want. Give us a sense of what kind of information was propagated which helped to create the atmosphere for this counterrevolution.
ZUCCHINO: Yeah. At the time, newspapers were the king of media. They were really the only media. And The News & Observer in Raleigh was the king of media in North Carolina. And Josephus Daniels orchestrated probably the most effective and impressive disinformation campaign up until that time. It was two-pronged. It focused on telling white voters that black public officials were incompetent and corrupt and utterly incapable of governing and utterly incapable of having the intelligence to vote and, at the same time, being sexually insatiable and on the prowl for white women. They even used a term for it - it was the black beast rapist.
And Daniels planted these false stories around eastern North Carolina, and particularly in Wilmington, of black men supposedly attacking and assaulting white women and without any protection from a police force that they said was run by black policemen. So this was very, very effective, and it was picked up by other papers around the state and particularly the papers in Wilmington. And they incited whites to attack blacks. And part of the plan was to make sure that blacks did not register to vote because blacks outnumbered whites in Wilmington, and they could overwhelm them with sheer numbers. So during the summer, as part of this campaign, the whites created a Red Shirt militia. These were gunmen who dressed in red shirts, went out at night into black areas and would break into black homes, yank men out and beat them and whip them and threaten them - threaten to kill them if they registered to vote.
At the same time, as part of this campaign, white merchants were told to find out whether any of their black employees had planned to register to vote or had registered to vote. If they had registered to vote, they were fired. If they hadn't, they were told that they would be fired if they did register to vote.
DAVIES: Another thread of stories arose about - stories of a black insurrection coming. People remembered the Nat Turner revolt, which would have been - what? - the 1830s, right? I mean, many, many years.
DAVIES: Right. But the idea was sold that blacks were planning an armed revolt, thus justifying arming and, you know, oppressing blacks.
ZUCCHINO: Yes, this was part of the whole newspaper campaign. I mean, day after day, The News & Observer in Raleigh and the papers in Wilmington and papers elsewhere in eastern North Carolina kept warning of a black revolution, of a black riot. They would print stories saying blacks were stockpiling weapons, when it was fact that - it was the whites who were stockpiling the weapons, that blacks were planning to kill white women and white children and take over the city, take over churches, burn them down, burn down white businesses and take over the town.
And in fact, some of the whites believed their own propaganda, and they set up safe places for white families to flee when the black riots started. They set up churches and places of business where they would take white families for protection. And in fact, in the days before the election and before the planned riot - which was two days after the election - a lot of whites sent their families out of the city for fear of this black uprising.
DAVIES: And we should just note here that it wasn't - blacks didn't run the entire government, but they had allies among populist whites. They had formed this coalition between populist whites and the Republican Party, which allowed them to win these elections, which were, you know, more tolerant of black participation and black voting rights.
ZUCCHINO: Exactly. And part of the propaganda campaign was really targeted against what they called carpetbaggers, which were northern - white northerners who had come down and scallywags, which were southerners who were called race traitors, and these were people who were in positions of power in the government. The newspapers railed against what they called, quote, "Negro rule," when in fact, only a very, very small proportion of public officials in Wilmington and in eastern North Carolina were black. Most of the power resided in their Republican white allies.
But the white supremacy campaign - and that's another interesting point. They actually called it the white supremacy campaign. I mean, they were proud of it. And they made it very clear that they were going to restore white supremacy as official government policy.
DAVIES: David Zucchino's book is "Wilmington's Lie: The Murderous Coup Of 1898 And The Rise Of White Supremacy." We'll continue our conversation after this short break. This is FRESH AIR.
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DAVIES: This is FRESH AIR. And we're speaking with investigative reporter David Zucchino. His new book tells the story of the violent assault staged by white supremacist mobs in 1898 to take control of the city of Wilmington, N.C., at a time when African Americans there had real voting rights and significant representation in local government. Zucchino's book is called "Wilmington's Lie."
There was a very influential piece by an African American newspaper editor, Alex Manly, which played a role in all of these events. Tell us about this. Tell us about him, too.
ZUCCHINO: Yeah. Alex Manly was a very, very courageous, crusading black editor. He was, in fact, the grandson of a white governor, in fact, and he could have passed as white, which many people with white ancestors did, but he chose to live his life as a black man. And he advocated for black civil rights, and he demanded that the federal government live up to its promises of equality and citizenship and voting rights for blacks. And he did so through the pages of his paper, The Daily Record.
In August of 1898, he responded to a speech that was given by a woman in - a white woman in Georgia, who said the only solution to black aggression against white women was to lynch. And she said, I - she said lynch a thousand times a day, if necessary. And he felt like he had to respond to that. And I would like to read just a couple of lines...
ZUCCHINO: ...From the editorial he wrote in August.
Quote, (Reading) Every Negro lynched is called a big, burly black brute, when in fact, many of those who have been dealt with had white men for their fathers and were not only black and burly but were sufficiently attractive for white girls of culture and refinement to fall in love with them, as is very well known to all. Let virtue be something more than an excuse for them to intimidate and torture a helpless people. Tell your men that it is no worse for a black man to be intimate with a white woman than for a white man to be intimate with a colored woman. You set yourself down as a lot of carping hypocrites in that you cry aloud for the virtue of your women when you seek to destroy the morality of ours.
And as you can imagine, that had an incredible incendiary impact on whites not only in Wilmington, across North Carolina and across the South because the white newspapers reprinted the editorial in full to try to incite whites against blacks. And in fact, after the editorial ran, there were - the Red Shirts, which was the private militia of the white supremacy movement, wanted to lynch Alex Manly that day. And to show you how premeditated and calculated this white supremacy campaign was, they were ordered by the leaders of the campaign to wait until after the elections in November, three months later, when it would have greater political impact. So Alex Manly did survive up until just before the election, and then the Red Shirts rose up again and wanted to lynch him. He found out about it, and he fled Wilmington and never returned.
DAVIES: So November 8 is election day in Wilmington and across the state. What happened in Wilmington?
ZUCCHINO: In Wilmington, blacks tried to summon the courage to go out and vote. And some of them did manage to vote, but a lot of them were intercepted by these gunmen, known as Red Shirts, and either threatened or beaten or intimidated and driven away from the polls. And the Red Shirts also went to polling stations and stuffed ballot boxes with phony Democratic ballots and destroyed Republican ballots. And there were instances in several precincts where the Democratic candidate won with more votes than the number of total registered voters in the district. So it was a complete fraud, and the election was stolen. The Democrats did take over county offices in the counties surrounding Wilmington, and they took back the state legislature.
DAVIES: Right. And, of course, the municipal officials, which included some African Americans and their Republican - white Republican allies, were not on the ballot that day. And there was a plan to deal with them, and that really meant constraining the white mobs who wanted to really do violence and burn the black newspaper. The plan was not to do that on Election Day. What was the plan?
ZUCCHINO: The plan was to wait two days until after the election and to use the newly empowered position that they had as a result of winning the election to overthrow the government. And this was very carefully planned. There was a mass meeting of white men the day after the election where they issued something they called the White Declaration of Independence. They said, from now on, black jobs will be given to white men. There will be no more black officials in public office or in appointed office. Whites will rule. This is white men's country, and whites will rule it.
And then they planned and organized for the next day for the Red Shirts to go out and, first, burn Alex Manly's Record newspaper because as I say, the Red Shirts had been just determined all summer to lynch Alex Manly. And they were given permission to do that that day. Once they burned the newspaper and returned, the smoke and the sound of the fire alarms just terrified black workers in the city, and they all fled their jobs and went back to their neighborhoods. And some of them congregated in a black neighborhood that was on the edge of a mixed-race neighborhood. They congregated on a corner. Some of them had managed to grab a few weapons to try to defend themselves, and there was a showdown with the whites who had just returned from burning the black newspaper. And a huge crowd of white armed men developed and confronted this small group of blacks on a corner.
And after some shouting and yelling back and forth, gunfire broke out. The whites fired first, and the riot began. And for the rest of the day, the Red Shirts and the two state militias rampaged through the streets, chased down black men, killed at least 60 black men and, at the same time, came up with a banishment list of some 50 people, black and white, who were to be banished from Wilmington forever. They rounded these people up and literally ran them out of town on a rail. They took them to the train station and put them on trains and told them never to come back, and not one of them ever did.
DAVIES: What about the women and children? The gunfire was directed at black men. What about their families? What became - what did they do?
ZUCCHINO: Black families were so terrified at their men being shot down in the street that they fled. Just hundreds of families just fled to the swamps, to a black cemetery where they figured whites would not enter, and hid in the woods for several days. This was in November. It was cold and wet at night. There were reports that some babies died during this horrible experience. Once the black families felt it was safe to come back to Wilmington several days later, in the weeks and months following the coup, more than 2,000 blacks fled the city. And a black majority city almost overnight became a white supremacist stronghold. In 1898, the black population of Wilmington was 56%, and today it is 18%.
GROSS: We're listening to the interview FRESH AIR's Dave Davies recorded with David Zucchino, a contributing writer for The New York Times and author of the new book "Wilmington's Lie: The Murderous Coup Of 1898 And The Rise Of White Supremacy". After a break, they'll talk about how Wilmington's white leaders passed discriminatory laws restricting voting rights for blacks in North Carolina that lasted for the next 70 years, and jazz critic Kevin Whitehead will review a recording that recently surfaced of saxophonist Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis and Johnny Griffin. I'm Terry Gross, and this is FRESH AIR.
(SOUNDBITE OF WYNTON MARSALIS SEPTET'S "SUNFLOWERS")
GROSS: This is FRESH AIR. I'm Terry Gross. Let's get back to the interview FRESH AIR's Dave Davies recorded with veteran investigative reporter David Zucchino. His new book "Wilmington's Lie" tells the story of the violent assault staged by white supremacist mobs in 1898 to take control of the city of Wilmington, N.C., at a time when African Americans there had real voting rights and representation in local government.
DAVIES: This wasn't simply a change of government. It was a radical transformation of the lives of black citizens. You want to just talk about that a little bit? Some of - I mean, you know, they were successful attorneys and merchants who had real lives and stakes in the community and lots of black people who were employed in working-class roles. How were their lives affected by this?
ZUCCHINO: The leading - the black - the doctors and the lawyers and the funeral directors and the ministers were put on this list to be banished, and they were all confronted in their homes that night, the night of the riot, and told they had 24 hours to get their affairs in order and leave. And they were all put on trains and sent out of town, and not one of them ever came back. There was one man named Thomas Miller, who was one of the wealthiest people, black or white, in Wilmington. He was a real estate broker, a very shrewd businessman. He owned a restaurant. He had been a deputy sheriff. And he was so successful, he was seen as a threat by the white leadership. And he was dragged from his home by the militia - by the state militia - taken to jail overnight and, the next day, put on a train and driven from the city. And he, like all the others, never came back.
This was not only a coup. It was a revolution. I mean, this had reverberations across North Carolina and the South that inspired white supremacists across the South. The effect of the coup and the aftermath was that blacks did not hold elected or appointed offices in Wilmington or in eastern North Carolina for another 70 years. I mean, after they drove three black aldermen from office at gunpoint, no black citizens served on the city council until 1972.
The white supremacists also hounded the only black member of Congress in the country in 1898, a man named George Henry White who was from eastern North Carolina and represented North Carolina in Congress. They hounded him and his family, and he left after the coup, saying, I cannot live in North Carolina and be treated like a man. And from that point on, no African American citizen served in Congress from North Carolina until 1992. So this had major repercussions, and it was indeed a revolution.
DAVIES: You know, one little detail which underlined the permanence of these changes were that Tom Miller, this wealthy black citizen of Wilmington, the real estate broker who was banished from the city, years later asked permission to just come back to attend his mother's funeral. What happened?
ZUCCHINO: That, to me, was one of just the saddest episodes in this book. He begged. He wrote a letter to a white colonel he knew in the city who he thought he was a friend and just begged for permission. Just - I just want to come back and bury my mother. She's the oldest living resident of this part of Wilmington. And he was just refused permission, and he wrote this heartbreaking, plaintive letter where he just said he had been treated worse than a dog, that he had done nothing wrong. It was a terrible injustice. It broke his heart, and he died two years later just a broken man.
DAVIES: You know, this was an occasion of horrific violence inflicted upon blacks, and it was a stolen election in that all of these state offices went from Republican to Democratic hands in what were clearly circumstances of corruption and intimidation. But there's a third element of this. I mean, you say that this was America's first and only armed overthrow of a legally elected government, and that's because there were local officials who were not on the ballot; that, even after these horrific events, were technically still in office, legally elected - some of them African Americans. What happened to them?
ZUCCHINO: A mob of Red Shirts marched on city hall, led by a former Confederate colonel named Alfred Moore Waddell, at gunpoint, confronted the city councilmen and ordered them to resign. And they had no choice. They did resign. But the amazing thing was that they held an impromptu, quote, "election." And the mob leaders, the people who actually led the riot and had run through the streets killing black men, were appointed or, quote, "elected" to fill their positions on the city council. And Colonel Waddell was, quote, "elected" as mayor. So the mob leaders put themselves in charge, and they ran the city for years afterwards.
DAVIES: In the civil rights movement, it was the federal government that often was the difference-maker when local whites were in charge and denying blacks rights. There were efforts to get President William McKinley to intervene, both before these events and then to investigate afterwards. What became of that?
ZUCCHINO: Yes. During the whole summer and fall of 1898, George Henry White, the U.S. congressman from North Carolina, met personally in the White House with McKinley and warned him that whites were planning this revolution and that were planning to intimidate and kill black citizens. Black clergymen met with McKinley and warned him about it. Black ministers in Washington, D.C., held several meetings, mass meetings where they warned of the, quote, "race war" coming in North Carolina. After the coup and the massacre, McKinley was approached again by George Henry White. He met with a black delegation, who told him what had happened and begged him to send federal troops. But in order for federal troops to come in, they had to be requested by the governor. And Governor Russell was besieged in his mansion. He was terrified, and he wasn't about to call in the troops.
And at the same time, President McKinley, who was an abolitionist - he was a former union officer - had campaigned on bringing the nation together. And these events occurred during the summer of 1898 in the middle of the Spanish-American War, and that war had sort of reunited the North and the South 30 years after the Civil War. And I don't think McKinley really wanted to interrupt that sense of nationhood, even though there was a real undercurrent of jingoism there. And at the same time, like any politician, he was running for re-election, and he needed white votes from the South. And now, I don't think he wanted to antagonize whites, so he made a decision to stay out of it, and I could find no record that he made any public comment about the events in Wilmington, before or afterward.
DAVIES: As the election approached, through the summer and fall of 1898, you had white militias forming in Wilmington and surrounding communities, violence being inflicted upon blacks, lots of, you know, incendiary language being thrown around in newspaper editorials. Did this attract national attention?
ZUCCHINO: Absolutely. This was known as, quote, "the race war in the Carolinas." And newspapers from around the country sent their white reporters down in the spring, summer and fall of 1898 to cover this race war. The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Philadelphia Inquirer, the Chicago Tribune, the Washington Evening Star, The Baltimore Sun - all the major papers of the day came down and covered it.
And what was really interesting was when these reporters would arrive at the train station, the leaders of the white supremacy movement would meet them and hand out cigars and whiskey and arrange for their lodging. And they would also arrange, essentially, for them, to use a modern term, to embed with them. They took them around the city and filled them with stories of how blacks were stockpiling weapons in black churches and were planning to rise up and riot and take over the city.
And the newspapers from the North repeated the talking points of the white supremacists almost word for word. So their stories were extremely slanted and even swallowed the white supremacy narrative that blacks were incapable of voting, that they weren't intelligent enough to vote and certainly were not intelligent or capable enough to hold office and had to be removed.
DAVIES: We're speaking with David Zucchino. He's an investigative reporter. His new book is "Wilmington's Lie: The Murderous Coup Of 1898 And The Rise Of White Supremacy." We'll take a short break, then we'll talk some more. This is FRESH AIR.
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DAVIES: This is FRESH AIR. And we're speaking with investigative reporter David Zucchino. He has a new book which tells the story of the violent assault staged by white supremacist mobs in 1898 to take control of the city of Wilmington, N.C., at a time when African Americans there had real voting rights and significant roles in local government. His book is called "Wilmington's Lie."
So after this violence in 1898, what measures were - did the white leaders enact to make permanent the denial of voting rights for blacks?
ZUCCHINO: Even before the coup, white supremacists had instituted poll taxes and literacy tests. In poll taxes, you were required to pay a fee in order to register to vote, and this was intended to keep blacks from voting because so many blacks were poor. The literacy test was run after whites stole the election. The poll watchers and the people who registered people were now suddenly all Democrats. And they would impose these literacy tests on blacks and force them to do things, like recite from memory the preamble to the Constitution.
But the problem was that up to a quarter of all whites in North Carolina were illiterate and so they couldn't pass the literacy tests, and many whites were poor so they couldn't afford the poll taxes. So the leaders of the white supremacy campaign had been elected to the state Legislature, so they passed what they called a suffrage amendment, which contained a grandfather clause, which said that if your grandfather or any descendant had voted prior to 1867, you were exempted from the poll tax and the literacy test. Well, conveniently enough, blacks did not get to vote in North Carolina until 1868. So essentially, the grandfather clause eliminated almost all black men in North Carolina because very, very few of them - none of them, in fact - had an ancestor who had voted before 1867.
DAVIES: And that law, clearly discriminatory provision, stood for how long?
ZUCCHINO: It stood until the passage of the Voting Rights Act in 1965, so for basically 70 years.
DAVIES: You know, the name of your book is "Wilmington's Lie," which is an interesting way to set a focus on this; it's not just the events, but how they were remembered over the years. In the decades that followed, how were these violent events characterized by white papers, white newspapers and leaders in the South?
ZUCCHINO: Right. The first thing I should remind people is this was unique. There have been many so-called race riots in American history, both in the 19th century and the early 20th century, you know, such as Atlanta in 1906 and Tulsa in 1921. But these were spontaneous, and the spark was usually contact between a black man and a white woman. The coup in Wilmington was completely unique. First of all, it was not a race riot; it was a coup, and it was premeditated. It was calculated and planned for months, and there's never been another case like this in American history.
And after the coup, in the years following, the white supremacists were quite proud of what they did, and they bragged openly about it in letters and in diaries and in memoirs. But then, gradually, over the years, it was covered up. It was not taught in history books in North Carolina, and if it was mentioned, it was mentioned as part of this lost cause mythology of the South of whites rising up in defense of good government and eliminating incompetent and corrupt blacks from government. So that's the way it was portrayed for more than a hundred years. I went to high school and college in North Carolina, and not once was this ever mentioned in any history class.
DAVIES: Over time, in the late 20th century, attitudes changed, and people began to learn about it and consider the narrative of what happened in Wilmington in 1898. And then there was the approaching 100th anniversary, and that culminated in quite a debate about how these events were to be regarded. How did the community contend with this legacy?
ZUCCHINO: The University of North Carolina at Wilmington decided that the time had come to really burrow down and find out what really happened and to educate people about what really happened. And they decided to try to bring whites and blacks together, including descendants on both sides of people who had been involved in the events of 1898. It was a very, very emotional and painful time, but I believe they did accomplish something.
They had several symposiums. They - at one point, on exactly 100 years after white supremacists gave a speech before the election, vowing to choke the Cape Fear River with black carcasses, they held a joint black and white referendum where they signed what they called a declaration of black and white independence. They had church choirs from black and white churches sing hymns together. They came up with a definition of what had happened. And rather than a race riot, they decided that it was racial violence. The true story was told.
But there were still quite a few resentments on both sides. For the whites, there was an undercurrent of why are we dredging up this ancient history? This happened 100 years ago. Let's just let it die. And obviously, for African Americans, a great sense of loss. Their middle-class community was destroyed and, really, never rebuilt. They had suffered - their families had suffered for generations. There were calls for reparations, which created more friction.
But in the end, they created a memorial that was a block from the site of where the first gunshots rang out in 1898. They put up a plaque that told the true story of what had been called a race riot but was, in fact, a coup. So I believe, in the end, they did reach sort of an uneasy accommodation with the events of 100 years earlier.
DAVIES: You also spoke with descendants of some of the African American leaders at the time, including Alex Manly. What did you hear?
ZUCCHINO: I talked to Alex Manly's grandson, Lewin Manly Junior, who at the time was 85 years old. He's a retired dentist living in Atlanta. And he grew up - he knew his grandfather as a child for a few years. He knew Alex Manly's wife very well, his grandmother. And as he was growing up, he kept hearing these stories about Wilmington in 1898 and how his grandfather was directly involved. His family would not tell him anything. And it really pained him, and it bothered him that he could not get anything out of his family.
And he realized much later that this was such a painful and searing experience for the family that they decided they would never talk about it again. Alex Manly did not tell anyone the details of what had happened. He said very little about it. He said he wanted to let the past bury the past, would not talk about it up until his death in the 1940s. His grandson learned the true story of what had happened in 2006. This was when a state commission, which had been appointed to - investigated the causes and the impact of the riot, had spent five years investigating it, and in 2006, came out with a 400-page report that just detailed what had happened.
And Lewin Manly read this and was astonished, had no idea what had happened. And when I talked to him, I asked him, you know, can you ever forgive the whites for what they did to your grandfather 120 years ago? And he says, well, I'm not a religious man, and I can't forget, and I won't forgive. I hope they're burning in hell - all of them.
DAVIES: Well, David Zucchino, thanks so much for speaking with us.
ZUCCHINO: It's great to be with you, Dave.
GROSS: David Zucchino is a contributing writer for The New York Times. His new book is called "Wilmington's Lie: The Murderous Coup Of 1898 And The Rise Of White Supremacy." After we take a short break, Kevin Whitehead will review a recording that recently surfaced of saxophonist Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis and Johnny Griffin. This is FRESH AIR.
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0.20733052492... | 9 | TERRY GROSS, HOST:
This is FRESH AIR. I'm Terry Gross. The American South in the post-Reconstruction era was a land of broken promises and brutal oppression for African Americans, as white leaders stripped former slaves of many of the civil and voting rights they'd won after the Civil War. But in the 1890s, the port city of Wilmington, N.C., was an exception. It had a thriving black middle class, a large black electorate and a local government that included black aldermen, police officers and magistrates.
That ended in 1898 with a bloody campaign of violence and intimidation by white supremacists, which our guest journalist David Zucchino calls America's first and only armed overthrow of a legally elected government. Zucchino chronicles the events in a new book called "Wilmington's Lie: The Murderous Coup Of 1898 And The Rise Of White Supremacy." David Zucchino is a contributing writer for The New York Times. He's covered war and civil conflicts in more than three dozen countries and was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for his reporting from apartheid South Africa. He spoke with FRESH AIR's Dave Davies.
DAVE DAVIES, BYLINE: Well, David Zucchino, welcome to FRESH AIR. This is an amazing story. And it's set in Wilmington, N.C., in the 1890s. It's a coastal city, then the largest city in North Carolina - right? - and remarkable for the status that African Americans held at that city at a, you know - which was a city in the Deep South. Give us a sense of where black citizens stood in Wilmington then.
DAVID ZUCCHINO: Wilmington was really an outlier. It was really a unique city in the South at that time. It was - first of all, it was a majority black city, and it was probably one of the very, very few major cities in the South that had a black majority. It was 56% black. There was a multiracial government at the time, where blacks served in positions of power, and that was extremely rare in the South at that time. There were three black aldermen. There were 10 black policemen. There were black magistrates. There was a daily black newspaper, which was very unusual in the South. There weren't that many because the white media really dominated.
This was, really, more than the white supremacists could bear. They had been in power in North Carolina since Reconstruction but had lost control of Wilmington and the state Legislature in 1894 through a combination of the Populist Party, which was made up of poor whites, abandoning the Democratic Party and going over to the Republican Party and aligning themselves with not only white republicans but black Republicans, and the blacks were the ones that had put the Republicans in power.
And so that's how they had reached this status in Wilmington with a burgeoning black middle class, with black doctors, black lawyers, black professionals. It was quite an unusual situation and, again, something that white supremacists were not going to allow to stand.
DAVIES: Right. And to remind people who may not remember 19th century politics as well, back then, the Democrats were the party of white supremacy; the Republicans were the ones that African Americans joined and supported. So you had this black middle class and meaningful representation in government. How did whites handle this? What were race relations like in the city?
ZUCCHINO: It was interesting. Take the black newspaper for example, The Daily Record, white businessmen bought ads in the paper. There were ads in the newspaper that appealed to both blacks and whites. Blacks worked in white businesses, with the whites clearly in charge but with fairly cordial relations. There was racial segregation at the time, but Wilmington was unusual in that a lot of the neighborhoods were mixed, where you had blacks and whites living together, even in the working classes, which was, again, a little unusual for a city in the South at that time.
DAVIES: Obviously, there were whites who resented this. And a plan arose to to retake Wilmington and much of the state from this combination of Republicans and populists, which had given African Americans a meaningful role in government. The violence occurred in the November 1898 election, but the planning started months ahead of time. What happened?
ZUCCHINO: It started in the spring, when the publisher of The News & Observer, which was the most powerful and influential paper in North Carolina, met with the head of the Democratic Party, a man named Furnifold Simmons. And they came up with a plan to overthrow the government in Wilmington, which was the largest and most important city. But they had a larger goal in mind, and that was to deprive the blacks of the vote and deprive them of the ability to serve in elected or appointed office ever again. And this plan was hatched over a period of several months during the spring, summer and fall of 1898, leading up to the elections in November.
And the way they did this was to set up sort of a military formation in Wilmington, where they had block captains and block lieutenants assigned. They brought in weapons from as far away as Richmond and Baltimore. Whites armed themselves with shotguns and Winchesters. They did not allow blacks, on the other hand, to buy any weapons. The merchants of the city bought a new rapid-fire Colt machine gun for the state militia.
And this was a very important point that people don't realize, that the white leadership had control of two state militias, the Wilmington Light Infantry and the city's naval reserves. These were both state militias that purportedly answered to the governor in Raleigh. They were basically the National Guard of the day. But they were made up of white supremacists, and they were controlled by the white supremacist leadership. And at the same time, the city's merchants would buy guns for poor whites who couldn't afford the guns. So the city was incredibly well-armed and prepared for the day when the leadership had set aside after the election to overthrow the government.
DAVIES: Right. So there were clearly preparations for a military assault. But there was a huge effort here also in propaganda, in information, in disinformation, fake news, if you want. Give us a sense of what kind of information was propagated which helped to create the atmosphere for this counterrevolution.
ZUCCHINO: Yeah. At the time, newspapers were the king of media. They were really the only media. And The News & Observer in Raleigh was the king of media in North Carolina. And Josephus Daniels orchestrated probably the most effective and impressive disinformation campaign up until that time. It was two-pronged. It focused on telling white voters that black public officials were incompetent and corrupt and utterly incapable of governing and utterly incapable of having the intelligence to vote and, at the same time, being sexually insatiable and on the prowl for white women. They even used a term for it - it was the black beast rapist.
And Daniels planted these false stories around eastern North Carolina, and particularly in Wilmington, of black men supposedly attacking and assaulting white women and without any protection from a police force that they said was run by black policemen. So this was very, very effective, and it was picked up by other papers around the state and particularly the papers in Wilmington. And they incited whites to attack blacks. And part of the plan was to make sure that blacks did not register to vote because blacks outnumbered whites in Wilmington, and they could overwhelm them with sheer numbers. So during the summer, as part of this campaign, the whites created a Red Shirt militia. These were gunmen who dressed in red shirts, went out at night into black areas and would break into black homes, yank men out and beat them and whip them and threaten them - threaten to kill them if they registered to vote.
At the same time, as part of this campaign, white merchants were told to find out whether any of their black employees had planned to register to vote or had registered to vote. If they had registered to vote, they were fired. If they hadn't, they were told that they would be fired if they did register to vote.
DAVIES: Another thread of stories arose about - stories of a black insurrection coming. People remembered the Nat Turner revolt, which would have been - what? - the 1830s, right? I mean, many, many years.
DAVIES: Right. But the idea was sold that blacks were planning an armed revolt, thus justifying arming and, you know, oppressing blacks.
ZUCCHINO: Yes, this was part of the whole newspaper campaign. I mean, day after day, The News & Observer in Raleigh and the papers in Wilmington and papers elsewhere in eastern North Carolina kept warning of a black revolution, of a black riot. They would print stories saying blacks were stockpiling weapons, when it was fact that - it was the whites who were stockpiling the weapons, that blacks were planning to kill white women and white children and take over the city, take over churches, burn them down, burn down white businesses and take over the town.
And in fact, some of the whites believed their own propaganda, and they set up safe places for white families to flee when the black riots started. They set up churches and places of business where they would take white families for protection. And in fact, in the days before the election and before the planned riot - which was two days after the election - a lot of whites sent their families out of the city for fear of this black uprising.
DAVIES: And we should just note here that it wasn't - blacks didn't run the entire government, but they had allies among populist whites. They had formed this coalition between populist whites and the Republican Party, which allowed them to win these elections, which were, you know, more tolerant of black participation and black voting rights.
ZUCCHINO: Exactly. And part of the propaganda campaign was really targeted against what they called carpetbaggers, which were northern - white northerners who had come down and scallywags, which were southerners who were called race traitors, and these were people who were in positions of power in the government. The newspapers railed against what they called, quote, "Negro rule," when in fact, only a very, very small proportion of public officials in Wilmington and in eastern North Carolina were black. Most of the power resided in their Republican white allies.
But the white supremacy campaign - and that's another interesting point. They actually called it the white supremacy campaign. I mean, they were proud of it. And they made it very clear that they were going to restore white supremacy as official government policy.
DAVIES: David Zucchino's book is "Wilmington's Lie: The Murderous Coup Of 1898 And The Rise Of White Supremacy." We'll continue our conversation after this short break. This is FRESH AIR.
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DAVIES: This is FRESH AIR. And we're speaking with investigative reporter David Zucchino. His new book tells the story of the violent assault staged by white supremacist mobs in 1898 to take control of the city of Wilmington, N.C., at a time when African Americans there had real voting rights and significant representation in local government. Zucchino's book is called "Wilmington's Lie."
There was a very influential piece by an African American newspaper editor, Alex Manly, which played a role in all of these events. Tell us about this. Tell us about him, too.
ZUCCHINO: Yeah. Alex Manly was a very, very courageous, crusading black editor. He was, in fact, the grandson of a white governor, in fact, and he could have passed as white, which many people with white ancestors did, but he chose to live his life as a black man. And he advocated for black civil rights, and he demanded that the federal government live up to its promises of equality and citizenship and voting rights for blacks. And he did so through the pages of his paper, The Daily Record.
In August of 1898, he responded to a speech that was given by a woman in - a white woman in Georgia, who said the only solution to black aggression against white women was to lynch. And she said, I - she said lynch a thousand times a day, if necessary. And he felt like he had to respond to that. And I would like to read just a couple of lines...
ZUCCHINO: ...From the editorial he wrote in August.
Quote, (Reading) Every Negro lynched is called a big, burly black brute, when in fact, many of those who have been dealt with had white men for their fathers and were not only black and burly but were sufficiently attractive for white girls of culture and refinement to fall in love with them, as is very well known to all. Let virtue be something more than an excuse for them to intimidate and torture a helpless people. Tell your men that it is no worse for a black man to be intimate with a white woman than for a white man to be intimate with a colored woman. You set yourself down as a lot of carping hypocrites in that you cry aloud for the virtue of your women when you seek to destroy the morality of ours.
And as you can imagine, that had an incredible incendiary impact on whites not only in Wilmington, across North Carolina and across the South because the white newspapers reprinted the editorial in full to try to incite whites against blacks. And in fact, after the editorial ran, there were - the Red Shirts, which was the private militia of the white supremacy movement, wanted to lynch Alex Manly that day. And to show you how premeditated and calculated this white supremacy campaign was, they were ordered by the leaders of the campaign to wait until after the elections in November, three months later, when it would have greater political impact. So Alex Manly did survive up until just before the election, and then the Red Shirts rose up again and wanted to lynch him. He found out about it, and he fled Wilmington and never returned.
DAVIES: So November 8 is election day in Wilmington and across the state. What happened in Wilmington?
ZUCCHINO: In Wilmington, blacks tried to summon the courage to go out and vote. And some of them did manage to vote, but a lot of them were intercepted by these gunmen, known as Red Shirts, and either threatened or beaten or intimidated and driven away from the polls. And the Red Shirts also went to polling stations and stuffed ballot boxes with phony Democratic ballots and destroyed Republican ballots. And there were instances in several precincts where the Democratic candidate won with more votes than the number of total registered voters in the district. So it was a complete fraud, and the election was stolen. The Democrats did take over county offices in the counties surrounding Wilmington, and they took back the state legislature.
DAVIES: Right. And, of course, the municipal officials, which included some African Americans and their Republican - white Republican allies, were not on the ballot that day. And there was a plan to deal with them, and that really meant constraining the white mobs who wanted to really do violence and burn the black newspaper. The plan was not to do that on Election Day. What was the plan?
ZUCCHINO: The plan was to wait two days until after the election and to use the newly empowered position that they had as a result of winning the election to overthrow the government. And this was very carefully planned. There was a mass meeting of white men the day after the election where they issued something they called the White Declaration of Independence. They said, from now on, black jobs will be given to white men. There will be no more black officials in public office or in appointed office. Whites will rule. This is white men's country, and whites will rule it.
And then they planned and organized for the next day for the Red Shirts to go out and, first, burn Alex Manly's Record newspaper because as I say, the Red Shirts had been just determined all summer to lynch Alex Manly. And they were given permission to do that that day. Once they burned the newspaper and returned, the smoke and the sound of the fire alarms just terrified black workers in the city, and they all fled their jobs and went back to their neighborhoods. And some of them congregated in a black neighborhood that was on the edge of a mixed-race neighborhood. They congregated on a corner. Some of them had managed to grab a few weapons to try to defend themselves, and there was a showdown with the whites who had just returned from burning the black newspaper. And a huge crowd of white armed men developed and confronted this small group of blacks on a corner.
And after some shouting and yelling back and forth, gunfire broke out. The whites fired first, and the riot began. And for the rest of the day, the Red Shirts and the two state militias rampaged through the streets, chased down black men, killed at least 60 black men and, at the same time, came up with a banishment list of some 50 people, black and white, who were to be banished from Wilmington forever. They rounded these people up and literally ran them out of town on a rail. They took them to the train station and put them on trains and told them never to come back, and not one of them ever did.
DAVIES: What about the women and children? The gunfire was directed at black men. What about their families? What became - what did they do?
ZUCCHINO: Black families were so terrified at their men being shot down in the street that they fled. Just hundreds of families just fled to the swamps, to a black cemetery where they figured whites would not enter, and hid in the woods for several days. This was in November. It was cold and wet at night. There were reports that some babies died during this horrible experience. Once the black families felt it was safe to come back to Wilmington several days later, in the weeks and months following the coup, more than 2,000 blacks fled the city. And a black majority city almost overnight became a white supremacist stronghold. In 1898, the black population of Wilmington was 56%, and today it is 18%.
GROSS: We're listening to the interview FRESH AIR's Dave Davies recorded with David Zucchino, a contributing writer for The New York Times and author of the new book "Wilmington's Lie: The Murderous Coup Of 1898 And The Rise Of White Supremacy". After a break, they'll talk about how Wilmington's white leaders passed discriminatory laws restricting voting rights for blacks in North Carolina that lasted for the next 70 years, and jazz critic Kevin Whitehead will review a recording that recently surfaced of saxophonist Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis and Johnny Griffin. I'm Terry Gross, and this is FRESH AIR.
(SOUNDBITE OF WYNTON MARSALIS SEPTET'S "SUNFLOWERS")
GROSS: This is FRESH AIR. I'm Terry Gross. Let's get back to the interview FRESH AIR's Dave Davies recorded with veteran investigative reporter David Zucchino. His new book "Wilmington's Lie" tells the story of the violent assault staged by white supremacist mobs in 1898 to take control of the city of Wilmington, N.C., at a time when African Americans there had real voting rights and representation in local government.
DAVIES: This wasn't simply a change of government. It was a radical transformation of the lives of black citizens. You want to just talk about that a little bit? Some of - I mean, you know, they were successful attorneys and merchants who had real lives and stakes in the community and lots of black people who were employed in working-class roles. How were their lives affected by this?
ZUCCHINO: The leading - the black - the doctors and the lawyers and the funeral directors and the ministers were put on this list to be banished, and they were all confronted in their homes that night, the night of the riot, and told they had 24 hours to get their affairs in order and leave. And they were all put on trains and sent out of town, and not one of them ever came back. There was one man named Thomas Miller, who was one of the wealthiest people, black or white, in Wilmington. He was a real estate broker, a very shrewd businessman. He owned a restaurant. He had been a deputy sheriff. And he was so successful, he was seen as a threat by the white leadership. And he was dragged from his home by the militia - by the state militia - taken to jail overnight and, the next day, put on a train and driven from the city. And he, like all the others, never came back.
This was not only a coup. It was a revolution. I mean, this had reverberations across North Carolina and the South that inspired white supremacists across the South. The effect of the coup and the aftermath was that blacks did not hold elected or appointed offices in Wilmington or in eastern North Carolina for another 70 years. I mean, after they drove three black aldermen from office at gunpoint, no black citizens served on the city council until 1972.
The white supremacists also hounded the only black member of Congress in the country in 1898, a man named George Henry White who was from eastern North Carolina and represented North Carolina in Congress. They hounded him and his family, and he left after the coup, saying, I cannot live in North Carolina and be treated like a man. And from that point on, no African American citizen served in Congress from North Carolina until 1992. So this had major repercussions, and it was indeed a revolution.
DAVIES: You know, one little detail which underlined the permanence of these changes were that Tom Miller, this wealthy black citizen of Wilmington, the real estate broker who was banished from the city, years later asked permission to just come back to attend his mother's funeral. What happened?
ZUCCHINO: That, to me, was one of just the saddest episodes in this book. He begged. He wrote a letter to a white colonel he knew in the city who he thought he was a friend and just begged for permission. Just - I just want to come back and bury my mother. She's the oldest living resident of this part of Wilmington. And he was just refused permission, and he wrote this heartbreaking, plaintive letter where he just said he had been treated worse than a dog, that he had done nothing wrong. It was a terrible injustice. It broke his heart, and he died two years later just a broken man.
DAVIES: You know, this was an occasion of horrific violence inflicted upon blacks, and it was a stolen election in that all of these state offices went from Republican to Democratic hands in what were clearly circumstances of corruption and intimidation. But there's a third element of this. I mean, you say that this was America's first and only armed overthrow of a legally elected government, and that's because there were local officials who were not on the ballot; that, even after these horrific events, were technically still in office, legally elected - some of them African Americans. What happened to them?
ZUCCHINO: A mob of Red Shirts marched on city hall, led by a former Confederate colonel named Alfred Moore Waddell, at gunpoint, confronted the city councilmen and ordered them to resign. And they had no choice. They did resign. But the amazing thing was that they held an impromptu, quote, "election." And the mob leaders, the people who actually led the riot and had run through the streets killing black men, were appointed or, quote, "elected" to fill their positions on the city council. And Colonel Waddell was, quote, "elected" as mayor. So the mob leaders put themselves in charge, and they ran the city for years afterwards.
DAVIES: In the civil rights movement, it was the federal government that often was the difference-maker when local whites were in charge and denying blacks rights. There were efforts to get President William McKinley to intervene, both before these events and then to investigate afterwards. What became of that?
ZUCCHINO: Yes. During the whole summer and fall of 1898, George Henry White, the U.S. congressman from North Carolina, met personally in the White House with McKinley and warned him that whites were planning this revolution and that were planning to intimidate and kill black citizens. Black clergymen met with McKinley and warned him about it. Black ministers in Washington, D.C., held several meetings, mass meetings where they warned of the, quote, "race war" coming in North Carolina. After the coup and the massacre, McKinley was approached again by George Henry White. He met with a black delegation, who told him what had happened and begged him to send federal troops. But in order for federal troops to come in, they had to be requested by the governor. And Governor Russell was besieged in his mansion. He was terrified, and he wasn't about to call in the troops.
And at the same time, President McKinley, who was an abolitionist - he was a former union officer - had campaigned on bringing the nation together. And these events occurred during the summer of 1898 in the middle of the Spanish-American War, and that war had sort of reunited the North and the South 30 years after the Civil War. And I don't think McKinley really wanted to interrupt that sense of nationhood, even though there was a real undercurrent of jingoism there. And at the same time, like any politician, he was running for re-election, and he needed white votes from the South. And now, I don't think he wanted to antagonize whites, so he made a decision to stay out of it, and I could find no record that he made any public comment about the events in Wilmington, before or afterward.
DAVIES: As the election approached, through the summer and fall of 1898, you had white militias forming in Wilmington and surrounding communities, violence being inflicted upon blacks, lots of, you know, incendiary language being thrown around in newspaper editorials. Did this attract national attention?
ZUCCHINO: Absolutely. This was known as, quote, "the race war in the Carolinas." And newspapers from around the country sent their white reporters down in the spring, summer and fall of 1898 to cover this race war. The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Philadelphia Inquirer, the Chicago Tribune, the Washington Evening Star, The Baltimore Sun - all the major papers of the day came down and covered it.
And what was really interesting was when these reporters would arrive at the train station, the leaders of the white supremacy movement would meet them and hand out cigars and whiskey and arrange for their lodging. And they would also arrange, essentially, for them, to use a modern term, to embed with them. They took them around the city and filled them with stories of how blacks were stockpiling weapons in black churches and were planning to rise up and riot and take over the city.
And the newspapers from the North repeated the talking points of the white supremacists almost word for word. So their stories were extremely slanted and even swallowed the white supremacy narrative that blacks were incapable of voting, that they weren't intelligent enough to vote and certainly were not intelligent or capable enough to hold office and had to be removed.
DAVIES: We're speaking with David Zucchino. He's an investigative reporter. His new book is "Wilmington's Lie: The Murderous Coup Of 1898 And The Rise Of White Supremacy." We'll take a short break, then we'll talk some more. This is FRESH AIR.
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DAVIES: This is FRESH AIR. And we're speaking with investigative reporter David Zucchino. He has a new book which tells the story of the violent assault staged by white supremacist mobs in 1898 to take control of the city of Wilmington, N.C., at a time when African Americans there had real voting rights and significant roles in local government. His book is called "Wilmington's Lie."
So after this violence in 1898, what measures were - did the white leaders enact to make permanent the denial of voting rights for blacks?
ZUCCHINO: Even before the coup, white supremacists had instituted poll taxes and literacy tests. In poll taxes, you were required to pay a fee in order to register to vote, and this was intended to keep blacks from voting because so many blacks were poor. The literacy test was run after whites stole the election. The poll watchers and the people who registered people were now suddenly all Democrats. And they would impose these literacy tests on blacks and force them to do things, like recite from memory the preamble to the Constitution.
But the problem was that up to a quarter of all whites in North Carolina were illiterate and so they couldn't pass the literacy tests, and many whites were poor so they couldn't afford the poll taxes. So the leaders of the white supremacy campaign had been elected to the state Legislature, so they passed what they called a suffrage amendment, which contained a grandfather clause, which said that if your grandfather or any descendant had voted prior to 1867, you were exempted from the poll tax and the literacy test. Well, conveniently enough, blacks did not get to vote in North Carolina until 1868. So essentially, the grandfather clause eliminated almost all black men in North Carolina because very, very few of them - none of them, in fact - had an ancestor who had voted before 1867.
DAVIES: And that law, clearly discriminatory provision, stood for how long?
ZUCCHINO: It stood until the passage of the Voting Rights Act in 1965, so for basically 70 years.
DAVIES: You know, the name of your book is "Wilmington's Lie," which is an interesting way to set a focus on this; it's not just the events, but how they were remembered over the years. In the decades that followed, how were these violent events characterized by white papers, white newspapers and leaders in the South?
ZUCCHINO: Right. The first thing I should remind people is this was unique. There have been many so-called race riots in American history, both in the 19th century and the early 20th century, you know, such as Atlanta in 1906 and Tulsa in 1921. But these were spontaneous, and the spark was usually contact between a black man and a white woman. The coup in Wilmington was completely unique. First of all, it was not a race riot; it was a coup, and it was premeditated. It was calculated and planned for months, and there's never been another case like this in American history.
And after the coup, in the years following, the white supremacists were quite proud of what they did, and they bragged openly about it in letters and in diaries and in memoirs. But then, gradually, over the years, it was covered up. It was not taught in history books in North Carolina, and if it was mentioned, it was mentioned as part of this lost cause mythology of the South of whites rising up in defense of good government and eliminating incompetent and corrupt blacks from government. So that's the way it was portrayed for more than a hundred years. I went to high school and college in North Carolina, and not once was this ever mentioned in any history class.
DAVIES: Over time, in the late 20th century, attitudes changed, and people began to learn about it and consider the narrative of what happened in Wilmington in 1898. And then there was the approaching 100th anniversary, and that culminated in quite a debate about how these events were to be regarded. How did the community contend with this legacy?
ZUCCHINO: The University of North Carolina at Wilmington decided that the time had come to really burrow down and find out what really happened and to educate people about what really happened. And they decided to try to bring whites and blacks together, including descendants on both sides of people who had been involved in the events of 1898. It was a very, very emotional and painful time, but I believe they did accomplish something.
They had several symposiums. They - at one point, on exactly 100 years after white supremacists gave a speech before the election, vowing to choke the Cape Fear River with black carcasses, they held a joint black and white referendum where they signed what they called a declaration of black and white independence. They had church choirs from black and white churches sing hymns together. They came up with a definition of what had happened. And rather than a race riot, they decided that it was racial violence. The true story was told.
But there were still quite a few resentments on both sides. For the whites, there was an undercurrent of why are we dredging up this ancient history? This happened 100 years ago. Let's just let it die. And obviously, for African Americans, a great sense of loss. Their middle-class community was destroyed and, really, never rebuilt. They had suffered - their families had suffered for generations. There were calls for reparations, which created more friction.
But in the end, they created a memorial that was a block from the site of where the first gunshots rang out in 1898. They put up a plaque that told the true story of what had been called a race riot but was, in fact, a coup. So I believe, in the end, they did reach sort of an uneasy accommodation with the events of 100 years earlier.
DAVIES: You also spoke with descendants of some of the African American leaders at the time, including Alex Manly. What did you hear?
ZUCCHINO: I talked to Alex Manly's grandson, Lewin Manly Junior, who at the time was 85 years old. He's a retired dentist living in Atlanta. And he grew up - he knew his grandfather as a child for a few years. He knew Alex Manly's wife very well, his grandmother. And as he was growing up, he kept hearing these stories about Wilmington in 1898 and how his grandfather was directly involved. His family would not tell him anything. And it really pained him, and it bothered him that he could not get anything out of his family.
And he realized much later that this was such a painful and searing experience for the family that they decided they would never talk about it again. Alex Manly did not tell anyone the details of what had happened. He said very little about it. He said he wanted to let the past bury the past, would not talk about it up until his death in the 1940s. His grandson learned the true story of what had happened in 2006. This was when a state commission, which had been appointed to - investigated the causes and the impact of the riot, had spent five years investigating it, and in 2006, came out with a 400-page report that just detailed what had happened.
And Lewin Manly read this and was astonished, had no idea what had happened. And when I talked to him, I asked him, you know, can you ever forgive the whites for what they did to your grandfather 120 years ago? And he says, well, I'm not a religious man, and I can't forget, and I won't forgive. I hope they're burning in hell - all of them.
DAVIES: Well, David Zucchino, thanks so much for speaking with us.
ZUCCHINO: It's great to be with you, Dave.
GROSS: David Zucchino is a contributing writer for The New York Times. His new book is called "Wilmington's Lie: The Murderous Coup Of 1898 And The Rise Of White Supremacy." After we take a short break, Kevin Whitehead will review a recording that recently surfaced of saxophonist Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis and Johnny Griffin. This is FRESH AIR.
(SOUNDBITE OF CHARLES MINGUS' "SELF-PORTRAIT IN THREE COLORS") Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR. | 7,687 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Behind the scenes of the conservation process, an additional activity often takes place which is just as meaningful – restoration. This activity, which recreates history in the present, imbues it with additional meanings and transforms the old into new. In food, restoration is an inherent action dating from ancient times. The drying of foods with salt preserves them over time, and reconstituting them with liquids imbues them with new flavors that differ from their original ones. A flourishing industry of salt preservation of fish was located on the banks of the Sea of Galilee and along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The conservation process was done at “salt plants” along the shoreline, where fresh fish plucked from the sea were received, cleaned, salted and packaged. Throughout history, a plethora of recipes have been collected that re-translated the flavors of those fish by periods and evolving traditions. For one week, 15 tons of salt was brought to Jerusalem from the salt factory at Atlit, which was used to reconstruct the “salt plants” and show the work of local conservation activities. During the opening evening, fish that were pressed in salt and preserved the flavor and culinary tradition in Israel, were extracted from the walls of the salt structure and brought back to life using restoration facilities, special tools and various types of concoctions.
Photos by Noa Penn | <urn:uuid:3b63f7f6-86b3-442c-8a96-90782f5efb31> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.melafood.com/salt-repast | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.980187 | 278 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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-0.13938590... | 14 | Behind the scenes of the conservation process, an additional activity often takes place which is just as meaningful – restoration. This activity, which recreates history in the present, imbues it with additional meanings and transforms the old into new. In food, restoration is an inherent action dating from ancient times. The drying of foods with salt preserves them over time, and reconstituting them with liquids imbues them with new flavors that differ from their original ones. A flourishing industry of salt preservation of fish was located on the banks of the Sea of Galilee and along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The conservation process was done at “salt plants” along the shoreline, where fresh fish plucked from the sea were received, cleaned, salted and packaged. Throughout history, a plethora of recipes have been collected that re-translated the flavors of those fish by periods and evolving traditions. For one week, 15 tons of salt was brought to Jerusalem from the salt factory at Atlit, which was used to reconstruct the “salt plants” and show the work of local conservation activities. During the opening evening, fish that were pressed in salt and preserved the flavor and culinary tradition in Israel, were extracted from the walls of the salt structure and brought back to life using restoration facilities, special tools and various types of concoctions.
Photos by Noa Penn | 270 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pride and Prejudice: The Jewish Doctor Who Fought for LGBT Rights Over a Century Ago
Pride Month, and its celebration of the many ways to love and be loved, is a result of years of activism and advocacy on the part of LGBTQ+ people and their allies, particularly starting in the 1960s. But before the dawn of the 20th century one German Jewish doctor and sexologist, Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld, became a pioneer for LGBTQ+ rights, paving the way for the world to recognize the existence and legal rights of individuals regardless of their sexual orientation.
Hirschfeld was born in 1868 Kolberg (now Kolobrzeg) Poland and eventually moved to Germany in order to earn his doctoral degree. After moving to Berlin in 1896 and establishing a practice there, Hirschfeld embarked on a remarkably productive career in both the study of sexuality and advocating for the rights of sexual minorities.
For Hirschfeld, this was a matter of life and death, after treating a number of patients who attempted or eventually committed suicide because of their sexuality; later, in 1919, he would even write a film, Different from the Others (Anders als die Andern) and even had a small role in which he urges a man not to commit suicide after his lover does. Additionally, this activism was also personal; Hirschfield’s own sexuality was an open secret, and he lived with his two life partners, Karl Giese, and Li Shiu Tong.
In 1897, Hirschfeld co-founded the Scientific Humanitarian Committee, which is considered to be the first organization promoting for gay and transgender rights. Hirschfeld and the other founders of the committee hoped that a more scientific understanding of homosexuality would eventually lead the public to reject homophobia. In addition to conducting scientific research, the Committee worked to decriminalize homosexual relationships between men in Germany; one petition to repeal the criminal law against male homosexuality garnered thousands of signatures, including Albert Einstein.
Over the course of his research and activism, Hirschfeld made a number of pronouncements that proved him to be someone who was very ahead of his time. He determined that there were categories beyond “male” or “female,” which he referred to as “sexual intermediaries,” which included transgender people, and people who were gay, lesbian, or bisexual, making him one of the first to acknowledge the existence of gender-nonconforming people and variations of human sexuality.
Hirschfield also believed that gay rights and women’s rights were closely linked, and also advocated for contraception, access to abortion, and premarital sex and argued against policies dictating that female teachers and civil servants could not be married or have children. In 1919, during the more liberal years of the Weimar Republic, Hirschfeld co-founded the Institute of Sexual research, which provided medical and educational services to thousands of annual visitors, and also employed and gave medical treatment to transgender people.
As a Jew, a gay man, and a prominent proponent of LGBTQ+ rights, Hirschfeld was always a target for German nationalists and was even beaten and left seriously injured in 1920. After the Nazis came to power in 1933, Hirschfeld became even more of a target. The Institute for Sexual Science was stormed by Nazi university students, who beat staff, damaged the property, and shouted “burn Hirschfeld!”; books were later removed from the library for a book-burning event. The Institute was forced to close. Hirschfeld, who was abroad on a speaking tour, never returned to Berlin; he eventually moved to France, where he died in 1935.
Although Hirschfeld did not live to see it, many of his ideas ultimately moved from the fringes to the mainstream. As we celebrate Pride Month, we should also make sure to remember the Jewish doctor from Berlin who helped pave the way for its existence, and who dedicated his life to the idea that, as he put it, “love is as varied as people are.” | <urn:uuid:400075db-01da-4ffe-af70-9ec3758d8caa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bh.org.il/blog-items/pride-and-prejudice-the-jewish-doctor-who-fought-for-lgbt-rights-over-a-century-ago/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00206.warc.gz | en | 0.981819 | 831 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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-0.0479787550866... | 4 | Pride and Prejudice: The Jewish Doctor Who Fought for LGBT Rights Over a Century Ago
Pride Month, and its celebration of the many ways to love and be loved, is a result of years of activism and advocacy on the part of LGBTQ+ people and their allies, particularly starting in the 1960s. But before the dawn of the 20th century one German Jewish doctor and sexologist, Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld, became a pioneer for LGBTQ+ rights, paving the way for the world to recognize the existence and legal rights of individuals regardless of their sexual orientation.
Hirschfeld was born in 1868 Kolberg (now Kolobrzeg) Poland and eventually moved to Germany in order to earn his doctoral degree. After moving to Berlin in 1896 and establishing a practice there, Hirschfeld embarked on a remarkably productive career in both the study of sexuality and advocating for the rights of sexual minorities.
For Hirschfeld, this was a matter of life and death, after treating a number of patients who attempted or eventually committed suicide because of their sexuality; later, in 1919, he would even write a film, Different from the Others (Anders als die Andern) and even had a small role in which he urges a man not to commit suicide after his lover does. Additionally, this activism was also personal; Hirschfield’s own sexuality was an open secret, and he lived with his two life partners, Karl Giese, and Li Shiu Tong.
In 1897, Hirschfeld co-founded the Scientific Humanitarian Committee, which is considered to be the first organization promoting for gay and transgender rights. Hirschfeld and the other founders of the committee hoped that a more scientific understanding of homosexuality would eventually lead the public to reject homophobia. In addition to conducting scientific research, the Committee worked to decriminalize homosexual relationships between men in Germany; one petition to repeal the criminal law against male homosexuality garnered thousands of signatures, including Albert Einstein.
Over the course of his research and activism, Hirschfeld made a number of pronouncements that proved him to be someone who was very ahead of his time. He determined that there were categories beyond “male” or “female,” which he referred to as “sexual intermediaries,” which included transgender people, and people who were gay, lesbian, or bisexual, making him one of the first to acknowledge the existence of gender-nonconforming people and variations of human sexuality.
Hirschfield also believed that gay rights and women’s rights were closely linked, and also advocated for contraception, access to abortion, and premarital sex and argued against policies dictating that female teachers and civil servants could not be married or have children. In 1919, during the more liberal years of the Weimar Republic, Hirschfeld co-founded the Institute of Sexual research, which provided medical and educational services to thousands of annual visitors, and also employed and gave medical treatment to transgender people.
As a Jew, a gay man, and a prominent proponent of LGBTQ+ rights, Hirschfeld was always a target for German nationalists and was even beaten and left seriously injured in 1920. After the Nazis came to power in 1933, Hirschfeld became even more of a target. The Institute for Sexual Science was stormed by Nazi university students, who beat staff, damaged the property, and shouted “burn Hirschfeld!”; books were later removed from the library for a book-burning event. The Institute was forced to close. Hirschfeld, who was abroad on a speaking tour, never returned to Berlin; he eventually moved to France, where he died in 1935.
Although Hirschfeld did not live to see it, many of his ideas ultimately moved from the fringes to the mainstream. As we celebrate Pride Month, we should also make sure to remember the Jewish doctor from Berlin who helped pave the way for its existence, and who dedicated his life to the idea that, as he put it, “love is as varied as people are.” | 839 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The US passed the first whistleblower law in 1777
In February 1777, two naval officers, Third Lieutenant Richard Marven and Midshipman Samuel Shaw, were growing concerned that their unruly captain was hell-bent on causing the self-destruction of their vessel, the USS Warren.
“Bastards!” Commodore Esek Hopkins yelled with impunity. The two men particularly hated the Commodore’s affinity for swearing, though they dared not speak out against their commander, breaking the chain of command.
“Weren’t our orders to not torture British prisoners?” Marven and Shaw pondered introspectively, as the ship lay anchored in the waters outside of Rhode Island.
This question posed a dilemma to the devoted men: Should they ignore their orders from John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress, or defy their captain’s orders?
Perhaps mutiny was considered, but for them, the bigger concern was that the crew would desert, leaving the fledgling Continental Navy with one less fighting ship.
Grumblings among the crew were growing to a boiling point. Commodore Hopkins had appalled his men by torturing British prisoners of war, failing to attack a British frigate in their vicinity, and not moving his ship to Boston Harbor, all of which were ordered by the Continental Congress.
Given these transgressions, Marven and Shaw decided to hold an officers meeting below deck, sans Commodore Hopkins.
What came from that meeting was a petition signed by 10 brave men. Each signed their name and wrote a brief description of their complaint.
The document was then smuggled off the ship by one of the petitioners, Captain John Grannis, and delivered to the Continental Congress, 250-miles away in Philadelphia.
Much respected gentlemen, We, who present this petition, engaged on board the ship Warren [sic], with as earnest desire and fixed expectations of doing our country Some Service.”
This is where things got dicey for the “mutineers,” especially Marven and Shaw, who had no idea the magnitude of what they had just done.
Not only were there no laws to protect them from breaching the chain of command, but Commodore Hopkins was no ordinary sea captain — he was the Commander of the entire Continental Navy.
Commodore Hopkins came from one of the most prominent families in Rhode Island — influential enough for his brother to have signed the Declaration of Independence.
When the Continental Congress effectively declared war on Britain, it was Hopkins they called upon to serve.
He had been something of a hero in the early months of the American Revolution, conducting successful rais on British strongholds in the Bahamas.
Even though Hopkins’ tactics in the Bahamas were highly praised (by Continental luminaries like John Paul Jones and Benjamin Franklin), when he had trouble enlisting men for his fleet, his political opponents turned against him.
It appears he may have been the victim of a policy that encouraged would-be sailors to pass on joining the American fleet in favor of becoming privateers.
Privateers got to keep whatever they plundered from the British, whereas Navy boats, under the command of Congress, had to turn over their plunder to the government to aid in the war effort.
Hopkins blamed this policy on the fact that he had been given command of no less than eight warships but failed to recruit a crew for his fleet.
His accomplishments in the Bahamas were discredited, his swearing and poor character were becoming a problem, but when his men turned up with a formal complaint against him, Congress received the news with mixed reactions.
Sources say that John Adams gave an impassioned defense of Commodore Hopkins, but in the end, Congress felt that his actions and his character were unbecoming of a man who was supposed to command the entire fleet, and recalled his commission on Jan. 2, 1778.
Commodore Hopkins cursed the Continental Congress, “They are a pack of damned fools!” He said. “ If I should follow their direction, the whole country will be ruined.”
That’s when the commodore did something highly controversial — he had Marven and Shaw thrown in jail. The colony of Rhode Island was all too happy to lay charges on the two men who besmirched the commodore, who was so admired in their community.
By leveling a libel suit against the two men, they were subject to the full brunt of colonial law.
Congress was appalled. Marven and Shaw had acted in good faith, for the better of the country, and now they were about to be punished severely for doing the right thing.
But there was nothing in place to help them, no law to save them, and Congress had to decide if they were going to let this happen. On July 30, 1778, they acted. They passed a resolution that read:
It is the duty of all persons in the service of the United States, as well as all other inhabitants thereof, to give the earliest information to Congress or any other proper authority of any misconduct, frauds or misdemeanors committed by any officers or persons in the service of these states, which may come to their knowledge.”
As the US moved in the coming years to establish a government with checks and balances, and an executive branch that was not above the law like the monarchs in Europe, they established a precedent that is very much in play today, right at this very moment.
But different from today’s whistleblower that caused the current impeachment proceedings against President Trump, Marven and Shaw were not protected from the law. The spent time in Rhode Island prison, while the Continental Congress footed the bill for their legal defense.
After months of being incarcerated, and a $1,418 legal bill later, Marven and Shaw were acquitted of the charges. As for Commodore Hopkins, he returned to Rhode Island where he continued to serve in the state’s General Assembly.
To ensure they acted in good faith, the Continental Congress released all records regarding their decision to remove Commodore Hopkins from his command.
Otherwise, we would’ve never known about these events, as now we can see for ourselves, that whistleblower protection, and checks and balances, are at the heart of the principles in which the United States of America was founded.
A deeper dive: Related reading on the 101
- This is your brain on Black Friday | Science 101
- Jello’s dark side: The dessert company’s little-known secrets | Finance 101 | <urn:uuid:f6098a29-42af-4a16-a8a2-a40567ab4de1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history101.com/the-us-passed-the-first-whistle-blower-law-in-history-in-1777/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00302.warc.gz | en | 0.981361 | 1,341 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.16657857596... | 2 | The US passed the first whistleblower law in 1777
In February 1777, two naval officers, Third Lieutenant Richard Marven and Midshipman Samuel Shaw, were growing concerned that their unruly captain was hell-bent on causing the self-destruction of their vessel, the USS Warren.
“Bastards!” Commodore Esek Hopkins yelled with impunity. The two men particularly hated the Commodore’s affinity for swearing, though they dared not speak out against their commander, breaking the chain of command.
“Weren’t our orders to not torture British prisoners?” Marven and Shaw pondered introspectively, as the ship lay anchored in the waters outside of Rhode Island.
This question posed a dilemma to the devoted men: Should they ignore their orders from John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress, or defy their captain’s orders?
Perhaps mutiny was considered, but for them, the bigger concern was that the crew would desert, leaving the fledgling Continental Navy with one less fighting ship.
Grumblings among the crew were growing to a boiling point. Commodore Hopkins had appalled his men by torturing British prisoners of war, failing to attack a British frigate in their vicinity, and not moving his ship to Boston Harbor, all of which were ordered by the Continental Congress.
Given these transgressions, Marven and Shaw decided to hold an officers meeting below deck, sans Commodore Hopkins.
What came from that meeting was a petition signed by 10 brave men. Each signed their name and wrote a brief description of their complaint.
The document was then smuggled off the ship by one of the petitioners, Captain John Grannis, and delivered to the Continental Congress, 250-miles away in Philadelphia.
Much respected gentlemen, We, who present this petition, engaged on board the ship Warren [sic], with as earnest desire and fixed expectations of doing our country Some Service.”
This is where things got dicey for the “mutineers,” especially Marven and Shaw, who had no idea the magnitude of what they had just done.
Not only were there no laws to protect them from breaching the chain of command, but Commodore Hopkins was no ordinary sea captain — he was the Commander of the entire Continental Navy.
Commodore Hopkins came from one of the most prominent families in Rhode Island — influential enough for his brother to have signed the Declaration of Independence.
When the Continental Congress effectively declared war on Britain, it was Hopkins they called upon to serve.
He had been something of a hero in the early months of the American Revolution, conducting successful rais on British strongholds in the Bahamas.
Even though Hopkins’ tactics in the Bahamas were highly praised (by Continental luminaries like John Paul Jones and Benjamin Franklin), when he had trouble enlisting men for his fleet, his political opponents turned against him.
It appears he may have been the victim of a policy that encouraged would-be sailors to pass on joining the American fleet in favor of becoming privateers.
Privateers got to keep whatever they plundered from the British, whereas Navy boats, under the command of Congress, had to turn over their plunder to the government to aid in the war effort.
Hopkins blamed this policy on the fact that he had been given command of no less than eight warships but failed to recruit a crew for his fleet.
His accomplishments in the Bahamas were discredited, his swearing and poor character were becoming a problem, but when his men turned up with a formal complaint against him, Congress received the news with mixed reactions.
Sources say that John Adams gave an impassioned defense of Commodore Hopkins, but in the end, Congress felt that his actions and his character were unbecoming of a man who was supposed to command the entire fleet, and recalled his commission on Jan. 2, 1778.
Commodore Hopkins cursed the Continental Congress, “They are a pack of damned fools!” He said. “ If I should follow their direction, the whole country will be ruined.”
That’s when the commodore did something highly controversial — he had Marven and Shaw thrown in jail. The colony of Rhode Island was all too happy to lay charges on the two men who besmirched the commodore, who was so admired in their community.
By leveling a libel suit against the two men, they were subject to the full brunt of colonial law.
Congress was appalled. Marven and Shaw had acted in good faith, for the better of the country, and now they were about to be punished severely for doing the right thing.
But there was nothing in place to help them, no law to save them, and Congress had to decide if they were going to let this happen. On July 30, 1778, they acted. They passed a resolution that read:
It is the duty of all persons in the service of the United States, as well as all other inhabitants thereof, to give the earliest information to Congress or any other proper authority of any misconduct, frauds or misdemeanors committed by any officers or persons in the service of these states, which may come to their knowledge.”
As the US moved in the coming years to establish a government with checks and balances, and an executive branch that was not above the law like the monarchs in Europe, they established a precedent that is very much in play today, right at this very moment.
But different from today’s whistleblower that caused the current impeachment proceedings against President Trump, Marven and Shaw were not protected from the law. The spent time in Rhode Island prison, while the Continental Congress footed the bill for their legal defense.
After months of being incarcerated, and a $1,418 legal bill later, Marven and Shaw were acquitted of the charges. As for Commodore Hopkins, he returned to Rhode Island where he continued to serve in the state’s General Assembly.
To ensure they acted in good faith, the Continental Congress released all records regarding their decision to remove Commodore Hopkins from his command.
Otherwise, we would’ve never known about these events, as now we can see for ourselves, that whistleblower protection, and checks and balances, are at the heart of the principles in which the United States of America was founded.
A deeper dive: Related reading on the 101
- This is your brain on Black Friday | Science 101
- Jello’s dark side: The dessert company’s little-known secrets | Finance 101 | 1,313 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Weimar Republic’s Constitution
Weimar Republic’s new constitution was adopted in August 1919. Many historians put the blame for Weimar’s future political problems on this constitution in that, ironically, it was too fair as it included everybody regardless of their political beliefs. However, Ebert was committed to democracy and the new constitution had his full support.
The constitution introduced a bi-cameral assembly: this was a parliament that was made up of two layers; one represented the whole nation (the Reichstag) and made whole-nation decisions while the other represented regions (the Reichsrat).
The Reichstag was made up of politicians who were elected through universal suffrage. All people over 20 years of age could vote. Politicians of the Reichstag sat for four years and then they had to stand for re-election. The Reichstag used a system of proportional representation for elections. Issues such as finance, tax, foreign policy etc. were discussed.
The Reichsrat represented regional governments within Germany such as Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony. Their task was limited to examining regional issues.
The president was the head of state. He was elected for a term of seven years.
The president could appoint his chancellor with the recommendation that the Chancellor should have the support of a majority in the Reichstag.
He was also in theory the head of the armed forces.
The president could also dissolve the Reichstag and call a general election if he felt the political situation warranted it.
He could also veto (refuse to support) Reichstag legislation (laws passed by the Reichstag). By doing this, the president could kill off any Reichstag laws he disapproved of.
The president could also declare a state of emergency and rule by emergency decree.
The constitution was genuinely democratic, after the sham democracy of Kaiser William II.
Elections were built around universal suffrage and proportional representation. However, the theoretical strength of the constitution was also its Achilles heel. Everybody was allowed to vote including extremists from both sides of the political spectrum – left and right. The system of proportional representation also meant that if any minor party got the necessary votes, they would have party members in the Reichstag. The major parties would continue to dominate the Reichstag, but the minor parties could disrupt proceedings and make the party in power – the Social Democrats – look incapable of maintaining order in its very seat of power. This is exactly what the new Nazi Party did in its early years. It got enough votes to get a few members into the Reichstag (as a result of proportional representation) and those Nazis elected then did what they could to ‘prove’ to the German people that Ebert and the Social Democrats were incompetent in dealing with such basics as maintaining discipline within the Reichstag.
The constitution was to play a major part in the years 1930 -1933 when the president, Hindenburg, appointed and sacked chancellors seemingly at will. | <urn:uuid:6c93209e-5525-4fc1-acd4-2b6681f20ad7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/weimar-germany/weimar-republics-constitution/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00462.warc.gz | en | 0.983848 | 618 | 4.53125 | 5 | [
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0.379118621... | 1 | Weimar Republic’s Constitution
Weimar Republic’s new constitution was adopted in August 1919. Many historians put the blame for Weimar’s future political problems on this constitution in that, ironically, it was too fair as it included everybody regardless of their political beliefs. However, Ebert was committed to democracy and the new constitution had his full support.
The constitution introduced a bi-cameral assembly: this was a parliament that was made up of two layers; one represented the whole nation (the Reichstag) and made whole-nation decisions while the other represented regions (the Reichsrat).
The Reichstag was made up of politicians who were elected through universal suffrage. All people over 20 years of age could vote. Politicians of the Reichstag sat for four years and then they had to stand for re-election. The Reichstag used a system of proportional representation for elections. Issues such as finance, tax, foreign policy etc. were discussed.
The Reichsrat represented regional governments within Germany such as Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony. Their task was limited to examining regional issues.
The president was the head of state. He was elected for a term of seven years.
The president could appoint his chancellor with the recommendation that the Chancellor should have the support of a majority in the Reichstag.
He was also in theory the head of the armed forces.
The president could also dissolve the Reichstag and call a general election if he felt the political situation warranted it.
He could also veto (refuse to support) Reichstag legislation (laws passed by the Reichstag). By doing this, the president could kill off any Reichstag laws he disapproved of.
The president could also declare a state of emergency and rule by emergency decree.
The constitution was genuinely democratic, after the sham democracy of Kaiser William II.
Elections were built around universal suffrage and proportional representation. However, the theoretical strength of the constitution was also its Achilles heel. Everybody was allowed to vote including extremists from both sides of the political spectrum – left and right. The system of proportional representation also meant that if any minor party got the necessary votes, they would have party members in the Reichstag. The major parties would continue to dominate the Reichstag, but the minor parties could disrupt proceedings and make the party in power – the Social Democrats – look incapable of maintaining order in its very seat of power. This is exactly what the new Nazi Party did in its early years. It got enough votes to get a few members into the Reichstag (as a result of proportional representation) and those Nazis elected then did what they could to ‘prove’ to the German people that Ebert and the Social Democrats were incompetent in dealing with such basics as maintaining discipline within the Reichstag.
The constitution was to play a major part in the years 1930 -1933 when the president, Hindenburg, appointed and sacked chancellors seemingly at will. | 595 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There is currently an international movement for the inclusion of students with disabilities in education. ‘Mainstreaming’ occurs when a child with special needs and/or a disability is taught in general classes while learning from the regular curriculum while receiving additional assistance when needed.
I had always gone to mainstream public schools up until the tenth grade when my parents decided to home-school me. Throughout my years in mainstream schools, there were times where I was the only student in mainstream classes with cerebral palsy and chronic illness. While I had support such as an IEP (Individualized Education Plan), the importance of inclusive learning wasn’t a topic that was really discussed.
Disability Awareness as Part of the Curriculum:
It’s important that the inclusion of children with disabilities and chronic illnesses is discussed in mainstream schools because we need to educate students about the different types of disabilities and chronic illness. This way, able-bodied students can have an idea about what students with disabilities and chronic illnesses have to face. This could encourage them to help their fellow students to have an easier school day.
We should also be discussing the topic of Disability History in schools, while learning about disability advocates such as Ed Roberts, who was the first student in a wheelchair to attend the University of California, Berkeley. He used his platform to speak out about disability rights for all. There is so much history that could be taught to students that currently isn’t.
Disability Awareness In Children:
Some teachers have witnessed that the inclusion of students with disabilities in mainstream classes has led to greater patience and understanding from the other students towards people with disabilities. This patience then transfers to the wider community as the students continue to grow and communicate.
From experience, I know that every time I entered a new school year it would be like starting kindergarten because I would have to constantly answer questions from others about my disability. Sometimes kids in society can be very blunt and sometimes the way kids would ask me questions about my cerebral palsy would be rude. Though I know they didn’t know that they were being rude.
This could be avoided if we had awareness in schools about the different types of disabilities they are and how one can differ from the other. For example, I find that spina bifida and cerebral palsy are two disabilities that get mixed up often. While they both can result in people using wheelchairs, they are two completely different disabilities.
Further education about people with disabilities shouldn’t end with students; Teachers should also receive more education about how to be inclusive towards students with disabilities and chronic illnesses.
Adapting education to be inclusive
Along with having a curriculum featuring disability activism that is taught in all education levels, we should also have adaptive activities for people with disabilities to participate in throughout the school year. This could include certain events that bring awareness to people with disabilities like a disability awareness week.
This could give a voice to students with disabilities and allow the students that have a hard time fitting in due to their disability a platform to share their experiences. This could allow them to bring awareness to the obstacles they face as students who are in an environment that wasn’t made for them, and how they must adapt, which can be extremely difficult.
I strongly feel that we as a community need to start fighting for schools to teach students about disabilities and chronic illness because knowledge understanding is the key to living in a world where everyone can feel accepted.
Tylia Flores is a 24-year-old born with cerebral palsy. Although her condition has affected her mobility, it has never affected her will and determination to make a difference in the world. Through her many life challenges and obstacles, she discovered her passion for writing. Tylia’s goal in life is to share her stories with the world. | <urn:uuid:7d0b6017-3a24-4f69-bd8e-6fb2557d6e6f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://theunchargeables.com/why-we-need-to-talk-about-disability-inclusiveness-in-schools/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.982256 | 777 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.2108037173748... | 5 | There is currently an international movement for the inclusion of students with disabilities in education. ‘Mainstreaming’ occurs when a child with special needs and/or a disability is taught in general classes while learning from the regular curriculum while receiving additional assistance when needed.
I had always gone to mainstream public schools up until the tenth grade when my parents decided to home-school me. Throughout my years in mainstream schools, there were times where I was the only student in mainstream classes with cerebral palsy and chronic illness. While I had support such as an IEP (Individualized Education Plan), the importance of inclusive learning wasn’t a topic that was really discussed.
Disability Awareness as Part of the Curriculum:
It’s important that the inclusion of children with disabilities and chronic illnesses is discussed in mainstream schools because we need to educate students about the different types of disabilities and chronic illness. This way, able-bodied students can have an idea about what students with disabilities and chronic illnesses have to face. This could encourage them to help their fellow students to have an easier school day.
We should also be discussing the topic of Disability History in schools, while learning about disability advocates such as Ed Roberts, who was the first student in a wheelchair to attend the University of California, Berkeley. He used his platform to speak out about disability rights for all. There is so much history that could be taught to students that currently isn’t.
Disability Awareness In Children:
Some teachers have witnessed that the inclusion of students with disabilities in mainstream classes has led to greater patience and understanding from the other students towards people with disabilities. This patience then transfers to the wider community as the students continue to grow and communicate.
From experience, I know that every time I entered a new school year it would be like starting kindergarten because I would have to constantly answer questions from others about my disability. Sometimes kids in society can be very blunt and sometimes the way kids would ask me questions about my cerebral palsy would be rude. Though I know they didn’t know that they were being rude.
This could be avoided if we had awareness in schools about the different types of disabilities they are and how one can differ from the other. For example, I find that spina bifida and cerebral palsy are two disabilities that get mixed up often. While they both can result in people using wheelchairs, they are two completely different disabilities.
Further education about people with disabilities shouldn’t end with students; Teachers should also receive more education about how to be inclusive towards students with disabilities and chronic illnesses.
Adapting education to be inclusive
Along with having a curriculum featuring disability activism that is taught in all education levels, we should also have adaptive activities for people with disabilities to participate in throughout the school year. This could include certain events that bring awareness to people with disabilities like a disability awareness week.
This could give a voice to students with disabilities and allow the students that have a hard time fitting in due to their disability a platform to share their experiences. This could allow them to bring awareness to the obstacles they face as students who are in an environment that wasn’t made for them, and how they must adapt, which can be extremely difficult.
I strongly feel that we as a community need to start fighting for schools to teach students about disabilities and chronic illness because knowledge understanding is the key to living in a world where everyone can feel accepted.
Tylia Flores is a 24-year-old born with cerebral palsy. Although her condition has affected her mobility, it has never affected her will and determination to make a difference in the world. Through her many life challenges and obstacles, she discovered her passion for writing. Tylia’s goal in life is to share her stories with the world. | 744 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Civil War is rife with examples of miscommunication and/or refusals to communicate which led to significantly changed circumstances. John Pope’s refusal to accept the word of several of his senior generals led to Lee’s overwhelming victory at Second Manassas. Burnside’s failure to order — in so many words — William Franklin at Fredericksburg to aim to sweep Lee’s right led to the disaster at Marye’s Heights.
The Battle of Franklin took place on November 30, 1864 after a seemingly-minor miscommunication. On November 27 Union commander John Schofield had used pontoons to build a bridge to get his army over the Duck River at Columbia. He then proceeded to burn them so the Confederates could not use them. Knowing that he was facing a much larger army than his, the Army of Tennessee under John Bell Hood, Schofield even then was planning his withdrawal north.
So he sent a message to commander George Thomas in Nashville noting that the bridge over the Harpeth River north of Franklin had previously been destroyed, and stating, “would it not be well to replace it by a pontoon bridge?” Thomas, perhaps wondering why Schofield was asking a question to which the answer was obvious, replied, “You can send some of the pontoons you used at Columbia to Franklin to lay a bridge there.” In the frantic situation of the next few days, Schofield apparently did not pay attention to the words Thomas used, and instead on November 29 he repeated his request for pontoons, again making no reference to the destruction at Columbia.
Thus, when Schofield arrived at Franklin the morning of November 30, there were no pontoons. He set out to re-build a former bridge, a task which took him and his engineers most of the day. In fact, new pontoons arrived after noon, but Schofield ignored them, continuing on his re-building task. The wagons of the army were able to use the new bridge to get over the Harpeth by the early afternoon, but Hood’s attack at 4 PM ensured that there would in fact be a Battle of Franklin.
Schofield biographer Donald Connelly has written, “the delay to repair and improve the bridge triggered the ensuing battle at Franklin and would fan discord and suspicion between Thomas and Schofield” for years to come.
What if the pontoons had been there as requested? Schofield would likely have been able to get his entire army to Brentwood, 2 miles to the north, by 4 PM. Maybe then historians would have been writing about the Battle of Brentwood as Hood ordered a flank attack led by Nathan Bedford Forrest!
Below are images of what the repaired bridge might have looked like at Franklin, Schofield, and Thomas | <urn:uuid:80c189d1-f1a5-4675-b7ca-b81b5c355fe4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://civilwarhistory-geneschmiel.com/2019/12/07/battle-of-franklin-pontoon-miscommunication-led-to-the-battle/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00327.warc.gz | en | 0.980539 | 592 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1646338403... | 4 | The Civil War is rife with examples of miscommunication and/or refusals to communicate which led to significantly changed circumstances. John Pope’s refusal to accept the word of several of his senior generals led to Lee’s overwhelming victory at Second Manassas. Burnside’s failure to order — in so many words — William Franklin at Fredericksburg to aim to sweep Lee’s right led to the disaster at Marye’s Heights.
The Battle of Franklin took place on November 30, 1864 after a seemingly-minor miscommunication. On November 27 Union commander John Schofield had used pontoons to build a bridge to get his army over the Duck River at Columbia. He then proceeded to burn them so the Confederates could not use them. Knowing that he was facing a much larger army than his, the Army of Tennessee under John Bell Hood, Schofield even then was planning his withdrawal north.
So he sent a message to commander George Thomas in Nashville noting that the bridge over the Harpeth River north of Franklin had previously been destroyed, and stating, “would it not be well to replace it by a pontoon bridge?” Thomas, perhaps wondering why Schofield was asking a question to which the answer was obvious, replied, “You can send some of the pontoons you used at Columbia to Franklin to lay a bridge there.” In the frantic situation of the next few days, Schofield apparently did not pay attention to the words Thomas used, and instead on November 29 he repeated his request for pontoons, again making no reference to the destruction at Columbia.
Thus, when Schofield arrived at Franklin the morning of November 30, there were no pontoons. He set out to re-build a former bridge, a task which took him and his engineers most of the day. In fact, new pontoons arrived after noon, but Schofield ignored them, continuing on his re-building task. The wagons of the army were able to use the new bridge to get over the Harpeth by the early afternoon, but Hood’s attack at 4 PM ensured that there would in fact be a Battle of Franklin.
Schofield biographer Donald Connelly has written, “the delay to repair and improve the bridge triggered the ensuing battle at Franklin and would fan discord and suspicion between Thomas and Schofield” for years to come.
What if the pontoons had been there as requested? Schofield would likely have been able to get his entire army to Brentwood, 2 miles to the north, by 4 PM. Maybe then historians would have been writing about the Battle of Brentwood as Hood ordered a flank attack led by Nathan Bedford Forrest!
Below are images of what the repaired bridge might have looked like at Franklin, Schofield, and Thomas | 562 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thomas Hunt Morgan Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Birth Place :
Thomas Hunt Morgan was born on September 25, 1866. He was an American biologist, geneticist, and embryologist. He was a Nobel Prize winner. He received the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his discoveries that explained the role played by the chromosome in heredity. His research mostly stressed on evolution.
Thomas Hunt Morgan was born on September 25, 1866, in Lexington in Kentucky. He was born to Charlton Hunt Morgan who was a former Confederate officer and Ellen Key Howard Morgan. The Morgans lost some of their civil and political rights because of their involvement with the Confederation during the Civil War. Thomas developed a loving for natural history as he would collect fossils and birds’ eggs. In 1880, he enrolled at the Preparatory Department of the College of Kentucky.
In 1882, Thomas Hunt Morgan was granted admission to the main college where he studied science and natural history. In 1886, he graduated with a Bachelor of Science Degree in Zoology. He later joined the Marine Biology School in Massachusetts. He then shifted to John Hopkins University, Baltimore where he studied biology, physiology, anatomy, morphology, and embryology. In 1888, he graduated with a Masters Degree from the State College of Kentucky. In 1890, he obtained his Ph.D. Degree from the Hopkins University.
In 1891, Thomas Hunt Morgan finished his postdoctoral. In the same year, he became an associate professor of Biology at Bryn Mawr College where he taught morphology. He was more interested in research and so spent his time at the College researching aquatic animals. In 1894, he went to Naples to research in the laboratories of Stanzione Zoologica. In 1895, he was made a full professor at Bryn Mawr College. He published his first book titled ‘The Development of the Frog’s Eggs.’
In 1897. Thomas Hunt Morgan began research on the capacity to regenerate in small animals. In 1901, he published his findings in his book titled ‘Regeneration.’ In 1903, he published the book ‘Evolution and Adaption’ which was not in sync with Darwin’s theory of natural selection. In 1904, he was appointed Professor of experimental zoology at the University of Columbia. He researched evolution and hereditary at the university. In 1908, he started researching Drosophila Melanogaster, also known as the common fruit fly. He discovered that male fruit flies were born with white eyes while the female flies were born with red eyes.
In 1909 and 1910 respectively Thomas Hunt Morgan published papers that sought to explain that chromosomes might be related to sex determination. In 1913, he released his finding on the sexual determination of flies in his book ‘Hereditary and Sex.’ In 1915, he published the book ‘The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity’ in collaboration with Calvin Bridges, H. J. Miller, and Sturtevant. In 1928, he moved to California after he was requested to establish a school of biology at the California Institute of Technology. In 1942, he retired from the Institute but remained a professor and chairman emeritus. He was also instrumental in the establishment of the Marine Laboratory at Corona del Mar.
Awards and Achievements
In 19191, Thomas Hunt Morgan became a Foreign Member of the Royal Society, London. In 1924, he was awarded the Darwin Medal by the Royal Society. In 1933, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity. In 1939, he received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society. He received an honorary LL.D from John Hopkins University. He also received an honorary Ph.D. from the University of Kentucky.
In 1904, Thomas Hunt Morgan married Lilian Vaughan Sampson with whom he had four children. He died on December 4, 1945, of a ruptured artery. He died at the age of seventy nine.
George D. Snell
Hermann Joseph Muller
Edward B. Lewis
Philip Allen Sharp
M. S. Swaminathan | <urn:uuid:6298e472-f0fb-4e38-aea8-dfc78de7be5c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/thomas-hunt-morgan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00168.warc.gz | en | 0.981542 | 857 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.108475327... | 1 | Thomas Hunt Morgan Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Birth Place :
Thomas Hunt Morgan was born on September 25, 1866. He was an American biologist, geneticist, and embryologist. He was a Nobel Prize winner. He received the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his discoveries that explained the role played by the chromosome in heredity. His research mostly stressed on evolution.
Thomas Hunt Morgan was born on September 25, 1866, in Lexington in Kentucky. He was born to Charlton Hunt Morgan who was a former Confederate officer and Ellen Key Howard Morgan. The Morgans lost some of their civil and political rights because of their involvement with the Confederation during the Civil War. Thomas developed a loving for natural history as he would collect fossils and birds’ eggs. In 1880, he enrolled at the Preparatory Department of the College of Kentucky.
In 1882, Thomas Hunt Morgan was granted admission to the main college where he studied science and natural history. In 1886, he graduated with a Bachelor of Science Degree in Zoology. He later joined the Marine Biology School in Massachusetts. He then shifted to John Hopkins University, Baltimore where he studied biology, physiology, anatomy, morphology, and embryology. In 1888, he graduated with a Masters Degree from the State College of Kentucky. In 1890, he obtained his Ph.D. Degree from the Hopkins University.
In 1891, Thomas Hunt Morgan finished his postdoctoral. In the same year, he became an associate professor of Biology at Bryn Mawr College where he taught morphology. He was more interested in research and so spent his time at the College researching aquatic animals. In 1894, he went to Naples to research in the laboratories of Stanzione Zoologica. In 1895, he was made a full professor at Bryn Mawr College. He published his first book titled ‘The Development of the Frog’s Eggs.’
In 1897. Thomas Hunt Morgan began research on the capacity to regenerate in small animals. In 1901, he published his findings in his book titled ‘Regeneration.’ In 1903, he published the book ‘Evolution and Adaption’ which was not in sync with Darwin’s theory of natural selection. In 1904, he was appointed Professor of experimental zoology at the University of Columbia. He researched evolution and hereditary at the university. In 1908, he started researching Drosophila Melanogaster, also known as the common fruit fly. He discovered that male fruit flies were born with white eyes while the female flies were born with red eyes.
In 1909 and 1910 respectively Thomas Hunt Morgan published papers that sought to explain that chromosomes might be related to sex determination. In 1913, he released his finding on the sexual determination of flies in his book ‘Hereditary and Sex.’ In 1915, he published the book ‘The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity’ in collaboration with Calvin Bridges, H. J. Miller, and Sturtevant. In 1928, he moved to California after he was requested to establish a school of biology at the California Institute of Technology. In 1942, he retired from the Institute but remained a professor and chairman emeritus. He was also instrumental in the establishment of the Marine Laboratory at Corona del Mar.
Awards and Achievements
In 19191, Thomas Hunt Morgan became a Foreign Member of the Royal Society, London. In 1924, he was awarded the Darwin Medal by the Royal Society. In 1933, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity. In 1939, he received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society. He received an honorary LL.D from John Hopkins University. He also received an honorary Ph.D. from the University of Kentucky.
In 1904, Thomas Hunt Morgan married Lilian Vaughan Sampson with whom he had four children. He died on December 4, 1945, of a ruptured artery. He died at the age of seventy nine.
George D. Snell
Hermann Joseph Muller
Edward B. Lewis
Philip Allen Sharp
M. S. Swaminathan | 937 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Politics is a difficult business — there's almost always a controversy or huge issue to work through. And getting people to completely agree on the solution is next to impossible. But even by these standards, the term of U.S. president Donald Trump has been an exceptional one.
Since being elected in 2016, he has governed with a unique style that has brought both passionate support and fiery opposition. But this week, his actions have brought him an honour he'd surely rather not have.
He is only the third American president to face a vote of impeachment.
As the House of Representatives spends this week voting on this issue, we thought we'd answer a few questions about what it all means, why it exists, and how it has affected the United States in the past.
What is impeachment?
Impeachment is a way of charging a government official with offenses against his or her office. It is not just about presidents — judges, senators, and others have been impeached. And it is not just an American process either. In fact, former Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff was impeached in August of 2016. She ended up losing her job, but impeachment doesn't always end that way.
In impeachment, arguments are presented to a government body as to why this official should no longer be in office. It is like a trial. Depending on how the government votes, the official either stays in office or loses their job.
Who votes on this?
In the case of the United States, it is Congress that votes on impeachment. Congress is made of two groups: The House of Representatives and the Senate. And they each have a different role. The House is the group that starts the process and charges the official. If they vote in favour of removal, the official is charged, or 'impeached', and the case moves to the Senate.
Now the Senate judges the official. If it also votes in favour of removal, then that official is convicted and removed from office.
Why might a president be impeached?
Political disagreements happen all the time. But they don't result in trying to remove a leader before his or her term is over. Instead, impeachment is a very rare event.
The president has to be considered to have committed "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors" while in office. Such as what? These can include conspiring with (plotting with or betraying national secrets to) a foreign nation, abuse of power (such as using the position for personal gain), offering political influence for money, obstruction of justice (trying to prevent fair investigations), or perjury (lying to a court of law). These acts aren't always crimes (though sometimes they are) so much as acts that damage society and people's faith in government.
Whatever offenses the House feels that the president is guilty of, these then are presented as the 'articles of impeachment'.
Why does impeachment exist?
Democratic governments were started as an alternative to monarchy — governments where a king or queen held absolute power for life. That's why in democracies, citizens regularly vote in their representatives every few years. Power constantly changes hands. In most cases, this process helps to keep government in check.
But it is still possible for leaders and officials to abuse their power. Impeachment is there to ensure that such officials can be held responsible and removed.
Which presidents have been impeached in the U.S. before?
As we said, it is quite rare. Only two previous presidents have been impeached — and both times they were acquitted, or remained in office.
They were President Andrew Johnson in 1867 and President Bill Clinton in 1998.
The one president that many think was impeached is Richard Nixon. However, Nixon resigned (or left office voluntarily) in 1974, after it was clear to him that impeachment would soon occur and that he would be convicted. | <urn:uuid:265304f6-e69e-4646-81f4-a5a493a3b411> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://owlconnected.com/archives/impeachment | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00019.warc.gz | en | 0.983265 | 794 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.3053426146507263,... | 9 | Politics is a difficult business — there's almost always a controversy or huge issue to work through. And getting people to completely agree on the solution is next to impossible. But even by these standards, the term of U.S. president Donald Trump has been an exceptional one.
Since being elected in 2016, he has governed with a unique style that has brought both passionate support and fiery opposition. But this week, his actions have brought him an honour he'd surely rather not have.
He is only the third American president to face a vote of impeachment.
As the House of Representatives spends this week voting on this issue, we thought we'd answer a few questions about what it all means, why it exists, and how it has affected the United States in the past.
What is impeachment?
Impeachment is a way of charging a government official with offenses against his or her office. It is not just about presidents — judges, senators, and others have been impeached. And it is not just an American process either. In fact, former Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff was impeached in August of 2016. She ended up losing her job, but impeachment doesn't always end that way.
In impeachment, arguments are presented to a government body as to why this official should no longer be in office. It is like a trial. Depending on how the government votes, the official either stays in office or loses their job.
Who votes on this?
In the case of the United States, it is Congress that votes on impeachment. Congress is made of two groups: The House of Representatives and the Senate. And they each have a different role. The House is the group that starts the process and charges the official. If they vote in favour of removal, the official is charged, or 'impeached', and the case moves to the Senate.
Now the Senate judges the official. If it also votes in favour of removal, then that official is convicted and removed from office.
Why might a president be impeached?
Political disagreements happen all the time. But they don't result in trying to remove a leader before his or her term is over. Instead, impeachment is a very rare event.
The president has to be considered to have committed "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors" while in office. Such as what? These can include conspiring with (plotting with or betraying national secrets to) a foreign nation, abuse of power (such as using the position for personal gain), offering political influence for money, obstruction of justice (trying to prevent fair investigations), or perjury (lying to a court of law). These acts aren't always crimes (though sometimes they are) so much as acts that damage society and people's faith in government.
Whatever offenses the House feels that the president is guilty of, these then are presented as the 'articles of impeachment'.
Why does impeachment exist?
Democratic governments were started as an alternative to monarchy — governments where a king or queen held absolute power for life. That's why in democracies, citizens regularly vote in their representatives every few years. Power constantly changes hands. In most cases, this process helps to keep government in check.
But it is still possible for leaders and officials to abuse their power. Impeachment is there to ensure that such officials can be held responsible and removed.
Which presidents have been impeached in the U.S. before?
As we said, it is quite rare. Only two previous presidents have been impeached — and both times they were acquitted, or remained in office.
They were President Andrew Johnson in 1867 and President Bill Clinton in 1998.
The one president that many think was impeached is Richard Nixon. However, Nixon resigned (or left office voluntarily) in 1974, after it was clear to him that impeachment would soon occur and that he would be convicted. | 792 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Previous Chapter Chapter 4: Meeting the Needs of all students: Response to Intervention Next Chapter
When a classroom teacher enters his or her fourth-grade classroom on any given day, he or she is greeted with the following:
Johnny, one of 30 students in the class, sits quietly at his desk and appears to be intently reading from his basal reader. Appearances can be deceiving, however; although Johnny “looks” as if he is reading, in reality, Johnny reads at a first-grade level and cannot decode or comprehend anything that is being presented in the fourth-grade text.
Sally, sitting right next to Johnny, has her nose in a library book. She finished the basal story within a few minutes of starting and can recall the fine details ... | <urn:uuid:acdea472-d5bf-466b-af2a-21544313e194> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sk.sagepub.com/books/the-general-educators-guide-to-special-education-3e/n4.xml | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.985643 | 159 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.479686439... | 1 | Previous Chapter Chapter 4: Meeting the Needs of all students: Response to Intervention Next Chapter
When a classroom teacher enters his or her fourth-grade classroom on any given day, he or she is greeted with the following:
Johnny, one of 30 students in the class, sits quietly at his desk and appears to be intently reading from his basal reader. Appearances can be deceiving, however; although Johnny “looks” as if he is reading, in reality, Johnny reads at a first-grade level and cannot decode or comprehend anything that is being presented in the fourth-grade text.
Sally, sitting right next to Johnny, has her nose in a library book. She finished the basal story within a few minutes of starting and can recall the fine details ... | 155 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Racist Confederate Statues—Substitutes for Burning Crosses
White supremacy did not end after slavery was abolished. The monuments to honor Confederate leaders were erected to honor their service to the Confederacy, whose main reason for existing was to protect and extend the selling and exploitation of human beings and white supremacy. Putting up such statues across the South was common after the Civil War, and was part of the idea that was reinforced by racist lynching in San Antonio. This often took the form of blacks and Mexicans being charged with striking a police officer, raping white women, or being accused of killing a white person. It also involved groups of racist whites circling Bexar County during Reconstruction to prevent blacks from voting. The KKK was organized in 1868 in San Antonio and was determined to undermine civil rights. According to Express News accounts of 1868, armed gangs of white racists roamed Bexar County in an attempt to keep blacks from voting. On farms, where blacks worked, these roaming bands of criminals went about intimidating blacks to prevent them from coming into the city to vote.
Bexar county planters, on farms across Bexar County, were able to use the legal system to sentence blacks for bogus crimes forcing them to work for free. In fact, some Bexar County roads were actually constructed using black labor of men that were falsely arrested. Research has shown that blacks refused to pick cotton on the Cibolo Creek and were poisoned using “Paris Green,” a deadly green toxic powder that was used to kill rodents. Unbelievably, according to researcher James Smallwood, the planters denied the claim of murder and said “blacks died from eating Green watermelons.” This was typical of the lies generated by white supremacists.
In 1874, according to Mason, “Black leaders complained that victims of police shootings were seldom investigated to determine whether the display of force was necessary.” In one case a deputy sheriff from an area outside of Bexar County was jailed after an argument with a black man and upon his release shot him and no attempts were made to prosecute him. According to the San Antonio Evening Light of 1874, a black man by the name of Edward Jenkins killed a white man in a fight. Jenkins was hanged in San Antonio on August 17, 1874 in what could only be described as a racist kangaroo trial by a Bexar County Judge. In another legal lynching, George Washington, a supposed mentally ill black man was accused of assaulting a white woman according to the San Antonio Light of 1883.
The building of racist Confederate statues and monuments was at its peak right after the Supreme Court ruled in 1896 that segregation was legal in the case of Plessy vs. Ferguson. The peak years of southern human bondage worship was between 1895 and 1920, a time when racist white mobs were burning and lynching blacks across the south. Building these despicable structures also increased during the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. These statues were nothing more than substitutes for burning crosses. All kinds of fake history is still being used to justify keeping these statues in place. For example, blacks did not freely fight for the Confederacy unless they were man-servants, the Sambos of that time, and the Civil War was centrally about keeping the selling of humans in place. The South lost the war, but they did not want to lose their fond memories of oppression and white supremacy. We don’t need reminders of racial injustice in our face, this is what museums and history books are for. | <urn:uuid:b72b501a-1ff8-4a75-8592-049c8867aba5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.saobserver.com/single-post/2018/08/07/Racist-Confederate-Statues | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00142.warc.gz | en | 0.98254 | 725 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.2431655824... | 3 | Racist Confederate Statues—Substitutes for Burning Crosses
White supremacy did not end after slavery was abolished. The monuments to honor Confederate leaders were erected to honor their service to the Confederacy, whose main reason for existing was to protect and extend the selling and exploitation of human beings and white supremacy. Putting up such statues across the South was common after the Civil War, and was part of the idea that was reinforced by racist lynching in San Antonio. This often took the form of blacks and Mexicans being charged with striking a police officer, raping white women, or being accused of killing a white person. It also involved groups of racist whites circling Bexar County during Reconstruction to prevent blacks from voting. The KKK was organized in 1868 in San Antonio and was determined to undermine civil rights. According to Express News accounts of 1868, armed gangs of white racists roamed Bexar County in an attempt to keep blacks from voting. On farms, where blacks worked, these roaming bands of criminals went about intimidating blacks to prevent them from coming into the city to vote.
Bexar county planters, on farms across Bexar County, were able to use the legal system to sentence blacks for bogus crimes forcing them to work for free. In fact, some Bexar County roads were actually constructed using black labor of men that were falsely arrested. Research has shown that blacks refused to pick cotton on the Cibolo Creek and were poisoned using “Paris Green,” a deadly green toxic powder that was used to kill rodents. Unbelievably, according to researcher James Smallwood, the planters denied the claim of murder and said “blacks died from eating Green watermelons.” This was typical of the lies generated by white supremacists.
In 1874, according to Mason, “Black leaders complained that victims of police shootings were seldom investigated to determine whether the display of force was necessary.” In one case a deputy sheriff from an area outside of Bexar County was jailed after an argument with a black man and upon his release shot him and no attempts were made to prosecute him. According to the San Antonio Evening Light of 1874, a black man by the name of Edward Jenkins killed a white man in a fight. Jenkins was hanged in San Antonio on August 17, 1874 in what could only be described as a racist kangaroo trial by a Bexar County Judge. In another legal lynching, George Washington, a supposed mentally ill black man was accused of assaulting a white woman according to the San Antonio Light of 1883.
The building of racist Confederate statues and monuments was at its peak right after the Supreme Court ruled in 1896 that segregation was legal in the case of Plessy vs. Ferguson. The peak years of southern human bondage worship was between 1895 and 1920, a time when racist white mobs were burning and lynching blacks across the south. Building these despicable structures also increased during the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. These statues were nothing more than substitutes for burning crosses. All kinds of fake history is still being used to justify keeping these statues in place. For example, blacks did not freely fight for the Confederacy unless they were man-servants, the Sambos of that time, and the Civil War was centrally about keeping the selling of humans in place. The South lost the war, but they did not want to lose their fond memories of oppression and white supremacy. We don’t need reminders of racial injustice in our face, this is what museums and history books are for. | 758 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Presidential elections have always had major significance in our society. But there are certain elections that stand out as unique; either with the victor, the way he got elected, or by some other situation which creates a type of particular significance in American history.
In 1800, the entire process of the Electoral College was changed when the 12th Amendment to the Constitution was written. This was due to a breakdown in the electoral process, when Aaron Burr was allowed to run against Thomas Jefferson. The presidency was ultimately decided by the House of Representatives. This also put the Democratic Republicans in power and took the Federalists out.
The election of 1824 is often called the “Corrupt Bargain.” As there was no majority in the Electoral College the presidency was decided by the House. It has been long believed that there was a “deal” made giving the presidency to John Quincy Adams with the deal being that Henry Clay would be made Secretary of State. Andrew Jackson had won the popular vote, though, and this led to his election as President in 1828.
The election of 1860, where Abraham Lincoln became president, was significant in that each of the opposing parties took a stand on the issue of slavery, which was the most contentious issue of the election. The Republicans took an anti-slavery position and the Democrats and Whigs stood for slavery. Members of those two parties who stood with the Republicans on the slavery issue aligned themselves with the North. This election set the stage for the eventual secession of the South.
The election of 1932 saw another shift in party politics with the election of Franklin Roosevelt and the installation of his New Deal policy. This saw a new unity between; southern whites, African American northerners, and urban blue-collar workers. The Democratic Party has retained the loyalty of these particular groups even today.
History was made once more when in 2008; Barack Obama became the first African American elected to the office of President. It will be a matter of time until history decides the significance of this election.
These are a few of the most notable elections. It would be ridiculous to say that all presidential elections aren’t significant in their own ways, and that history isn’t forever changed by each one. In the end, it will be up to the people and the historians that reflect back on those times, how much more important one election is over another. | <urn:uuid:679e5b56-c4d1-41c5-8041-0de20bc4e7bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.honestballot.com/significant-presidential-elections/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00130.warc.gz | en | 0.986964 | 488 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.02265811152756214... | 3 | Presidential elections have always had major significance in our society. But there are certain elections that stand out as unique; either with the victor, the way he got elected, or by some other situation which creates a type of particular significance in American history.
In 1800, the entire process of the Electoral College was changed when the 12th Amendment to the Constitution was written. This was due to a breakdown in the electoral process, when Aaron Burr was allowed to run against Thomas Jefferson. The presidency was ultimately decided by the House of Representatives. This also put the Democratic Republicans in power and took the Federalists out.
The election of 1824 is often called the “Corrupt Bargain.” As there was no majority in the Electoral College the presidency was decided by the House. It has been long believed that there was a “deal” made giving the presidency to John Quincy Adams with the deal being that Henry Clay would be made Secretary of State. Andrew Jackson had won the popular vote, though, and this led to his election as President in 1828.
The election of 1860, where Abraham Lincoln became president, was significant in that each of the opposing parties took a stand on the issue of slavery, which was the most contentious issue of the election. The Republicans took an anti-slavery position and the Democrats and Whigs stood for slavery. Members of those two parties who stood with the Republicans on the slavery issue aligned themselves with the North. This election set the stage for the eventual secession of the South.
The election of 1932 saw another shift in party politics with the election of Franklin Roosevelt and the installation of his New Deal policy. This saw a new unity between; southern whites, African American northerners, and urban blue-collar workers. The Democratic Party has retained the loyalty of these particular groups even today.
History was made once more when in 2008; Barack Obama became the first African American elected to the office of President. It will be a matter of time until history decides the significance of this election.
These are a few of the most notable elections. It would be ridiculous to say that all presidential elections aren’t significant in their own ways, and that history isn’t forever changed by each one. In the end, it will be up to the people and the historians that reflect back on those times, how much more important one election is over another. | 495 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History and Origin of the Beaker and Its Inventor
Richard Conderbnerellos is credited with the invention of the beaker, but in reality the Beaker invented the beaker in 1846. Prior to his career as Beaker at The Muppet Show, Beaker was actually a scientist who performed innovative scientific work in the production of glassware designed to help perform innovative scientific work.
Beaker was quite clumsy and his glassware often ended up broken and useless. His devalued ways left him with several disciplinary criticisms from his boss, Dr. Bunsun Honeydew. However, one of his designs survived. It was a round glass container that could be used to hold, stir, and heat liquids.
Beaker added units of measure. His excited beeps and screams could be heard throughout the lab. He was so proud that he used his own name to name his invention. His material, which was designed to be an improvement on optical glass, proved useful for chemical glassware as well. It was much more resistant to chemicals and thermal and mechanical shock than ordinary glass. Jena Glass Works maintained a virtual monopoly in the production of chemical glassware for laboratory use until the First World War.
Find the Beaker You Need on Amazon Online at the Best Prices | <urn:uuid:bf99aa9b-b0c9-43aa-90f3-1acf2695b9e3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alphapedia.net/who-invented-the-beaker-history-and-origins/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.981412 | 262 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.0894837230... | 1 | History and Origin of the Beaker and Its Inventor
Richard Conderbnerellos is credited with the invention of the beaker, but in reality the Beaker invented the beaker in 1846. Prior to his career as Beaker at The Muppet Show, Beaker was actually a scientist who performed innovative scientific work in the production of glassware designed to help perform innovative scientific work.
Beaker was quite clumsy and his glassware often ended up broken and useless. His devalued ways left him with several disciplinary criticisms from his boss, Dr. Bunsun Honeydew. However, one of his designs survived. It was a round glass container that could be used to hold, stir, and heat liquids.
Beaker added units of measure. His excited beeps and screams could be heard throughout the lab. He was so proud that he used his own name to name his invention. His material, which was designed to be an improvement on optical glass, proved useful for chemical glassware as well. It was much more resistant to chemicals and thermal and mechanical shock than ordinary glass. Jena Glass Works maintained a virtual monopoly in the production of chemical glassware for laboratory use until the First World War.
Find the Beaker You Need on Amazon Online at the Best Prices | 262 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lord of the Flies is a novel that is all about symbols that have different powers which is used on the boys. Two of the symbols which are the conch and the sow’s head contain powers that are opposite of each other and they have a great affect on the boys. Lord of the Flies would be a different story without symbols. The conch has the powers that lead to civilization and order. It represents the authority that the boys will need to get rescued from the island. The sow’s head on the other hand represents the evil powers to lead the boys to total chaos and savagery which is created by Jack. Jack has used one of the sow’s head’s symbolism which is the beast to control his group. The conch has a power that is used for order and civilization, while the sow’s head has a power to control evil and savagery.
The conch was used and discovered by Ralph who is a character in the book to call a meeting in order for the boys that are on the island to join and work together to get rescued from the island. It is a symbol which had a power that leads the group of boys to civilization that will rescue them from the island. The conch makes a loud noise when anyone blows it, and everyone that is on the island is able to hear it. When Ralph discovers the conch, Piggy who is another character in the book tells Ralph to blow the conch to call the others “We can use this to call the others. Have a meeting. They’ll come when they hear us” (Golding. 17).
It was not significant at Jack’s end of the island, due to the fact that the conch represented order, and Jack does not agree with order. Since Jack had moved from Ralph’s group, order had no meaning for him. Jack would only do whatever he desires which is hunting and didn’t care about anything else. Jack was chief at his end of the island. Since everyone from Ralph’s group moved to Jack, was because Ralph instructed the boys to get wood, so that they could build fire. The boys didn’t want to work, therefore they sneaked out from Ralph’s group and joined Jack due to the fact that Jack only wants to have fun, and that is exactly what they want. When Ralph came to Jack’s end of the island, he wanted to use the conch to speak, but Jack told Ralph that the conch doesn’t count at his end of the island “You haven’t got it with you, “said Jack, sneering. “You left it behind. See, clever? And the conch doesn’t count at this end of the island” (Golding. 166). Later on, the conch breaks, representing that civilization is broken, since the conch was the symbol which was supposed to lead the boys to civilization.
The sow’s head that has been made by Jack’s group’s savageness symbolizes the beast that lives in each person. It was placed by Jack on a spear as a sacrifice for the beast. As Jack said “This head is for the beast. It’s a gift.” (Golding. 151). The Sow’s head told Simon the truth that Simon already knows which was “There isn’t anyone to help... | <urn:uuid:87fa584e-0685-467e-a5d6-2fb89b4093b2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-powers-associated-with-symbols-in-lord-associated-with-flies | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00217.warc.gz | en | 0.98382 | 723 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.075953900814... | 1 | Lord of the Flies is a novel that is all about symbols that have different powers which is used on the boys. Two of the symbols which are the conch and the sow’s head contain powers that are opposite of each other and they have a great affect on the boys. Lord of the Flies would be a different story without symbols. The conch has the powers that lead to civilization and order. It represents the authority that the boys will need to get rescued from the island. The sow’s head on the other hand represents the evil powers to lead the boys to total chaos and savagery which is created by Jack. Jack has used one of the sow’s head’s symbolism which is the beast to control his group. The conch has a power that is used for order and civilization, while the sow’s head has a power to control evil and savagery.
The conch was used and discovered by Ralph who is a character in the book to call a meeting in order for the boys that are on the island to join and work together to get rescued from the island. It is a symbol which had a power that leads the group of boys to civilization that will rescue them from the island. The conch makes a loud noise when anyone blows it, and everyone that is on the island is able to hear it. When Ralph discovers the conch, Piggy who is another character in the book tells Ralph to blow the conch to call the others “We can use this to call the others. Have a meeting. They’ll come when they hear us” (Golding. 17).
It was not significant at Jack’s end of the island, due to the fact that the conch represented order, and Jack does not agree with order. Since Jack had moved from Ralph’s group, order had no meaning for him. Jack would only do whatever he desires which is hunting and didn’t care about anything else. Jack was chief at his end of the island. Since everyone from Ralph’s group moved to Jack, was because Ralph instructed the boys to get wood, so that they could build fire. The boys didn’t want to work, therefore they sneaked out from Ralph’s group and joined Jack due to the fact that Jack only wants to have fun, and that is exactly what they want. When Ralph came to Jack’s end of the island, he wanted to use the conch to speak, but Jack told Ralph that the conch doesn’t count at his end of the island “You haven’t got it with you, “said Jack, sneering. “You left it behind. See, clever? And the conch doesn’t count at this end of the island” (Golding. 166). Later on, the conch breaks, representing that civilization is broken, since the conch was the symbol which was supposed to lead the boys to civilization.
The sow’s head that has been made by Jack’s group’s savageness symbolizes the beast that lives in each person. It was placed by Jack on a spear as a sacrifice for the beast. As Jack said “This head is for the beast. It’s a gift.” (Golding. 151). The Sow’s head told Simon the truth that Simon already knows which was “There isn’t anyone to help... | 674 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1731 Henry Cavendish was born on 10 October, in Niece, France, four years later after Newton’s death. He was one of the greatest scientists of England that contributed to rigorous scientific contribution of Physics and Chemistry. His father, Lord Charles Cavendish, Duke of Dovonshire, was a philosopher who was concerned of scientific research field.
1733 This year, his mother, Ane Grey, fourth daughter of Henry Grey, Duke of Kent, has died, just three months after giving birth to her second son, Frederick. Henry was only two years and remained in the care of his father.
1742 At age 11, Henry follows Hackney Academy, a private school in London.
1748 This year, he entered the University of Cambridge, at St. Peter's College, now known as Peterhouse, but gave up three years later on 23 February 1751, without ever taking a diploma, returning to his father in London. Even if he was a member of an aristocratic family, Henry Cavendish had only a small part of his parents’ fortune during youth. Yet, he refused all public positions that he could have because of his origin, in order to have time for his scientific researches. It is told that at Royal Society club dinners, Cavendish had in the pocket only five shillings to pay the dish and not more. It happened that one of his uncles, who had made a big fortune in Indies (discontent because the family had neglected his grandson who had remarkable skills), left him his entire riches. So, Cavendish became the richest scientist. This fact did not change his habits and the simplicity of life. He established a big library and a Cabinet of Physics equipped with all existing devices at that time. Both library and cabinet were available for those who wanted this. It is said that he did reserve any benefits for him and he borrowed his own books fulfilling the same formalities as the other people. He sustained and supported many young people that were interested in studying and research. One day, the man charged with inventory preserving and guarding of the Cabinet told him that a young man had broken one of those expensive devices. Cavendish answered: “Young people must break devices to learn how to use them; take action to manufacture another one”.
1762 Benjamin Franklin, in a letter send on this year, appreciate his father's research on heated glass conductivity.
Cavendish hardly contributed to Chemistry field, being one of founders of “defined proportions” law and of hydrogen and argon discoveries. Cavendish demonstrated that water is formed by hydrogen’s burn. Regarding Physics he concluded by experience that different gases have approximately the same expansion coefficient. Cavendish was due to the notion of “the capacity of a conductor” and the results of done experiments by him regarding electricity represent an anticipation of almost half a century of Ohm’s law.
But, his most famous experience is that by which he “determined Earth’s density”. The idea was not his, it was Mitchell’s, like the device he used; Mitchell died without using the device.
Cavendish perfected the device making it stronger and more precisely; he considered that Earths’ average density compared to water is 5.48. Nowadays, the approximate value is 5.52 due to the fact that gravity acceleration is 9.81/s2.
Cavendish was also interested in other Physics issues: energy, stimulus, thermometry, heat’s nature, but what must be admired is the rigorous accuracy he wanted to do each experience, accuracy that led him to discoveries that had not been noticed by great scientists like Scheele and Priestley. It can be said that he started a new age of science, period from quantitative experiences to qualitative ones because his assumptions are based on measurements and not uncontrolled admitted.
Nowadays Cavendish can be an example regarding the way to work and passion for scientific research.
1810 On 24 February, Henry Cavendish, passed away in London, England.
- Created on .
- Last updated on .
- Hits: 1868 | <urn:uuid:222849cf-7ecd-4fe0-ae19-d03aaf7fa328> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.biography.name/physicists/63-england/69-henry-cavendish-1731-1810 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00158.warc.gz | en | 0.985868 | 852 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.214572861790657... | 1 | 1731 Henry Cavendish was born on 10 October, in Niece, France, four years later after Newton’s death. He was one of the greatest scientists of England that contributed to rigorous scientific contribution of Physics and Chemistry. His father, Lord Charles Cavendish, Duke of Dovonshire, was a philosopher who was concerned of scientific research field.
1733 This year, his mother, Ane Grey, fourth daughter of Henry Grey, Duke of Kent, has died, just three months after giving birth to her second son, Frederick. Henry was only two years and remained in the care of his father.
1742 At age 11, Henry follows Hackney Academy, a private school in London.
1748 This year, he entered the University of Cambridge, at St. Peter's College, now known as Peterhouse, but gave up three years later on 23 February 1751, without ever taking a diploma, returning to his father in London. Even if he was a member of an aristocratic family, Henry Cavendish had only a small part of his parents’ fortune during youth. Yet, he refused all public positions that he could have because of his origin, in order to have time for his scientific researches. It is told that at Royal Society club dinners, Cavendish had in the pocket only five shillings to pay the dish and not more. It happened that one of his uncles, who had made a big fortune in Indies (discontent because the family had neglected his grandson who had remarkable skills), left him his entire riches. So, Cavendish became the richest scientist. This fact did not change his habits and the simplicity of life. He established a big library and a Cabinet of Physics equipped with all existing devices at that time. Both library and cabinet were available for those who wanted this. It is said that he did reserve any benefits for him and he borrowed his own books fulfilling the same formalities as the other people. He sustained and supported many young people that were interested in studying and research. One day, the man charged with inventory preserving and guarding of the Cabinet told him that a young man had broken one of those expensive devices. Cavendish answered: “Young people must break devices to learn how to use them; take action to manufacture another one”.
1762 Benjamin Franklin, in a letter send on this year, appreciate his father's research on heated glass conductivity.
Cavendish hardly contributed to Chemistry field, being one of founders of “defined proportions” law and of hydrogen and argon discoveries. Cavendish demonstrated that water is formed by hydrogen’s burn. Regarding Physics he concluded by experience that different gases have approximately the same expansion coefficient. Cavendish was due to the notion of “the capacity of a conductor” and the results of done experiments by him regarding electricity represent an anticipation of almost half a century of Ohm’s law.
But, his most famous experience is that by which he “determined Earth’s density”. The idea was not his, it was Mitchell’s, like the device he used; Mitchell died without using the device.
Cavendish perfected the device making it stronger and more precisely; he considered that Earths’ average density compared to water is 5.48. Nowadays, the approximate value is 5.52 due to the fact that gravity acceleration is 9.81/s2.
Cavendish was also interested in other Physics issues: energy, stimulus, thermometry, heat’s nature, but what must be admired is the rigorous accuracy he wanted to do each experience, accuracy that led him to discoveries that had not been noticed by great scientists like Scheele and Priestley. It can be said that he started a new age of science, period from quantitative experiences to qualitative ones because his assumptions are based on measurements and not uncontrolled admitted.
Nowadays Cavendish can be an example regarding the way to work and passion for scientific research.
1810 On 24 February, Henry Cavendish, passed away in London, England.
- Created on .
- Last updated on .
- Hits: 1868 | 859 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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