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text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
In Roman mythology, Mercury, also known as Mercurius, was the quick and agile messenger to the gods. Originally, he was a god of trade related to the corn crop. In fact, his name is derived from the Latin word merces, meaning “merchandise.” He was also lauded as the protector of merchants, travelers, and shopkeepers, and defamed as the patron of thieves and those who played practical jokes. Myths and Stories As the gods’ messenger, Mercury plays a role in many myths. For example, he was said to have stolen cattle and a bow and arrow when just a child. In the myth of Cupid and Psyche, he is called upon by Jupiter to make a proclamation demanding the capture of Psyche. In the Aeneid, he is sent by Jupiter to Aeneas with orders to leave his lover and “sail away to fulfill his destiny in Italy.” He also plays a role in Roman poetry and theater, much of which was based on mythology. In the play Amphitruo by the dramatist Plautus, Mercury, dressed as a servant, aids Jupiter when he disguises himself as Amphitryon in order to seduce Amphitryon’s wife. The poet Horace wrote of him in his Odes; in fact, Horace called himself mercurialis, meaning a lyric poet protected by Mercury. Many of the myths of Mercury are derived from those of the Greek Hermes. Monuments to Hermes were thought to bring good luck, and this idea was perpetuated with Mercury as well. Another borrowed role was that of escorting the souls of the deceased to the underworld. It is speculated that the myths originated among shepherds, lending their interest in “music and fertility.” In fact, in some legends, Mercury is said to have invented the guitar-like lyre, and his son is said to have been a nymph who invented the music of the pastoral societies. A temple to Mercury was dedicated on Rome’s Aventine Hill in 495 B.C. The festival of Mercuralia was held on May 15, the anniversary of the temple dedication, in honor of both Mercury and his mother Maia of the Pleiades. Rituals of this festival involved merchants drawing water from the well at Porta Capena to be sprinkled on their trade goods and on their own heads. Trade fairs were also held at the temple, and it was the location of Rome’s busy commercial center. In art and statues, Mercury is typically depicted as a handsome young man, even boyish in appearance, wearing a white garment. Mercury often carries a money purse, symbolizing his function as patron of merchants and business owners. His fleetness as messenger of the gods is represented by a hat or sandals with wings, called petasus and talaria, respectively. Mercury was thus called Alipes, meaning “with the winged feet.” He is also seen carrying a staff called a caduceus. The caduceus was a symbol of peace, carried by ambassadors to foreign lands. It consisted of a branch with two shoots, originally decorated with ribbons or garlands. In later times, these attributes were replaced by two twining snakes, with a pair of wings above the snakes. The snakes were related to Mercury’s role as a fertility god and in delivering souls to the underworld. Today, this symbol is used to represent physicians, the medical field, and the U.S. Army Medical Corps. Like many mythical figures, Mercury has been immortalized in the naming of celestial objects. The planet Mercury, as visible just after sunset, was called in ancient times by his Greek counterpart, Hermes. This was likely due to the planet’s rapid motion in comparison to other stellar objects. Interestingly, Mercury’s morning visitation, just before sunrise, was not recognized as being the same “star;” it was thus called Apollos. The element mercury (Hg) , atomic number 80 on the periodic table, was once known as “quicksilver.” The symbol for the planet Mercury was used to represent quicksilver in sixth century alchemy, and thus the chemical took on the name of the god as well. Facts about Mercury Role in Mythology: God of store owners, merchants, travelers, trade, profit, tricksters, and theives; messenger of the gods, fertility god Alternative Names: Mercury, Gaulish Mercury, Alipes Family Relationships: Son of Jupiter and Maia, grandson of Atlas Symbols: Winged hat or shoes, money purse, winged staff Greek Equivalent: Hermes Germanic Equivalent: Wodan Link/cite this page If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source. Link will appear as Mercury: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020	<urn:uuid:b1685dde-61fc-4e79-9ceb-530ad7de0ba6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com/roman/mercury/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00132.warc.gz	en	0.98267	1,052	3.4375	3	[ -0.048157453536987305, 0.8678503036499023, -0.01981448382139206, 0.08873385190963745, -0.1631830930709839, -0.21726925671100616, 0.3067365288734436, 0.38599297404289246, 0.2736435532569885, -0.05024062097072601, -0.4157413840293884, -0.42900729179382324, -0.194926917552948, 0.2851783931255...	1	In Roman mythology, Mercury, also known as Mercurius, was the quick and agile messenger to the gods. Originally, he was a god of trade related to the corn crop. In fact, his name is derived from the Latin word merces, meaning “merchandise.” He was also lauded as the protector of merchants, travelers, and shopkeepers, and defamed as the patron of thieves and those who played practical jokes. Myths and Stories As the gods’ messenger, Mercury plays a role in many myths. For example, he was said to have stolen cattle and a bow and arrow when just a child. In the myth of Cupid and Psyche, he is called upon by Jupiter to make a proclamation demanding the capture of Psyche. In the Aeneid, he is sent by Jupiter to Aeneas with orders to leave his lover and “sail away to fulfill his destiny in Italy.” He also plays a role in Roman poetry and theater, much of which was based on mythology. In the play Amphitruo by the dramatist Plautus, Mercury, dressed as a servant, aids Jupiter when he disguises himself as Amphitryon in order to seduce Amphitryon’s wife. The poet Horace wrote of him in his Odes; in fact, Horace called himself mercurialis, meaning a lyric poet protected by Mercury. Many of the myths of Mercury are derived from those of the Greek Hermes. Monuments to Hermes were thought to bring good luck, and this idea was perpetuated with Mercury as well. Another borrowed role was that of escorting the souls of the deceased to the underworld. It is speculated that the myths originated among shepherds, lending their interest in “music and fertility.” In fact, in some legends, Mercury is said to have invented the guitar-like lyre, and his son is said to have been a nymph who invented the music of the pastoral societies. A temple to Mercury was dedicated on Rome’s Aventine Hill in 495 B.C. The festival of Mercuralia was held on May 15, the anniversary of the temple dedication, in honor of both Mercury and his mother Maia of the Pleiades. Rituals of this festival involved merchants drawing water from the well at Porta Capena to be sprinkled on their trade goods and on their own heads. Trade fairs were also held at the temple, and it was the location of Rome’s busy commercial center. In art and statues, Mercury is typically depicted as a handsome young man, even boyish in appearance, wearing a white garment. Mercury often carries a money purse, symbolizing his function as patron of merchants and business owners. His fleetness as messenger of the gods is represented by a hat or sandals with wings, called petasus and talaria, respectively. Mercury was thus called Alipes, meaning “with the winged feet.” He is also seen carrying a staff called a caduceus. The caduceus was a symbol of peace, carried by ambassadors to foreign lands. It consisted of a branch with two shoots, originally decorated with ribbons or garlands. In later times, these attributes were replaced by two twining snakes, with a pair of wings above the snakes. The snakes were related to Mercury’s role as a fertility god and in delivering souls to the underworld. Today, this symbol is used to represent physicians, the medical field, and the U.S. Army Medical Corps. Like many mythical figures, Mercury has been immortalized in the naming of celestial objects. The planet Mercury, as visible just after sunset, was called in ancient times by his Greek counterpart, Hermes. This was likely due to the planet’s rapid motion in comparison to other stellar objects. Interestingly, Mercury’s morning visitation, just before sunrise, was not recognized as being the same “star;” it was thus called Apollos. The element mercury (Hg) , atomic number 80 on the periodic table, was once known as “quicksilver.” The symbol for the planet Mercury was used to represent quicksilver in sixth century alchemy, and thus the chemical took on the name of the god as well. Facts about Mercury Role in Mythology: God of store owners, merchants, travelers, trade, profit, tricksters, and theives; messenger of the gods, fertility god Alternative Names: Mercury, Gaulish Mercury, Alipes Family Relationships: Son of Jupiter and Maia, grandson of Atlas Symbols: Winged hat or shoes, money purse, winged staff Greek Equivalent: Hermes Germanic Equivalent: Wodan Link/cite this page If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source. Link will appear as Mercury: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020	1,016	ENGLISH	1
Hugues de Lionne (11 October 1611 – 1 September 1671) was a French statesman. He was born in Grenoble, of an old family of Dauphiné. Early trained for diplomacy, he fell into disgrace under Cardinal Richelieu, but his remarkable abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Mazarin, who sent him as secretary of the French embassy to the congress of Munster, and, in 1642, on a mission to the pope. On the death of Ferdinand III, Hugues co-led the French effort to select an Emperor outside the Habsburg family. He and the Cardinal cultivated relationships with German nobility, including Franz Egon of Fürstenberg, prime minister of Cologne, and his brother William. With their help, Hugues was instrumental in forming the league of the Rhine, by which Austria was cut off from the Spanish Netherlands, and, as minister of state, was associated with Mazarin in the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), which secured the marriage of Louis XIV to the infanta Maria Theresa of Spain. At the cardinals dying request he was appointed his successor in foreign affairs, a position he held from 3 April 1663 to 1 September 1671. Among his most important diplomatic successes were the Treaty of Breda (1667), the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668) and the Sale of Dunkirk. He was a man of pleasure, but his natural indolence gave place to an unflagging energy when the occasion demanded it; and, in an age of great ministers, his consummate statesmanship placed him in the front rank.	<urn:uuid:c3c83885-04c7-44f5-aa1b-27a7871f6b9f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://everything.explained.today/Hugues_de_Lionne/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00500.warc.gz	en	0.983328	341	3.265625	3	[ -0.35462090373039246, 0.8007251024246216, -0.0810207650065422, -0.20764504373073578, 0.04351086542010307, -0.2908070981502533, 0.0021627401001751423, 0.36198776960372925, 0.12113926559686661, -0.13332755863666534, -0.0730401873588562, -0.6735588312149048, 0.24219326674938202, 0.18756458163...	2	Hugues de Lionne (11 October 1611 – 1 September 1671) was a French statesman. He was born in Grenoble, of an old family of Dauphiné. Early trained for diplomacy, he fell into disgrace under Cardinal Richelieu, but his remarkable abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Mazarin, who sent him as secretary of the French embassy to the congress of Munster, and, in 1642, on a mission to the pope. On the death of Ferdinand III, Hugues co-led the French effort to select an Emperor outside the Habsburg family. He and the Cardinal cultivated relationships with German nobility, including Franz Egon of Fürstenberg, prime minister of Cologne, and his brother William. With their help, Hugues was instrumental in forming the league of the Rhine, by which Austria was cut off from the Spanish Netherlands, and, as minister of state, was associated with Mazarin in the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), which secured the marriage of Louis XIV to the infanta Maria Theresa of Spain. At the cardinals dying request he was appointed his successor in foreign affairs, a position he held from 3 April 1663 to 1 September 1671. Among his most important diplomatic successes were the Treaty of Breda (1667), the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668) and the Sale of Dunkirk. He was a man of pleasure, but his natural indolence gave place to an unflagging energy when the occasion demanded it; and, in an age of great ministers, his consummate statesmanship placed him in the front rank.	363	ENGLISH	1
For this week’s assignment, we were supposed to create something that bounces off of walls. I decided to make a ball/circle that would change direction when the mouse was pressed or when it passed the width of the page on both sides. As the circle progressed towards the center of the screen, the background would become darker, while it would get lighter as it neared both edges of the screen. In order to accomplish this, I mapped the range of light blue to dark blue for the left half of the screen to the circle’s x value, so that the background would get darker as it approached the center of the screen. I did the opposite for the right half of the screen, going from dark to light. This creates a smooth transition from one color to the next. I had wanted to change from purple or orange to the dark blue, but wasn’t sure how to accomplish that. I think I had to use lerpColor(), but I wasn’t sure how to accomplish that. Additionally, the number of times the mouse was pressed is counted in the right hand corner because I wanted to use type in some way. Because what I made kind of replicates watching the moon at night and controlling what time it is by reversing the direction, I may have been able to have the time proportional to where the moon was in the sky, but I just thought of this. Below is a picture of my brainstorming process and an example of what it looks like. Code on GitHub You can also use the program here	<urn:uuid:da0376b8-ef2d-4784-9ff2-01d55c70b00b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://itp.nyu.edu/classes/cc-s17/animation-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00282.warc.gz	en	0.980839	317	3.453125	3	[ -0.3281983435153961, -0.42681992053985596, -0.16993476450443268, -0.4977308213710785, -0.35857734084129333, 0.3829129934310913, 0.280737966299057, 0.2913529872894287, -0.03764031454920769, 0.03281979635357857, 0.13320808112621307, -0.014468234963715076, -0.15856611728668213, 0.270942002534...	2	For this week’s assignment, we were supposed to create something that bounces off of walls. I decided to make a ball/circle that would change direction when the mouse was pressed or when it passed the width of the page on both sides. As the circle progressed towards the center of the screen, the background would become darker, while it would get lighter as it neared both edges of the screen. In order to accomplish this, I mapped the range of light blue to dark blue for the left half of the screen to the circle’s x value, so that the background would get darker as it approached the center of the screen. I did the opposite for the right half of the screen, going from dark to light. This creates a smooth transition from one color to the next. I had wanted to change from purple or orange to the dark blue, but wasn’t sure how to accomplish that. I think I had to use lerpColor(), but I wasn’t sure how to accomplish that. Additionally, the number of times the mouse was pressed is counted in the right hand corner because I wanted to use type in some way. Because what I made kind of replicates watching the moon at night and controlling what time it is by reversing the direction, I may have been able to have the time proportional to where the moon was in the sky, but I just thought of this. Below is a picture of my brainstorming process and an example of what it looks like. Code on GitHub You can also use the program here	306	ENGLISH	1
In Roman times, there was no such country as Scotland. The Romans knew this part of the world as Caledonia. Evidence such as walls, forts, sculptures and other artefacts prove that the Romans did reach southern Caledonia. While some of the tribes living there attempted to resist the Romans, most of the tribes probably accepted the Roman invasion and lived peacefully alongside them. Students could explore who lived in Scotland at this time. They could research the tribes that lived in Caledonia, and sort these into those that surrendered to the Romans and those who fought back. Students could role-play a meeting of a tribe facing Roman invasion. Will they settle or fight? What would be the advantages or disadvantages of each of those options? Students could work in groups to decide what they would do, and then try to convince the rest of the ‘tribe’, or class.	<urn:uuid:6c4d66c0-5e0c-4582-8ede-d1e598ef5327>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/clips/z7w3d2p	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00528.warc.gz	en	0.98108	181	4.03125	4	[ -0.27517569065093994, 0.1139003187417984, 0.39190274477005005, 0.23250843584537506, -0.14400142431259155, -0.44309669733047485, -0.2670680582523346, 0.5009027719497681, -0.22885695099830627, 0.09709487110376358, 0.2735901176929474, -0.49737176299095154, 0.06332629173994064, 0.1152004227042...	1	In Roman times, there was no such country as Scotland. The Romans knew this part of the world as Caledonia. Evidence such as walls, forts, sculptures and other artefacts prove that the Romans did reach southern Caledonia. While some of the tribes living there attempted to resist the Romans, most of the tribes probably accepted the Roman invasion and lived peacefully alongside them. Students could explore who lived in Scotland at this time. They could research the tribes that lived in Caledonia, and sort these into those that surrendered to the Romans and those who fought back. Students could role-play a meeting of a tribe facing Roman invasion. Will they settle or fight? What would be the advantages or disadvantages of each of those options? Students could work in groups to decide what they would do, and then try to convince the rest of the ‘tribe’, or class.	175	ENGLISH	1
In 1800, the Isle of Dogs contained only thirty inhabited buildings, and had a population of roughly 150. When the West India Docks opened in 1802, employment opportunities in the docks and growing industry on the Island meant the population grew to 1,346 by 1831. 1841 census returns revealed the most common occupations of heads of households to be: Industrial Service 23.2% Domestic Service 2.9% Other than Domestic Service, these were all “men’s jobs”. Of course, these figures show the occupations of household heads, who were almost always men. But they do clearly represent the type of work available on the Island in the early 19th century; in shipbuilding, ironworks, docks, heavy manufacturing, and similar. Also, industry on the Island was among the most advanced in Britain, if not the world; which meant its workforce was relatively highly skilled. At the time, the domain of men. Essentially, in the first half of the 19th century, men moved to the Island to find work, and their women and children followed them. There were no jobs waiting for the women, some of whom would have given up any jobs they already had to make the move to the Island. Even if the family moved from as close by as Stepney or Bow, the distance prevented travelling to/from the Island. Public transport was poor (and unaffordable to most) and ‘bridgers’ at that time could last 30 mins or more as sail ships were manoeuvered in and out of the docks. As a consequence, women represented less than 15% of the workforce for most of the 1800s, which was less than half the percentage for London as a whole. Half those women were working in domestic service, and less than a third in manufacturing. The situation started to change in the late 1800s. By this time, the traditional industries which employed skilled men workers were in decline. A combination of economic and cost developments made it cheaper for heavy manufacturing firms to move off the Island, to the north of England or even to Scotland. The character of Island businesses began to change, with a focus on lighter manufacturing industries: rope and cable building, food processing, flour milling, flag-making, paint & chemical manufacturing, oil processing, etc. It was during this period that many well-known Island firms started, some of whom moved to the Island in part because of its supply of cheap female labour, for example: - Food Processing: Maconochies, Morton’s - Paints & Dyes: Burrell’s - Ropes & Cables: Hawkins & Tipson, Bullivants, Binks - Timber: Lenantons, Montague Meyer - Chemicals & Oil: Snowdon, Atlas Chemical Works (later Pfizers), Cumberland Oil Mills, Duckhams, Winkley, Burrell’s - Flour: McDougall’s - Lead Works: Locke, Lancaster & Co. (later Associated Lead) Many of these ‘new’ industries did not require skilled labour, which meant more job opportunities for women. Moreover, women could be paid less than men, and they were not likely to be members of trades unions. At Morton’s and Maconochie’s, the largest employers on the Island (outside of the docks), 75% of the workforce was composed of women and girls. The same could be said for other large employers, including paint makers, rope and cable manufacturers, flour millers, and similar. Often, women went to work to supplement a family income which was decreasing as skilled-labour was in lesser demand on the Island; men who had been involved in shipbuilding, iron working or other heavy industries found it harder to get a job. In 1897 one investigator reported that: The number of girls employed in the Island increases year by year . . . The work for women indeed shows a tendency to increase in a far greater proportion than that for men . . . n the whole men’s industries show a tendency to leave the Island just as those for women give signs of greater development. In the future it is quite possible that men may begin to depend on the . . . women to be the bread winners . . . A decade later. Poplar Labour leader Will Crooks remarked that: We have got casual women workers now, a thing that . . . did not exist 10 or 15 years ago . . . [T]he fact is there are thousands of these women on the look out for a day’s work. The employer sees the advantage and takes them on for an hour or two [at very low wages]. Thomas Cole (in his thesis, Life & Labor in the Isle of Dogs (sic)): In addition to low pay, the work of Island women was often exhausting. One local plant manager admitted that he had worked all over the world, but the worst sight he had ever seen was that of the women in his factory, so incapacitated that they lay on the ground, unable to go home. The owner of an Island rope works acknowledged that if it were not for the factory acts he would have worked his female employees “every night till 11 or 12, as their wages were so much smaller than that of men . . . ” In food factories owners frequently did just that, for, since their firms handled perishable items which could quickly spoil, they were exempt from laws regulating hours and overtime. Sometimes such employers worked their female employees for fourteen to sixteen hours at a stretch. One social worker charged that, “If the girls complain or ask for higher wages, [they get the sack]. There are plenty outside waiting and anxious to be taken on . . .” Island women’s work was frequently exhausting and sometime dangerous. Ropemaking was infamously dangerous with its razor sharp, revolving machinery. Common accidents including lost digits or limbs, but truly horrific accidents occured when women were trapped by and dragged into the whirling machinery. My great aunt, Johanna Lemmerman, was scalped in a similar accident in a sweet factory in Cable St, Stepney (she survived). Thomas Cole again: An extraordinarily high proportion of working women — 41.2 percent— worked in food processing plants, principally Morton’s and Maconochie’s. By comparison, other female occupational sub-groups were rather small: rope and sack making, 8.3 percent; iron and steel work, 6.9 percent; domestic service, 6.9 percent; and clerical, 6.9 percent. Women were generally less concerned about protecting occupational and wage differentials, but they were equally anxious to find work. Most girls, like their male counterparts, began work at age fourteen. Office work was considered the most desirable form of employment by girls and women, but few could get It. The greatest number, as noted above, ended up In the food processing plants. Of the two great Island firms In this field, Morton’s and Maconochie’s, the former was considered to be the better employer. Its wages were no higher than those of Its rival, but working conditions were better and the management was thought to be fairer . So far as factory work was concerned, rope making was regarded as the most difficult. One woman remarked that her two-year stint in the local rope works, “nearly killed me . . . Anything went, more or less . . . It was real hard . . . work.” Yet even rope making was considered preferable to domestic service. As one former parlor maid who later worked in a paint factory noted, “when you were factory, like, it was limited, wasn’t it? Say, 8 ’til 5 [or] 8 ’til half past 6, but [as a servant] you was on all hours, wasn’t you?” Another ex-servant agreed, saying “you got fed up with it. You knew that you was being used as a slave . . . “ Women did not always accept their treatment without complaint or reaction. In March 1914, Morton’s hired 4 young girls aged between 14 and 15 in the tin-box making section – for less than the 18s to 20s a week that skilled women could expect to earn. Suspecting a management ploy to reduce wages in general, the women demanded that the girls be moved to a department where no skilled work was involved. The management refused and 300 women walked out on strike, followed shortly after by other workers from other parts of the company. Looking for union help, 800 women joined the National Federation of Women Workers (NFWW) while the men joined the Dock, Wharf, Riverside and General Workers Union. On 28 March a procession was organised from Millwall to Trafalgar Square. The strike lasted twelve days before the management, overwhelmed by the public support the strikers received, and embarrassed by the media coverage showing the girls singing and dancing in the streets, caved in and agreed to the strikers’ demands. A 1929 survey indicated that over four-fifths (80.6%) of the Island’s regular female labor force were single. Of the remainder, roughly half were married and half widowed. “After women got married,” declared one Islander, “very few . . . ever went out to work.” Statistics appear to bear out this claim. Only 7.8 percent of the Isle’s married women regularly worked outside the home in the late 1920s . Husbands who could afford it preferred to keep their wives at home. Men and women alike considered a non-working wife as both prestigious and good for the family. “I didn’t ever go out to work after I was married,” remarked one Island woman. “He didn’t believe in it, my husband. Mind you, I was married ten years before I had my [first child]. I mean I could have gone to work, but he wouldn’t let me go.” Sometimes women returned to work as their family obligations diminished. A female worker at Morton’s recalled that “when they got married a lot of [women] left . . . As their children grew up, they came back.” Those who did not return to the factory tried to earn money in other ways. The more ambitious attempted to open their own shops. To one shopkeeper, the wife of a tailor, it seemed that “every house was a shop . . . Everybody was a business person.” More commonly women did a bit of mangling, sewing, or became “ship scrubbers”— cleaning women who serviced the vessels calling at the docks. Overall, comparatively few women were able to avoid working for pay at sometime or other during their married lives. In the Island, the women’s trades proved especially difficult to organize. The youth of female workers, their unwillingness to view their occupations as careers, and the high turnover within their ranks made them exceptionally difficult to organize. Though sometimes willing to participate In spontaneous and usually defensive job action, few women were willing to join a trade union. “The women used to rely on their husbands,” observed one former female worker. They viewed their earnings as supplemental to the family Income. Neither their fathers/husbands nor the women themselves thought It likely that they would remain at work In the same place or occupation long enough to really benefit from union membership. It is commonly asserted that the absence of male workers during World War II meant that women began to work in traditionally male trades, which caused a shift of balance in the employment market. On the Island this effect was not significant. By 1942, conscription was applied to all male British subjects between 18 and 51 years old, as well as all females 20 to 30 years old resident in Britain. However, some categories were exempted: clergy, married women and students for example. Also excluded were people working in key jobs, those on the Schedule of Reserved Occupations. This covered about five million people in jobs in industries such as railways, mining, farming, education, medicine and – of particular significance for the Island – the docks. The docks were a male bastion, dockers were not conscripted, and so there were no new opportunities for women. A similar effect could be seen in other male-dominated industries on the Island. For example, the few remaining shipbuilding companies turned their attention to war work, repairing naval vessels. Metal engineering companies became involved in the construction of military structures. The Island was also a very dangerous place to live during World War II, and thus saw more evacuation than other parts of London. Mostly, only people with a compelling reason to be on the Island – dockers, reserved occupation workers, civil defence workers and similar – remained there during World War II. The rest (including most women) moved to safer homes – the population of the Isle of Dogs dropped from 21,000 to 9,000 between 1939 and 1945. Many of the women who worked on the Island during that period were involved in the war effort, but discrimination was persistent. For example, the Fire Service admitted women for the first time during the war. They could drive vehicles, perform administrative or catering tasks, but they were not permitted to fight fires. It was the increasing legislative protection for worker’s rights, health and safety after the war which really made a difference to the lot of women working on the Island, but it would be 1975 before the Sex Discrimination Act made it illegal to discriminate against women in work, education and training; and 1976 before the introduction of the Equal Pay Act and Sex Discrimination Act. By this time, however, the docks and all industry on the Island were in terminal decline. Between 1971 and 1977, Poplar’s unemployment rate rose from 5% to 16%, twice the British average. At the end of the decade, a very large majority of Islanders – men and women – travelled to jobs off the Isle of Dogs. Matters only worsened, though. The closure of the West India Docks and Millwall Docks in 1980 were accompanied by the closure of the last vestiges of the Island’s industry. In 1984, male unemployment on the Island ran at 30% and that of women at 15%, compared with average unemployment levels of 9.6% for Greater London and 12.4% for Britain as a whole. It was around this time that the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was formed. The initial aims of the LDDC were to: - Retain existing businesses - Attract new firms to the area - Train and stimulate new initiatives No specific attention was paid to female employment, nor was it considered necessary. After a few years, the success of the LDDC was limited; a few small firms who did not provide significant numbers of jobs, or the transfer of businesses such as the Telegraph print works or Billingsgate Fish Market who brought there (mostly-male) workers with them, with no added employment benefit for Islanders. My sisters benefited, though; Karen worked for Bovis in Millwall Docks. Much later, Angie worked in a new bar in the Canary Wharf area. The success of the Canary Wharf development marked a change in LDDC’s strategy (or perhaps not). Instead of stimulating and supporting new businesses, the focus was on attracting finance and banking businesses. Tens of thousands of jobs were transferred from the City and elsewhere. Some jobs have been created as a result and the housing mix has been changed in a way which would not have seemed conceivable twenty years ago. There is, of course, a downside to these achievements, best expressed in terms of who has benefited from this process. ‘Trickle down’, to the extent that it has happened at all, has been selective: women have benefited, but only from the usual low-wage part-time work. The Enterprise Culture and the Inner City, Nicholas Deakin, John Edwards No change there, then. In the first few years of the 21st century, the population of the Isle of Dogs has changed with the arrival of many first or second generation immigrants (although some were not new to the East End, having been displaced from Limehouse and Poplar). Bangladeshi women in particular are even less represented in the local employment market. More than two hundred years after the opening of the West India Docks, many Island women are still at the bottom of a very long employment ladder.	<urn:uuid:99a5426c-f1de-4a44-9313-4216487f2594>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://islandhistory.wordpress.com/2015/08/27/womens-work/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00148.warc.gz	en	0.982778	3,437	3.546875	4	[ 0.15084783732891083, -0.12550018727779388, 0.19483011960983276, -0.25239601731300354, -0.023056216537952423, -0.06413299590349197, 0.2723449468612671, -0.20070835947990417, -0.3975919187068939, -0.22538749873638153, 0.207641139626503, -0.056366611272096634, 0.1363653689622879, 0.3821585178...	3	In 1800, the Isle of Dogs contained only thirty inhabited buildings, and had a population of roughly 150. When the West India Docks opened in 1802, employment opportunities in the docks and growing industry on the Island meant the population grew to 1,346 by 1831. 1841 census returns revealed the most common occupations of heads of households to be: Industrial Service 23.2% Domestic Service 2.9% Other than Domestic Service, these were all “men’s jobs”. Of course, these figures show the occupations of household heads, who were almost always men. But they do clearly represent the type of work available on the Island in the early 19th century; in shipbuilding, ironworks, docks, heavy manufacturing, and similar. Also, industry on the Island was among the most advanced in Britain, if not the world; which meant its workforce was relatively highly skilled. At the time, the domain of men. Essentially, in the first half of the 19th century, men moved to the Island to find work, and their women and children followed them. There were no jobs waiting for the women, some of whom would have given up any jobs they already had to make the move to the Island. Even if the family moved from as close by as Stepney or Bow, the distance prevented travelling to/from the Island. Public transport was poor (and unaffordable to most) and ‘bridgers’ at that time could last 30 mins or more as sail ships were manoeuvered in and out of the docks. As a consequence, women represented less than 15% of the workforce for most of the 1800s, which was less than half the percentage for London as a whole. Half those women were working in domestic service, and less than a third in manufacturing. The situation started to change in the late 1800s. By this time, the traditional industries which employed skilled men workers were in decline. A combination of economic and cost developments made it cheaper for heavy manufacturing firms to move off the Island, to the north of England or even to Scotland. The character of Island businesses began to change, with a focus on lighter manufacturing industries: rope and cable building, food processing, flour milling, flag-making, paint & chemical manufacturing, oil processing, etc. It was during this period that many well-known Island firms started, some of whom moved to the Island in part because of its supply of cheap female labour, for example: - Food Processing: Maconochies, Morton’s - Paints & Dyes: Burrell’s - Ropes & Cables: Hawkins & Tipson, Bullivants, Binks - Timber: Lenantons, Montague Meyer - Chemicals & Oil: Snowdon, Atlas Chemical Works (later Pfizers), Cumberland Oil Mills, Duckhams, Winkley, Burrell’s - Flour: McDougall’s - Lead Works: Locke, Lancaster & Co. (later Associated Lead) Many of these ‘new’ industries did not require skilled labour, which meant more job opportunities for women. Moreover, women could be paid less than men, and they were not likely to be members of trades unions. At Morton’s and Maconochie’s, the largest employers on the Island (outside of the docks), 75% of the workforce was composed of women and girls. The same could be said for other large employers, including paint makers, rope and cable manufacturers, flour millers, and similar. Often, women went to work to supplement a family income which was decreasing as skilled-labour was in lesser demand on the Island; men who had been involved in shipbuilding, iron working or other heavy industries found it harder to get a job. In 1897 one investigator reported that: The number of girls employed in the Island increases year by year . . . The work for women indeed shows a tendency to increase in a far greater proportion than that for men . . . n the whole men’s industries show a tendency to leave the Island just as those for women give signs of greater development. In the future it is quite possible that men may begin to depend on the . . . women to be the bread winners . . . A decade later. Poplar Labour leader Will Crooks remarked that: We have got casual women workers now, a thing that . . . did not exist 10 or 15 years ago . . . [T]he fact is there are thousands of these women on the look out for a day’s work. The employer sees the advantage and takes them on for an hour or two [at very low wages]. Thomas Cole (in his thesis, Life & Labor in the Isle of Dogs (sic)): In addition to low pay, the work of Island women was often exhausting. One local plant manager admitted that he had worked all over the world, but the worst sight he had ever seen was that of the women in his factory, so incapacitated that they lay on the ground, unable to go home. The owner of an Island rope works acknowledged that if it were not for the factory acts he would have worked his female employees “every night till 11 or 12, as their wages were so much smaller than that of men . . . ” In food factories owners frequently did just that, for, since their firms handled perishable items which could quickly spoil, they were exempt from laws regulating hours and overtime. Sometimes such employers worked their female employees for fourteen to sixteen hours at a stretch. One social worker charged that, “If the girls complain or ask for higher wages, [they get the sack]. There are plenty outside waiting and anxious to be taken on . . .” Island women’s work was frequently exhausting and sometime dangerous. Ropemaking was infamously dangerous with its razor sharp, revolving machinery. Common accidents including lost digits or limbs, but truly horrific accidents occured when women were trapped by and dragged into the whirling machinery. My great aunt, Johanna Lemmerman, was scalped in a similar accident in a sweet factory in Cable St, Stepney (she survived). Thomas Cole again: An extraordinarily high proportion of working women — 41.2 percent— worked in food processing plants, principally Morton’s and Maconochie’s. By comparison, other female occupational sub-groups were rather small: rope and sack making, 8.3 percent; iron and steel work, 6.9 percent; domestic service, 6.9 percent; and clerical, 6.9 percent. Women were generally less concerned about protecting occupational and wage differentials, but they were equally anxious to find work. Most girls, like their male counterparts, began work at age fourteen. Office work was considered the most desirable form of employment by girls and women, but few could get It. The greatest number, as noted above, ended up In the food processing plants. Of the two great Island firms In this field, Morton’s and Maconochie’s, the former was considered to be the better employer. Its wages were no higher than those of Its rival, but working conditions were better and the management was thought to be fairer . So far as factory work was concerned, rope making was regarded as the most difficult. One woman remarked that her two-year stint in the local rope works, “nearly killed me . . . Anything went, more or less . . . It was real hard . . . work.” Yet even rope making was considered preferable to domestic service. As one former parlor maid who later worked in a paint factory noted, “when you were factory, like, it was limited, wasn’t it? Say, 8 ’til 5 [or] 8 ’til half past 6, but [as a servant] you was on all hours, wasn’t you?” Another ex-servant agreed, saying “you got fed up with it. You knew that you was being used as a slave . . . “ Women did not always accept their treatment without complaint or reaction. In March 1914, Morton’s hired 4 young girls aged between 14 and 15 in the tin-box making section – for less than the 18s to 20s a week that skilled women could expect to earn. Suspecting a management ploy to reduce wages in general, the women demanded that the girls be moved to a department where no skilled work was involved. The management refused and 300 women walked out on strike, followed shortly after by other workers from other parts of the company. Looking for union help, 800 women joined the National Federation of Women Workers (NFWW) while the men joined the Dock, Wharf, Riverside and General Workers Union. On 28 March a procession was organised from Millwall to Trafalgar Square. The strike lasted twelve days before the management, overwhelmed by the public support the strikers received, and embarrassed by the media coverage showing the girls singing and dancing in the streets, caved in and agreed to the strikers’ demands. A 1929 survey indicated that over four-fifths (80.6%) of the Island’s regular female labor force were single. Of the remainder, roughly half were married and half widowed. “After women got married,” declared one Islander, “very few . . . ever went out to work.” Statistics appear to bear out this claim. Only 7.8 percent of the Isle’s married women regularly worked outside the home in the late 1920s . Husbands who could afford it preferred to keep their wives at home. Men and women alike considered a non-working wife as both prestigious and good for the family. “I didn’t ever go out to work after I was married,” remarked one Island woman. “He didn’t believe in it, my husband. Mind you, I was married ten years before I had my [first child]. I mean I could have gone to work, but he wouldn’t let me go.” Sometimes women returned to work as their family obligations diminished. A female worker at Morton’s recalled that “when they got married a lot of [women] left . . . As their children grew up, they came back.” Those who did not return to the factory tried to earn money in other ways. The more ambitious attempted to open their own shops. To one shopkeeper, the wife of a tailor, it seemed that “every house was a shop . . . Everybody was a business person.” More commonly women did a bit of mangling, sewing, or became “ship scrubbers”— cleaning women who serviced the vessels calling at the docks. Overall, comparatively few women were able to avoid working for pay at sometime or other during their married lives. In the Island, the women’s trades proved especially difficult to organize. The youth of female workers, their unwillingness to view their occupations as careers, and the high turnover within their ranks made them exceptionally difficult to organize. Though sometimes willing to participate In spontaneous and usually defensive job action, few women were willing to join a trade union. “The women used to rely on their husbands,” observed one former female worker. They viewed their earnings as supplemental to the family Income. Neither their fathers/husbands nor the women themselves thought It likely that they would remain at work In the same place or occupation long enough to really benefit from union membership. It is commonly asserted that the absence of male workers during World War II meant that women began to work in traditionally male trades, which caused a shift of balance in the employment market. On the Island this effect was not significant. By 1942, conscription was applied to all male British subjects between 18 and 51 years old, as well as all females 20 to 30 years old resident in Britain. However, some categories were exempted: clergy, married women and students for example. Also excluded were people working in key jobs, those on the Schedule of Reserved Occupations. This covered about five million people in jobs in industries such as railways, mining, farming, education, medicine and – of particular significance for the Island – the docks. The docks were a male bastion, dockers were not conscripted, and so there were no new opportunities for women. A similar effect could be seen in other male-dominated industries on the Island. For example, the few remaining shipbuilding companies turned their attention to war work, repairing naval vessels. Metal engineering companies became involved in the construction of military structures. The Island was also a very dangerous place to live during World War II, and thus saw more evacuation than other parts of London. Mostly, only people with a compelling reason to be on the Island – dockers, reserved occupation workers, civil defence workers and similar – remained there during World War II. The rest (including most women) moved to safer homes – the population of the Isle of Dogs dropped from 21,000 to 9,000 between 1939 and 1945. Many of the women who worked on the Island during that period were involved in the war effort, but discrimination was persistent. For example, the Fire Service admitted women for the first time during the war. They could drive vehicles, perform administrative or catering tasks, but they were not permitted to fight fires. It was the increasing legislative protection for worker’s rights, health and safety after the war which really made a difference to the lot of women working on the Island, but it would be 1975 before the Sex Discrimination Act made it illegal to discriminate against women in work, education and training; and 1976 before the introduction of the Equal Pay Act and Sex Discrimination Act. By this time, however, the docks and all industry on the Island were in terminal decline. Between 1971 and 1977, Poplar’s unemployment rate rose from 5% to 16%, twice the British average. At the end of the decade, a very large majority of Islanders – men and women – travelled to jobs off the Isle of Dogs. Matters only worsened, though. The closure of the West India Docks and Millwall Docks in 1980 were accompanied by the closure of the last vestiges of the Island’s industry. In 1984, male unemployment on the Island ran at 30% and that of women at 15%, compared with average unemployment levels of 9.6% for Greater London and 12.4% for Britain as a whole. It was around this time that the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was formed. The initial aims of the LDDC were to: - Retain existing businesses - Attract new firms to the area - Train and stimulate new initiatives No specific attention was paid to female employment, nor was it considered necessary. After a few years, the success of the LDDC was limited; a few small firms who did not provide significant numbers of jobs, or the transfer of businesses such as the Telegraph print works or Billingsgate Fish Market who brought there (mostly-male) workers with them, with no added employment benefit for Islanders. My sisters benefited, though; Karen worked for Bovis in Millwall Docks. Much later, Angie worked in a new bar in the Canary Wharf area. The success of the Canary Wharf development marked a change in LDDC’s strategy (or perhaps not). Instead of stimulating and supporting new businesses, the focus was on attracting finance and banking businesses. Tens of thousands of jobs were transferred from the City and elsewhere. Some jobs have been created as a result and the housing mix has been changed in a way which would not have seemed conceivable twenty years ago. There is, of course, a downside to these achievements, best expressed in terms of who has benefited from this process. ‘Trickle down’, to the extent that it has happened at all, has been selective: women have benefited, but only from the usual low-wage part-time work. The Enterprise Culture and the Inner City, Nicholas Deakin, John Edwards No change there, then. In the first few years of the 21st century, the population of the Isle of Dogs has changed with the arrival of many first or second generation immigrants (although some were not new to the East End, having been displaced from Limehouse and Poplar). Bangladeshi women in particular are even less represented in the local employment market. More than two hundred years after the opening of the West India Docks, many Island women are still at the bottom of a very long employment ladder.	3,454	ENGLISH	1
Tutankhamun was a pharaoh of eighteenth Egyptian family and the Pharaoh of Egypt from 1334 to 1325 BC. AD. In the era of the modern state. Tutankhamun is one of the most famous pharaohs for reasons not related to the achievements made or wars won , but for other important reasons from a historical perspective, most notably of these reasons is the discovery of his tomb and his full treasuries without any damage, in addition to the mystery surrounding the circumstances of his death, as many considered the death of Pharaoh at a very early age is abnormal, especially with the presence of traces of fractures of the thigh bone and skull, and the marriage of his widow to his minister after his death. Tutankhamun was 9 years old when he became pharaoh of Egypt, his name in the ancient Egyptian language means “the living image of the god Amun,” Tutankhamun lived in a transitional period in the history of ancient Egypt where he came after Akhenaten, who tried to unite the gods of ancient Egypt in the form of one God. You can visit the Tomb of Tutankhamun at The Valley of the Kings, located in the West Bank of Luxor, as it was discovered in 1922 in the Valley of the Kings by British archaeologist Howard Carter, also you can see his precious treasures while visiting The Egyptian Museum in Cairo. However the discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun caused much in the world.	<urn:uuid:e296866a-9af2-4ef6-9589-7bd5ac2db077>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.egyptomania777.com/king-tut-exhibition-tour	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00082.warc.gz	en	0.981737	304	3.65625	4	[ -0.15722812712192535, 0.6007755398750305, 0.6276752352714539, -0.009924070909619331, -0.6974415183067322, -0.1255338490009308, 0.8438536524772644, 0.21665410697460175, -0.2569294571876526, -0.07240094244480133, -0.12387626618146896, -0.9751725792884827, 0.20206397771835327, 0.1945120543241...	8	Tutankhamun was a pharaoh of eighteenth Egyptian family and the Pharaoh of Egypt from 1334 to 1325 BC. AD. In the era of the modern state. Tutankhamun is one of the most famous pharaohs for reasons not related to the achievements made or wars won , but for other important reasons from a historical perspective, most notably of these reasons is the discovery of his tomb and his full treasuries without any damage, in addition to the mystery surrounding the circumstances of his death, as many considered the death of Pharaoh at a very early age is abnormal, especially with the presence of traces of fractures of the thigh bone and skull, and the marriage of his widow to his minister after his death. Tutankhamun was 9 years old when he became pharaoh of Egypt, his name in the ancient Egyptian language means “the living image of the god Amun,” Tutankhamun lived in a transitional period in the history of ancient Egypt where he came after Akhenaten, who tried to unite the gods of ancient Egypt in the form of one God. You can visit the Tomb of Tutankhamun at The Valley of the Kings, located in the West Bank of Luxor, as it was discovered in 1922 in the Valley of the Kings by British archaeologist Howard Carter, also you can see his precious treasures while visiting The Egyptian Museum in Cairo. However the discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun caused much in the world.	313	ENGLISH	1
defeated the last strength of the Carthaginians at the battle of the Ægatian Isles (241 B.C.), after which Carthage (240 B.C.) sued for peace. By the terms of this peace, all Sicily, except for the dominions of Hiero of Syracuse, became an "estate" of the Roman people. There was no such process of assimilation as had been practised in Italy; Sicily became a conquered province, paying tribute and yielding profit like the provinces of the older empires. And, in addition, Carthage paid a war indemnity of 3200 talents (£788,000). For twenty-two years there was peace between Rome and Carthage. It was peace without prosperity. Both combatants were suffering from the want and disorganization that follow naturally and necessarily upon all great wars. The territories of Carthage seethed with violent disorder; the returning soldiers could not get their pay, and mutinied and looted; the land went uncultivated. We read of horrible cruelties in the suppression of these troubles by Hamilcar, the Carthaginian general; of men being crucified by the thousand. Sardinia and Corsica revolted. The "peace of Italy" was scarcely happier. The Gauls rose and marched south; they were defeated, and 40,000 of them killed at Telamon. It is manifest that Italy was incomplete until it reached the Alps. Roman colonies were planted in the valley of the Po, and the great northward artery, the Via Flaminia, was begun. But it shows the moral and intellectual degradation of this post-war period that when the Gauls were threatening Rome, human sacrifices were proposed and carried out. The old Carthaginian sea law was broken up—it may have been selfish and monopolistic, but it was at least orderly—the Adriatic swarmed with	<urn:uuid:d11eb179-4d7d-4af1-b291-66813d45b647>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/495	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00098.warc.gz	en	0.98132	386	3.546875	4	[ -0.5322933197021484, 0.5329912304878235, 0.29679110646247864, 0.07372590899467468, -0.7208345532417297, -0.35021543502807617, 0.12861117720603943, 0.1113482117652893, -0.06877895444631577, 0.022867539897561073, -0.26203247904777527, -0.5727887153625488, 0.28079232573509216, 0.4581842720508...	1	defeated the last strength of the Carthaginians at the battle of the Ægatian Isles (241 B.C.), after which Carthage (240 B.C.) sued for peace. By the terms of this peace, all Sicily, except for the dominions of Hiero of Syracuse, became an "estate" of the Roman people. There was no such process of assimilation as had been practised in Italy; Sicily became a conquered province, paying tribute and yielding profit like the provinces of the older empires. And, in addition, Carthage paid a war indemnity of 3200 talents (£788,000). For twenty-two years there was peace between Rome and Carthage. It was peace without prosperity. Both combatants were suffering from the want and disorganization that follow naturally and necessarily upon all great wars. The territories of Carthage seethed with violent disorder; the returning soldiers could not get their pay, and mutinied and looted; the land went uncultivated. We read of horrible cruelties in the suppression of these troubles by Hamilcar, the Carthaginian general; of men being crucified by the thousand. Sardinia and Corsica revolted. The "peace of Italy" was scarcely happier. The Gauls rose and marched south; they were defeated, and 40,000 of them killed at Telamon. It is manifest that Italy was incomplete until it reached the Alps. Roman colonies were planted in the valley of the Po, and the great northward artery, the Via Flaminia, was begun. But it shows the moral and intellectual degradation of this post-war period that when the Gauls were threatening Rome, human sacrifices were proposed and carried out. The old Carthaginian sea law was broken up—it may have been selfish and monopolistic, but it was at least orderly—the Adriatic swarmed with	403	ENGLISH	1
The land mass known today as Alaska was originally occupied only by Native peoples that had been in the area for thousands of years before European or Russian explorers arrived in the 1700s. The Inuit people inhabited much of the central to northern areas. The southern and Panhandle (See the circle on the map.) areas were inhabited by the Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian tribes. The Aleuts had inhabited the islands of the Aleutian chain for many thousands of years as well. Each of these groups of people had their own complex legal and family systems as well as beautiful artwork expressing their faith and life. During the 1700s and 1800s, Russian explorers and fur traders crossed into the Aleutian islands and “Russian America” that is today Alaska. Russia claimed ownership of this territory and established many settlements to handle trade and export of goods back to Russia. In some of these settlements, Russians and other European explorers co-existed peacefully with the native people. In others there were terrible relations with native people being taken as slaves and many dying from imported European diseases that they had no immunity to. By 1800 there was conflict between the Russian-American Company which sought to own a monopoly on the fur trade in the area, the British Hudson’s Bay Company and American fur traders, who were overtaking the trapping business in the south nearer the border to the United States. The colony was not profitable for Russia, so this and their wish to keep it away from Britain, brought the willingness to consider a sale to the United States, who was not an enemy at the time. William Henry Seward President Abraham Lincoln appointed William Henry Seward as secretary of state in 1861. During his term he began negotiating the purchase of Russian America, from Russia. The purchase agreement was signed by Seward on March, 30, 1867, and approved by the U.S. Senate May 27, 1867 so that entire land mass, that is today Alaska, was purchased for $7.2 million–or 2 cents an acre. At the time, this purchase was often called “Seward’s folly” because many Americans in the “lower 48” did not realize the value of Alaska to the United States. Alaska became the 49th state of the United States of America on January 3, 1959. Before that it was considered first a district in October 18, 1867, and then an organized territory on August 24, 1912.	<urn:uuid:6bbb02e5-9037-49ab-b6a8-324be63a84a3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.vintage-american.com/state-history/history-of-alaska/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00228.warc.gz	en	0.987909	507	4.1875	4	[ -0.24013417959213257, -0.2571778893470764, 0.2012399286031723, 0.0185806043446064, -0.30324816703796387, -0.2675735354423523, 0.3746761381626129, -0.037994954735040665, -0.3906373083591461, 0.34608209133148193, 0.1283329725265503, -0.43382546305656433, 0.09558369964361191, 0.13221155107021...	4	The land mass known today as Alaska was originally occupied only by Native peoples that had been in the area for thousands of years before European or Russian explorers arrived in the 1700s. The Inuit people inhabited much of the central to northern areas. The southern and Panhandle (See the circle on the map.) areas were inhabited by the Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian tribes. The Aleuts had inhabited the islands of the Aleutian chain for many thousands of years as well. Each of these groups of people had their own complex legal and family systems as well as beautiful artwork expressing their faith and life. During the 1700s and 1800s, Russian explorers and fur traders crossed into the Aleutian islands and “Russian America” that is today Alaska. Russia claimed ownership of this territory and established many settlements to handle trade and export of goods back to Russia. In some of these settlements, Russians and other European explorers co-existed peacefully with the native people. In others there were terrible relations with native people being taken as slaves and many dying from imported European diseases that they had no immunity to. By 1800 there was conflict between the Russian-American Company which sought to own a monopoly on the fur trade in the area, the British Hudson’s Bay Company and American fur traders, who were overtaking the trapping business in the south nearer the border to the United States. The colony was not profitable for Russia, so this and their wish to keep it away from Britain, brought the willingness to consider a sale to the United States, who was not an enemy at the time. William Henry Seward President Abraham Lincoln appointed William Henry Seward as secretary of state in 1861. During his term he began negotiating the purchase of Russian America, from Russia. The purchase agreement was signed by Seward on March, 30, 1867, and approved by the U.S. Senate May 27, 1867 so that entire land mass, that is today Alaska, was purchased for $7.2 million–or 2 cents an acre. At the time, this purchase was often called “Seward’s folly” because many Americans in the “lower 48” did not realize the value of Alaska to the United States. Alaska became the 49th state of the United States of America on January 3, 1959. Before that it was considered first a district in October 18, 1867, and then an organized territory on August 24, 1912.	543	ENGLISH	1
Lane County was first established on March 20, 1873 and organized on June 3, 1886. There were five people who organized and created the county. Richard Deighton, Thomas Hahn, Joshua Wheatcroft, John Schiereck, and William Walker were the creators. Lane County was named after James H. Lane, who was the first U.S. senator for Kansas. This county had four state representatives and they all served as Speaker of the House. Dighton is Lane County’s seat. Lane County is surrounded by Scott County, Gove County, Ness County, and Buffalo County. The county’s boundaries were about twenty-four miles east and west, and about thirty miles north and south. The first homesteaders came to the area of Lane County in the year of 1873. About ten years later mostly all of the homesteaders were leaving to the grassland areas. Most of the settlers were gone by the year of 1884( to the grassland areas). After that people gradually started moving back because at that time people were very poor and the land was very affordable. After they started moving back, businesses were starting to be established, such as a bank. The first County newspaper was called the “Lane County Gazette”. The homesteaders came in 1878, but there were people here before that. The Paleo Indians were here several years before the settlers came and they were the very first people in the area. The Paleo hunted buffalo, mammoth, and other animals. They also ate other foods like roots and berries. They lived around Lane and Gove County. Paleo Indians started out in Oklahoma then moved to Kansas. The Western Trail or the Texas cattle trail, was very important to the people of Lane County. Many longhorns were driven through the county each year. Then a man named Wild Horse Johnson brought horses into the area. He would train the horses and then sell them to the settlers of Lane County, and other places as well. People would actually come and watch Wild Horse break the horses. Many people found him riding, breaking, and training the horses very amusing, it was kind of like a rodeo. After the Civil War more railroads were being built. All of them were very important to everyone. Railroads came through Healy and Dighton. The Missouri Railroad went through Shields as well. The railroads were for people to get to places in shorter time and to get the supplies we needed. “Early Lane County History” by Ellen May Stanley	<urn:uuid:7a69f964-cacd-40f2-9e70-391d5152052d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.usd468.org/lane-county-history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00192.warc.gz	en	0.992609	518	3.453125	3	[ -0.002611570991575718, -0.33768653869628906, 0.515040397644043, -0.006360522471368313, -0.6395801901817322, -0.23470439016819, -0.23088791966438293, -0.02895146608352661, -0.3174135386943817, -0.12432663887739182, 0.11990518867969513, -0.03871242702007294, 0.2027718722820282, -0.0340442545...	12	Lane County was first established on March 20, 1873 and organized on June 3, 1886. There were five people who organized and created the county. Richard Deighton, Thomas Hahn, Joshua Wheatcroft, John Schiereck, and William Walker were the creators. Lane County was named after James H. Lane, who was the first U.S. senator for Kansas. This county had four state representatives and they all served as Speaker of the House. Dighton is Lane County’s seat. Lane County is surrounded by Scott County, Gove County, Ness County, and Buffalo County. The county’s boundaries were about twenty-four miles east and west, and about thirty miles north and south. The first homesteaders came to the area of Lane County in the year of 1873. About ten years later mostly all of the homesteaders were leaving to the grassland areas. Most of the settlers were gone by the year of 1884( to the grassland areas). After that people gradually started moving back because at that time people were very poor and the land was very affordable. After they started moving back, businesses were starting to be established, such as a bank. The first County newspaper was called the “Lane County Gazette”. The homesteaders came in 1878, but there were people here before that. The Paleo Indians were here several years before the settlers came and they were the very first people in the area. The Paleo hunted buffalo, mammoth, and other animals. They also ate other foods like roots and berries. They lived around Lane and Gove County. Paleo Indians started out in Oklahoma then moved to Kansas. The Western Trail or the Texas cattle trail, was very important to the people of Lane County. Many longhorns were driven through the county each year. Then a man named Wild Horse Johnson brought horses into the area. He would train the horses and then sell them to the settlers of Lane County, and other places as well. People would actually come and watch Wild Horse break the horses. Many people found him riding, breaking, and training the horses very amusing, it was kind of like a rodeo. After the Civil War more railroads were being built. All of them were very important to everyone. Railroads came through Healy and Dighton. The Missouri Railroad went through Shields as well. The railroads were for people to get to places in shorter time and to get the supplies we needed. “Early Lane County History” by Ellen May Stanley	521	ENGLISH	1
What happened to the German mercenaries who fought against the American Revolution Everyone knows about the famous crossing of the Delaware, where General Washington surprised the Hessians in the darkness of late Christmas Day. But who were the infamous Hessians that Washington and his men killed and wounded by the score? And what happened to the ones who didn't get killed by the Continental Army? As it turns out, Hessian mercenaries liked freedom as much as any other colonial immigrant, because many just stuck around. Which was fine after the war, but during the war they were very unwelcome – because looting people's homes is a real turn off. Not the first time Americans would have to put Germans in their place. And not the last. The Hessians were not technically mercenaries but contract armies fighting for Britain from the German states of Hesse- Cassel and Hesse-Hanau. Though German troops contracted under British control came from other principalities, they were referred to as "Hessians" as a whole by the colonists. Britain used Hessian troops to control large populations, especially in Ireland and the American Colonies. The use of these troops was one of the reasons the Americans would declare their independence from the crown. Though more than capable fighters, the British used them as guards and garrison troops, which is how they found themselves when Washington surprised them that Christmas night. When Hessians were captured, especially after the Battle of Trenton, they would be paraded through the streets. The colonists' anger toward their mother country using "foreign mercenaries" to subdue them was infuriating and increased military enlistments for the Continental Army. They would then be used as a source of labor while they were prisoners of war, often working on farms. The Continental Congress also offered each Hessian who would defect to the American cause 50 acres of land for their effort. What Hessians see when they aren't defecting. Many German troops ended up in Lancaster, Penn. working alongside the Pennsylvania Dutch, who, by nature, treated the Germans very well. In all, German POWs had such a great experience in American farms and fields that they would sometimes join the Continental Army. Some 30,000 men came from German states to fight against the American Revolution. While more than 7,500 of them died in the fighting, the rest did not and when it came time to go home, many didn't want to go. So they stayed. Only an estimated 17,300 of the original 30,000 Hessian soldiers opted to return to their principalities in the German states. The rest decided to make their way in the new United States or head to Canada to try out a new life up there. Life in the armies of German princes was not always so good and the troops were not always well-paid for their efforts. Starting a new life in a country where their future was their own to make was a natural step for many of the well-trained, hardworking Germans. They could finally celebrate Christmas without worrying about Americans surprising them in their sleep. - The 4 US Presidents with the craziest war stories - Americas Military ... › - The earliest-born American to be photographed is also a veteran ... › - 5 momentous military events that happened on Christmas - We Are ... ›	<urn:uuid:f2e538e7-b379-479f-8fbb-59da477c6180>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wearethemighty.com/history/hessians-american-revolution	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00182.warc.gz	en	0.98539	667	3.34375	3	[ -0.055532608181238174, 0.5617079734802246, 0.20098398625850677, -0.1586204171180725, 0.05187801271677017, -0.15100066363811493, 0.19616883993148804, 0.4262213706970215, -0.14928728342056274, -0.04355979710817337, 0.19974975287914276, 0.2206895798444748, -0.16517503559589386, 0.220842272043...	2	What happened to the German mercenaries who fought against the American Revolution Everyone knows about the famous crossing of the Delaware, where General Washington surprised the Hessians in the darkness of late Christmas Day. But who were the infamous Hessians that Washington and his men killed and wounded by the score? And what happened to the ones who didn't get killed by the Continental Army? As it turns out, Hessian mercenaries liked freedom as much as any other colonial immigrant, because many just stuck around. Which was fine after the war, but during the war they were very unwelcome – because looting people's homes is a real turn off. Not the first time Americans would have to put Germans in their place. And not the last. The Hessians were not technically mercenaries but contract armies fighting for Britain from the German states of Hesse- Cassel and Hesse-Hanau. Though German troops contracted under British control came from other principalities, they were referred to as "Hessians" as a whole by the colonists. Britain used Hessian troops to control large populations, especially in Ireland and the American Colonies. The use of these troops was one of the reasons the Americans would declare their independence from the crown. Though more than capable fighters, the British used them as guards and garrison troops, which is how they found themselves when Washington surprised them that Christmas night. When Hessians were captured, especially after the Battle of Trenton, they would be paraded through the streets. The colonists' anger toward their mother country using "foreign mercenaries" to subdue them was infuriating and increased military enlistments for the Continental Army. They would then be used as a source of labor while they were prisoners of war, often working on farms. The Continental Congress also offered each Hessian who would defect to the American cause 50 acres of land for their effort. What Hessians see when they aren't defecting. Many German troops ended up in Lancaster, Penn. working alongside the Pennsylvania Dutch, who, by nature, treated the Germans very well. In all, German POWs had such a great experience in American farms and fields that they would sometimes join the Continental Army. Some 30,000 men came from German states to fight against the American Revolution. While more than 7,500 of them died in the fighting, the rest did not and when it came time to go home, many didn't want to go. So they stayed. Only an estimated 17,300 of the original 30,000 Hessian soldiers opted to return to their principalities in the German states. The rest decided to make their way in the new United States or head to Canada to try out a new life up there. Life in the armies of German princes was not always so good and the troops were not always well-paid for their efforts. Starting a new life in a country where their future was their own to make was a natural step for many of the well-trained, hardworking Germans. They could finally celebrate Christmas without worrying about Americans surprising them in their sleep. - The 4 US Presidents with the craziest war stories - Americas Military ... › - The earliest-born American to be photographed is also a veteran ... › - 5 momentous military events that happened on Christmas - We Are ... ›	679	ENGLISH	1
Friday 13th December Talk Homework: Retell the Nativity Story This week has been all about, the Key stage 1 production. The children were fantastic and looked absolutely brilliant in their costumes. Thank you so much for preparing the children so well for their performance. Some children had a huge amount of words to learn and some children told me that they were relieved that they didn't have so many to learn. As part of our New Curriculum the children have learned all about the importance of rules and following rules. Our Global Goal this term has been Peace and Justice. We now understand why we need rules and why they need to be enforced. Jack B enjoyed learning about The Bow Street Runners who were the very first policemen in our country. Ellie has enjoyed maths because she learnt that she can use lots of different methods to add and subtract. Tom enjoyed English because this week we tried a reading paper quiz. He was good at finding the answers in the text. Matilda liked using Skill Builder today to practise her problem solving, listening and presenting skills. She especially liked pretending to be an ant and teaching a grasshopper to make a sandwich! We had carefully listened to a story and found out the grasshopper forgot to store some food and so he was hungry. We used our presentation skills to help to solve his problem! We are getting excited because hopefully we are having a visit from a policeman to find out what a day in his life is like. We have some really good questions ready to ask him! Have a good weekend	<urn:uuid:355af434-68fa-413d-9b5b-a420b1a1ce27>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.buckdenacademy.org/blog/?pid=59&nid=37&storyid=305	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00244.warc.gz	en	0.988131	312	3.375	3	[ -0.0636054128408432, -0.12960954010486603, 0.10450231283903122, -0.25827693939208984, -0.1985708475112915, 0.10377360135316849, -0.21625645458698273, 0.5356569290161133, -0.30939069390296936, 0.028193168342113495, 0.03159027174115181, -0.12381388992071152, 0.1585163027048111, 0.34487479925...	1	Friday 13th December Talk Homework: Retell the Nativity Story This week has been all about, the Key stage 1 production. The children were fantastic and looked absolutely brilliant in their costumes. Thank you so much for preparing the children so well for their performance. Some children had a huge amount of words to learn and some children told me that they were relieved that they didn't have so many to learn. As part of our New Curriculum the children have learned all about the importance of rules and following rules. Our Global Goal this term has been Peace and Justice. We now understand why we need rules and why they need to be enforced. Jack B enjoyed learning about The Bow Street Runners who were the very first policemen in our country. Ellie has enjoyed maths because she learnt that she can use lots of different methods to add and subtract. Tom enjoyed English because this week we tried a reading paper quiz. He was good at finding the answers in the text. Matilda liked using Skill Builder today to practise her problem solving, listening and presenting skills. She especially liked pretending to be an ant and teaching a grasshopper to make a sandwich! We had carefully listened to a story and found out the grasshopper forgot to store some food and so he was hungry. We used our presentation skills to help to solve his problem! We are getting excited because hopefully we are having a visit from a policeman to find out what a day in his life is like. We have some really good questions ready to ask him! Have a good weekend	311	ENGLISH	1
The term "Renaissance-, which is French for "rebirth- was used to describe the intellectual and economic changes that occurred in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries. During this period, Europe emerged from economic stagnation into a period of financial growth. More importantly, the Renaissance was an age where artistic, social, scientific and political thought was turned into a new direction. . Prior to this period, bookmaking consisted of copying words and illustrations by hand on to parchment or thin animal skins. The time and labor put into this process caused books to be very expensive and to be few in number. Only a small group of privileged (often wealthy) people were able to enjoy the luxury of reading books. With the invention of the printing press by Gutenberg in 1445, more people were allowed to purchase reading material. Until the time of the invention of the printing press, books were written primarily in Latin, the language of scholarship. Now people demanded works in their own languages, as well as different varieties of books such as novels, historical books, maps, etc. . In the past, specifically during the Middle Ages, the Church guided the teachings of scholars, while people mainly concerned themselves with actions leading to salvation. The writings of ancient Rome and Greece, known as the "classics", were ignored for many years. Humanists, who believed in a revival of old classical literature, had to learn to read Greek and Latin as they sought out ancient manuscripts that had remained untouched for thousands of years. The humanists revived writings covering science, government, rhetoric, philosophy, and art. The influence of the ancient civilizations placed emphasis on man and his intellect. The innovation and discoveries which characterized the Renaissance were based in part on recovery and the study of classical authors. Gutenberg's printing press allowed copies of works written by classical authors to reach more people than before.	<urn:uuid:0ff2c47e-b367-4ab3-b2d0-c572d7d7c1a7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/50737.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00180.warc.gz	en	0.981963	376	4.1875	4	[ -0.22333334386348724, 0.21194137632846832, -0.12176584452390671, 0.14773988723754883, -0.29801145195961, -0.24232466518878937, -0.4522203207015991, 0.5543111562728882, 0.0588962584733963, 0.24934908747673035, -0.016093188896775246, -0.10924376547336578, -0.029182611033320427, -0.0345929749...	2	The term "Renaissance-, which is French for "rebirth- was used to describe the intellectual and economic changes that occurred in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries. During this period, Europe emerged from economic stagnation into a period of financial growth. More importantly, the Renaissance was an age where artistic, social, scientific and political thought was turned into a new direction. . Prior to this period, bookmaking consisted of copying words and illustrations by hand on to parchment or thin animal skins. The time and labor put into this process caused books to be very expensive and to be few in number. Only a small group of privileged (often wealthy) people were able to enjoy the luxury of reading books. With the invention of the printing press by Gutenberg in 1445, more people were allowed to purchase reading material. Until the time of the invention of the printing press, books were written primarily in Latin, the language of scholarship. Now people demanded works in their own languages, as well as different varieties of books such as novels, historical books, maps, etc. . In the past, specifically during the Middle Ages, the Church guided the teachings of scholars, while people mainly concerned themselves with actions leading to salvation. The writings of ancient Rome and Greece, known as the "classics", were ignored for many years. Humanists, who believed in a revival of old classical literature, had to learn to read Greek and Latin as they sought out ancient manuscripts that had remained untouched for thousands of years. The humanists revived writings covering science, government, rhetoric, philosophy, and art. The influence of the ancient civilizations placed emphasis on man and his intellect. The innovation and discoveries which characterized the Renaissance were based in part on recovery and the study of classical authors. Gutenberg's printing press allowed copies of works written by classical authors to reach more people than before.	378	ENGLISH	1
Female members of the Nazi Party like Ilse Koch committed equally heinous atrocities as Nazi men. Aufseherinnen SS, or female Nazi concentration camp guards, could be just as ruthless as their male counterparts — a fact that is often overlooked. Female Nazis oversaw women prisoners (their name literally means "overseer inside") and were first stationed at the female concentration camp at Ravensbrück. They were later sent out to various parts of the Third Reich when manpower was lacking. As a group within the SS (or Schutzstaffel, the Nazi paramilitary corps), many Aufsherinnen were able to achieve high rank and wield significant influence in Nazi camps. The actions of the 3,000-4,000 Aufsherinnen varied greatly: some women were highly dedicated to the Nazi cause while others were conscripted and coerced into their position, but the women came from similar backgrounds. Members of the Augsherinnen were usually unattached, worked as bakers, factory workers, or on farms, and, after the war, were able to fade into the background of post-Nazi Germany. The highest ranking Augsherinnen, however, had to answer for their actions and were tried for their crimes. Irma Grese joined the Bund Deutscher Mädel or League of German Girls with her younger sister, Helene, when she was a young girl, around the age of 10. Although her father, a farmer named Alfred, hated Nazis, Irma was determined to join the party. Because Irma wanted to be a nurse, she began studying at Hohenlychen, a SS hospital, in 1939. She worked with Dr. Karl Gebhardt, who performed medical experiments on patients, but he was unsuccessful at nursing and moved on to be a machinist until she was 18. Once she was of age, she joined the Aufseherinnen SS and, after passing the necessary examinations, entered training at Ravensbrück. At Ravensbrück, Grese trained for three weeks (the program was a month, but Grese was an eager learner) and was said to have had numerous relationships with male officers. Grese was sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau in 1943 to guard female prisoners and was promoted the following year to the second-highest position within the Aufseherinnen at the camp. She oversaw 30,000 female prisoners at Birkenau and was known for wearing heavy boots, carrying a whip and pistol, and for her blond hair, blue eyes, and ideal "angelic" appearance. This contrasted with her behavior, given her affinity for kicking and beating prisoners, walking around camp with two hungry dogs trained to kill, and generally inflicting pain upon anyone who committed the slightest offense. She used to have the camp doctor operate on prisoners without anesthetic and, according to Dr. Gisella Perl (the woman who performed an abortion for Grese on one occasion), enjoyed the"sight of this human suffering. Her tense body swung back and forth in a revealing, rhythmical motion. Her cheeks were flushed and her wide-open eyes had the rigid, staring look of complete sexual paroxysm." In January 1945, Grese was transferred to Ravensbrück before being sent to Bergen-Belsen in March. At Bergen-Belsen, Grese's brutal behavior continued. She was said to have made women kneel for long periods of time, to hold large rocks over their heads, or to make them stand in the snow or rain for hours. Grese was captured by British soldiers in April 1945 and put on trial soon after. Grese never wavered from asserting that she was following orders and serving the state, even as she was sentenced to hang. Grese was hanged on December 13, 1945; at the age of 22, she was the youngest Nazi criminal to be executed. Herta Bothe did domestic work until she was in her early 20s. She then began training to be a nurse and, after working in a hospital for a time, was sent to Ravensbrück for training as a member of the Aufseherinnen. She spent, by her own testimony, less than two weeks at Ravensbrück before going to the Stutthof concentration camp near Danzig, Germany. As a guard at Stutthof, Bothe earned a reputation of being a sadist — she later acquired the nickname the "Sadist of Stutthof" — for her treatment of prisoners in her charge. After several months at Stutthof, Bothe went to Bromberg and then to Oranienburg before arriving at Bergen-Belsen in February of 1945. Bothe oversaw the female prisoners at Bergen-Belsen until the camp was liberated in April of that year. After Allies liberated the camps, Bothe helped them put bodies into mass graves and complained the task was hard on her back. Bothe was put on trial for her crimes and sentenced to 10 years in prison. She was defiant throughout her trial, insisting that if she didn't do her job as a guard at the concentration camps, she would have been put into one herself. Bothe only served six years of her sentence and was released in 1951. Greta Bösel, a trained nurse who joined the Nazi party in 1939, worked as one of the Aufseherinnen at Ravensbrück beginning in 1944. As the "work input overseer," Bösel was tasked with forming work crews and made the choice about who died and who lived when it came to female prisoners at the camp. She would determine whether a woman was to be sent directly to the gas chamber upon arrival or would be sent to work. She believed if prisoners couldn't work, they didn't deserve to live. Bösel was taken into custody at the end of the war and tried for murder, mistreatment, and her role in the selection process. She was convicted and hanged in the Ravensbrück trials. Wanda Klaff didn't become one of the Aufseherinnen until 1944, but she was no less devoted to her duties. As a former worker in a jam factory, Klaff was sent to Stutthoff Concentration Camp where she was in charge of female work groups. After the war, Klaff was arrested and put on trial, during which she told the court "I am very intelligent and very devoted to my work in the camps. I struck at least two prisoners every day." At trial, Klaff and her fellow defendants — there were five female guards on trial along with male members of the SS — smiled and joked, perhaps thinking they would receive a lighter sentence on account of their sex, but they didn't. Klaff and the other female guards were executed by hanging in 1946.	<urn:uuid:407069e1-8b0d-432f-ae72-e7b8068e1e45>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ranker.com/list/female-members-of-the-ss/melissa-sartore?ref=collections&l=2651668&collectionId=1448	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00326.warc.gz	en	0.990653	1,411	3.96875	4	[ -0.09813060611486435, 0.35790613293647766, -0.2330169975757599, 0.07756766676902771, 0.20174895226955414, 0.2939833998680115, 0.2811715602874756, -0.0594637468457222, -0.32695114612579346, -0.36289769411087036, 0.4825292229652405, -0.22607694566249847, -0.05995926260948181, 0.2581251561641...	3	Female members of the Nazi Party like Ilse Koch committed equally heinous atrocities as Nazi men. Aufseherinnen SS, or female Nazi concentration camp guards, could be just as ruthless as their male counterparts — a fact that is often overlooked. Female Nazis oversaw women prisoners (their name literally means "overseer inside") and were first stationed at the female concentration camp at Ravensbrück. They were later sent out to various parts of the Third Reich when manpower was lacking. As a group within the SS (or Schutzstaffel, the Nazi paramilitary corps), many Aufsherinnen were able to achieve high rank and wield significant influence in Nazi camps. The actions of the 3,000-4,000 Aufsherinnen varied greatly: some women were highly dedicated to the Nazi cause while others were conscripted and coerced into their position, but the women came from similar backgrounds. Members of the Augsherinnen were usually unattached, worked as bakers, factory workers, or on farms, and, after the war, were able to fade into the background of post-Nazi Germany. The highest ranking Augsherinnen, however, had to answer for their actions and were tried for their crimes. Irma Grese joined the Bund Deutscher Mädel or League of German Girls with her younger sister, Helene, when she was a young girl, around the age of 10. Although her father, a farmer named Alfred, hated Nazis, Irma was determined to join the party. Because Irma wanted to be a nurse, she began studying at Hohenlychen, a SS hospital, in 1939. She worked with Dr. Karl Gebhardt, who performed medical experiments on patients, but he was unsuccessful at nursing and moved on to be a machinist until she was 18. Once she was of age, she joined the Aufseherinnen SS and, after passing the necessary examinations, entered training at Ravensbrück. At Ravensbrück, Grese trained for three weeks (the program was a month, but Grese was an eager learner) and was said to have had numerous relationships with male officers. Grese was sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau in 1943 to guard female prisoners and was promoted the following year to the second-highest position within the Aufseherinnen at the camp. She oversaw 30,000 female prisoners at Birkenau and was known for wearing heavy boots, carrying a whip and pistol, and for her blond hair, blue eyes, and ideal "angelic" appearance. This contrasted with her behavior, given her affinity for kicking and beating prisoners, walking around camp with two hungry dogs trained to kill, and generally inflicting pain upon anyone who committed the slightest offense. She used to have the camp doctor operate on prisoners without anesthetic and, according to Dr. Gisella Perl (the woman who performed an abortion for Grese on one occasion), enjoyed the"sight of this human suffering. Her tense body swung back and forth in a revealing, rhythmical motion. Her cheeks were flushed and her wide-open eyes had the rigid, staring look of complete sexual paroxysm." In January 1945, Grese was transferred to Ravensbrück before being sent to Bergen-Belsen in March. At Bergen-Belsen, Grese's brutal behavior continued. She was said to have made women kneel for long periods of time, to hold large rocks over their heads, or to make them stand in the snow or rain for hours. Grese was captured by British soldiers in April 1945 and put on trial soon after. Grese never wavered from asserting that she was following orders and serving the state, even as she was sentenced to hang. Grese was hanged on December 13, 1945; at the age of 22, she was the youngest Nazi criminal to be executed. Herta Bothe did domestic work until she was in her early 20s. She then began training to be a nurse and, after working in a hospital for a time, was sent to Ravensbrück for training as a member of the Aufseherinnen. She spent, by her own testimony, less than two weeks at Ravensbrück before going to the Stutthof concentration camp near Danzig, Germany. As a guard at Stutthof, Bothe earned a reputation of being a sadist — she later acquired the nickname the "Sadist of Stutthof" — for her treatment of prisoners in her charge. After several months at Stutthof, Bothe went to Bromberg and then to Oranienburg before arriving at Bergen-Belsen in February of 1945. Bothe oversaw the female prisoners at Bergen-Belsen until the camp was liberated in April of that year. After Allies liberated the camps, Bothe helped them put bodies into mass graves and complained the task was hard on her back. Bothe was put on trial for her crimes and sentenced to 10 years in prison. She was defiant throughout her trial, insisting that if she didn't do her job as a guard at the concentration camps, she would have been put into one herself. Bothe only served six years of her sentence and was released in 1951. Greta Bösel, a trained nurse who joined the Nazi party in 1939, worked as one of the Aufseherinnen at Ravensbrück beginning in 1944. As the "work input overseer," Bösel was tasked with forming work crews and made the choice about who died and who lived when it came to female prisoners at the camp. She would determine whether a woman was to be sent directly to the gas chamber upon arrival or would be sent to work. She believed if prisoners couldn't work, they didn't deserve to live. Bösel was taken into custody at the end of the war and tried for murder, mistreatment, and her role in the selection process. She was convicted and hanged in the Ravensbrück trials. Wanda Klaff didn't become one of the Aufseherinnen until 1944, but she was no less devoted to her duties. As a former worker in a jam factory, Klaff was sent to Stutthoff Concentration Camp where she was in charge of female work groups. After the war, Klaff was arrested and put on trial, during which she told the court "I am very intelligent and very devoted to my work in the camps. I struck at least two prisoners every day." At trial, Klaff and her fellow defendants — there were five female guards on trial along with male members of the SS — smiled and joked, perhaps thinking they would receive a lighter sentence on account of their sex, but they didn't. Klaff and the other female guards were executed by hanging in 1946.	1,430	ENGLISH	1
The Aztec Empire was one of the bloodiest and most diabolical societies of the ancient world. The two main Aztec “gods” were “Lord of the Dark” and “Hummingbird Wizard,” and both of them demanded human sacrifice — and on a massive scale. In one festival in the year 1487 (as recorded by Aztec historians), over the course of four days, no less than 80,000 men were sacrificed on the main temple in what is now Mexico City. Hernan Cortes and the Spanish “conquistadors” were shocked by the evidence of this horrible and pervasive evil, and they set out on a two year campaign (1519-1521) to put an end to the human sacrifice, ultimately bringing down the Aztec Empire with it. But the Spanish soldiers could not convert the Aztecs (and the hundreds of other tribes who had been dominated, and often used as the victims for the Aztec sacrifices) to Christianity. Despite the hard work of the Franciscan missionary friars, only a small fraction (about 1%) of the Indian peoples were converted to Christ. All of that changed in December 1531. On December 9th, a Christian Indian named “Juan Diego” was on his way to morning Mass when he was met by a beautiful lady who told him that she was the Mother of God, and that he was to go to the bishop in Mexico City, and tell him that she wanted a church built in her honor on the hill of Tepeyac; there, she would show her motherly care and protection for the people. After several meetings with the bishop, and his insistence on a sign, the lady told Juan Diego to go to the top of the hill (a desert hill with cactus and briars, and in the middle of winter) and there to gather flowers. He found many Castilian roses (as cultivated in Spain), and the lady arranged them in his “tilma” (cactus fiber cloak). But when Juan Diego showed this sign to the bishop, the real sign appeared on his tilma — the image of “Our Lady of Guadalupe” as pictured in this article. The miraculous image portrays Mary as an Aztec princess, but when looked at from a different angle and further away, her skin color changes to that of the Spanish — this shows that she is for both peoples, and that they were to, ultimately, become one people — and the people of Mexico today are a race of blended ancestry, both Spanish and Indian heritage. In addition to this, Mary is portrayed as with child (shown by the cord and bow at her waist), showing that she is pregnant with the God-Man, Jesus Christ. She stands in front of the sun, blocking it, which shows that she is greater than the “Sun God” who was the highest of the Aztec pantheon. Beneath her feet is the moon, showing that the “Lord of the Dark” (symbolized by the moon) is less than nothing in comparison to her. The stars, which the Aztecs held in great honor, are part of her mantle, as if decorating it. All of this was evident to the Indian peoples of Mexico, who did not have a written alphabet, but used pictographs to convey ideas in writing. Even more has been discovered in the last century: Mary’s eyes contain tiny images of Juan Diego, the bishop, and other people at the moment that the image appeared on the tilma; the eyes react to light like living human eyes would; there is a fetal heartbeat detectable at Mary’s womb. In addition to this, the tilma itself has been miraculously preserved — normally, they would last for 15-20 years before decaying, but the tilma with the miraculous image of Our Lady of Guadalupe is 488 years old, and is as perfect as a new one. In 1921, the Masons in Mexico set off a bomb just below the tilma, and though it severely damaged a metal crucifix, the tilma, and the people in the shrine at the time, were absolutely untouched by the blast. So why is Our Lady of Guadalupe so important? Mary brought about the mass conversion of the Indian peoples to the Catholic Faith. In a mere 10 years, 9 million Indians were baptized! It was the fastest and most thorough conversion of a nation in the history of the Christian religion. The Church has proclaimed her “Patroness of all the Americas,” and “Patroness of the Unborn,” (and of the Pro-Life Movement). Mary, the Virgin Mother of God, who proclaims that she is our Mother, that she has us under her care and protection, will be the means by which the diabolical evil of abortion, the “human sacrifice” of our times, will be overcome. May we all grow in devotion to her, and allow her to conquer to “Lord of the Dark” and all the other demons who are working to destroy the gift of human life, made in the image and likeness of God, through abortion and all the evils related to it. As we honor Mary, the Virgin of Guadalupe, she leads us more and more to her Divine Son, Jesus Christ, who is the Light of the World.	<urn:uuid:418dd53a-37b8-4b54-bda0-a1a35a8b5555>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://confraternityofourladyofmercy.org/significance-of-our-lady-of-guadalupe/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00435.warc.gz	en	0.982434	1,116	3.40625	3	[ -0.2275250107049942, 0.6514367461204529, 0.37434694170951843, 0.22018712759017944, -0.23113539814949036, -0.13377314805984497, -0.02843281254172325, 0.339877188205719, -0.05044800043106079, -0.07540267705917358, 0.1288813352584839, -0.15930351614952087, -0.16718284785747528, 0.013034369796...	12	The Aztec Empire was one of the bloodiest and most diabolical societies of the ancient world. The two main Aztec “gods” were “Lord of the Dark” and “Hummingbird Wizard,” and both of them demanded human sacrifice — and on a massive scale. In one festival in the year 1487 (as recorded by Aztec historians), over the course of four days, no less than 80,000 men were sacrificed on the main temple in what is now Mexico City. Hernan Cortes and the Spanish “conquistadors” were shocked by the evidence of this horrible and pervasive evil, and they set out on a two year campaign (1519-1521) to put an end to the human sacrifice, ultimately bringing down the Aztec Empire with it. But the Spanish soldiers could not convert the Aztecs (and the hundreds of other tribes who had been dominated, and often used as the victims for the Aztec sacrifices) to Christianity. Despite the hard work of the Franciscan missionary friars, only a small fraction (about 1%) of the Indian peoples were converted to Christ. All of that changed in December 1531. On December 9th, a Christian Indian named “Juan Diego” was on his way to morning Mass when he was met by a beautiful lady who told him that she was the Mother of God, and that he was to go to the bishop in Mexico City, and tell him that she wanted a church built in her honor on the hill of Tepeyac; there, she would show her motherly care and protection for the people. After several meetings with the bishop, and his insistence on a sign, the lady told Juan Diego to go to the top of the hill (a desert hill with cactus and briars, and in the middle of winter) and there to gather flowers. He found many Castilian roses (as cultivated in Spain), and the lady arranged them in his “tilma” (cactus fiber cloak). But when Juan Diego showed this sign to the bishop, the real sign appeared on his tilma — the image of “Our Lady of Guadalupe” as pictured in this article. The miraculous image portrays Mary as an Aztec princess, but when looked at from a different angle and further away, her skin color changes to that of the Spanish — this shows that she is for both peoples, and that they were to, ultimately, become one people — and the people of Mexico today are a race of blended ancestry, both Spanish and Indian heritage. In addition to this, Mary is portrayed as with child (shown by the cord and bow at her waist), showing that she is pregnant with the God-Man, Jesus Christ. She stands in front of the sun, blocking it, which shows that she is greater than the “Sun God” who was the highest of the Aztec pantheon. Beneath her feet is the moon, showing that the “Lord of the Dark” (symbolized by the moon) is less than nothing in comparison to her. The stars, which the Aztecs held in great honor, are part of her mantle, as if decorating it. All of this was evident to the Indian peoples of Mexico, who did not have a written alphabet, but used pictographs to convey ideas in writing. Even more has been discovered in the last century: Mary’s eyes contain tiny images of Juan Diego, the bishop, and other people at the moment that the image appeared on the tilma; the eyes react to light like living human eyes would; there is a fetal heartbeat detectable at Mary’s womb. In addition to this, the tilma itself has been miraculously preserved — normally, they would last for 15-20 years before decaying, but the tilma with the miraculous image of Our Lady of Guadalupe is 488 years old, and is as perfect as a new one. In 1921, the Masons in Mexico set off a bomb just below the tilma, and though it severely damaged a metal crucifix, the tilma, and the people in the shrine at the time, were absolutely untouched by the blast. So why is Our Lady of Guadalupe so important? Mary brought about the mass conversion of the Indian peoples to the Catholic Faith. In a mere 10 years, 9 million Indians were baptized! It was the fastest and most thorough conversion of a nation in the history of the Christian religion. The Church has proclaimed her “Patroness of all the Americas,” and “Patroness of the Unborn,” (and of the Pro-Life Movement). Mary, the Virgin Mother of God, who proclaims that she is our Mother, that she has us under her care and protection, will be the means by which the diabolical evil of abortion, the “human sacrifice” of our times, will be overcome. May we all grow in devotion to her, and allow her to conquer to “Lord of the Dark” and all the other demons who are working to destroy the gift of human life, made in the image and likeness of God, through abortion and all the evils related to it. As we honor Mary, the Virgin of Guadalupe, she leads us more and more to her Divine Son, Jesus Christ, who is the Light of the World.	1,107	ENGLISH	1
About the Book During World War II, Plymouth earned the distinction as the most bombed city outside London. But it was planners not bombers which destroyed most of the history of the city. Few traces remain of the Plymouth's best known sons, Drake and Hawkins. By the 19th century, houses built by Elizabethan merchants had deteriorated into the worst slums in Europe, second only to Warsaw. The population of Plymouth, Devonport and Stonehouse quadrupled between 1800 and 1840, and whole families were forced to live in tiny windowless rooms. In Castle Street there was a pub every ten metres and every pub was said to be a brothel. Damnation Alley, as Castle Street was dubbed, was the haunt of thousands of soldiers and sailors who passed through en route to serve the British Empire. Thanks to the military, the 'Three Towns' earned a reputation as the VD capital of Britain, and the city's women were subject to repressive legislation if they went out at night. Plymouth's lost history includes the first man to sail round the world in both directions; the shocking image which helped end the slave trade; the first convicts bound for Botany Bay; and the man who navigated over 3,000 miles in an open boat with only the stars to guide him.	<urn:uuid:ae0d6988-7af6-415c-b89d-595029f708a3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://birlinn.co.uk/product/lost-plymouth/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00266.warc.gz	en	0.980614	258	3.375	3	[ 0.4249776303768158, 0.04175863042473793, 0.6155386567115784, -0.23274987936019897, -0.16388098895549774, -0.19579198956489563, 0.06425339728593826, 0.29341432452201843, -0.4216304421424866, -0.1603834629058838, -0.39599093794822693, -0.2550079822540283, 0.09115923196077347, 0.6219912767410...	1	About the Book During World War II, Plymouth earned the distinction as the most bombed city outside London. But it was planners not bombers which destroyed most of the history of the city. Few traces remain of the Plymouth's best known sons, Drake and Hawkins. By the 19th century, houses built by Elizabethan merchants had deteriorated into the worst slums in Europe, second only to Warsaw. The population of Plymouth, Devonport and Stonehouse quadrupled between 1800 and 1840, and whole families were forced to live in tiny windowless rooms. In Castle Street there was a pub every ten metres and every pub was said to be a brothel. Damnation Alley, as Castle Street was dubbed, was the haunt of thousands of soldiers and sailors who passed through en route to serve the British Empire. Thanks to the military, the 'Three Towns' earned a reputation as the VD capital of Britain, and the city's women were subject to repressive legislation if they went out at night. Plymouth's lost history includes the first man to sail round the world in both directions; the shocking image which helped end the slave trade; the first convicts bound for Botany Bay; and the man who navigated over 3,000 miles in an open boat with only the stars to guide him.	275	ENGLISH	1
Who Made the First Beads? The first recognizable modern humans came out of Africa, settling in the Middle East, Asia, and Europe 40,000 or more years ago. Mostly nomadic hunters and gatherers, small bands of early humans carried literally everything they owned with them, so they had to travel light. This period, the middle of the last ice age, was cold and dry. A large portion of the world’s water was locked up in vast ice sheets that covered much of the northern half of the earth. Life was hard and survival was always in doubt. Archaeologists have found evidence that as early as 20,000 years later people weren’t just existing, they were living well. An event referred to by archaeologists as the 'Upper Paleolithic Revolution’ occurred at about this time, when people began to invent a large number of new things. These were mostly useful tools like awls and pins of bone, or ‘burins’ (drill points) made of chert or obsidian, but there were also large numbers of decorative and beautiful ornaments.But why ornaments? One reason is that people now had time on their hands. It has been estimated the typical hunter/gatherer teams could obtain enough food for several days within five or six hours. This gave them time to think and dream and a desire to give those dreams form in tangible objects. They were becoming artists! Their art began to take the form of complex clothing, ornaments, and figurines. Burins were used to pierce wood, bone, or ivory. Needles and pins were needed for sewing. Blades were used for carving, cutting, and shaping. Those with the talent to do so could now create objects whose sole purpose was esthetic beauty. "Culture" as we now know it, was becoming a reality, the earliest Venus figurines carved in bone or stone appear at this time.One of these Venus figures, carved in bone from Lespugue in France, shows a woman wearing a skirt made of twisted string. Another piece of evidence for early ornamentation is a clay impression of knotted string. The string had long since rotted away, but the proof of its presence remained. As soon as humans starting making string, they started to hang things on strings. One of the earliest forms of strung ornament was animal teeth with distinct grooves or notches worn into then. The notches allowed the teeth to be held firmly on a knotted string. One example of this comes from Arcy-sur-Cure, in France: A string of marmot, fox, wolf, and hyena teeth, dating from 31,000 B.C. The first beads may have been made by perforating shells, small stones, perhaps bits of carved bone, or even seeds.Perforation was an improvement on notching. Soon our ancestors were making many kinds of modern looking beads. There were round or oval beads of bone or ivory with carved lines as decorations. There were long beads made from bird bones. Wooden beads were prized for their grain patterns or scent. Often several forms were used in combination. Carved animals of almost any material were strung as well. These abstract forms were the product of sophisticated minds and showed a self-conscious spirituality. For example we have beads carved into the form of a woman's breasts as a symbol of motherhood. Whatever the reason, even the earliest humans had a need to make and accumulate beads and make them into ornaments. They were an important aspect of human society, with great artistic and spiritual importance was attached to them.	<urn:uuid:25ce1e9a-34d5-40a6-a8c3-f371cec82c1d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.harlequinbeads.com/who-made-the-first-beads-article	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00023.warc.gz	en	0.988211	743	3.828125	4	[ -0.202060729265213, 0.3479235768318176, 0.36494535207748413, -0.15316911041736603, -0.26423782110214233, -0.22018268704414368, 0.305473268032074, 0.07591062039136887, -0.08382326364517212, 0.051763731986284256, 0.37472718954086304, -0.24957266449928284, -0.0745382159948349, 0.3661782145500...	2	Who Made the First Beads? The first recognizable modern humans came out of Africa, settling in the Middle East, Asia, and Europe 40,000 or more years ago. Mostly nomadic hunters and gatherers, small bands of early humans carried literally everything they owned with them, so they had to travel light. This period, the middle of the last ice age, was cold and dry. A large portion of the world’s water was locked up in vast ice sheets that covered much of the northern half of the earth. Life was hard and survival was always in doubt. Archaeologists have found evidence that as early as 20,000 years later people weren’t just existing, they were living well. An event referred to by archaeologists as the 'Upper Paleolithic Revolution’ occurred at about this time, when people began to invent a large number of new things. These were mostly useful tools like awls and pins of bone, or ‘burins’ (drill points) made of chert or obsidian, but there were also large numbers of decorative and beautiful ornaments.But why ornaments? One reason is that people now had time on their hands. It has been estimated the typical hunter/gatherer teams could obtain enough food for several days within five or six hours. This gave them time to think and dream and a desire to give those dreams form in tangible objects. They were becoming artists! Their art began to take the form of complex clothing, ornaments, and figurines. Burins were used to pierce wood, bone, or ivory. Needles and pins were needed for sewing. Blades were used for carving, cutting, and shaping. Those with the talent to do so could now create objects whose sole purpose was esthetic beauty. "Culture" as we now know it, was becoming a reality, the earliest Venus figurines carved in bone or stone appear at this time.One of these Venus figures, carved in bone from Lespugue in France, shows a woman wearing a skirt made of twisted string. Another piece of evidence for early ornamentation is a clay impression of knotted string. The string had long since rotted away, but the proof of its presence remained. As soon as humans starting making string, they started to hang things on strings. One of the earliest forms of strung ornament was animal teeth with distinct grooves or notches worn into then. The notches allowed the teeth to be held firmly on a knotted string. One example of this comes from Arcy-sur-Cure, in France: A string of marmot, fox, wolf, and hyena teeth, dating from 31,000 B.C. The first beads may have been made by perforating shells, small stones, perhaps bits of carved bone, or even seeds.Perforation was an improvement on notching. Soon our ancestors were making many kinds of modern looking beads. There were round or oval beads of bone or ivory with carved lines as decorations. There were long beads made from bird bones. Wooden beads were prized for their grain patterns or scent. Often several forms were used in combination. Carved animals of almost any material were strung as well. These abstract forms were the product of sophisticated minds and showed a self-conscious spirituality. For example we have beads carved into the form of a woman's breasts as a symbol of motherhood. Whatever the reason, even the earliest humans had a need to make and accumulate beads and make them into ornaments. They were an important aspect of human society, with great artistic and spiritual importance was attached to them.	729	ENGLISH	1
Tsar Alexis; Aleksei Mikhailovich; reigned from 1645 to 1676. He was succeeded by his son, Fedor III (1676 - 1682), then Ivan V (1682) and, finally, by his youngest son, Peter the Great (1682 - 1740). Alexis had a total of sixteen children, by two wives, born between the late 1640s and ca. 1674. Alexis' reign and personal thought was tormented with a conflict between a devotion to old Russian tradition and the new, emerging elements of Western Europe. Alexis considered Ivan the Terrible to be the perfect role model of a Russian ruler. However, Alexis broke with tradition by being the first Russian ruler to have realistic images painted of him and made and signed laws in his own hand. History notes Alexis' most important accomplishments to have been the, so called, unification of Russia and Ukraine and the strengthening of Russia's southern border against the threat of the Crimean Tatars. Tsar Michael (Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov), Alexis' father, was the first Romanov ruler. Michael employed the services of one B. I. Morozov. At his father's request, Alexis did the same. Morozov was a wealthy and powerful land owner with some 55,000 peasants and countless mills to his name. Morozov's role in government was to research and implement reforms designed to control social rebellion. For the most part, Morozov caused more discontent. In 1648, he was forced to do away with his new tax on salt. The cancellation of a burdensome tax sounds good, except, Morozov demanded collection of back taxes for 1646 and 1647. This act basically tripled the tax burden for 1648. This was more than the people would tolerate and the Moscow Uprising of 1648 commenced. June of 1648 turned out to be a bloodbath in Moscow. Roughly 2,000 people died, the city was besieged by raging fires and angry crowds murdered every ranking and allegedly corrupt official they could get their hands on. Tsar Alexis had no choice but to send Morozov into exile. This was difficult for the Tsar as Morozov was, also, his brother-in-law and teacher. Morozov returned to Moscow in October of 1648, but never again played a role in the government. The positive result of the uprising was the presentation of roughly 70 petitions from the people to the government. The most immediate action was the forgiveness of back taxes. Alexis feared he was facing another version of Russia's Times of Trouble; a chapter still fresh in the collective mind. He had no choice but to organize a council which was selected for the purpose of writing a new law code. This council met in the fall of 1648 and on January 29, 1649, issued the document which would replace the existing law code, Sudebnik. The Ulozhenie included 967 articles with roughly 90 the result of public petitions. Possibly the most reaching article was the establishment of serfdom. Previous laws bound a serf to the land. There had been a statute of limitations on how long a run away serf could be sought, captured and forced to return to their master's land. The new law code removed this limitation and set the stage for a serf system which closely resembled slavery. The restriction on movement were applied to anyone who was liable for back taxes. Such persons were not allowed to change their place of residence until their taxes were paid. The council rejected the idea of regional, localized governments and judiciaries. All aspects of the government were to remain centralized around the Tsar. One of the major petitions put before the council came from merchants. They demanded restrictions on foreign imports which competed with their own goods. The council elected not to address this issue. However, the Tsar found a way around the issue which, in effect, accomplished the goal of the merchant's demands. King Charles I of England was executed in mid-1649. Alexis made his contempt for this action known and banned all trade with England. The law code of 1649 did little if anything to create a new order. In fact, it reinforced the old traditions and was behind the times almost as soon as it was published. Despite the measures taken by Peter the Great to modernize Russian society, Alexis' law code remained in effect until January 1, 1835. The century of rebellion continued with few breaks in the action. In 1654, Russian was at war with Poland-Lithuania. Heavier taxes were levied on the people to pay for the war. The government began minting copper coins. In 1658, one copper rouble was worth the same as a silver rouble. Inflation soon set in and, in 1661 it took four copper roubles to equal 1 silver and fifteen by 1663. In 1662, angry mobs of peasant rebels stormed the Tsar's summer palace in Kolomenskoe where they were met by the Streltsy. When it was over, 63 rebels were executed and countless others exiled. Further rebellion grew in the southern border region of the Don Cossacks. The leader of this uprising was Stepan Razin. Thanks to the influx of run away serfs and others, the population of this region had grown to a point where the people could not sustain themselves by farming. Russia's war with Poland (1654 - 1667) increased the population of the wild steppes. The government saw this heavily populated region as a natural defense against the nagging pursuits of the Crimean Tatars. Nonetheless, the return of some 10,000 runaway serfs was enforced. In 1667, Razin gathered a group of Cossacks and began a two year journey from the lower Volga to the Persian coast; plundering and wreaking havoc on landowners and governmental officials. Eventually, Razin amassed roughly 20,000 followers and made preparations to assault Moscow. His plan was foiled when, in 1671, Razin was betrayed by the Cossacks who delivered him to Moscow where he was executed. The Cossacks who lived, primarily, along the Dnieper, figured significantly in 17th century Russian history. Led by Bohdan Khmelnitskii, they found a common enemy with Russia; that being the Polish-Lithuanians. The Cossacks charged that the latter abused Ukrainian peasants, persecuted the Russian Orthodox Church by demanding allegiance to Roman Catholicism and greatly reduced the number of Cossacks in the employ of the Polish king. Khmelnitskii wanted to establish an independent Cossack republic with the blessing of the Tsar. The Tsar certainly wanted to assist his fellow Orthodox brothers, in so doing, reinforcing the stability of Russia's southern borderlands. But, he knew this would mean war with Poland-Lithuania. Alexis did not believe Russia was strong enough to take on such an challenge. This all changed with the appointment of Nikon as the Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church (1652). The so called union of Ukraine and Muscovy took place on January 6, 1654, when Khmelnitskii, on behalf of the Cossacks, acknowledged the Tsar's sovereignty and vowed unconditional allegiance. Ukraine retained autonomy with the exception of affairs involving Poland and the Ottomans. In these matters, they followed Moscow's lead. Even though Alexis liked to refer to himself as the tsar of All Great and Little Rus, Ukraine really was not absorbed into the Russian Empire until much later. War with Poland-Lithuania, predictably, broke out in 1654 and was resolved in 1667. Moscow quickly reassumed Smolensk which it lost to Poland in 1634. Sweden decided to get in on the action and tried to take the Polish ports along the Baltic. Moscow aimed its attentions against Sweden in 1656 and managed to take Livonia. Moscow and Poland agreed to a treaty in 1667. Ukraine was to be divided. Poland gave up its holdings in western Russia and Moscow forfeited its position west of the Dnieper, but kept Kiev. Two Russian foreign ministers greatly increased the expansion of Western ideals in Russia. In the 1660s, Ordin-Nashchokin focused his attentions on the Baltic region and the fortification of the merchant class. His successor, A.S. Matveev (1671) was more concerned with maintaining Russia's southern border. Russia, who now shared a border with the Ottoman Empire, made a dramatic policy shift and endorsed support of Poland against the Turks. In 1667, Russia retained control of Kiev. This was the beginning of the decline of Poland's power in Europe and dramatically changed the relationship between the Turks and Moscow. It, also, opened the door for an influx of scholarly individuals from Ukraine to Russia. The first hospital and poorhouse were founded and Ukrainian style of education was introduced at the new school at the Andreev Monastery. Tsar Alexis displayed a different outlook as well. This was due, in part, to his marriage to his second wife in 1671. Natalia Cyrilovna Narishkina was only twenty years old when she married Alexis who was ca. 42. She was the mother of Peter the Great (June 10, 1672), Theodora Alexenova (Sep 11, 1673) and Natalie Alexinova (Sep 4,1674). Natalia was far more open and interested in the ways of the West, an active advocate for change and had a profound influence upon the tsar. Alexis died in 1676 and Natalia lived until 1694. The first theatrical production in Russia was presented in 1672 and the tsar's palace at Preobrazhenskoe. Titled Ahasuerus and Esther (ref. Book of Esther), this nine hour play was written by Johann Gottfried Grigorii, a Lutheran clergyman. This marked the beginning of the court theatre at which plays and ballets were staged. Predictably, the Orthodox Church objected to Western influences. The West represented the Church of Rome and the Protestant movement. The unified Christian Church had suffered the Great Schism in 1058 which divided Christianity between Rome (Catholic) and Constantinople (Orthodox). The liturgy, dogma and traditions of the West grew to become quite different from that of the East. Orthodoxy had limited influence over the tsar or the people when it came up against the growing fasination with Western culture. In the mid-1600's, the Orthodox Church was successful in having foreigners; specifically Germans and Poles; relocated to separate districts and away from Moscow. But, the power of the Church, in regards to matters of society, was seriously reduced by the, so called, Nikon affair and a Church schism. Nikon was born to peasant stock in 1605 and went by the name of Nikita. He was schooled in a monastery, got married and served as a parish priest in Moscow. After ten years of marriage and the death of their children, Nikon convinced his wife to become a nun and join a convent. This allowed Nikon to enter the Solovetski monastery on the White Sea in the north. He soon became a hermit monk on one of the neighboring islands. He soon found the Solovetski community disagreeable and joined the nearby Kojeozerski monastery in 1643. In 1646, Tsar Alexis appointed Nikon to the office of Archimandrite of the Novospaski Lavra in Moscow. Soon after, in 1649, Nikon became the Metropolitan of Novgorod. He had won the favor of the tsar, founded several poorhouses and was known for many good works within the secular community. Nikon remained in constant correspondence with Alexis and spent part of each year at court. Nikon's primary goal was the revise the existing Slavonic Bible and other liturgical books. Patriarch Iosif died in 1652 and Alexis appointed his friend Nikon to this, the highest office of the Russian Orthodox Church. Nikon's first concern was with the reunification of the Ruthenians; Little Russians; with Orthodoxy. Poland had control of this area until 1667. Thanks to the Synod of Brest (1596), the people had been forced to enter into communion with Rome and the Catholic Church. The Ruthenians rose against Poland in 1653 and united with Russia. The Metropolitan of Kiev and most of his clergy united under the Patriarchate of Moscow. This greatly increased the scope of the Patriarchate's ecclesiastical power. The reformation of the Russian Orthodox liturgical books was the primary goal of Nikon's tenure as Patriarch. The Bible that was being used in the Church was a translation from the original Greek texts to Slavonic; language created for just this purpose by the brothers, Sts Cyril and Methodius (mid to late 800s). Over the centuries, changes to the Scriptural details and rituals appeared in the translations. Nikon believed that the Russian Church had gone too far away from the original Orthodox tradition of Constantinople (Byzantium) during the some 200 years since the latter's fall as an empire. Nikon's idea was to revert back to the original Byzantine tradition, foregoing much of the developments of the Russian Church. Nikon was in close contact with the Greek Patriarchs on this matter. Possibly the most controversial issue of ritual was the act of crossing oneself. Over the years, the Russians had been taught to make the Sign of the Cross using two fingers after the Catholic fashion. In Orthodoxy, the Sign is made with three fingers; the thumb and the first two fingers placed together; symbolizing the Holy Trinity. Nikon's reforms were met with loud and often violent opposition. Makarios, Patriarch of Antioch, traveled to Moscow and attended Nikon's synods in 1654 and 1655. Finally, in 1655, with the blessings of the Eastern Patriarchs, Nikon published his revised liturgical books and laws regarding unity with the Greek traditions and rituals. The next synod, 1656, endorsed Nikon's measures and even excommunicated anyone caught making the Sign of the Cross with anything other than three fingers. These harsh and swift measures begged rebellion. Nikon was accused of being a traitor to Russian and for trying to Hellenize the nation and corrupting the old faith. While a member of the Solovetski community, Nikon belonged to a group known as Friends of God and later the Zealots of Piety. This group called for a focus on individual and internal spirituality. Nikon's reforms brought considerable anger from this group. With their leader, archpriest Avvakum Petrovich, they became known as the old ritualists or old believers, steadfastly loyal to the old Russian rites and traditions. Still in the good graces of the tsar, Nikon was able to see to it that, by 1653, Avvakum and his followers were banished. A year after Nikon's death (1681), Avvakum was burned at the stake, a martyr of the Russian Church schism. The Old Believers represented a much broader revolt and, thus, problem than simply the issue of the old rites. They protested against serfdom, the centralized nature of the government and the tainting of the nation by allowing Western traditions and ideals to enter Russia. The Old Believers' stronghold was the Solovetskii monastery, Nikon's first community, on the White Sea. The group was made up of over 500 sympathetic monks and fugitives from the Razin rebellion. What happened to cause Nikon to fall so quickly out of the good graces of the tsar is a bit of a mystery. Most agree that it had to do with Nikon's campaign to make the Church separate from the state. In fact, Nikon proposed that the tsar himself should be subordinate to the Patriarch. He, evidently, was not content with the duel authority of tsar and patriarch; the first being concerned with matters of the material world and the latter matters of a spiritual nature. Alexis tried to appease Nikon by granting him the title of Great Sovereign in 1654. This was not enough and the two former friends entered into a personal feud. The leaders of Russia's secular and spiritual lives were at war. Alexis demanded Nikon's resignation but could not force it. By canon law, only the Eastern Patriarchs could remove Nikon from his office. In 1667, Tsar Alexis called for a great synod for the purpose of bring charges against Nikon. The synod was attended by the Patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria, as well as several Greek and Russian bishops and metropolitans. The Patriarch of Alexandria not only endorsed Nikon's dismissal, but went to far as to advocate a stronger role of the tsar in Church affairs. Tsar Alexis showed up, in person, to act as the official accuser of Nikon who attended the synod in his patriarchal vestments. The official charges against Nikon included neglect of his spiritual duties since 1658, betraying the Church by complaining to Constantinople about the Russian clergy and unjust actions towards his bishops. The synod lasted a week and, ultimately, voted to strip Nikon of the patriarchate and all the duties and privileges that came with this office. He was demoted to a mere monk and sentenced to confinement in the Therapontof monastery on the White Sea. Nikon was replaced by Joasaph II (1667 - 1672), formerly the archimandrite of the Trinity Lavra in Moscow. Tsar Alexis died in 1676. His son and heir, Fedor II (1676 - 1682) withdrew the sentence invoked on Nikon and released him from his confinement. Enroute to Moscow, Nikon died (Aug. 17, 1681), was buried in the Cathedral Church of Moscow with full honors given the patriarchs and all charges against him were revoked. The whole affair of Nikon's fall, the anger of Alexis towards him and harsh sentence imposed by the 1667 synod remain a bit of a mystery. The issue at hand was not Nikon's reform of the liturgical books. In fact, this was endorsed by the synod and upheld by Nikon's successor. Nikon is known for his stubborn will and quick and often harsh actions. His attempt to separate the Church from the state and, in fact, make the latter subordinate to the first, probably was the Nikon's greatest offense, in the eyes of his critics. Regardless of the reasons, one thing is for certain. The actions of Nikon and controversy surrounding him caused a schism within the Russian Church. Old Believers still exist today and consider themselves both the true heirs of Orthodoxy and separate from the Church of Moscow. Tsar Alexis' lifetime and reign were characterized by rebellion and the introduction of Western culture. When he died (1676), Russia was primed to enter the era of modernity (1676 - 1689). Alexis' heir, Alexis Alexeiovich, (b. 1653) died on January 17, 1670. The younger Alexis and been well groomed to follow in his father's place. Instead, the tsar's second son, Fedor III (b. 1661), a sickly and physically weak youth, became the next tsar of Russia. Fedor's reign was uneventful and he passed away just six years later in 1682. Next in line was Ivan V (b. Aug. 27, 1666) who was mentally retarded and reigned fourteen years until his death on January 29, 1696. The only remaining male heir of Alexis I was Peter I (the Great). During Ivan's reign, Peter's mother was encouraged to make a case for her son as a more capable ruler of Russia. This caused considerable friction between Natalia's family, the Naryshkins, and the family of Alexis' first wife, the Miloslavskiis. It, also, meant the banishment of A. S. Matveev, the foreign chancellor at the time who supported Natalia's claim. Matveev was well educated and familiar with the leaders and cultures of the West. Ivan V's reign suffered greatly the loss of this advisor. Eventually, Peter I became tsar in 1696, at the age of 24, but not without a deadly struggle with his half-sister, Sophia, Regent of Russia. Russian Life is a publication of a 30-year-young, award-winning publishing house that creates a bimonthly magazine, books, maps, and other products for Russophiles the world over. PO Box 567 Montpelier VT 05601-0567	<urn:uuid:823b5cc5-d20b-4678-bc5d-44121ba3e71c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.russianlife.com/stories/online/century-of-rebellion-tsar-alexi/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00533.warc.gz	en	0.980331	4,233	3.53125	4	[ -0.22725176811218262, -0.1965276002883911, 0.22066479921340942, 0.12555056810379028, -0.1797027438879013, -0.33771175146102905, 0.14462698996067047, 0.6334244012832642, -0.09185077250003815, 0.12146700918674469, -0.22489725053310394, -0.05308005213737488, -0.4157026410102844, 0.14422744512...	14	Tsar Alexis; Aleksei Mikhailovich; reigned from 1645 to 1676. He was succeeded by his son, Fedor III (1676 - 1682), then Ivan V (1682) and, finally, by his youngest son, Peter the Great (1682 - 1740). Alexis had a total of sixteen children, by two wives, born between the late 1640s and ca. 1674. Alexis' reign and personal thought was tormented with a conflict between a devotion to old Russian tradition and the new, emerging elements of Western Europe. Alexis considered Ivan the Terrible to be the perfect role model of a Russian ruler. However, Alexis broke with tradition by being the first Russian ruler to have realistic images painted of him and made and signed laws in his own hand. History notes Alexis' most important accomplishments to have been the, so called, unification of Russia and Ukraine and the strengthening of Russia's southern border against the threat of the Crimean Tatars. Tsar Michael (Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov), Alexis' father, was the first Romanov ruler. Michael employed the services of one B. I. Morozov. At his father's request, Alexis did the same. Morozov was a wealthy and powerful land owner with some 55,000 peasants and countless mills to his name. Morozov's role in government was to research and implement reforms designed to control social rebellion. For the most part, Morozov caused more discontent. In 1648, he was forced to do away with his new tax on salt. The cancellation of a burdensome tax sounds good, except, Morozov demanded collection of back taxes for 1646 and 1647. This act basically tripled the tax burden for 1648. This was more than the people would tolerate and the Moscow Uprising of 1648 commenced. June of 1648 turned out to be a bloodbath in Moscow. Roughly 2,000 people died, the city was besieged by raging fires and angry crowds murdered every ranking and allegedly corrupt official they could get their hands on. Tsar Alexis had no choice but to send Morozov into exile. This was difficult for the Tsar as Morozov was, also, his brother-in-law and teacher. Morozov returned to Moscow in October of 1648, but never again played a role in the government. The positive result of the uprising was the presentation of roughly 70 petitions from the people to the government. The most immediate action was the forgiveness of back taxes. Alexis feared he was facing another version of Russia's Times of Trouble; a chapter still fresh in the collective mind. He had no choice but to organize a council which was selected for the purpose of writing a new law code. This council met in the fall of 1648 and on January 29, 1649, issued the document which would replace the existing law code, Sudebnik. The Ulozhenie included 967 articles with roughly 90 the result of public petitions. Possibly the most reaching article was the establishment of serfdom. Previous laws bound a serf to the land. There had been a statute of limitations on how long a run away serf could be sought, captured and forced to return to their master's land. The new law code removed this limitation and set the stage for a serf system which closely resembled slavery. The restriction on movement were applied to anyone who was liable for back taxes. Such persons were not allowed to change their place of residence until their taxes were paid. The council rejected the idea of regional, localized governments and judiciaries. All aspects of the government were to remain centralized around the Tsar. One of the major petitions put before the council came from merchants. They demanded restrictions on foreign imports which competed with their own goods. The council elected not to address this issue. However, the Tsar found a way around the issue which, in effect, accomplished the goal of the merchant's demands. King Charles I of England was executed in mid-1649. Alexis made his contempt for this action known and banned all trade with England. The law code of 1649 did little if anything to create a new order. In fact, it reinforced the old traditions and was behind the times almost as soon as it was published. Despite the measures taken by Peter the Great to modernize Russian society, Alexis' law code remained in effect until January 1, 1835. The century of rebellion continued with few breaks in the action. In 1654, Russian was at war with Poland-Lithuania. Heavier taxes were levied on the people to pay for the war. The government began minting copper coins. In 1658, one copper rouble was worth the same as a silver rouble. Inflation soon set in and, in 1661 it took four copper roubles to equal 1 silver and fifteen by 1663. In 1662, angry mobs of peasant rebels stormed the Tsar's summer palace in Kolomenskoe where they were met by the Streltsy. When it was over, 63 rebels were executed and countless others exiled. Further rebellion grew in the southern border region of the Don Cossacks. The leader of this uprising was Stepan Razin. Thanks to the influx of run away serfs and others, the population of this region had grown to a point where the people could not sustain themselves by farming. Russia's war with Poland (1654 - 1667) increased the population of the wild steppes. The government saw this heavily populated region as a natural defense against the nagging pursuits of the Crimean Tatars. Nonetheless, the return of some 10,000 runaway serfs was enforced. In 1667, Razin gathered a group of Cossacks and began a two year journey from the lower Volga to the Persian coast; plundering and wreaking havoc on landowners and governmental officials. Eventually, Razin amassed roughly 20,000 followers and made preparations to assault Moscow. His plan was foiled when, in 1671, Razin was betrayed by the Cossacks who delivered him to Moscow where he was executed. The Cossacks who lived, primarily, along the Dnieper, figured significantly in 17th century Russian history. Led by Bohdan Khmelnitskii, they found a common enemy with Russia; that being the Polish-Lithuanians. The Cossacks charged that the latter abused Ukrainian peasants, persecuted the Russian Orthodox Church by demanding allegiance to Roman Catholicism and greatly reduced the number of Cossacks in the employ of the Polish king. Khmelnitskii wanted to establish an independent Cossack republic with the blessing of the Tsar. The Tsar certainly wanted to assist his fellow Orthodox brothers, in so doing, reinforcing the stability of Russia's southern borderlands. But, he knew this would mean war with Poland-Lithuania. Alexis did not believe Russia was strong enough to take on such an challenge. This all changed with the appointment of Nikon as the Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church (1652). The so called union of Ukraine and Muscovy took place on January 6, 1654, when Khmelnitskii, on behalf of the Cossacks, acknowledged the Tsar's sovereignty and vowed unconditional allegiance. Ukraine retained autonomy with the exception of affairs involving Poland and the Ottomans. In these matters, they followed Moscow's lead. Even though Alexis liked to refer to himself as the tsar of All Great and Little Rus, Ukraine really was not absorbed into the Russian Empire until much later. War with Poland-Lithuania, predictably, broke out in 1654 and was resolved in 1667. Moscow quickly reassumed Smolensk which it lost to Poland in 1634. Sweden decided to get in on the action and tried to take the Polish ports along the Baltic. Moscow aimed its attentions against Sweden in 1656 and managed to take Livonia. Moscow and Poland agreed to a treaty in 1667. Ukraine was to be divided. Poland gave up its holdings in western Russia and Moscow forfeited its position west of the Dnieper, but kept Kiev. Two Russian foreign ministers greatly increased the expansion of Western ideals in Russia. In the 1660s, Ordin-Nashchokin focused his attentions on the Baltic region and the fortification of the merchant class. His successor, A.S. Matveev (1671) was more concerned with maintaining Russia's southern border. Russia, who now shared a border with the Ottoman Empire, made a dramatic policy shift and endorsed support of Poland against the Turks. In 1667, Russia retained control of Kiev. This was the beginning of the decline of Poland's power in Europe and dramatically changed the relationship between the Turks and Moscow. It, also, opened the door for an influx of scholarly individuals from Ukraine to Russia. The first hospital and poorhouse were founded and Ukrainian style of education was introduced at the new school at the Andreev Monastery. Tsar Alexis displayed a different outlook as well. This was due, in part, to his marriage to his second wife in 1671. Natalia Cyrilovna Narishkina was only twenty years old when she married Alexis who was ca. 42. She was the mother of Peter the Great (June 10, 1672), Theodora Alexenova (Sep 11, 1673) and Natalie Alexinova (Sep 4,1674). Natalia was far more open and interested in the ways of the West, an active advocate for change and had a profound influence upon the tsar. Alexis died in 1676 and Natalia lived until 1694. The first theatrical production in Russia was presented in 1672 and the tsar's palace at Preobrazhenskoe. Titled Ahasuerus and Esther (ref. Book of Esther), this nine hour play was written by Johann Gottfried Grigorii, a Lutheran clergyman. This marked the beginning of the court theatre at which plays and ballets were staged. Predictably, the Orthodox Church objected to Western influences. The West represented the Church of Rome and the Protestant movement. The unified Christian Church had suffered the Great Schism in 1058 which divided Christianity between Rome (Catholic) and Constantinople (Orthodox). The liturgy, dogma and traditions of the West grew to become quite different from that of the East. Orthodoxy had limited influence over the tsar or the people when it came up against the growing fasination with Western culture. In the mid-1600's, the Orthodox Church was successful in having foreigners; specifically Germans and Poles; relocated to separate districts and away from Moscow. But, the power of the Church, in regards to matters of society, was seriously reduced by the, so called, Nikon affair and a Church schism. Nikon was born to peasant stock in 1605 and went by the name of Nikita. He was schooled in a monastery, got married and served as a parish priest in Moscow. After ten years of marriage and the death of their children, Nikon convinced his wife to become a nun and join a convent. This allowed Nikon to enter the Solovetski monastery on the White Sea in the north. He soon became a hermit monk on one of the neighboring islands. He soon found the Solovetski community disagreeable and joined the nearby Kojeozerski monastery in 1643. In 1646, Tsar Alexis appointed Nikon to the office of Archimandrite of the Novospaski Lavra in Moscow. Soon after, in 1649, Nikon became the Metropolitan of Novgorod. He had won the favor of the tsar, founded several poorhouses and was known for many good works within the secular community. Nikon remained in constant correspondence with Alexis and spent part of each year at court. Nikon's primary goal was the revise the existing Slavonic Bible and other liturgical books. Patriarch Iosif died in 1652 and Alexis appointed his friend Nikon to this, the highest office of the Russian Orthodox Church. Nikon's first concern was with the reunification of the Ruthenians; Little Russians; with Orthodoxy. Poland had control of this area until 1667. Thanks to the Synod of Brest (1596), the people had been forced to enter into communion with Rome and the Catholic Church. The Ruthenians rose against Poland in 1653 and united with Russia. The Metropolitan of Kiev and most of his clergy united under the Patriarchate of Moscow. This greatly increased the scope of the Patriarchate's ecclesiastical power. The reformation of the Russian Orthodox liturgical books was the primary goal of Nikon's tenure as Patriarch. The Bible that was being used in the Church was a translation from the original Greek texts to Slavonic; language created for just this purpose by the brothers, Sts Cyril and Methodius (mid to late 800s). Over the centuries, changes to the Scriptural details and rituals appeared in the translations. Nikon believed that the Russian Church had gone too far away from the original Orthodox tradition of Constantinople (Byzantium) during the some 200 years since the latter's fall as an empire. Nikon's idea was to revert back to the original Byzantine tradition, foregoing much of the developments of the Russian Church. Nikon was in close contact with the Greek Patriarchs on this matter. Possibly the most controversial issue of ritual was the act of crossing oneself. Over the years, the Russians had been taught to make the Sign of the Cross using two fingers after the Catholic fashion. In Orthodoxy, the Sign is made with three fingers; the thumb and the first two fingers placed together; symbolizing the Holy Trinity. Nikon's reforms were met with loud and often violent opposition. Makarios, Patriarch of Antioch, traveled to Moscow and attended Nikon's synods in 1654 and 1655. Finally, in 1655, with the blessings of the Eastern Patriarchs, Nikon published his revised liturgical books and laws regarding unity with the Greek traditions and rituals. The next synod, 1656, endorsed Nikon's measures and even excommunicated anyone caught making the Sign of the Cross with anything other than three fingers. These harsh and swift measures begged rebellion. Nikon was accused of being a traitor to Russian and for trying to Hellenize the nation and corrupting the old faith. While a member of the Solovetski community, Nikon belonged to a group known as Friends of God and later the Zealots of Piety. This group called for a focus on individual and internal spirituality. Nikon's reforms brought considerable anger from this group. With their leader, archpriest Avvakum Petrovich, they became known as the old ritualists or old believers, steadfastly loyal to the old Russian rites and traditions. Still in the good graces of the tsar, Nikon was able to see to it that, by 1653, Avvakum and his followers were banished. A year after Nikon's death (1681), Avvakum was burned at the stake, a martyr of the Russian Church schism. The Old Believers represented a much broader revolt and, thus, problem than simply the issue of the old rites. They protested against serfdom, the centralized nature of the government and the tainting of the nation by allowing Western traditions and ideals to enter Russia. The Old Believers' stronghold was the Solovetskii monastery, Nikon's first community, on the White Sea. The group was made up of over 500 sympathetic monks and fugitives from the Razin rebellion. What happened to cause Nikon to fall so quickly out of the good graces of the tsar is a bit of a mystery. Most agree that it had to do with Nikon's campaign to make the Church separate from the state. In fact, Nikon proposed that the tsar himself should be subordinate to the Patriarch. He, evidently, was not content with the duel authority of tsar and patriarch; the first being concerned with matters of the material world and the latter matters of a spiritual nature. Alexis tried to appease Nikon by granting him the title of Great Sovereign in 1654. This was not enough and the two former friends entered into a personal feud. The leaders of Russia's secular and spiritual lives were at war. Alexis demanded Nikon's resignation but could not force it. By canon law, only the Eastern Patriarchs could remove Nikon from his office. In 1667, Tsar Alexis called for a great synod for the purpose of bring charges against Nikon. The synod was attended by the Patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria, as well as several Greek and Russian bishops and metropolitans. The Patriarch of Alexandria not only endorsed Nikon's dismissal, but went to far as to advocate a stronger role of the tsar in Church affairs. Tsar Alexis showed up, in person, to act as the official accuser of Nikon who attended the synod in his patriarchal vestments. The official charges against Nikon included neglect of his spiritual duties since 1658, betraying the Church by complaining to Constantinople about the Russian clergy and unjust actions towards his bishops. The synod lasted a week and, ultimately, voted to strip Nikon of the patriarchate and all the duties and privileges that came with this office. He was demoted to a mere monk and sentenced to confinement in the Therapontof monastery on the White Sea. Nikon was replaced by Joasaph II (1667 - 1672), formerly the archimandrite of the Trinity Lavra in Moscow. Tsar Alexis died in 1676. His son and heir, Fedor II (1676 - 1682) withdrew the sentence invoked on Nikon and released him from his confinement. Enroute to Moscow, Nikon died (Aug. 17, 1681), was buried in the Cathedral Church of Moscow with full honors given the patriarchs and all charges against him were revoked. The whole affair of Nikon's fall, the anger of Alexis towards him and harsh sentence imposed by the 1667 synod remain a bit of a mystery. The issue at hand was not Nikon's reform of the liturgical books. In fact, this was endorsed by the synod and upheld by Nikon's successor. Nikon is known for his stubborn will and quick and often harsh actions. His attempt to separate the Church from the state and, in fact, make the latter subordinate to the first, probably was the Nikon's greatest offense, in the eyes of his critics. Regardless of the reasons, one thing is for certain. The actions of Nikon and controversy surrounding him caused a schism within the Russian Church. Old Believers still exist today and consider themselves both the true heirs of Orthodoxy and separate from the Church of Moscow. Tsar Alexis' lifetime and reign were characterized by rebellion and the introduction of Western culture. When he died (1676), Russia was primed to enter the era of modernity (1676 - 1689). Alexis' heir, Alexis Alexeiovich, (b. 1653) died on January 17, 1670. The younger Alexis and been well groomed to follow in his father's place. Instead, the tsar's second son, Fedor III (b. 1661), a sickly and physically weak youth, became the next tsar of Russia. Fedor's reign was uneventful and he passed away just six years later in 1682. Next in line was Ivan V (b. Aug. 27, 1666) who was mentally retarded and reigned fourteen years until his death on January 29, 1696. The only remaining male heir of Alexis I was Peter I (the Great). During Ivan's reign, Peter's mother was encouraged to make a case for her son as a more capable ruler of Russia. This caused considerable friction between Natalia's family, the Naryshkins, and the family of Alexis' first wife, the Miloslavskiis. It, also, meant the banishment of A. S. Matveev, the foreign chancellor at the time who supported Natalia's claim. Matveev was well educated and familiar with the leaders and cultures of the West. Ivan V's reign suffered greatly the loss of this advisor. Eventually, Peter I became tsar in 1696, at the age of 24, but not without a deadly struggle with his half-sister, Sophia, Regent of Russia. Russian Life is a publication of a 30-year-young, award-winning publishing house that creates a bimonthly magazine, books, maps, and other products for Russophiles the world over. PO Box 567 Montpelier VT 05601-0567	4,522	ENGLISH	1
Despite being a sport with roots reaching out to medieval and even ancient times, soccer was never really played under a set of strict rules until 1863. On 26 October, 1863 several amateur and semi-professional clubs from England gathered up in London and formed up the Football Association and devised a “constitution” for the game, including a set of standardized soccer.Obviously the “Laws of football” as they were called back then were just a set of basic soccer rules and they didn’t cover all aspects of the game. The main points covered by the Football Association were regarding violence on the pitch, as oftentimes the tense clashes in no-rules matches lead to bloody fistfights between the teams. Since then, soccer rules constantly evolved and began covering more and more of the game’s principles and also adapting soccer to the age it was played in. r/soccerstreams A simple example of this would be the offside rules which was introduced later on in the game, when matches became more and more tactical. Without the offside rule, attackers would often have a hibernating role in the team, simply staying up front and waiting for the ball to come, hence with the new rule, they were forced to work as much as the other players on the pitch. Let’s take a look at some of the official soccer rules of today and give them a small explanation for why they are there and how they affect the game: Soccer field dimensions – since not all soccer pitches could share the exact same size, FIFA decided a small length and width size threshold in order for a pitch to be playable. So the minimum length of a soccer field must be of 100 yards (90 meters), whereas the maximum length must be 130 yards (120 meters). A bigger size difference was allowed for the width, which can be as small as 50 yards (45 meters) and as big as 100 yards (90 meters). You might have noticed that the minimum length coincides with the maximum width! Although strange indeed, soccer could actually be played on a square field, however for entertainment’s sake no one built that kind of pitch yet (thankfully). Number of players – The official soccer rules book states that each team can enter the field with 11 players (one of which is the goalkeeper). The number of substitutes depends on the competition the match is played in, but in official FIFA matches the number of substitutes can range from none to 7, with 3 substitutions eligible for each of the two teams. However, in friendly matches, it’s often the case that both teams agree upon a set number of substitutions or simply go all-out and allow every bench player to get in the game at some point, replacing one of the first team members. Ball in/out play soccer rules – The ball is in play whenever the referee doesn’t intervene whistling a game stop and whenever it stays inside the play area.	<urn:uuid:380914fb-e32e-4fd2-a9e4-ca90b3c2d631>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.breadcrumbscabs.com/soccer-rules/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00439.warc.gz	en	0.981122	608	3.5625	4	[ -0.15182599425315857, 0.06525412201881409, 0.43457499146461487, -0.4648344814777374, 0.4068063199520111, 0.5924783945083618, -0.02985740825533867, 0.26470890641212463, 0.5380622744560242, 0.27754199504852295, 0.20218360424041748, -0.4445651173591614, -0.296022891998291, -0.1030472964048385...	1	Despite being a sport with roots reaching out to medieval and even ancient times, soccer was never really played under a set of strict rules until 1863. On 26 October, 1863 several amateur and semi-professional clubs from England gathered up in London and formed up the Football Association and devised a “constitution” for the game, including a set of standardized soccer.Obviously the “Laws of football” as they were called back then were just a set of basic soccer rules and they didn’t cover all aspects of the game. The main points covered by the Football Association were regarding violence on the pitch, as oftentimes the tense clashes in no-rules matches lead to bloody fistfights between the teams. Since then, soccer rules constantly evolved and began covering more and more of the game’s principles and also adapting soccer to the age it was played in. r/soccerstreams A simple example of this would be the offside rules which was introduced later on in the game, when matches became more and more tactical. Without the offside rule, attackers would often have a hibernating role in the team, simply staying up front and waiting for the ball to come, hence with the new rule, they were forced to work as much as the other players on the pitch. Let’s take a look at some of the official soccer rules of today and give them a small explanation for why they are there and how they affect the game: Soccer field dimensions – since not all soccer pitches could share the exact same size, FIFA decided a small length and width size threshold in order for a pitch to be playable. So the minimum length of a soccer field must be of 100 yards (90 meters), whereas the maximum length must be 130 yards (120 meters). A bigger size difference was allowed for the width, which can be as small as 50 yards (45 meters) and as big as 100 yards (90 meters). You might have noticed that the minimum length coincides with the maximum width! Although strange indeed, soccer could actually be played on a square field, however for entertainment’s sake no one built that kind of pitch yet (thankfully). Number of players – The official soccer rules book states that each team can enter the field with 11 players (one of which is the goalkeeper). The number of substitutes depends on the competition the match is played in, but in official FIFA matches the number of substitutes can range from none to 7, with 3 substitutions eligible for each of the two teams. However, in friendly matches, it’s often the case that both teams agree upon a set number of substitutions or simply go all-out and allow every bench player to get in the game at some point, replacing one of the first team members. Ball in/out play soccer rules – The ball is in play whenever the referee doesn’t intervene whistling a game stop and whenever it stays inside the play area.	608	ENGLISH	1
This article needs additional citations for \|By transport mode\| \|By size (\| \|Change of gauge\| \|Part of a series on\| All vehicles on a rail network must have running gear that is compatible with the track gauge, and in the earliest days of railways the selection of a proposed railway's gauge was a key issue. As the dominant parameter determining interoperability, it is still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network. In some places there is a distinction between the nominal gauge and the actual gauge, due to divergence of track components from the nominal. Railway engineers use a device, like a The earliest form of railway was a wooden wagonway, along which single wagons were manhandled, almost always in or from a mine or quarry. Initially the wagons were guided by human muscle power; subsequently by various mechanical methods. Timber rails wore rapidly: later, flat cast-iron plates were provided to limit the wear. In some localities, the plates were made L-shaped, with the vertical part of the L guiding the wheels; this is generally referred to as a "plateway". Flanged wheels eventually became universal, and the spacing between the rails had to be compatible with that of the wagon wheels. As the guidance of the wagons was improved, short strings of wagons could be connected and pulled by teams of horses, and the track could be extended from the immediate vicinity of the mine or quarry, typically to a navigable waterway. The wagons were built to a consistent pattern and the track would be made to suit the needs of the horses and wagons: the gauge was more critical. The The Penydarren Tramroad probably carried the first journey by a locomotive, in 1804, and it was successful for the locomotive, but unsuccessful for the track: the plates were not strong enough to carry its weight. A considerable progressive step was made when cast iron edge rails were first employed; these had the major axis of the rail section configured vertically, giving a much stronger section to resist bending forces, and this was further improved when fish-belly rails were introduced. Edge rails required a close match between rail spacing and the configuration of the wheelsets, and the importance of the gauge was reinforced. Railways were still seen as local concerns: there was no appreciation of a future connection to other lines, and selection of the track gauge was still a pragmatic decision based on local requirements and prejudices, and probably determined by existing local designs of (road) vehicles. Locomotives were being developed in the first decades of the 19th century; they took various forms, but The Stockton and Darlington line was immensely successful, and when the The Liverpool and Manchester was quickly followed by other trunk railways, with the At the same time, other parts of Britain built railways to standard gauge, and British technology was exported to European countries and parts of North America, also using standard gauge. Britain polarised into two areas: those that used The larger railway companies wished to expand geographically, and large areas were considered to be under their control. When a new independent line was proposed to open up an unconnected area, the gauge was crucial in determining the allegiance that the line would adopt: if it was broad gauge, it must be friendly to the Great Western railway; if narrow (standard) gauge, it must favour the other companies. The battle to persuade or coerce that choice became very intense, and became referred to as As passenger and freight transport between the two areas became increasingly important, the difficulty of moving from one gauge to the other—the As railways were built in other countries, the gauge selection was pragmatic: the track would have to fit the rolling stock. If locomotives were imported from elsewhere, especially in the early days, the track would be built to fit them. In some cases standard gauge was adopted, but many countries or companies chose a different gauge as their national gauge, either by governmental policy, or as a matter of individual choice. Narrow gauges were widely used in mountainous regions, as construction costs tended to be lower and they enabled the tighter turns that were often required.[ To keep the rail traffic compatible within a network, not only the track gauge needs to be the same, but also the	<urn:uuid:ff7cda51-6485-4143-98f7-fddf2a560b5f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wikiplanet.click/enciclopedia/en/Track_gauge	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00056.warc.gz	en	0.984555	879	4	4	[ -0.07767944782972336, -0.11419793963432312, 0.4819636940956116, 0.2053830772638321, -0.3439911901950836, 0.03499099239706993, -0.18298810720443726, 0.08584071695804596, -0.18307335674762726, -0.37865036725997925, 0.13664883375167847, -0.3529483675956726, -0.1041586846113205, 0.295459896326...	1	This article needs additional citations for \|By transport mode\| \|By size (\| \|Change of gauge\| \|Part of a series on\| All vehicles on a rail network must have running gear that is compatible with the track gauge, and in the earliest days of railways the selection of a proposed railway's gauge was a key issue. As the dominant parameter determining interoperability, it is still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network. In some places there is a distinction between the nominal gauge and the actual gauge, due to divergence of track components from the nominal. Railway engineers use a device, like a The earliest form of railway was a wooden wagonway, along which single wagons were manhandled, almost always in or from a mine or quarry. Initially the wagons were guided by human muscle power; subsequently by various mechanical methods. Timber rails wore rapidly: later, flat cast-iron plates were provided to limit the wear. In some localities, the plates were made L-shaped, with the vertical part of the L guiding the wheels; this is generally referred to as a "plateway". Flanged wheels eventually became universal, and the spacing between the rails had to be compatible with that of the wagon wheels. As the guidance of the wagons was improved, short strings of wagons could be connected and pulled by teams of horses, and the track could be extended from the immediate vicinity of the mine or quarry, typically to a navigable waterway. The wagons were built to a consistent pattern and the track would be made to suit the needs of the horses and wagons: the gauge was more critical. The The Penydarren Tramroad probably carried the first journey by a locomotive, in 1804, and it was successful for the locomotive, but unsuccessful for the track: the plates were not strong enough to carry its weight. A considerable progressive step was made when cast iron edge rails were first employed; these had the major axis of the rail section configured vertically, giving a much stronger section to resist bending forces, and this was further improved when fish-belly rails were introduced. Edge rails required a close match between rail spacing and the configuration of the wheelsets, and the importance of the gauge was reinforced. Railways were still seen as local concerns: there was no appreciation of a future connection to other lines, and selection of the track gauge was still a pragmatic decision based on local requirements and prejudices, and probably determined by existing local designs of (road) vehicles. Locomotives were being developed in the first decades of the 19th century; they took various forms, but The Stockton and Darlington line was immensely successful, and when the The Liverpool and Manchester was quickly followed by other trunk railways, with the At the same time, other parts of Britain built railways to standard gauge, and British technology was exported to European countries and parts of North America, also using standard gauge. Britain polarised into two areas: those that used The larger railway companies wished to expand geographically, and large areas were considered to be under their control. When a new independent line was proposed to open up an unconnected area, the gauge was crucial in determining the allegiance that the line would adopt: if it was broad gauge, it must be friendly to the Great Western railway; if narrow (standard) gauge, it must favour the other companies. The battle to persuade or coerce that choice became very intense, and became referred to as As passenger and freight transport between the two areas became increasingly important, the difficulty of moving from one gauge to the other—the As railways were built in other countries, the gauge selection was pragmatic: the track would have to fit the rolling stock. If locomotives were imported from elsewhere, especially in the early days, the track would be built to fit them. In some cases standard gauge was adopted, but many countries or companies chose a different gauge as their national gauge, either by governmental policy, or as a matter of individual choice. Narrow gauges were widely used in mountainous regions, as construction costs tended to be lower and they enabled the tighter turns that were often required.[ To keep the rail traffic compatible within a network, not only the track gauge needs to be the same, but also the	873	ENGLISH	1
The poem was written in 1950 685 during the struggle for African-American civil rights messages and, to appeal to young African Americans of the time. From this, we can conclude that the speakers of the poem are the boys. Segregation caused more than just separation, it caused many youths to question their roles in society. In the dimly lit building, we see several billiard tables. Most will read the poem and think that Brooks is being sarcastic by using simple language and in the end asserting that the seven pool players will die soon, or more broadly that all who speak in this manner will die soon. Seven young guys are gathered around a couple of the tables. We Real Cool Steaminess Rating Exactly how steamy is this poem? The poem is their situation as they see it. The elegance of the typeface and the evenness of the layout in Selected Poems are products of craftsmanship, so well produced that they are refined out of notice. It expresses the problems and also the dangers. So they thin gin which means they drink cheap alcohol, they do what the adults do and will probably go on doing whatever it takes to dodge normality. The theme is people who choose to live their lives in the streets, instead of getting an education will eventually find themselves dead. Appearing thus so brazenly in the school setting that the pool players themselves have rejected, this text is an empowering nose-thumbing at the institution that once controlled and restricted them--thus, also, a rejection of the school-values that would interpret the poem as an endorsement of education. It isn't until the last line that the dangers of these behaviors are really put into perspective. She exercises end rhyme in the poem. Finally, replay the of Brooks reading the poem. Are you saying that the form of this poem, then, was determined by the colloquial rhythm you were trying to catch? The boys have no accented sense of themselves, yet they are aware of a semi-defined personal importance. Board of Education, in 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that it was unconstitutional to segregate schools; however, desegregation was slow and many African Americans became frustrated. The often overlooked epigraph to the poem suggests Brooks's ambivalence toward the personae's lifestyle. Board of Education trial, which challenged racial segregation in schools. The boys in the poem seem to be struggling with identity. After all, they are speakers, too, or at least they are spoken for. The teenagers are obviously not too fond about attending school. Many have interpreted this poem in different ways. More importantly, the rich word play suggests Brooks's own ambivalence toward the players' lifestyle. ? Considered as an image also rather than only as a poem, it privileges the large figures in the center, the letters that represent the speech of the pool players; the small figures above and below--the otherwise controlling dramatic, literary, and publishing context--are subordinate. It lets us know that the speaker will be imitating the voice of a group of young men in Chicago. Professor We Real Cool The Pool Players. She also uses dialect, a black dialect. The poem focuses on what activities the teenagers participate in to make them look cool. In this lesson, students will closely analyze the poem's line breaks and the effect of enjambment on their reading and interpretation of the poem. The golden part of the title implies that these pool players are young; they should be in school instead of in a pool hall. Brooks uses a few rhymes to craft an effective sound and image of the life she perceives. Though many can have different interpretations of this poem, it is fair to look at the life and career or the works and influences of Gwendolyn Brooks. Board of Education, in 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that it was unconstitutional to segregate schools; however, desegregation was slow and many African Americans became frustrated. I think that the reason most of her poems have to do with race is do to that fact that it took her awhile to really appreciate who she was and accept being black. Brooks uses different kinds of rhymes to craft an effective sound and image of the life she perceives. Margaret Dickie and Thomas Travisano. This serves to emphasize how the poem should be read. Brooks not only arranges the wording in this poem to show a desperate need, but she speaks of one as well. So this observer, our speaker, thinks the boys might have dropped out of school, be drinking gin, staying out late at night, enjoying jazz, and will have short lives. In this paper three topics have been selected so that this poem will be able to be analyzed. This poem starts off with two lines of background describing. It could be a motto, it could be a song, a chant, a lyric rage against the powers that be. The pool player's actions were not described in detail to give any sort of justification for their bad behavior. Brooks does so in a clear and concise way that engages the readers by using alliteration, rhyme, and monosyllabic words. This could mean that Brooks spent a lot of time by herself leaving her to write down the thoughts that she had rather than talk to someone about them. These young boys are obviously street people because they are not in school. But they contrast in how they choose overcome the problems at hand. In musical terminology, a grace note is a short note that gets squeezed in before a beat. The three elements that have been written about are form, language, and content. Brooks employs a modern approach to the English language and her choice of slang creates a powerful jazz mood. We Real Cool struck a chord and was instantly seen as a ground-breaking classic. In all, they do anything to capture that feeling of ecstasy. In a poem, form is largely what separates itself from other types of literary works. It makes sense now that Gwendolyn Brooks was criticizing the boys she saw at the pool hall skipping school because she makes them sound like they are full of themselves in the poem. Although all of the lines are very short and it is only an eight-line poem, the sound on each stop stands out. It is still very popular and causes many a debate amongst young people. The poem has been featured on , and is widely studied in literature classes and re-printed in literature textbooks. She was the first African-American woman to win the award. Her experiences at her schools, either integrated or at at an all African American, were a source from which she drew a lot of her inspiration from.	<urn:uuid:e0c7b89f-5b0c-410a-985f-17bcc0d820ee>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://georgiajudges.org/we-real-cool-theme.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00036.warc.gz	en	0.980572	1,340	3.453125	3	[ -0.006343478802591562, -0.10615807771682739, 0.12473707646131516, -0.059599436819553375, -0.16071274876594543, 0.08118780702352524, 0.10068349540233612, 0.08114541321992874, -0.1564490795135498, -0.2653043568134308, 0.26173287630081177, 0.091315358877182, 0.0647079274058342, 0.232453674077...	1	The poem was written in 1950 685 during the struggle for African-American civil rights messages and, to appeal to young African Americans of the time. From this, we can conclude that the speakers of the poem are the boys. Segregation caused more than just separation, it caused many youths to question their roles in society. In the dimly lit building, we see several billiard tables. Most will read the poem and think that Brooks is being sarcastic by using simple language and in the end asserting that the seven pool players will die soon, or more broadly that all who speak in this manner will die soon. Seven young guys are gathered around a couple of the tables. We Real Cool Steaminess Rating Exactly how steamy is this poem? The poem is their situation as they see it. The elegance of the typeface and the evenness of the layout in Selected Poems are products of craftsmanship, so well produced that they are refined out of notice. It expresses the problems and also the dangers. So they thin gin which means they drink cheap alcohol, they do what the adults do and will probably go on doing whatever it takes to dodge normality. The theme is people who choose to live their lives in the streets, instead of getting an education will eventually find themselves dead. Appearing thus so brazenly in the school setting that the pool players themselves have rejected, this text is an empowering nose-thumbing at the institution that once controlled and restricted them--thus, also, a rejection of the school-values that would interpret the poem as an endorsement of education. It isn't until the last line that the dangers of these behaviors are really put into perspective. She exercises end rhyme in the poem. Finally, replay the of Brooks reading the poem. Are you saying that the form of this poem, then, was determined by the colloquial rhythm you were trying to catch? The boys have no accented sense of themselves, yet they are aware of a semi-defined personal importance. Board of Education, in 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that it was unconstitutional to segregate schools; however, desegregation was slow and many African Americans became frustrated. The often overlooked epigraph to the poem suggests Brooks's ambivalence toward the personae's lifestyle. Board of Education trial, which challenged racial segregation in schools. The boys in the poem seem to be struggling with identity. After all, they are speakers, too, or at least they are spoken for. The teenagers are obviously not too fond about attending school. Many have interpreted this poem in different ways. More importantly, the rich word play suggests Brooks's own ambivalence toward the players' lifestyle. ? Considered as an image also rather than only as a poem, it privileges the large figures in the center, the letters that represent the speech of the pool players; the small figures above and below--the otherwise controlling dramatic, literary, and publishing context--are subordinate. It lets us know that the speaker will be imitating the voice of a group of young men in Chicago. Professor We Real Cool The Pool Players. She also uses dialect, a black dialect. The poem focuses on what activities the teenagers participate in to make them look cool. In this lesson, students will closely analyze the poem's line breaks and the effect of enjambment on their reading and interpretation of the poem. The golden part of the title implies that these pool players are young; they should be in school instead of in a pool hall. Brooks uses a few rhymes to craft an effective sound and image of the life she perceives. Though many can have different interpretations of this poem, it is fair to look at the life and career or the works and influences of Gwendolyn Brooks. Board of Education, in 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that it was unconstitutional to segregate schools; however, desegregation was slow and many African Americans became frustrated. I think that the reason most of her poems have to do with race is do to that fact that it took her awhile to really appreciate who she was and accept being black. Brooks uses different kinds of rhymes to craft an effective sound and image of the life she perceives. Margaret Dickie and Thomas Travisano. This serves to emphasize how the poem should be read. Brooks not only arranges the wording in this poem to show a desperate need, but she speaks of one as well. So this observer, our speaker, thinks the boys might have dropped out of school, be drinking gin, staying out late at night, enjoying jazz, and will have short lives. In this paper three topics have been selected so that this poem will be able to be analyzed. This poem starts off with two lines of background describing. It could be a motto, it could be a song, a chant, a lyric rage against the powers that be. The pool player's actions were not described in detail to give any sort of justification for their bad behavior. Brooks does so in a clear and concise way that engages the readers by using alliteration, rhyme, and monosyllabic words. This could mean that Brooks spent a lot of time by herself leaving her to write down the thoughts that she had rather than talk to someone about them. These young boys are obviously street people because they are not in school. But they contrast in how they choose overcome the problems at hand. In musical terminology, a grace note is a short note that gets squeezed in before a beat. The three elements that have been written about are form, language, and content. Brooks employs a modern approach to the English language and her choice of slang creates a powerful jazz mood. We Real Cool struck a chord and was instantly seen as a ground-breaking classic. In all, they do anything to capture that feeling of ecstasy. In a poem, form is largely what separates itself from other types of literary works. It makes sense now that Gwendolyn Brooks was criticizing the boys she saw at the pool hall skipping school because she makes them sound like they are full of themselves in the poem. Although all of the lines are very short and it is only an eight-line poem, the sound on each stop stands out. It is still very popular and causes many a debate amongst young people. The poem has been featured on , and is widely studied in literature classes and re-printed in literature textbooks. She was the first African-American woman to win the award. Her experiences at her schools, either integrated or at at an all African American, were a source from which she drew a lot of her inspiration from.	1,335	ENGLISH	1
Macbeth as Tragic Hero The heroes of Shakespeare’s tragedies often had similar characteristics. They often were of a high rank, they had tragic flaws, and their tragic flaws were responsible for their downfalls. Macbeth is a play that meets these criteria, though some people might question Macbeth’s role as a tragic hero because of the role outside influences played upon him. Though he was subject to outside influences, Macbeth was ultimately responsible for his actions, making him a tragic hero. Macbeth is necessarily a character with a high rank, because if he had not been, his story would have been of little consequence to the audience of his time. When the play begins, Macbeth is the Thane of Glamis: “All hail Macbeth! Hail to thee, Thane of Glamis” (I.iii-48). However, he soon earns another title when the Thane of Cawdor proves to be traitorous: “No more that Thane of Cawdor shall deceive/ Our bosom interest:–go pronounce his present death./ And with his former title greet Macbeth” (I,ii,72-74). If Macbeth had not held a place of honor with Duncan, then Macbeth would not have been given the title of Thane of Cawdor as well.. Also, without this higher position of being two Thanes, there would have been more people in his way to become king. As we can see, it was of utmost importance that the play centered around a character of high ranking. Though Macbeth comes under the influence of the witches and his wife, Macbeth possesses ambition to a degree that it becomes his tragic flaw. The witches merely tell him that he is Thane of Cawdor and will be king: “All hail Macbeth! Hail to thee, Thane of Cawdor!/ All hail Macbeth; that shalt be king hereafter” (I.iii.49-50). They did not tell him to do anything; they merely stated what he would become. His wife, however, did attempt to directly influence him to murder: “But screw your courage to the sticking place,/ And we’ll not fail. When Duncan is asleep” (I.vii.68-69). Lady Macbeth, though rhetorically persuasive, merely played to Macbeth’s deep-seated ambition, the trait within himself that allowed him to commit this terrible act. In the end, Macbeth is responsible for his actions because he is the one that is ambitious and has the most to gain. All the ambition in the world would not have made Macbeth king if he had not been a character of exceptional abilities that provided him the means by which he became king. The witches had a prediction for Banquo also: “Though shalt get kings, though thou be none” (68). Knowing that Banquo was supposed to be the father of kings, he realizes that he must eliminate him in order to keep his place: “It is concluded:–Banquo, thy soul’s flight,/ It if find heaven, must find it tonight” (III.i.154-155). He also shows bravery, Macbeth stands deserted at the end yet he persists in remaining defiant: “Before my body/ I throw my warlike shield: lay on, Macduff;/ And damn’d be him that cries first” (V.viii.-36-38). Macbeth’s intelligence and bravery earned him the title of two Thanes, yet we can see how they also were then used for evil deeds. Macbeth makes realizations that he shares with the audience throughout the play. These realizations show that he understands the consequences of his actions. Macbeth comments on the duplicitous nature of people, a fact he is very aware of as he realizes that he is an example if it: “And make our faces vizards to our hearts, Disguising what they are” (III.iii.38-39). Also, in perhaps his most famous speech, Macbeth comments on the transient nature of human lives: “Out, out, brief candle!…it is a tale/ Told by and idiot, full of sound and fury,/ signifying nothing” (V.v.24-29). If Macbeth had not learned anything throughout the play, it would be more difficult to look at him in and say that he was a tragic hero. Though Macbeth might initially seem to be a cold-hearted, ambitious murderer, it is because both he and the audience of the play learn from the experience that he can be seen as heroic. His high rank and considerable talents allowed him to be in a position to become king, but it was because of his tragic flaw, his ambition, that he proceeded to become king in a manner that led to his downfall. Macbeth is truly a tragic hero. Shakespeare, William, Macbeth, The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. Borders, Group, Inc, Ann Arbor, MI, 1996.	<urn:uuid:5c8ed861-1af6-452f-bc2b-d28a7aab6fa9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://summarystory.com/macbeth/macbeth-as-tragic-hero/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00324.warc.gz	en	0.983281	1,089	3.40625	3	[ -0.29016733169555664, 0.08728565275669098, 0.37121284008026123, -0.1598353236913681, -0.46563011407852173, -0.395668089389801, 0.8467936515808105, 0.37143832445144653, -0.09947549551725388, -0.15422511100769043, -0.09053552895784378, -0.3104032278060913, -0.020578069612383842, 0.3932419419...	11	Macbeth as Tragic Hero The heroes of Shakespeare’s tragedies often had similar characteristics. They often were of a high rank, they had tragic flaws, and their tragic flaws were responsible for their downfalls. Macbeth is a play that meets these criteria, though some people might question Macbeth’s role as a tragic hero because of the role outside influences played upon him. Though he was subject to outside influences, Macbeth was ultimately responsible for his actions, making him a tragic hero. Macbeth is necessarily a character with a high rank, because if he had not been, his story would have been of little consequence to the audience of his time. When the play begins, Macbeth is the Thane of Glamis: “All hail Macbeth! Hail to thee, Thane of Glamis” (I.iii-48). However, he soon earns another title when the Thane of Cawdor proves to be traitorous: “No more that Thane of Cawdor shall deceive/ Our bosom interest:–go pronounce his present death./ And with his former title greet Macbeth” (I,ii,72-74). If Macbeth had not held a place of honor with Duncan, then Macbeth would not have been given the title of Thane of Cawdor as well.. Also, without this higher position of being two Thanes, there would have been more people in his way to become king. As we can see, it was of utmost importance that the play centered around a character of high ranking. Though Macbeth comes under the influence of the witches and his wife, Macbeth possesses ambition to a degree that it becomes his tragic flaw. The witches merely tell him that he is Thane of Cawdor and will be king: “All hail Macbeth! Hail to thee, Thane of Cawdor!/ All hail Macbeth; that shalt be king hereafter” (I.iii.49-50). They did not tell him to do anything; they merely stated what he would become. His wife, however, did attempt to directly influence him to murder: “But screw your courage to the sticking place,/ And we’ll not fail. When Duncan is asleep” (I.vii.68-69). Lady Macbeth, though rhetorically persuasive, merely played to Macbeth’s deep-seated ambition, the trait within himself that allowed him to commit this terrible act. In the end, Macbeth is responsible for his actions because he is the one that is ambitious and has the most to gain. All the ambition in the world would not have made Macbeth king if he had not been a character of exceptional abilities that provided him the means by which he became king. The witches had a prediction for Banquo also: “Though shalt get kings, though thou be none” (68). Knowing that Banquo was supposed to be the father of kings, he realizes that he must eliminate him in order to keep his place: “It is concluded:–Banquo, thy soul’s flight,/ It if find heaven, must find it tonight” (III.i.154-155). He also shows bravery, Macbeth stands deserted at the end yet he persists in remaining defiant: “Before my body/ I throw my warlike shield: lay on, Macduff;/ And damn’d be him that cries first” (V.viii.-36-38). Macbeth’s intelligence and bravery earned him the title of two Thanes, yet we can see how they also were then used for evil deeds. Macbeth makes realizations that he shares with the audience throughout the play. These realizations show that he understands the consequences of his actions. Macbeth comments on the duplicitous nature of people, a fact he is very aware of as he realizes that he is an example if it: “And make our faces vizards to our hearts, Disguising what they are” (III.iii.38-39). Also, in perhaps his most famous speech, Macbeth comments on the transient nature of human lives: “Out, out, brief candle!…it is a tale/ Told by and idiot, full of sound and fury,/ signifying nothing” (V.v.24-29). If Macbeth had not learned anything throughout the play, it would be more difficult to look at him in and say that he was a tragic hero. Though Macbeth might initially seem to be a cold-hearted, ambitious murderer, it is because both he and the audience of the play learn from the experience that he can be seen as heroic. His high rank and considerable talents allowed him to be in a position to become king, but it was because of his tragic flaw, his ambition, that he proceeded to become king in a manner that led to his downfall. Macbeth is truly a tragic hero. Shakespeare, William, Macbeth, The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. Borders, Group, Inc, Ann Arbor, MI, 1996.	1,040	ENGLISH	1
In the person of Charles, the Habsburgs attained the status of a Great Power for the first time. Extending over several continents, his dominions were referred to by contemporaries as the empire ‘on which the sun never set’. The basis of his power was Spain: uniting in his person for the first time the crowns of Castile, Navarra and Aragón, Charles was the first king of Spain as a unified whole. His dominions also included the kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia together with the Low Countries as part of the Burgundian inheritance. Charles is also associated with the beginnings of the Spanish colonial empire in South and Central America. During his rule the destruction of the ancient American civilizations together with the exploitation and enslavement of indigenous peoples reached its zenith. The orders that Charles issued to the conquistadors and missionaries from his distant throne in Europe that enjoined them to protect the native population and to convert them to Christianity using convincing arguments rather than force remained – given the brutal reality – nothing more than half-hearted attempts to provide moral justification for the Spanish conquest of the Americas. For a short time Austria too belonged to Charles’s global empire. On the death of his grandfather Maximilian I in 1519 Charles had inherited the Austrian patrimonial lands. However, in 1521/22 he transferred his dominion over these Central European dynastic territories to his younger brother Ferdinand, the founder of the Austrian line of the Habsburgs. The division of the lineage was undertaken to secure the hereditary succession. Since in the preceding generations there had only ever been one surviving male successor, there was always a constant risk that the dynasty would die out and the empire that had been accumulated with such effort would collapse. Efforts to cement the succession on both sides led to marriages between the two lines in each generation. From a genealogical perspective the two branches of the dynasty constituted a single family entity. Within the dynasty Charles held the position of head of the family, and his siblings were bound to obey him. His brother Ferdinand was for a long time overshadowed by Charles and was slow to develop an independent profile of his own as a ruler. Later on he sometimes found himself opposing his powerful brother. The women in the family were equally subordinate to the demands of imperial politics. Charles’s sisters and daughters played an important role as pawns of his marriage policies but also exercised political functions as governors, for example Charles’s sister Maria, who represented Habsburg interests in the Netherlands with great skill.	<urn:uuid:f88a567b-0ca3-45ed-bc7f-98ae9eecc798>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/charles-v-empire-which-sun-never-set	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00517.warc.gz	en	0.981461	527	3.796875	4	[ -0.20774833858013153, 0.9076815247535706, 0.2564593553543091, -0.3976175785064697, -0.49550676345825195, -0.4038718640804291, 0.30251604318618774, 0.07770337164402008, 0.2731948494911194, -0.24597452580928802, 0.22967664897441864, -0.30940306186676025, -0.06526802480220795, 0.3290535509586...	2	In the person of Charles, the Habsburgs attained the status of a Great Power for the first time. Extending over several continents, his dominions were referred to by contemporaries as the empire ‘on which the sun never set’. The basis of his power was Spain: uniting in his person for the first time the crowns of Castile, Navarra and Aragón, Charles was the first king of Spain as a unified whole. His dominions also included the kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia together with the Low Countries as part of the Burgundian inheritance. Charles is also associated with the beginnings of the Spanish colonial empire in South and Central America. During his rule the destruction of the ancient American civilizations together with the exploitation and enslavement of indigenous peoples reached its zenith. The orders that Charles issued to the conquistadors and missionaries from his distant throne in Europe that enjoined them to protect the native population and to convert them to Christianity using convincing arguments rather than force remained – given the brutal reality – nothing more than half-hearted attempts to provide moral justification for the Spanish conquest of the Americas. For a short time Austria too belonged to Charles’s global empire. On the death of his grandfather Maximilian I in 1519 Charles had inherited the Austrian patrimonial lands. However, in 1521/22 he transferred his dominion over these Central European dynastic territories to his younger brother Ferdinand, the founder of the Austrian line of the Habsburgs. The division of the lineage was undertaken to secure the hereditary succession. Since in the preceding generations there had only ever been one surviving male successor, there was always a constant risk that the dynasty would die out and the empire that had been accumulated with such effort would collapse. Efforts to cement the succession on both sides led to marriages between the two lines in each generation. From a genealogical perspective the two branches of the dynasty constituted a single family entity. Within the dynasty Charles held the position of head of the family, and his siblings were bound to obey him. His brother Ferdinand was for a long time overshadowed by Charles and was slow to develop an independent profile of his own as a ruler. Later on he sometimes found himself opposing his powerful brother. The women in the family were equally subordinate to the demands of imperial politics. Charles’s sisters and daughters played an important role as pawns of his marriage policies but also exercised political functions as governors, for example Charles’s sister Maria, who represented Habsburg interests in the Netherlands with great skill.	521	ENGLISH	1
After his failed expedition, Hudson could no longer find financial backing in England for another voyage. Instead he turned to the Dutch, who were rivals of the English and who also wanted to find a passage to Asia. He set out in 1609 and again attempted to sail through the extreme north, but faced with a possible mutiny, he turned his ship south and sailed along the coast of North America. On or about September 19, 1609, Hudson landed near what is now Stuyvesant, New York. The historical marker states that Hudson was entertained by Indians who encamped here called Kinderhook. Records of the voyage paint a picture of relations between the crew and Native Americans that was less than harmonious,however, and describe numerous instances of the crew's poor treatment of Native Americans. Again, Hudson failed to find a Northwest Passage. He sailed part of the way up the river that would eventually bear his name (perhaps as far north as Albany) before determining that the river was too shallow to continue. The most significant long-term result of the third voyage was the discovery of what would become New York State, Hudson Bay, and the Hudson River. On a subsequent voyage in 1610-1611 that again took Hudson to Hudson Bay, his men mutineed. They forced Hudson, his son, and the crew members who were loyal to Hudson (most of whom were in poor health) into a small boat in Hudson Bay, effectively stranding them there. Hudson was never seen again, and his fate is unknown.	<urn:uuid:728b9c89-f90e-4a01-b0f5-adf2c451e32f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/53533	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00151.warc.gz	en	0.991144	312	3.78125	4	[ -0.03319672867655754, 0.2557815611362457, 0.2697237432003021, 0.028692400082945824, -0.1993599683046341, -0.24193298816680908, 0.18861208856105804, 0.04597843065857887, -0.6016048192977905, -0.3108011782169342, 0.2732842266559601, -0.2259664684534073, -0.19584690034389496, 0.24724371731281...	2	After his failed expedition, Hudson could no longer find financial backing in England for another voyage. Instead he turned to the Dutch, who were rivals of the English and who also wanted to find a passage to Asia. He set out in 1609 and again attempted to sail through the extreme north, but faced with a possible mutiny, he turned his ship south and sailed along the coast of North America. On or about September 19, 1609, Hudson landed near what is now Stuyvesant, New York. The historical marker states that Hudson was entertained by Indians who encamped here called Kinderhook. Records of the voyage paint a picture of relations between the crew and Native Americans that was less than harmonious,however, and describe numerous instances of the crew's poor treatment of Native Americans. Again, Hudson failed to find a Northwest Passage. He sailed part of the way up the river that would eventually bear his name (perhaps as far north as Albany) before determining that the river was too shallow to continue. The most significant long-term result of the third voyage was the discovery of what would become New York State, Hudson Bay, and the Hudson River. On a subsequent voyage in 1610-1611 that again took Hudson to Hudson Bay, his men mutineed. They forced Hudson, his son, and the crew members who were loyal to Hudson (most of whom were in poor health) into a small boat in Hudson Bay, effectively stranding them there. Hudson was never seen again, and his fate is unknown.	320	ENGLISH	1
The beginning of the construction of the stone Gothic bridge in Kłodzko dates back to the second half of the 13th century or the beginning of the 14th century. The exact date of completion is unknown, but it is assumed that this did not take place until around 1390. Already at the end of the 13th century, a bridge gatehouse called Upper was built at its end. It was rebuilt many times to become a residential building from a three-storey defensive structure with a hip roof at the final stage. The other end of the bridge was closed by the Lower Gate, which was built before 1469. The Kłodzko Bridge was also called the “Bridge on Eggs”, which was associated with the need for local peasants to provide eggs from which the protein was mixed with calcium for mortar. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it was rebuilt and renovated, among others, a balustrade and a brick superstructures of the pillars were added. Also in the 18th century figures appeared on the bridge founded by generous and wealthy townspeople. At the beginning of the 20th century, both bridge gates were demolished. The Gothic bridge erected on Młynówka received a four-span structure, built of sandstone ashlar. In addition to the two bridgeheads, it rested on three massive pillars that formed four arcades. The two outermost of them are narrower and clearly pointed. The bridge is 52.2 meters long and about 4 meters wide. The pillars of the bridge received a two-level form, were strongly embedded and ended slightly below the parapet with a kind of half-octagonal squared projections. Above the pedestal, the central western pillar received six, lean out ribs, on which a flat platform rested, prepared for the construction of the chapel, which eventually was not built. Anti-ice starlings were placed in the lower parts of the pillars. Originally at the ends of the bridge there were fortified gatehouses: Upper and Lower. The tower of the Upper Gate was built on a quadrangle plan, had three floors with a gate passage on the ground floor and was covered with a hip roof. The Upper Gate had a more modest form, which was a kind of low gatehouse, probably topped with a battlement. The Gothic bridge in Kłodzko belongs to the oldest buildings of this type in Poland and one of the few in Central and Eastern Europe. Currently, due to its historic character, it is intended only for pedestrian traffic. The regulated Młynówka riverbed has been built in, which is why the bridge is now partially embedded in the pedestrian zone. Broniewski T., Kłodzko, Warszawa 1970. Pilch J., Leksykon zabytków architektury Dolnego Śląska, Warszawa 2005.	<urn:uuid:151c2e7b-ccc1-4a83-9a83-492f8b49bd62>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://medievalheritage.eu/en/main-page/heritage/poland/klodzko-st-johns-bridge/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00072.warc.gz	en	0.983883	602	3.484375	3	[ -0.18957047164440155, 0.10294446349143982, 0.30474311113357544, 0.4110719561576843, -0.4040548503398895, -0.19121645390987396, -0.25422167778015137, 0.2916833162307739, -0.17376261949539185, -0.07346729189157486, -0.11750786751508713, -0.2793246805667877, -0.22235050797462463, 0.0484171509...	11	The beginning of the construction of the stone Gothic bridge in Kłodzko dates back to the second half of the 13th century or the beginning of the 14th century. The exact date of completion is unknown, but it is assumed that this did not take place until around 1390. Already at the end of the 13th century, a bridge gatehouse called Upper was built at its end. It was rebuilt many times to become a residential building from a three-storey defensive structure with a hip roof at the final stage. The other end of the bridge was closed by the Lower Gate, which was built before 1469. The Kłodzko Bridge was also called the “Bridge on Eggs”, which was associated with the need for local peasants to provide eggs from which the protein was mixed with calcium for mortar. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it was rebuilt and renovated, among others, a balustrade and a brick superstructures of the pillars were added. Also in the 18th century figures appeared on the bridge founded by generous and wealthy townspeople. At the beginning of the 20th century, both bridge gates were demolished. The Gothic bridge erected on Młynówka received a four-span structure, built of sandstone ashlar. In addition to the two bridgeheads, it rested on three massive pillars that formed four arcades. The two outermost of them are narrower and clearly pointed. The bridge is 52.2 meters long and about 4 meters wide. The pillars of the bridge received a two-level form, were strongly embedded and ended slightly below the parapet with a kind of half-octagonal squared projections. Above the pedestal, the central western pillar received six, lean out ribs, on which a flat platform rested, prepared for the construction of the chapel, which eventually was not built. Anti-ice starlings were placed in the lower parts of the pillars. Originally at the ends of the bridge there were fortified gatehouses: Upper and Lower. The tower of the Upper Gate was built on a quadrangle plan, had three floors with a gate passage on the ground floor and was covered with a hip roof. The Upper Gate had a more modest form, which was a kind of low gatehouse, probably topped with a battlement. The Gothic bridge in Kłodzko belongs to the oldest buildings of this type in Poland and one of the few in Central and Eastern Europe. Currently, due to its historic character, it is intended only for pedestrian traffic. The regulated Młynówka riverbed has been built in, which is why the bridge is now partially embedded in the pedestrian zone. Broniewski T., Kłodzko, Warszawa 1970. Pilch J., Leksykon zabytków architektury Dolnego Śląska, Warszawa 2005.	608	ENGLISH	1
Colors are an essential part of the world around us. They can convey messages, expressing that which words do not. Gentle blue tones can calm a person and bright yellows can lift the spirits. If an artist is trying to express sorrow or death he often uses blacks blues, and grays basically he uses dreary colors. Without one word, a driver approaching a red traffic light knows to stop. Colors are representative of many things. In his novel The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald uses color symbolism throughout as a major device in thematic and character development. He uses colors to symbolize the many different intangible ideas in the book. Throughout the book characters, places, and objects are given "life" by colors, especially the more prominent ones.F. Scott Fitzgerald utilizes the color yellow to symbolize moral deterioration and depravity. F. Scott Fitzgerald writes, “The lamp-light, bright on his boots and dull on the autumn-leaf yellow of her hair (18).” F. Scott Fitzgerald is referring to Tom and Daisy Buchannan and he is signifying that Tom is slowly progressing towards moral decay. In the novel, there are several incidents that prove Tom is in fact, progressing towards moral decay. First, Tom is having an affair with Myrtle Wilson. Second, Tom does not like Jay Gatsby, and several times he attempts to prove that Gatsby is not who he claims he is. Tom even goes as far as to hire a detective in his attempts to prove that Gatsby is not who he claims he is. In the novel, Jay Gatsby had a Rolls Royce automobile that was yellow in color. "His station wagon scampered like a yellow brisk-bug (. . .) (39).” Gatsby’s car was referred to many times in the novel, but it was always referred to as ;The yellow car (157).; F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the color yellow in his novel to also signify corruption. Jay Gatsby, though he had honorable intentions, allowed his desire for wealth to cause him to become a part of the world of organized crime. Gatsby’s world was filled with the yellow of corruption. He drove a yellow Rolls-Royce, the car that caused the death of Myrtle Wilson. At his lavish parties on West Egg Island, yellow cocktail music played as hordes of guests, including two girls in twin yellow dresses took part in illegal drinking and promiscuity. Jay Gatsby had mob ties in the city of Chicago, and when Nick returned to the Midwest, the sight of the murky yellow cars of Chicago rooted itself in his memory. Gatsby was a man who knew what he wanted and did not care to do whatever it took to acquire it. He would resort to terrible activities such as bootlegging and lies. He did anything to get the wealth that he thought would win over Daisy Buchanan. Fittingly, the last time Gatsby was seen alive, he "disappeared among the yellowing trees (167)."Gatsby was not the only one surrounded by the corruption of the color yellow. Yellow seemed to surround George Wilson’s home in the Valley of Ashes. His house is made of yellow brick and is the only place that is strictly referred to as yellow in the novel. The house contains infected individuals; both Myrtle and George. Moral decay is apparent in Mr. Wilson when he eventually plots and decides to kill Jay. While regaining his composure from losing his Myrtle in an accident caused by Gatsby’s car, Mr. Wilson continually refers to the Gatsby’s car as ;the yellow car (157)” Mr. Wilson does this repeatedly until the image of Gatsby’s yellow car convinces him to kill Gatsby. Mrs. Wilson exhibits moral decay a well. She cheats on her husband, and even admits to regretting their marriage to begin with. She says, "The only crazy I was when I married him (30).” The billboard of Doctor T.J. Eckleburg sitting in the Valley of Ashes is related to the Mr. Wilson’s corruption. Mr. Wilson views the billboard as a god-like figure. Not surprisingly, Doctor T.J. Eckleburg is wearing yellow glasses, representing the moral wasteland and corruption of the American society as well as of the lives of the characters and novels that he views. The connection between the eyes of Doctor T.J. Eckleburg and a god-like figure exists only in Mr. Wilson’s corrupted mind. It is completely apparent that corruption and moral decay are distinctly represented by the color yellow.Green is definitely one of the key color symbols throughout this book. It is said that the color green symbolizes hope. In the story, Daisy and Gatsby met for a short time before Gatsby made the decision to go off to war. Gatsby returned home and he knew that Daisy had married Tom, but he hoped to find a way to get back with her, and so he decided to purchase a house near Daisy to keep an eye on her. Gatsby moved to the East and purchased a house across the lake from where Daisy currently lived. Fitzgerald made it seem as though Gatsby would often stair off at night into the distance at the green light on the pier near Daisy’s house. The green light on the pier most likely represented the hope that Gatsby had to winning daisy back. The color green is shows Gatsby’s hope, His hope to win daisy back. One could aslo say that It represents his hope of chasing wealth. The green light on the pier was motivation for Gatsby to work towards those two hopes, to keep on trying to win Daisy again and to chase “the American dream”. Gatsby came very close to his dream of being with Daisy. He did everything that he could to accomplish that. Throughout Gatsby’s life he worked hard to save money to impress Daisy. He did this by throwing amazing parties, full of people he did not know, all in hopes that by chance Daisy would decide to join and come to one. Gatsby felt like he knew what he was doing, and to him, the green light on the pier was encouragement for him to keep pursuing Daisy. Gatsby also had hoped to obtain wealth, proving that the color green represented hope for Gatsby. All his life Gatsby did everything he could to earn money, Showing his hopes and ambitions.Green, while representing hope, can also represent rebirth. Green trees that have been that have looked as though they carry no life through winter; always refurbish themselves with green blossoms that show rebirth. When Gatsby stared off into the distance at the green light on Daisy’s pier across the lake, he was hopping for the renewing or rebirth of their old relationship. He constantly denies himself from believing that the fire between him and Daisy has died, he never loses hope. Gatsby assumed that Daisy was still the same, he thought that she was still perfect as he saw her before, and that caused him to still believe and have hope that the two of them could be together. In the book Nick once told Gatsby that he could not “repeat the past”. Gatsby responded by saying. “Can’t repeat the past?’ he cried incredulously, ‘Why of course you can!” (64) The green light on the pier gave Gatsby the hope that he could do anything. Gatsby is one of the main characters that is most associated with the color green throughout the story, mostly because he is the character who is hoping for the most. In one scene in the book Nick walks outside at night and sees Gatsby standing alone in the dark, and says “He stretched out his arms towards the dark water in a curious way, and, far as I was from him I could have sworn he was trembling involuntarily I glanced seaward – and distinguishing nothing except a single green light, minute and faraway, that might have been the end of a dock.” (22)Clearly the color green represents hope, in the book Nick hints once proves that it does when he talks about what the “old Dutch sailors” coming to America thought when saw America. Nick described America by saying, ;the fresh, green breast of the New World; (182) Showing that the new world or America showed so much hope for them, by mentioning the word green. Fitzgerald obviously described this thought of Nick’s in the novel so that he could further prove the significance of the symbol of hope in the color green, and also the color’s significance to Gatsby. Nick then says, ;Gatsby believed in the green light, the orgastic future that year by year recedes before us; (182) meaning that Gatsby hoped to gain his old relationship with Daisy back, even though Gatsby did not understand this because he had such strong hope that he could gain his old relationship with Daisy back.F. Scott Fitzgerald also utilizes many other colors such as silver and gold to convey different themes and emotions occurring throughout the novel. In his novel, F. Scott Fitzgerald depicts how society uses colors to express feelings. As a society, we use black at funerals, white at weddings, and red for love. In the same way that we as a society utilize those colors to represent themes and emotions, F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the colors silver and gold in his novel to represent wealth. On East Egg Island at Tom and Daisy Buchanans’ house, the house had on it, "French windows, glowing with reflecting gold (39)." It is apparent that the owners of that house- Tom and Daisy Buchanan were substantially wealthy and extremely fond of their money as to project their wealth on the exterior of their home. Jay Gatsby, being very fond of Daisy Buchanan and aspiring to win her over was conscious of how important wealth and riches were to her. Being aware of this fact, Gatsby attempted to illustrate to her that he was a prosperous man. He attempted to exhibit his wealth to Daisy Buchanan by buying an enormous house, sitting on the wealthy West Egg Island, complete with a gold toilet seat. Also, when he traveled to East Egg Island to see her for the first time at Nick Carraway’s home, he had on a silver shirt and a gold colored tie. Gatsby constantly threw lavish parties every weekend in the hopes that Daisy would take notice of the wealth and high class affairs of Gatsby. Aside from the importance of wealth Gatsby felt towards Daisy, he also felt that wealth was important for himself as well. He ;was overwhelmingly aware of the youth and mystery that wealth imprisons and preserves… gleaming like silver, safe and proud above the hot struggles of the poor (51).; Many of the characters in this novel are obsessed with money to the point where it defines much of who they are as a person. At one point in time in the novel, Nick walks into a room and sees that ;Daisy and Jordan lay upon an enormous couch, like silver idols (22).; Throughout the novel, F. Scott Fitzgerald intricately incorporates color into every scene, not only giving a clear visual picture of the events, but also symbolically emphasizing his themes and characterization through the utilization of color. Through his incorporation of the colors silver and gold, one can conclude that wealth is a core value to many of the characters within the novel.One of this other colors that was used as a symbol throughout this book was white. In contrast to yellow, white is used as a symbol of purity and innocence. The character Jordan Baker describes Daisy by saying, ;She dressed in white and drove a little white roadster . . .; (75) Fitzgerald is trying to convey through Jordan Baker that when Daisy was younger she was a symbol of innocence. He also showed this same exact idea when he said that “she had a white girlhood” (20). In the book F. Scott Fitzgerald often uses the word white when describing Daisy on many separate ocassions, saying things like, ;the sidewalk was white with moonlight… Gatsby’s heart beat faster and faster as Daisy’s white face came up to his own.; Or “she and Jordan spend their “beautiful white childhood together” in Louisville” this meaning that they grew up her whole entire childhood in innocence, and her whole life she is enclosed by the beauty of white. In the book, the white, or Daisy’s innocence is ruined by red, or anger, also known as Tom Buchannan. Tom Buchannan, often described as the "hulking" man, is constantly throughout the story, cruel, and violent towards Daisy and many other characters. In the book F. Scott Fitzgerald described Tom and Daisy’s house as a ;red and white Georgian Colonial mansion.; The inside of the house was white, except for the red carpet that was in the living room. The book also states that the place he has his affairs at with Myrtle is white too, and the towels in their bathroom were white too until Tom broke Myrtle’s nose and Myrtle had to clean up her red blood with those towels. White is also used as a symbol of innocence in Daisy’s daughter. Her daughter is described in the book by saying that she has very white skin and when introduced she was wearing a white dress. She is too young to understand the problems in her parents relationship, and Daisy that is why Daisy said she hopes she becomes a ;beautiful little fool; not knowing anything, or meaning innocent.The color white can also symbolize perfection. Daisy is always wearing white, which could be why she was always seen as perfection through Gatsby’s point of view. Myrtle thinks that the perfect life, or white life, is living like Daisy, or being wealthy. Myrtle is married to Wilson who is not too well off and she feels as though she belongs with the upper class. For some reason she believes she deserves a life of perfection that only wealth could bring her. She experiences some of this through her affair with Tom, but she can truly never experience this white perfection. This feeling is also evident through the clothes she wears. When Mrytle is first mentioned in the book, she is in the garage wearing a blue dress. After Tom comes to later pick her up, and she gets on the train, she is wearing a very light tan outfit, showing how she is getting closer to white. Later, at the small get together at Tom and Myrtle’s place, she comes closest to the color white with a, as Fitzgerald describes it, ;a creme-colored chiffon;. This was placed in there to show that she is close to the good life or white life with Tom, but will never be completely white because she can never be in that world. The only white she experiences is the wealth that Tom has. Both of them had their affairs in a ;white cake of apartment houses;, and of course the apartment house was bought with Tom’s money. Also in the book, when they first met, Tom was wearing a white shirt. Mrytle assumed that by being with Tom she would be able to easily experience and even live in this white society Tom thrived in.There are many interpretations of the color white, as mentioned earlier, such as perfection and innocence, but another is honesty. In the book, one could easily assume that Nick is the most honest person, and is often in the book wearing white, for example when he went to Gatsby’s party for the first time. This was the first time Nick was invited to one of his parties and Nick wanted to make the best impression he could for Gatsby the strangers attending. Gatsby is also dressed in white when he unites with Daisy. ;and Gatsby, in a white flannel suit, silver shirt, and gold-colored tie, hurried in; (84). Meeting Daisy for the first time in so long was important to Gatsby, and Fitzgerald wanted to make Gatsby wear this outfit to appear perfect, innocent, and honest to impress. Jordan Baker also correctly shows white’s symbolic implication. Fitzgerald first shows Jordan for the first time in a white dress sitting on a couch. Nick was so enthralled by her appearance he said, "I was almost surprised into murmuring an apology for having disturbed her by coming in" (8). Fitzgerald attempts to describe her in a perfect fashion in this scene which is the reason for Nick’s comment. Throughout the story Fitzgerald portrays Nick as a person that often judges other people, and by showing his instant praise towards Jordan he certainly proves that she could be an honest and innocent person, which is why Fitzgerald has her wearing white in this scene, even though the reader can later find out that that is not exactly the truth.	<urn:uuid:5bc75f28-b51f-4107-add8-b66ecf7b5cec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://happywheelsonlinegame.net/colors-are-an-essential-part-of-the-world-around-us-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00155.warc.gz	en	0.984945	3,524	3.375	3	[ -0.12493868917226791, -0.04121821001172066, -0.31197094917297363, 0.1378282606601715, 0.02574194222688675, 0.23633873462677002, 0.6472408175468445, 0.14356829226016998, 0.24230733513832092, -0.16379106044769287, -0.08782952278852463, 0.2953723073005676, 0.16356001794338226, 0.4332753717899...	3	Colors are an essential part of the world around us. They can convey messages, expressing that which words do not. Gentle blue tones can calm a person and bright yellows can lift the spirits. If an artist is trying to express sorrow or death he often uses blacks blues, and grays basically he uses dreary colors. Without one word, a driver approaching a red traffic light knows to stop. Colors are representative of many things. In his novel The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald uses color symbolism throughout as a major device in thematic and character development. He uses colors to symbolize the many different intangible ideas in the book. Throughout the book characters, places, and objects are given "life" by colors, especially the more prominent ones.F. Scott Fitzgerald utilizes the color yellow to symbolize moral deterioration and depravity. F. Scott Fitzgerald writes, “The lamp-light, bright on his boots and dull on the autumn-leaf yellow of her hair (18).” F. Scott Fitzgerald is referring to Tom and Daisy Buchannan and he is signifying that Tom is slowly progressing towards moral decay. In the novel, there are several incidents that prove Tom is in fact, progressing towards moral decay. First, Tom is having an affair with Myrtle Wilson. Second, Tom does not like Jay Gatsby, and several times he attempts to prove that Gatsby is not who he claims he is. Tom even goes as far as to hire a detective in his attempts to prove that Gatsby is not who he claims he is. In the novel, Jay Gatsby had a Rolls Royce automobile that was yellow in color. "His station wagon scampered like a yellow brisk-bug (. . .) (39).” Gatsby’s car was referred to many times in the novel, but it was always referred to as ;The yellow car (157).; F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the color yellow in his novel to also signify corruption. Jay Gatsby, though he had honorable intentions, allowed his desire for wealth to cause him to become a part of the world of organized crime. Gatsby’s world was filled with the yellow of corruption. He drove a yellow Rolls-Royce, the car that caused the death of Myrtle Wilson. At his lavish parties on West Egg Island, yellow cocktail music played as hordes of guests, including two girls in twin yellow dresses took part in illegal drinking and promiscuity. Jay Gatsby had mob ties in the city of Chicago, and when Nick returned to the Midwest, the sight of the murky yellow cars of Chicago rooted itself in his memory. Gatsby was a man who knew what he wanted and did not care to do whatever it took to acquire it. He would resort to terrible activities such as bootlegging and lies. He did anything to get the wealth that he thought would win over Daisy Buchanan. Fittingly, the last time Gatsby was seen alive, he "disappeared among the yellowing trees (167)."Gatsby was not the only one surrounded by the corruption of the color yellow. Yellow seemed to surround George Wilson’s home in the Valley of Ashes. His house is made of yellow brick and is the only place that is strictly referred to as yellow in the novel. The house contains infected individuals; both Myrtle and George. Moral decay is apparent in Mr. Wilson when he eventually plots and decides to kill Jay. While regaining his composure from losing his Myrtle in an accident caused by Gatsby’s car, Mr. Wilson continually refers to the Gatsby’s car as ;the yellow car (157)” Mr. Wilson does this repeatedly until the image of Gatsby’s yellow car convinces him to kill Gatsby. Mrs. Wilson exhibits moral decay a well. She cheats on her husband, and even admits to regretting their marriage to begin with. She says, "The only crazy I was when I married him (30).” The billboard of Doctor T.J. Eckleburg sitting in the Valley of Ashes is related to the Mr. Wilson’s corruption. Mr. Wilson views the billboard as a god-like figure. Not surprisingly, Doctor T.J. Eckleburg is wearing yellow glasses, representing the moral wasteland and corruption of the American society as well as of the lives of the characters and novels that he views. The connection between the eyes of Doctor T.J. Eckleburg and a god-like figure exists only in Mr. Wilson’s corrupted mind. It is completely apparent that corruption and moral decay are distinctly represented by the color yellow.Green is definitely one of the key color symbols throughout this book. It is said that the color green symbolizes hope. In the story, Daisy and Gatsby met for a short time before Gatsby made the decision to go off to war. Gatsby returned home and he knew that Daisy had married Tom, but he hoped to find a way to get back with her, and so he decided to purchase a house near Daisy to keep an eye on her. Gatsby moved to the East and purchased a house across the lake from where Daisy currently lived. Fitzgerald made it seem as though Gatsby would often stair off at night into the distance at the green light on the pier near Daisy’s house. The green light on the pier most likely represented the hope that Gatsby had to winning daisy back. The color green is shows Gatsby’s hope, His hope to win daisy back. One could aslo say that It represents his hope of chasing wealth. The green light on the pier was motivation for Gatsby to work towards those two hopes, to keep on trying to win Daisy again and to chase “the American dream”. Gatsby came very close to his dream of being with Daisy. He did everything that he could to accomplish that. Throughout Gatsby’s life he worked hard to save money to impress Daisy. He did this by throwing amazing parties, full of people he did not know, all in hopes that by chance Daisy would decide to join and come to one. Gatsby felt like he knew what he was doing, and to him, the green light on the pier was encouragement for him to keep pursuing Daisy. Gatsby also had hoped to obtain wealth, proving that the color green represented hope for Gatsby. All his life Gatsby did everything he could to earn money, Showing his hopes and ambitions.Green, while representing hope, can also represent rebirth. Green trees that have been that have looked as though they carry no life through winter; always refurbish themselves with green blossoms that show rebirth. When Gatsby stared off into the distance at the green light on Daisy’s pier across the lake, he was hopping for the renewing or rebirth of their old relationship. He constantly denies himself from believing that the fire between him and Daisy has died, he never loses hope. Gatsby assumed that Daisy was still the same, he thought that she was still perfect as he saw her before, and that caused him to still believe and have hope that the two of them could be together. In the book Nick once told Gatsby that he could not “repeat the past”. Gatsby responded by saying. “Can’t repeat the past?’ he cried incredulously, ‘Why of course you can!” (64) The green light on the pier gave Gatsby the hope that he could do anything. Gatsby is one of the main characters that is most associated with the color green throughout the story, mostly because he is the character who is hoping for the most. In one scene in the book Nick walks outside at night and sees Gatsby standing alone in the dark, and says “He stretched out his arms towards the dark water in a curious way, and, far as I was from him I could have sworn he was trembling involuntarily I glanced seaward – and distinguishing nothing except a single green light, minute and faraway, that might have been the end of a dock.” (22)Clearly the color green represents hope, in the book Nick hints once proves that it does when he talks about what the “old Dutch sailors” coming to America thought when saw America. Nick described America by saying, ;the fresh, green breast of the New World; (182) Showing that the new world or America showed so much hope for them, by mentioning the word green. Fitzgerald obviously described this thought of Nick’s in the novel so that he could further prove the significance of the symbol of hope in the color green, and also the color’s significance to Gatsby. Nick then says, ;Gatsby believed in the green light, the orgastic future that year by year recedes before us; (182) meaning that Gatsby hoped to gain his old relationship with Daisy back, even though Gatsby did not understand this because he had such strong hope that he could gain his old relationship with Daisy back.F. Scott Fitzgerald also utilizes many other colors such as silver and gold to convey different themes and emotions occurring throughout the novel. In his novel, F. Scott Fitzgerald depicts how society uses colors to express feelings. As a society, we use black at funerals, white at weddings, and red for love. In the same way that we as a society utilize those colors to represent themes and emotions, F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the colors silver and gold in his novel to represent wealth. On East Egg Island at Tom and Daisy Buchanans’ house, the house had on it, "French windows, glowing with reflecting gold (39)." It is apparent that the owners of that house- Tom and Daisy Buchanan were substantially wealthy and extremely fond of their money as to project their wealth on the exterior of their home. Jay Gatsby, being very fond of Daisy Buchanan and aspiring to win her over was conscious of how important wealth and riches were to her. Being aware of this fact, Gatsby attempted to illustrate to her that he was a prosperous man. He attempted to exhibit his wealth to Daisy Buchanan by buying an enormous house, sitting on the wealthy West Egg Island, complete with a gold toilet seat. Also, when he traveled to East Egg Island to see her for the first time at Nick Carraway’s home, he had on a silver shirt and a gold colored tie. Gatsby constantly threw lavish parties every weekend in the hopes that Daisy would take notice of the wealth and high class affairs of Gatsby. Aside from the importance of wealth Gatsby felt towards Daisy, he also felt that wealth was important for himself as well. He ;was overwhelmingly aware of the youth and mystery that wealth imprisons and preserves… gleaming like silver, safe and proud above the hot struggles of the poor (51).; Many of the characters in this novel are obsessed with money to the point where it defines much of who they are as a person. At one point in time in the novel, Nick walks into a room and sees that ;Daisy and Jordan lay upon an enormous couch, like silver idols (22).; Throughout the novel, F. Scott Fitzgerald intricately incorporates color into every scene, not only giving a clear visual picture of the events, but also symbolically emphasizing his themes and characterization through the utilization of color. Through his incorporation of the colors silver and gold, one can conclude that wealth is a core value to many of the characters within the novel.One of this other colors that was used as a symbol throughout this book was white. In contrast to yellow, white is used as a symbol of purity and innocence. The character Jordan Baker describes Daisy by saying, ;She dressed in white and drove a little white roadster . . .; (75) Fitzgerald is trying to convey through Jordan Baker that when Daisy was younger she was a symbol of innocence. He also showed this same exact idea when he said that “she had a white girlhood” (20). In the book F. Scott Fitzgerald often uses the word white when describing Daisy on many separate ocassions, saying things like, ;the sidewalk was white with moonlight… Gatsby’s heart beat faster and faster as Daisy’s white face came up to his own.; Or “she and Jordan spend their “beautiful white childhood together” in Louisville” this meaning that they grew up her whole entire childhood in innocence, and her whole life she is enclosed by the beauty of white. In the book, the white, or Daisy’s innocence is ruined by red, or anger, also known as Tom Buchannan. Tom Buchannan, often described as the "hulking" man, is constantly throughout the story, cruel, and violent towards Daisy and many other characters. In the book F. Scott Fitzgerald described Tom and Daisy’s house as a ;red and white Georgian Colonial mansion.; The inside of the house was white, except for the red carpet that was in the living room. The book also states that the place he has his affairs at with Myrtle is white too, and the towels in their bathroom were white too until Tom broke Myrtle’s nose and Myrtle had to clean up her red blood with those towels. White is also used as a symbol of innocence in Daisy’s daughter. Her daughter is described in the book by saying that she has very white skin and when introduced she was wearing a white dress. She is too young to understand the problems in her parents relationship, and Daisy that is why Daisy said she hopes she becomes a ;beautiful little fool; not knowing anything, or meaning innocent.The color white can also symbolize perfection. Daisy is always wearing white, which could be why she was always seen as perfection through Gatsby’s point of view. Myrtle thinks that the perfect life, or white life, is living like Daisy, or being wealthy. Myrtle is married to Wilson who is not too well off and she feels as though she belongs with the upper class. For some reason she believes she deserves a life of perfection that only wealth could bring her. She experiences some of this through her affair with Tom, but she can truly never experience this white perfection. This feeling is also evident through the clothes she wears. When Mrytle is first mentioned in the book, she is in the garage wearing a blue dress. After Tom comes to later pick her up, and she gets on the train, she is wearing a very light tan outfit, showing how she is getting closer to white. Later, at the small get together at Tom and Myrtle’s place, she comes closest to the color white with a, as Fitzgerald describes it, ;a creme-colored chiffon;. This was placed in there to show that she is close to the good life or white life with Tom, but will never be completely white because she can never be in that world. The only white she experiences is the wealth that Tom has. Both of them had their affairs in a ;white cake of apartment houses;, and of course the apartment house was bought with Tom’s money. Also in the book, when they first met, Tom was wearing a white shirt. Mrytle assumed that by being with Tom she would be able to easily experience and even live in this white society Tom thrived in.There are many interpretations of the color white, as mentioned earlier, such as perfection and innocence, but another is honesty. In the book, one could easily assume that Nick is the most honest person, and is often in the book wearing white, for example when he went to Gatsby’s party for the first time. This was the first time Nick was invited to one of his parties and Nick wanted to make the best impression he could for Gatsby the strangers attending. Gatsby is also dressed in white when he unites with Daisy. ;and Gatsby, in a white flannel suit, silver shirt, and gold-colored tie, hurried in; (84). Meeting Daisy for the first time in so long was important to Gatsby, and Fitzgerald wanted to make Gatsby wear this outfit to appear perfect, innocent, and honest to impress. Jordan Baker also correctly shows white’s symbolic implication. Fitzgerald first shows Jordan for the first time in a white dress sitting on a couch. Nick was so enthralled by her appearance he said, "I was almost surprised into murmuring an apology for having disturbed her by coming in" (8). Fitzgerald attempts to describe her in a perfect fashion in this scene which is the reason for Nick’s comment. Throughout the story Fitzgerald portrays Nick as a person that often judges other people, and by showing his instant praise towards Jordan he certainly proves that she could be an honest and innocent person, which is why Fitzgerald has her wearing white in this scene, even though the reader can later find out that that is not exactly the truth.	3,387	ENGLISH	1
Russian painter and art theorist Wassily Kandinsky is credited as having painted one of the first recognised purely abstract pieces of art. He turned to abstract work after an extended period of development and intense thought based on his artistic experiences. He was totally devoted to an idea of inner beauty as a central focus of his art. Kandinsky was born in Moscow and grew up in Odessa, where he studied at Grekov Odessa Art school. It was common for Kandinsky to use musical terms to describe his work. When he painted spontaneously he named them improvisations; the more elaborate and thought-through works he called compositions. Kandinsky was known not only as a painter but as a spiritual theorist. Many of his paintings were in fact painted with the purpose of evoking a spiritual resonance in viewer and artist. He wrote books explaining the relationship between spirituality and art and even prophesied future events, mainly focused around an apocalypse. Later in life he played a part in establishing the Museum of the Culture of Painting. In 1920 Kandinsky moved to Germany and taught at the Bauhaus school of art and architecture until the Nazis closed the establishment in 1933. At this point Kandinsky moved to France. He lived there for the rest of his life, became a French citizen and produced some of his most famous work. Kandinsky is known as an art theorist as well as a painter.	<urn:uuid:6c94e0db-c55a-40df-b58a-59e7149f7ea7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.printed-editions.com/artist/wassily-kandinsky/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00185.warc.gz	en	0.993627	277	3.453125	3	[ 0.056159503757953644, 0.004124035127460957, 0.2649954855442047, 0.1970912218093872, -0.10367447137832642, -0.15920472145080566, 0.4357775151729584, 0.3382657468318939, 0.2282126247882843, -0.0736677348613739, -0.11574064195156097, 0.09550825506448746, -0.25868555903434753, 0.54731774330139...	5	Russian painter and art theorist Wassily Kandinsky is credited as having painted one of the first recognised purely abstract pieces of art. He turned to abstract work after an extended period of development and intense thought based on his artistic experiences. He was totally devoted to an idea of inner beauty as a central focus of his art. Kandinsky was born in Moscow and grew up in Odessa, where he studied at Grekov Odessa Art school. It was common for Kandinsky to use musical terms to describe his work. When he painted spontaneously he named them improvisations; the more elaborate and thought-through works he called compositions. Kandinsky was known not only as a painter but as a spiritual theorist. Many of his paintings were in fact painted with the purpose of evoking a spiritual resonance in viewer and artist. He wrote books explaining the relationship between spirituality and art and even prophesied future events, mainly focused around an apocalypse. Later in life he played a part in establishing the Museum of the Culture of Painting. In 1920 Kandinsky moved to Germany and taught at the Bauhaus school of art and architecture until the Nazis closed the establishment in 1933. At this point Kandinsky moved to France. He lived there for the rest of his life, became a French citizen and produced some of his most famous work. Kandinsky is known as an art theorist as well as a painter.	292	ENGLISH	1
Sound can be portrayed in many ways, some of them being artistic and some of them only functional. A functional example is the weather radio and if you want to know what the best ones are, you can read these recommendations, but the artistic ones can be more interesting and soothing for the soul. One of the most beautiful forms of portraying sound is through a musical instrument. All instruments are fascinating, but one of the most mesmerizing and complicated ones is the piano. Even if it seems that the piano has been present in music forever, its history might surprise you. In this article, we are going to talk about who invented the piano and how it got to become one of the most used instruments all over the world. How it influenced the development of compositions and their complexity is a journey that we are going to take together in the following lines. A clear picture of the design of a piano The piano is an instrument that functions on strings. Inside of it, there are 230 strings, each of them being hit by a hammer to produce some wonderful sounds. Some models may have a different number of strings but they usually have 230. A piano has 88 keys and for every key, there are usually 3 or fewer strings that are hit by the hammers. High and medium pitch notes use three strings. The intent is to increase the volume and quality of the sounds. Every one of the three strings is hit in a different manner, even though they represent the same key. Where did it all begin? There have been some discussions on what the ancestor of the piano is. Some people believe that its ancestor is the clavichord, but, if we look even further and take into consideration the fact that the instrument can be classified into three categories – strings, wind, and percussion instruments – we can say that the piano’s ancestor is the monochord. A monochord can be any instrument that has only one chord, but here we are talking about the first string instrument, an ancient instrument that is considered to be the ancestor of all string instruments. Yes, the piano is a string instrument as well as a keyboard instrument. The organ was developed later and it used a system of blowing air through pipes for making sounds. Inspired by the organ, the clavichord was invented. It was the first instrument similar to the piano. It was invented in the 14th century and became very popular back then. It functioned by having bras rods that were used to hit the strings. How the piano changed the history of music The sounds the clavichord used to make were very beautiful, but the problem was that they weren’t loud enough. It was ok for a quartet for example in a small room, but if someone would have wanted to play the instrument in an orchestra or in a very large room, it wouldn’t have been a success because the sounds it made weren’t loud enough. That is why, in the 1700 century, Bartolomeo Cristofori, who was an Italian musical instrument maker, invented the piano. This has been a breakthrough in the history of music because it changed everything when it comes to keyboard instruments. The piano was the first keyboard instrument that wasn’t restricted by volume. A musician playing it was able to play loudly as well as at a lower volume, softly. The piano’s original name, in Italian, was ‘pianoforte’. ‘Piano’ means soft and ‘forte’ means loud. Italians still call it pianoforte. The design of the piano, with the hammers hitting the cords, permits the musician to control the intensity at which the sound is generated. The intensity depends on how hard you strike the keys. This permits musicians to play various sounds at different intensities and allows them to play among orchestras and to finally be heard. But it also permits the use of the piano in small rooms and in quartets without the piano covering all the other sounds, because it can also be played softly. Another important feature that was different from the clavichord was that musicians could sustain the note for a longer period of time until they let the key go. When did the piano become a star? Even if the piano was invented in the 17th century, it wasn’t until the 19th century that it gained its popularity. The 19th century was the time period in which the first piano players and composers became popular worldwide. Musicians like Frederic Chopin and Frantz Liszt were considered geniuses and child prodigies. To make the piano have an even richer sound, craftsmen added a lot of other different features that made it sound even more beautiful. They added extra octaves, felt hammers, steel wire strings, an iron frame, and increased tension. The most important feature they added was the pedals. The piano still has three pedals and each of them has different purposes. The one on the left is called a damper and it helps with the softening of the sound. The one on the right is called the sustain pedal at it enables you to sustain a note while letting the key go. The pedal in the middle is not used that often anymore and can have a different purpose on different pianos, but the most known is the one called sostenuto, which helps the musician sustain certain notes. How the 20th century changed the way we think about sound The 20th century arrived with a lot of new ideas regarding keyboard instruments. Many musicians nowadays play an electronic keyboard. In the 1960s, portable synthesizers were produced for the public and became very popular. These new electronic devices could produce a lot of interesting sounds that couldn’t have been played before. With the rising of computers, researchers were trying to find a way for musical instruments and computers to communicate. So in the 80s, they introduced the musical producers with the MIDI, an acronym for Musical Instruments Digital Interface, and, over time, managed to make the keyboard instruments to be able to produce almost any sound that any instrument could make, including the piano. If all the musicians who are now considered to have been geniuses had been able to access these technologies and all the sounds that exist now, maybe the music history would have been different. However, even if all these new technologies exist, many musicians still like to go back to the classical piano because they think it is more expressive. The piano had a great impact on modern music because composers can play with a lot of harmonics. That is how they are able to create beautiful songs that inspire people. Over time, it has inspired jazz, blues, and classical music composers and it has revolutionized how people think about music. Before music had been available in every home, people used to own pianos and play every day for their families. The piano was a means of entertaining the family and make homes happier. There were a lot of amateur pianists back then and playing music was the only way in which they were able to have music inside their homes. Studying the piano was mostly encountered among women, even though they were not encouraged to follow a career in music. People were not fond of female piano players and, even though there were a lot more women learning how to play the piano than men, people used to go to concerts that involved male pianists. However, the women were considered more attractive if they knew how to play the piano and owning and knowing how to play the piano was considered a matter of social status. Emma Wedgwood, for example, the wife of Charles Darwin, was a pupil of Chopin and never gave up playing the piano. She used to do it every day for her husband but she never became famous for it. The piano is a magnificent instrument and because it is present in almost every song we hear we kind of take it for granted and do not realize what an incredible invention it was. Even if it did not make a difference for the economy or it wasn’t a great medical breakthrough, it had an impact on music, which is the food for the soul, one of the most important things in life.	<urn:uuid:91ac0eb0-f200-4260-a4de-4c2434f348f7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sound-unsound.com/a-brief-history-of-one-of-the-most-beautiful-instruments-the-piano/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00408.warc.gz	en	0.983332	1,691	3.484375	3	[ 0.17900057137012482, -0.35484832525253296, 0.33159732818603516, -0.5830464363098145, -0.5475058555603027, 0.06671801954507828, 0.26295554637908936, -0.1160421073436737, 0.161027193069458, -0.1518247425556183, 0.1157592236995697, 0.1469796895980835, 0.022177863866090775, -0.0243274196982383...	11	Sound can be portrayed in many ways, some of them being artistic and some of them only functional. A functional example is the weather radio and if you want to know what the best ones are, you can read these recommendations, but the artistic ones can be more interesting and soothing for the soul. One of the most beautiful forms of portraying sound is through a musical instrument. All instruments are fascinating, but one of the most mesmerizing and complicated ones is the piano. Even if it seems that the piano has been present in music forever, its history might surprise you. In this article, we are going to talk about who invented the piano and how it got to become one of the most used instruments all over the world. How it influenced the development of compositions and their complexity is a journey that we are going to take together in the following lines. A clear picture of the design of a piano The piano is an instrument that functions on strings. Inside of it, there are 230 strings, each of them being hit by a hammer to produce some wonderful sounds. Some models may have a different number of strings but they usually have 230. A piano has 88 keys and for every key, there are usually 3 or fewer strings that are hit by the hammers. High and medium pitch notes use three strings. The intent is to increase the volume and quality of the sounds. Every one of the three strings is hit in a different manner, even though they represent the same key. Where did it all begin? There have been some discussions on what the ancestor of the piano is. Some people believe that its ancestor is the clavichord, but, if we look even further and take into consideration the fact that the instrument can be classified into three categories – strings, wind, and percussion instruments – we can say that the piano’s ancestor is the monochord. A monochord can be any instrument that has only one chord, but here we are talking about the first string instrument, an ancient instrument that is considered to be the ancestor of all string instruments. Yes, the piano is a string instrument as well as a keyboard instrument. The organ was developed later and it used a system of blowing air through pipes for making sounds. Inspired by the organ, the clavichord was invented. It was the first instrument similar to the piano. It was invented in the 14th century and became very popular back then. It functioned by having bras rods that were used to hit the strings. How the piano changed the history of music The sounds the clavichord used to make were very beautiful, but the problem was that they weren’t loud enough. It was ok for a quartet for example in a small room, but if someone would have wanted to play the instrument in an orchestra or in a very large room, it wouldn’t have been a success because the sounds it made weren’t loud enough. That is why, in the 1700 century, Bartolomeo Cristofori, who was an Italian musical instrument maker, invented the piano. This has been a breakthrough in the history of music because it changed everything when it comes to keyboard instruments. The piano was the first keyboard instrument that wasn’t restricted by volume. A musician playing it was able to play loudly as well as at a lower volume, softly. The piano’s original name, in Italian, was ‘pianoforte’. ‘Piano’ means soft and ‘forte’ means loud. Italians still call it pianoforte. The design of the piano, with the hammers hitting the cords, permits the musician to control the intensity at which the sound is generated. The intensity depends on how hard you strike the keys. This permits musicians to play various sounds at different intensities and allows them to play among orchestras and to finally be heard. But it also permits the use of the piano in small rooms and in quartets without the piano covering all the other sounds, because it can also be played softly. Another important feature that was different from the clavichord was that musicians could sustain the note for a longer period of time until they let the key go. When did the piano become a star? Even if the piano was invented in the 17th century, it wasn’t until the 19th century that it gained its popularity. The 19th century was the time period in which the first piano players and composers became popular worldwide. Musicians like Frederic Chopin and Frantz Liszt were considered geniuses and child prodigies. To make the piano have an even richer sound, craftsmen added a lot of other different features that made it sound even more beautiful. They added extra octaves, felt hammers, steel wire strings, an iron frame, and increased tension. The most important feature they added was the pedals. The piano still has three pedals and each of them has different purposes. The one on the left is called a damper and it helps with the softening of the sound. The one on the right is called the sustain pedal at it enables you to sustain a note while letting the key go. The pedal in the middle is not used that often anymore and can have a different purpose on different pianos, but the most known is the one called sostenuto, which helps the musician sustain certain notes. How the 20th century changed the way we think about sound The 20th century arrived with a lot of new ideas regarding keyboard instruments. Many musicians nowadays play an electronic keyboard. In the 1960s, portable synthesizers were produced for the public and became very popular. These new electronic devices could produce a lot of interesting sounds that couldn’t have been played before. With the rising of computers, researchers were trying to find a way for musical instruments and computers to communicate. So in the 80s, they introduced the musical producers with the MIDI, an acronym for Musical Instruments Digital Interface, and, over time, managed to make the keyboard instruments to be able to produce almost any sound that any instrument could make, including the piano. If all the musicians who are now considered to have been geniuses had been able to access these technologies and all the sounds that exist now, maybe the music history would have been different. However, even if all these new technologies exist, many musicians still like to go back to the classical piano because they think it is more expressive. The piano had a great impact on modern music because composers can play with a lot of harmonics. That is how they are able to create beautiful songs that inspire people. Over time, it has inspired jazz, blues, and classical music composers and it has revolutionized how people think about music. Before music had been available in every home, people used to own pianos and play every day for their families. The piano was a means of entertaining the family and make homes happier. There were a lot of amateur pianists back then and playing music was the only way in which they were able to have music inside their homes. Studying the piano was mostly encountered among women, even though they were not encouraged to follow a career in music. People were not fond of female piano players and, even though there were a lot more women learning how to play the piano than men, people used to go to concerts that involved male pianists. However, the women were considered more attractive if they knew how to play the piano and owning and knowing how to play the piano was considered a matter of social status. Emma Wedgwood, for example, the wife of Charles Darwin, was a pupil of Chopin and never gave up playing the piano. She used to do it every day for her husband but she never became famous for it. The piano is a magnificent instrument and because it is present in almost every song we hear we kind of take it for granted and do not realize what an incredible invention it was. Even if it did not make a difference for the economy or it wasn’t a great medical breakthrough, it had an impact on music, which is the food for the soul, one of the most important things in life.	1,662	ENGLISH	1
Close to what is now the Italian port city of Trieste, the emperor’s brother Ferdinand Maximilian fulfilled his childhood dream of having a palace by the sea. However, he had little time remaining in order to enjoy it. Even when he was a child, Archduchess Sophie’s second-born son, Ferdinand Maximilian, had a quite different nature to that of his brother Franz Joseph. While the Austrian emperor-to-be was passionate about all things military, Maximilian loved nature (especially of the exotic variety), and made frequent visits to the Schönbrunn Menagerie. While even as a child, Franz Joseph was thrifty and disciplined, his brother was characterized by a happy-go-lucky and cheerful disposition, and overstretched himself financially. Maximilian invested an exceptional amount in the purchase of books. The archduke took one of his mother’s mottos – ‘Miserliness is a crime among princes’ - quite literally. He also gave free rein to his lavish tendencies when he decided in 1855 to fulfil one of his childhood dreams: ‘a beautiful house and a large garden on the seashore’. Maximilian, at this time engaged as commander-in-chief of the imperial-and-royal navy, did not baulk at the immense construction costs involved in erection of the magnificent Miramare Palace on a rocky promontory beside the Adriatic close to Trieste. Constructing the palace on such rocky terrain was an architectural challenge. He had the terrace edged with granite from Tyrol and filled with soil in order to lay out a garden with exotic plants. Very idiosyncratically, Maximilian had a replica constructed of the admiral’s cabin in his frigate Novara for use as a study. In the same year in which Maximilian married the Belgian Princess Charlotte, Franz Joseph appointed him as governor-general of Lombardy-Venice. When Lombardy was lost in 1859, Maximilian and Charlotte initially retreated to Miramare Palace. In 1864, Maximilian travelled to Mexico and there, at the insistence of the French Emperor Napoleon II but against the will of the majority of the people, had himself crowned emperor of Mexico. He clearly expected to return to Trieste, for he designed a throne room and hurriedly had the plans shipped to Europe. However, he was never to see the completed work, finished in 1870. After only three unsuccessful years as emperor of Mexico, he was taken prisoner by rebel forces, court-martialled and subsequently executed on 19 June 1867, in the Mexican city of Querétaro. In the following years, Miramare served the imperial family as a summer residence. At the beginning of the First World War, its contents and furnishings were transferred to Vienna, but in the 1920s they were returned in full to the Italian state, and the original interior of the palace was restored.	<urn:uuid:e713b10f-d451-4997-8d8e-6e3bec0934b1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/miramare-beautiful-house-seashore	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00516.warc.gz	en	0.983534	618	3.34375	3	[ 0.0638909563422203, 0.4819035530090332, 0.3249143362045288, -0.33828604221343994, -0.16253644227981567, -0.25424158573150635, 0.029898155480623245, -0.0715155303478241, -0.06398531794548035, 0.026981210336089134, 0.43763619661331177, -0.4063106179237366, 0.2884376347064972, 0.6485415697097...	1	Close to what is now the Italian port city of Trieste, the emperor’s brother Ferdinand Maximilian fulfilled his childhood dream of having a palace by the sea. However, he had little time remaining in order to enjoy it. Even when he was a child, Archduchess Sophie’s second-born son, Ferdinand Maximilian, had a quite different nature to that of his brother Franz Joseph. While the Austrian emperor-to-be was passionate about all things military, Maximilian loved nature (especially of the exotic variety), and made frequent visits to the Schönbrunn Menagerie. While even as a child, Franz Joseph was thrifty and disciplined, his brother was characterized by a happy-go-lucky and cheerful disposition, and overstretched himself financially. Maximilian invested an exceptional amount in the purchase of books. The archduke took one of his mother’s mottos – ‘Miserliness is a crime among princes’ - quite literally. He also gave free rein to his lavish tendencies when he decided in 1855 to fulfil one of his childhood dreams: ‘a beautiful house and a large garden on the seashore’. Maximilian, at this time engaged as commander-in-chief of the imperial-and-royal navy, did not baulk at the immense construction costs involved in erection of the magnificent Miramare Palace on a rocky promontory beside the Adriatic close to Trieste. Constructing the palace on such rocky terrain was an architectural challenge. He had the terrace edged with granite from Tyrol and filled with soil in order to lay out a garden with exotic plants. Very idiosyncratically, Maximilian had a replica constructed of the admiral’s cabin in his frigate Novara for use as a study. In the same year in which Maximilian married the Belgian Princess Charlotte, Franz Joseph appointed him as governor-general of Lombardy-Venice. When Lombardy was lost in 1859, Maximilian and Charlotte initially retreated to Miramare Palace. In 1864, Maximilian travelled to Mexico and there, at the insistence of the French Emperor Napoleon II but against the will of the majority of the people, had himself crowned emperor of Mexico. He clearly expected to return to Trieste, for he designed a throne room and hurriedly had the plans shipped to Europe. However, he was never to see the completed work, finished in 1870. After only three unsuccessful years as emperor of Mexico, he was taken prisoner by rebel forces, court-martialled and subsequently executed on 19 June 1867, in the Mexican city of Querétaro. In the following years, Miramare served the imperial family as a summer residence. At the beginning of the First World War, its contents and furnishings were transferred to Vienna, but in the 1920s they were returned in full to the Italian state, and the original interior of the palace was restored.	604	ENGLISH	1
Date: 11th Nov 2019 @ 8:16pm This week we are learning all about Samuel Pepys and why he is an important person to remember when we are thinking about the Great Fire of London. We are going to write our own diary entries, imagining that we were there. We will need to think about what we could see, smell, touch, taste and hear and also describe how we would be feeling. To do this we are going to be doing some role play! Here are some examples of a diary entry we have written so far ... Wake up! Wake up! Dad shook me awake in my bed. He had some terrifying news! London is on fire and 300 houses have already burned down. We raced out of the house into the street because the fire was spreading to our house. One dark night my mum woke me up in my bed. She said that London is on fire and we need to leave our house! We raced to the bakery so the baker could explain what happened. The baker explained that he had started the fire. My mum was crying because she was so worried! What a fabulous start to our diary writing! I cannot wait to read some more! Keep up the hard work everybody	<urn:uuid:b5e2553d-fdcc-419b-9d17-ea7d3f5fbe76>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ravensbury.manchester.sch.uk/blog/samuel-pepys/40244	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00102.warc.gz	en	0.985242	252	3.640625	4	[ -0.17878393828868866, -0.14473217725753784, 0.3120458722114563, -0.3401889204978943, 0.11580375581979752, 0.21519626677036285, 0.6577484607696533, 0.09637428820133209, -0.05025072768330574, -0.31680965423583984, -0.24705591797828674, -0.4459320306777954, -0.39942023158073425, 0.39420056343...	2	Date: 11th Nov 2019 @ 8:16pm This week we are learning all about Samuel Pepys and why he is an important person to remember when we are thinking about the Great Fire of London. We are going to write our own diary entries, imagining that we were there. We will need to think about what we could see, smell, touch, taste and hear and also describe how we would be feeling. To do this we are going to be doing some role play! Here are some examples of a diary entry we have written so far ... Wake up! Wake up! Dad shook me awake in my bed. He had some terrifying news! London is on fire and 300 houses have already burned down. We raced out of the house into the street because the fire was spreading to our house. One dark night my mum woke me up in my bed. She said that London is on fire and we need to leave our house! We raced to the bakery so the baker could explain what happened. The baker explained that he had started the fire. My mum was crying because she was so worried! What a fabulous start to our diary writing! I cannot wait to read some more! Keep up the hard work everybody	256	ENGLISH	1
A BRIEF HISTORY OF BEVERLEY, YORKSHIRE By Tim Lambert BEVERLEY IN THE MIDDLE AGES Beverley means beaver stream (beavers were once common in Britain). About 705 a monastery was founded by the stream. In 721 John of Beverley, the Bishop of York died and was buried at the monastery. He was canonized (declared a saint) in 1037. It was said that miracles occurred around his tomb e.g. people were healed from illnesses. Soon pilgrims came to his burial place, some of them hoping for cures, some merely to worship. Soon a little trading settlement grew up around the monastery at Beverley. Medieval Beverley did not have a stone wall but it did have a ditch and an earth rampart probably with a wooden palisade on top. However there were 4 stone gates known as bars (bar is an old word for gate). Merchants bringing goods into the town had to pay tolls at the bars. The 4 bars were North Bar, Norwood Bar, Keldgate or South Bar and Newbegin Bar. Only 1 of the 4 gates survives, the North Bar. The present one was rebuilt in brick in 1409. When the town grew a suburb appeared outside the gate and was called North Bar Without. The buildings inside the gate were called North Bar Within. Beverley was famous in the 15th century for brick making and tile making. In 1461 a by-law was passed that stated 'on account of the stink, fouling of the air and destruction of fruit trees no-one is to make a kiln to make tiles in or nearer to the said town (Beverley) than the kilns that are already built'. The kilns were obviously on the outskirts of the town but it is not known exactly where. There was also a large leather industry in Beverley and there were many tanners. There were also butchers who lived and worked in Butcher Row. In Beverley there were also potters and coopers. However Beverley was most famous for its cloth industry. Wool was woven in the town. Then it was fulled. This means it was pounded in water and clay to clean and thicken it. When it was dry the wool was dyed. In 1390 a total of 38 trades were mentioned in Beverley. Commerce in Beverley was helped in the 12th century when the Archbishop persuaded the people 'to make a channel from the river of sufficient depth to carry barges'. This made it easier to bring goods to and from ships on the river. In the Middle Ages there were weekly markets in Beverley. There were also 3 annual fairs. Fairs were like markets but they were held only once a year and buyers and sellers would come from all over Northeast England to attend. Originally the market was held in the south of the town, in a large triangular piece of land by the Minster between Eastgate and Highgate. Gradually shops and other buildings were erected on this market place and it shrunk in size. The market continued to be held there but it became known as the Wednesday Market. In the 12th century a new market place was built north of the town. It became known as Saturday Market. A chapel dedicated to St Mary was built there and in 1269 it became a parish church. The Archbishop of York was Lord of the Manor of Beverley and he had the right to charge tolls on stallholders in the markets. Toll Gavel may have been the place where tolls were charged. In the 13th century friars arrived in Beverley. The friars were like monks but instead of withdrawing from the world they went out to preach. By the 1230s there were Dominican friars in Beverley. They were known as Black friars because of the colour of their costumes. By 1267 there were Franciscan friars in Beverley. They were called Grey friars because of the color of their habits. By the end of the 13th century they moved to a site outside Keldgate Bar. In the early 13th century the Knights Hospitallers came to Beverley. They were an order of monks who provided hospitality to pilgrims and travelers. In the Middle Ages the only 'hospitals' were run by the church. In them monks or nuns would care for the poor and infirm. Trinity hospital was founded in Beverley in 1397. By the mid 15th century there were 3 more, St Mary's, St John the Baptist's west of the Wednesday Market and St John's Hospital by Lairgate. There were also 2 leper hospitals. One was outside Keldgate and another was outside North Bar. From the 12th century there was a grammar school in Beverley run by the church. However in 1188 Beverley Minster was burned. Rebuilding began in 1220 but it wasn't complete till 1420. There was also, after the 12th century, a parish church of St Nicholas. Meanwhile in the 12th century Flemings arrived in Beverley. They came from Flanders (roughly modern Belgium) as craftsmen or merchants. By the late 14th century the population of Beverley had risen to over 5,000. By the standards of the time it was a large town. It was much larger than Hull. In the Middle Ages the church and Lord of the Manor gave the people of Beverley land on 3 sides of the town. These were common lands where the townspeople could graze their livestock. The last one, Westwood, was given in 1380. The lands, on 3 sides of the town, are sometimes called Beverley pastures. In the 20th century they formed a 'green belt' around Beverley. At first the town of Beverley was owned and controlled by the Archbishop of York, who was Lord of the Manor. He built a house in the northern market place in the 12th century. But in time the Archbishop's grip on the town weakened and the merchants increasingly took control. At first the Archbishop appointed a steward to run the town but from the 14th century Beverley was run by a council of 12 keepers elected by the merchants. In the 15th century, like many East Yorkshire towns, Beverley went into decline, mostly because of competition from up and coming towns in West Yorkshire such as Bradford and Sheffield. Life in the Middle Ages BEVERLEY IN THE 16th CENTURY AND 17th CENTURY In 1520 the central tower of St Mary's church collapsed killing several people. By the 1530s Beverley had declined a long way from its peak in the Middle Ages. One visitor said it had 'diverse and many houses and tenements in great ruin and decay'. Another visitor said there had been 'good cloth making at Beverley but that is now much decayed'. In the Middle Ages people believed their sins would be forgiven if they went on a long, difficult journey called a pilgrimage. The Protestants rejected this teaching. When England became a Protestant country the practice of going on pilgrimages was ended which was blow to Beverley. For centuries the town had benefited from pilgrims who came to visit the tomb of St John and spent money in the town. In the 1530s Henry VIII closed the friaries in Beverley. He also dissolved the Knights Hospitallers. The hospitals were also closed. During the Middle Ages the Archbishop of York was Lord of the Manor of Beverley. In 1542 the town was transferred to the crown. In 1573 Beverley was incorporated. In other words it was given a corporation and a mayor. After 1573 Beverley was independent and no longer had a Lord of the Manor. But at the end of the 16th century Beverley was still impoverished. In 1599 a writer said it was 'very poor and greatly depopulated' There were 'four hundred tenements and dwelling houses utterly decayed and uninhabited besides so great a number of poor and needy people altogether unable so to be employed any way to get their own living'. The population of Beverley slowly declined from about 5,000 in the Middle Ages to about 3,000 by the late 17th century. The cloth industry slowly declined. By the end of the 17th century some prosperity returned to the town but it was no longer a major manufacturing center. Beverley was a market town and a center where farm produce was processed e.g. millers ground grain to flour, skinners and tanners processed leather and malt and hops were brewed. At the end of the 17th century a travel writer named Celia Fiennes said that Beverley was: 'a very fine town for its size. Its preferable to any town I saw except for Nottingham. There are 3 or 4 large streets, well paved, bigger than any in York, the other lesser streets about the town being equal with them. The market cross is very large. There are 3 markets, one for beasts, another for corn and another for fish, all large. The town is served with water by wells, there are many of these wells in the streets. The buildings are new and pretty lofty. The Minster is a fine building all stone, carved on the outside with figures and images. There is another church called St Mary's that is fine and good. There is a very good free school for boys, they say the best in England for learning and care'. BEVERLEY IN THE 18th CENTURY Lairgate Hall was built in 1700. In 1714 a market cross was erected in Saturday Market. On it are 4 shields with the arms of Queen Anne, Beverley Borough and the Warton and Hotham families to who gave money to help build it. Horse racing has been carried on in Beverley since the mid 18th century. In the early 18th century the writer Daniel Defoe visited Beverley and said that there was 'no considerable manufacture carried on there'. But later in the 18th century there was some shipbuilding in Beverley. There was also some brick making. There were also many craftsmen working in Georgian Beverley such as bricklayers, carpenters, blacksmiths, tilers, tailors, coopers, shoemakers, butchers, bakers and brewers. By 1770 the population of Beverley had reached about 4,000. It was a fair sized market town and also an administrative center for East Riding. BEVERLEY IN THE 19th CENTURY In 1801 at the time of the first census, Beverley had a population of 5,400, which was about the same as it had been 400 years before. By 1831 it had reached about 7,400 and by 1871 it was around 10,200. After 1809 Beverley was lit by oil lamps. From 1824 it was lit by gas. Then a railway to Hull was built in 1846. In the 19th century there was still a leather industry in Beverley and there were several tanners. There were also brickyards and breweries. There was also an industry making and repairing farm implements. A shipbuilding industry also existed. There were other craftsmen such as blacksmiths, coopers and wheelwrights. Nevertheless Beverley was still essentially a small market town for the surrounding countryside rather than a manufacturing center. A corn exchange was built where grain could be bought and sold was built in 1886. It is now a cinema. Beverley was much later than other towns in obtaining modern facilities. A piped water supply began in 1883 but there were no sewers until after 1889. Even then it was decades before everyone was connected to them. Given the lack of sanitation in the town it is not surprising there were epidemics. A cottage hospital was built in 1876 but there was an outbreak of typhoid in Beverley in 1884. Digging sewers and creating a piped water supply finally ended the epidemics. BEVERLEY IN THE 20th CENTURY In 1901 the population of Beverley was about 13,000. By 1951 it had risen to about 15,500. The first public library in Beverley opened in 1906. A museum and art gallery followed it in 1910. The first cinema opened in Beverley in 1912. However some of the amenities in Beverley were still primitive. There was no electric streetlight until immediately after World War II. The townspeople did not have electricity in their homes until 1930. In the 1930s only about half of the homes in Beverley had flushing lavatories. They did not become universal until 1960. In the 1920s the first council houses were built in Beverley. In the 1930s council houses were built around Mill Lane, Grove Hill Road and Cherry Tree Lane. In the early 20th century some traditional industries such as brewing declined. The manufacture of farm machinery also declined. Brick making ended in the 1920s. The shipbuilders of Beverley carried on making trawlers. The only significant new industry was making parts for vehicles. In the 1950s and 1960s many slums were demolished in Beverley. In the 1950s the council built new estates at Riding Fields and Swinemore. Many private houses were built at Molescroft. In the 1960s Swinemoor industrial estate was built to encourage light industry to the town. But manufacturing industry in Beverley suffered severely in the recession of the late 1970s and early 1980s. Unemployment was very high in those days but Beverley recovered. Today Beverley is largely a dormitory town for Hull. The Southeast bypass was built in 1973. The Southwest bypass was built in 1981. In 1981 Toll Gavel and Butcher Row were pedestrianized. Today the population of Beverley is 29,000. A timeline of Beverley A brief history of Hull A brief history of York A brief history of Scarborough A brief history of Leeds A brief history of Yorkshire	<urn:uuid:65e8c099-9ccb-4642-8b69-cade3063e7bf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://localhistories.org/beverley.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00536.warc.gz	en	0.990829	2,872	3.296875	3	[ 0.12799866497516632, -0.038910891860723495, 0.219093918800354, 0.07955658435821533, 0.20079603791236877, -0.3332076668739319, -0.11691047996282578, 0.01776229217648506, -0.15167127549648285, -0.05671036243438721, -0.009504384361207485, -0.5813262462615967, -0.2257068008184433, -0.187409788...	1	A BRIEF HISTORY OF BEVERLEY, YORKSHIRE By Tim Lambert BEVERLEY IN THE MIDDLE AGES Beverley means beaver stream (beavers were once common in Britain). About 705 a monastery was founded by the stream. In 721 John of Beverley, the Bishop of York died and was buried at the monastery. He was canonized (declared a saint) in 1037. It was said that miracles occurred around his tomb e.g. people were healed from illnesses. Soon pilgrims came to his burial place, some of them hoping for cures, some merely to worship. Soon a little trading settlement grew up around the monastery at Beverley. Medieval Beverley did not have a stone wall but it did have a ditch and an earth rampart probably with a wooden palisade on top. However there were 4 stone gates known as bars (bar is an old word for gate). Merchants bringing goods into the town had to pay tolls at the bars. The 4 bars were North Bar, Norwood Bar, Keldgate or South Bar and Newbegin Bar. Only 1 of the 4 gates survives, the North Bar. The present one was rebuilt in brick in 1409. When the town grew a suburb appeared outside the gate and was called North Bar Without. The buildings inside the gate were called North Bar Within. Beverley was famous in the 15th century for brick making and tile making. In 1461 a by-law was passed that stated 'on account of the stink, fouling of the air and destruction of fruit trees no-one is to make a kiln to make tiles in or nearer to the said town (Beverley) than the kilns that are already built'. The kilns were obviously on the outskirts of the town but it is not known exactly where. There was also a large leather industry in Beverley and there were many tanners. There were also butchers who lived and worked in Butcher Row. In Beverley there were also potters and coopers. However Beverley was most famous for its cloth industry. Wool was woven in the town. Then it was fulled. This means it was pounded in water and clay to clean and thicken it. When it was dry the wool was dyed. In 1390 a total of 38 trades were mentioned in Beverley. Commerce in Beverley was helped in the 12th century when the Archbishop persuaded the people 'to make a channel from the river of sufficient depth to carry barges'. This made it easier to bring goods to and from ships on the river. In the Middle Ages there were weekly markets in Beverley. There were also 3 annual fairs. Fairs were like markets but they were held only once a year and buyers and sellers would come from all over Northeast England to attend. Originally the market was held in the south of the town, in a large triangular piece of land by the Minster between Eastgate and Highgate. Gradually shops and other buildings were erected on this market place and it shrunk in size. The market continued to be held there but it became known as the Wednesday Market. In the 12th century a new market place was built north of the town. It became known as Saturday Market. A chapel dedicated to St Mary was built there and in 1269 it became a parish church. The Archbishop of York was Lord of the Manor of Beverley and he had the right to charge tolls on stallholders in the markets. Toll Gavel may have been the place where tolls were charged. In the 13th century friars arrived in Beverley. The friars were like monks but instead of withdrawing from the world they went out to preach. By the 1230s there were Dominican friars in Beverley. They were known as Black friars because of the colour of their costumes. By 1267 there were Franciscan friars in Beverley. They were called Grey friars because of the color of their habits. By the end of the 13th century they moved to a site outside Keldgate Bar. In the early 13th century the Knights Hospitallers came to Beverley. They were an order of monks who provided hospitality to pilgrims and travelers. In the Middle Ages the only 'hospitals' were run by the church. In them monks or nuns would care for the poor and infirm. Trinity hospital was founded in Beverley in 1397. By the mid 15th century there were 3 more, St Mary's, St John the Baptist's west of the Wednesday Market and St John's Hospital by Lairgate. There were also 2 leper hospitals. One was outside Keldgate and another was outside North Bar. From the 12th century there was a grammar school in Beverley run by the church. However in 1188 Beverley Minster was burned. Rebuilding began in 1220 but it wasn't complete till 1420. There was also, after the 12th century, a parish church of St Nicholas. Meanwhile in the 12th century Flemings arrived in Beverley. They came from Flanders (roughly modern Belgium) as craftsmen or merchants. By the late 14th century the population of Beverley had risen to over 5,000. By the standards of the time it was a large town. It was much larger than Hull. In the Middle Ages the church and Lord of the Manor gave the people of Beverley land on 3 sides of the town. These were common lands where the townspeople could graze their livestock. The last one, Westwood, was given in 1380. The lands, on 3 sides of the town, are sometimes called Beverley pastures. In the 20th century they formed a 'green belt' around Beverley. At first the town of Beverley was owned and controlled by the Archbishop of York, who was Lord of the Manor. He built a house in the northern market place in the 12th century. But in time the Archbishop's grip on the town weakened and the merchants increasingly took control. At first the Archbishop appointed a steward to run the town but from the 14th century Beverley was run by a council of 12 keepers elected by the merchants. In the 15th century, like many East Yorkshire towns, Beverley went into decline, mostly because of competition from up and coming towns in West Yorkshire such as Bradford and Sheffield. Life in the Middle Ages BEVERLEY IN THE 16th CENTURY AND 17th CENTURY In 1520 the central tower of St Mary's church collapsed killing several people. By the 1530s Beverley had declined a long way from its peak in the Middle Ages. One visitor said it had 'diverse and many houses and tenements in great ruin and decay'. Another visitor said there had been 'good cloth making at Beverley but that is now much decayed'. In the Middle Ages people believed their sins would be forgiven if they went on a long, difficult journey called a pilgrimage. The Protestants rejected this teaching. When England became a Protestant country the practice of going on pilgrimages was ended which was blow to Beverley. For centuries the town had benefited from pilgrims who came to visit the tomb of St John and spent money in the town. In the 1530s Henry VIII closed the friaries in Beverley. He also dissolved the Knights Hospitallers. The hospitals were also closed. During the Middle Ages the Archbishop of York was Lord of the Manor of Beverley. In 1542 the town was transferred to the crown. In 1573 Beverley was incorporated. In other words it was given a corporation and a mayor. After 1573 Beverley was independent and no longer had a Lord of the Manor. But at the end of the 16th century Beverley was still impoverished. In 1599 a writer said it was 'very poor and greatly depopulated' There were 'four hundred tenements and dwelling houses utterly decayed and uninhabited besides so great a number of poor and needy people altogether unable so to be employed any way to get their own living'. The population of Beverley slowly declined from about 5,000 in the Middle Ages to about 3,000 by the late 17th century. The cloth industry slowly declined. By the end of the 17th century some prosperity returned to the town but it was no longer a major manufacturing center. Beverley was a market town and a center where farm produce was processed e.g. millers ground grain to flour, skinners and tanners processed leather and malt and hops were brewed. At the end of the 17th century a travel writer named Celia Fiennes said that Beverley was: 'a very fine town for its size. Its preferable to any town I saw except for Nottingham. There are 3 or 4 large streets, well paved, bigger than any in York, the other lesser streets about the town being equal with them. The market cross is very large. There are 3 markets, one for beasts, another for corn and another for fish, all large. The town is served with water by wells, there are many of these wells in the streets. The buildings are new and pretty lofty. The Minster is a fine building all stone, carved on the outside with figures and images. There is another church called St Mary's that is fine and good. There is a very good free school for boys, they say the best in England for learning and care'. BEVERLEY IN THE 18th CENTURY Lairgate Hall was built in 1700. In 1714 a market cross was erected in Saturday Market. On it are 4 shields with the arms of Queen Anne, Beverley Borough and the Warton and Hotham families to who gave money to help build it. Horse racing has been carried on in Beverley since the mid 18th century. In the early 18th century the writer Daniel Defoe visited Beverley and said that there was 'no considerable manufacture carried on there'. But later in the 18th century there was some shipbuilding in Beverley. There was also some brick making. There were also many craftsmen working in Georgian Beverley such as bricklayers, carpenters, blacksmiths, tilers, tailors, coopers, shoemakers, butchers, bakers and brewers. By 1770 the population of Beverley had reached about 4,000. It was a fair sized market town and also an administrative center for East Riding. BEVERLEY IN THE 19th CENTURY In 1801 at the time of the first census, Beverley had a population of 5,400, which was about the same as it had been 400 years before. By 1831 it had reached about 7,400 and by 1871 it was around 10,200. After 1809 Beverley was lit by oil lamps. From 1824 it was lit by gas. Then a railway to Hull was built in 1846. In the 19th century there was still a leather industry in Beverley and there were several tanners. There were also brickyards and breweries. There was also an industry making and repairing farm implements. A shipbuilding industry also existed. There were other craftsmen such as blacksmiths, coopers and wheelwrights. Nevertheless Beverley was still essentially a small market town for the surrounding countryside rather than a manufacturing center. A corn exchange was built where grain could be bought and sold was built in 1886. It is now a cinema. Beverley was much later than other towns in obtaining modern facilities. A piped water supply began in 1883 but there were no sewers until after 1889. Even then it was decades before everyone was connected to them. Given the lack of sanitation in the town it is not surprising there were epidemics. A cottage hospital was built in 1876 but there was an outbreak of typhoid in Beverley in 1884. Digging sewers and creating a piped water supply finally ended the epidemics. BEVERLEY IN THE 20th CENTURY In 1901 the population of Beverley was about 13,000. By 1951 it had risen to about 15,500. The first public library in Beverley opened in 1906. A museum and art gallery followed it in 1910. The first cinema opened in Beverley in 1912. However some of the amenities in Beverley were still primitive. There was no electric streetlight until immediately after World War II. The townspeople did not have electricity in their homes until 1930. In the 1930s only about half of the homes in Beverley had flushing lavatories. They did not become universal until 1960. In the 1920s the first council houses were built in Beverley. In the 1930s council houses were built around Mill Lane, Grove Hill Road and Cherry Tree Lane. In the early 20th century some traditional industries such as brewing declined. The manufacture of farm machinery also declined. Brick making ended in the 1920s. The shipbuilders of Beverley carried on making trawlers. The only significant new industry was making parts for vehicles. In the 1950s and 1960s many slums were demolished in Beverley. In the 1950s the council built new estates at Riding Fields and Swinemore. Many private houses were built at Molescroft. In the 1960s Swinemoor industrial estate was built to encourage light industry to the town. But manufacturing industry in Beverley suffered severely in the recession of the late 1970s and early 1980s. Unemployment was very high in those days but Beverley recovered. Today Beverley is largely a dormitory town for Hull. The Southeast bypass was built in 1973. The Southwest bypass was built in 1981. In 1981 Toll Gavel and Butcher Row were pedestrianized. Today the population of Beverley is 29,000. A timeline of Beverley A brief history of Hull A brief history of York A brief history of Scarborough A brief history of Leeds A brief history of Yorkshire	3,142	ENGLISH	1
So, these days it is more common to see your child sitting down playing video games, watching television, surfing the net, or listening to music. And for the most part there is nothing wrong with any of those activities, so long as they are done in moderation. It is not uncommon for parents to wish that their kids would participate in more constructive activities – reading books for instance – however, the problem is getting them to sit down and open a book a few times a week. One way to get them to start is by sitting down and reading aloud to them. Instil the love of reading and stories by showing how much you also love them. As I am sure you can attest to, many children see the connection between books and school homework, which can be off putting. But by showing them the joys of going on adventures to wonderous places with imaginative characters, you can encourage them to read more often. According to a US government study, there is a direct relationship with reading aloud to your children and childhood literacy rates. Besides being a good chance to spend quality time with your kids, reading children’s books and other materials to them is a great way to get an educational head start for pre-school. The government report concluded that reading aloud to children has shown to have a positive effect on their literacy outcomes, by gaining experience through being exposed to the written language. This enable them to begin to make connections between the spoken word and the printed word. However, regrettably today there a few who take pleasure in reading a book. In another study 7 out of 10 9-year-olds enjoyed reading as a pastime, compared to the 78% a few years earlier, while in 11-year-olds it declined from the 77% to 65%. It was found that children preferred to watch television compared to reading. The biggest changes were registered in boys. For those in Year 6, 55% of the boys said that they enjoyed reading compared to the 70% in 1998. Thus, the challenge today is to get children – especially males – to read and to enjoy it. Reading aloud to them is a good way to tackle this. A technique to do this is to make reading a game, an interactive adventure for you both to enjoy. Using the so-called “Charlotte Mason” method is one way to do this. Here you have the child “tell back” in his or her own words of what just happened. Choses a short book, poem, or perhaps a chapter of a longer one. They then must focus on the story and understand its meaning. This method of verbal narration is especially effective in younger children who may not have the writing skills to be able to put their thoughts down on paper. The goal is to get your child to open a book for fun, on their own, without being told to by either parents or teachers. I can clearly remember spending time in my schools’ library and reading any fantasy books I could get my hands on, especially the Harry Potter series, and the hours of excitement that came with going on magic filled adventures every chance I got to sit and read them.	<urn:uuid:007602da-9ebc-4179-a4bd-d79905ebe3e6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://yeoldebookshoppe.com.au/2017/10/18/the-importance-of-reading-to-your-child-aloud/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00275.warc.gz	en	0.984142	643	3.3125	3	[ 0.10936558991670609, -0.1407211869955063, 0.3467373847961426, -0.3618985116481781, -0.6596280336380005, 0.3431698679924011, -0.14853906631469727, -0.02042488008737564, 0.01969856396317482, -0.2241975963115692, -0.07069531828165054, 0.25612181425094604, 0.1401609182357788, 0.425321519374847...	10	So, these days it is more common to see your child sitting down playing video games, watching television, surfing the net, or listening to music. And for the most part there is nothing wrong with any of those activities, so long as they are done in moderation. It is not uncommon for parents to wish that their kids would participate in more constructive activities – reading books for instance – however, the problem is getting them to sit down and open a book a few times a week. One way to get them to start is by sitting down and reading aloud to them. Instil the love of reading and stories by showing how much you also love them. As I am sure you can attest to, many children see the connection between books and school homework, which can be off putting. But by showing them the joys of going on adventures to wonderous places with imaginative characters, you can encourage them to read more often. According to a US government study, there is a direct relationship with reading aloud to your children and childhood literacy rates. Besides being a good chance to spend quality time with your kids, reading children’s books and other materials to them is a great way to get an educational head start for pre-school. The government report concluded that reading aloud to children has shown to have a positive effect on their literacy outcomes, by gaining experience through being exposed to the written language. This enable them to begin to make connections between the spoken word and the printed word. However, regrettably today there a few who take pleasure in reading a book. In another study 7 out of 10 9-year-olds enjoyed reading as a pastime, compared to the 78% a few years earlier, while in 11-year-olds it declined from the 77% to 65%. It was found that children preferred to watch television compared to reading. The biggest changes were registered in boys. For those in Year 6, 55% of the boys said that they enjoyed reading compared to the 70% in 1998. Thus, the challenge today is to get children – especially males – to read and to enjoy it. Reading aloud to them is a good way to tackle this. A technique to do this is to make reading a game, an interactive adventure for you both to enjoy. Using the so-called “Charlotte Mason” method is one way to do this. Here you have the child “tell back” in his or her own words of what just happened. Choses a short book, poem, or perhaps a chapter of a longer one. They then must focus on the story and understand its meaning. This method of verbal narration is especially effective in younger children who may not have the writing skills to be able to put their thoughts down on paper. The goal is to get your child to open a book for fun, on their own, without being told to by either parents or teachers. I can clearly remember spending time in my schools’ library and reading any fantasy books I could get my hands on, especially the Harry Potter series, and the hours of excitement that came with going on magic filled adventures every chance I got to sit and read them.	643	ENGLISH	1
John Ruskin was an English art critic, art patron, social thinker, and philanthropist of the Victorian Era. His writings included varied subjects such as geology, architecture, education, and political economy among others. In all his writings, Ruskin emphasized the connection between nature, society, and art and made detailed sketches and paintings of nature such as landscape, rocks, plants, and animals. He was popular in the late 19th century up until World War II with his first volume of “Modern Painter” in 1843, which gave him widespread attention. His work has been the basis for various academic studies while his ideas and concerns are widely recognized today due to their impact on the environment and sustainability. Ruskin was born on February 8, 1819, to first cousins, John James Ruskin and Margaret Cox. He was born at 54 Hunter Street, London. His childhood saw a contrasting influence from both parents who had fierce ambitions for him. His father helped him to develop Romanticism. His parents liked the works of Shakespeare and Walter Scott and visited Scott’s home in 1838. Margaret Ruskin taught the young Ruskin to read the bible from the first chapter to the last over and over again. The language of the King James Bible had a lasting influence on Ruskin. He went through homeschooling and joined Peckham School from 1834 to 1835. Ruskin’s life was influenced by extensive and privileged travels during his childhood. The travels enabled him to establish his taste and augmented his education. He also developed inspiration for writing from the several travels he undertook with the father. Ruskin’s first publication was in 1829 and was a poem titled “On Skiddaw and Derwent Water.” In 1834, he published short articles for London’s Magazine of Natural History. In 1843, he produced the first volume of “Modern Painter” which was his response to critics of Turner’s pictures. Ruskin completed his first architectural work in 1849 that bore the name “The Seven Lambs of Architecture.” He was also a teacher and a public lecturer in the 1850s and the 1860s. He was appointed professor of Fine Art at Oxford University in 1869 Theorists and practitioners in different disciplines are indebted to Ruskin. Some of Ruskin’s work has influenced several architects such as Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright. He was an inspiration to many Christian socialists while his ideas informed the works of several economists. Ruskin lectured on a wide range of subjects which addressed the political and social needs of society at the time. His lectures were so popular that they had to be given twice. In 1871, Ruskin founded the St. George’s Fund which later became a guild. The guild revived traditional rural handicraft and encouraged independence. He also established a museum that had mainly artwork produced by the working men in the city. Although Ruskin was an accomplished personality with several accolades, his life was also characterized by controversies and challenges. In 1877, he launched an attack on James Whistler’s paintings for which Whistler filed a suit against him. The incident tarnished his reputation and may have led to his mental illness. Ruskin’s marriage to Effie Gray lasted only six years and led to several speculations. His pursuit for young Rose La Touche faced resistance from the girl’s family and rejection by the girl. His mental illness slowed down most of his works and travel, especially towards the end of his life. Death and Legacy The period from the late 1880s was Ruskin’s most unproductive years. He was on a steady decline and could not travel as much as he wanted to. Although his 80th birthday was widely celebrated, he was scarcely aware of the celebration as his health had significantly deteriorated. Ruskin died at the age of 80 from influenza on January 20, 1900. His work and influence have been celebrated worldwide. His work has also been translated into French and other languages around the world. Ruskin was hailed by Gandhi as “magic spell” cast on him by Ruskin’s work, “Unto this Last.” His work continues to influence modern architects and artists. Who Was John Ruskin? John Ruskin was an English art critic, art patron, social thinker, and philanthropist of the Victorian Era. His writings included varied subjects such as geology, architecture, education, and political economy among others. In all his writings, Ruskin emphasized the connection between nature, society, and art and made detailed sketches and paintings of nature such as landscape, rocks, plants, and animals. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:d0775b78-e8b4-4787-9fa0-83260023f00a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/john-ruskin-important-figures-in-history.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00003.warc.gz	en	0.98705	1,029	3.546875	4	[ 0.08178757131099701, 0.1793288290500641, 0.8548063039779663, -0.20294496417045593, -0.18002113699913025, 0.256369411945343, 0.05539998784661293, -0.03502988815307617, -0.28310006856918335, -0.11696512997150421, -0.4569552540779114, 0.02555660530924797, 0.3769639730453491, 0.310596019029617...	2	John Ruskin was an English art critic, art patron, social thinker, and philanthropist of the Victorian Era. His writings included varied subjects such as geology, architecture, education, and political economy among others. In all his writings, Ruskin emphasized the connection between nature, society, and art and made detailed sketches and paintings of nature such as landscape, rocks, plants, and animals. He was popular in the late 19th century up until World War II with his first volume of “Modern Painter” in 1843, which gave him widespread attention. His work has been the basis for various academic studies while his ideas and concerns are widely recognized today due to their impact on the environment and sustainability. Ruskin was born on February 8, 1819, to first cousins, John James Ruskin and Margaret Cox. He was born at 54 Hunter Street, London. His childhood saw a contrasting influence from both parents who had fierce ambitions for him. His father helped him to develop Romanticism. His parents liked the works of Shakespeare and Walter Scott and visited Scott’s home in 1838. Margaret Ruskin taught the young Ruskin to read the bible from the first chapter to the last over and over again. The language of the King James Bible had a lasting influence on Ruskin. He went through homeschooling and joined Peckham School from 1834 to 1835. Ruskin’s life was influenced by extensive and privileged travels during his childhood. The travels enabled him to establish his taste and augmented his education. He also developed inspiration for writing from the several travels he undertook with the father. Ruskin’s first publication was in 1829 and was a poem titled “On Skiddaw and Derwent Water.” In 1834, he published short articles for London’s Magazine of Natural History. In 1843, he produced the first volume of “Modern Painter” which was his response to critics of Turner’s pictures. Ruskin completed his first architectural work in 1849 that bore the name “The Seven Lambs of Architecture.” He was also a teacher and a public lecturer in the 1850s and the 1860s. He was appointed professor of Fine Art at Oxford University in 1869 Theorists and practitioners in different disciplines are indebted to Ruskin. Some of Ruskin’s work has influenced several architects such as Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright. He was an inspiration to many Christian socialists while his ideas informed the works of several economists. Ruskin lectured on a wide range of subjects which addressed the political and social needs of society at the time. His lectures were so popular that they had to be given twice. In 1871, Ruskin founded the St. George’s Fund which later became a guild. The guild revived traditional rural handicraft and encouraged independence. He also established a museum that had mainly artwork produced by the working men in the city. Although Ruskin was an accomplished personality with several accolades, his life was also characterized by controversies and challenges. In 1877, he launched an attack on James Whistler’s paintings for which Whistler filed a suit against him. The incident tarnished his reputation and may have led to his mental illness. Ruskin’s marriage to Effie Gray lasted only six years and led to several speculations. His pursuit for young Rose La Touche faced resistance from the girl’s family and rejection by the girl. His mental illness slowed down most of his works and travel, especially towards the end of his life. Death and Legacy The period from the late 1880s was Ruskin’s most unproductive years. He was on a steady decline and could not travel as much as he wanted to. Although his 80th birthday was widely celebrated, he was scarcely aware of the celebration as his health had significantly deteriorated. Ruskin died at the age of 80 from influenza on January 20, 1900. His work and influence have been celebrated worldwide. His work has also been translated into French and other languages around the world. Ruskin was hailed by Gandhi as “magic spell” cast on him by Ruskin’s work, “Unto this Last.” His work continues to influence modern architects and artists. Who Was John Ruskin? John Ruskin was an English art critic, art patron, social thinker, and philanthropist of the Victorian Era. His writings included varied subjects such as geology, architecture, education, and political economy among others. In all his writings, Ruskin emphasized the connection between nature, society, and art and made detailed sketches and paintings of nature such as landscape, rocks, plants, and animals. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	1,051	ENGLISH	1
In chapter 18, Jesus begins with a parable of a Judge. He tells that there “was a judge who did not fear God and did not respect man.” (v 2, NASB) He also tells that there was a widow in the same city who repeatedly came to him asking for legal protection. The judge was initially resistant, but after several times he chose to give her what she wanted because she kept bothering him. Jesus explains that the point of the parable is that if even a man like this judge would give a person what they asked for just to get rid of them, how much more with God, who is just and righteous, give people what they need when they ask. I think it is interesting that Jesus chooses to use a negative example to emphasize the goodness of God. The next parable that Luke recounts, Jesus used to address people who believed that they were righteous. He tells the story of two men who went to the temple to pray. The first was a Pharisee, and the second was a tax collector. Jesus explains that the Pharisee prayed in such a way that seemed to emphasize how much better he was than others, specifically the tax collector. In other words, the image seems to imply that he is thankful that he does not need God to make him better. The tax collector, on the other hand, prays in an entirely different fashion. He is unwilling to lift his face to God and was saying, “was beating his breast, saying, ‘God, be merciful to me, the sinner!’” (v 13) Jesus explains that it is the tax collector, not the Pharisee, who is justified in his prayer because he came before God with humility. In one of those abrupt transitions between accounts, Luke begins to tell about people bringing their children to him. He tells us that there were so many that the disciples started to discourage them and turn them away. Jesus promptly corrected this, telling them to allow the children to come. He says to “not hinder them, for the kingdom of God belongs to such as these.’ (v 16) Jesus is telling them that these children are not a bother, but are an example of how we should be when we approach God. We enter the kingdom of God through the innocence of a child. Continuing with the question of entering the kingdom of God, Luke gives the account of a rich young ruler who asked Jesus what he needed to do to get into heaven. Jesus tells the ruler that he knows what the commandments say. When the ruler says that he has kept all of these Jesus ups the ante by saying, “One thing you still lack; sell all that you possess and distribute it to the poor, and you shall have treasure in heaven; and come, follow Me.” (v 22) This, however, proves one step too many for the young ruler. He was very, very rich, and loved his possessions. To give things up, was too much of a challenge. Jesus sadly points out that “it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.” (v 25) I think this is something we all see far too often in the world today, and sometimes in our own lives. Our love for money can be overpowering. As a result, those around him asked who could be saved. Jesus answers by pointing out that “The things that are impossible with people are possible with God.” (v 27) Peter’s response to this is to point out that they, the disciples, had given up everything to follow Jesus. His underlying question seems to be, what does this mean for us? Will we receive eternal life? Jesus’ response is that those who have given things up will receive much more “at this time and in the age to come.” (v 30) Jesus then took them aside and told them that they were going to Jerusalem. He told them that there he would be handed over to the Romans to be beaten and put to death. But he also told them that he would rise again on the third day. But even though it was spelled out to them, they could not understand it. The meaning had been hidden from them. Finally, Luke closes the chapter by telling of Jesus and his disciples traveling to Jericho. On the way, they were met by a blind man who asks Jesus to heal him. Jesus tells him, “Receive your sight; your faith has made you well.” (v 42) My takeaways from this chapter are: 1) We need to regularly and continually bring things to God in prayer. 2) We need to come before God with humility. 3) We need to come before God with the innocence of a child. 4) We need to come to God by letting go of the things of this world. And 5) we need to come before God with faith.	<urn:uuid:9429b05b-b90f-4f6a-9305-1b29fbcc46b1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brianlolson.com/thoughts-for-consideration/page/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00032.warc.gz	en	0.988348	1,030	3.4375	3	[ -0.3265475630760193, 0.3008735179901123, -0.16931802034378052, -0.2465912401676178, -0.10853101313114166, -0.17647235095500946, 0.4382084012031555, 0.11792810261249542, 0.3619990944862366, 0.1276605725288391, -0.007751161232590675, 0.17840063571929932, 0.2273179292678833, 0.138598486781120...	22	In chapter 18, Jesus begins with a parable of a Judge. He tells that there “was a judge who did not fear God and did not respect man.” (v 2, NASB) He also tells that there was a widow in the same city who repeatedly came to him asking for legal protection. The judge was initially resistant, but after several times he chose to give her what she wanted because she kept bothering him. Jesus explains that the point of the parable is that if even a man like this judge would give a person what they asked for just to get rid of them, how much more with God, who is just and righteous, give people what they need when they ask. I think it is interesting that Jesus chooses to use a negative example to emphasize the goodness of God. The next parable that Luke recounts, Jesus used to address people who believed that they were righteous. He tells the story of two men who went to the temple to pray. The first was a Pharisee, and the second was a tax collector. Jesus explains that the Pharisee prayed in such a way that seemed to emphasize how much better he was than others, specifically the tax collector. In other words, the image seems to imply that he is thankful that he does not need God to make him better. The tax collector, on the other hand, prays in an entirely different fashion. He is unwilling to lift his face to God and was saying, “was beating his breast, saying, ‘God, be merciful to me, the sinner!’” (v 13) Jesus explains that it is the tax collector, not the Pharisee, who is justified in his prayer because he came before God with humility. In one of those abrupt transitions between accounts, Luke begins to tell about people bringing their children to him. He tells us that there were so many that the disciples started to discourage them and turn them away. Jesus promptly corrected this, telling them to allow the children to come. He says to “not hinder them, for the kingdom of God belongs to such as these.’ (v 16) Jesus is telling them that these children are not a bother, but are an example of how we should be when we approach God. We enter the kingdom of God through the innocence of a child. Continuing with the question of entering the kingdom of God, Luke gives the account of a rich young ruler who asked Jesus what he needed to do to get into heaven. Jesus tells the ruler that he knows what the commandments say. When the ruler says that he has kept all of these Jesus ups the ante by saying, “One thing you still lack; sell all that you possess and distribute it to the poor, and you shall have treasure in heaven; and come, follow Me.” (v 22) This, however, proves one step too many for the young ruler. He was very, very rich, and loved his possessions. To give things up, was too much of a challenge. Jesus sadly points out that “it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.” (v 25) I think this is something we all see far too often in the world today, and sometimes in our own lives. Our love for money can be overpowering. As a result, those around him asked who could be saved. Jesus answers by pointing out that “The things that are impossible with people are possible with God.” (v 27) Peter’s response to this is to point out that they, the disciples, had given up everything to follow Jesus. His underlying question seems to be, what does this mean for us? Will we receive eternal life? Jesus’ response is that those who have given things up will receive much more “at this time and in the age to come.” (v 30) Jesus then took them aside and told them that they were going to Jerusalem. He told them that there he would be handed over to the Romans to be beaten and put to death. But he also told them that he would rise again on the third day. But even though it was spelled out to them, they could not understand it. The meaning had been hidden from them. Finally, Luke closes the chapter by telling of Jesus and his disciples traveling to Jericho. On the way, they were met by a blind man who asks Jesus to heal him. Jesus tells him, “Receive your sight; your faith has made you well.” (v 42) My takeaways from this chapter are: 1) We need to regularly and continually bring things to God in prayer. 2) We need to come before God with humility. 3) We need to come before God with the innocence of a child. 4) We need to come to God by letting go of the things of this world. And 5) we need to come before God with faith.	1,015	ENGLISH	1
Frederick Douglass’ Struggle with Individualism In W. E. B. Du Bois’ The Souls of Black Folk, Du Bois writes that, “It is a peculiar sensation… this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity” (Du Bois 689). Du Bois recognizes that in American society black people are only seen as members of a group and not as unique individuals. Frederick Douglass’ 1845 slave narrative, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, explores the theme of African-Americans lacking a sense of individuality. Douglass equates a lack of self with a lack of knowledge, and so in his narrative Douglass seeks to acquire knowledge in many forms, including literacy, in order to free himself from a metaphorical enslavement, a lack of self, as well as his literal enslavement. Douglass struggles to be seen as a self-conscious individual because he is treated by his slave masters as a piece of property. When Douglass’ old master dies and he is brought back to his old plantation he recounts being examined like cattle: “We were all ranked together at the valuation. Men and women… were ranked with horses, sheep and swine. There were horses and men, cattle and women, pigs and children, all holding the same rank in scale of being, and were all subjected to the same narrow examination” (Douglass 51). Property is not seen as having its own self-conscious, and is only regarded as a thing that can generate capital. Douglass is treated as a piece of property and not regarded as an individual. Douglass also feels completely powerless as Mrs. Lucretia and Master Andrew begin to divide up their new “property”, and Douglass writes, “Our fate for life was now to be decided. We had no more voice in that decision than the brutes among whom we were ranked” (52). Friendships, marriages, and even families would be unfairly separated, “A single word from the white men was enough – against all our wishes, prayers, and entreaties – to sunder forever the dearest friends, dearest kindred, and strongest ties known to human beings” (52). This was all so that neither Mrs. Lucretia nor Master Andrew would not get an “unfair” share of their father’s fortune. Douglass also struggles to not simply be seen as a racial object because others have tyrannical power over him. One example is Master Hugh, who takes Douglass’ wages. Master Hugh hires Douglass to work for a shipbuilder, where Douglass managed to earn some money every week for his work. However, Master Hugh takes Douglass’ wages because Douglass is merely property, and this infuriates Douglass: “I contracted for it; I earned it; it was paid to me; it was rightfully my own; yet, upon each returning Saturday night, I was compelled to deliver every cent of that money to Master Hugh… solely because he had the power to compel me to give it up” (93). Also, the workers at Douglass’ dockyard have power over him, not because they own him but because society does not recognize black people as self-conscious individuals. After many dockyard workers overpower Douglass and knock him to the ground, Douglass gets up to pursue them. Douglass gives up, however, after realizing that fifty other dockyard workers merely spectated his beating and, “not one interposed a friendly word; but some cried, ‘Kill the damned nigger! Kill him! Kill him! He struck a white person” (90). Douglass also mentions how black people are lynched for striking a white man. Here, Douglass is treated merely as a racial object, not as a self-conscious individual. Douglass knows very little about himself and because of this Douglass lacks individuality. He knows only where he was born, but not when, and this causes Douglass a lot of mental anguish. Douglass can’t know his birth date and, “a want of information concerning my own [birth date] was a source of unhappiness to me even during childhood” (17). Douglass compares his ignorance of his own self to that of a horse, saying, “the larger part of slaves know as little of their ages as horses know of theirs” (17). Horses cannot be recognized by others as individuals with self-consciousness; the only thing that sets them apart is their value to their owner, as horses are merely pieces of property. But slaves have no desire to only be seen as having monetary value. Something that lacks a self-conscious and only exists to work is a machine. When Douglass asks his master why the white children can know their birth dates and he cannot his master tells him that inquiries make, “a slave improper and impertinent” (17). This response by Douglass’ master draws the connection between ignorance and slavery, claiming forced ignorance will lead to mental enslavement. Douglass fails to be recognized by others as a unique individual with a self-conscious because he does not know important parts of his own identity. Eventually, Douglass is selected to go to Baltimore and work for a different master, and here Douglass learns that he can achieve individualism through education. After Mrs. Auld had taught him enough to know the letters of the alphabet and how to spell simple words, Mr. Auld, “forbade Mrs. Auld to instruct me further, telling her, among other things, that it was… unsafe, to teach a slave to read” (42). Educating a slave is dangerous because education teaches slaves to think. In Mr. Auld’s own words, “[Education] would forever unfit him to be a slave. He would at once become unmanageable… it could do him no good, but a great deal of harm. It would make him discontented and unhappy” (42). This is when we learn along with Douglass exactly how white Americans succeeded in keeping African-Americans enslaved. Bankrupting them of an education keeps them ignorant to their lives’ condition, as Douglass says, “I have found that, to make a contented slave, it is necessary to make a thoughtless one. It is necessary to darken his moral and mental vision, and, as far as possible, to annihilate the power of reason” (92). Douglass says that he is actually more unhappy with his condition in life after learning how to read, as he says, “I would at times feel that learning to read had been a curse rather than a blessing. It had given me a view of my wretched condition, without the remedy” (48). Interestingly, Douglass also claims here that learning does not give him a “remedy” to his condition, but later on Douglass proves his younger self wrong by crafting his own identity using his education. Douglass demonstrates in his narrative that individuality can also be achieved through the pursuit of education, not just by education itself. This is shown by how he reads once Mr. Auld barrs Mrs. Auld from teaching Douglass. Douglass becomes interested in “abolition” and “abolitionists” after hearing about them, and so he finds newspapers and learns about what they are and what they want to abolish. Douglass begins to take initiative, as he says, “Mistress, in teaching me the alphabet, had given me the inch, and no precaution could prevent me from taking the ell” (46). He begins by learning four letters, L, S, F, and A, from visiting the dockyard and seeing planks of wood marked with the letters, then he challenges other boys in the street to write more letters than him, and lastly he copies the writing in Master Thomas’ old spelling book. The tiny amount of education offered to him by Mrs. Auld, and indirectly by Mr. Auld, is enough to inspire Douglass to learn to read and write entirely. Douglass receives his longed-for recognition as an individual through using his education. Later in Douglass’ time as a slave he creates a school to educate other slaves in how to read. Learning to read allows Douglass to distinguish himself among his fellow slaves, because he is now playing a role in freeing other slaves. He also has an opportunity to set himself apart as a leader. Douglass laments about how much he enjoys teaching, “because it was the delight of my soul to be doing something that looked like bettering the condition of my race” (80). Douglass would not be able to experience this “delight” if he had never learned to read. This is the first instance in the narrative where Douglass can truly take control of his own destiny and it was only possible through his pursuit of knowledge. Learning to read metaphorically frees the other slaves from being “shut up in mental darkness” (80), but also frees them from their masters. The other slaves can now be seen as individuals, like Douglass, and they are also more conscious of their unfair condition. Douglass explains, “that one, at least, is now free through my agency” (80), presumably in part because of the education they received from Douglass. On the other hand, a counterclaim to this would likely be that Douglass’ direct resistance to his masters does more to individualize him than education or reading. It is true that Douglass definitely feels more emboldened by his direct resistance to Covey and the dock workers. Douglass writes that, “This battle with Mr. Covey was the turning-point in my career as a slave. It rekindled the few expiring embers of freedom, and revived within me a sense of my own manhood… inspired me again with a determination to be free” (73) However, this fails to recognize that reading made him so discontent in the first place, and Douglass likely only fought back against people who abused him because he had been educated. This actually shows how Mr. Auld’s prophecy about educating slaves is true. Through learning to read, Douglass had become unmanageable, discontent, and unhappy. He begins fighting back against people he believes are treating him unfairly and as a result he is never whipped again, “[Douglass] had several fights, but was never whipped.” Douglass’ struggle to become free from bondage is also a struggle to become recognized as an individual. Douglass, as a slave, feels as though he is only a machine. A machine lacks personality and any sense of individuality. It exists only to work, and the work it produces is all identical and untraceable to its source. Moving forward, we should consider how the treatment of marginalized groups affects their behavior. Refusing to consider people as individuals and not just as members of a group robs them of a personal identity, and when a person is nameless and faceless it becomes more acceptable to treat them unfairly. Douglass, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. Penguin Books, 1982.Du Bois, W. E. B. The Souls of Black Folk. A. C. McClurg and Co., 1903.	<urn:uuid:6564711c-bf34-4844-a8f1-0be15996dbd4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essayhub.net/essays/the-biography-of-frederick-douglass-an-american-slave	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00146.warc.gz	en	0.983358	2,414	4	4	[ 0.016294226050376892, 0.4180358648300171, 0.14453531801700592, 0.3126905560493469, 0.035439521074295044, 0.3071237802505493, 0.3217245042324066, -0.1945129632949829, -0.035744402557611465, 0.08855163305997849, -0.03357498347759247, -0.16224470734596252, -0.2591249346733093, 0.1901646256446...	2	Frederick Douglass’ Struggle with Individualism In W. E. B. Du Bois’ The Souls of Black Folk, Du Bois writes that, “It is a peculiar sensation… this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity” (Du Bois 689). Du Bois recognizes that in American society black people are only seen as members of a group and not as unique individuals. Frederick Douglass’ 1845 slave narrative, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, explores the theme of African-Americans lacking a sense of individuality. Douglass equates a lack of self with a lack of knowledge, and so in his narrative Douglass seeks to acquire knowledge in many forms, including literacy, in order to free himself from a metaphorical enslavement, a lack of self, as well as his literal enslavement. Douglass struggles to be seen as a self-conscious individual because he is treated by his slave masters as a piece of property. When Douglass’ old master dies and he is brought back to his old plantation he recounts being examined like cattle: “We were all ranked together at the valuation. Men and women… were ranked with horses, sheep and swine. There were horses and men, cattle and women, pigs and children, all holding the same rank in scale of being, and were all subjected to the same narrow examination” (Douglass 51). Property is not seen as having its own self-conscious, and is only regarded as a thing that can generate capital. Douglass is treated as a piece of property and not regarded as an individual. Douglass also feels completely powerless as Mrs. Lucretia and Master Andrew begin to divide up their new “property”, and Douglass writes, “Our fate for life was now to be decided. We had no more voice in that decision than the brutes among whom we were ranked” (52). Friendships, marriages, and even families would be unfairly separated, “A single word from the white men was enough – against all our wishes, prayers, and entreaties – to sunder forever the dearest friends, dearest kindred, and strongest ties known to human beings” (52). This was all so that neither Mrs. Lucretia nor Master Andrew would not get an “unfair” share of their father’s fortune. Douglass also struggles to not simply be seen as a racial object because others have tyrannical power over him. One example is Master Hugh, who takes Douglass’ wages. Master Hugh hires Douglass to work for a shipbuilder, where Douglass managed to earn some money every week for his work. However, Master Hugh takes Douglass’ wages because Douglass is merely property, and this infuriates Douglass: “I contracted for it; I earned it; it was paid to me; it was rightfully my own; yet, upon each returning Saturday night, I was compelled to deliver every cent of that money to Master Hugh… solely because he had the power to compel me to give it up” (93). Also, the workers at Douglass’ dockyard have power over him, not because they own him but because society does not recognize black people as self-conscious individuals. After many dockyard workers overpower Douglass and knock him to the ground, Douglass gets up to pursue them. Douglass gives up, however, after realizing that fifty other dockyard workers merely spectated his beating and, “not one interposed a friendly word; but some cried, ‘Kill the damned nigger! Kill him! Kill him! He struck a white person” (90). Douglass also mentions how black people are lynched for striking a white man. Here, Douglass is treated merely as a racial object, not as a self-conscious individual. Douglass knows very little about himself and because of this Douglass lacks individuality. He knows only where he was born, but not when, and this causes Douglass a lot of mental anguish. Douglass can’t know his birth date and, “a want of information concerning my own [birth date] was a source of unhappiness to me even during childhood” (17). Douglass compares his ignorance of his own self to that of a horse, saying, “the larger part of slaves know as little of their ages as horses know of theirs” (17). Horses cannot be recognized by others as individuals with self-consciousness; the only thing that sets them apart is their value to their owner, as horses are merely pieces of property. But slaves have no desire to only be seen as having monetary value. Something that lacks a self-conscious and only exists to work is a machine. When Douglass asks his master why the white children can know their birth dates and he cannot his master tells him that inquiries make, “a slave improper and impertinent” (17). This response by Douglass’ master draws the connection between ignorance and slavery, claiming forced ignorance will lead to mental enslavement. Douglass fails to be recognized by others as a unique individual with a self-conscious because he does not know important parts of his own identity. Eventually, Douglass is selected to go to Baltimore and work for a different master, and here Douglass learns that he can achieve individualism through education. After Mrs. Auld had taught him enough to know the letters of the alphabet and how to spell simple words, Mr. Auld, “forbade Mrs. Auld to instruct me further, telling her, among other things, that it was… unsafe, to teach a slave to read” (42). Educating a slave is dangerous because education teaches slaves to think. In Mr. Auld’s own words, “[Education] would forever unfit him to be a slave. He would at once become unmanageable… it could do him no good, but a great deal of harm. It would make him discontented and unhappy” (42). This is when we learn along with Douglass exactly how white Americans succeeded in keeping African-Americans enslaved. Bankrupting them of an education keeps them ignorant to their lives’ condition, as Douglass says, “I have found that, to make a contented slave, it is necessary to make a thoughtless one. It is necessary to darken his moral and mental vision, and, as far as possible, to annihilate the power of reason” (92). Douglass says that he is actually more unhappy with his condition in life after learning how to read, as he says, “I would at times feel that learning to read had been a curse rather than a blessing. It had given me a view of my wretched condition, without the remedy” (48). Interestingly, Douglass also claims here that learning does not give him a “remedy” to his condition, but later on Douglass proves his younger self wrong by crafting his own identity using his education. Douglass demonstrates in his narrative that individuality can also be achieved through the pursuit of education, not just by education itself. This is shown by how he reads once Mr. Auld barrs Mrs. Auld from teaching Douglass. Douglass becomes interested in “abolition” and “abolitionists” after hearing about them, and so he finds newspapers and learns about what they are and what they want to abolish. Douglass begins to take initiative, as he says, “Mistress, in teaching me the alphabet, had given me the inch, and no precaution could prevent me from taking the ell” (46). He begins by learning four letters, L, S, F, and A, from visiting the dockyard and seeing planks of wood marked with the letters, then he challenges other boys in the street to write more letters than him, and lastly he copies the writing in Master Thomas’ old spelling book. The tiny amount of education offered to him by Mrs. Auld, and indirectly by Mr. Auld, is enough to inspire Douglass to learn to read and write entirely. Douglass receives his longed-for recognition as an individual through using his education. Later in Douglass’ time as a slave he creates a school to educate other slaves in how to read. Learning to read allows Douglass to distinguish himself among his fellow slaves, because he is now playing a role in freeing other slaves. He also has an opportunity to set himself apart as a leader. Douglass laments about how much he enjoys teaching, “because it was the delight of my soul to be doing something that looked like bettering the condition of my race” (80). Douglass would not be able to experience this “delight” if he had never learned to read. This is the first instance in the narrative where Douglass can truly take control of his own destiny and it was only possible through his pursuit of knowledge. Learning to read metaphorically frees the other slaves from being “shut up in mental darkness” (80), but also frees them from their masters. The other slaves can now be seen as individuals, like Douglass, and they are also more conscious of their unfair condition. Douglass explains, “that one, at least, is now free through my agency” (80), presumably in part because of the education they received from Douglass. On the other hand, a counterclaim to this would likely be that Douglass’ direct resistance to his masters does more to individualize him than education or reading. It is true that Douglass definitely feels more emboldened by his direct resistance to Covey and the dock workers. Douglass writes that, “This battle with Mr. Covey was the turning-point in my career as a slave. It rekindled the few expiring embers of freedom, and revived within me a sense of my own manhood… inspired me again with a determination to be free” (73) However, this fails to recognize that reading made him so discontent in the first place, and Douglass likely only fought back against people who abused him because he had been educated. This actually shows how Mr. Auld’s prophecy about educating slaves is true. Through learning to read, Douglass had become unmanageable, discontent, and unhappy. He begins fighting back against people he believes are treating him unfairly and as a result he is never whipped again, “[Douglass] had several fights, but was never whipped.” Douglass’ struggle to become free from bondage is also a struggle to become recognized as an individual. Douglass, as a slave, feels as though he is only a machine. A machine lacks personality and any sense of individuality. It exists only to work, and the work it produces is all identical and untraceable to its source. Moving forward, we should consider how the treatment of marginalized groups affects their behavior. Refusing to consider people as individuals and not just as members of a group robs them of a personal identity, and when a person is nameless and faceless it becomes more acceptable to treat them unfairly. Douglass, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. Penguin Books, 1982.Du Bois, W. E. B. The Souls of Black Folk. A. C. McClurg and Co., 1903.	2,343	ENGLISH	1
Merchant of Venice Jews worship God but unlike Christians they don’t believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, therefore they do not follow the Christian faith. Jews that settled in Europe after the Romans in 1500’s were treated with suspicion and were isolated from general society. Some cities would not even admit Jews in. Refugee Jews settled permanently in Venice, they were very successful in trade and commerce and so were classed as being useful. Jews were forced to live in ghettos and were not allowed to participate in the social life of Christian society. This way of acting and anti-Jewish ways is known as Anti-Semitism. The Holocaust World War II is an example of this in the twentieth century. Shylock is a Jew and Antonio (The Merchant of Venice) is a Christian. This means that Shylock has grown up in a society of Christians and has been discriminated for being a Jew. He suffered from long-standing racial and religious abuse from the Christians in Venice. Because Shylock was a Jew in a Christian world he was regarded as an outsider. This had made Shylock a very defensive person, and he has a grudge against all Christians and he despises the Christian people of Venice because of their religion and beliefs. He is trying to gain revenge against the Christians for the way that they treated him and his people. Everyone has a ‘good’ side and a ‘bad’ side, like a devil on one shoulder and an angel on the other. Shylock reveals his evil side towards the Christians and so by having this ‘bad’ side, he is only human. He has an evil side towards Christians because they mistreat him and he’s only trying to gain revenge. I think that Shylock is a weak person because he knows he is different and stands out. He is singled out and alone. He acts evil and gives the impression that he is a powerful, to try and hide how isolated he feels inside.	<urn:uuid:7e9c9726-9950-4c22-bf23-230a9e629ead>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.greenontheinside.net/merchant-of-venice-essay-example/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00375.warc.gz	en	0.988844	410	3.5625	4	[ 0.5024997591972351, 0.09707766771316528, -0.40115463733673096, -0.23133519291877747, -0.1644420474767685, -0.3133656978607178, 0.46025294065475464, 0.08489362895488739, 0.41263532638549805, -0.03592687100172043, -0.26965394616127014, -0.1400214284658432, -0.010402830317616463, 0.2808221876...	12	Merchant of Venice Jews worship God but unlike Christians they don’t believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, therefore they do not follow the Christian faith. Jews that settled in Europe after the Romans in 1500’s were treated with suspicion and were isolated from general society. Some cities would not even admit Jews in. Refugee Jews settled permanently in Venice, they were very successful in trade and commerce and so were classed as being useful. Jews were forced to live in ghettos and were not allowed to participate in the social life of Christian society. This way of acting and anti-Jewish ways is known as Anti-Semitism. The Holocaust World War II is an example of this in the twentieth century. Shylock is a Jew and Antonio (The Merchant of Venice) is a Christian. This means that Shylock has grown up in a society of Christians and has been discriminated for being a Jew. He suffered from long-standing racial and religious abuse from the Christians in Venice. Because Shylock was a Jew in a Christian world he was regarded as an outsider. This had made Shylock a very defensive person, and he has a grudge against all Christians and he despises the Christian people of Venice because of their religion and beliefs. He is trying to gain revenge against the Christians for the way that they treated him and his people. Everyone has a ‘good’ side and a ‘bad’ side, like a devil on one shoulder and an angel on the other. Shylock reveals his evil side towards the Christians and so by having this ‘bad’ side, he is only human. He has an evil side towards Christians because they mistreat him and he’s only trying to gain revenge. I think that Shylock is a weak person because he knows he is different and stands out. He is singled out and alone. He acts evil and gives the impression that he is a powerful, to try and hide how isolated he feels inside.	399	ENGLISH	1
Lizzie Borden was an average 32 year old woman with a family who was pretty well-off with their finances. She was the average white woman in the 1890s in Fall River, Massachusetts; high class and beautiful. Women like Lizzie Borden did not commit crimes, let alone crimes of such violent nature. Every aspect of Lizzie’s life had been solely based off of her race, sex, and socioeconomic status. Let’s dig deeper into how these characteristics, in addition to the type of crime she committed, influenced how Lizzie was tried and acquitted. We would like to believe that the justice system disregards all individual bias during trials but the Lizzie Borden trial has proved that our system has not always been this way. Many factors including sex, race, and socioeconomic status had a huge impact on not only who was arrested for crimes, but extends further into how and why they were tried the way they were. According to the Crime and Justice Journal during the time of 1890-1899, mainly sex and race influenced judges and juries. Beginning with purely arrests for violent crime, such as murder, nonwhite citizens had an arrest rate of 9.1 per 100,000 people and white citizens only a 2.9 per 100,000 1. From this information we can conclude that whites had a lesser chance of getting arrested, therefore, a lesser chance of appearing in court in front of a jury. Based off of the types of offenses in Massachusetts; only 3.0 per 100,000 people committed murders in 1875-1894. Murder offenses began to decrease in 1895 and went down to 2.5 per 100,000 people 2. In comparison to other crimes such as assault, forcible rape, and robbery, the murder rate is seemingly low. From this information we can infer that such violent crimes during the time was uncommon and from understanding this concept it allows us to better understand how the judge and jury in the Lizzie Borden trial viewed her crime itself. Murder itself was uncommon, then throwing in the fact that she was white led to a trial that the judge had probably never been exposed to. Still to this day many people find it hard to believe people have the audacity to take someone’s life, let alone a woman take two people’s life is something that is hard to grasp. The Lizzie Borden trial occurred in June of 1893. The prosecutor, jury, and all others involved in the deciding factor on Lizzie’s indictment were men 3. The jury was composed of men who were all friends with her father. The statement that was the deciding factor for Lizzie was when her attorney asked the gentlemen of the jury “To find her guilty, you must believe she is a fiend. Gentlemen, does she look it?” 4. Lizzie Borden was tried not guilty based off of how she looked. Because she was a high class white woman she could not possibly commit such a brutal murder with an axe.	<urn:uuid:f78f2868-5f72-4afd-b782-f2aec79e5b86>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://studentwork.erinbush.org/lizzieborden/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00178.warc.gz	en	0.984969	626	3.4375	3	[ -0.075139120221138, -0.09790639579296112, -0.2615566849708557, 0.0978149026632309, 0.3633515536785126, 0.25875627994537354, 0.40232640504837036, 0.04914958029985428, 0.2558443546295166, 0.07134543359279633, 0.43649548292160034, 0.03791840746998787, 0.0730145052075386, -0.09086182713508606,...	5	Lizzie Borden was an average 32 year old woman with a family who was pretty well-off with their finances. She was the average white woman in the 1890s in Fall River, Massachusetts; high class and beautiful. Women like Lizzie Borden did not commit crimes, let alone crimes of such violent nature. Every aspect of Lizzie’s life had been solely based off of her race, sex, and socioeconomic status. Let’s dig deeper into how these characteristics, in addition to the type of crime she committed, influenced how Lizzie was tried and acquitted. We would like to believe that the justice system disregards all individual bias during trials but the Lizzie Borden trial has proved that our system has not always been this way. Many factors including sex, race, and socioeconomic status had a huge impact on not only who was arrested for crimes, but extends further into how and why they were tried the way they were. According to the Crime and Justice Journal during the time of 1890-1899, mainly sex and race influenced judges and juries. Beginning with purely arrests for violent crime, such as murder, nonwhite citizens had an arrest rate of 9.1 per 100,000 people and white citizens only a 2.9 per 100,000 1. From this information we can conclude that whites had a lesser chance of getting arrested, therefore, a lesser chance of appearing in court in front of a jury. Based off of the types of offenses in Massachusetts; only 3.0 per 100,000 people committed murders in 1875-1894. Murder offenses began to decrease in 1895 and went down to 2.5 per 100,000 people 2. In comparison to other crimes such as assault, forcible rape, and robbery, the murder rate is seemingly low. From this information we can infer that such violent crimes during the time was uncommon and from understanding this concept it allows us to better understand how the judge and jury in the Lizzie Borden trial viewed her crime itself. Murder itself was uncommon, then throwing in the fact that she was white led to a trial that the judge had probably never been exposed to. Still to this day many people find it hard to believe people have the audacity to take someone’s life, let alone a woman take two people’s life is something that is hard to grasp. The Lizzie Borden trial occurred in June of 1893. The prosecutor, jury, and all others involved in the deciding factor on Lizzie’s indictment were men 3. The jury was composed of men who were all friends with her father. The statement that was the deciding factor for Lizzie was when her attorney asked the gentlemen of the jury “To find her guilty, you must believe she is a fiend. Gentlemen, does she look it?” 4. Lizzie Borden was tried not guilty based off of how she looked. Because she was a high class white woman she could not possibly commit such a brutal murder with an axe.	649	ENGLISH	1
The practice of Gregorian Masses is an ancient tradition in which it is believed that a continuous series of thirty Masses would release the soul of a deceased person from the punishments of Purgatory. The history of the “Thirty Mass” practice goes back to the year 590 A.D. in St. Andrew’s Monastery in Rome, founded by St. Gregory the Great in his own family villa around 570. It is now known as the Monastery of St. Gregory the Great. The account of the incident which gave rise to it is recounted by St. Gregory himself in his Dialogues. After his election as Pope in 590, one of the monks, Justus by name, became ill. So he admitted to a lay friend, Copiosus, that he had hidden three gold pieces among his medications years before, when he was professed a monk. Both, in fact, were former physicians. And sure enough, the other monks found the gold when seeking the medication for Justus. The founder and former abbot of the monastery, now Pope Gregory, hearing of this scandalous sin against the monastic Rule, called in the new Abbot of his beloved monastery, and ordered the penalty of solitary confinement for Justus, even though he was dying, and ordered that his burial not be in the cemetery but in the garbage dump. Copiosus told his wretched friend of this decision. Moreover, the community were to recite over his dreadful grave the words of St. Peter to Simon the Magician: “May your money perish with you” (Acts 8:20). The Pope’s desired result was achieved: Justus made a serious repentance, and all the monks a serious examination of conscience. Justus then died, but the matter did not, for thirty days later Pope Gregory returned to the monastery filled with concern for Justus, who would now be suffering the grim temporal punishment of Purgatory’s fire for his sins. “We must,” said Gregory to the Abbot, “come by charity to his aid, and as far as possible help him to escape this chastisement. Go and arrange thirty Masses for his soul, so that for thirty consecutive days the Saving Victim is immolated for him without fail.” And so it was done. Some days later, the deceased monk, Justus, appeared in a vision to his friend Copiosus and said, “I have just received the Communion pardon and release from Purgatory because of the Masses said for me.” The monks did a calculation, and noted that it was exactly thirty days since the thirty Masses had begun for Justus. They shared this great consolation with each other, with their Abbott and with Pope Gregory. The Pope included a full account of this episode When the practice began, it was limited solely to services held at the main altar at the Monastery of St. Andrew in Rome, where this had taken place. As time went by, this "privilege" was extended to a few other altars in the city of Rome. Eventually this practice became common in monasteries. A monk of the great Abbey of Cluny in the 11th century attested that such Masses were said daily in that period, with the exception of the major feastdays of the year, such as Easter. In the modern era, the practice was authorized for all churches throughout the world. - "Gregorian Mass Request by Seraphic Mass Association, Pittsburgh,PA" - "The Thirty Gregorian Masses", by the Reverend Stephen Somerville - Website of the Franciscan Friars, T.O.R., for Gregorian Masses - Website of the Salesian Fathers also offering to arrange the Masses - Website of Servants of the Holy Family for requesting Gregorian Masses	<urn:uuid:bcbb97a6-b8c8-468b-a175-01728debced9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_Masses	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00210.warc.gz	en	0.983955	798	3.40625	3	[ -0.01865736022591591, 0.06712416559457779, 0.0054293349385261536, -0.25360479950904846, -0.2189311981201172, -0.030966058373451233, -0.05072140693664551, -0.09616068750619888, 0.2604871392250061, -0.07131068408489227, -0.39646852016448975, -0.14894625544548035, -0.016204211860895157, 0.136...	1	The practice of Gregorian Masses is an ancient tradition in which it is believed that a continuous series of thirty Masses would release the soul of a deceased person from the punishments of Purgatory. The history of the “Thirty Mass” practice goes back to the year 590 A.D. in St. Andrew’s Monastery in Rome, founded by St. Gregory the Great in his own family villa around 570. It is now known as the Monastery of St. Gregory the Great. The account of the incident which gave rise to it is recounted by St. Gregory himself in his Dialogues. After his election as Pope in 590, one of the monks, Justus by name, became ill. So he admitted to a lay friend, Copiosus, that he had hidden three gold pieces among his medications years before, when he was professed a monk. Both, in fact, were former physicians. And sure enough, the other monks found the gold when seeking the medication for Justus. The founder and former abbot of the monastery, now Pope Gregory, hearing of this scandalous sin against the monastic Rule, called in the new Abbot of his beloved monastery, and ordered the penalty of solitary confinement for Justus, even though he was dying, and ordered that his burial not be in the cemetery but in the garbage dump. Copiosus told his wretched friend of this decision. Moreover, the community were to recite over his dreadful grave the words of St. Peter to Simon the Magician: “May your money perish with you” (Acts 8:20). The Pope’s desired result was achieved: Justus made a serious repentance, and all the monks a serious examination of conscience. Justus then died, but the matter did not, for thirty days later Pope Gregory returned to the monastery filled with concern for Justus, who would now be suffering the grim temporal punishment of Purgatory’s fire for his sins. “We must,” said Gregory to the Abbot, “come by charity to his aid, and as far as possible help him to escape this chastisement. Go and arrange thirty Masses for his soul, so that for thirty consecutive days the Saving Victim is immolated for him without fail.” And so it was done. Some days later, the deceased monk, Justus, appeared in a vision to his friend Copiosus and said, “I have just received the Communion pardon and release from Purgatory because of the Masses said for me.” The monks did a calculation, and noted that it was exactly thirty days since the thirty Masses had begun for Justus. They shared this great consolation with each other, with their Abbott and with Pope Gregory. The Pope included a full account of this episode When the practice began, it was limited solely to services held at the main altar at the Monastery of St. Andrew in Rome, where this had taken place. As time went by, this "privilege" was extended to a few other altars in the city of Rome. Eventually this practice became common in monasteries. A monk of the great Abbey of Cluny in the 11th century attested that such Masses were said daily in that period, with the exception of the major feastdays of the year, such as Easter. In the modern era, the practice was authorized for all churches throughout the world. - "Gregorian Mass Request by Seraphic Mass Association, Pittsburgh,PA" - "The Thirty Gregorian Masses", by the Reverend Stephen Somerville - Website of the Franciscan Friars, T.O.R., for Gregorian Masses - Website of the Salesian Fathers also offering to arrange the Masses - Website of Servants of the Holy Family for requesting Gregorian Masses	784	ENGLISH	1
The Pentagon announced in December it would open combat positions to women. It marked a major moment in the history of women in the US military - a history that goes back further than many realize. As we look at Forgotten Women in Savannah history, meet Helen Wyatt Snapp: a pilot at Fort Stewart during World War II. When soldiers first move to Fort Stewart, they get introduced to their new home by learning about the post’s services at a newcomer orientation. And the soldiers pay a visit to the Third Infantry Division’s museum. Museum director Walter “Buck” Meeks says the museum is key to creating a sense of community for soldiers coming from all sorts of backgrounds and regions. "We take this vastly disparate group of people who have nothing in common and we give them something in common," Meeks says. "You’re all part of the third division. You’re all part of the Fort Stewart/Hunter Field military community. And these - when we come in here in the Rogues’ Gallery" - what Meeks calls a room of portraits highlighting key figures in the history of Fort Stewart, Hunter Army Airfield, and the Third Infantry Division - "and when you come in the Rogues Gallery and see the portraits, these are the people that shaped our culture." The group includes the men that Stewart and Hunter were named for, decorated veterans of the posts, and just one woman: Helen Wyatt Snapp. Snapp was a Women Airforce Service Pilot - or WASP - during World War II. They were a group of more than a thousand women who flew planes for the military on the homefront, freeing up men to serve overseas. "The WASP program put their people through exactly the same cadet training that the Air Corps did," Meeks says, "exactly the same instructors, exactly the same aircraft, and the washout rate - the failure rate - was about the same for male and for female recruits." Beyond being held to the same standards, the women often felt they had more to prove. In an interview archived in the Veterans History Project at the Library Congress, Snapp says she and the other pilots faced a lot of prejudice when the program began. "There was so much controversy about women flying, wasting money teaching women to fly. What good would that do?" she says. "Even with that, the menopause, time of month, women couldn't fly at that time. We proved them wrong. No matter what happened, we proved them wrong." And the women of WASP sometimes had fun pushing boundaries and pushing back against the stereotypes. "We would dive bomb them and we were told we didn't have to go below 500 feet if we didn't want to. But we pushed the envelope every time. We went as low as we could. That was fun," Snapp says. "Then we would take off our helmet. We managed to get helmets at that time. And the helmets let our hair fly out and we let them know it was a woman doing that. If we dare fly back over, then they would moon us." Mostly, the women at Fort Stewart - then known as Camp Stewart - towed targets for soldiers in training to practice shooting. But Meeks says Snapp was part of a group that took on a new project as well: drones. "There was no such thing before. Especially drones with a military purpose," Meeks says. Snapp and her fellow WASPs figured out how to fly those early drones - a tough task, since at the time pilots had to be in sight of the remote-controlled planes to fly them. "And it was something that they just handled as a matter of course. It was something that they were just delighted to take on the challenge," he says. Meeks hopes to inspire current soldiers and aviators with stories like that one about Helen Snapp and the other WASPs. It’s why he hung Snapp’s portrait in the museum, and why he invited her to speak at Fort Stewart in 2001. Meeks says that after that talk, the soldiers lined up en masse to get autographs from the aviation pioneer. In her archive interview, Snapp says she loved speaking to groups like that - but she’d rather see words like “hero” reserved for soldiers who fought in the war. For Snapp, her service was mostly about the chance to fly. "I had never been away from home before like that. It was quite an experience just to take that step," she says. "But I was just thrilled to pieces, because I just loved to fly. And here I was going to be able to fly all these wonderful military airplanes." Before her death in 2013, Helen Wyatt Snapp donated her old WASP uniform to the Fort Stewart museum.	<urn:uuid:3e17d0b2-d1e5-4bf8-96c8-b503c6c66898>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gpb.org/news/2015/12/10/forgotten-women-part-9-helen-wyatt-snapp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00481.warc.gz	en	0.982717	998	3.296875	3	[ 0.12327995896339417, 0.40454328060150146, 0.28456833958625793, 0.07327897846698761, 0.2026505470275879, 0.40654975175857544, -0.03873993828892708, 0.2181488424539566, -0.2337677925825119, -0.08764830231666565, 0.41017788648605347, 0.10651764273643494, 0.06397609412670135, 0.399418473243713...	1	The Pentagon announced in December it would open combat positions to women. It marked a major moment in the history of women in the US military - a history that goes back further than many realize. As we look at Forgotten Women in Savannah history, meet Helen Wyatt Snapp: a pilot at Fort Stewart during World War II. When soldiers first move to Fort Stewart, they get introduced to their new home by learning about the post’s services at a newcomer orientation. And the soldiers pay a visit to the Third Infantry Division’s museum. Museum director Walter “Buck” Meeks says the museum is key to creating a sense of community for soldiers coming from all sorts of backgrounds and regions. "We take this vastly disparate group of people who have nothing in common and we give them something in common," Meeks says. "You’re all part of the third division. You’re all part of the Fort Stewart/Hunter Field military community. And these - when we come in here in the Rogues’ Gallery" - what Meeks calls a room of portraits highlighting key figures in the history of Fort Stewart, Hunter Army Airfield, and the Third Infantry Division - "and when you come in the Rogues Gallery and see the portraits, these are the people that shaped our culture." The group includes the men that Stewart and Hunter were named for, decorated veterans of the posts, and just one woman: Helen Wyatt Snapp. Snapp was a Women Airforce Service Pilot - or WASP - during World War II. They were a group of more than a thousand women who flew planes for the military on the homefront, freeing up men to serve overseas. "The WASP program put their people through exactly the same cadet training that the Air Corps did," Meeks says, "exactly the same instructors, exactly the same aircraft, and the washout rate - the failure rate - was about the same for male and for female recruits." Beyond being held to the same standards, the women often felt they had more to prove. In an interview archived in the Veterans History Project at the Library Congress, Snapp says she and the other pilots faced a lot of prejudice when the program began. "There was so much controversy about women flying, wasting money teaching women to fly. What good would that do?" she says. "Even with that, the menopause, time of month, women couldn't fly at that time. We proved them wrong. No matter what happened, we proved them wrong." And the women of WASP sometimes had fun pushing boundaries and pushing back against the stereotypes. "We would dive bomb them and we were told we didn't have to go below 500 feet if we didn't want to. But we pushed the envelope every time. We went as low as we could. That was fun," Snapp says. "Then we would take off our helmet. We managed to get helmets at that time. And the helmets let our hair fly out and we let them know it was a woman doing that. If we dare fly back over, then they would moon us." Mostly, the women at Fort Stewart - then known as Camp Stewart - towed targets for soldiers in training to practice shooting. But Meeks says Snapp was part of a group that took on a new project as well: drones. "There was no such thing before. Especially drones with a military purpose," Meeks says. Snapp and her fellow WASPs figured out how to fly those early drones - a tough task, since at the time pilots had to be in sight of the remote-controlled planes to fly them. "And it was something that they just handled as a matter of course. It was something that they were just delighted to take on the challenge," he says. Meeks hopes to inspire current soldiers and aviators with stories like that one about Helen Snapp and the other WASPs. It’s why he hung Snapp’s portrait in the museum, and why he invited her to speak at Fort Stewart in 2001. Meeks says that after that talk, the soldiers lined up en masse to get autographs from the aviation pioneer. In her archive interview, Snapp says she loved speaking to groups like that - but she’d rather see words like “hero” reserved for soldiers who fought in the war. For Snapp, her service was mostly about the chance to fly. "I had never been away from home before like that. It was quite an experience just to take that step," she says. "But I was just thrilled to pieces, because I just loved to fly. And here I was going to be able to fly all these wonderful military airplanes." Before her death in 2013, Helen Wyatt Snapp donated her old WASP uniform to the Fort Stewart museum.	968	ENGLISH	1
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES BY GEORGE BANCROFT Volume 1, Part 1 Chapter 13 — New England’s Plantation WHILE the king was engaged in the overthrow of the London company, its more loyal rival in the West of England sought new letters-patent with a great enlargement of their domain. The remonstrances of the Virginia corporation and the rights of English commerce could delay for two years, but not defeat, the measure that was pressed by the friends of the monarch. On the third of November, 1620, King James incorporated forty of his subjects—some of them members of his household and his government, the most wealthy and powerful of the English nobility—as “The Council established at Plymouth, in the county of Devon, for the planting, ruling, ordering, and governing New England, in America.” The territory, which was conferred on them in absolute property, with unlimited powers of legislation and government, extended from the fortieth to the forty-eighth degree of north latitude, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The grant included the fisheries; and a revenue was considered certain from a duty to be imposed on all tonnage employed in them. The patent placed emigrants to New England under the absolute authority of the corporation, and it was through grants from that plenary power, confirmed by the crown, that institutions the most favorable to colonial independence and the rights of mankind came into being. The French derided the action of the British monarch in bestowing lands and privileges which their own sovereign seventeen years before had appropriated. The English nation was incensed at the largess of immense monopolies by the royal prerogative; and in April, 1621, Sir Edwin Sandys brought the grievance before the house of commons. “Shall the English,” he asked, “be debarred from the freedom of the fisheries—a privilege which the French and Dutch enjoy? It costs the kingdom nothing but labor, employs shipping, and furnishes the means of a lucrative commerce with Spain.” “The fishermen hinder the plantations,” replied Calvert; “they choke the harbors with their ballast, and waste the forests by improvident use. America is not annexed to the realm, nor within the jurisdiction of parliament. You have, therefore, no right to interfere.” “We may make laws for Virginia,” rejoined another member; “a bill passed by the commons and the lords, if it receive the king’s assent, will control the patent.” The charter, argued Sir Edward Coke, with ample reference to early statutes, was granted without regard to previously existing rights, and is therefore void by the established laws of England. But the parliament was dissolved before a bill could be perfected. In 1622, five-and-thirty sail of vessels went to fish on the coasts of New England, and made good voyages. The monopolists appealed to King James, and he issued a proclamation, which forbade any to approach the northern coast of America, except with the leave of their company or of the privy council. In June, 1623, Francis West was despatched as admiral of New England, to exclude such fishermen as came without a license. But they refused to pay the tax which he imposed, and his ineffectual authority was soon resigned. The company, alike prodigal of charters and tenacious of their monopoly, having, in December, 1622, given to Robert Gorges, the Son of Sir Ferdinando, a patent for a tract extending ten miles on Massachusetts bay and thirty miles into the interior, appointed him lieutenant-general of New England, with power “to restrain interlopers.” Morell, an Episcopal clergyman, was provided with a commission for the superintendence of ecclesiastical affairs. In 1623, under this patent the colony at Weymouth was revived, to meet once more with ill fortune. Morell, remaining in New England about a year, wrote a description of the country in very good Latin verse. The attempt of Robert Gorges at colonization ended in a short-lived dispute with Weston. When, in 1624, parliament was again convened, the commons resolved that English fishermen should have fishing with all its incidents. “Your patent,” thus Gorges was addressed by Coke from the speaker’s chair, “contains many particulars contrary to the laws and privileges of the subject; it is a monopoly, and the ends of private gain are concealed under color of planting a colony.” “Shall none,” asked the veteran lawyer in debate, “shall none visit the sea-coast for fishing? This is to make a monopoly upon the seas, which wont to be free. If you alone are to pack and dry fish, you attempt a monopoly of the wind and the sun.” It was in vain for Sir George Calvert to resist; the bill for free fishing was adopted, but it never received the royal assent. The determined opposition of the house, though it could not move the king to overthrow the corporation, paralyzed its enterprise; and the cottages, which, within a few years, rose along the coast from Cape Cod to the bay of Fundy, were the results of private adventure. Gorges, the most energetic member of the council of Plymouth, had not allowed repeated ill success to chill his confidence and decision; and he found in John Mason, “who had been governor of a plantation in Newfoundland, a man of action,” like himself. It was not difficult for Mason, who had been elected an associate and secretary of the council, to obtain, in March, 1621, a grant of the lands between Salem river and the farthest head of the Merrimack; but he did no more with it than name it Mariana. In August, 1622, Gorges and Mason took a patent for Laconia, the country between the sea, the St. Lawrence, the Merrimack, and the Kennebec; a company of English merchants was formed, and under its auspices, in 1623, permanent plantations were established on the banks of the Piscataqua. Portsmouth and Dover are among the oldest towns in New England. In the same year an attempt was made by Christopher Lovett to colonize the county and city of York, for which, at a later day, collections were ordered to be taken up in all the churches of England. When the country on Massachusetts bay was granted to a company, of which the zeal and success were soon to overshadow all the efforts of proprietaries and merchants, Mason procured a new patent; and, in November, 1629, he received a fresh title to the territory between the Merrimack and Piscataqua, in terms which in some degree interfered with the pretensions of his neighbors on the south. This was the patent for New Hampshire, and was pregnant with nothing so signally as suits at law. The region had been devastated by the mutual wars of the tribes and the same wasting pestilence which left New Plymouth a desert; no notice seems to have been taken of the rights of the natives, nor did they now issue any deed of their lands; but the soil in the immediate vicinity of Dover, and afterward of Portsmouth, was conveyed to the planters themselves, or to those at whose expense the settlement had been made. A favorable impulse was thus given to the little colonies; and houses began to be built on the “Strawberry Bank” of the Piscataqua. But the progress of the town was slow; Josselyn, in 1638, described the coast as a wilderness, with here and there a few huts scattered by the sea-side. Thirty years after its settlement, Portsmouth contained “between fifty and sixty families.” When, in 1635, the charter of the council of Plymouth was about to be revoked, Mason extended his pretensions to the Salem river, the southern boundary of his first territory, and obtained of the expiring corporation a corresponding patent. But he died before the king confirmed his grant, and his family avoided further expense by leaving the few inhabitants of New Hampshire to take care of themselves. The designs of Sir Ferdinando Gorges were continued without great success. His first act with reference to the territory of the present state of Maine was to invite the Scottish nation to become the guardians of its frontier. Sir William Alexander, the ambitious writer of turgid rhyming tragedies, a man of influence with King James, and desirous of engaging in colonial adventure, seconded the design; and, in September, 1621, he obtained without difficulty a patent for the territory east of the river St. Croix and south of the St. Lawrence. The region, which had already been included in the provinces of Acadia and New France, was named Nova Scotia. Thus were the seeds of future wars scattered broadcast; for James gave away lands which already, and with a better title on the ground of discovery, had been granted by Henry IV of France, and occupied by his subjects. Twice attempts were made to effect a Scottish settlement; but, notwithstanding a brilliant eulogy of the soil, climate, and productions of Nova Scotia, they were fruitless. It may be left to English historians to relate how much their country suffered from the childish ambition of King James to marry the prince of Wales to the daughter of the king of Spain. In the rash and unsuccessful visit of Prince Charles and Buckingham to Madrid, the former learned to cherish the fine arts, and to rivet his belief that the king of England was rightfully as absolute as the monarchs of France and Spain; the latter received accounts of abundance of gold in the valley of the Amazon, and, after his return, obtained a grant of the territory on that river, with the promise of aid in his enterprise from the king of Sweden. After the death of James, the marriage of Charles I with Henrietta Maria promised between the rival claimants of the wilds of Acadia a peaceful adjustment of jarring pretensions. Yet, even at that period, the claims of France were not recognised by England; and, in July, 1625, a new patent confirmed to Sir William Alexander all the prerogatives which had been lavished on him, with the right of creating an order of baronets. The sale of titles proved to the poet a lucrative traffic; the project of a colony was abandoned. The self-willed, feeble monarch of England, having twice abruptly dissolved parliament, and having vainly resorted to illegal modes of taxation, found himself destitute of money and of credit, and yet engaged in a war with Spain. At such a moment, in 1627, Buckingham, eager to thwart Richelieu, hurried England into a needless and disastrous conflict with France. Hostilities were nowhere successfully attempted, except in America. In 1628, Port Royal fell easily into the hands of the English; the conquest was no more than the acquisition of a small trading station. Sir David Kirk and his two brothers, Louis and Thomas, were commissioned to ascend the St. Lawrence, and Quebec received a summons to surrender. The garrison, destitute alike of provisions and of military stores, had no hope but in the character of Champlain, its commander; his answer of proud defiance concealed his weakness, and the intimidated assailants withdrew. But Richelieu sent no seasonable supplies; the garrison was reduced to extreme suffering and the verge of famine; and when, in 1623, the squadron of Kirk reappeared before the town, Quebec capitulated. That is to say, England gained possession of a few wretched hovels, tenanted by a hundred famished men, and a fortress of which the English admiral could not but admire the position. Not a port in North America remained to the French; from Long Island to the pole, England had no rival. But, before the conquest of Canada was achieved, peace had been proclaimed; and, as an article in the treaty promised the restitution of all acquisitions made subsequent to April 14, 1629, Richelieu recovered not Quebec and Canada only, but Cape Breton and the undefined Acadia. From the scanty memorials which the earliest settlers of the coast east of New Hampshire have left, it is perhaps not possible to ascertain precisely when the fishing stages of a summer began to be transformed into permanent establishments. In 1626, the first settlement was probably made “on the Maine,” a few miles from Monhegan, at the mouth of the Pemaquid. Hardly had the settlement, which claimed the distinction of being the oldest on that coast, gained a permanent existence, before a succession of patents distributed the territory from the Piscataqua to the Penobscot among various proprietors. The grants issued from 1629 to 1631 were couched in vague language, and were made in hasty succession, without deliberation on the part of the council of Plymouth, and without any firm purpose of establishing colonies by those to whom they were issued. In consequence, as the neighborhood of the French foreboded border feuds, so uncertainty about land titles and boundaries threatened perpetual lawsuits. At the same time enterprise was wasted by its diffusion over too wide a surface. Every harbor along the sea was accessible, and groups of cabins were scattered at wide intervals, without any point of union. Agriculture was hardly attempted. The musket and the hook and line were more productive than the implements of husbandry. The farmers who came to occupy a district of forty miles square, named Lygonia, and stretching from Harpswell to the Kennebec, soon sought a home among the rising settlements of Massachusetts. Except for peltry and fish, the coast of Maine would not at that time have been tenanted by Englishmen. Yet, from pride of character, Gorges clung to the project of territorial aggrandizement. When, in February, 1635, Mason limited himself to the country west of the Piscataqua, while Sir William Alexander obtained of the Plymouth company a patent for the country between the St. Croix and the Kennebec, Gorges succeeded in soliciting the district that remained between the Kennebec and New Hampshire, and was named governor-general of New England. Without delay he sent his nephew, William Gorges, to govern his territory. Saco may have contained one hundred and fifty inhabitants when, in 1636, the first court ever duly organized on the soil of Maine was held within its limits. Before that time there may have been voluntary combinations of the settlers themselves; but there had existed on the Kennebec no power to prevent or to punish bloodshed. William Gorges remained in the country less than two years. Six Puritans of Massachusetts and Connecticut, who, in 1637, received a commission to act as his successors, declined the trust, and for two years no records of the infant settlements then called New Somersetshire can be found. In April, 1639, a royal charter constituted Gorges the lord proprietary of the country, for which the old soldier, who had never seen America, immediately aspired to establish boroughs, frame schemes of colonial government, and enact a code of laws. The region which lies but a little nearer the sun was already converted, by the energy of religious zeal, into a busy, well-organized, and even opulent state. The early history of Massachusetts is the history of a class of men as remarkable for their qualities and influence as any by which the human race has been diversified. The settlement near Weymouth was kept up; a plantation was begun near Mount Wollaston, within the present limits of Quincy; and the merchants of the west continued their voyages to New England for fish and furs. But these things were of feeble moment, compared with the attempt at a permanent establishment near Cape Ann; by which Arthur Lake, bishop of Bath and Wells, and John White, the patriarch minister of Dorchester, Puritans, but not separatists, “occasioned, yea, founded the work” of colonization, on a higher principle than the desire of gain. “He would go himself but for his age,” declared Lake shortly before his death. Roger Conant, having left New Plymouth for Nantasket, through a brother in England who was a friend of White, the minister, in 1625, obtained the agency of the adventure. A year’s experience proved that the speculation must change its form or it would produce no results; the merchants, therefore, paid with honest liberality all the persons whom they had employed, and abandoned the unprofitable scheme. But Conant, a man of extraordinary vigor, “inspired as it were by some superior instinct,” and confiding in the active friendship of White, succeeded in breathing a portion of his sublime courage into three of his companions; and, making choice of Salem as opening a convenient place of refuge for the exiles for religion, they resolved to remain as the sentinels of Puritanism on the bay of Massachusetts. In the year 1627, some friends being together in Lincolnshire fell into discourse about New England and the planting of the gospel there; and, after some deliberation, they imparted their reasons by letters and messages to some in London and the west country. “The business came afresh to agitation” in London; the project of colonizing by the aid of fishing voyages was given up; and from that city, Lincolnshire, and the west country, men of fortune and religious zeal, merchants and country gentlemen, the discreeter sort among the many who desired a reformation in church government, “offered the help of their purses” to advance “the glory of God” by establishing a colony of the best of their countrymen on the shores of New England. To facilitate the grant of a charter from the crown, they sought the concurrence of the council of Plymouth for New England; they were befriended in their application by the earl of Warwick, and obtained the approbation of Sir Ferdinando Gorges; and, on the nineteenth of March, 1628, that company, which had proved itself incapable of colonizing its domain, and could derive revenue only from sales of territory, disregarding a former grant of a large district on the Charles river, conveyed to Sir Henry Roswell, Sir John Young, Thomas Southcoat, John Humphrey, John Endecott, and Simon Whetcomb, a belt of land extending three miles south of the river Charles and the Massachusetts bay, and three miles north of every part of the river Merrimack, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, to be held by the same tenure as in the county of Kent. The grantees associated to themselves Sir Richard Saltonstall, Isaac Johnson, Matthew Cradock, Increase Nowell, Richard Bellingham, Theophilus Eaton, William Pynchon, and others, of whom nearly all united religious zeal with a capacity for vigorous action. Endecott—who, “ever since the Lord in mercy had revealed himself unto him,” had maintained the straitest judgment against the outward form of God’s worship as prescribed by English statutes; a man of dauntless courage, and that cheerfulness which accompanies courage; benevolent, though austere; firm, though choleric; of a rugged nature, which his stern principles of non-conformity had not served to mellow—was selected as a “fit instrument to begin this wilderness work.” In 1628, before June came to an end, he was sent over as governor, assisted by a few men, having his wife and family for the companions of his voyage, the hostages of his irrevocable attachment to the New World. Arriving in safety in September, he united his own party and those who had gone there before him into one body, which counted in all not much above fifty or sixty persons. With these he founded the oldest town in the colony, soon to be called Salem, and extended some supervision over the waters of Boston harbor, then called Massachusetts bay, near which the lands were “counted the paradise of New England.” At Charlestown an Englishman, one Thomas Walford, a blacksmith, dwelt in a thatched and palisaded cabin. William Blackstone, an Episcopal clergyman, a courteous recluse, gifted with the impatience of restraint which belongs to the pioneer, had seated himself on the opposite peninsula; the island now known as East Boston was occupied by Samuel Maverick, a prelatist, though son of a pious non-conformist minister of the west of England. At Nantasket and farther south, stragglers lingered near the seaside, attracted by the gains of a fishing station and a petty trade in beaver. The Puritan ruler visited the remains of Morton’s unruly company in what is now Quincy, rebuked them for their profane revels, and admonished them “to look there should be better walking.” After the departure of the emigrant ship from England, the company, counselled by White, an eminent lawyer, and supported by lord Dorchester, better known as Sir Dudley Carleton, who, in December, became secretary of state, obtained from the king a confirmation of their grant. It was the only way to secure the country as a part of his dominions; for the Dutch were already trading in the Connecticut river; the French claimed New England as within the limits of New France; and the prelatical party, which had endeavored again and again to colonize the coast, had tried only to fail. Before the news reached London of Endecott’s arrival, the number of adventurers was much enlarged; on the second of March, 1629, an offer of “Boston men,” that promised good to the plantation, was accepted; and on the fourth of the same month, a few days only before Charles I, in a public state paper, avowed his purpose of reigning without a parliament, the broad seal of England was put to the letters-patent for Massachusetts. The charter, which was cherished for more than half a century as the most precious boon, constituted a body politic by the name of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England. The administration of its affairs was intrusted to a governor, deputy, and eighteen assistants, who were annually, on the last Wednesday of Easter term, to be elected by the freemen or members of the corporation, and to meet once a month or oftener “for despatching such businesses as concerned the company or plantation.” Four times a year the governor, assistants, and all the freemen were to be summoned to “one great, general, and solemn assembly;” and these “great and general courts” were invested with full powers to choose and admit into the company so many as they should think fit, to elect and constitute all requisite subordinate officers, and to make laws and ordinances for the welfare of the company and for the government of the lands and the inhabitants of the plantation, “so as such laws and ordinances be not contrary and repugnant to the laws and statutes of the realm of England.” “The principle and foundation of the charter of Massachusetts,” wrote Charles II at a later day, when he had Clarendon for his adviser, “was the freedom of liberty of conscience.” The governor, or his deputy, or two of the assistants, was empowered, but not required, to administer the oaths of supremacy and allegiance to every person who should go to inhabit the granted lands; and, as the statutes establishing the common prayer and spiritual courts did not reach beyond the realm, the silence of the charter respecting them released the colony from their power. The English government did not foresee how wide a departure from English usages would grow out of the emigration of Puritans to America; but, as conformity was not required of the new commonwealth, the persecutions in England were a guarantee that the immense majority of emigrants would be fugitives who scrupled compliance with the common prayer. Freedom of Puritan worship was the purpose and the result of the colony. The proceedings of the company, moreover, did not fall under the immediate supervision of the king, and did not need his assent; so that self-direction, in ecclesiastical as well as civil affairs, passed to the patentees, subject only to conflicts with the undefined prerogative of the king, and the unsettled claim to superior authority by parliament. The company was authorized to transport to its territory any persons, whether English or foreigners, who would go willingly, would become lieges of the English king, and were not restrained “by especial name;” and they were encouraged to do so by a promise of favor to the commerce of the colony with foreign parts, and a total or partial exemption from duties for seven and for twenty-one years. The emigrants and their posterity were ever to be considered as natural-born subjects, entitled to all English liberties and immunities. The corporate body alone was to decide what liberties the colonists should enjoy. All ordinances published under its seal were to be implicitly obeyed. Full legislative and executive authority was conferred on the company, but the place where it should hold its courts was not named. The charter had been granted in March; in April, the first embarkation was far advanced. The local government temporarily established for Massachusetts was to consist of a governor and thirteen councillors, of whom eight were to be appointed by the corporation in England; three were to be named by these eight; and, to complete the number, the old planters who intended to remain were “to choose two of the discreetest men among themselves.” As the propagating of the gospel was the professed aim of the company, care was taken to make plentiful provision of godly ministers; all “of one judgment, and fully agreed on the manner how to exercise their ministry.” One of them was Samuel Skelton, of Clare Hall, Cambridge, from whose faithful preachings Endecott had formerly received much good; a friend to the utmost equality of privileges in church and state. Another was the able, reverend, and grave Francis Higginson, of Jesus College, Cambridge, commended for his worth by Isaac Johnson, the friend of Hampden. Deprived of his parish in Leicester for non-conformity, he received the invitation to conduct the emigrants as a call from Heaven. Two other ministers were added, that there might be enough, not only to build up those of the English nation, but also to “wynne the natives to the Christian faith.” “If any of the salvages,” such were the instructions to Endecott, uniformly followed under the succeeding changes of government, “pretend right of inheritance to all or any part of the lands granted in our patent, endeavor to purchase their tytle, that we may avoid the least scruple of intrusion.” “Particularly publish that no wrong or injury be offered to the natives.” In pious sincerity, the company desired to redeem these wrecks of human nature; the colony seal was an Indian erect, with an arrow in his right hand, and the motto, “Come over and help us “—a device of which the appropriateness has been lost by the modern substitution of the line of Algernon Sidney, which invites to the quest of freedom by the sword. The passengers for Salem included six shipwrights and an experienced surveyor, who was to give advice on the proper site for a fortified town, and, with Samuel Sharpe, master gunner of ordnance, was to muster all such as lived under the government, both planters and servants, and at appointed times to exercise them in the use of arms. A store of cattle, horses, and goats was put on shipboard. Before sailing, servants of ill life were discharged. “No idle drone may live among us,” was the spirit as well as the law of the dauntless community. As Higginson and his companions were receding from the Land’s End, he called his children and others around him to look for the last time on their native country, not as the scene of sufferings from intolerance, but as the home of their fathers, and the dwelling-place of their friends. During the voyage they “constantly served God, morning and evening, by reading and expounding a chapter in the Bible, singing and prayer.” On “the sabbath they added preaching twice, and catechising;” and twice they “faithfully” kept “solemn fasts.” The passage was “pious and Christian-like,” for even “the ship-master and his religious company set their eight and twelve o’clock watches with singing a psalm and with prayer that was not read out of a book.” In the last days of June, the band of two hundred arrived at Salem. They found eight or ten pitiful hovels, one larger tenement for the governor, and a few cornfields, as the only proofs that they had been preceded by their countrymen. The old and new planters, without counting women and children, formed a body of about three hundred, of whom the larger part were “godly Christians, helped hither by Isaac Johnson and other members of the company, to be employed in their work for a while, and then to live of themselves.” To anticipate the intrusion of John Oldham, who was minded to settle himself on Boston bay, pretending a title to much land there by a grant from Robert Gorges, Endecott with all speed sent a large party, accompanied by a minister, to occupy Charlestown. On the neck of land, which was full of stately timber, with the leave of Sagamore John, the petty chief who claimed dominion over it, Graves, the surveyor, employed some of the servants of the company in building a “great house,” and modelled and laid out the form of the town, with streets about the hill. To the European world the few tenants of the huts and cabins at Salem were too insignificant to merit notice; to themselves, they were chosen emissaries of God; outcasts from England, yet favorites with Heaven; destitute of security, of convenient food, and of shelter, and yet blessed as instruments selected to light in the wilderness the beacon of pure religion. They were not so much a body politic as a church in the wilderness, seeking, under a visible covenant, to have fellowship with God, as a family of adopted sons. “The governor was moved to set apart the twentieth of July to be a solemn day of humiliation, for the choyce of a pastor and a teacher at Salem.” After prayer and preaching, “the persons thought on,” presenting no claim founded on their ordination in England, acknowledged a twofold calling: the inward, which is of God, who moves the heart and bestows fit gifts; the outward, which is from a company of believers joined in covenant, and allowing to every member a free voice in the election of its officers. The vote was then taken by each one’s writing in a note the name of his choice. Such is the origin of the use of the ballot on this continent; in this manner Skelton was chosen pastor and Higginson teacher. Three or four of the gravest members of the church then laid their hands on Skelton with prayer, and in like manner on Higginson: so that “these two blessed servants of the Lord came in at the door, and not at the window;” by the act of the congregation, and not by the authority of a prelate. A day in August was appointed for the election of ruling elders and deacons. The church, like that of Plymouth, was self-constituted, on the principle of the independence of each religious community. It did not ask the assent of the king, or recognise him as its head; its officers were set apart and ordained among themselves; it used no liturgy; it rejected unnecessary ceremonies, and reduced the simplicity of Calvin to a still plainer standard. The motives which controlled its decisions were so deeply seated that its practices were repeated spontaneously by Puritan New England. There were a few at Salem by whom the new system was disapproved; and in John and Samuel Browne they found able leaders. Both were members of the colonial council: both were reputed “sincere in their affection for the good of the plantation;” they had been specially recommended to Endecott by the corporation in England; and one of them, an experienced lawyer, had been a member of the board of assistants. They refused to unite with the public assembly, and gathered a company, in which “the common prayer worship” was upheld. But should the emigrants, thus the colonists reasoned, give up the purpose for which they had crossed the Atlantic? Should the success of the colony be endangered by a breach of its unity, and the authority of its government overthrown by the confusion of an ever recurring conflict? They deemed the co-existence of their liberty and of prelacy impossible; anticipating invasions of their rights, they feared the adherents of the establishment as spies in the camp; and the form of religion from which they had suffered was repelled, not as a sect, but as a tyranny. “You are separatists,” said the Brownes, in self-defence, “and you will shortly be Anabaptists.” “We separate,” answered the ministers, “not from the church of England, but from its corruptions. We came away from the common prayer and ceremonies, in our native land, where we suffered much for non-conformity; in this place of liberty we cannot, we will not, use them. Their imposition would be a sinful violation of the worship of God.” The supporters of the liturgy were in their turn rebuked as separatists; their plea was reproved as sedition, their worship forbidden as a mutiny; and the Brownes were sent back to England, as men “factious and evil conditioned,” who could not be suffered to remain within the limits of the grant, because they would not be conformable to its government. Thus was episcopacy professed in Massachusetts, and thus was it exiled. The Brownes, on their arrival in England, raised rumors of scandalous and intemperate speeches uttered by the ministers in their public sermons and prayers, and of rash innovations begun and practiced in the civil and ecclesiastical government. The returning ships carried with them numerous letters from the emigrants, and a glowing description of “New England’s Plantation” by Higginson which was immediately printed and most eagerly and widely sought for. History of the United States by George Bancroft, formatted for the Internet by Steve Farrell – An Americanist Classic.	<urn:uuid:3a4f740b-3801-49e2-8cc9-a8a8a2098b71>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://selfeducatedamerican.com/2019/12/26/new-englands-plantation-bancroft/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00542.warc.gz	en	0.981557	7,342	3.75	4	[ -0.14356239140033722, 0.11603941023349762, 0.7262835502624512, -0.34137213230133057, -0.24705544114112854, -0.0010960644576698542, 0.048521026968955994, -0.10226743668317795, 0.17304229736328125, 0.2650313079357147, -0.2184399962425232, -0.009353090077638626, 0.2798619866371155, 0.10679081...	10	HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES BY GEORGE BANCROFT Volume 1, Part 1 Chapter 13 — New England’s Plantation WHILE the king was engaged in the overthrow of the London company, its more loyal rival in the West of England sought new letters-patent with a great enlargement of their domain. The remonstrances of the Virginia corporation and the rights of English commerce could delay for two years, but not defeat, the measure that was pressed by the friends of the monarch. On the third of November, 1620, King James incorporated forty of his subjects—some of them members of his household and his government, the most wealthy and powerful of the English nobility—as “The Council established at Plymouth, in the county of Devon, for the planting, ruling, ordering, and governing New England, in America.” The territory, which was conferred on them in absolute property, with unlimited powers of legislation and government, extended from the fortieth to the forty-eighth degree of north latitude, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The grant included the fisheries; and a revenue was considered certain from a duty to be imposed on all tonnage employed in them. The patent placed emigrants to New England under the absolute authority of the corporation, and it was through grants from that plenary power, confirmed by the crown, that institutions the most favorable to colonial independence and the rights of mankind came into being. The French derided the action of the British monarch in bestowing lands and privileges which their own sovereign seventeen years before had appropriated. The English nation was incensed at the largess of immense monopolies by the royal prerogative; and in April, 1621, Sir Edwin Sandys brought the grievance before the house of commons. “Shall the English,” he asked, “be debarred from the freedom of the fisheries—a privilege which the French and Dutch enjoy? It costs the kingdom nothing but labor, employs shipping, and furnishes the means of a lucrative commerce with Spain.” “The fishermen hinder the plantations,” replied Calvert; “they choke the harbors with their ballast, and waste the forests by improvident use. America is not annexed to the realm, nor within the jurisdiction of parliament. You have, therefore, no right to interfere.” “We may make laws for Virginia,” rejoined another member; “a bill passed by the commons and the lords, if it receive the king’s assent, will control the patent.” The charter, argued Sir Edward Coke, with ample reference to early statutes, was granted without regard to previously existing rights, and is therefore void by the established laws of England. But the parliament was dissolved before a bill could be perfected. In 1622, five-and-thirty sail of vessels went to fish on the coasts of New England, and made good voyages. The monopolists appealed to King James, and he issued a proclamation, which forbade any to approach the northern coast of America, except with the leave of their company or of the privy council. In June, 1623, Francis West was despatched as admiral of New England, to exclude such fishermen as came without a license. But they refused to pay the tax which he imposed, and his ineffectual authority was soon resigned. The company, alike prodigal of charters and tenacious of their monopoly, having, in December, 1622, given to Robert Gorges, the Son of Sir Ferdinando, a patent for a tract extending ten miles on Massachusetts bay and thirty miles into the interior, appointed him lieutenant-general of New England, with power “to restrain interlopers.” Morell, an Episcopal clergyman, was provided with a commission for the superintendence of ecclesiastical affairs. In 1623, under this patent the colony at Weymouth was revived, to meet once more with ill fortune. Morell, remaining in New England about a year, wrote a description of the country in very good Latin verse. The attempt of Robert Gorges at colonization ended in a short-lived dispute with Weston. When, in 1624, parliament was again convened, the commons resolved that English fishermen should have fishing with all its incidents. “Your patent,” thus Gorges was addressed by Coke from the speaker’s chair, “contains many particulars contrary to the laws and privileges of the subject; it is a monopoly, and the ends of private gain are concealed under color of planting a colony.” “Shall none,” asked the veteran lawyer in debate, “shall none visit the sea-coast for fishing? This is to make a monopoly upon the seas, which wont to be free. If you alone are to pack and dry fish, you attempt a monopoly of the wind and the sun.” It was in vain for Sir George Calvert to resist; the bill for free fishing was adopted, but it never received the royal assent. The determined opposition of the house, though it could not move the king to overthrow the corporation, paralyzed its enterprise; and the cottages, which, within a few years, rose along the coast from Cape Cod to the bay of Fundy, were the results of private adventure. Gorges, the most energetic member of the council of Plymouth, had not allowed repeated ill success to chill his confidence and decision; and he found in John Mason, “who had been governor of a plantation in Newfoundland, a man of action,” like himself. It was not difficult for Mason, who had been elected an associate and secretary of the council, to obtain, in March, 1621, a grant of the lands between Salem river and the farthest head of the Merrimack; but he did no more with it than name it Mariana. In August, 1622, Gorges and Mason took a patent for Laconia, the country between the sea, the St. Lawrence, the Merrimack, and the Kennebec; a company of English merchants was formed, and under its auspices, in 1623, permanent plantations were established on the banks of the Piscataqua. Portsmouth and Dover are among the oldest towns in New England. In the same year an attempt was made by Christopher Lovett to colonize the county and city of York, for which, at a later day, collections were ordered to be taken up in all the churches of England. When the country on Massachusetts bay was granted to a company, of which the zeal and success were soon to overshadow all the efforts of proprietaries and merchants, Mason procured a new patent; and, in November, 1629, he received a fresh title to the territory between the Merrimack and Piscataqua, in terms which in some degree interfered with the pretensions of his neighbors on the south. This was the patent for New Hampshire, and was pregnant with nothing so signally as suits at law. The region had been devastated by the mutual wars of the tribes and the same wasting pestilence which left New Plymouth a desert; no notice seems to have been taken of the rights of the natives, nor did they now issue any deed of their lands; but the soil in the immediate vicinity of Dover, and afterward of Portsmouth, was conveyed to the planters themselves, or to those at whose expense the settlement had been made. A favorable impulse was thus given to the little colonies; and houses began to be built on the “Strawberry Bank” of the Piscataqua. But the progress of the town was slow; Josselyn, in 1638, described the coast as a wilderness, with here and there a few huts scattered by the sea-side. Thirty years after its settlement, Portsmouth contained “between fifty and sixty families.” When, in 1635, the charter of the council of Plymouth was about to be revoked, Mason extended his pretensions to the Salem river, the southern boundary of his first territory, and obtained of the expiring corporation a corresponding patent. But he died before the king confirmed his grant, and his family avoided further expense by leaving the few inhabitants of New Hampshire to take care of themselves. The designs of Sir Ferdinando Gorges were continued without great success. His first act with reference to the territory of the present state of Maine was to invite the Scottish nation to become the guardians of its frontier. Sir William Alexander, the ambitious writer of turgid rhyming tragedies, a man of influence with King James, and desirous of engaging in colonial adventure, seconded the design; and, in September, 1621, he obtained without difficulty a patent for the territory east of the river St. Croix and south of the St. Lawrence. The region, which had already been included in the provinces of Acadia and New France, was named Nova Scotia. Thus were the seeds of future wars scattered broadcast; for James gave away lands which already, and with a better title on the ground of discovery, had been granted by Henry IV of France, and occupied by his subjects. Twice attempts were made to effect a Scottish settlement; but, notwithstanding a brilliant eulogy of the soil, climate, and productions of Nova Scotia, they were fruitless. It may be left to English historians to relate how much their country suffered from the childish ambition of King James to marry the prince of Wales to the daughter of the king of Spain. In the rash and unsuccessful visit of Prince Charles and Buckingham to Madrid, the former learned to cherish the fine arts, and to rivet his belief that the king of England was rightfully as absolute as the monarchs of France and Spain; the latter received accounts of abundance of gold in the valley of the Amazon, and, after his return, obtained a grant of the territory on that river, with the promise of aid in his enterprise from the king of Sweden. After the death of James, the marriage of Charles I with Henrietta Maria promised between the rival claimants of the wilds of Acadia a peaceful adjustment of jarring pretensions. Yet, even at that period, the claims of France were not recognised by England; and, in July, 1625, a new patent confirmed to Sir William Alexander all the prerogatives which had been lavished on him, with the right of creating an order of baronets. The sale of titles proved to the poet a lucrative traffic; the project of a colony was abandoned. The self-willed, feeble monarch of England, having twice abruptly dissolved parliament, and having vainly resorted to illegal modes of taxation, found himself destitute of money and of credit, and yet engaged in a war with Spain. At such a moment, in 1627, Buckingham, eager to thwart Richelieu, hurried England into a needless and disastrous conflict with France. Hostilities were nowhere successfully attempted, except in America. In 1628, Port Royal fell easily into the hands of the English; the conquest was no more than the acquisition of a small trading station. Sir David Kirk and his two brothers, Louis and Thomas, were commissioned to ascend the St. Lawrence, and Quebec received a summons to surrender. The garrison, destitute alike of provisions and of military stores, had no hope but in the character of Champlain, its commander; his answer of proud defiance concealed his weakness, and the intimidated assailants withdrew. But Richelieu sent no seasonable supplies; the garrison was reduced to extreme suffering and the verge of famine; and when, in 1623, the squadron of Kirk reappeared before the town, Quebec capitulated. That is to say, England gained possession of a few wretched hovels, tenanted by a hundred famished men, and a fortress of which the English admiral could not but admire the position. Not a port in North America remained to the French; from Long Island to the pole, England had no rival. But, before the conquest of Canada was achieved, peace had been proclaimed; and, as an article in the treaty promised the restitution of all acquisitions made subsequent to April 14, 1629, Richelieu recovered not Quebec and Canada only, but Cape Breton and the undefined Acadia. From the scanty memorials which the earliest settlers of the coast east of New Hampshire have left, it is perhaps not possible to ascertain precisely when the fishing stages of a summer began to be transformed into permanent establishments. In 1626, the first settlement was probably made “on the Maine,” a few miles from Monhegan, at the mouth of the Pemaquid. Hardly had the settlement, which claimed the distinction of being the oldest on that coast, gained a permanent existence, before a succession of patents distributed the territory from the Piscataqua to the Penobscot among various proprietors. The grants issued from 1629 to 1631 were couched in vague language, and were made in hasty succession, without deliberation on the part of the council of Plymouth, and without any firm purpose of establishing colonies by those to whom they were issued. In consequence, as the neighborhood of the French foreboded border feuds, so uncertainty about land titles and boundaries threatened perpetual lawsuits. At the same time enterprise was wasted by its diffusion over too wide a surface. Every harbor along the sea was accessible, and groups of cabins were scattered at wide intervals, without any point of union. Agriculture was hardly attempted. The musket and the hook and line were more productive than the implements of husbandry. The farmers who came to occupy a district of forty miles square, named Lygonia, and stretching from Harpswell to the Kennebec, soon sought a home among the rising settlements of Massachusetts. Except for peltry and fish, the coast of Maine would not at that time have been tenanted by Englishmen. Yet, from pride of character, Gorges clung to the project of territorial aggrandizement. When, in February, 1635, Mason limited himself to the country west of the Piscataqua, while Sir William Alexander obtained of the Plymouth company a patent for the country between the St. Croix and the Kennebec, Gorges succeeded in soliciting the district that remained between the Kennebec and New Hampshire, and was named governor-general of New England. Without delay he sent his nephew, William Gorges, to govern his territory. Saco may have contained one hundred and fifty inhabitants when, in 1636, the first court ever duly organized on the soil of Maine was held within its limits. Before that time there may have been voluntary combinations of the settlers themselves; but there had existed on the Kennebec no power to prevent or to punish bloodshed. William Gorges remained in the country less than two years. Six Puritans of Massachusetts and Connecticut, who, in 1637, received a commission to act as his successors, declined the trust, and for two years no records of the infant settlements then called New Somersetshire can be found. In April, 1639, a royal charter constituted Gorges the lord proprietary of the country, for which the old soldier, who had never seen America, immediately aspired to establish boroughs, frame schemes of colonial government, and enact a code of laws. The region which lies but a little nearer the sun was already converted, by the energy of religious zeal, into a busy, well-organized, and even opulent state. The early history of Massachusetts is the history of a class of men as remarkable for their qualities and influence as any by which the human race has been diversified. The settlement near Weymouth was kept up; a plantation was begun near Mount Wollaston, within the present limits of Quincy; and the merchants of the west continued their voyages to New England for fish and furs. But these things were of feeble moment, compared with the attempt at a permanent establishment near Cape Ann; by which Arthur Lake, bishop of Bath and Wells, and John White, the patriarch minister of Dorchester, Puritans, but not separatists, “occasioned, yea, founded the work” of colonization, on a higher principle than the desire of gain. “He would go himself but for his age,” declared Lake shortly before his death. Roger Conant, having left New Plymouth for Nantasket, through a brother in England who was a friend of White, the minister, in 1625, obtained the agency of the adventure. A year’s experience proved that the speculation must change its form or it would produce no results; the merchants, therefore, paid with honest liberality all the persons whom they had employed, and abandoned the unprofitable scheme. But Conant, a man of extraordinary vigor, “inspired as it were by some superior instinct,” and confiding in the active friendship of White, succeeded in breathing a portion of his sublime courage into three of his companions; and, making choice of Salem as opening a convenient place of refuge for the exiles for religion, they resolved to remain as the sentinels of Puritanism on the bay of Massachusetts. In the year 1627, some friends being together in Lincolnshire fell into discourse about New England and the planting of the gospel there; and, after some deliberation, they imparted their reasons by letters and messages to some in London and the west country. “The business came afresh to agitation” in London; the project of colonizing by the aid of fishing voyages was given up; and from that city, Lincolnshire, and the west country, men of fortune and religious zeal, merchants and country gentlemen, the discreeter sort among the many who desired a reformation in church government, “offered the help of their purses” to advance “the glory of God” by establishing a colony of the best of their countrymen on the shores of New England. To facilitate the grant of a charter from the crown, they sought the concurrence of the council of Plymouth for New England; they were befriended in their application by the earl of Warwick, and obtained the approbation of Sir Ferdinando Gorges; and, on the nineteenth of March, 1628, that company, which had proved itself incapable of colonizing its domain, and could derive revenue only from sales of territory, disregarding a former grant of a large district on the Charles river, conveyed to Sir Henry Roswell, Sir John Young, Thomas Southcoat, John Humphrey, John Endecott, and Simon Whetcomb, a belt of land extending three miles south of the river Charles and the Massachusetts bay, and three miles north of every part of the river Merrimack, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, to be held by the same tenure as in the county of Kent. The grantees associated to themselves Sir Richard Saltonstall, Isaac Johnson, Matthew Cradock, Increase Nowell, Richard Bellingham, Theophilus Eaton, William Pynchon, and others, of whom nearly all united religious zeal with a capacity for vigorous action. Endecott—who, “ever since the Lord in mercy had revealed himself unto him,” had maintained the straitest judgment against the outward form of God’s worship as prescribed by English statutes; a man of dauntless courage, and that cheerfulness which accompanies courage; benevolent, though austere; firm, though choleric; of a rugged nature, which his stern principles of non-conformity had not served to mellow—was selected as a “fit instrument to begin this wilderness work.” In 1628, before June came to an end, he was sent over as governor, assisted by a few men, having his wife and family for the companions of his voyage, the hostages of his irrevocable attachment to the New World. Arriving in safety in September, he united his own party and those who had gone there before him into one body, which counted in all not much above fifty or sixty persons. With these he founded the oldest town in the colony, soon to be called Salem, and extended some supervision over the waters of Boston harbor, then called Massachusetts bay, near which the lands were “counted the paradise of New England.” At Charlestown an Englishman, one Thomas Walford, a blacksmith, dwelt in a thatched and palisaded cabin. William Blackstone, an Episcopal clergyman, a courteous recluse, gifted with the impatience of restraint which belongs to the pioneer, had seated himself on the opposite peninsula; the island now known as East Boston was occupied by Samuel Maverick, a prelatist, though son of a pious non-conformist minister of the west of England. At Nantasket and farther south, stragglers lingered near the seaside, attracted by the gains of a fishing station and a petty trade in beaver. The Puritan ruler visited the remains of Morton’s unruly company in what is now Quincy, rebuked them for their profane revels, and admonished them “to look there should be better walking.” After the departure of the emigrant ship from England, the company, counselled by White, an eminent lawyer, and supported by lord Dorchester, better known as Sir Dudley Carleton, who, in December, became secretary of state, obtained from the king a confirmation of their grant. It was the only way to secure the country as a part of his dominions; for the Dutch were already trading in the Connecticut river; the French claimed New England as within the limits of New France; and the prelatical party, which had endeavored again and again to colonize the coast, had tried only to fail. Before the news reached London of Endecott’s arrival, the number of adventurers was much enlarged; on the second of March, 1629, an offer of “Boston men,” that promised good to the plantation, was accepted; and on the fourth of the same month, a few days only before Charles I, in a public state paper, avowed his purpose of reigning without a parliament, the broad seal of England was put to the letters-patent for Massachusetts. The charter, which was cherished for more than half a century as the most precious boon, constituted a body politic by the name of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England. The administration of its affairs was intrusted to a governor, deputy, and eighteen assistants, who were annually, on the last Wednesday of Easter term, to be elected by the freemen or members of the corporation, and to meet once a month or oftener “for despatching such businesses as concerned the company or plantation.” Four times a year the governor, assistants, and all the freemen were to be summoned to “one great, general, and solemn assembly;” and these “great and general courts” were invested with full powers to choose and admit into the company so many as they should think fit, to elect and constitute all requisite subordinate officers, and to make laws and ordinances for the welfare of the company and for the government of the lands and the inhabitants of the plantation, “so as such laws and ordinances be not contrary and repugnant to the laws and statutes of the realm of England.” “The principle and foundation of the charter of Massachusetts,” wrote Charles II at a later day, when he had Clarendon for his adviser, “was the freedom of liberty of conscience.” The governor, or his deputy, or two of the assistants, was empowered, but not required, to administer the oaths of supremacy and allegiance to every person who should go to inhabit the granted lands; and, as the statutes establishing the common prayer and spiritual courts did not reach beyond the realm, the silence of the charter respecting them released the colony from their power. The English government did not foresee how wide a departure from English usages would grow out of the emigration of Puritans to America; but, as conformity was not required of the new commonwealth, the persecutions in England were a guarantee that the immense majority of emigrants would be fugitives who scrupled compliance with the common prayer. Freedom of Puritan worship was the purpose and the result of the colony. The proceedings of the company, moreover, did not fall under the immediate supervision of the king, and did not need his assent; so that self-direction, in ecclesiastical as well as civil affairs, passed to the patentees, subject only to conflicts with the undefined prerogative of the king, and the unsettled claim to superior authority by parliament. The company was authorized to transport to its territory any persons, whether English or foreigners, who would go willingly, would become lieges of the English king, and were not restrained “by especial name;” and they were encouraged to do so by a promise of favor to the commerce of the colony with foreign parts, and a total or partial exemption from duties for seven and for twenty-one years. The emigrants and their posterity were ever to be considered as natural-born subjects, entitled to all English liberties and immunities. The corporate body alone was to decide what liberties the colonists should enjoy. All ordinances published under its seal were to be implicitly obeyed. Full legislative and executive authority was conferred on the company, but the place where it should hold its courts was not named. The charter had been granted in March; in April, the first embarkation was far advanced. The local government temporarily established for Massachusetts was to consist of a governor and thirteen councillors, of whom eight were to be appointed by the corporation in England; three were to be named by these eight; and, to complete the number, the old planters who intended to remain were “to choose two of the discreetest men among themselves.” As the propagating of the gospel was the professed aim of the company, care was taken to make plentiful provision of godly ministers; all “of one judgment, and fully agreed on the manner how to exercise their ministry.” One of them was Samuel Skelton, of Clare Hall, Cambridge, from whose faithful preachings Endecott had formerly received much good; a friend to the utmost equality of privileges in church and state. Another was the able, reverend, and grave Francis Higginson, of Jesus College, Cambridge, commended for his worth by Isaac Johnson, the friend of Hampden. Deprived of his parish in Leicester for non-conformity, he received the invitation to conduct the emigrants as a call from Heaven. Two other ministers were added, that there might be enough, not only to build up those of the English nation, but also to “wynne the natives to the Christian faith.” “If any of the salvages,” such were the instructions to Endecott, uniformly followed under the succeeding changes of government, “pretend right of inheritance to all or any part of the lands granted in our patent, endeavor to purchase their tytle, that we may avoid the least scruple of intrusion.” “Particularly publish that no wrong or injury be offered to the natives.” In pious sincerity, the company desired to redeem these wrecks of human nature; the colony seal was an Indian erect, with an arrow in his right hand, and the motto, “Come over and help us “—a device of which the appropriateness has been lost by the modern substitution of the line of Algernon Sidney, which invites to the quest of freedom by the sword. The passengers for Salem included six shipwrights and an experienced surveyor, who was to give advice on the proper site for a fortified town, and, with Samuel Sharpe, master gunner of ordnance, was to muster all such as lived under the government, both planters and servants, and at appointed times to exercise them in the use of arms. A store of cattle, horses, and goats was put on shipboard. Before sailing, servants of ill life were discharged. “No idle drone may live among us,” was the spirit as well as the law of the dauntless community. As Higginson and his companions were receding from the Land’s End, he called his children and others around him to look for the last time on their native country, not as the scene of sufferings from intolerance, but as the home of their fathers, and the dwelling-place of their friends. During the voyage they “constantly served God, morning and evening, by reading and expounding a chapter in the Bible, singing and prayer.” On “the sabbath they added preaching twice, and catechising;” and twice they “faithfully” kept “solemn fasts.” The passage was “pious and Christian-like,” for even “the ship-master and his religious company set their eight and twelve o’clock watches with singing a psalm and with prayer that was not read out of a book.” In the last days of June, the band of two hundred arrived at Salem. They found eight or ten pitiful hovels, one larger tenement for the governor, and a few cornfields, as the only proofs that they had been preceded by their countrymen. The old and new planters, without counting women and children, formed a body of about three hundred, of whom the larger part were “godly Christians, helped hither by Isaac Johnson and other members of the company, to be employed in their work for a while, and then to live of themselves.” To anticipate the intrusion of John Oldham, who was minded to settle himself on Boston bay, pretending a title to much land there by a grant from Robert Gorges, Endecott with all speed sent a large party, accompanied by a minister, to occupy Charlestown. On the neck of land, which was full of stately timber, with the leave of Sagamore John, the petty chief who claimed dominion over it, Graves, the surveyor, employed some of the servants of the company in building a “great house,” and modelled and laid out the form of the town, with streets about the hill. To the European world the few tenants of the huts and cabins at Salem were too insignificant to merit notice; to themselves, they were chosen emissaries of God; outcasts from England, yet favorites with Heaven; destitute of security, of convenient food, and of shelter, and yet blessed as instruments selected to light in the wilderness the beacon of pure religion. They were not so much a body politic as a church in the wilderness, seeking, under a visible covenant, to have fellowship with God, as a family of adopted sons. “The governor was moved to set apart the twentieth of July to be a solemn day of humiliation, for the choyce of a pastor and a teacher at Salem.” After prayer and preaching, “the persons thought on,” presenting no claim founded on their ordination in England, acknowledged a twofold calling: the inward, which is of God, who moves the heart and bestows fit gifts; the outward, which is from a company of believers joined in covenant, and allowing to every member a free voice in the election of its officers. The vote was then taken by each one’s writing in a note the name of his choice. Such is the origin of the use of the ballot on this continent; in this manner Skelton was chosen pastor and Higginson teacher. Three or four of the gravest members of the church then laid their hands on Skelton with prayer, and in like manner on Higginson: so that “these two blessed servants of the Lord came in at the door, and not at the window;” by the act of the congregation, and not by the authority of a prelate. A day in August was appointed for the election of ruling elders and deacons. The church, like that of Plymouth, was self-constituted, on the principle of the independence of each religious community. It did not ask the assent of the king, or recognise him as its head; its officers were set apart and ordained among themselves; it used no liturgy; it rejected unnecessary ceremonies, and reduced the simplicity of Calvin to a still plainer standard. The motives which controlled its decisions were so deeply seated that its practices were repeated spontaneously by Puritan New England. There were a few at Salem by whom the new system was disapproved; and in John and Samuel Browne they found able leaders. Both were members of the colonial council: both were reputed “sincere in their affection for the good of the plantation;” they had been specially recommended to Endecott by the corporation in England; and one of them, an experienced lawyer, had been a member of the board of assistants. They refused to unite with the public assembly, and gathered a company, in which “the common prayer worship” was upheld. But should the emigrants, thus the colonists reasoned, give up the purpose for which they had crossed the Atlantic? Should the success of the colony be endangered by a breach of its unity, and the authority of its government overthrown by the confusion of an ever recurring conflict? They deemed the co-existence of their liberty and of prelacy impossible; anticipating invasions of their rights, they feared the adherents of the establishment as spies in the camp; and the form of religion from which they had suffered was repelled, not as a sect, but as a tyranny. “You are separatists,” said the Brownes, in self-defence, “and you will shortly be Anabaptists.” “We separate,” answered the ministers, “not from the church of England, but from its corruptions. We came away from the common prayer and ceremonies, in our native land, where we suffered much for non-conformity; in this place of liberty we cannot, we will not, use them. Their imposition would be a sinful violation of the worship of God.” The supporters of the liturgy were in their turn rebuked as separatists; their plea was reproved as sedition, their worship forbidden as a mutiny; and the Brownes were sent back to England, as men “factious and evil conditioned,” who could not be suffered to remain within the limits of the grant, because they would not be conformable to its government. Thus was episcopacy professed in Massachusetts, and thus was it exiled. The Brownes, on their arrival in England, raised rumors of scandalous and intemperate speeches uttered by the ministers in their public sermons and prayers, and of rash innovations begun and practiced in the civil and ecclesiastical government. The returning ships carried with them numerous letters from the emigrants, and a glowing description of “New England’s Plantation” by Higginson which was immediately printed and most eagerly and widely sought for. History of the United States by George Bancroft, formatted for the Internet by Steve Farrell – An Americanist Classic.	7,217	ENGLISH	1
All throughout the history of the United States and all of the presidents have had a huge impact on the entire world. The legacy that a president leaves behind will always be remembered, either positive or negative. One who has left the largest impact on theses states, who are united as a whole, is Kennedy. His legacy is still going strong fifty years later. Kennedy has left the longest living legacy and probably the best. Kennedy was born on May twenty ninth, nineteen seventeen. He was born in Massachusetts, and was the second of a total of nine kids. Kennedys father was a very competitive. He expected almost to much out of his kids. When Kennedy was in school he was not considered a “Model” student. He was a big partier, and a huge womanizer (John F. Kennedy Biography). All throughout his school career Kennedy was still expected to do great things. His parents knew that he was brilliant so they kept pushing him to do better (John F. Kennedy Biography). Kennedy, despite his struggles in school, continued on to Harvard. After Kennedy graduated, he started his political career in 1952 when he; with the help of his brother, won the election by a slim margin(John F. Kennedy). After his time in office, he ran for president in 1960 and won the election. In his Inaugural Address Kennedy said to his fellow citizens “... ask not what your country can do for you-- ask what you can do for your country.” (Kennedy) When Kennedy served in the navy he was showing that he really meant what he said. Kennedy served in the military from 1941-1945 when he was released from his duty and retired on physical disability in 1945. He was a PT boat captain. On August 1943 a Japanese ship struck the PT 109 and damaged it severely. Many of the boats passengers were injured including Kennedy. Although his injuries not minor. He still got up and rescued six of his fellow crew members; two of which were hurt. The rest of the remaining crew was not rescued until August eighth. Kennedy was later awarded the Navy and Marine Corps medal for his heroics on that day (Lieutenant John F. Kennedy, USN). That alone show that this man not only is a real life hero but that he lived by the words that he later said. Kennedy took to presidency during one of the hardest times in the history of the United States; The cold War. Not only did this take extreme courage to run during this time, but it also took a strong leader who could get his country through it. Kennedy handled the Cold War very well. One of the hardest parts of his presidency was the cold war. Kennedy kept his composure and handled the “war” with extreme caution. He knew that if one mistake was made he could cause the start...	<urn:uuid:6c55562c-4f4a-4ae4-9290-7ef7cb037073>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-life-and-legacy-of-a-genuine-life-hero	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00237.warc.gz	en	0.994499	579	3.328125	3	[ -0.3302658200263977, 0.3935086131095886, 0.37198227643966675, -0.388757586479187, 0.05082967132329941, 0.6020834445953369, 0.14567716419696808, -0.005678826943039894, -0.02333752065896988, -0.01620444655418396, 0.1890375018119812, 0.6028587818145752, 0.17600631713867188, 0.3516452312469482...	1	All throughout the history of the United States and all of the presidents have had a huge impact on the entire world. The legacy that a president leaves behind will always be remembered, either positive or negative. One who has left the largest impact on theses states, who are united as a whole, is Kennedy. His legacy is still going strong fifty years later. Kennedy has left the longest living legacy and probably the best. Kennedy was born on May twenty ninth, nineteen seventeen. He was born in Massachusetts, and was the second of a total of nine kids. Kennedys father was a very competitive. He expected almost to much out of his kids. When Kennedy was in school he was not considered a “Model” student. He was a big partier, and a huge womanizer (John F. Kennedy Biography). All throughout his school career Kennedy was still expected to do great things. His parents knew that he was brilliant so they kept pushing him to do better (John F. Kennedy Biography). Kennedy, despite his struggles in school, continued on to Harvard. After Kennedy graduated, he started his political career in 1952 when he; with the help of his brother, won the election by a slim margin(John F. Kennedy). After his time in office, he ran for president in 1960 and won the election. In his Inaugural Address Kennedy said to his fellow citizens “... ask not what your country can do for you-- ask what you can do for your country.” (Kennedy) When Kennedy served in the navy he was showing that he really meant what he said. Kennedy served in the military from 1941-1945 when he was released from his duty and retired on physical disability in 1945. He was a PT boat captain. On August 1943 a Japanese ship struck the PT 109 and damaged it severely. Many of the boats passengers were injured including Kennedy. Although his injuries not minor. He still got up and rescued six of his fellow crew members; two of which were hurt. The rest of the remaining crew was not rescued until August eighth. Kennedy was later awarded the Navy and Marine Corps medal for his heroics on that day (Lieutenant John F. Kennedy, USN). That alone show that this man not only is a real life hero but that he lived by the words that he later said. Kennedy took to presidency during one of the hardest times in the history of the United States; The cold War. Not only did this take extreme courage to run during this time, but it also took a strong leader who could get his country through it. Kennedy handled the Cold War very well. One of the hardest parts of his presidency was the cold war. Kennedy kept his composure and handled the “war” with extreme caution. He knew that if one mistake was made he could cause the start...	594	ENGLISH	1
Back in the day before color film was invented, photography pretty much existed in black and white. This also means that if we were to look back at old photos today, unless we lived through those times it’s hard to imagine that color and vibrancy that might have been captured back then had color film existed. Now there have been attempts and there are ways to colorize old black and white photos, but researchers at the University of California at Berkeley might have come up with a smarter and more efficient way of doing so. This is achieved through the use of AI-powered software that can help to colorize black and white photos. Developed by Richard Zhang and his team, this is actually not a new development as they launched a demo of their software back in 2016. However back then the AI wasn’t quite as smart and while it did help colorize photos, sometimes it colored them wrongly, which Zhang and his team have since corrected with a new follow-up app. With this new app, there are user-added cues and hints that can help the software understand which colors to use to produce more realistic results. Alternatively these cues and hints can also be used for artistic effect, such as giving photos a different color than what they’re supposed to be. There’s no word on when this feature will find its way into photo editing software, but Zhang has since uploaded his app onto GitHub if you’re interested in checking it out. Filed in AI (Artificial Intelligence).. Read more about	<urn:uuid:a382dcae-86d8-4a55-ba48-8b6dff59840a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ubergizmo.com/2017/05/ai-powered-software-colorize-black-white-photos/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00314.warc.gz	en	0.980526	315	3.484375	3	[ -0.48815611004829407, -0.1801249086856842, -0.35189762711524963, 0.05164634436368942, 0.01758912391960621, 0.37115344405174255, 0.14461682736873627, -0.38133004307746887, -0.2745923101902008, -0.008088668808341026, 0.27937281131744385, 0.0518387146294117, 0.2486792951822281, 0.599004685878...	3	Back in the day before color film was invented, photography pretty much existed in black and white. This also means that if we were to look back at old photos today, unless we lived through those times it’s hard to imagine that color and vibrancy that might have been captured back then had color film existed. Now there have been attempts and there are ways to colorize old black and white photos, but researchers at the University of California at Berkeley might have come up with a smarter and more efficient way of doing so. This is achieved through the use of AI-powered software that can help to colorize black and white photos. Developed by Richard Zhang and his team, this is actually not a new development as they launched a demo of their software back in 2016. However back then the AI wasn’t quite as smart and while it did help colorize photos, sometimes it colored them wrongly, which Zhang and his team have since corrected with a new follow-up app. With this new app, there are user-added cues and hints that can help the software understand which colors to use to produce more realistic results. Alternatively these cues and hints can also be used for artistic effect, such as giving photos a different color than what they’re supposed to be. There’s no word on when this feature will find its way into photo editing software, but Zhang has since uploaded his app onto GitHub if you’re interested in checking it out. Filed in AI (Artificial Intelligence).. Read more about	299	ENGLISH	1
Table of Contents Overview By the end of the Civil War, the South was in a state of political upheaval, social disorder, and economic decay. Inflation became so severe that by the end of the war a loaf of bread cost several hundred Confederate dollars. Thousands of southerners starved to death, and many who did not starve lost everything they owned: Hayes as President in The lasting social damage that the song talks about should more accurately be associated with the demise of Reconstruction. Here are some legacies of the time period: A lot of famous "firsts" which we might associate with the Civil Rights movement in the s actually took place in the late s. For example, the first black Senator was Hiram Rhodes Revelswho took office in Another good example I think of the changing mores and how they changed back quickly and semi-permanently is baseball, which, granted, is a Northern sport but which is still indicative of the times. Many people think that Jackie Robinson was the first black baseball player; in fact, that honor goes to a man named Moses Fleetwood Walkerwho played briefly for the American Association in and then for several other minor league teams throughout the s. The KKK first arose Eventually President Grant cracked down on this group and Forrest even disassociated himself with them, but the memory of white people dressing up as ghosts and harassing blacks and antiracists lived on for 50 years until D. President Abraham Lincoln’s Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction—issued in , two years before the war even ended—mapped out the first of these initiatives, his Ten-Percent Plan. Dec 05, · Merrick Santos said. The Reconstruction of the South following the Civil War could be argued as a success and a failure. Although Reconstruction, in the eyes of many people, was a failure, there were several good things to come out of it. Download-Theses Mercredi 10 juin Griffith revived the meme with the early feature film Birth of a Nation. We came the closest to removing a sitting President from office. If you'll recall the Lewinsky affair during the Clinton administration in the 90s, you'll remember that the President was impeached but not convicted of two separate crimes. Andrew Johnson faced a similar issueonly Johnson's impeachment was arguably even more politically motivated than Clinton's, and he came within a single vote of being removed from office Nixon resigned before Congress could remove him. It gave rise to a fair bit of slang which you may not be aware originated then. The term "carpetbagger ", for instance, which is now generally used to talk about a politician who runs for office in a district he has only lived in for a short time, originally referred to Northern Republicans who traveled down South in search of money or a higher cause, often arriving with no more personal possessions than whatever they could stow in a carpet-bag which they slung over their shoulder. Likewise, the term " scalawag ", now used when it is used as a general pejorative, referred specifically at the time to Southerners who betrayed "Southern values" by stumping for civil rights and the like. While slavery was gone in name, it was replaced by a system called sharecropping which was nearly as bad and which ensnared poor whites as well as recently freed slaves and poor blacks. There is a folk song called 16 Tons that is actually about coal mining but which may as well be about sharecropping. You load sixteen tons, what do you get Another day older and deeper in debt Saint Peter don't you call me 'cause I can't go I owe my soul to the company store No, these farmers weren't literally slaves anymore. They could marry whoever they pleased, more or less so long as the person they were marrying was of the same race — and some states such as Virginia had some very strict definitions as to what was a black person and what was whiteand they weren't exactly subject to being sold to another plantation at the whim of a plantation owner although if they were behind on their rent, and sharecroppers were always behind on their rent, they could be kicked off of their land on a moment's notice. But in many ways — the "I owe my soul to the company store" line from the song — they were still indebted to the people who owned the land and were unfree. It began a long exodus of African Americans from the South and into large Northern cities, where they were employed at factory labor. Lest I make it sound as though race relations are entirely an issue with the South, I feel compelled to point this out. Slavery sent hundreds of thousands of black men and women north to work on the stockyards in Chicago, the garment factories in New York City, and many other places. Harlem, for instance, was a Dutch settlement and only began to have a sizeable African American contingent after the s or so. Racism followed them there, as well; as any native of any large Northeastern American city will tell you, none of those places are exactly "post-racial". At the same time, the ability of blacks to congregate with other blacks without a plantation owner looking over their shoulder led to new innovations in African-American culture from the syncretism between 20th century classical music and African rhythm that is jazz to the poetry of Langston Hughes. Its failure has caused a lot of people over the years to overestimate the level of equality that African Americans have had. There is a general idea regarding history that it always moves forward, in technology but also in social issues such as tolerance and understanding. I guess this happens to be true right now on a gestalt level — there is no question that we're nicer to minorities right now than the ancient Romans were — but it glosses over the fact that history is filled with as much in the way of setbacks as progresses. What did they do during this time? The answer is, they fought for many of the rights which they had briefly but which were taken away from them. The right for black people to marry whites was not recognized by this nation untilfor example. It wasn't that black people cared about this and other issues and then suddenly didn't care, it's that their cause was pushed down to the point that it was arguably worse to be a black person living in the USA in than it was in I don't want to overstate how bad things were when Martin Luther King got started — he, too, stood on the shoulders of giants such as WEB Dubois and Marcus Garvey — but he was by and large attempting to imbue a society with a sense of anti-racism that its grandfathers had decided was not something worth fighting over.Download-Theses Mercredi 10 juin Dec 05, · Merrick Santos said. The Reconstruction of the South following the Civil War could be argued as a success and a failure. Although Reconstruction, in the eyes of many people, was a failure, there were several good things to come out of it. Download-Theses Mercredi 10 juin President Abraham Lincoln’s Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction—issued in , two years before the war even ended—mapped out the first of these initiatives, his Ten-Percent Plan. "It is the central act of my administration, and the great event of the nineteenth century." Abraham Lincoln on the 13th Amendment emancipating the slaves. Although Lincoln's Plan of Reconstruction was not put into effect in the South after the Civil War, if it had been racism would have been almost completely avoided in the 20th century. Licoln's proposed plan was called the "10% Plan." It called for 10% of the people would voted in.	<urn:uuid:5ce887b9-a0b5-40e9-b60b-ba4e068175cb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://qadyjavyfew.caninariojana.com/the-potential-positive-outcomes-of-abraham-lincolns-plan-of-reconstruction-34176am.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00157.warc.gz	en	0.9861	1,592	3.46875	3	[ -0.4279264509677887, 0.11910831928253174, 0.2548407018184662, -0.3166603446006775, 0.12603989243507385, 0.27657151222229004, 0.004395751282572746, -0.08234730362892151, -0.12111176550388336, 0.1920071691274643, 0.3359772562980652, 0.2518998980522156, 0.11926545202732086, 0.2738570272922516...	1	Table of Contents Overview By the end of the Civil War, the South was in a state of political upheaval, social disorder, and economic decay. Inflation became so severe that by the end of the war a loaf of bread cost several hundred Confederate dollars. Thousands of southerners starved to death, and many who did not starve lost everything they owned: Hayes as President in The lasting social damage that the song talks about should more accurately be associated with the demise of Reconstruction. Here are some legacies of the time period: A lot of famous "firsts" which we might associate with the Civil Rights movement in the s actually took place in the late s. For example, the first black Senator was Hiram Rhodes Revelswho took office in Another good example I think of the changing mores and how they changed back quickly and semi-permanently is baseball, which, granted, is a Northern sport but which is still indicative of the times. Many people think that Jackie Robinson was the first black baseball player; in fact, that honor goes to a man named Moses Fleetwood Walkerwho played briefly for the American Association in and then for several other minor league teams throughout the s. The KKK first arose Eventually President Grant cracked down on this group and Forrest even disassociated himself with them, but the memory of white people dressing up as ghosts and harassing blacks and antiracists lived on for 50 years until D. President Abraham Lincoln’s Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction—issued in , two years before the war even ended—mapped out the first of these initiatives, his Ten-Percent Plan. Dec 05, · Merrick Santos said. The Reconstruction of the South following the Civil War could be argued as a success and a failure. Although Reconstruction, in the eyes of many people, was a failure, there were several good things to come out of it. Download-Theses Mercredi 10 juin Griffith revived the meme with the early feature film Birth of a Nation. We came the closest to removing a sitting President from office. If you'll recall the Lewinsky affair during the Clinton administration in the 90s, you'll remember that the President was impeached but not convicted of two separate crimes. Andrew Johnson faced a similar issueonly Johnson's impeachment was arguably even more politically motivated than Clinton's, and he came within a single vote of being removed from office Nixon resigned before Congress could remove him. It gave rise to a fair bit of slang which you may not be aware originated then. The term "carpetbagger ", for instance, which is now generally used to talk about a politician who runs for office in a district he has only lived in for a short time, originally referred to Northern Republicans who traveled down South in search of money or a higher cause, often arriving with no more personal possessions than whatever they could stow in a carpet-bag which they slung over their shoulder. Likewise, the term " scalawag ", now used when it is used as a general pejorative, referred specifically at the time to Southerners who betrayed "Southern values" by stumping for civil rights and the like. While slavery was gone in name, it was replaced by a system called sharecropping which was nearly as bad and which ensnared poor whites as well as recently freed slaves and poor blacks. There is a folk song called 16 Tons that is actually about coal mining but which may as well be about sharecropping. You load sixteen tons, what do you get Another day older and deeper in debt Saint Peter don't you call me 'cause I can't go I owe my soul to the company store No, these farmers weren't literally slaves anymore. They could marry whoever they pleased, more or less so long as the person they were marrying was of the same race — and some states such as Virginia had some very strict definitions as to what was a black person and what was whiteand they weren't exactly subject to being sold to another plantation at the whim of a plantation owner although if they were behind on their rent, and sharecroppers were always behind on their rent, they could be kicked off of their land on a moment's notice. But in many ways — the "I owe my soul to the company store" line from the song — they were still indebted to the people who owned the land and were unfree. It began a long exodus of African Americans from the South and into large Northern cities, where they were employed at factory labor. Lest I make it sound as though race relations are entirely an issue with the South, I feel compelled to point this out. Slavery sent hundreds of thousands of black men and women north to work on the stockyards in Chicago, the garment factories in New York City, and many other places. Harlem, for instance, was a Dutch settlement and only began to have a sizeable African American contingent after the s or so. Racism followed them there, as well; as any native of any large Northeastern American city will tell you, none of those places are exactly "post-racial". At the same time, the ability of blacks to congregate with other blacks without a plantation owner looking over their shoulder led to new innovations in African-American culture from the syncretism between 20th century classical music and African rhythm that is jazz to the poetry of Langston Hughes. Its failure has caused a lot of people over the years to overestimate the level of equality that African Americans have had. There is a general idea regarding history that it always moves forward, in technology but also in social issues such as tolerance and understanding. I guess this happens to be true right now on a gestalt level — there is no question that we're nicer to minorities right now than the ancient Romans were — but it glosses over the fact that history is filled with as much in the way of setbacks as progresses. What did they do during this time? The answer is, they fought for many of the rights which they had briefly but which were taken away from them. The right for black people to marry whites was not recognized by this nation untilfor example. It wasn't that black people cared about this and other issues and then suddenly didn't care, it's that their cause was pushed down to the point that it was arguably worse to be a black person living in the USA in than it was in I don't want to overstate how bad things were when Martin Luther King got started — he, too, stood on the shoulders of giants such as WEB Dubois and Marcus Garvey — but he was by and large attempting to imbue a society with a sense of anti-racism that its grandfathers had decided was not something worth fighting over.Download-Theses Mercredi 10 juin Dec 05, · Merrick Santos said. The Reconstruction of the South following the Civil War could be argued as a success and a failure. Although Reconstruction, in the eyes of many people, was a failure, there were several good things to come out of it. Download-Theses Mercredi 10 juin President Abraham Lincoln’s Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction—issued in , two years before the war even ended—mapped out the first of these initiatives, his Ten-Percent Plan. "It is the central act of my administration, and the great event of the nineteenth century." Abraham Lincoln on the 13th Amendment emancipating the slaves. Although Lincoln's Plan of Reconstruction was not put into effect in the South after the Civil War, if it had been racism would have been almost completely avoided in the 20th century. Licoln's proposed plan was called the "10% Plan." It called for 10% of the people would voted in.	1,585	ENGLISH	1
African American History. Heritage Essay Combine that heritage with race and you have a foundation for establishing different beginnings of races that can trace their early origins back to the beginning of the United States. A giant melting pot as it has been described due to all of the immigration that occurred in the early nineteenth century. African Americans have established an enormous role in the beginnings and the history of the America. Their contain fight for equality and rights as American people eve spanned many years. The actions against African Americans immediately following the conclusion of the civil war were not fair. This initial unfair treatment sparked numerous debates that all can be followed back to their initial start of fair treatment after many years of mistreatment. The Black Codes were established to restrict and control the lives of ex-slaves. (Bowels 2011) That is not a way to be granted freedom if your life is still controlled. Freedom isn’t freedom if you are still treated unfairly amongst other races. The thirteenth amendment established to abolish slavery in the united States. This was a major step to equality among African Americans. The industrial boom in the north sparked the interest of many looking for work. The promise off job and being able to provide for your family drew the attention of millions of African Americans. These jobs caused a mass movement of African Americans from the south to the north. This move was the Great Migration. The entry into World War Two brought some unique opportunities for African Americans. Key components to the war were the Tuskegee Airmen. Moving on in their fight for equal rights and treatments, Rosa Parks made a stand and refused to give up her seat on a bus. Seeing the need for more action by the government, Martin Luther king assembled a massive million man march into the Nation’s capital. The struggle for African Americans has been a long and at times dangerous struggle. Former slave owners and many others in the south did not wish to abandon their way of life and what they saw as fair and equal treatment for African Americans. With the determination, the will to make a difference, and legislative actions. African Americans have changed the laws and made remarkable steps towards the fair and equal treatment they were always entitled to as any American should be. Their nonstop pursuit of change has had an everlasting effect on history. The hopes and dreams of freedom for African Americans were destroyed immediately following the end of the civil war, because Of black codes and the intimidation with terror and violence from veteran confederates that formed the terrorist group called the UK Klux Klan. As newly freed slaves, blacks found out very soon that freedom was not how they dreamed. In 1865, southerners created black code that controlled all aspects of blacks lives and stopped new found African Americans from the freedom that they had won from the civil war. (The Black Codes of the South 1966) Almost every part of free slaves life was regulated by black codes even the freedom to migrate. Blacks could not enter certain towns without permission so hopes of finding family that were sold during slavery proved to be a challenge. There was also vagrancy laws that stated all freedman were vagrant if they did not have a job or they were homeless. Black codes made segregation in public facilities, carrying any kind of weapons, and to testify in court against white men illegal. If a black person disobeyed these codes and imprisonment would occur most of the time. This was a backwards step towards equality and freedom. Black codes did offer a few certain rights to blacks. They were given the right to marry, and the right to own some land. Although being a free black slave during this time period was a monumental step towards a unified country, blacks would face bigger challenges throughout the next century. The Thirteenth Amendment was one Of the most influential amendments to have ever been passed in our country. The Thirteenth Amendment states, “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly invoiced, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction” (US Constitution, Amendment 13, Section 1) The intent of the Thirteenth amendment was to abolish slavery and begin the long process of just and equal rights for all American citizens. The passing of this amendment put an end to slavery and caused disruption to the former slave owners in the South. The Southern States that seceded from the union were forced to free their slaves and pass the amendment to be allowed back into the union. The south was then forced to find a new means of supporting themselves and working their cash crops. With this amendment passed, the African Americans were finally free and the vast majority of slaves the worked on plantations were gone because they were free. Although racism and segregation still played a major role in their lives, they were no longer forced to work as slaves. Slavery was not only a form of forced labor. Many slaves also faced humiliation, punishment, and harsh lives. They were some slaves that were treated as they were lower than they animals they were forced to care for. The origins of slavery and the continuation of slaves well into after the civil war were tarnish on America. The thirteen amendment abolished slavery, it did not offer much regulation onto gender equality. This was certainly true for former black female slaves. They were not afforded the same equal rights and opportunities as free former black male slaves. “Female slaves suffered unique hardships, being exploited for both labor and reproduction. ” (Thesis, A. 01 2) With the initial passing of the thirteenth amendment, the future road was being paved for equality amongst black both male and female. This amendment would go on to be ratified until eventually equality was achieved for both genders. The great migration covers the movement of millions of African Americans from the south to the north due to industrial expansion. Though this is not the first great migration, being there was a large migration of African Americans shortly after the civil war, this migration had a much larger effect. Populations of African Americans drastically changed because of it. Population diversity was established. During the 20th century, African- Americans participated in one of the most significant demographic events in U. S. History, “The Great Migration. ” The Great Migration was a massive movement of African Americans from the South to the North spanning from 1863 to 1960. The largest movement in the migration occurred from 1 910 to 1920. (Bowels 201 1) The Great Migration was caused by different reasons that pushed African Americans out of the South, and other chances of opportunity were pulling them to the North. The spring on 1 916, Six million African-Americans moved to the North and the West part of the United States of America. After the Emancipation Proclamation was signed in 1863, less than 8 percent Of the African- Americans population lived in the Northeastern or Midwestern part of the United States. The U. S. Senate had ordered an investigation into it. In 1900, about 90 percent of blacks still lived in Southern states. They also moved to Canada in order to maintain safe haven from anti-abolitionists. When it was time for the blacks to move the only transportation for them were trains, boats, buses, but sometimes cars were used for their transportation. The promise of good employment, food, money, and a place to take care of your family drew the attention of many African Americans. The Great Migration created the first large urban black communities in the North. Along with massive amounts of blacks relocating to these cities also come robbers. Many blacks were crammed into housing. At times, the occupancy of the housing that they lived in exceeded the limits they were designed for. Imagine an apartment that can accommodate five people comfortably being push over the limits by having twelve people reside in it instead. These were perfect conditions for disease, unsanitary conditions, and in some extreme cases, death. These dwellings became to be known as ghettos. All good things must come to an end and many blacks realized that due to the mass amount of laborers that migrated to the North, many of the jobs were taken. The south offered the work of the past, but this time they would be paid for it and not forced to do the work. “After the Great Migration, blacks continued to move in search of opportunity as some returned to the South, while others moved to suburbs or better neighborhoods within the North. (Stewart E. Tolland 2003) An important military milestone is African American history were the Tuskegee Airmen. These brave airmen were the first Step towards race equality within the aviation sector of the military. Although African Americans had regularly fought in wars, they were not allowed to participate in actual aerial combat. The airmen were an import key in closing the race inequalities within the military. The Tuskegee airmen have become to be known as the most influential air squadron during world war two. Racism was still a major ongoing issue well into world war two. Many whites did not like the idea of African Americans being allowed to fly airplanes and fight in aerial combat. The Tuskegee Airmen did more than just that. They became the first black Army Air Corps pilots. Their beginnings started when President Roosevelt had arranged a meeting with three African American leaders of the Army and Navy. They argued that equality needed to be stable throughout the military, administration needed to be fair in regards to the ongoing draft, and African Americans should be allowed to fly. Percy 2003) Shortly after the meeting had concluded, the War Department issued a policy directive stating that black men would be admitted into the military in numbers equal to civilian black population. In December of 1 940, the Army Air Corps had submitted a plan that would establish experiments with a fighter squadron that consisted of all black pilots. Initially, thirteen black men were selected as pilot trainees for the program. The training occurred at Tuskegee Alabama, hence the name given, The Tuskegee Airmen. Majority of the instructors assigned to train the men were white. There were high hopes the failure would occur and this would prove to the War Department that African Americans were not suitable for flying. Men man probably most responsible for the success of the Tuskegee Airmen, the man whom the cadets looked to most often, was Captain Benjamin O. Davis Jar. (Percy 2003) Captain Davis helped keep the fight alive in all of the cadets which allowed them to ignore the Jim Crow laws that were still in place and they were able to focus their attention on coming pilots. After the success of the Tuskegee Airmen, they became a vital part of the war effort. The Tuskegee Airmen were assigned combat missions, participating in aerial combat, and helping to win the war. The Tuskegee Airmen program was a giant step towards equality within the military and an important historical milestone in our history. A famous name associated with the Civil Rights movements is Rosa Parks. She was the average everyday woman. She rode the bus to and from work every day like any other ordinary person. She had acquired a job as a seamstress at a local department store in Montgomery Alabama. On the night of December 1, 1955, Rosa took the bus home as normal. The public bus was split into F. ‘vow different sections. There was a white section and a black section. If the white section filled up, people in the black section were required to give up their seat for the whites and they would have to stand. This was an unjust law in Montgomery that many blacks disagreed with. This did not seem like the equality that they deserved. Couple this law with all of the segregated services in Alabama; one would think that the hatred for free African Americans ran high. “Rosa refused to give up her seat despite the threats even to her by the bus driver. ” (Weltering, M 2001) She was arrested and forced to pay a fine of $14, which she never did end up paying. Word of her arrest spread fast and immediately following the next day, flyers emerged all around Alabama black schools and businesses pleading that those who rode the bus should seek alternate means of travel. The bus company was owned by whites even though majority of the passengers were black. The actions were to show that the law was not fair to blacks and hopefully the bus company would see this through their loss of profit due to their unfair rule. The boycott lasted well over a year. Finally the United States Supreme Court ruled that it was unlawful and illegal to treat people differently on the bus because of their skin color. Weltering, M 2001 ) The actions taken by Rosa Parks to generate a Civil Rights Movement were brave for her to conduct during the racist times of Montgomery. Her actions set off the initial movement that would pave the way for many more to come and challenge the racist laws that restricted the lives of black people. The Million Man March was another major event of the Civil Rights Movement. What better way to peacefully protest the unfair treatment of African Americans than to assemble in the Nation’s Capital and fight for equality among all races. Some Civil Rights Leaders were opposed to the march. Mary Frances Berry, Chair of the U. S. Civil Rights Commission, thought the actions of the march were “bad due to the black community being in deep trouble already. ” (Winter, 1995-1996) Despite her disapproval, the march went on. While the actual number of participants can’t be pin pointed to an exact number, it is estimated that it was between 1. 5 and 2 million participants. This large showing of force allowed for peaceful protest and representation for the black community. They sought to gain the attention of the Federal Government so they could overcome the harsh reality that racism was still an ongoing issue and blacks were still being treated unequally by whites. Majority of the attendees were black males. The march was also attended by origins of race that were not primarily black. They saw an opportunity to take part in the possible change of equality and rights as well. Many famous black speakers were in attendance at the march, from Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King, and many black religious leaders. Although the peaceful protest eventually ended, it still remains one of the most talked about and biggest intuitions to the Civil Rights Movements. History has shown that African Americans have faced a lot of challenges. Through unfair treatment in the early beginnings of America, African Americans were used as slaves and the country saw this as a normal and legal way of life. The actions taken by President Lincoln helped shed light on the tarnished actions of the American people and he is credited with having helped free the slaves. The black codes were a way that hateful southerners could still control the lives of black people. The southerners were upset because their way Of life and what they awe as normal was being changed. The passing of the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery. This was a step in the right direction and it sparked the creation of many amendments to follow in suite. The great migration offered new hopes and promises of work in the North. Millions of African Americans began showing up in cities eager to get a piece of the American workforce. They were met with many housing, health, and physical challenges. Some blacks realized that the work in the North was not for them and they returned to the South to continue farming of their own free will and not under the control of slavery. World War Two brought light to African Americans with the chance of becoming pilots. The Tuskegee Airmen showed courage in the face of racism and overcame the discriminations brought onto them through the military. They became a vital part of the war effort and actively participated in aerial combat and bombing raids. Rosa Parks set the stepping stones for the Civil Rights movement. Her actions that night on the bus spread quickly and blacks refused to ride the buses in Montgomery Alabama. The efforts lasted well over a year and Congress finally determined that the law was unlawful. The million man march is one of the biggest actions in the Civil Rights movement. Blacks showed in large numbers to promote equality and diminish racism On the federal level. Many key speakers participated in this march, even though leaders of the Civil Rights Committee did not agree with the march. These actions taken by African Americans represent a small portion of the triumphs that they have overcome since slavery ended. There are many events and sacrifices that have been made by African Americans through the years. Their nonstop pursuit to end racism, have equality, and bring change to America will have an everlasting change on history. Cite this African American History. Heritage Essay African American History. Heritage Essay. (2018, May 02). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/african-american-history-heritage/	<urn:uuid:8cc8ce5e-5eab-40a8-b1e2-9695bf6699fc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://graduateway.com/african-american-history-heritage/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00043.warc.gz	en	0.98328	3,417	4.03125	4	[ -0.33352652192115784, 0.42675748467445374, 0.0938958078622818, 0.20262578129768372, -0.4138728082180023, 0.2860010266304016, -0.17600229382514954, -0.3314098119735718, -0.28679361939430237, 0.24791304767131805, 0.1843411773443222, 0.19187432527542114, -0.25360363721847534, 0.01320802792906...	1	African American History. Heritage Essay Combine that heritage with race and you have a foundation for establishing different beginnings of races that can trace their early origins back to the beginning of the United States. A giant melting pot as it has been described due to all of the immigration that occurred in the early nineteenth century. African Americans have established an enormous role in the beginnings and the history of the America. Their contain fight for equality and rights as American people eve spanned many years. The actions against African Americans immediately following the conclusion of the civil war were not fair. This initial unfair treatment sparked numerous debates that all can be followed back to their initial start of fair treatment after many years of mistreatment. The Black Codes were established to restrict and control the lives of ex-slaves. (Bowels 2011) That is not a way to be granted freedom if your life is still controlled. Freedom isn’t freedom if you are still treated unfairly amongst other races. The thirteenth amendment established to abolish slavery in the united States. This was a major step to equality among African Americans. The industrial boom in the north sparked the interest of many looking for work. The promise off job and being able to provide for your family drew the attention of millions of African Americans. These jobs caused a mass movement of African Americans from the south to the north. This move was the Great Migration. The entry into World War Two brought some unique opportunities for African Americans. Key components to the war were the Tuskegee Airmen. Moving on in their fight for equal rights and treatments, Rosa Parks made a stand and refused to give up her seat on a bus. Seeing the need for more action by the government, Martin Luther king assembled a massive million man march into the Nation’s capital. The struggle for African Americans has been a long and at times dangerous struggle. Former slave owners and many others in the south did not wish to abandon their way of life and what they saw as fair and equal treatment for African Americans. With the determination, the will to make a difference, and legislative actions. African Americans have changed the laws and made remarkable steps towards the fair and equal treatment they were always entitled to as any American should be. Their nonstop pursuit of change has had an everlasting effect on history. The hopes and dreams of freedom for African Americans were destroyed immediately following the end of the civil war, because Of black codes and the intimidation with terror and violence from veteran confederates that formed the terrorist group called the UK Klux Klan. As newly freed slaves, blacks found out very soon that freedom was not how they dreamed. In 1865, southerners created black code that controlled all aspects of blacks lives and stopped new found African Americans from the freedom that they had won from the civil war. (The Black Codes of the South 1966) Almost every part of free slaves life was regulated by black codes even the freedom to migrate. Blacks could not enter certain towns without permission so hopes of finding family that were sold during slavery proved to be a challenge. There was also vagrancy laws that stated all freedman were vagrant if they did not have a job or they were homeless. Black codes made segregation in public facilities, carrying any kind of weapons, and to testify in court against white men illegal. If a black person disobeyed these codes and imprisonment would occur most of the time. This was a backwards step towards equality and freedom. Black codes did offer a few certain rights to blacks. They were given the right to marry, and the right to own some land. Although being a free black slave during this time period was a monumental step towards a unified country, blacks would face bigger challenges throughout the next century. The Thirteenth Amendment was one Of the most influential amendments to have ever been passed in our country. The Thirteenth Amendment states, “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly invoiced, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction” (US Constitution, Amendment 13, Section 1) The intent of the Thirteenth amendment was to abolish slavery and begin the long process of just and equal rights for all American citizens. The passing of this amendment put an end to slavery and caused disruption to the former slave owners in the South. The Southern States that seceded from the union were forced to free their slaves and pass the amendment to be allowed back into the union. The south was then forced to find a new means of supporting themselves and working their cash crops. With this amendment passed, the African Americans were finally free and the vast majority of slaves the worked on plantations were gone because they were free. Although racism and segregation still played a major role in their lives, they were no longer forced to work as slaves. Slavery was not only a form of forced labor. Many slaves also faced humiliation, punishment, and harsh lives. They were some slaves that were treated as they were lower than they animals they were forced to care for. The origins of slavery and the continuation of slaves well into after the civil war were tarnish on America. The thirteen amendment abolished slavery, it did not offer much regulation onto gender equality. This was certainly true for former black female slaves. They were not afforded the same equal rights and opportunities as free former black male slaves. “Female slaves suffered unique hardships, being exploited for both labor and reproduction. ” (Thesis, A. 01 2) With the initial passing of the thirteenth amendment, the future road was being paved for equality amongst black both male and female. This amendment would go on to be ratified until eventually equality was achieved for both genders. The great migration covers the movement of millions of African Americans from the south to the north due to industrial expansion. Though this is not the first great migration, being there was a large migration of African Americans shortly after the civil war, this migration had a much larger effect. Populations of African Americans drastically changed because of it. Population diversity was established. During the 20th century, African- Americans participated in one of the most significant demographic events in U. S. History, “The Great Migration. ” The Great Migration was a massive movement of African Americans from the South to the North spanning from 1863 to 1960. The largest movement in the migration occurred from 1 910 to 1920. (Bowels 201 1) The Great Migration was caused by different reasons that pushed African Americans out of the South, and other chances of opportunity were pulling them to the North. The spring on 1 916, Six million African-Americans moved to the North and the West part of the United States of America. After the Emancipation Proclamation was signed in 1863, less than 8 percent Of the African- Americans population lived in the Northeastern or Midwestern part of the United States. The U. S. Senate had ordered an investigation into it. In 1900, about 90 percent of blacks still lived in Southern states. They also moved to Canada in order to maintain safe haven from anti-abolitionists. When it was time for the blacks to move the only transportation for them were trains, boats, buses, but sometimes cars were used for their transportation. The promise of good employment, food, money, and a place to take care of your family drew the attention of many African Americans. The Great Migration created the first large urban black communities in the North. Along with massive amounts of blacks relocating to these cities also come robbers. Many blacks were crammed into housing. At times, the occupancy of the housing that they lived in exceeded the limits they were designed for. Imagine an apartment that can accommodate five people comfortably being push over the limits by having twelve people reside in it instead. These were perfect conditions for disease, unsanitary conditions, and in some extreme cases, death. These dwellings became to be known as ghettos. All good things must come to an end and many blacks realized that due to the mass amount of laborers that migrated to the North, many of the jobs were taken. The south offered the work of the past, but this time they would be paid for it and not forced to do the work. “After the Great Migration, blacks continued to move in search of opportunity as some returned to the South, while others moved to suburbs or better neighborhoods within the North. (Stewart E. Tolland 2003) An important military milestone is African American history were the Tuskegee Airmen. These brave airmen were the first Step towards race equality within the aviation sector of the military. Although African Americans had regularly fought in wars, they were not allowed to participate in actual aerial combat. The airmen were an import key in closing the race inequalities within the military. The Tuskegee airmen have become to be known as the most influential air squadron during world war two. Racism was still a major ongoing issue well into world war two. Many whites did not like the idea of African Americans being allowed to fly airplanes and fight in aerial combat. The Tuskegee Airmen did more than just that. They became the first black Army Air Corps pilots. Their beginnings started when President Roosevelt had arranged a meeting with three African American leaders of the Army and Navy. They argued that equality needed to be stable throughout the military, administration needed to be fair in regards to the ongoing draft, and African Americans should be allowed to fly. Percy 2003) Shortly after the meeting had concluded, the War Department issued a policy directive stating that black men would be admitted into the military in numbers equal to civilian black population. In December of 1 940, the Army Air Corps had submitted a plan that would establish experiments with a fighter squadron that consisted of all black pilots. Initially, thirteen black men were selected as pilot trainees for the program. The training occurred at Tuskegee Alabama, hence the name given, The Tuskegee Airmen. Majority of the instructors assigned to train the men were white. There were high hopes the failure would occur and this would prove to the War Department that African Americans were not suitable for flying. Men man probably most responsible for the success of the Tuskegee Airmen, the man whom the cadets looked to most often, was Captain Benjamin O. Davis Jar. (Percy 2003) Captain Davis helped keep the fight alive in all of the cadets which allowed them to ignore the Jim Crow laws that were still in place and they were able to focus their attention on coming pilots. After the success of the Tuskegee Airmen, they became a vital part of the war effort. The Tuskegee Airmen were assigned combat missions, participating in aerial combat, and helping to win the war. The Tuskegee Airmen program was a giant step towards equality within the military and an important historical milestone in our history. A famous name associated with the Civil Rights movements is Rosa Parks. She was the average everyday woman. She rode the bus to and from work every day like any other ordinary person. She had acquired a job as a seamstress at a local department store in Montgomery Alabama. On the night of December 1, 1955, Rosa took the bus home as normal. The public bus was split into F. ‘vow different sections. There was a white section and a black section. If the white section filled up, people in the black section were required to give up their seat for the whites and they would have to stand. This was an unjust law in Montgomery that many blacks disagreed with. This did not seem like the equality that they deserved. Couple this law with all of the segregated services in Alabama; one would think that the hatred for free African Americans ran high. “Rosa refused to give up her seat despite the threats even to her by the bus driver. ” (Weltering, M 2001) She was arrested and forced to pay a fine of $14, which she never did end up paying. Word of her arrest spread fast and immediately following the next day, flyers emerged all around Alabama black schools and businesses pleading that those who rode the bus should seek alternate means of travel. The bus company was owned by whites even though majority of the passengers were black. The actions were to show that the law was not fair to blacks and hopefully the bus company would see this through their loss of profit due to their unfair rule. The boycott lasted well over a year. Finally the United States Supreme Court ruled that it was unlawful and illegal to treat people differently on the bus because of their skin color. Weltering, M 2001 ) The actions taken by Rosa Parks to generate a Civil Rights Movement were brave for her to conduct during the racist times of Montgomery. Her actions set off the initial movement that would pave the way for many more to come and challenge the racist laws that restricted the lives of black people. The Million Man March was another major event of the Civil Rights Movement. What better way to peacefully protest the unfair treatment of African Americans than to assemble in the Nation’s Capital and fight for equality among all races. Some Civil Rights Leaders were opposed to the march. Mary Frances Berry, Chair of the U. S. Civil Rights Commission, thought the actions of the march were “bad due to the black community being in deep trouble already. ” (Winter, 1995-1996) Despite her disapproval, the march went on. While the actual number of participants can’t be pin pointed to an exact number, it is estimated that it was between 1. 5 and 2 million participants. This large showing of force allowed for peaceful protest and representation for the black community. They sought to gain the attention of the Federal Government so they could overcome the harsh reality that racism was still an ongoing issue and blacks were still being treated unequally by whites. Majority of the attendees were black males. The march was also attended by origins of race that were not primarily black. They saw an opportunity to take part in the possible change of equality and rights as well. Many famous black speakers were in attendance at the march, from Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King, and many black religious leaders. Although the peaceful protest eventually ended, it still remains one of the most talked about and biggest intuitions to the Civil Rights Movements. History has shown that African Americans have faced a lot of challenges. Through unfair treatment in the early beginnings of America, African Americans were used as slaves and the country saw this as a normal and legal way of life. The actions taken by President Lincoln helped shed light on the tarnished actions of the American people and he is credited with having helped free the slaves. The black codes were a way that hateful southerners could still control the lives of black people. The southerners were upset because their way Of life and what they awe as normal was being changed. The passing of the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery. This was a step in the right direction and it sparked the creation of many amendments to follow in suite. The great migration offered new hopes and promises of work in the North. Millions of African Americans began showing up in cities eager to get a piece of the American workforce. They were met with many housing, health, and physical challenges. Some blacks realized that the work in the North was not for them and they returned to the South to continue farming of their own free will and not under the control of slavery. World War Two brought light to African Americans with the chance of becoming pilots. The Tuskegee Airmen showed courage in the face of racism and overcame the discriminations brought onto them through the military. They became a vital part of the war effort and actively participated in aerial combat and bombing raids. Rosa Parks set the stepping stones for the Civil Rights movement. Her actions that night on the bus spread quickly and blacks refused to ride the buses in Montgomery Alabama. The efforts lasted well over a year and Congress finally determined that the law was unlawful. The million man march is one of the biggest actions in the Civil Rights movement. Blacks showed in large numbers to promote equality and diminish racism On the federal level. Many key speakers participated in this march, even though leaders of the Civil Rights Committee did not agree with the march. These actions taken by African Americans represent a small portion of the triumphs that they have overcome since slavery ended. There are many events and sacrifices that have been made by African Americans through the years. Their nonstop pursuit to end racism, have equality, and bring change to America will have an everlasting change on history. Cite this African American History. Heritage Essay African American History. Heritage Essay. (2018, May 02). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/african-american-history-heritage/	3,474	ENGLISH	1
Antigone: A Greek Tragedy The play Antigone is often thought to be a Greek tragedy because each of the tragic heroes is neither extremely good or bad, their fortunes change from good to bad, their misfortunes do not result from their own wrong doings, and they arouse pity within the audience. Antigone and Creon are the two tragic heroes of this play; however, I believe Creon to be main one. In the play Antigone there can be seen a struggle between two forces: god’s law verses man’s law. A woman, Antigone, who strongly believed in the god’s law, opposed a king, Creon, who believed in the man’s law. Antigone disobeyed Creon’s law, about burying Polyneices, simply because she felt it to be her duty to the gods. Although both Creon and Antigone suffer greatly in the play, I believe that Creon is the tragic hero. Creon was a king who made a fatal mistake, he didn’t listen to other people. In the beginning of the play Creon decided not to bury the body of his dead nephew Polyneices. He proclaimed throughout his city that whoever buries Polyneices will be stoned to death. Creon hoped that by making such a threat he would stop any disagreements and would establish peace in Thebes. But Creon was wrong. Antigone, a relative of Creon, decided to bury Polyneices, because she felt that Polyneices’ soul didn’t deserve an eternity of suffering and wondering (Greeks believed that if a person wouldn’t be properly buried his soul would wonder forever and will never be at ease). Unfortunately she was caught while performing the burial for her brother and brought to the king. Creon, even though Antigone was part of his family, sentenced her to death. Creon’s fortune changes here from good to bad; it was good because he was king and everything seemed to be going well until Creon gets lost in his pride, which is when everything takes a toll for the worse. One of Creon’s main weaknesses was his pride. He always believed that he was right and everyone around him was wrong. When Creon’s son came to him and asked him to listen to other people, Creon only looked at him and said, “...Am I supposed to learn from a boy ?...”. Creon was like a stubborn tree unwilling to bend during the flood. And just like a stubborn tree he paid the price for his pride. Creon felt that if he would allow a woman to go unpunished for disobeying his...	<urn:uuid:117c1056-7085-4b2c-b231-68861c2b33a7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/antigone-a-greek-tragedy	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00110.warc.gz	en	0.985251	574	3.578125	4	[ -0.211886927485466, 0.09521587193012238, 0.15443454682826996, -0.43155238032341003, -0.2271377146244049, -0.13339048624038696, 0.5166345834732056, 0.48392999172210693, -0.31108352541923523, 0.014649619348347187, -0.13712823390960693, -0.24176788330078125, 0.2834426164627075, 0.297407865524...	1	Antigone: A Greek Tragedy The play Antigone is often thought to be a Greek tragedy because each of the tragic heroes is neither extremely good or bad, their fortunes change from good to bad, their misfortunes do not result from their own wrong doings, and they arouse pity within the audience. Antigone and Creon are the two tragic heroes of this play; however, I believe Creon to be main one. In the play Antigone there can be seen a struggle between two forces: god’s law verses man’s law. A woman, Antigone, who strongly believed in the god’s law, opposed a king, Creon, who believed in the man’s law. Antigone disobeyed Creon’s law, about burying Polyneices, simply because she felt it to be her duty to the gods. Although both Creon and Antigone suffer greatly in the play, I believe that Creon is the tragic hero. Creon was a king who made a fatal mistake, he didn’t listen to other people. In the beginning of the play Creon decided not to bury the body of his dead nephew Polyneices. He proclaimed throughout his city that whoever buries Polyneices will be stoned to death. Creon hoped that by making such a threat he would stop any disagreements and would establish peace in Thebes. But Creon was wrong. Antigone, a relative of Creon, decided to bury Polyneices, because she felt that Polyneices’ soul didn’t deserve an eternity of suffering and wondering (Greeks believed that if a person wouldn’t be properly buried his soul would wonder forever and will never be at ease). Unfortunately she was caught while performing the burial for her brother and brought to the king. Creon, even though Antigone was part of his family, sentenced her to death. Creon’s fortune changes here from good to bad; it was good because he was king and everything seemed to be going well until Creon gets lost in his pride, which is when everything takes a toll for the worse. One of Creon’s main weaknesses was his pride. He always believed that he was right and everyone around him was wrong. When Creon’s son came to him and asked him to listen to other people, Creon only looked at him and said, “...Am I supposed to learn from a boy ?...”. Creon was like a stubborn tree unwilling to bend during the flood. And just like a stubborn tree he paid the price for his pride. Creon felt that if he would allow a woman to go unpunished for disobeying his...	545	ENGLISH	1
“Three Kings and a Captain: Nephite Leaders in the Land of Nephi,” Ensign, Jan. 1977, 76 The land of Nephi was a frontier outpost of Nephite civilization during the time spanned by the latter part of the book of Omni and the book of Mosiah. From their twelfth year in the land, the colonizers were often under attack or threat of attack from the Lamanites in the neighboring land of Shemlon. This almost constant stress may have been part of the reason that this group of Nephites produced some of the greatest men—and some of the worst—in the Book of Mormon. Two great prophets came from the colony in the land of Nephi: The martyr Abinadi denounced a wicked king and was burned to death for it. And Alma, a priest of the wicked king, recognized the truth he had heard from Abinadi’s lips and led a righteous group of people out of the land into the wilderness. (See Mosiah 19:32–35.) But the people of Nephi also had notable men for their political and military leaders. They ranged from Gideon, a sometime military leader who lived and died for the principles of righteousness, to Noah, a king who lived for his own pleasure and power, and who died at the hands of men he had led in cowardly flight. Zeniff, the first king in the Nephite colony, was the staunch and sturdy leader of his people against a treacherous enemy, while Limhi, his grandson, was a king who gave his trust even to his enemies, when they asked for it. These four men and the people they led show us that righteousness and the love of God are the foundation of freedom and happiness. The land of Nephi had been the homeland of the Nephites before they left and joined the people of Zarahemla. (See Omni 1:12–19.) After their departure the land had been occupied by Lamanites—but there were “a large number” of the Nephites who wanted to return “to possess the land of their inheritance.” (Omni 1:27.) Zeniff was in the first expedition sent to win back the former Nephite lands. He had been “sent as a spy among the Lamanites,” looking for their strengths and weaknesses so that the Nephite army “might come upon them and destroy them.” But as he studied the Lamanites, he “saw that which was good among them,” and he “was desirous that they should not be destroyed.” (Mosiah 9:1.) So Zeniff argued with the leader of the expedition, trying to persuade him to make a treaty with the Lamanites. But the leader was “a strong and mighty man, and a stiffnecked man” (Omni 1:28), and he commanded the Nephites to kill Zeniff (Mosiah 9:2). Perhaps Zeniff had persuaded others to his point of view, or perhaps others simply rebelled at the idea of having him killed. Whatever the reason, Zeniff was “rescued by the shedding of much blood.” (Mosiah 9:2.) Most of the expedition was killed in the fight, so that only fifty souls returned to Zarahemla. (Omni 1:28.) But Zeniff had seen the land, and he wanted to possess it. In later years he looked back on his younger self and wrote, “I [was] over-zealous to inherit the land of our fathers.” (Mosiah 9:3.) But at the time many others felt as he did, and a second expedition left Zarahemla for the land of Nephi. After many difficulties in the wilderness—caused, Zeniff wrote, because “we were slow to remember the Lord our God” (Mosiah 9:3)—they reached the place where the first expedition had ended in disaster. This time Zeniff was able to carry out his plan to make a treaty, and with four other men he went to King Laman to see if he could “go in with my people and possess the land in peace.” (Mosiah 9:5.) Cunning and crafty King Laman agreed. Though he made a covenant with Zeniff and ordered his own people to leave the lands of Lehi-Nephi and Shilom, events revealed that Laman really planned to bring the Nephites into bondage. (See Mosiah 9:6–7, 10.) He stirred up his people to war against the Nephites, and though Zeniff and his people were able to resist successfully, they were repeatedly forced to fight to survive. Once, when Zeniff discovered a Lamanite army about to descend on his people, he ordered that the women and children hide in the wilderness, while all the men, old and young, who could bear arms, went to battle against the Lamanites. (Mosiah 10:9.) “Putting their trust in the Lord,” they fought mightily. At the end of the battle the Lamanites were driven out of the land, and Zeniff wrote, “We slew them with a great slaughter, even so many that we did not number them.” (Mosiah 10:19–20.) By this time Zeniff was an old man (Mosiah 10:10), yet his courage was undimmed, and he didn’t flinch from fighting even when the odds seemed against him. But he did not seek war. Even when the Lamanites attacked he was able to view them with understanding. Though he called his enemies a “wild, and ferocious, and a blood-thirsty people” (Mosiah 10:12), Zeniff understood that their hatred of the Nephites came from the false traditions of their fathers, and he still desired to live in peace beside them. (See Mosiah 10:12–17.) After having served his people well, always relying on the Lord to preserve them in battle, Zeniff gave up the kingship in his old age. He chose one of his sons to follow him. It is ironic that his heir, Noah, would systematically try to destroy the faith, the standards, and eventually the strength and courage of the people of Nephi—everything that Zeniff had labored all his life to build. It is an understatement when the scripture says, “Noah … did not walk in the ways of his father.” (Mosiah 11:1.) After being led by Zeniff, a righteous man, the people might have been disgusted by a king who took many wives and concubines, committed whoredoms, set his heart upon wealth, spent his time in riotous living, and became a winebibber. (See Mosiah 11:2, 14–15.) But when Noah sinned, the people did not hold fast to the principles taught by Zeniff. Instead they joined King Noah in his sins, becoming idolatrous, drinking wine, and committing “whoredoms and all manner of wickedness.” (Mosiah 11:2; see also Mosiah 11:7, 15.) Noah tried to create the physical signs of civilization. With the people’s taxes he “built many elegant and spacious buildings; and he ornamented them with fine work of wood, and of all manner of precious things.” (Mosiah 11:8.) He didn’t stint on the palace or the temple, either, and like many kings and government leaders in other ages of mankind, he used impressive monuments and elegant facades to persuade the people that they were a wealthy and mighty kingdom. And the people “were deceived by the vain and flattering words of the king” and his hand-picked priests. (Mosiah 11:7.) Perhaps they relished their new “freedom” from the restraints of God’s laws. Perhaps they believed that Noah had made them a great people. But if they had not allowed themselves to be blinded, they might have seen some danger signs. When the problems with the Lamanites began. Noah “sent guards round about the land to keep them off”; for the major battle, Noah “sent his armies against them, and … drove them back.” (Mosiah 11:17–18; italics added.) Perhaps the Nephites had forgotten that King Zeniff was not content to send his armies he fought with his own arm, even in his old age. (See Mosiah 9:16; Mosiah 10:10.) When his people fell, Zeniff, with his “own hands, did help to bury their dead.” (Mosiah 9:19.) But Noah did not walk in the ways of his father, and he stayed at home when the battles were fought. When the Nephite army drove the Lamanites back “for a time” (Mosiah 11:18), they used their victory as an excuse for more pride. “They did boast in their own strength, saying that their fifty could stand against thousands of the Lamanites.” (Mosiah 11:19.) In the days of Zeniff, the Nephites had remembered that their strength depended on the Lord. But under the influence of King Noah and his priests, they “did delight in blood, and the shedding of the blood of their brethren.” (Mosiah 11:19.) The people were so steeped in wickedness that when Abinadi came preaching repentance “they were wroth with him, and sought to take away his life” (Mosiah 11:26)—even before Noah heard of the prophet and ordered his capture. Instead of realizing their errors, the people sided with King Noah: “They hardened their hearts against the words of Abinadi, and they sought from that time forward to take him.” (Mosiah 11:29.) And when at last Abinadi was captured, the people “carried him bound before the king” and denounced him as a traitor and a false prophet. (Mosiah 12:9.) In their pride they said: “O king, behold, we are guiltless, and thou, O king, hast not sinned. … We are strong, … and thou shalt also prosper.” (Mosiah 12:14–15.) Eventually—after Abinadi’s martyrdom and Alma’s departure into the wilderness—a sizable portion of the people began to rebel against King Noah. But almost to the very end Noah was able to lead at least a part of his people into actions that brought them only shame. Despite Noah’s power, which he used to get rich, to commit adultery, and to protect himself, he was weak in character. Even surrounded by his guards and his priests, he was so frightened by Abinadi’s testimony that he “was about to release him, for he feared his word.” (Mosiah 17:11.) Yet when his priests goaded him he reversed himself and ordered Abinadi’s death. Both Noah and his father, Zeniff, faced a massive Lamanite invasion at the end of their reigns. But the difference between them is pointed up most clearly by the ways they handled similar situations. Zeniff armed even the “old men that could bear arms, and also all [the] young men that were able to bear arms” (Mosiah 10:9), and stood himself with his armies to fight off the attack. Noah, on the other hand, “commanded the people that they should flee before the Lamanites,” and instead of making sure all were safe in the retreat, Noah “himself did go before them.” (Mosiah 19:9.) Zeniff sent the women and children into the wilderness to hide while the men fought to protect them. But Noah, seeing that the Lamanites were overtaking his people, “commanded them that all the men should leave their wives and their children, and flee before the Lamanites.” (Mosiah 19:11.) It is to the credit of the people that many of them “would not leave” their families, “but had rather stay and perish with them.” It is to their shame that “the rest left their wives and their children and fled.” (Mosiah 19:12.) But the men who joined Noah in cowardly flight soon realized that their families and their honor were more important than their lives: “Now they [swore] in their hearts that they would return to the land of Nephi, and if their wives and their children were slain, and also those that had tarried with them, that they would seek revenge, and also perish with them.” (Mosiah 19:19.) These men might have found their courage, but Noah had not. Foolishly disregarding their resolve, he “commanded them that they should not return.” At last the people felt the disgust they should have felt long before. “They were angry with the king, and caused that he should suffer, even unto death by fire.” (Mosiah 19:20.) Noah learned, too late, that his power over his people lasted only as long as they were willing to follow him. When he commanded them to do something too contemptible for them to bear, they finally rebelled. But there was another side to the coin. By proving that Noah could not make them do something they did not want to do, the people also proved that their own wickedness was not entirely King Noah’s fault. He had pointed out an evil path, but they had followed him willingly. Abinadi, in his dying moments, had told King Noah, “Ye shall suffer, as I suffer, the pains of death by fire.” (Mosiah 17:18.) That promise was fulfilled. But another promise remained: “Ye shall be smitten on every hand, and shall be driven and scattered to and fro, even as a wild flock is driven by wild and ferocious beasts.” (Mosiah 17:17.) The people had at last rid themselves of a wicked king. But they had yet to suffer the penalty of their own sins—affliction at the hands of the Lamanites. When Noah ordered the Nephites to leave their families and run, many disobeyed him and stayed behind with their loved ones. Outnumbered as they were, they had to surrender, and to stop the bloodshed they sent their fair daughters to “plead with the Lamanites that they would not slay them.” (Mosiah 19:13.) Zeniff had seen much that was good among the Lamanites. His people now had a chance to see for themselves that even though they may have been “wild, and ferocious” (Mosiah 10:12), the “Lamanites had compassion on” the Nephites (Mosiah 19:14). The Lamanites allowed the Nephites to return to their homes, but the terms of the peace treaty were harsh. The Nephites had to covenant that they would pay the king of the Lamanites half of all they possessed every year. They also had to “deliver up king Noah into the hands of the Lamanites.” (Mosiah 19:14.) One of King Noah’s sons had stayed behind to defend the women and children. His name was Limhi, and he “was desirous that his father should not be destroyed”—for that is probably what the Lamanites intended to do once they got Noah in their hands. But Limhi was a righteous man, and he knew that his father was wicked: the Book of Mormon does not say he refused the Lamanites’ terms, and Limhi did comply with the rest of the treaty. (Mosiah 19:26.) One wonders how a righteous man like Limhi survived to adulthood in Noah’s court. What did Limhi go through as a boy, watching his father assemble a harem, promote drunkenness, squander the people’s money, and corrupt the laws of the kingdom? Perhaps Limhi knew his grandfather, Zeniff, before he died. Certainly Limhi’s life more closely followed his grandfather’s. Perhaps he read Zeniff’s own record, and learned from him that the people must depend on the Lord, and that it is the king’s place to serve his people, not to profit from them. Whatever Limhi’s life had been like before, he was such a man that the people, defeated and in bondage, chose him to be their king. His reign began as he “made oath unto the king of the Lamanites that his people should pay tribute unto him, even one half of all they possessed.” (Mosiah 19:26.) Limhi ruled his people in peace for two years. But at the end of that time, the wicked priests of King Noah, who had escaped into the wilderness, kidnapped twenty-four of the “daughters of the Lamanites” when they “gathered together to dance.” (Mosiah 20:5.) The Lamanites, thinking that the people of King Limhi had committed the crime, became angry, and their king led an army against the Nephites. (Mosiah 20:6–7.) Limhi saw their preparations for war from a high watchtower that Noah had built. Even though he didn’t know why the Lamanites were attacking, he gathered his people together, and they were lying in wait when the enemy arrived. (See Mosiah 20:6–9.) The battle was savage, “for they fought like lions for their prey” (Mosiah 20:10), but at the end the Nephites drove the enemy away, even though the Lamanites outnumbered them by more than two to one (see Mosiah 20:11). When the Lamanites retreated, their king was left wounded on the field. Limhi had the Lamanite king brought before him, after his wounds had been treated, and found out from him about the kidnapping of the Lamanite girls. Limhi was a just man, and he said, “I will search among my people and whosoever has done this thing shall perish.” (Mosiah 20:16.) Fortunately, however, they became convinced that the priests of King Noah had committed the crime, and the Lamanite king “was pacified towards” the Nephites. (Mosiah 20:24.) If Limhi had accomplished a great deal in winning the trust of his enemy, the Lamanite king asked even more trust in return. He actually asked the Nephites to “go forth to meet my people, without arms; and I swear unto you with an oath that my people shall not slay thy people.” (Mosiah 20:24.) Go unarmed to face the Lamanites! What guarantee did the Nephites have that the Lamanites, furious at the taking of their daughters, would pay any attention to their king? It probably occurred to more than one Nephite that if the Lamanite king were determined to utterly destroy the Nephites, the best possible way to accomplish it would be to have an unarmed Nephite army meet a well-armed and angry Lamanite army. But Limhi trusted the Lamanite king as much as the Lamanite king trusted him. And Limhi’s people followed their king—not into wickedness, as they had followed Noah, but into danger and possible death, all for the chance of ending the war by convincing the Lamanites that they were innocent of any crime. It wasn’t a sure thing, either, for the Lamanite king, keeping his oath, had to bow down before his army and “plead in behalf of the people of Limhi.” (Mosiah 20:25.) It is hard to imagine such a diplomatic feat today. Two warlike peoples with a memory of years of bloody battles faced each other, and one of the armies did the incredible: on the strength of the promise of the enemy king, they completely disarmed themselves and threw themselves on the mercy of their enemies. And their enemies, when they saw “the people of Limhi, that they were without arms, … had compassion on them and were pacified towards them, and returned with their king in peace to their own land.” (Mosiah 20:26.) Limhi did not rule as a dictator. He knew what his father seems never to have realized: that if the people are determined to do something, not even a king can stop them, except by persuasion. For example, when Lamanite harassment provoked the Nephites to go to war, Limhi at first did not consent. But “they did afflict the king sorely with their complaints,” until finally Limhi “granted unto them that they should do according to their desires.” (Mosiah 21:6.) The Nephites went to battle three times, and three times they were slaughtered. There “was a great mourning and lamentation among the people of Limhi.” (Mosiah 21:9.) Abinadi’s promise that they would be “smitten on every hand, and … driven” (Mosiah 17:17; see also Mosiah 12:2) had been fulfilled as a direct consequence of their own pride. But their defeats had at least one good effect: “They did humble themselves even to the dust, subjecting themselves to the yoke of bondage, submitting themselves to be smitten, and to be driven to and fro.” (Mosiah 21:13.) Limhi watched his people turn to the Lord: “They did cry mightily to God; yea, even all the day long did they cry unto their God that he would deliver them out of their afflictions.” (Mosiah 21:14.) At last their prayers were answered when a group of men from Zarahemla were discovered outside the city walls. Limhi learned from their leader, Ammon, that they had been sent by the second King Mosiah to find Zeniff’s people. Ammon taught King Limhi “the last words which king Benjamin had taught” (Mosiah 8:3; see Mosiah 2–5), and King Limhi “entered into a covenant with God, and also many of his people” (Mosiah 21:32). Limhi addressed his people at the temple, telling them that the Lord had delivered them: “Therefore, lift up your heads, and rejoice, and put your trust in God.” (Mosiah 7:19.) They followed an inspired plan of escape (see Alma 1:8), abandoned the land they had fought for generations to keep, “joined Mosiah’s people, and became his subjects” (Mosiah 22:13). In all of Limhi’s words recorded in the Book of Mormon there is not a hint that he was reluctant to give up his throne. His people’s safety, righteousness, and happiness were more important to him, apparently, than power. When Ammon came, offering the possibility of escape from the land of Nephi and a return to Zarahemla, Limhi said: “I will rejoice; and … I will cause that my people shall rejoice also”—rejoice even if they became slaves to the Nephites, for almost anything was better than their current situation! (Mosiah 7:14–15.) Limhi didn’t hesitate. As he had used his power wisely, for the benefit of his people, so now, for the benefit of his people, he gladly began a series of events that led to his giving up that power. Zeniff, Noah, and Limhi were kings. But the Book of Mormon also tells us about Gideon, a man who represented the finest among the common people. After Abinadi’s martyrdom and Alma’s flight into the wilderness, Gideon was one of the group that began to oppose King Noah. A strong man, “he drew his sword, and swore in his wrath that he would slay the king.” (Mosiah 19:4.) He very nearly succeeded, too, but Noah fled from him to the watchtower and saw the Lamanite army approaching. “Gideon, spare me,” King Noah cried, “for the Lamanites are upon us, and they will destroy us; yea, they will destroy my people.” (Mosiah 19:7.) The Book of Mormon tells us that the people actually meant little to Noah (Mosiah 19:8), but apparently Gideon cared very much about their safety, and he let Noah live. Gideon stayed with the women and children when Noah ran away. He must have been a leader of some sort, for when the Lamanites demanded that the Nephites turn over King Noah to them, it was Gideon who “sent men into the wilderness secretly, to search for the king.” (Mosiah 19:18.) The strong soldier was highly regarded: by the time of the battle in which the Lamanite king was captured, Gideon was “the king’s captain.” Once again his concern was for the people. When King Limhi commanded that the people be searched to find and punish those who had kidnapped the Lamanite girls, Gideon said, “I pray thee forbear, and do not search this people, and lay not this thing to their charge.” (Mosiah 20:17.) He reminded the king about the priests of King Noah, and Limhi realized that the crime was undoubtedly their work. Years later, when Ammon came to lead the people out of bondage, it was Gideon who spoke up and suggested the plan of escape. (See Mosiah 22:3–9.) He undoubtedly was among those who accepted baptism in Zarahemla when “king Limhi was desirous that he might be baptized; and all his people were desirous that they might be baptized also.” (Mosiah 25:17.) Gideon surfaces one more time, again because of his remarkable courage in defending righteousness. In his old age he was a teacher in the church of God. (Alma 1:7–8.) He met Nehor, a teacher of false doctrine, and as Nehor began to “contend with him sharply,” Gideon “withstood him, admonishing him with the words of God.” (Alma 1:7.) Nehor “drew his sword and began to smite” Gideon. And because Gideon was now an old man, “he was not able to withstand his blows, therefore he was slain by the sword.” (Alma 1:9.) Gideon entered history with a sword in his hand, and died by the sword as well. But always he acted in defense of righteousness, striking out against evil and on behalf of the people he loved. A righteous king found Gideon to be a steadfast, valuable servant. A wicked king found him to be his enemy. If all the people of King Noah had been as firm in righteousness as Gideon, perhaps their suffering might have been avoided. The people of the land of Nephi were righteous under good King Zeniff. But they allowed King Noah to lead them astray. It took years of suffering, much bloodshed, and virtual slavery before they finally learned the lesson the Lord had for them. Limhi lamented at their weakness: “How blind and impenetrable are the understandings of the children of men; for they will not seek wisdom, neither do they desire that she should rule over them!” (Mosiah 8:20.) But the people learned at last. When Ammon came, Limhi reminded the people of their experiences, saying, “For behold, the Lord hath said: I will not succor my people in the day of their transgression; but I will hedge up their ways that they prosper not.” (Mosiah 7:29.) And now he was able to promise them, “If ye will turn to the Lord with full purpose of heart, and put your trust in him, and serve him with all diligence of mind, … he will … deliver you out of bondage.” (Mosiah 7:33.)	<urn:uuid:2b28fd13-78ff-4212-aeb8-ed9a2ff0b219>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1977/01/three-kings-and-a-captain-nephite-leaders-in-the-land-of-nephi?lang=eng	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00269.warc.gz	en	0.989813	6,039	3.265625	3	[ -0.3144371509552002, 0.836654782295227, 0.1480257362127304, 0.02835526317358017, -0.14063550531864166, -0.22571983933448792, 0.4234124720096588, 0.047983065247535706, -0.5268945097923279, 0.022224079817533493, 0.06914928555488586, -0.23034125566482544, 0.5523123741149902, -0.05483353883028...	1	“Three Kings and a Captain: Nephite Leaders in the Land of Nephi,” Ensign, Jan. 1977, 76 The land of Nephi was a frontier outpost of Nephite civilization during the time spanned by the latter part of the book of Omni and the book of Mosiah. From their twelfth year in the land, the colonizers were often under attack or threat of attack from the Lamanites in the neighboring land of Shemlon. This almost constant stress may have been part of the reason that this group of Nephites produced some of the greatest men—and some of the worst—in the Book of Mormon. Two great prophets came from the colony in the land of Nephi: The martyr Abinadi denounced a wicked king and was burned to death for it. And Alma, a priest of the wicked king, recognized the truth he had heard from Abinadi’s lips and led a righteous group of people out of the land into the wilderness. (See Mosiah 19:32–35.) But the people of Nephi also had notable men for their political and military leaders. They ranged from Gideon, a sometime military leader who lived and died for the principles of righteousness, to Noah, a king who lived for his own pleasure and power, and who died at the hands of men he had led in cowardly flight. Zeniff, the first king in the Nephite colony, was the staunch and sturdy leader of his people against a treacherous enemy, while Limhi, his grandson, was a king who gave his trust even to his enemies, when they asked for it. These four men and the people they led show us that righteousness and the love of God are the foundation of freedom and happiness. The land of Nephi had been the homeland of the Nephites before they left and joined the people of Zarahemla. (See Omni 1:12–19.) After their departure the land had been occupied by Lamanites—but there were “a large number” of the Nephites who wanted to return “to possess the land of their inheritance.” (Omni 1:27.) Zeniff was in the first expedition sent to win back the former Nephite lands. He had been “sent as a spy among the Lamanites,” looking for their strengths and weaknesses so that the Nephite army “might come upon them and destroy them.” But as he studied the Lamanites, he “saw that which was good among them,” and he “was desirous that they should not be destroyed.” (Mosiah 9:1.) So Zeniff argued with the leader of the expedition, trying to persuade him to make a treaty with the Lamanites. But the leader was “a strong and mighty man, and a stiffnecked man” (Omni 1:28), and he commanded the Nephites to kill Zeniff (Mosiah 9:2). Perhaps Zeniff had persuaded others to his point of view, or perhaps others simply rebelled at the idea of having him killed. Whatever the reason, Zeniff was “rescued by the shedding of much blood.” (Mosiah 9:2.) Most of the expedition was killed in the fight, so that only fifty souls returned to Zarahemla. (Omni 1:28.) But Zeniff had seen the land, and he wanted to possess it. In later years he looked back on his younger self and wrote, “I [was] over-zealous to inherit the land of our fathers.” (Mosiah 9:3.) But at the time many others felt as he did, and a second expedition left Zarahemla for the land of Nephi. After many difficulties in the wilderness—caused, Zeniff wrote, because “we were slow to remember the Lord our God” (Mosiah 9:3)—they reached the place where the first expedition had ended in disaster. This time Zeniff was able to carry out his plan to make a treaty, and with four other men he went to King Laman to see if he could “go in with my people and possess the land in peace.” (Mosiah 9:5.) Cunning and crafty King Laman agreed. Though he made a covenant with Zeniff and ordered his own people to leave the lands of Lehi-Nephi and Shilom, events revealed that Laman really planned to bring the Nephites into bondage. (See Mosiah 9:6–7, 10.) He stirred up his people to war against the Nephites, and though Zeniff and his people were able to resist successfully, they were repeatedly forced to fight to survive. Once, when Zeniff discovered a Lamanite army about to descend on his people, he ordered that the women and children hide in the wilderness, while all the men, old and young, who could bear arms, went to battle against the Lamanites. (Mosiah 10:9.) “Putting their trust in the Lord,” they fought mightily. At the end of the battle the Lamanites were driven out of the land, and Zeniff wrote, “We slew them with a great slaughter, even so many that we did not number them.” (Mosiah 10:19–20.) By this time Zeniff was an old man (Mosiah 10:10), yet his courage was undimmed, and he didn’t flinch from fighting even when the odds seemed against him. But he did not seek war. Even when the Lamanites attacked he was able to view them with understanding. Though he called his enemies a “wild, and ferocious, and a blood-thirsty people” (Mosiah 10:12), Zeniff understood that their hatred of the Nephites came from the false traditions of their fathers, and he still desired to live in peace beside them. (See Mosiah 10:12–17.) After having served his people well, always relying on the Lord to preserve them in battle, Zeniff gave up the kingship in his old age. He chose one of his sons to follow him. It is ironic that his heir, Noah, would systematically try to destroy the faith, the standards, and eventually the strength and courage of the people of Nephi—everything that Zeniff had labored all his life to build. It is an understatement when the scripture says, “Noah … did not walk in the ways of his father.” (Mosiah 11:1.) After being led by Zeniff, a righteous man, the people might have been disgusted by a king who took many wives and concubines, committed whoredoms, set his heart upon wealth, spent his time in riotous living, and became a winebibber. (See Mosiah 11:2, 14–15.) But when Noah sinned, the people did not hold fast to the principles taught by Zeniff. Instead they joined King Noah in his sins, becoming idolatrous, drinking wine, and committing “whoredoms and all manner of wickedness.” (Mosiah 11:2; see also Mosiah 11:7, 15.) Noah tried to create the physical signs of civilization. With the people’s taxes he “built many elegant and spacious buildings; and he ornamented them with fine work of wood, and of all manner of precious things.” (Mosiah 11:8.) He didn’t stint on the palace or the temple, either, and like many kings and government leaders in other ages of mankind, he used impressive monuments and elegant facades to persuade the people that they were a wealthy and mighty kingdom. And the people “were deceived by the vain and flattering words of the king” and his hand-picked priests. (Mosiah 11:7.) Perhaps they relished their new “freedom” from the restraints of God’s laws. Perhaps they believed that Noah had made them a great people. But if they had not allowed themselves to be blinded, they might have seen some danger signs. When the problems with the Lamanites began. Noah “sent guards round about the land to keep them off”; for the major battle, Noah “sent his armies against them, and … drove them back.” (Mosiah 11:17–18; italics added.) Perhaps the Nephites had forgotten that King Zeniff was not content to send his armies he fought with his own arm, even in his old age. (See Mosiah 9:16; Mosiah 10:10.) When his people fell, Zeniff, with his “own hands, did help to bury their dead.” (Mosiah 9:19.) But Noah did not walk in the ways of his father, and he stayed at home when the battles were fought. When the Nephite army drove the Lamanites back “for a time” (Mosiah 11:18), they used their victory as an excuse for more pride. “They did boast in their own strength, saying that their fifty could stand against thousands of the Lamanites.” (Mosiah 11:19.) In the days of Zeniff, the Nephites had remembered that their strength depended on the Lord. But under the influence of King Noah and his priests, they “did delight in blood, and the shedding of the blood of their brethren.” (Mosiah 11:19.) The people were so steeped in wickedness that when Abinadi came preaching repentance “they were wroth with him, and sought to take away his life” (Mosiah 11:26)—even before Noah heard of the prophet and ordered his capture. Instead of realizing their errors, the people sided with King Noah: “They hardened their hearts against the words of Abinadi, and they sought from that time forward to take him.” (Mosiah 11:29.) And when at last Abinadi was captured, the people “carried him bound before the king” and denounced him as a traitor and a false prophet. (Mosiah 12:9.) In their pride they said: “O king, behold, we are guiltless, and thou, O king, hast not sinned. … We are strong, … and thou shalt also prosper.” (Mosiah 12:14–15.) Eventually—after Abinadi’s martyrdom and Alma’s departure into the wilderness—a sizable portion of the people began to rebel against King Noah. But almost to the very end Noah was able to lead at least a part of his people into actions that brought them only shame. Despite Noah’s power, which he used to get rich, to commit adultery, and to protect himself, he was weak in character. Even surrounded by his guards and his priests, he was so frightened by Abinadi’s testimony that he “was about to release him, for he feared his word.” (Mosiah 17:11.) Yet when his priests goaded him he reversed himself and ordered Abinadi’s death. Both Noah and his father, Zeniff, faced a massive Lamanite invasion at the end of their reigns. But the difference between them is pointed up most clearly by the ways they handled similar situations. Zeniff armed even the “old men that could bear arms, and also all [the] young men that were able to bear arms” (Mosiah 10:9), and stood himself with his armies to fight off the attack. Noah, on the other hand, “commanded the people that they should flee before the Lamanites,” and instead of making sure all were safe in the retreat, Noah “himself did go before them.” (Mosiah 19:9.) Zeniff sent the women and children into the wilderness to hide while the men fought to protect them. But Noah, seeing that the Lamanites were overtaking his people, “commanded them that all the men should leave their wives and their children, and flee before the Lamanites.” (Mosiah 19:11.) It is to the credit of the people that many of them “would not leave” their families, “but had rather stay and perish with them.” It is to their shame that “the rest left their wives and their children and fled.” (Mosiah 19:12.) But the men who joined Noah in cowardly flight soon realized that their families and their honor were more important than their lives: “Now they [swore] in their hearts that they would return to the land of Nephi, and if their wives and their children were slain, and also those that had tarried with them, that they would seek revenge, and also perish with them.” (Mosiah 19:19.) These men might have found their courage, but Noah had not. Foolishly disregarding their resolve, he “commanded them that they should not return.” At last the people felt the disgust they should have felt long before. “They were angry with the king, and caused that he should suffer, even unto death by fire.” (Mosiah 19:20.) Noah learned, too late, that his power over his people lasted only as long as they were willing to follow him. When he commanded them to do something too contemptible for them to bear, they finally rebelled. But there was another side to the coin. By proving that Noah could not make them do something they did not want to do, the people also proved that their own wickedness was not entirely King Noah’s fault. He had pointed out an evil path, but they had followed him willingly. Abinadi, in his dying moments, had told King Noah, “Ye shall suffer, as I suffer, the pains of death by fire.” (Mosiah 17:18.) That promise was fulfilled. But another promise remained: “Ye shall be smitten on every hand, and shall be driven and scattered to and fro, even as a wild flock is driven by wild and ferocious beasts.” (Mosiah 17:17.) The people had at last rid themselves of a wicked king. But they had yet to suffer the penalty of their own sins—affliction at the hands of the Lamanites. When Noah ordered the Nephites to leave their families and run, many disobeyed him and stayed behind with their loved ones. Outnumbered as they were, they had to surrender, and to stop the bloodshed they sent their fair daughters to “plead with the Lamanites that they would not slay them.” (Mosiah 19:13.) Zeniff had seen much that was good among the Lamanites. His people now had a chance to see for themselves that even though they may have been “wild, and ferocious” (Mosiah 10:12), the “Lamanites had compassion on” the Nephites (Mosiah 19:14). The Lamanites allowed the Nephites to return to their homes, but the terms of the peace treaty were harsh. The Nephites had to covenant that they would pay the king of the Lamanites half of all they possessed every year. They also had to “deliver up king Noah into the hands of the Lamanites.” (Mosiah 19:14.) One of King Noah’s sons had stayed behind to defend the women and children. His name was Limhi, and he “was desirous that his father should not be destroyed”—for that is probably what the Lamanites intended to do once they got Noah in their hands. But Limhi was a righteous man, and he knew that his father was wicked: the Book of Mormon does not say he refused the Lamanites’ terms, and Limhi did comply with the rest of the treaty. (Mosiah 19:26.) One wonders how a righteous man like Limhi survived to adulthood in Noah’s court. What did Limhi go through as a boy, watching his father assemble a harem, promote drunkenness, squander the people’s money, and corrupt the laws of the kingdom? Perhaps Limhi knew his grandfather, Zeniff, before he died. Certainly Limhi’s life more closely followed his grandfather’s. Perhaps he read Zeniff’s own record, and learned from him that the people must depend on the Lord, and that it is the king’s place to serve his people, not to profit from them. Whatever Limhi’s life had been like before, he was such a man that the people, defeated and in bondage, chose him to be their king. His reign began as he “made oath unto the king of the Lamanites that his people should pay tribute unto him, even one half of all they possessed.” (Mosiah 19:26.) Limhi ruled his people in peace for two years. But at the end of that time, the wicked priests of King Noah, who had escaped into the wilderness, kidnapped twenty-four of the “daughters of the Lamanites” when they “gathered together to dance.” (Mosiah 20:5.) The Lamanites, thinking that the people of King Limhi had committed the crime, became angry, and their king led an army against the Nephites. (Mosiah 20:6–7.) Limhi saw their preparations for war from a high watchtower that Noah had built. Even though he didn’t know why the Lamanites were attacking, he gathered his people together, and they were lying in wait when the enemy arrived. (See Mosiah 20:6–9.) The battle was savage, “for they fought like lions for their prey” (Mosiah 20:10), but at the end the Nephites drove the enemy away, even though the Lamanites outnumbered them by more than two to one (see Mosiah 20:11). When the Lamanites retreated, their king was left wounded on the field. Limhi had the Lamanite king brought before him, after his wounds had been treated, and found out from him about the kidnapping of the Lamanite girls. Limhi was a just man, and he said, “I will search among my people and whosoever has done this thing shall perish.” (Mosiah 20:16.) Fortunately, however, they became convinced that the priests of King Noah had committed the crime, and the Lamanite king “was pacified towards” the Nephites. (Mosiah 20:24.) If Limhi had accomplished a great deal in winning the trust of his enemy, the Lamanite king asked even more trust in return. He actually asked the Nephites to “go forth to meet my people, without arms; and I swear unto you with an oath that my people shall not slay thy people.” (Mosiah 20:24.) Go unarmed to face the Lamanites! What guarantee did the Nephites have that the Lamanites, furious at the taking of their daughters, would pay any attention to their king? It probably occurred to more than one Nephite that if the Lamanite king were determined to utterly destroy the Nephites, the best possible way to accomplish it would be to have an unarmed Nephite army meet a well-armed and angry Lamanite army. But Limhi trusted the Lamanite king as much as the Lamanite king trusted him. And Limhi’s people followed their king—not into wickedness, as they had followed Noah, but into danger and possible death, all for the chance of ending the war by convincing the Lamanites that they were innocent of any crime. It wasn’t a sure thing, either, for the Lamanite king, keeping his oath, had to bow down before his army and “plead in behalf of the people of Limhi.” (Mosiah 20:25.) It is hard to imagine such a diplomatic feat today. Two warlike peoples with a memory of years of bloody battles faced each other, and one of the armies did the incredible: on the strength of the promise of the enemy king, they completely disarmed themselves and threw themselves on the mercy of their enemies. And their enemies, when they saw “the people of Limhi, that they were without arms, … had compassion on them and were pacified towards them, and returned with their king in peace to their own land.” (Mosiah 20:26.) Limhi did not rule as a dictator. He knew what his father seems never to have realized: that if the people are determined to do something, not even a king can stop them, except by persuasion. For example, when Lamanite harassment provoked the Nephites to go to war, Limhi at first did not consent. But “they did afflict the king sorely with their complaints,” until finally Limhi “granted unto them that they should do according to their desires.” (Mosiah 21:6.) The Nephites went to battle three times, and three times they were slaughtered. There “was a great mourning and lamentation among the people of Limhi.” (Mosiah 21:9.) Abinadi’s promise that they would be “smitten on every hand, and … driven” (Mosiah 17:17; see also Mosiah 12:2) had been fulfilled as a direct consequence of their own pride. But their defeats had at least one good effect: “They did humble themselves even to the dust, subjecting themselves to the yoke of bondage, submitting themselves to be smitten, and to be driven to and fro.” (Mosiah 21:13.) Limhi watched his people turn to the Lord: “They did cry mightily to God; yea, even all the day long did they cry unto their God that he would deliver them out of their afflictions.” (Mosiah 21:14.) At last their prayers were answered when a group of men from Zarahemla were discovered outside the city walls. Limhi learned from their leader, Ammon, that they had been sent by the second King Mosiah to find Zeniff’s people. Ammon taught King Limhi “the last words which king Benjamin had taught” (Mosiah 8:3; see Mosiah 2–5), and King Limhi “entered into a covenant with God, and also many of his people” (Mosiah 21:32). Limhi addressed his people at the temple, telling them that the Lord had delivered them: “Therefore, lift up your heads, and rejoice, and put your trust in God.” (Mosiah 7:19.) They followed an inspired plan of escape (see Alma 1:8), abandoned the land they had fought for generations to keep, “joined Mosiah’s people, and became his subjects” (Mosiah 22:13). In all of Limhi’s words recorded in the Book of Mormon there is not a hint that he was reluctant to give up his throne. His people’s safety, righteousness, and happiness were more important to him, apparently, than power. When Ammon came, offering the possibility of escape from the land of Nephi and a return to Zarahemla, Limhi said: “I will rejoice; and … I will cause that my people shall rejoice also”—rejoice even if they became slaves to the Nephites, for almost anything was better than their current situation! (Mosiah 7:14–15.) Limhi didn’t hesitate. As he had used his power wisely, for the benefit of his people, so now, for the benefit of his people, he gladly began a series of events that led to his giving up that power. Zeniff, Noah, and Limhi were kings. But the Book of Mormon also tells us about Gideon, a man who represented the finest among the common people. After Abinadi’s martyrdom and Alma’s flight into the wilderness, Gideon was one of the group that began to oppose King Noah. A strong man, “he drew his sword, and swore in his wrath that he would slay the king.” (Mosiah 19:4.) He very nearly succeeded, too, but Noah fled from him to the watchtower and saw the Lamanite army approaching. “Gideon, spare me,” King Noah cried, “for the Lamanites are upon us, and they will destroy us; yea, they will destroy my people.” (Mosiah 19:7.) The Book of Mormon tells us that the people actually meant little to Noah (Mosiah 19:8), but apparently Gideon cared very much about their safety, and he let Noah live. Gideon stayed with the women and children when Noah ran away. He must have been a leader of some sort, for when the Lamanites demanded that the Nephites turn over King Noah to them, it was Gideon who “sent men into the wilderness secretly, to search for the king.” (Mosiah 19:18.) The strong soldier was highly regarded: by the time of the battle in which the Lamanite king was captured, Gideon was “the king’s captain.” Once again his concern was for the people. When King Limhi commanded that the people be searched to find and punish those who had kidnapped the Lamanite girls, Gideon said, “I pray thee forbear, and do not search this people, and lay not this thing to their charge.” (Mosiah 20:17.) He reminded the king about the priests of King Noah, and Limhi realized that the crime was undoubtedly their work. Years later, when Ammon came to lead the people out of bondage, it was Gideon who spoke up and suggested the plan of escape. (See Mosiah 22:3–9.) He undoubtedly was among those who accepted baptism in Zarahemla when “king Limhi was desirous that he might be baptized; and all his people were desirous that they might be baptized also.” (Mosiah 25:17.) Gideon surfaces one more time, again because of his remarkable courage in defending righteousness. In his old age he was a teacher in the church of God. (Alma 1:7–8.) He met Nehor, a teacher of false doctrine, and as Nehor began to “contend with him sharply,” Gideon “withstood him, admonishing him with the words of God.” (Alma 1:7.) Nehor “drew his sword and began to smite” Gideon. And because Gideon was now an old man, “he was not able to withstand his blows, therefore he was slain by the sword.” (Alma 1:9.) Gideon entered history with a sword in his hand, and died by the sword as well. But always he acted in defense of righteousness, striking out against evil and on behalf of the people he loved. A righteous king found Gideon to be a steadfast, valuable servant. A wicked king found him to be his enemy. If all the people of King Noah had been as firm in righteousness as Gideon, perhaps their suffering might have been avoided. The people of the land of Nephi were righteous under good King Zeniff. But they allowed King Noah to lead them astray. It took years of suffering, much bloodshed, and virtual slavery before they finally learned the lesson the Lord had for them. Limhi lamented at their weakness: “How blind and impenetrable are the understandings of the children of men; for they will not seek wisdom, neither do they desire that she should rule over them!” (Mosiah 8:20.) But the people learned at last. When Ammon came, Limhi reminded the people of their experiences, saying, “For behold, the Lord hath said: I will not succor my people in the day of their transgression; but I will hedge up their ways that they prosper not.” (Mosiah 7:29.) And now he was able to promise them, “If ye will turn to the Lord with full purpose of heart, and put your trust in him, and serve him with all diligence of mind, … he will … deliver you out of bondage.” (Mosiah 7:33.)	5,960	ENGLISH	1
by Aggelos Skordas Pontus (Pontos), an ancient Greek word for “sea”, refers to the Black Sea and the surrounding coastal areas. Greek presence in Asia Minor dates as back as 1500 BC, the late Bronze Age, and among those who walked its soils was the epic poet Homer, author of the two central works of the ancient Greek literature, the Iliad and the Odyssey. The age-old presence of Greeks would be brutally interrupted in the early 20thcentury. The dying Ottoman Empire and its heir apparent to the Young Turks managed to eliminate anything Greek from Asia Minor within only nine years. The fate of other Christian populations was the same, as Armenians and Assyrians were also either exterminated or deported. The systematic extermination of the Greek population of Pontus is historically divided into three consecutive phases: The first starts with World War I and ends with the occupation of Trebizond by the Russian Army (1914-1916), the second ends with the end of the First World War (1916-1918) and the latter is completed by the implementation of the Pact for the Populations Exchange between Greece and Turkey (1918-1923). By 1923, out of approximately 700,000 Pontian Greeks who lived in Asia Minor at the beginning of World War I, as many as 353,000 were killed, and almost all the rest had been uprooted during the subsequent forced population exchange between. This was the end of one of the ancient Greek civilizations in Asia Minor. As a consequence of the deliberate and systematic policy of Turkification of the Ottoman Empire, it is estimated that more than 2.75 million Armenians, Assyrians and Greeks were slaughtered outright or were victims of the “white death” of disease and starvation, a result of the routine process of deportations, slave labor, and death marches. Phases A and B In Pontus the wave of mass persecution began with deportations in 1915. The Turkish defeat in the Russian-Turkish War was largely attributed to the Greeks serving in the Ottoman army. As a consequence, all recruited Pontians were compelled to serve in the labor battalions. As a consequence numerous Greeks took refuge in the mountains. As a response in the province of Giresun (Kerasounta) some 88 villages were completely burned within three months. The Greeks of the province, estimated to be about 30,000, were forced to march to Ankara during the heavy Anatolian winter. Inevitably a quarter of them died en route. “After leaving Samsoun on my return trip to Harpoot I passed the old men of Samsoun, Greeks, who were being deported. Many of these men wee feeble with age, but in spite of that they were being pressed forward at a rate of thirty miles a day and there was no transport available for those who were weak or ill. There was no food allowance for them and any food they could obtain had to be procured by money or sale of small articles that they could carry with them. On this trip I passed many corpses of Greeks lying by the roadside where they had died from exposure. Many of these were the corpses of women and girls with their faces toward the sky, covered with flies”, Stanley K. Hopkins of the Near East Relief described in a report. Deportations continued unceasingly even when the Russian troops entered Trebizond in early 1916. Under the pretext that the Pontians supported the Russians, a large number of residents from the Sinope and Kerasounta were displaced, while women were forcibly Islamized. The persecutions, which were intensified by the Decree of December 1916 that ordered the exile of all males between the age of 18 and 40 and the transfer of women and children in the depths of Anatolia, led to the creation of resistance groups by the Pontians. The implementation of the measures began from Samsun. In the province of Amasia, 72,375 Greeks, out of a total of 136,768, were displaced, of whom 70% died of hardship. In Agios Georgios of Kerasounta, 3,000 Greeks in captivity by the Ottoman authorities found slow death due to starvation and other hardships. During World War I a total of 235,000 Pontians were exiled, while 80,000 immigrated to Russia. At the same time, however, the persecutions suffered by the Greeks of the eastern Pontus in the area of Trebizond, were less intensified mainly due to the ability of the Bishop Chrysanthos to interact with the local authorities, but also by the fact that since April 1916 the area was captured by the Russian Army. According to estimates by the Bishop of Trebizond, the number of victims of these policies stood at about 100,000 for that time. The protests by -mainly- Austrian and American diplomats against the Ottoman government were continuous. Following the Russian capitulation and the withdrawal of the Russian Army from the region, the persecutions intensified. The arrival of Kemal Ataturk in the region in May 1919 and the outburst of the movement of the Young Turks, signaled the systematic action of irregular groups against Christian populations. On May 29, Ataturk commissioned irregular Topal Osman’s gang to carry out massive operations against the local population. In this context, thousands of Greeks were massacred or displaced from Samsun and 394 surrounding villages. Relevant references have been recorded by the Greek Foreign Ministry, as well as by US Ambassador Henry Morgenthau. Between February and August 1920 Bafra was burned, while some 6,000 Greeks who had rushed to find shelter in local churches were exterminated. In total, out of 25,000 Greeks living in Bafra and the surrounding areas, 90% were murdered, while the rest were displaced in Anatolia. In September 1921, priests and personalities of the spirit were arrested and sentenced to death by the so-called “Courts of Independence” in Amasia. At the same time, young girls and boys were forcibly taken from their families and were given to the harems of wealthy Turks.	<urn:uuid:9b3858fd-1710-42af-ac1d-c3e2e892a70a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://greekcitytimes.com/2018/05/18/timeline-of-the-greek-pontian-genocide-of-1914-1923/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00329.warc.gz	en	0.982565	1,263	3.59375	4	[ 0.1294422447681427, 0.14511410892009735, 0.5066868662834167, -0.35324063897132874, -0.37251126766204834, -0.6724789142608643, -0.4128322899341583, 0.3524891138076782, 0.0245983749628067, -0.05768547207117081, -0.14037811756134033, -0.36263275146484375, -0.3765857219696045, 0.38405507802963...	6	by Aggelos Skordas Pontus (Pontos), an ancient Greek word for “sea”, refers to the Black Sea and the surrounding coastal areas. Greek presence in Asia Minor dates as back as 1500 BC, the late Bronze Age, and among those who walked its soils was the epic poet Homer, author of the two central works of the ancient Greek literature, the Iliad and the Odyssey. The age-old presence of Greeks would be brutally interrupted in the early 20thcentury. The dying Ottoman Empire and its heir apparent to the Young Turks managed to eliminate anything Greek from Asia Minor within only nine years. The fate of other Christian populations was the same, as Armenians and Assyrians were also either exterminated or deported. The systematic extermination of the Greek population of Pontus is historically divided into three consecutive phases: The first starts with World War I and ends with the occupation of Trebizond by the Russian Army (1914-1916), the second ends with the end of the First World War (1916-1918) and the latter is completed by the implementation of the Pact for the Populations Exchange between Greece and Turkey (1918-1923). By 1923, out of approximately 700,000 Pontian Greeks who lived in Asia Minor at the beginning of World War I, as many as 353,000 were killed, and almost all the rest had been uprooted during the subsequent forced population exchange between. This was the end of one of the ancient Greek civilizations in Asia Minor. As a consequence of the deliberate and systematic policy of Turkification of the Ottoman Empire, it is estimated that more than 2.75 million Armenians, Assyrians and Greeks were slaughtered outright or were victims of the “white death” of disease and starvation, a result of the routine process of deportations, slave labor, and death marches. Phases A and B In Pontus the wave of mass persecution began with deportations in 1915. The Turkish defeat in the Russian-Turkish War was largely attributed to the Greeks serving in the Ottoman army. As a consequence, all recruited Pontians were compelled to serve in the labor battalions. As a consequence numerous Greeks took refuge in the mountains. As a response in the province of Giresun (Kerasounta) some 88 villages were completely burned within three months. The Greeks of the province, estimated to be about 30,000, were forced to march to Ankara during the heavy Anatolian winter. Inevitably a quarter of them died en route. “After leaving Samsoun on my return trip to Harpoot I passed the old men of Samsoun, Greeks, who were being deported. Many of these men wee feeble with age, but in spite of that they were being pressed forward at a rate of thirty miles a day and there was no transport available for those who were weak or ill. There was no food allowance for them and any food they could obtain had to be procured by money or sale of small articles that they could carry with them. On this trip I passed many corpses of Greeks lying by the roadside where they had died from exposure. Many of these were the corpses of women and girls with their faces toward the sky, covered with flies”, Stanley K. Hopkins of the Near East Relief described in a report. Deportations continued unceasingly even when the Russian troops entered Trebizond in early 1916. Under the pretext that the Pontians supported the Russians, a large number of residents from the Sinope and Kerasounta were displaced, while women were forcibly Islamized. The persecutions, which were intensified by the Decree of December 1916 that ordered the exile of all males between the age of 18 and 40 and the transfer of women and children in the depths of Anatolia, led to the creation of resistance groups by the Pontians. The implementation of the measures began from Samsun. In the province of Amasia, 72,375 Greeks, out of a total of 136,768, were displaced, of whom 70% died of hardship. In Agios Georgios of Kerasounta, 3,000 Greeks in captivity by the Ottoman authorities found slow death due to starvation and other hardships. During World War I a total of 235,000 Pontians were exiled, while 80,000 immigrated to Russia. At the same time, however, the persecutions suffered by the Greeks of the eastern Pontus in the area of Trebizond, were less intensified mainly due to the ability of the Bishop Chrysanthos to interact with the local authorities, but also by the fact that since April 1916 the area was captured by the Russian Army. According to estimates by the Bishop of Trebizond, the number of victims of these policies stood at about 100,000 for that time. The protests by -mainly- Austrian and American diplomats against the Ottoman government were continuous. Following the Russian capitulation and the withdrawal of the Russian Army from the region, the persecutions intensified. The arrival of Kemal Ataturk in the region in May 1919 and the outburst of the movement of the Young Turks, signaled the systematic action of irregular groups against Christian populations. On May 29, Ataturk commissioned irregular Topal Osman’s gang to carry out massive operations against the local population. In this context, thousands of Greeks were massacred or displaced from Samsun and 394 surrounding villages. Relevant references have been recorded by the Greek Foreign Ministry, as well as by US Ambassador Henry Morgenthau. Between February and August 1920 Bafra was burned, while some 6,000 Greeks who had rushed to find shelter in local churches were exterminated. In total, out of 25,000 Greeks living in Bafra and the surrounding areas, 90% were murdered, while the rest were displaced in Anatolia. In September 1921, priests and personalities of the spirit were arrested and sentenced to death by the so-called “Courts of Independence” in Amasia. At the same time, young girls and boys were forcibly taken from their families and were given to the harems of wealthy Turks.	1,353	ENGLISH	1
The ruler of a Roman province, usually a former consul. Pilate was governor over the province of Judea when Jesus was crucified (Matt 27:2 ). In the larger senatorial provinces a governor would usually serve for three years. Governors of provinces in which two to four legions were stationed held an important military command. Entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining peace, they would investigate any potential source of difficulty, such as the dispute between Paul and his enemies (Acts 24:1 ; Acts 25:1-4 2They bound him, led him away, and handed him over to Pilate the governor. Paul before Felix at Caesarea 1Five days later the high priest Ananias came down with some elders and an attorney, a certain Tertullus, and they reported their ... View more Paul Appeals to the Emperor 1Three days after Festus had arrived in the province, he went up from Caesarea to Jerusalem2where the chief priests and the leaders ... View more	<urn:uuid:ac100405-21e2-4a6c-99f4-0634d505b9d2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://bibleodyssey.org/en/HarperCollinsBibleDictionary/g/governor	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00511.warc.gz	en	0.981369	210	3.515625	4	[ -0.10293099284172058, 0.332245409488678, 0.538774847984314, -0.37575650215148926, -0.3428027033805847, -0.5099784731864929, 0.11477793753147125, 0.2720535397529602, -0.04599837213754654, 0.1911221444606781, 0.2677939832210541, -0.4041178524494171, 0.14899490773677826, 0.29063680768013, 0...	3	The ruler of a Roman province, usually a former consul. Pilate was governor over the province of Judea when Jesus was crucified (Matt 27:2 ). In the larger senatorial provinces a governor would usually serve for three years. Governors of provinces in which two to four legions were stationed held an important military command. Entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining peace, they would investigate any potential source of difficulty, such as the dispute between Paul and his enemies (Acts 24:1 ; Acts 25:1-4 2They bound him, led him away, and handed him over to Pilate the governor. Paul before Felix at Caesarea 1Five days later the high priest Ananias came down with some elders and an attorney, a certain Tertullus, and they reported their ... View more Paul Appeals to the Emperor 1Three days after Festus had arrived in the province, he went up from Caesarea to Jerusalem2where the chief priests and the leaders ... View more	213	ENGLISH	1
In more than a century of flight, aircraft have gone from crude one-man gliders to sleek, supersonic jets. The earliest airplanes were simple, open-cockpit craft made from wooden frames and covered in cloth with single propellers prone to stalling in midair. It took many daring men and women to figure out how airplanes worked and how they could be improved. One Texas family became pioneers in aviation, including two of the earliest women pilots in the United States. Katherine Stinson led this family of pilots and became a celebrity in the years before World War I. Katherine Stinson was born on Valentine’s Day 1891 in Northeast Alabama, the eldest of four children. Her brother Edward, Jr., born in 1893 and sister Marjorie, born in 1894, would also follow her into aviation. Their father was an electrical engineer. When they were still young, the family moved to Mississippi to be near their father’s family. Shortly after the turn of the century, they moved to Arkansas. The news of Orville and Wilbur Wright’s successful flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in December 1903 captivated the nation. Katherine Stinson was fascinated, but she was also interested in music and thought about becoming a professional pianist. The family attended an air show in St. Louis in 1911, and she was even able to fly on a plane. She wanted to learn to fly immediately, but the pilot would not let her because she was a woman. She began learning all she could about aviation and even chanced to meet Wilbur Wright in early 1912, who she later said was encouraging toward her. She met Max Lillie, a Swedish immigrant who had settled in St. Louis and a former pilot for the Wright Brothers, later in 1912 and tried to persuade him to teach her to fly. Lillie was reluctant at first because Stinson was a woman but agreed to take her on a trial flight. Stinson eventually took the controls and proved to be a natural. Within four hours, she had mastered the small plane and was flying on her own. The lessons cost $500, and the family sold their piano to afford them. Within weeks, she earned her pilot’s license. Stinson is believed by historians to be only the fourth woman in the United States to earn a pilot’s license. In the meantime, her brother Edward received his license, followed by Marjorie in 1914. Marjorie Stinson is believed to be the ninth American woman to receive a pilot’s license. The family began performing in aerial exhibitions across the country. Katherine Stinson was respected by other pilots and mechanics for her insistence on the highest standards for maintenance, standards she would inspect herself with her planes. The family of aerial acrobats became a nationwide sensation. Reporters began calling her “The Flying Schoolgirl” even though she was well into her twenties at this point and in spite of her attempts to remind them about her age. The family eventually moved from Arkansas to San Antonio as the mild weather, flat lands, and relative lack of forests had made it an enviable environment for pilots. In 1915, the family leased 360 acres from the City of San Antonio and established an air field on what was then the city’s southern outskirts. It was at this air field that they honed their skills, along with other early aspiring pilots. Over the years, the air field expanded and modernized, briefly serving as an Army Air Force training field during World War II. Now known as Stinson Municipal Airport, it is the second oldest continuously operating airport in the United States. As the Stinsons continued to tour the US in 1915, Katherine Stinson performed the first aerial loop completed by a solo woman pilot. Exhibitions by pilots like the Stinsons convinced the American public that aviation was safe. And as aviation technology progressed, more uses for planes began to be found. The post office began air mail service, and Katherine Stinson became the first woman certified as an air mail pilot in 1915. The family would continue to pursue their love of flying for years to come. The approaching years, however, would bring many changes and even tragedy. Dr. Ken Bridges is a writer, historian and native Texan. He holds a doctorate from the University of North Texas. Dr. Bridges can be reached by email at firstname.lastname@example.org.	<urn:uuid:3563bbb7-49f7-4437-a767-eafa21c27d5d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.lubbockonline.com/news/20190707/bridges-stinson-was-one-of-first-female-pilots-in-us-part-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00546.warc.gz	en	0.988377	911	3.625	4	[ 0.28622135519981384, 0.27680182456970215, 0.2093145102262497, -0.5054718852043152, -0.34686464071273804, 0.48620718717575073, 0.10664321482181549, 0.502131462097168, -0.05842989683151245, 0.15541782975196838, -0.08233694732189178, 0.39021366834640503, 0.13613083958625793, 0.189178809523582...	3	In more than a century of flight, aircraft have gone from crude one-man gliders to sleek, supersonic jets. The earliest airplanes were simple, open-cockpit craft made from wooden frames and covered in cloth with single propellers prone to stalling in midair. It took many daring men and women to figure out how airplanes worked and how they could be improved. One Texas family became pioneers in aviation, including two of the earliest women pilots in the United States. Katherine Stinson led this family of pilots and became a celebrity in the years before World War I. Katherine Stinson was born on Valentine’s Day 1891 in Northeast Alabama, the eldest of four children. Her brother Edward, Jr., born in 1893 and sister Marjorie, born in 1894, would also follow her into aviation. Their father was an electrical engineer. When they were still young, the family moved to Mississippi to be near their father’s family. Shortly after the turn of the century, they moved to Arkansas. The news of Orville and Wilbur Wright’s successful flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in December 1903 captivated the nation. Katherine Stinson was fascinated, but she was also interested in music and thought about becoming a professional pianist. The family attended an air show in St. Louis in 1911, and she was even able to fly on a plane. She wanted to learn to fly immediately, but the pilot would not let her because she was a woman. She began learning all she could about aviation and even chanced to meet Wilbur Wright in early 1912, who she later said was encouraging toward her. She met Max Lillie, a Swedish immigrant who had settled in St. Louis and a former pilot for the Wright Brothers, later in 1912 and tried to persuade him to teach her to fly. Lillie was reluctant at first because Stinson was a woman but agreed to take her on a trial flight. Stinson eventually took the controls and proved to be a natural. Within four hours, she had mastered the small plane and was flying on her own. The lessons cost $500, and the family sold their piano to afford them. Within weeks, she earned her pilot’s license. Stinson is believed by historians to be only the fourth woman in the United States to earn a pilot’s license. In the meantime, her brother Edward received his license, followed by Marjorie in 1914. Marjorie Stinson is believed to be the ninth American woman to receive a pilot’s license. The family began performing in aerial exhibitions across the country. Katherine Stinson was respected by other pilots and mechanics for her insistence on the highest standards for maintenance, standards she would inspect herself with her planes. The family of aerial acrobats became a nationwide sensation. Reporters began calling her “The Flying Schoolgirl” even though she was well into her twenties at this point and in spite of her attempts to remind them about her age. The family eventually moved from Arkansas to San Antonio as the mild weather, flat lands, and relative lack of forests had made it an enviable environment for pilots. In 1915, the family leased 360 acres from the City of San Antonio and established an air field on what was then the city’s southern outskirts. It was at this air field that they honed their skills, along with other early aspiring pilots. Over the years, the air field expanded and modernized, briefly serving as an Army Air Force training field during World War II. Now known as Stinson Municipal Airport, it is the second oldest continuously operating airport in the United States. As the Stinsons continued to tour the US in 1915, Katherine Stinson performed the first aerial loop completed by a solo woman pilot. Exhibitions by pilots like the Stinsons convinced the American public that aviation was safe. And as aviation technology progressed, more uses for planes began to be found. The post office began air mail service, and Katherine Stinson became the first woman certified as an air mail pilot in 1915. The family would continue to pursue their love of flying for years to come. The approaching years, however, would bring many changes and even tragedy. Dr. Ken Bridges is a writer, historian and native Texan. He holds a doctorate from the University of North Texas. Dr. Bridges can be reached by email at firstname.lastname@example.org.	926	ENGLISH	1
Soldier, topographer, polar explorer, but also painter, Julius von Payer was a man of many skills. Despite being born in the West Bohemian spa town of Teplice, he is a figure unknown to most Czechs today. Nevertheless, his efforts were immortalised by the discovery of a polar archipelago which he named Franz Josef Land. “In the year of 1868, during our ascent of the Ortler Alps, just one newspaper made it to the tents where my expedition was camping. It told the story of [Captain] Koldewey’s preliminary expedition. That evening, I brought the herdsmen and foresters who were accompanying me to our campfire and held a lecture about the North Pole, astounded that there could be such people, who were capable of surviving such terrors of the cold and dark. I had no idea back then that, in a year’s time, I myself would be taking part in an expedition to the North Pole…” This is how Julius Payer begins his account of the Austro-German expedition to an uncharted land near the North Pole. He would end up would end up discovering an archipelago to the far north of Russia and call it Franz Josef Land, a name it still carries today. Payer was born in Šanov, Teplice, in today’s Czech Republic to a retired officer of the Austrian army. His now deceased biographer, sociologist and cultural ethnographer Dr Jitka Ortová, wrote that he left Teplice while he was still a child. “Julius spent his childhood in Teplice, but at the age of ten he had to leave the city to attend cadet school in distant Lobzów near the polish city of Krakow [which was then part of Austria-Hungary]. He was fourteen when his father died. Then he went to the Theresian Military Academy in Vienna's New Town where he learned to honour military uniforms and virtues, to serve the Emperor and his homeland (meaning the monarchy), but also gained an interest in exploration and gaining new knowledge.” “I had no idea back then that, in a year’s time, I myself would be taking part in an expedition to the North Pole.” After leaving the academy Payer served in the Austrian army as a lieutenant and fought in the Battle of Custoza against the Sardinians in 1848 during the first Italian War of Independence. He was commanded by another accomplished Bohemian-Austrian – Field Marshal Radetzky – and distinguished himself in the battle, winning the honorary cross for capturing two Italian cannons. Nevertheless, as he wrote himself years later in his book on exploration, Lieutenant Payer was already being tempted by another challenge while in Italy. “For three years I was looking from the Verona plain full of desire towards the Alpine chain. I considered exploring the mountains of the Tyrolean Alps as my life mission.” This he would indeed start doing from the age of 21, while still an active army officer. His lust for adventure made him scale Austria’s highest mountain, the Grossglockner, and a year later he became the first man to conquer Italy’s 3,539 metre high mount Adamello. These ascents were often dangerous. During one climb he fell down 250 meters into a gorge, but managed to walk away virtually unscathed. It would be wrong to think of Julius Payer as a simple adventurer. His expeditions were accompanied by rigorous scientific notetaking and led to a relatively detailed map of the surrounding alpine region, a major advance when compared to previous attempts. By the age of 26 Payer had already scaled some 118 alpine peaks and established a reputation as a competent topographer. It was at this time, in 1868, that Payer was invited by the German geographer August Petermann to participate in the Second German North Polar Expedition to study the shape and features of land surfaces in the Arctic. Dr. Ortová described its mission in her book on Payer in 1972. "It was the first major voyage of German ships into the Arctic and included plans for spending the winter in the polar region. “The expedition set out from the port of Bremen in the middle of June 1869 in early summer. It consisted of two ships with distinct names - the parent liner Germania and the auxiliary sailboat Hansa, which carried mainly a supply of coal. “A month after setting sail Germania hit impenetrable ice off the coast of Greenland and only managed to reach the 75. degree north latitude in mid-August, despite dedicated attempts by the crew to break through.” Payer was intent on overcoming the natural obstacle and by using sleds he managed to travel two degrees further north, mapping out north eastern Greenland in the process. The expedition only managed to return to Germany two years later in September 1870 amid celebrations of a different kind – the German states under the leadership of Prussia had defeated France and paved the way towards full German unification. Payer’s first trip to the Arctic may not have been a great success, but it was not by his own doing. Just two years later he was already leading another, this time Austro-Hungarian expedition to the polar region, together with ship captain Karl Weyprecht. Rather than heading west towards Greenland, this expedition’s task was to map out the regions north of Scandinavia and Russia. It was assumed that the warm Gulf Stream flowed through the seas in this area and that there was an unknown landmass east of the Svalbard – the Norwegian archipelago between mainland Norway and the North Pole. “Unobstructed, as smoothly as on an inland lake, our ship glided across the shiny water. But rather than shores covered in blooming shrubs, we encountered pale, moving icebergs, which soon took on the appearance of fantastic ghosts in the fog, dissolving into nothingness.” Aside from the Teplice-born Austrian, the crew also included four Czechs - Josef Pospíšil, Eduard Orel Gustav Brosch and Ota Kříž, for whom it would prove fatal. The expedition set out from Bremerhaven in 1872 headed for the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. Payer described the voyage in his account. “Unobstructed, as smoothly as on an inland lake, our ship glided across the shiny water. But rather than shores covered in blooming shrubs, we encountered pale, moving icebergs, which soon took on the appearance of fantastic ghosts in the fog, dissolving into nothingness. Our immediate surroundings became intangible and colourless, only faint shadows still hovering behind that fog. It seemed to us as if we were sailing without any proper destination.” It soon became clear that the original aims of the expedition could not be accomplished. The ships became trapped in the impenetrable ice sheets around Novaya Zemlya and were forced to drift into the unexplored north eastern regions, captives of their surroundings. And yet it was this seeming disaster which led the expedition to their great discovery, carrying the helpless ships to the shores of a previously unknown land. Quick on his feet, Payer hoisted the Austro-Hungarian flag over the newly discovered landmass and proclaimed it Franz-Josef Land in honour of his emperor, the name which it still carries today. Many sled expeditions were soon undertaken under Payer's leadership. The explorers reached as far as the 82. northern latitude, just 8 points away from the North Pole. The officer turned explorer did not forget to pay tribute to his native West Bohemian homeland, giving parts of the newly discovered archipelago the names Teplitz (Teplice) Bay and Šanov Island. However, the hardest part of the journey was yet to come. It was clear that the ships would remain trapped in the ice. The two commanders therefore had to salvage the lifeboats and make their way some 360 kilometres south to Novaya Zemlya. Peyer described the situation in his book. “Year after year passes in just the same manner over this inhospitable region in the far north. The feeling of loneliness here does not change with time. Only the sea birds could be heard whizzing over the rocky slopes and the ice sheets never ceased in their advance towards the coast, driven on by the incessant drum of the wind. “Connected by rope, we made our way over the glacier and, as soon as we reached our stored provisions in Cape Germania, we started melting ice into water. We had learned that the liquid we had stored in our rubber bottles - coffee, rum and bouillon - did not give us strength, but simply increased our thirst.” “We had learned that the liquid we had stored in our rubber bottles, coffee, rum and bouillon, did not give us strength, but simply increased our thirst.” By a combination of luck and strong leadership, they eventually managed to reach water, and row on their lifeboats towards the archipelago, where the expedition was saved by the Russian fishing schooner Nikolai. This enabled them to reach Norway and the European mainland some two and a half years after they had set out. A triumphal return to Vienna followed, but it was soon soured by the scepticism Payer encountered among his countrymen. Apparently, even his own brother did not believe the claims that the expedition had discovered a new landmass, which Payer had carefully sketched and mapped out. He was awarded just 44 Gulden for his discovery, the equivalent of an Austrian lieutenant’s monthly salary, and was never brought on another expedition to the north again. Some vindication came in 1876, when he was knighted and became Ritter Julius von Payer. With his exploring days over, von Payer instead focused on his other hobbies. He studied painting at one of the most prestigious German art galleries in Frankfurt, producing a number of paintings depicting the struggles of polar explorers, and wrote an account of the Austro-Hungarian polar expedition. He also finally married, fathering a son and a daughter. “…since there were no cameras at that time, everything was painted and drawn. And that was also great.” Payer never gave up on his dreams of venturing north again. His plans in his latter years, included a trip on which he could paint the Kejser Franz Josef Fjord in Greenland and at the age of seventy, he intended to join an expedition to the North Pole in a submarine. None of them materialised and, in 1915, as war was being waged across the world, Payer let out his last breath in the small town of Bled situated near his beloved Alps. Perhaps due to his Austrian nationality, Julius von Payer is a largely unknown figure in today’s Czech Republic. However, his hometown of Teplice remedied this by erecting a monument to the explorer in 2017. One of those behind the initiative to build such a tribute was teacher and local politician Martin Ryba. “He climbed the Alps, during his time in the army, and he was the first man to get to the top of many of their peaks. The army noticed him, and he was recruited into a polar expedition, and since there were no cameras at that time, everything was painted and drawn, a skill which he also excelled in.“ Visitors of the spa town can find Julius von Payer‘s memorial in Šanov Park, just outside his birthplace. Czech IT specialists organize “hackathon” to give government online motorway vignette sales system for free Minister: Czech Republic won’t take in 40 child refugees from Greek camps CzechTourism head hints attracting tourists no longer agency’s main goal Three Czechs trapped in Wuhan due to coronavirus EU, Russia row over WWII, with Poles and Czechs on front lines	<urn:uuid:6aa16366-c142-4f6b-894d-423dff8a7048>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.radio.cz/en/section/czech-history/julius-von-payer-the-teplice-born-explorer-who-discovered-franz-josef-land	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00006.warc.gz	en	0.983499	2,538	3.515625	4	[ -0.3680833578109741, 0.6850488781929016, -0.18186841905117035, -0.3028685450553894, 0.031509317457675934, -0.49907368421554565, 0.3112877607345581, -0.040020592510700226, -0.49033060669898987, -0.033115461468696594, 0.39497989416122437, -0.7091626524925232, 0.009955485351383686, 0.33258587...	1	Soldier, topographer, polar explorer, but also painter, Julius von Payer was a man of many skills. Despite being born in the West Bohemian spa town of Teplice, he is a figure unknown to most Czechs today. Nevertheless, his efforts were immortalised by the discovery of a polar archipelago which he named Franz Josef Land. “In the year of 1868, during our ascent of the Ortler Alps, just one newspaper made it to the tents where my expedition was camping. It told the story of [Captain] Koldewey’s preliminary expedition. That evening, I brought the herdsmen and foresters who were accompanying me to our campfire and held a lecture about the North Pole, astounded that there could be such people, who were capable of surviving such terrors of the cold and dark. I had no idea back then that, in a year’s time, I myself would be taking part in an expedition to the North Pole…” This is how Julius Payer begins his account of the Austro-German expedition to an uncharted land near the North Pole. He would end up would end up discovering an archipelago to the far north of Russia and call it Franz Josef Land, a name it still carries today. Payer was born in Šanov, Teplice, in today’s Czech Republic to a retired officer of the Austrian army. His now deceased biographer, sociologist and cultural ethnographer Dr Jitka Ortová, wrote that he left Teplice while he was still a child. “Julius spent his childhood in Teplice, but at the age of ten he had to leave the city to attend cadet school in distant Lobzów near the polish city of Krakow [which was then part of Austria-Hungary]. He was fourteen when his father died. Then he went to the Theresian Military Academy in Vienna's New Town where he learned to honour military uniforms and virtues, to serve the Emperor and his homeland (meaning the monarchy), but also gained an interest in exploration and gaining new knowledge.” “I had no idea back then that, in a year’s time, I myself would be taking part in an expedition to the North Pole.” After leaving the academy Payer served in the Austrian army as a lieutenant and fought in the Battle of Custoza against the Sardinians in 1848 during the first Italian War of Independence. He was commanded by another accomplished Bohemian-Austrian – Field Marshal Radetzky – and distinguished himself in the battle, winning the honorary cross for capturing two Italian cannons. Nevertheless, as he wrote himself years later in his book on exploration, Lieutenant Payer was already being tempted by another challenge while in Italy. “For three years I was looking from the Verona plain full of desire towards the Alpine chain. I considered exploring the mountains of the Tyrolean Alps as my life mission.” This he would indeed start doing from the age of 21, while still an active army officer. His lust for adventure made him scale Austria’s highest mountain, the Grossglockner, and a year later he became the first man to conquer Italy’s 3,539 metre high mount Adamello. These ascents were often dangerous. During one climb he fell down 250 meters into a gorge, but managed to walk away virtually unscathed. It would be wrong to think of Julius Payer as a simple adventurer. His expeditions were accompanied by rigorous scientific notetaking and led to a relatively detailed map of the surrounding alpine region, a major advance when compared to previous attempts. By the age of 26 Payer had already scaled some 118 alpine peaks and established a reputation as a competent topographer. It was at this time, in 1868, that Payer was invited by the German geographer August Petermann to participate in the Second German North Polar Expedition to study the shape and features of land surfaces in the Arctic. Dr. Ortová described its mission in her book on Payer in 1972. "It was the first major voyage of German ships into the Arctic and included plans for spending the winter in the polar region. “The expedition set out from the port of Bremen in the middle of June 1869 in early summer. It consisted of two ships with distinct names - the parent liner Germania and the auxiliary sailboat Hansa, which carried mainly a supply of coal. “A month after setting sail Germania hit impenetrable ice off the coast of Greenland and only managed to reach the 75. degree north latitude in mid-August, despite dedicated attempts by the crew to break through.” Payer was intent on overcoming the natural obstacle and by using sleds he managed to travel two degrees further north, mapping out north eastern Greenland in the process. The expedition only managed to return to Germany two years later in September 1870 amid celebrations of a different kind – the German states under the leadership of Prussia had defeated France and paved the way towards full German unification. Payer’s first trip to the Arctic may not have been a great success, but it was not by his own doing. Just two years later he was already leading another, this time Austro-Hungarian expedition to the polar region, together with ship captain Karl Weyprecht. Rather than heading west towards Greenland, this expedition’s task was to map out the regions north of Scandinavia and Russia. It was assumed that the warm Gulf Stream flowed through the seas in this area and that there was an unknown landmass east of the Svalbard – the Norwegian archipelago between mainland Norway and the North Pole. “Unobstructed, as smoothly as on an inland lake, our ship glided across the shiny water. But rather than shores covered in blooming shrubs, we encountered pale, moving icebergs, which soon took on the appearance of fantastic ghosts in the fog, dissolving into nothingness.” Aside from the Teplice-born Austrian, the crew also included four Czechs - Josef Pospíšil, Eduard Orel Gustav Brosch and Ota Kříž, for whom it would prove fatal. The expedition set out from Bremerhaven in 1872 headed for the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. Payer described the voyage in his account. “Unobstructed, as smoothly as on an inland lake, our ship glided across the shiny water. But rather than shores covered in blooming shrubs, we encountered pale, moving icebergs, which soon took on the appearance of fantastic ghosts in the fog, dissolving into nothingness. Our immediate surroundings became intangible and colourless, only faint shadows still hovering behind that fog. It seemed to us as if we were sailing without any proper destination.” It soon became clear that the original aims of the expedition could not be accomplished. The ships became trapped in the impenetrable ice sheets around Novaya Zemlya and were forced to drift into the unexplored north eastern regions, captives of their surroundings. And yet it was this seeming disaster which led the expedition to their great discovery, carrying the helpless ships to the shores of a previously unknown land. Quick on his feet, Payer hoisted the Austro-Hungarian flag over the newly discovered landmass and proclaimed it Franz-Josef Land in honour of his emperor, the name which it still carries today. Many sled expeditions were soon undertaken under Payer's leadership. The explorers reached as far as the 82. northern latitude, just 8 points away from the North Pole. The officer turned explorer did not forget to pay tribute to his native West Bohemian homeland, giving parts of the newly discovered archipelago the names Teplitz (Teplice) Bay and Šanov Island. However, the hardest part of the journey was yet to come. It was clear that the ships would remain trapped in the ice. The two commanders therefore had to salvage the lifeboats and make their way some 360 kilometres south to Novaya Zemlya. Peyer described the situation in his book. “Year after year passes in just the same manner over this inhospitable region in the far north. The feeling of loneliness here does not change with time. Only the sea birds could be heard whizzing over the rocky slopes and the ice sheets never ceased in their advance towards the coast, driven on by the incessant drum of the wind. “Connected by rope, we made our way over the glacier and, as soon as we reached our stored provisions in Cape Germania, we started melting ice into water. We had learned that the liquid we had stored in our rubber bottles - coffee, rum and bouillon - did not give us strength, but simply increased our thirst.” “We had learned that the liquid we had stored in our rubber bottles, coffee, rum and bouillon, did not give us strength, but simply increased our thirst.” By a combination of luck and strong leadership, they eventually managed to reach water, and row on their lifeboats towards the archipelago, where the expedition was saved by the Russian fishing schooner Nikolai. This enabled them to reach Norway and the European mainland some two and a half years after they had set out. A triumphal return to Vienna followed, but it was soon soured by the scepticism Payer encountered among his countrymen. Apparently, even his own brother did not believe the claims that the expedition had discovered a new landmass, which Payer had carefully sketched and mapped out. He was awarded just 44 Gulden for his discovery, the equivalent of an Austrian lieutenant’s monthly salary, and was never brought on another expedition to the north again. Some vindication came in 1876, when he was knighted and became Ritter Julius von Payer. With his exploring days over, von Payer instead focused on his other hobbies. He studied painting at one of the most prestigious German art galleries in Frankfurt, producing a number of paintings depicting the struggles of polar explorers, and wrote an account of the Austro-Hungarian polar expedition. He also finally married, fathering a son and a daughter. “…since there were no cameras at that time, everything was painted and drawn. And that was also great.” Payer never gave up on his dreams of venturing north again. His plans in his latter years, included a trip on which he could paint the Kejser Franz Josef Fjord in Greenland and at the age of seventy, he intended to join an expedition to the North Pole in a submarine. None of them materialised and, in 1915, as war was being waged across the world, Payer let out his last breath in the small town of Bled situated near his beloved Alps. Perhaps due to his Austrian nationality, Julius von Payer is a largely unknown figure in today’s Czech Republic. However, his hometown of Teplice remedied this by erecting a monument to the explorer in 2017. One of those behind the initiative to build such a tribute was teacher and local politician Martin Ryba. “He climbed the Alps, during his time in the army, and he was the first man to get to the top of many of their peaks. The army noticed him, and he was recruited into a polar expedition, and since there were no cameras at that time, everything was painted and drawn, a skill which he also excelled in.“ Visitors of the spa town can find Julius von Payer‘s memorial in Šanov Park, just outside his birthplace. Czech IT specialists organize “hackathon” to give government online motorway vignette sales system for free Minister: Czech Republic won’t take in 40 child refugees from Greek camps CzechTourism head hints attracting tourists no longer agency’s main goal Three Czechs trapped in Wuhan due to coronavirus EU, Russia row over WWII, with Poles and Czechs on front lines	2,481	ENGLISH	1
Through the course of Roman history, from the early years of ancient Rome in 753 b.c.e. to the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 c.e., there were two garments that were essential to the male wardrobe: the tunica and the toga. Adapted from the Greek chiton, the tunica, a type of shirt, was the simplest of garments. It was made from two rectangular pieces of fabric, one set on top of the other. It was sewn together at the sides and the top, with holes left for the head and the arms. Tunicas could also have sleeves, ranging from very short in the early republic to full length later in the empire. From these simple foundations, the Romans made the tunica into a garment capable of sending complex messages about taste, social status, and power. Though the tunica (the Latin word for tunic) was worn by all men in ancient Rome, the type of fabric it was made of and the way it was worn marked important social differences. At the bottom of the social scale, men wore a simple tunica made of undyed, rough wool. They might wear a simple belt around the tunica or leave it unbelted. Some working men wore a tunic that fastened over only one shoulder, called an exomis. Members of the middle classes and wealthier citizens would not have worn a tunica outdoors without a toga, a long cloak; to do so was to be considered "nudus," which meant either nude or underdressed. Tunicas of middle- and upper-class citizens were made of softer wool, and later of linen and cotton. In cooler seasons, wealthier men often wore two tunicas, a tunica interior and a tunica exterior. The emperor Augustus Caesar (63 b.c.e.—14 c.e.) was said to have worn four tunicas during cold weather. Wealthy men paid a great deal of attention to how their tunicas were belted. They used either a narrow belt or a wider girdle, which might have pockets to hold personal belongings. They pulled the tunica fabric up above the belt to get the tunica to just the right length. Tunica patterns and styles also changed a great deal over the thousand years of Roman history. In early Rome, for example, long sleeves were considered unmanly and tunics were cut above the knee. By the later empire, after the second century c.e., long sleeves were common and tunicas extended almost to the feet. One of the primary forms of decorating a tunica was the use of clavi, dyed stripes that ran vertically down the tunica from each shoulder. The width and color of clavi indicated a person's social position. The tunica angusti clavi, which was worn by knights and judges, had narrow purple stripes. The tunica laticlavia, worn by senators, had wide purple stripes. A very special tunica called a tunica palmate was worn by victorious generals and emperors. It was made of purple silk, embroidered with gold thread, and worn with a special toga. All Roman fashions became more elaborate and decorative over the course of the Roman Empire (27 b.c.e.-476 c.e.) and the tunica was no exception. Tunicas were worn in several varieties. The colobium, like early tunicas, had short sleeves and came to the knee, but it was much baggier. The dalmatica, which was worn by women as well as men, had long, baggy sleeves and often reached to the floor. Increasingly, Romans wore their tunicas without a belt or girdle, so that the fabric billowed about the body. For many women the longer, blousy tunica took the place of the stola, the traditional female garment. During the empire, tunicas also became more decorative. Tunicas with clavi were worn by people of all classes, and the stripes became more elaborate, with rich colors and patterns. Tunicas might also have striped bands on the sleeves and patterned panels. Though tunicas are generally thought of as a male garment, they were also worn by poorer women and by children of all classes. The tunicas worn by children mirrored the styles of their parents. The tunica was truly an all-purpose garment, and it survives in its basic form in many modern clothes, including the T-shirt. Was this article helpful?	<urn:uuid:9b7f0f52-73bd-4e38-825e-3cad538277d2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.martelnyc.com/body-decorations/tunica.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00480.warc.gz	en	0.984192	925	4.375	4	[ -0.48290741443634033, 0.48173099756240845, 0.6318070888519287, 0.18218106031417847, -0.4018912613391876, -0.18133944272994995, -0.18099334836006165, 0.42352232336997986, -0.07378813624382019, -0.44551989436149597, 0.17937812209129333, -0.5501500964164734, -0.19648168981075287, 0.3053575754...	1	Through the course of Roman history, from the early years of ancient Rome in 753 b.c.e. to the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 c.e., there were two garments that were essential to the male wardrobe: the tunica and the toga. Adapted from the Greek chiton, the tunica, a type of shirt, was the simplest of garments. It was made from two rectangular pieces of fabric, one set on top of the other. It was sewn together at the sides and the top, with holes left for the head and the arms. Tunicas could also have sleeves, ranging from very short in the early republic to full length later in the empire. From these simple foundations, the Romans made the tunica into a garment capable of sending complex messages about taste, social status, and power. Though the tunica (the Latin word for tunic) was worn by all men in ancient Rome, the type of fabric it was made of and the way it was worn marked important social differences. At the bottom of the social scale, men wore a simple tunica made of undyed, rough wool. They might wear a simple belt around the tunica or leave it unbelted. Some working men wore a tunic that fastened over only one shoulder, called an exomis. Members of the middle classes and wealthier citizens would not have worn a tunica outdoors without a toga, a long cloak; to do so was to be considered "nudus," which meant either nude or underdressed. Tunicas of middle- and upper-class citizens were made of softer wool, and later of linen and cotton. In cooler seasons, wealthier men often wore two tunicas, a tunica interior and a tunica exterior. The emperor Augustus Caesar (63 b.c.e.—14 c.e.) was said to have worn four tunicas during cold weather. Wealthy men paid a great deal of attention to how their tunicas were belted. They used either a narrow belt or a wider girdle, which might have pockets to hold personal belongings. They pulled the tunica fabric up above the belt to get the tunica to just the right length. Tunica patterns and styles also changed a great deal over the thousand years of Roman history. In early Rome, for example, long sleeves were considered unmanly and tunics were cut above the knee. By the later empire, after the second century c.e., long sleeves were common and tunicas extended almost to the feet. One of the primary forms of decorating a tunica was the use of clavi, dyed stripes that ran vertically down the tunica from each shoulder. The width and color of clavi indicated a person's social position. The tunica angusti clavi, which was worn by knights and judges, had narrow purple stripes. The tunica laticlavia, worn by senators, had wide purple stripes. A very special tunica called a tunica palmate was worn by victorious generals and emperors. It was made of purple silk, embroidered with gold thread, and worn with a special toga. All Roman fashions became more elaborate and decorative over the course of the Roman Empire (27 b.c.e.-476 c.e.) and the tunica was no exception. Tunicas were worn in several varieties. The colobium, like early tunicas, had short sleeves and came to the knee, but it was much baggier. The dalmatica, which was worn by women as well as men, had long, baggy sleeves and often reached to the floor. Increasingly, Romans wore their tunicas without a belt or girdle, so that the fabric billowed about the body. For many women the longer, blousy tunica took the place of the stola, the traditional female garment. During the empire, tunicas also became more decorative. Tunicas with clavi were worn by people of all classes, and the stripes became more elaborate, with rich colors and patterns. Tunicas might also have striped bands on the sleeves and patterned panels. Though tunicas are generally thought of as a male garment, they were also worn by poorer women and by children of all classes. The tunicas worn by children mirrored the styles of their parents. The tunica was truly an all-purpose garment, and it survives in its basic form in many modern clothes, including the T-shirt. Was this article helpful?	934	ENGLISH	1
Faith Matters developed the Role of Righteous Muslims Booklet in order to document the stories of Muslims, driven by their faith and the code of honour (BESA), to protect the lives of persecuted Jews in the Holocaust. The code of honour or BESA was fundamental to Albania and many Albanian Muslims protected fellow Jewish Albanians from persecution because of this code and because of the heightened value of life which was fundamental to Quranic teachings. From Morocco through to Paris and Turkey, many Muslims stood up and protected the lives of the persecuted through the Holocaust.Many of them were persecuted Jews. The story of Muslims in the Holocaust is deliberately and micheviously being re-written post 9/11 as though Muslims supported the efforts of the Nazis. The vast and overwhelming majority of Muslims supported the war efforts against the Nazis and fought for the liberation of France, for England and King and Country and in the battlefields of Burma, South East Asia and Italy. There were those in the minority who misguidedly supported the Nazis who won their support by manipulating local tensions and issues. The Bosnian brigades are an example of this and these elements cannot be written out, nor should they be. Localised tensions and ethnic divides were used to manipulate groups to join the Nazi effort and 60 years later, many Bosnian Muslims were they themselves persecuted and killed in a genocide by Serbs who created death camps and who used rape as a weapon of war against many Bosnian women. We also take this opportunity to honour those, regarded as ‘Righteous’ by Yad Vashem, who were Muslim and who have been honoured for risking their lives and the lives of their families in protecting the lives of persecuted Jews. These are their names. May their names and the names of others live on in history and be a source of pride for Muslims and people who believe in the value of life.	<urn:uuid:da12f429-279f-4a53-8c9f-ba65ed81cfe6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.faith-matters.org/2012/01/05/role-of-righteous-muslims-in-the-holocaust/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00107.warc.gz	en	0.981402	377	3.484375	3	[ -0.22619172930717468, 0.5426896214485168, -0.32398322224617004, -0.1386864185333252, 0.14604094624519348, 0.3109034597873688, 0.20811334252357483, 0.25247758626937866, -0.025519641116261482, 0.004860104527324438, -0.1237039789557457, -0.09064822643995285, -0.004121268633753061, 0.186292037...	13	Faith Matters developed the Role of Righteous Muslims Booklet in order to document the stories of Muslims, driven by their faith and the code of honour (BESA), to protect the lives of persecuted Jews in the Holocaust. The code of honour or BESA was fundamental to Albania and many Albanian Muslims protected fellow Jewish Albanians from persecution because of this code and because of the heightened value of life which was fundamental to Quranic teachings. From Morocco through to Paris and Turkey, many Muslims stood up and protected the lives of the persecuted through the Holocaust.Many of them were persecuted Jews. The story of Muslims in the Holocaust is deliberately and micheviously being re-written post 9/11 as though Muslims supported the efforts of the Nazis. The vast and overwhelming majority of Muslims supported the war efforts against the Nazis and fought for the liberation of France, for England and King and Country and in the battlefields of Burma, South East Asia and Italy. There were those in the minority who misguidedly supported the Nazis who won their support by manipulating local tensions and issues. The Bosnian brigades are an example of this and these elements cannot be written out, nor should they be. Localised tensions and ethnic divides were used to manipulate groups to join the Nazi effort and 60 years later, many Bosnian Muslims were they themselves persecuted and killed in a genocide by Serbs who created death camps and who used rape as a weapon of war against many Bosnian women. We also take this opportunity to honour those, regarded as ‘Righteous’ by Yad Vashem, who were Muslim and who have been honoured for risking their lives and the lives of their families in protecting the lives of persecuted Jews. These are their names. May their names and the names of others live on in history and be a source of pride for Muslims and people who believe in the value of life.	381	ENGLISH	1
This week the students were interested in examining the pumpkins that were given to us by the farm last week. They worked as super scientists to describe to our classroom pumpkin all about its life cycle. The students explained to Peter the Pumpkin how he started off as a seed that held a tiny embryo inside. They explained in role how when its seed coat is softened by the rain and it is warmed by the sun it will begin to grow. The students explained to the pumpkin how first the seed would grow a shoot, then a plant. They also described how this plant would make its own food by taking in water, carbon dioxide and sunlight and turning it into oxygen and sugar. Next, the students explained how a yellow flower would grow on the pumpkin vine. Betty the bee came in to show the students how the flower was pollinated. When Betty the bee drinks nectar from the flower pollen sticks to her legs. When she flies to another flower she moves the pollen from the male part of the flower to the female part of the flower. When she does this the flower becomes pollinated and a green pumpkin begins to grow. This finally turns into an orange pumpkin. The students made pumpkin puppets. These pumpkins had a string which held the different parts of the pumpkin life cycle. Students had to sequence these events in order. They also worked on their fine motor skills by cutting each piece out. Students also had the opportunity to decorate pumpkins and write about their pumpkins. They also worked on their fine motor and letter forming skills using playdough with a pumpkin theme. Our math focus this week used pumpkins to explore many different concepts. Students made pumpkin faces with 2D solids and learned the names of different polygons including triangles, squares, hexagons, rhombuses and parallelograms. They also put our pumpkins in order from biggest to smallest. Another task consisted of weighing our pumpkins and estimating how many seeds were inside and then counting them. Students also practised writing their numbers to 20 during our daily math routine. In addition to having sensory opportunities while the students scooped out the pumpkins, students were also able to explore a pumpkin boat themed water table. They looked at properties such as how many objects they could put into each pumpkin to make it float or sink. Halloween day was a fun one in our class! We were so lucky to have a ton of parent volunteers come in and help us run a series of centres throughout the day. Students had the chance to make Halloween themed soap. They also learned to sketch a pumpkin and make spooky bat artwork with Ms. Hyma. Another wonderful parent volunteer taught the students about The Day of the Dead. Students went on a Halloween parade around the school and enjoyed many treats. They even worked together to follow a recipe and make roasted pumpkin seeds. This week the students had the opportunity to study plants in a wonderful hands on way. On our trip to the farm the students were able to pick organic produce from the ground themselves! In doing so, they had the opportunity to see the different parts of the plant up close (leaves, stem, flower and fruit). At the farm, a teacher gave a presentation to the students on the life cycle of a pumpkin plant. The students continued to explore this cycle in class with a little help from some classroom characters. Sammy the seed came in and reminded the students that to grow he needed the sun to put him to the right temperature and rain to soften his seed coat. Then Sammy could use his food stored inside to grow a little plant. The students then learned that first the root grows out of the plant followed by a shoot. The roots take water to the plant. The leaves then use this water with sunlight and carbon dioxide to make sugar and oxygen. The students studied the process of photosynthesis through a beautiful art project and acting it out each day. As sensory play the students had the opportunity to assemble flowers using kinetic sand and flower parts. As a group we made our weekly batch of playdough and the students were able assemble flowers using cookie cutters, leaves, buttons and pipe cleaner. The students learned that at the end of the life cycle of a plant, seed form in the flower or seed pod of a plant. The students had the opportunity to play with seeds during our outdoor time. We hung the seed bird feeders that we made in class the week before. As a fun activity at the end of the week, the students helped prepare a soup using all of the produce we had acquired at the farm. The students were able to help measure the ingredients and use scissors to help cut the cabbage for the soup. We also explored what the worms in our worm bin could and could not eat and fed them our vegetable scraps. When the soup was done we went into role and played restaurant. The students had the chance to be sous chefs, servers and even dishwashers. They found this very entertaining! This week, following their interest on the topic of seeds, the students uncovered the characters Sammy the Seed, Rachel the Rain-cloud and Simon the Sun waiting for them in our mystery box. Similar to the students' questioning, Sammy the Seed was interested in what he needed in order to grow. He hoped the students could help teach him all about this topic. After conducting research through dramatic role play, the students learned that Sammy the seed had his own food store inside to grow. He also had a baby plant or embryo inside which needed the right conditions to sprout. The students learned that when Sammy was warmed to the right temperature with the sun and his seed coat was softened by the rain, the embryo could break through and start growing. Students had the chance to make puppets to explain what their Seed needed to grow. They practiced using scissors, drawing faces, and gluing their puppets together and then went into role to perform for their friends. The students also practiced using the words, "first, then, next and finally," when retelling a series of events. In our gardening centre, the students had the opportunity to assemble their own mini-green houses. Before they did this the students dissected a seed that had been soaking in water for 12 hours. As they opened the seed the students could clearly see the seed coat, the embryo and the food store inside. As our recipe of the week, students worked to measure the ingredients for playdough. This activity also helped the students to work as a team and take turns as they waited patiently in circle as each person stirred the dough 3 times. The students had a lot of fun playing with the seeds combined with the playdough! The students also were able to incorporate the seeds into their artwork in a series of different art activities. They made beautiful mandalas out of seeds and also created sunflowers. Students had a lot of fun playing in the seed sensory bin this week as well. The students also had the opportunity to make bird feeders out of seed during math centres time. Students followed a recipe and learned about fractions and shapes as we assembled these bird feeders. Last week the students discovered an apple tree in our Kindergarten yard. This lead them to come up with a series of questions which in turn lead our inquiry unit this week on the life of an apple tree. One of the first questions from the students was how the apple tree changed over the seasons. They knew from our inquiry last week about why the leaves changed colours but they wanted to see what an apple tree looked like throughout the different seasons. The students learned through different stories and art projects what the trees looked like over the different seasons. When they had learned this some of the students decided to tell the trees outside what would happen to them over the seasons so they were not worried about these changes. Studying apple trees gave us so many amazing opportunities to incorporate math into our day. The students graphed each morning their favourite type of apple and which season they preferred best for our apple tree. The students also worked to sort apples by attribute and then make patterns with the apples. This week the students were introduced to the concept of a pattern core which is the smallest part of the pattern (like a stamp) that repeats over and over again. We also had fun as a whole group measuring each other with apples! In sampling our apples the students were also introduced to the concept of a whole, a half, thirds and quarters. This also extended into a writing activity where they wrote about their favourite apples. The students also had the chance to play with loose parts to build apple trees and see how many apples (buttons and pompoms) they could balance on top of their structure. Our sensory activities this week included making apples out of play dough with stems, leaves and worms! The students also created pretend apple crumble in the sensory bin. This week Felicity the Fairy let us know that because we were so good at caring for living things in our classroom she wanted to bring us a little surprise...our very own tree. Felicity let us know that there was a new baby tree in our school yard that she wanted us to care for. She also brought a tiny tree to care for in our class. The Helper of the day will be in charge of watering our classroom tree and all of the students will be in charge of watering the tree outside daily during outdoor inquiry time. As the student examined our new gift outside their curiosity led them to develop new questions which helped to guide our inquiry. One student wanted to know why leaves changed colour in the fall. Another student wanted to know why the trees lose their leaves in the fall. We explored the theme of leaves changing colours in many kinethetic ways. During math time we followed a recipe and worked together to make leave themed playdough. We sorted the leaves by attributes as well. To further explore this theme with our senses, the students had the opportunity to play with different coloured leaves, twigs and acorns in our sensory bin. After we mixed red and yellow dye together in our playdough we discussed primary and secondary colours. Red and yellow are primary colours. They mix together to make orange which is a secondary colour. We further explored this theme during art and mathematics as we made calendars for October. As we gathered leaves outside, students naturally wanted to sort them by attribute. We sorted them by colour, size and shape. When we had done this we looked at what a pattern is. After we sang a song about how a pattern is something that repeats the students started to make simple patterns during centres time. The students read a lot of books on trees and their leaves. We also used a song about leaf pigments as our tidy-up song all week. They learned that leaves have a green pigment in them called chlorophyll. In the summer the tree uses the chlorophyll along with water and sunlight to make food for the plant. In the fall, deciduous trees stop making food and go to sleep. They stop making chlorophyll and other pigments hidden under the chlorophyll such as carotenoids (that give leaves their red and yellow pigments) can now be seen. We went on a walk to the principal's office and gave all the staff there a little lecture on the pigments in the leaves. We also gave them one of the fairy gardens so they could be reminded of the green pigment chlorophyll. As a conclusion to our inquiry on leaves this week something magical happened in our classroom. We found that the lettuce stalk we put in the snail habitat sprouted again!!! What a wonderful way to end the week! This week, the students started to examine the needs of the living things in our classroom. On Monday, we examined our snail habitat and the students started to question if the snails had everything they needed to be healthy and happy. The students noticed that the leaves had dried up and inferred that the snails may need fresh food daily and a light mist of water in order to stay hydrated and fed. They started to ask more questions about what our snails needed during our daily, "I Wonder" session after outdoor inquiry. The students also looked at different types of lines made by snails using loose parts. The students also looked at the habitat we had for our classroom worms and decided that their home was not big enough. Luckily Felicity the Fairy left us the supplies needed to make a proper worm bin. The students worked to build this worm bin together. When they were done, they helped write out the instructions of how they did this in our gardening centre. During this process the students discussed how worms can help the earth by breaking down organic matter such as vegetables, fruits and even paper to make new soil. We discussed how this soil was filled with nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen which helped plants to grow. After looking at the plants, worms and snails in our class, the students noticed how all the creatures were all so different and how these differences made them special. During our morning surveys we examined how we were all different but similar at the same time. We all have feelings, we all have family, we all need food, a home, water and air to live. We talked about how because we are all different and have different strengths we can all learn from each other. We played a lot of drama games that challenged others to "guess what we are good at!" We sang songs about being unique and special. As a final writing piece this week the students drew a picture and wrote about one thing that they were good at! We hope you can check out this writing outside of our classroom. This week, our friend Felicity the Fairy asked us if we could find a living thing to care for in the class. During our daily outdoor exploration the search began! Students found many snail shells in our school garden but only a few held living snails. Upon returning to the classroom the students generated a series of "I Wonder" questions about our new found snail friends. These questions lead our weekly inquiry. Later in the week, the students found that Felicity the Fairy had left them step by step instructions on how to build a snail terrarium. She also helped answer many of our questions on the snails by bringing us a snail book. To help us to study even more living things and as a grand opening of our classroom gardening centre, Felicity the Fairy brought us succulent plants and instructions on how to build our very own fairy gardens for the class. The students worked as a team to construct our first fairy garden and then worked at centres with an instructor over the course of the week to create 3 others. While transferring different plants from one container to another the students examined the plants' roots. Through their questioning, they learned that the roots help to anchor the plant and deliver water and nutrients to it. Throughout the week, students also continued to build their number sense through our daily math routines and hands-on exploration in learning centres. This week as a group we learned the game Race to 20. Here the students examined place value and learned how when a 10s frame is full in the 1s place we trade it in for a group of 10. Students also continued to work on their number formation, pencil grip and fine motor skills through their daily number tracing. In writing this week, students continued to work on our letter of the week "S" and our word of the week, "you". We played a quick game each day to chant the spelling of this word in silly ways. Student also had the opportunity to work as song writers this week and write a lyric to our classroom lullaby, "This Little Light of Mine." The students also had the opportunity to make a name bracelet with letter beads. We also started working on a class book which will be revealed soon! In our classroom, instead of just reading stories, and orally telling stories to the students we try to put the students in a story. Each Monday after they have settled in the student read a morning message left to us by one of our classroom characters. This is either from Felicity the Fairy or our friend Lightning the puppet who Felicity has brought to life. This message sets a problem for the student that they would like help with. This week, Lightning was feeling sad because he didn't know how to write any of his letters and he really wanted to learn to write his name like the students had done last week. He asked the students if this week they would be able to teach him the first letter in the alphabet, "A a" and the sound that it makes. Felicity the Fairy said if we worked hard to teach Lightning she would bring a gift from Fairyland for us to reward us for our hard work. This week she brought us the materials we needed to make our own fairies. Each morning when the students walked in, after they had put away their indoor shoes, backpacks and special folders, the students worked quietly on hands-on letter exercises. They built and practised their names and the letter A in a variety of ways. We also learned that if we held a small shell with our baby finger, ring finger and middle finger it can help us to grip our pencil properly. When the students had worked on this activity for a couple of minutes they settled down on the carpet to read letter books. During outdoor inquiry this week, Felicity the Fairy encouraged us to find something we found magical in nature. The students found a variety of loose parts in nature which we sorted together on the pavement outside. The students guessed if I was sorting these objects by colour, size or shape. As many of them collected a variety of sticks which they believed to have magical powers, we used these sticks to play a game called, "This is a stick...but it is not a stick it is a...(and used our imagination to transform it into something else)." Something else we found outside were living things...cicadas in particular. The students carefully cared for the cicada by returning it to a nearby tree. In the afternoons, after they came in from lunch the students were greeted with spa music. This helps to calm them down after a busy play session. After changing into their indoor shoes the students settled into our math routine. They have the opportunity to work on hands-on math activities before coming to the carpet for our mini lesson. This week we have been working on counting how many days we have been in school using a giant tens-frame on the carpet and singing our numbers to 20 through dance and movement. Whenever the students are done, they have a chance to rest and read number books on the carpet. Rocking our Routines This week the students in room 128 have done a fantastic job in familiarizing themselves with our classroom routines. Each morning when they come in they have been working on independently taking out their special folders from their backpack and putting it in the right bin. They have also worked to change into their indoor shoes and to sign in before coming to the carpet. Other routines the students have been working on have been to listen to their bodies when they are hungry or need to go to the bathroom. We have worked on the steps each day on what to do when you have that "gotta go" feeling including the importance of washing our hands when we are done. Students have also learned that they can put one finger up during a lesson to give me a secret signals that they have to go to the bathroom or put up two fingers if they are thirsty. Students have an opportunity to have their snack during our morning and afternoon centres time. They learned this week that when they have had their snack they can move their magnet to the checkmark board. This helps our Kindergarten Team keep track of who may still have a rumbly tummy. The students in room 128 also discovered that we had a series of characters living in our class this year. A fairy named Felicity came and brought a puppet who did not have a name to life. The students worked together to vote on different names for our new friend. After the results were tallied, Lightning was the winning name chosen for our green monster friend. Felicity the Fairy really wanted to get to know all the names of our students. She gave the students a challenge to cover their names from natural material found in our school garden. The students worked hard to find natural materials and make their name cards. As the students found natural material to make their name tags we sorted what we found. The students played "Guess My Sorting Rule" and uncovered I had sorted the sticks, leaves and wood chips by colour, size and shape. We also looked at how some of the sticks were curvy and how some were straight and this was the same as the lines in our names. On Friday, when the students had finished decorating their names, Felicity the Fairy left us a gift to uncover in our school garden. They were stones with our names on them and a book. We found out that these stones were worry stones and whenever we felt worried in the class we could hold it to our heart and it would make us feel better. For the first week of school, the Kindergarten students will be meeting each morning in the Runnymede/Mountview school garden. Our Kindergarten team looks forward to seeing you there at 8:30 am. As the bell rings at 8:45am for entry, the students will have time to play together and parents will have time to take pictures before saying their goodbyes and entering the building. Look forward to seeing you there!	<urn:uuid:64cfabbe-4a2c-43cd-8c25-0960fd9afa00>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mountviewcommunitykindergarten.com/classroom-blog/previous/2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00233.warc.gz	en	0.983496	4,401	4.1875	4	[ -0.08607538044452667, -0.15838873386383057, 0.2004341185092926, -0.0700557678937912, 0.01780235953629017, -0.09133648872375488, 0.07881230860948563, 0.2145760953426361, -0.2854725122451782, 0.31381112337112427, -0.06551122665405273, -0.1547226905822754, -0.09219254553318024, 0.107523858547...	1	This week the students were interested in examining the pumpkins that were given to us by the farm last week. They worked as super scientists to describe to our classroom pumpkin all about its life cycle. The students explained to Peter the Pumpkin how he started off as a seed that held a tiny embryo inside. They explained in role how when its seed coat is softened by the rain and it is warmed by the sun it will begin to grow. The students explained to the pumpkin how first the seed would grow a shoot, then a plant. They also described how this plant would make its own food by taking in water, carbon dioxide and sunlight and turning it into oxygen and sugar. Next, the students explained how a yellow flower would grow on the pumpkin vine. Betty the bee came in to show the students how the flower was pollinated. When Betty the bee drinks nectar from the flower pollen sticks to her legs. When she flies to another flower she moves the pollen from the male part of the flower to the female part of the flower. When she does this the flower becomes pollinated and a green pumpkin begins to grow. This finally turns into an orange pumpkin. The students made pumpkin puppets. These pumpkins had a string which held the different parts of the pumpkin life cycle. Students had to sequence these events in order. They also worked on their fine motor skills by cutting each piece out. Students also had the opportunity to decorate pumpkins and write about their pumpkins. They also worked on their fine motor and letter forming skills using playdough with a pumpkin theme. Our math focus this week used pumpkins to explore many different concepts. Students made pumpkin faces with 2D solids and learned the names of different polygons including triangles, squares, hexagons, rhombuses and parallelograms. They also put our pumpkins in order from biggest to smallest. Another task consisted of weighing our pumpkins and estimating how many seeds were inside and then counting them. Students also practised writing their numbers to 20 during our daily math routine. In addition to having sensory opportunities while the students scooped out the pumpkins, students were also able to explore a pumpkin boat themed water table. They looked at properties such as how many objects they could put into each pumpkin to make it float or sink. Halloween day was a fun one in our class! We were so lucky to have a ton of parent volunteers come in and help us run a series of centres throughout the day. Students had the chance to make Halloween themed soap. They also learned to sketch a pumpkin and make spooky bat artwork with Ms. Hyma. Another wonderful parent volunteer taught the students about The Day of the Dead. Students went on a Halloween parade around the school and enjoyed many treats. They even worked together to follow a recipe and make roasted pumpkin seeds. This week the students had the opportunity to study plants in a wonderful hands on way. On our trip to the farm the students were able to pick organic produce from the ground themselves! In doing so, they had the opportunity to see the different parts of the plant up close (leaves, stem, flower and fruit). At the farm, a teacher gave a presentation to the students on the life cycle of a pumpkin plant. The students continued to explore this cycle in class with a little help from some classroom characters. Sammy the seed came in and reminded the students that to grow he needed the sun to put him to the right temperature and rain to soften his seed coat. Then Sammy could use his food stored inside to grow a little plant. The students then learned that first the root grows out of the plant followed by a shoot. The roots take water to the plant. The leaves then use this water with sunlight and carbon dioxide to make sugar and oxygen. The students studied the process of photosynthesis through a beautiful art project and acting it out each day. As sensory play the students had the opportunity to assemble flowers using kinetic sand and flower parts. As a group we made our weekly batch of playdough and the students were able assemble flowers using cookie cutters, leaves, buttons and pipe cleaner. The students learned that at the end of the life cycle of a plant, seed form in the flower or seed pod of a plant. The students had the opportunity to play with seeds during our outdoor time. We hung the seed bird feeders that we made in class the week before. As a fun activity at the end of the week, the students helped prepare a soup using all of the produce we had acquired at the farm. The students were able to help measure the ingredients and use scissors to help cut the cabbage for the soup. We also explored what the worms in our worm bin could and could not eat and fed them our vegetable scraps. When the soup was done we went into role and played restaurant. The students had the chance to be sous chefs, servers and even dishwashers. They found this very entertaining! This week, following their interest on the topic of seeds, the students uncovered the characters Sammy the Seed, Rachel the Rain-cloud and Simon the Sun waiting for them in our mystery box. Similar to the students' questioning, Sammy the Seed was interested in what he needed in order to grow. He hoped the students could help teach him all about this topic. After conducting research through dramatic role play, the students learned that Sammy the seed had his own food store inside to grow. He also had a baby plant or embryo inside which needed the right conditions to sprout. The students learned that when Sammy was warmed to the right temperature with the sun and his seed coat was softened by the rain, the embryo could break through and start growing. Students had the chance to make puppets to explain what their Seed needed to grow. They practiced using scissors, drawing faces, and gluing their puppets together and then went into role to perform for their friends. The students also practiced using the words, "first, then, next and finally," when retelling a series of events. In our gardening centre, the students had the opportunity to assemble their own mini-green houses. Before they did this the students dissected a seed that had been soaking in water for 12 hours. As they opened the seed the students could clearly see the seed coat, the embryo and the food store inside. As our recipe of the week, students worked to measure the ingredients for playdough. This activity also helped the students to work as a team and take turns as they waited patiently in circle as each person stirred the dough 3 times. The students had a lot of fun playing with the seeds combined with the playdough! The students also were able to incorporate the seeds into their artwork in a series of different art activities. They made beautiful mandalas out of seeds and also created sunflowers. Students had a lot of fun playing in the seed sensory bin this week as well. The students also had the opportunity to make bird feeders out of seed during math centres time. Students followed a recipe and learned about fractions and shapes as we assembled these bird feeders. Last week the students discovered an apple tree in our Kindergarten yard. This lead them to come up with a series of questions which in turn lead our inquiry unit this week on the life of an apple tree. One of the first questions from the students was how the apple tree changed over the seasons. They knew from our inquiry last week about why the leaves changed colours but they wanted to see what an apple tree looked like throughout the different seasons. The students learned through different stories and art projects what the trees looked like over the different seasons. When they had learned this some of the students decided to tell the trees outside what would happen to them over the seasons so they were not worried about these changes. Studying apple trees gave us so many amazing opportunities to incorporate math into our day. The students graphed each morning their favourite type of apple and which season they preferred best for our apple tree. The students also worked to sort apples by attribute and then make patterns with the apples. This week the students were introduced to the concept of a pattern core which is the smallest part of the pattern (like a stamp) that repeats over and over again. We also had fun as a whole group measuring each other with apples! In sampling our apples the students were also introduced to the concept of a whole, a half, thirds and quarters. This also extended into a writing activity where they wrote about their favourite apples. The students also had the chance to play with loose parts to build apple trees and see how many apples (buttons and pompoms) they could balance on top of their structure. Our sensory activities this week included making apples out of play dough with stems, leaves and worms! The students also created pretend apple crumble in the sensory bin. This week Felicity the Fairy let us know that because we were so good at caring for living things in our classroom she wanted to bring us a little surprise...our very own tree. Felicity let us know that there was a new baby tree in our school yard that she wanted us to care for. She also brought a tiny tree to care for in our class. The Helper of the day will be in charge of watering our classroom tree and all of the students will be in charge of watering the tree outside daily during outdoor inquiry time. As the student examined our new gift outside their curiosity led them to develop new questions which helped to guide our inquiry. One student wanted to know why leaves changed colour in the fall. Another student wanted to know why the trees lose their leaves in the fall. We explored the theme of leaves changing colours in many kinethetic ways. During math time we followed a recipe and worked together to make leave themed playdough. We sorted the leaves by attributes as well. To further explore this theme with our senses, the students had the opportunity to play with different coloured leaves, twigs and acorns in our sensory bin. After we mixed red and yellow dye together in our playdough we discussed primary and secondary colours. Red and yellow are primary colours. They mix together to make orange which is a secondary colour. We further explored this theme during art and mathematics as we made calendars for October. As we gathered leaves outside, students naturally wanted to sort them by attribute. We sorted them by colour, size and shape. When we had done this we looked at what a pattern is. After we sang a song about how a pattern is something that repeats the students started to make simple patterns during centres time. The students read a lot of books on trees and their leaves. We also used a song about leaf pigments as our tidy-up song all week. They learned that leaves have a green pigment in them called chlorophyll. In the summer the tree uses the chlorophyll along with water and sunlight to make food for the plant. In the fall, deciduous trees stop making food and go to sleep. They stop making chlorophyll and other pigments hidden under the chlorophyll such as carotenoids (that give leaves their red and yellow pigments) can now be seen. We went on a walk to the principal's office and gave all the staff there a little lecture on the pigments in the leaves. We also gave them one of the fairy gardens so they could be reminded of the green pigment chlorophyll. As a conclusion to our inquiry on leaves this week something magical happened in our classroom. We found that the lettuce stalk we put in the snail habitat sprouted again!!! What a wonderful way to end the week! This week, the students started to examine the needs of the living things in our classroom. On Monday, we examined our snail habitat and the students started to question if the snails had everything they needed to be healthy and happy. The students noticed that the leaves had dried up and inferred that the snails may need fresh food daily and a light mist of water in order to stay hydrated and fed. They started to ask more questions about what our snails needed during our daily, "I Wonder" session after outdoor inquiry. The students also looked at different types of lines made by snails using loose parts. The students also looked at the habitat we had for our classroom worms and decided that their home was not big enough. Luckily Felicity the Fairy left us the supplies needed to make a proper worm bin. The students worked to build this worm bin together. When they were done, they helped write out the instructions of how they did this in our gardening centre. During this process the students discussed how worms can help the earth by breaking down organic matter such as vegetables, fruits and even paper to make new soil. We discussed how this soil was filled with nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen which helped plants to grow. After looking at the plants, worms and snails in our class, the students noticed how all the creatures were all so different and how these differences made them special. During our morning surveys we examined how we were all different but similar at the same time. We all have feelings, we all have family, we all need food, a home, water and air to live. We talked about how because we are all different and have different strengths we can all learn from each other. We played a lot of drama games that challenged others to "guess what we are good at!" We sang songs about being unique and special. As a final writing piece this week the students drew a picture and wrote about one thing that they were good at! We hope you can check out this writing outside of our classroom. This week, our friend Felicity the Fairy asked us if we could find a living thing to care for in the class. During our daily outdoor exploration the search began! Students found many snail shells in our school garden but only a few held living snails. Upon returning to the classroom the students generated a series of "I Wonder" questions about our new found snail friends. These questions lead our weekly inquiry. Later in the week, the students found that Felicity the Fairy had left them step by step instructions on how to build a snail terrarium. She also helped answer many of our questions on the snails by bringing us a snail book. To help us to study even more living things and as a grand opening of our classroom gardening centre, Felicity the Fairy brought us succulent plants and instructions on how to build our very own fairy gardens for the class. The students worked as a team to construct our first fairy garden and then worked at centres with an instructor over the course of the week to create 3 others. While transferring different plants from one container to another the students examined the plants' roots. Through their questioning, they learned that the roots help to anchor the plant and deliver water and nutrients to it. Throughout the week, students also continued to build their number sense through our daily math routines and hands-on exploration in learning centres. This week as a group we learned the game Race to 20. Here the students examined place value and learned how when a 10s frame is full in the 1s place we trade it in for a group of 10. Students also continued to work on their number formation, pencil grip and fine motor skills through their daily number tracing. In writing this week, students continued to work on our letter of the week "S" and our word of the week, "you". We played a quick game each day to chant the spelling of this word in silly ways. Student also had the opportunity to work as song writers this week and write a lyric to our classroom lullaby, "This Little Light of Mine." The students also had the opportunity to make a name bracelet with letter beads. We also started working on a class book which will be revealed soon! In our classroom, instead of just reading stories, and orally telling stories to the students we try to put the students in a story. Each Monday after they have settled in the student read a morning message left to us by one of our classroom characters. This is either from Felicity the Fairy or our friend Lightning the puppet who Felicity has brought to life. This message sets a problem for the student that they would like help with. This week, Lightning was feeling sad because he didn't know how to write any of his letters and he really wanted to learn to write his name like the students had done last week. He asked the students if this week they would be able to teach him the first letter in the alphabet, "A a" and the sound that it makes. Felicity the Fairy said if we worked hard to teach Lightning she would bring a gift from Fairyland for us to reward us for our hard work. This week she brought us the materials we needed to make our own fairies. Each morning when the students walked in, after they had put away their indoor shoes, backpacks and special folders, the students worked quietly on hands-on letter exercises. They built and practised their names and the letter A in a variety of ways. We also learned that if we held a small shell with our baby finger, ring finger and middle finger it can help us to grip our pencil properly. When the students had worked on this activity for a couple of minutes they settled down on the carpet to read letter books. During outdoor inquiry this week, Felicity the Fairy encouraged us to find something we found magical in nature. The students found a variety of loose parts in nature which we sorted together on the pavement outside. The students guessed if I was sorting these objects by colour, size or shape. As many of them collected a variety of sticks which they believed to have magical powers, we used these sticks to play a game called, "This is a stick...but it is not a stick it is a...(and used our imagination to transform it into something else)." Something else we found outside were living things...cicadas in particular. The students carefully cared for the cicada by returning it to a nearby tree. In the afternoons, after they came in from lunch the students were greeted with spa music. This helps to calm them down after a busy play session. After changing into their indoor shoes the students settled into our math routine. They have the opportunity to work on hands-on math activities before coming to the carpet for our mini lesson. This week we have been working on counting how many days we have been in school using a giant tens-frame on the carpet and singing our numbers to 20 through dance and movement. Whenever the students are done, they have a chance to rest and read number books on the carpet. Rocking our Routines This week the students in room 128 have done a fantastic job in familiarizing themselves with our classroom routines. Each morning when they come in they have been working on independently taking out their special folders from their backpack and putting it in the right bin. They have also worked to change into their indoor shoes and to sign in before coming to the carpet. Other routines the students have been working on have been to listen to their bodies when they are hungry or need to go to the bathroom. We have worked on the steps each day on what to do when you have that "gotta go" feeling including the importance of washing our hands when we are done. Students have also learned that they can put one finger up during a lesson to give me a secret signals that they have to go to the bathroom or put up two fingers if they are thirsty. Students have an opportunity to have their snack during our morning and afternoon centres time. They learned this week that when they have had their snack they can move their magnet to the checkmark board. This helps our Kindergarten Team keep track of who may still have a rumbly tummy. The students in room 128 also discovered that we had a series of characters living in our class this year. A fairy named Felicity came and brought a puppet who did not have a name to life. The students worked together to vote on different names for our new friend. After the results were tallied, Lightning was the winning name chosen for our green monster friend. Felicity the Fairy really wanted to get to know all the names of our students. She gave the students a challenge to cover their names from natural material found in our school garden. The students worked hard to find natural materials and make their name cards. As the students found natural material to make their name tags we sorted what we found. The students played "Guess My Sorting Rule" and uncovered I had sorted the sticks, leaves and wood chips by colour, size and shape. We also looked at how some of the sticks were curvy and how some were straight and this was the same as the lines in our names. On Friday, when the students had finished decorating their names, Felicity the Fairy left us a gift to uncover in our school garden. They were stones with our names on them and a book. We found out that these stones were worry stones and whenever we felt worried in the class we could hold it to our heart and it would make us feel better. For the first week of school, the Kindergarten students will be meeting each morning in the Runnymede/Mountview school garden. Our Kindergarten team looks forward to seeing you there at 8:30 am. As the bell rings at 8:45am for entry, the students will have time to play together and parents will have time to take pictures before saying their goodbyes and entering the building. Look forward to seeing you there!	4,363	ENGLISH	1
History of South Asia Women are still treated unequally in the 21st century in most parts of the world according to Amartya Sen.. A case of Shah Bano has appeared because of the India’s laws which are personalized. She was an elderly woman with strong Muslim backgrounds. She married to a husband and they stayed in marriage for forty years. In 1978 however, the husband decided to turn her out of their home where they had stayed for forty years (Sen, 1990). According to the law, if such a situation had occurred the husband was supposed to pay back the dowry to his wife which he got when they were getting married. The husband thus fulfilled this and paid the dowry back. The dowry was estimated to be the value of the current 100 dollars. This was too little to sustain Shah Bano. As a result, she decided to sue the husband to cater for the maintenance costs too in accordance to the law of India. This was in section 25 of the law and was concerned with the codes of ethics regarding the criminal’s procedures. The law did not allow a man who was a man of means to allow his relatives as well as the ex-wife to live a destitute life (Sen, 1990). Other people in the same situation as Shah Bano had been granted such rights. This motivated Shah Bano. As a result, she won too. During Shah Bano’s case, the chief justice highlighted how the laws of Islam disadvantaged the Muslim. This was a good observation from the chief justice of India though he was a Hindu. The Islamic law disregarded the Muslims ex wife. They were not being provided with financial support after divorce. - FREE plagiarism report (upon request) - FREE revision option - FREE title page - FREE biblioraphy - FREE outline (on request) - FREE formatting - Expert research and writing - 24/7 LIVE support - Fully referenced papers - Any citation style - Up-to-date soures only - PhD and MBA, BA writers - No hidden charges - We never resell works The rulings of the chief justice brought a lot of reactions. This was particularly seen by the clergy men of the Muslims (Sen, 1990). The board of Muslims that was concerned with personal laws also joined hands to oppose the rulings. There were a lot of demonstrations against the rulings. As a result the law that would apply to the rights of Muslim women after divorce was put into law. This did not offer any benefits to the women of Islamic backgrounds after divorce. The law still exists today. It has made Hindus to complain that Muslims are feeling much better because they are not compelled to pay their ex-wives This case points out how different religions regard and treat their wives. The Hindus have some respect and dignity for their ex-wives. This is seen even after divorce when they try to pay support their ex- wives. The culture of the Indians however has much disregard for the Wives of Islamic origin that divorces their husbands. They are not entitled to any benefits after the divorce. This has been stated by the constitution. In fact, they Muslims say that their practice is based on their religious freedom. Thus, they propose that in country that has many religions, each should have freedom to make their own laws. Shah Bano case brought lot sufferings to the women of Muslims origin. The Muslims enacted a strict law that ensured that any ex-wife was entitled to no benefits after the divorce. This also prompted to the Islamic men to adopt such a law in to their constitution. They also felt it was useless to have some responsibilities to a woman that is divorced. Shah Bano case thus brought the differences in culture between Islam’s and the Muslims. The Minorities were despised. They faced severe consequences like divorce without any entitlement to any ownership. The role of the state in making one constitution was compromised. Each religion had its own rules on how to handle critical issue. This consequently led to politics based on different religions in India. We can write the superior papers on history for you! \|The Death of Marat and the French Revolution\|\|History: The Declaration of Independence\| - History: The Declaration of Independence - American Culture - The Death of Marat and the French Revolution - A Year in the South, 1865	<urn:uuid:a0947e95-6b3c-403a-97d0-3fc7de3a7672>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://quality-essay.com/essay-samples/history/history-of-south-asia.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00096.warc.gz	en	0.98487	895	3.609375	4	[ -0.2729300260543823, 0.4209311604499817, -0.3254021406173706, -0.28591978549957275, -0.27889513969421387, 0.028413765132427216, 0.36722201108932495, -0.15505678951740265, -0.08378999680280685, -0.0873139426112175, -0.012125501409173012, 0.3990160822868347, 0.3365204930305481, 0.33176556229...	4	History of South Asia Women are still treated unequally in the 21st century in most parts of the world according to Amartya Sen.. A case of Shah Bano has appeared because of the India’s laws which are personalized. She was an elderly woman with strong Muslim backgrounds. She married to a husband and they stayed in marriage for forty years. In 1978 however, the husband decided to turn her out of their home where they had stayed for forty years (Sen, 1990). According to the law, if such a situation had occurred the husband was supposed to pay back the dowry to his wife which he got when they were getting married. The husband thus fulfilled this and paid the dowry back. The dowry was estimated to be the value of the current 100 dollars. This was too little to sustain Shah Bano. As a result, she decided to sue the husband to cater for the maintenance costs too in accordance to the law of India. This was in section 25 of the law and was concerned with the codes of ethics regarding the criminal’s procedures. The law did not allow a man who was a man of means to allow his relatives as well as the ex-wife to live a destitute life (Sen, 1990). Other people in the same situation as Shah Bano had been granted such rights. This motivated Shah Bano. As a result, she won too. During Shah Bano’s case, the chief justice highlighted how the laws of Islam disadvantaged the Muslim. This was a good observation from the chief justice of India though he was a Hindu. The Islamic law disregarded the Muslims ex wife. They were not being provided with financial support after divorce. - FREE plagiarism report (upon request) - FREE revision option - FREE title page - FREE biblioraphy - FREE outline (on request) - FREE formatting - Expert research and writing - 24/7 LIVE support - Fully referenced papers - Any citation style - Up-to-date soures only - PhD and MBA, BA writers - No hidden charges - We never resell works The rulings of the chief justice brought a lot of reactions. This was particularly seen by the clergy men of the Muslims (Sen, 1990). The board of Muslims that was concerned with personal laws also joined hands to oppose the rulings. There were a lot of demonstrations against the rulings. As a result the law that would apply to the rights of Muslim women after divorce was put into law. This did not offer any benefits to the women of Islamic backgrounds after divorce. The law still exists today. It has made Hindus to complain that Muslims are feeling much better because they are not compelled to pay their ex-wives This case points out how different religions regard and treat their wives. The Hindus have some respect and dignity for their ex-wives. This is seen even after divorce when they try to pay support their ex- wives. The culture of the Indians however has much disregard for the Wives of Islamic origin that divorces their husbands. They are not entitled to any benefits after the divorce. This has been stated by the constitution. In fact, they Muslims say that their practice is based on their religious freedom. Thus, they propose that in country that has many religions, each should have freedom to make their own laws. Shah Bano case brought lot sufferings to the women of Muslims origin. The Muslims enacted a strict law that ensured that any ex-wife was entitled to no benefits after the divorce. This also prompted to the Islamic men to adopt such a law in to their constitution. They also felt it was useless to have some responsibilities to a woman that is divorced. Shah Bano case thus brought the differences in culture between Islam’s and the Muslims. The Minorities were despised. They faced severe consequences like divorce without any entitlement to any ownership. The role of the state in making one constitution was compromised. Each religion had its own rules on how to handle critical issue. This consequently led to politics based on different religions in India. We can write the superior papers on history for you! \|The Death of Marat and the French Revolution\|\|History: The Declaration of Independence\| - History: The Declaration of Independence - American Culture - The Death of Marat and the French Revolution - A Year in the South, 1865	904	ENGLISH	1
Standard 6: Positive classroom environment. The teacher creates a democratic learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, student responsibility, and self-motivation. - Creates a comfortable, well-organized physical environment with clear academic and behavioral expectations - Works with students individually and as a group to manage their own behaviors and assume responsibility for their own learning - Implements positive classroom management techniques for establishing structures, routines, and procedures, gaining attention, and facilitating transitions. - Uses time effectively - Creates an environment in which students work both cooperatively and independently - Establishes a classroom climate of openness, caring, mutual respect, and inquiry - Facilitates student choice and decision-making - Engages students in service to classroom, school and community Personal Artifacts: (To view artifact, click on title-words in red are links) I learned a lot about classroom management while interning at Edward Little High School. For Ellen Hodgkin's Fine Arts Appreciation class, she has students write what makes a successful classroom, and consequences of disregarding the codes of conduct. When I took over student teaching, students were already well aware of the rules they had allegedly given themselves. One instance during the clay unit, a student had pushed the limits of his clay too far and the piece had ruined. He was no longer motivated to create a vessel, and took it upon himself to disrupt his classmates. Having this be my first instance of a uncooperative student, I went to my mentor for advice. I was told to have him make something or go to the 'white room'. The white room is a room next to the office where students go that the teacher cannot handle, essentially the worst place to be sent to in school. My instincts kicked in on how to handle this situation, and I approached the student in a calm and inquiring way. After some nonthreatening conversation regarding his situation, I gave him his ultimatum. Having spoken to him as an equal human being, he considered his actions and attempted to make another clay vessel. He and I discussed the situation later, with him acknowledging the fact that he has good potential, while I suggested he find some strong effort as it will take him far. In providing a positive classroom environment, I have learned to remain calm, and remain approachable and understanding as a teacher. While interning at Many Moons in the art therapy sessions, I have learned that most students just want to be heard, and they do not want to be criticized for every small mistake. While interning at Great Falls Elementary, I was giving instruction to the class, as one student neglected to keep her attention on me. As I was done with the class, I had called on this one student, asking if she had heard my instruction. She replied honestly, saying she hadn't, but looked concerned. Instead of taking the route that I have seen many teachers take, in being impatient and criticizing, I simply let her know what the instruction was, in a nurturing way. I felt very good about the situation. By the end of the class, this student approached me with a note (linked artifact above). My first 'teacher note', and it may be my favorite I ever receive. So it is clear that an understanding and nurturing demeanor is not unnoticed in the eyes of the students. This artifact houses my outlook on classroom management, with a consideration of physical environment, academic expectations as well as what is expected socially of the student and teacher.	<urn:uuid:b78e8132-1993-4efc-9703-4fb3b5360afe>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://usm.digication.com/rachael_gilley/Standard_6	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00238.warc.gz	en	0.980588	715	3.84375	4	[ -0.08885692805051804, 0.033826977014541626, 0.6784196496009827, -0.43838316202163696, -0.5512642860412598, -0.36205920577049255, 0.48847877979278564, -0.04658445343375206, 0.21348132193088531, 0.3719254732131958, -0.004280139692127705, -0.0014132524374872446, -0.19357793033123016, 0.562195...	2	Standard 6: Positive classroom environment. The teacher creates a democratic learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, student responsibility, and self-motivation. - Creates a comfortable, well-organized physical environment with clear academic and behavioral expectations - Works with students individually and as a group to manage their own behaviors and assume responsibility for their own learning - Implements positive classroom management techniques for establishing structures, routines, and procedures, gaining attention, and facilitating transitions. - Uses time effectively - Creates an environment in which students work both cooperatively and independently - Establishes a classroom climate of openness, caring, mutual respect, and inquiry - Facilitates student choice and decision-making - Engages students in service to classroom, school and community Personal Artifacts: (To view artifact, click on title-words in red are links) I learned a lot about classroom management while interning at Edward Little High School. For Ellen Hodgkin's Fine Arts Appreciation class, she has students write what makes a successful classroom, and consequences of disregarding the codes of conduct. When I took over student teaching, students were already well aware of the rules they had allegedly given themselves. One instance during the clay unit, a student had pushed the limits of his clay too far and the piece had ruined. He was no longer motivated to create a vessel, and took it upon himself to disrupt his classmates. Having this be my first instance of a uncooperative student, I went to my mentor for advice. I was told to have him make something or go to the 'white room'. The white room is a room next to the office where students go that the teacher cannot handle, essentially the worst place to be sent to in school. My instincts kicked in on how to handle this situation, and I approached the student in a calm and inquiring way. After some nonthreatening conversation regarding his situation, I gave him his ultimatum. Having spoken to him as an equal human being, he considered his actions and attempted to make another clay vessel. He and I discussed the situation later, with him acknowledging the fact that he has good potential, while I suggested he find some strong effort as it will take him far. In providing a positive classroom environment, I have learned to remain calm, and remain approachable and understanding as a teacher. While interning at Many Moons in the art therapy sessions, I have learned that most students just want to be heard, and they do not want to be criticized for every small mistake. While interning at Great Falls Elementary, I was giving instruction to the class, as one student neglected to keep her attention on me. As I was done with the class, I had called on this one student, asking if she had heard my instruction. She replied honestly, saying she hadn't, but looked concerned. Instead of taking the route that I have seen many teachers take, in being impatient and criticizing, I simply let her know what the instruction was, in a nurturing way. I felt very good about the situation. By the end of the class, this student approached me with a note (linked artifact above). My first 'teacher note', and it may be my favorite I ever receive. So it is clear that an understanding and nurturing demeanor is not unnoticed in the eyes of the students. This artifact houses my outlook on classroom management, with a consideration of physical environment, academic expectations as well as what is expected socially of the student and teacher.	705	ENGLISH	1
In Woodland Indian rituals, ceremonies, and religious observances, tobacco is the unifying thread of communication between humans and the spiritual powers. The manidog (spirits) are said to be extremely fond of tobacco and that the only way they could get it was from the Indians, either by smoke from a pipe or by offerings of dry tobacco. According to tradition, the Indians received tobacco as a gift from Wenebojo who had taken it from a mountain giant and then given the seed to his brothers. In almost all facets of their lives, Native people of the Great Lakes had reason to solicit the spirits for acts of kindness or to give thanks for past favors. Dry tobacco was placed at the base of a tree or shrub from which medicine was gathered, and a pinch was thrown in the water before each day of wild rice gathering to assure calm weather and a bountiful harvest. Before setting out in a canoe, a safe return was assured by offering tobacco on the water. On journeys or hunts, Indian men paused for a smoke and left a pinch of tobacco as an offering when they encountered certain features of the landscape, including waterfalls, misshapen trees, oddly shaped rocks, and lakes or islands said to harbor spirits. When storms approached, families protected themselves by placing a small amount of tobacco on a nearby rock or stump. Tobacco was placed at graves as an offering to the departed spirit. Requests to elders to relate oral traditions or other special knowledge were accompanied with a gift of tobacco. Importance of Tobacco Before all religious ceremonies, tobacco was offered to the spirits. The universal method of inviting people to feasts or notifying them of ceremonies was the delivery of a small amount of dry tobacco by a runner sent out for that purpose. When a shaman agreed to accept a client's case, he indicated it by taking the offered gift of tobacco. Tobacco also sealed peace treaties between tribes and agreements between individuals. For such a purpose, the chief often kept a special pipe with a long decorated stem. While pipes of this sort have been called "peace pipes," the stem, called a calumet, was actually more important. During disagreements between individuals in a tribe, the pipe or the stem could be held between them to stop the quarrel, an they would be encouraged to smoke together to end their disagreement. Smoking together was also a way to seal bargains or agreements between leaders of different groups, and offering a pipe to someone meant an end to hostilities. Smoking a pipe as part of a ceremony or spiritual offering seems to have been about as common as smoking it for personal satisfaction. For personal use, tobacco was consumed primarily in pipes and was smoked by both men and women, but never by children. Kinnickinnick -- various other herbal substances, usually red willow -- was mixed with strong native tobacco in varying amounts to suit the individual smoker. Personal pipes were small with a short stem. Kinnickinnick (an Ojibwe word) literally means "what is mixed," and refers to plant materials that Indian people mixed with tobacco for smoking. Use of kinnickinnick was widespread in North America, but the ingredients varied regionally. In the Woodlands, the favorite ingredients were the inner bark of certain willows, dogwoods, or sumac leaves. The final mixture usually only contained about one-third tobacco. Preparation of Kinnickinnic To prepare Kinnickinnic, a man cut red osier dogwood stems and carried them back home where he scraped off the outer bark with a pocket knife. With the back of the knife blade, he then scraped curlicues of inner bark from the stem, and allowed them to fall in a cloth placed over his lap. He then made a drying rack by splitting one of the peeled stems halfway down and opening the end to form a Y. The opened portion was then woven with criss-crosses of other split stems to form a grid, and on this, he placed the curlicues of inner bark. He forced the rack into the ground diagonally just above a low fire, so the bark was about a foot above the flames and could dry in the heat without being burned. In about 20 minutes, the bark was toasted and crisp, and could be pulverized to the consistency of a rough-cut tobacco by rubbing it between the palms. Long ago, when the Potawatomi still lived on the ocean in the east and close to their grandfathers the Delaware, an old man had a dream that something extraordinary would grow in his garden which was in a clearing he had made nearby. In his dream, he was warned never to let any women approach his farm, so he cut down trees so they fell down over the stumps and made a natural fence. The people of his village grew to suspect that something was going on, but they could see nothing. His uncles and nephews teased him about his garden and asked him how he expected a crop of anything when he had planted no seed. They teased him so much that he became angry, and when everyone else went on the summer hunt in July, the old man stayed at home to tend to his field. At length, plants sprang up in his garden even though he had not planted anything. The old man did not know what to call the plant, but he hoed it well, and it grew up strong and thick. At last, a neighboring Delaware came to visit him, and he showed his friend what he had and explained that it had come as the result of a vision sent by the Great Spirit. "Why," said the Delaware, "My people have this sacred herb, also. One of our number also dreamed of it, the same as you did." "How do you use it?" asked the Potawatomi. The Delaware answered, "My grandson, if this was a gift to you from the Great Spirit, you ought to know. You should be shown by the Great Spirit how to use it. But if that doesn't happen by fall, come to me and I will show you how we use ours." The old man was more puzzled than ever, so he decided to fast and see if the Great Spirit would tell him what he wanted to know. When he had gone without food for two days, the Great Spirit appeared to him and told him to gather the leaves and dry them to pray with, to burn in the fire as incense, and to smoke in his pipe. He was told that tobacco should be the main offering at every feast and sacrifice. After he had had this dream. the old man went to a place near the sea where there was a hill of soft black stone. He broke off a long rectangular piece, and started to make a pipe. It was very hard to make and he went to his Delaware friend for help. Then, they made a pipe stem out of wood. By this time, the Delaware saw that his Potawatomi friend had learned the use of tobacco, so he took out his own pipe, filled it with tobacco from his pouch, lighted it, and passed it to his Potawatomi friend. The Potawatomi man laughed and said, "I intend to smoke, but I certainly did not understand before." The Potawatomi man had his wife sewed a buckskin wrapper around the stem and made him a tobacco pouch. Then, he harvested and dried his tobacco. When the hunters returned from the hunt, the people all went over to see what had grown in the mysterious garden. They were surprised at the peculiar appearance and the strong taste of the broad leaves. No one knew what to call it. The old man soon saw that the people had been taking the leaves from the garden, and he asked the chief to keep them out. So the chief walked all around the village himself, announcing that the people must keep out of that garden and respect its owner on account of his age. "Wait until he is ready to tell us about it," he ordered. One day, the old man gave a feast, and seated the chief on his left. He said, "I am glad that you all have been quiet about my garden, and have listened to my wishes. You all know that it was impossible for me to make this herb, and that it is a gift from the Creator because I did not plant it. We all believe what is given to us in our dreams, and this was given to me in a dream. I dreamed that something was going to grow where I had burned and cleared the earth for a garden, so I fenced it off as though something sacred was there. That was to keep the women away from it, because you know they usually tend the gardens. I fasted for another vision to know how to use this plant and then the Great Spirit appeared and told me how to use this herb in sacrifices, and to place it in the fire and smoke it. I give this feast in honor of the new blessing that is to be with us now for all our lives." The chief now stood upon his feet and thanked the old man for being so faithful to his dreams. He said, "My people, always think of this man, Wakusha the Fox of the Fox clan, who got this for us. Now, I will burn the tobacco, and we will all pray for him. He brought it here, and he will divide it among you all. I want you all to take it and use it when you are hunting. Put it in the fire and tell Our Grandfather the fire where you are going, and for how long. Never leave without telling Our Grandfather these things, and pray to the Great Spirit." The assembled people all rejoiced and thanked the old man Fox. Everyone had heard that the Delaware had such a sacred herb, but no one knew what it was until it was given to Fox to pass it on to all Indians. Fox rose once more and said that he would distribute the seeds to everyone, and they were to plant it far off where the women would not come. They were also to set up a pole with leaves left at the top in the middle of the tobacco patch as a sign and a warning to the women to keep away from it. Cedar leaves were burned and food was blessed by the chief, and all ate the feast thanking the Great Spirit that tobacco had come to them. When they had finished, a man stood up and said that he thanked the Great Spirit, and each person went over and squatted by the fire and burned tobacco and prayed to the Great Spirit. When this was over, they all thanked Fox again and rejoiced over the coming of the tobacco. Then Fox took his tobacco bag and filled and lighted his stone pipe and said, "This stone pipe I copied from that used by our Grandfather, the Delaware. I have mixed the tobacco with dried sumac leaves, just as he does." He passed the pipe for all to see and smoke, and it was only a few days before everyone had made a similar one of stone or wood. From that time on, the Indians smoked as part of their prayers. When Whites came, they took up smoking tobacco, but never used it as part of their prayers, which is definitely not what it was intended for when it was given to the Indian people by the Great Spirit. (Adapted from Alanson Skinner, "The Mascoutens or Prairie Potawatomi Indians, Part III, Mythology and Folklore," Milwaukee Public Museum Bulletin 6:327-411.)	<urn:uuid:2de09dea-986b-476b-bc21-b7b6caa6a308>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mpm.edu/content/wirp/ICW-166	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00124.warc.gz	en	0.989935	2,372	3.734375	4	[ 0.09896187484264374, 0.7529215812683105, -0.06295695155858994, -0.4144170582294464, -0.3027461767196655, -0.277733713388443, 0.5521062016487122, -0.26402467489242554, -0.15529854595661163, 0.33701905608177185, -0.3349301815032959, -0.25116145610809326, -0.046089090406894684, 0.216081500053...	12	In Woodland Indian rituals, ceremonies, and religious observances, tobacco is the unifying thread of communication between humans and the spiritual powers. The manidog (spirits) are said to be extremely fond of tobacco and that the only way they could get it was from the Indians, either by smoke from a pipe or by offerings of dry tobacco. According to tradition, the Indians received tobacco as a gift from Wenebojo who had taken it from a mountain giant and then given the seed to his brothers. In almost all facets of their lives, Native people of the Great Lakes had reason to solicit the spirits for acts of kindness or to give thanks for past favors. Dry tobacco was placed at the base of a tree or shrub from which medicine was gathered, and a pinch was thrown in the water before each day of wild rice gathering to assure calm weather and a bountiful harvest. Before setting out in a canoe, a safe return was assured by offering tobacco on the water. On journeys or hunts, Indian men paused for a smoke and left a pinch of tobacco as an offering when they encountered certain features of the landscape, including waterfalls, misshapen trees, oddly shaped rocks, and lakes or islands said to harbor spirits. When storms approached, families protected themselves by placing a small amount of tobacco on a nearby rock or stump. Tobacco was placed at graves as an offering to the departed spirit. Requests to elders to relate oral traditions or other special knowledge were accompanied with a gift of tobacco. Importance of Tobacco Before all religious ceremonies, tobacco was offered to the spirits. The universal method of inviting people to feasts or notifying them of ceremonies was the delivery of a small amount of dry tobacco by a runner sent out for that purpose. When a shaman agreed to accept a client's case, he indicated it by taking the offered gift of tobacco. Tobacco also sealed peace treaties between tribes and agreements between individuals. For such a purpose, the chief often kept a special pipe with a long decorated stem. While pipes of this sort have been called "peace pipes," the stem, called a calumet, was actually more important. During disagreements between individuals in a tribe, the pipe or the stem could be held between them to stop the quarrel, an they would be encouraged to smoke together to end their disagreement. Smoking together was also a way to seal bargains or agreements between leaders of different groups, and offering a pipe to someone meant an end to hostilities. Smoking a pipe as part of a ceremony or spiritual offering seems to have been about as common as smoking it for personal satisfaction. For personal use, tobacco was consumed primarily in pipes and was smoked by both men and women, but never by children. Kinnickinnick -- various other herbal substances, usually red willow -- was mixed with strong native tobacco in varying amounts to suit the individual smoker. Personal pipes were small with a short stem. Kinnickinnick (an Ojibwe word) literally means "what is mixed," and refers to plant materials that Indian people mixed with tobacco for smoking. Use of kinnickinnick was widespread in North America, but the ingredients varied regionally. In the Woodlands, the favorite ingredients were the inner bark of certain willows, dogwoods, or sumac leaves. The final mixture usually only contained about one-third tobacco. Preparation of Kinnickinnic To prepare Kinnickinnic, a man cut red osier dogwood stems and carried them back home where he scraped off the outer bark with a pocket knife. With the back of the knife blade, he then scraped curlicues of inner bark from the stem, and allowed them to fall in a cloth placed over his lap. He then made a drying rack by splitting one of the peeled stems halfway down and opening the end to form a Y. The opened portion was then woven with criss-crosses of other split stems to form a grid, and on this, he placed the curlicues of inner bark. He forced the rack into the ground diagonally just above a low fire, so the bark was about a foot above the flames and could dry in the heat without being burned. In about 20 minutes, the bark was toasted and crisp, and could be pulverized to the consistency of a rough-cut tobacco by rubbing it between the palms. Long ago, when the Potawatomi still lived on the ocean in the east and close to their grandfathers the Delaware, an old man had a dream that something extraordinary would grow in his garden which was in a clearing he had made nearby. In his dream, he was warned never to let any women approach his farm, so he cut down trees so they fell down over the stumps and made a natural fence. The people of his village grew to suspect that something was going on, but they could see nothing. His uncles and nephews teased him about his garden and asked him how he expected a crop of anything when he had planted no seed. They teased him so much that he became angry, and when everyone else went on the summer hunt in July, the old man stayed at home to tend to his field. At length, plants sprang up in his garden even though he had not planted anything. The old man did not know what to call the plant, but he hoed it well, and it grew up strong and thick. At last, a neighboring Delaware came to visit him, and he showed his friend what he had and explained that it had come as the result of a vision sent by the Great Spirit. "Why," said the Delaware, "My people have this sacred herb, also. One of our number also dreamed of it, the same as you did." "How do you use it?" asked the Potawatomi. The Delaware answered, "My grandson, if this was a gift to you from the Great Spirit, you ought to know. You should be shown by the Great Spirit how to use it. But if that doesn't happen by fall, come to me and I will show you how we use ours." The old man was more puzzled than ever, so he decided to fast and see if the Great Spirit would tell him what he wanted to know. When he had gone without food for two days, the Great Spirit appeared to him and told him to gather the leaves and dry them to pray with, to burn in the fire as incense, and to smoke in his pipe. He was told that tobacco should be the main offering at every feast and sacrifice. After he had had this dream. the old man went to a place near the sea where there was a hill of soft black stone. He broke off a long rectangular piece, and started to make a pipe. It was very hard to make and he went to his Delaware friend for help. Then, they made a pipe stem out of wood. By this time, the Delaware saw that his Potawatomi friend had learned the use of tobacco, so he took out his own pipe, filled it with tobacco from his pouch, lighted it, and passed it to his Potawatomi friend. The Potawatomi man laughed and said, "I intend to smoke, but I certainly did not understand before." The Potawatomi man had his wife sewed a buckskin wrapper around the stem and made him a tobacco pouch. Then, he harvested and dried his tobacco. When the hunters returned from the hunt, the people all went over to see what had grown in the mysterious garden. They were surprised at the peculiar appearance and the strong taste of the broad leaves. No one knew what to call it. The old man soon saw that the people had been taking the leaves from the garden, and he asked the chief to keep them out. So the chief walked all around the village himself, announcing that the people must keep out of that garden and respect its owner on account of his age. "Wait until he is ready to tell us about it," he ordered. One day, the old man gave a feast, and seated the chief on his left. He said, "I am glad that you all have been quiet about my garden, and have listened to my wishes. You all know that it was impossible for me to make this herb, and that it is a gift from the Creator because I did not plant it. We all believe what is given to us in our dreams, and this was given to me in a dream. I dreamed that something was going to grow where I had burned and cleared the earth for a garden, so I fenced it off as though something sacred was there. That was to keep the women away from it, because you know they usually tend the gardens. I fasted for another vision to know how to use this plant and then the Great Spirit appeared and told me how to use this herb in sacrifices, and to place it in the fire and smoke it. I give this feast in honor of the new blessing that is to be with us now for all our lives." The chief now stood upon his feet and thanked the old man for being so faithful to his dreams. He said, "My people, always think of this man, Wakusha the Fox of the Fox clan, who got this for us. Now, I will burn the tobacco, and we will all pray for him. He brought it here, and he will divide it among you all. I want you all to take it and use it when you are hunting. Put it in the fire and tell Our Grandfather the fire where you are going, and for how long. Never leave without telling Our Grandfather these things, and pray to the Great Spirit." The assembled people all rejoiced and thanked the old man Fox. Everyone had heard that the Delaware had such a sacred herb, but no one knew what it was until it was given to Fox to pass it on to all Indians. Fox rose once more and said that he would distribute the seeds to everyone, and they were to plant it far off where the women would not come. They were also to set up a pole with leaves left at the top in the middle of the tobacco patch as a sign and a warning to the women to keep away from it. Cedar leaves were burned and food was blessed by the chief, and all ate the feast thanking the Great Spirit that tobacco had come to them. When they had finished, a man stood up and said that he thanked the Great Spirit, and each person went over and squatted by the fire and burned tobacco and prayed to the Great Spirit. When this was over, they all thanked Fox again and rejoiced over the coming of the tobacco. Then Fox took his tobacco bag and filled and lighted his stone pipe and said, "This stone pipe I copied from that used by our Grandfather, the Delaware. I have mixed the tobacco with dried sumac leaves, just as he does." He passed the pipe for all to see and smoke, and it was only a few days before everyone had made a similar one of stone or wood. From that time on, the Indians smoked as part of their prayers. When Whites came, they took up smoking tobacco, but never used it as part of their prayers, which is definitely not what it was intended for when it was given to the Indian people by the Great Spirit. (Adapted from Alanson Skinner, "The Mascoutens or Prairie Potawatomi Indians, Part III, Mythology and Folklore," Milwaukee Public Museum Bulletin 6:327-411.)	2,354	ENGLISH	1
On May 13, 1862, just over a year into the Civil War, an enslaved man named Robert Smalls, who labored on a Confederate steamer in South Carolina's Charleston harbor, set into motion a daring plan. As his great-great-grandson Michael Boulware Moore explained, "He saw that the Confederate crew had left, and he knew that oftentimes they left for the evening, not to come back until the next day." For Smalls and six other slaves and their families, the stakes couldn't have been higher. "They knew that if they got caught, that they would be, not just killed, but probably tortured in a particularly egregious and public manner," said Moore. Disguising himself in the straw hat and long overcoat of the ship’s white captain, Smalls piloted the ship past Fort Sumter towards the Union blockade, and freedom. "It really blew people's minds because, you know, it just was beyond what people thought an enslaved person could do," Moore said. After serving on a Union Naval vessel during the Civil War, Smalls returned home to Beaufort, S.C., and was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives – one of more than a dozen African Americans to serve in Congress during the period known as Reconstruction, when the formerly-rebel states were reabsorbed into the Union, and four million newly-freed African Americans were made citizens. "It was a time of unparalleled hope," said Harvard professor Henry Louis Gates, who latest book “Dark Sky Rising” is about Reconstruction. Gates said Reconstruction is one of the most misunderstood chapters in American history, when black men could vote, and would be elected to represent Southerners in Congress. Rocca said, "You go and you ask people on the street who the first black person was elected to the U.S. Congress, they're gonna guess it's the 1960s, the 1970s." "And they would never guess it was Hiram Revels from Mississippi," said Gates. Hiram Rhodes Revels was born free and served as a chaplain to black regiments during the Civil War. On February 25, 1870 he was sworn in as a Senator from Mississippi, an office once held by Jefferson Davis, who left the U.S. Senate to become president of the Confederate States of America. It was an historic moment, said Gates. "And it's memorialized in the famous Currier and Ives lithograph that shows the first senator and members of the House of Representatives who were African Americans. The famed printing house created the lithograph featuring the African American Members of Congress - all of them Southerners, all of them Republicans - in 1872. Harvard University's Houghton Library houses one of the few known copies. "When Frederick Douglass saw the portrait of Hiram Revels, he said, 'At last, the black man is represented as something other than a monkey,'" said Gates. And of the seven men pictured, only two had been born free men; the others had been other people's slaves. Columbia University historian Eric Foner said, "It's the first time in this country, or really anywhere, that an interracial democracy was created." He estimates that about two thousand African Americans held some kind of public office during Reconstruction. "We tend to think of slaves as ignorant or unsophisticated. But you know, they had been living in American society for their whole lives, and their parents had, too. The slave trade from Africa had ended long before. These people were Americans. And they wanted the same rights, the same opportunities as free white people had." In 1874, the U.S. Congress debated a civil rights law that would outlaw discrimination based on race in hotels, theaters, and railway cars. The highlight of debate came when South Carolina Congressman Robert Brown Elliot faced down the bill’s chief opponent Georgia Congressman Alexander Stephens. Just thirteen years earlier Stephens, then Vice President of the Confederate States of America, had given a speech proclaiming slavery was the “cornerstone” of the Confederacy. “The progress of events has swept away that pseudo-government which rested on greed, pride, and tyranny; and the race whom he then ruthlessly spurned and trampled on are here to meet him in debate,” Elliot said. “The gentleman from Georgia has learned much since 1861; but he is still a laggard.” “One Kentucky newspaper said this was the most impressive speech by a black man in American history. Now, that's saying something when you have Frederick Douglass out there giving brilliant speeches,” Foner said. “Elliott became a nationally known figure because of his speech on the Civil Rights Bill.” With the votes of African American Congressmen Joseph Rainey, Richard Cain, James T. Rapier, and John Roy Lynch, that civil rights bill passed and on March 1, 1875 President Ulysses S. Grant signed it into law. Author Lawrence Otis Graham said, "How gutsy was it for these guys not just to try to be elected, but to get seated and to actually demand equality." Graham wrote a book about Mississippi Senator Blanche K. Bruce, who was born a slave in Virginia before becoming a successful plantation owner in Mississippi. Bruce and his wife Josephine were one of the wealthiest African American couples in America, and lived in a townhouse in an integrated Washington, D.C., neighborhood. "This was not someone who was in over their head," said Graham. "This was someone who, despite all the odds against him, succeeded enormously." Rocca said, "The year he's seated in the Senate, 1875, is the apex of black representation during Reconstruction; seven House Members and one Senator, that's the high point?" "Yeah, it is. But he doesn't get to enjoy that high point very long with his colleagues," Graham said. When neither candidate in the 1876 presidential election secured enough votes in the Electoral College to be declared winner, a deal was struck. Southern Democrats agreed to back Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes; in exchange, the federal troops who had protected black voters were withdrawn from the South. Just a few years later, the Supreme Court struck down the Civil Rights Bill of 1875. Black voting rights were gradually stripped away, and black representation in Congress faded. Reconstruction was over, and the Jim Crow era of segregation began. For most of the twentieth century, Reconstruction was portrayed as a failure. D.W. Griffith's 1915 movies "The Birth of a Nation" depicted South Carolina's black state legislators as uncouth and given to drink, while also casting the Ku Klux Klan as heroes. The movie was a sensation with white audiences. President Woodrow Wilson even hosted a screening at the White House. And most schools taught Reconstruction as a misadventure at best. Foner said, "That's what I was taught in high school in the 1950s: Reconstruction was the worst period in American history, it was a travesty of democracy, black people misused the right to vote, were not capable of serving in public office. That was taught everywhere." For a young Henry Louis Gates, this was particularly painful. "The few black kids in my class would put the textbook up over our face and slink down in our chairs, because it was all so embarrassing," he said. But over the last 25 years, Reconstruction in some schools has been given a much fuller treatment. And in 2017, the Reconstruction Era National Monument was established in Robert Smalls' hometown of Beaufort, S.C. Just down the road, you can see the house he lived in as a free man and the church he attended. Alongside it is a bust of Smalls – the only known statue in the South of any of the pioneering black Congressmen of Reconstruction.	<urn:uuid:e28801e8-f8b6-4102-a09b-761b3f9dc89b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mobituaries.com/the-podcast/the-black-congressmen-of-reconstruction-death-of-representation/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00351.warc.gz	en	0.98342	1,649	3.40625	3	[ -0.3365860879421234, 0.36486005783081055, 0.05339629203081131, -0.07950320839881897, 0.016840336844325066, -0.18085481226444244, -0.1355520486831665, -0.23064588010311127, -0.2948518693447113, 0.01900380477309227, 0.48367244005203247, 0.31441551446914673, -0.023481588810682297, 0.274350821...	12	On May 13, 1862, just over a year into the Civil War, an enslaved man named Robert Smalls, who labored on a Confederate steamer in South Carolina's Charleston harbor, set into motion a daring plan. As his great-great-grandson Michael Boulware Moore explained, "He saw that the Confederate crew had left, and he knew that oftentimes they left for the evening, not to come back until the next day." For Smalls and six other slaves and their families, the stakes couldn't have been higher. "They knew that if they got caught, that they would be, not just killed, but probably tortured in a particularly egregious and public manner," said Moore. Disguising himself in the straw hat and long overcoat of the ship’s white captain, Smalls piloted the ship past Fort Sumter towards the Union blockade, and freedom. "It really blew people's minds because, you know, it just was beyond what people thought an enslaved person could do," Moore said. After serving on a Union Naval vessel during the Civil War, Smalls returned home to Beaufort, S.C., and was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives – one of more than a dozen African Americans to serve in Congress during the period known as Reconstruction, when the formerly-rebel states were reabsorbed into the Union, and four million newly-freed African Americans were made citizens. "It was a time of unparalleled hope," said Harvard professor Henry Louis Gates, who latest book “Dark Sky Rising” is about Reconstruction. Gates said Reconstruction is one of the most misunderstood chapters in American history, when black men could vote, and would be elected to represent Southerners in Congress. Rocca said, "You go and you ask people on the street who the first black person was elected to the U.S. Congress, they're gonna guess it's the 1960s, the 1970s." "And they would never guess it was Hiram Revels from Mississippi," said Gates. Hiram Rhodes Revels was born free and served as a chaplain to black regiments during the Civil War. On February 25, 1870 he was sworn in as a Senator from Mississippi, an office once held by Jefferson Davis, who left the U.S. Senate to become president of the Confederate States of America. It was an historic moment, said Gates. "And it's memorialized in the famous Currier and Ives lithograph that shows the first senator and members of the House of Representatives who were African Americans. The famed printing house created the lithograph featuring the African American Members of Congress - all of them Southerners, all of them Republicans - in 1872. Harvard University's Houghton Library houses one of the few known copies. "When Frederick Douglass saw the portrait of Hiram Revels, he said, 'At last, the black man is represented as something other than a monkey,'" said Gates. And of the seven men pictured, only two had been born free men; the others had been other people's slaves. Columbia University historian Eric Foner said, "It's the first time in this country, or really anywhere, that an interracial democracy was created." He estimates that about two thousand African Americans held some kind of public office during Reconstruction. "We tend to think of slaves as ignorant or unsophisticated. But you know, they had been living in American society for their whole lives, and their parents had, too. The slave trade from Africa had ended long before. These people were Americans. And they wanted the same rights, the same opportunities as free white people had." In 1874, the U.S. Congress debated a civil rights law that would outlaw discrimination based on race in hotels, theaters, and railway cars. The highlight of debate came when South Carolina Congressman Robert Brown Elliot faced down the bill’s chief opponent Georgia Congressman Alexander Stephens. Just thirteen years earlier Stephens, then Vice President of the Confederate States of America, had given a speech proclaiming slavery was the “cornerstone” of the Confederacy. “The progress of events has swept away that pseudo-government which rested on greed, pride, and tyranny; and the race whom he then ruthlessly spurned and trampled on are here to meet him in debate,” Elliot said. “The gentleman from Georgia has learned much since 1861; but he is still a laggard.” “One Kentucky newspaper said this was the most impressive speech by a black man in American history. Now, that's saying something when you have Frederick Douglass out there giving brilliant speeches,” Foner said. “Elliott became a nationally known figure because of his speech on the Civil Rights Bill.” With the votes of African American Congressmen Joseph Rainey, Richard Cain, James T. Rapier, and John Roy Lynch, that civil rights bill passed and on March 1, 1875 President Ulysses S. Grant signed it into law. Author Lawrence Otis Graham said, "How gutsy was it for these guys not just to try to be elected, but to get seated and to actually demand equality." Graham wrote a book about Mississippi Senator Blanche K. Bruce, who was born a slave in Virginia before becoming a successful plantation owner in Mississippi. Bruce and his wife Josephine were one of the wealthiest African American couples in America, and lived in a townhouse in an integrated Washington, D.C., neighborhood. "This was not someone who was in over their head," said Graham. "This was someone who, despite all the odds against him, succeeded enormously." Rocca said, "The year he's seated in the Senate, 1875, is the apex of black representation during Reconstruction; seven House Members and one Senator, that's the high point?" "Yeah, it is. But he doesn't get to enjoy that high point very long with his colleagues," Graham said. When neither candidate in the 1876 presidential election secured enough votes in the Electoral College to be declared winner, a deal was struck. Southern Democrats agreed to back Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes; in exchange, the federal troops who had protected black voters were withdrawn from the South. Just a few years later, the Supreme Court struck down the Civil Rights Bill of 1875. Black voting rights were gradually stripped away, and black representation in Congress faded. Reconstruction was over, and the Jim Crow era of segregation began. For most of the twentieth century, Reconstruction was portrayed as a failure. D.W. Griffith's 1915 movies "The Birth of a Nation" depicted South Carolina's black state legislators as uncouth and given to drink, while also casting the Ku Klux Klan as heroes. The movie was a sensation with white audiences. President Woodrow Wilson even hosted a screening at the White House. And most schools taught Reconstruction as a misadventure at best. Foner said, "That's what I was taught in high school in the 1950s: Reconstruction was the worst period in American history, it was a travesty of democracy, black people misused the right to vote, were not capable of serving in public office. That was taught everywhere." For a young Henry Louis Gates, this was particularly painful. "The few black kids in my class would put the textbook up over our face and slink down in our chairs, because it was all so embarrassing," he said. But over the last 25 years, Reconstruction in some schools has been given a much fuller treatment. And in 2017, the Reconstruction Era National Monument was established in Robert Smalls' hometown of Beaufort, S.C. Just down the road, you can see the house he lived in as a free man and the church he attended. Alongside it is a bust of Smalls – the only known statue in the South of any of the pioneering black Congressmen of Reconstruction.	1,639	ENGLISH	1
Lady Jane Grey: A Tudor Mystery by Eric IvesLady Jane Grey is one of the most elusive and tragic characters in English history. In July 1553, the death of the childless Edward VI threw the Tudor dynasty into crisis. On Edwards instructions, his cousin Jane Grey was proclaimed queen, only to be ousted 13 days later by his half-sister Mary, and later beheaded. In this radical reassessment, Eric Ives rejects traditional portraits of Jane both as hapless victim of political intrigue or Protestant martyr. Instead, he presents her as an accomplished young woman with a fierce personal integrity. The result is a compelling dissection by a master historian and storyteller of one of historys most shocking injustices. Tragic Lady Jane Grey is remembered in British history as the monarch with the shortest reign… just nine days. She was actually fifth in line to the throne, but was his personal choice as she was a Protestant. Lady Jane Grey, engraving by Willem de Passe, Edward wanted to keep England firmly Protestant and he knew that Mary would take England back into the Catholic faith. Edward died on 6th July and Lady Jane ascended to the throne with her husband Lord Guildford Dudley at her side — she was just sweet sixteen. Lady Jane was beautiful and intelligent. Queen Mary I. Lady Jane Grey c. She had an excellent humanist education and a reputation as one of the most learned young women of her day. In June , Edward VI wrote his will, nominating Jane and her male heirs as successors to the Crown, in part because his half-sister Mary was Roman Catholic, while Jane was a committed Protestant and would support the reformed Church of England , whose foundation Edward claimed to have laid. The will removed his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth , from the line of succession on account of their illegitimacy, subverting their claims under the Third Succession Act. After Edward's death, Jane was proclaimed queen on 10 July and awaited coronation in the Tower of London. Support for Mary grew very quickly, and most of Jane's supporters abandoned her. Her primary supporter, her father-in-law the Duke of Northumberland, was accused of treason and executed less than a month later. British Broadcasting Corporation Home. Jane was born in the autumn of , the daughter of the Marquess of Dorset. Jane developed into an intelligent and pious woman. In October , her father was created duke of Suffolk and Jane began to appear at court. There, real power lay in the hands of the fiercely Protestant Duke of Northumberland, who acted as regent to the young king, Edward VI. Lady Jane Grey was born in , in Leicester, England. Her life began with promise and high expectations but ended tragically, due in part to the ambitions of her father and the religious strife of the times. Grey was beheaded in London on February 12, captain underpants full color book 7 Seneca Falls Convention begins She was born in the same month in as his son and successor, Edward VI, and her ambitious parents, hoping to marry her to Edward one day, paid special attention to her education and brought her up a convinced Protestant. A bookish intellectual, she was quite unable to cope with the real world and with being a pawn on the political chessboard. It was an extremely dangerous chessboard. By Edward was clearly unlikely to live much longer. He decided to put his own family on the throne and in May he had the fifteen-year-old Jane married, against her will, to his fourth son, Lord Guilford Dudley, who was about the same age. Jane went straight back to her parents, but as the King grew weaker, Northumberland ordered the marriage to be consummated, and it was. Northumberland persuaded the dying Edward to declare Mary and Elizabeth illegitimate and transfer the succession to the Lady Jane. After only nine days as the monarch of England, Lady Jane Grey is deposed in favor of her cousin Mary. The year-old Lady Jane, beautiful and intelligent, had only reluctantly agreed to be put on the throne. The decision would result in her execution. Lady Jane and Edward were the same age, and they had almost been married in The same day, Jane was imprisoned in the Tower of London.	<urn:uuid:742d8865-4a94-4616-84aa-29b2bed3acef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://allnativecircleconference.com/movie/22402-why-was-lady-jane-gray-executed-503-248.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00116.warc.gz	en	0.985553	880	3.28125	3	[ -0.280510276556015, -0.022949645295739174, 0.24063321948051453, -0.15879656374454498, -0.07565294206142426, 0.24330805242061615, 0.2753487229347229, -0.24531719088554382, 0.1384160816669464, 0.34436261653900146, 0.019697481766343117, -0.40033379197120667, 0.0016251662746071815, 0.387866675...	2	Lady Jane Grey: A Tudor Mystery by Eric IvesLady Jane Grey is one of the most elusive and tragic characters in English history. In July 1553, the death of the childless Edward VI threw the Tudor dynasty into crisis. On Edwards instructions, his cousin Jane Grey was proclaimed queen, only to be ousted 13 days later by his half-sister Mary, and later beheaded. In this radical reassessment, Eric Ives rejects traditional portraits of Jane both as hapless victim of political intrigue or Protestant martyr. Instead, he presents her as an accomplished young woman with a fierce personal integrity. The result is a compelling dissection by a master historian and storyteller of one of historys most shocking injustices. Tragic Lady Jane Grey is remembered in British history as the monarch with the shortest reign… just nine days. She was actually fifth in line to the throne, but was his personal choice as she was a Protestant. Lady Jane Grey, engraving by Willem de Passe, Edward wanted to keep England firmly Protestant and he knew that Mary would take England back into the Catholic faith. Edward died on 6th July and Lady Jane ascended to the throne with her husband Lord Guildford Dudley at her side — she was just sweet sixteen. Lady Jane was beautiful and intelligent. Queen Mary I. Lady Jane Grey c. She had an excellent humanist education and a reputation as one of the most learned young women of her day. In June , Edward VI wrote his will, nominating Jane and her male heirs as successors to the Crown, in part because his half-sister Mary was Roman Catholic, while Jane was a committed Protestant and would support the reformed Church of England , whose foundation Edward claimed to have laid. The will removed his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth , from the line of succession on account of their illegitimacy, subverting their claims under the Third Succession Act. After Edward's death, Jane was proclaimed queen on 10 July and awaited coronation in the Tower of London. Support for Mary grew very quickly, and most of Jane's supporters abandoned her. Her primary supporter, her father-in-law the Duke of Northumberland, was accused of treason and executed less than a month later. British Broadcasting Corporation Home. Jane was born in the autumn of , the daughter of the Marquess of Dorset. Jane developed into an intelligent and pious woman. In October , her father was created duke of Suffolk and Jane began to appear at court. There, real power lay in the hands of the fiercely Protestant Duke of Northumberland, who acted as regent to the young king, Edward VI. Lady Jane Grey was born in , in Leicester, England. Her life began with promise and high expectations but ended tragically, due in part to the ambitions of her father and the religious strife of the times. Grey was beheaded in London on February 12, captain underpants full color book 7 Seneca Falls Convention begins She was born in the same month in as his son and successor, Edward VI, and her ambitious parents, hoping to marry her to Edward one day, paid special attention to her education and brought her up a convinced Protestant. A bookish intellectual, she was quite unable to cope with the real world and with being a pawn on the political chessboard. It was an extremely dangerous chessboard. By Edward was clearly unlikely to live much longer. He decided to put his own family on the throne and in May he had the fifteen-year-old Jane married, against her will, to his fourth son, Lord Guilford Dudley, who was about the same age. Jane went straight back to her parents, but as the King grew weaker, Northumberland ordered the marriage to be consummated, and it was. Northumberland persuaded the dying Edward to declare Mary and Elizabeth illegitimate and transfer the succession to the Lady Jane. After only nine days as the monarch of England, Lady Jane Grey is deposed in favor of her cousin Mary. The year-old Lady Jane, beautiful and intelligent, had only reluctantly agreed to be put on the throne. The decision would result in her execution. Lady Jane and Edward were the same age, and they had almost been married in The same day, Jane was imprisoned in the Tower of London.	875	ENGLISH	1
Franken-Tadpoles Can See Out of Eyes in their Tails It sounds like the work of a mad scientist in a comic book: researchers from Tufts University implanted eyes on the tails of tadpoles. They wondered whether the eyes would simply sit there, uselessly, or would tadpoles be able to see out of them? According to the recent study, the tadpoles can indeed see out of these eyes attached to their tales, even though they are not directly attached to their brains. The results of the study may have profound implications for future work in robotics and in prosthetics. According to the Boston Globe, the researchers started by transplanting the eye of one tadpole embryo onto the backside of the other. They did this 230 times. Nearly every time, the tadpoles' third eyes were about the same size and shape as the ones on their heads and faced outward. In a significant portion of these tadpoles, the eye connected to the spine through nerves. Then the researchers removed the eyes of the heads of the tadpoles. Then the researchers performed an experiment with two lights, a red and blue. All of the tadpoles were exposed to blue and red light but, with exposure to the red light, the tadpoles would receive a shock. Tadpoles who could see out of their normal eyes learned to avoid the red light. Tadpoles who were blind did not learn to avoid the red light, presumably because they could not see it. However, among the tadpoles who had been blinded but had an eye on their tale that connected to their spine, one in five were able to learn to avoid the red light as well. Presumably, that means that the animal could see. The study could be exciting for manufacturers who want to build, say, more than a glass eye. It also is exciting for robot manufacturers, who could build robots who, if they have a new arm implanted, would not require the use of entirely new software. In addition, for those who are curious, the scientists wondered whether the eyes on the tadpoles' tales would fall off or keep working when they became frogs. In fact, the frogs do have eyes on their butts. The study was published in the Journal of Experimental Biology.	<urn:uuid:0d72ec57-8caf-46d7-8890-341d4e061395>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.counselheal.com/articles/4160/20130301/franken-tadpoles-see-out-eyes-tails.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00060.warc.gz	en	0.980144	470	3.34375	3	[ -0.11702711880207062, -0.19672317802906036, -0.005587270017713308, 0.030254339799284935, -0.13791248202323914, 0.16514915227890015, 0.5158372521400452, 0.23252040147781372, -0.2600778639316559, 0.16992859542369843, 0.2544945180416107, -0.23415504395961761, 0.20452991127967834, 0.2249746024...	3	Franken-Tadpoles Can See Out of Eyes in their Tails It sounds like the work of a mad scientist in a comic book: researchers from Tufts University implanted eyes on the tails of tadpoles. They wondered whether the eyes would simply sit there, uselessly, or would tadpoles be able to see out of them? According to the recent study, the tadpoles can indeed see out of these eyes attached to their tales, even though they are not directly attached to their brains. The results of the study may have profound implications for future work in robotics and in prosthetics. According to the Boston Globe, the researchers started by transplanting the eye of one tadpole embryo onto the backside of the other. They did this 230 times. Nearly every time, the tadpoles' third eyes were about the same size and shape as the ones on their heads and faced outward. In a significant portion of these tadpoles, the eye connected to the spine through nerves. Then the researchers removed the eyes of the heads of the tadpoles. Then the researchers performed an experiment with two lights, a red and blue. All of the tadpoles were exposed to blue and red light but, with exposure to the red light, the tadpoles would receive a shock. Tadpoles who could see out of their normal eyes learned to avoid the red light. Tadpoles who were blind did not learn to avoid the red light, presumably because they could not see it. However, among the tadpoles who had been blinded but had an eye on their tale that connected to their spine, one in five were able to learn to avoid the red light as well. Presumably, that means that the animal could see. The study could be exciting for manufacturers who want to build, say, more than a glass eye. It also is exciting for robot manufacturers, who could build robots who, if they have a new arm implanted, would not require the use of entirely new software. In addition, for those who are curious, the scientists wondered whether the eyes on the tadpoles' tales would fall off or keep working when they became frogs. In fact, the frogs do have eyes on their butts. The study was published in the Journal of Experimental Biology.	469	ENGLISH	1
In 1921 two guys watched a fabric covered WW I vintage jenny bi-plane flying over the Chesapeake Bay near Langley Field when suddenly the engine started popping and sputtering and then quit altogether. The pilot desperately tried to glide to shore, but just didn’t have the altitude to make it and crashed in the water a short distance from shore. One of the men turned to the other and they decided to row over and pull him out of the water. The pilot was saved by the first ever air-sea rescue (crash) boat. It turns out that the above may not be true. The March, 1916 issue of Pacific Motor Boat has a story about the "U.S. Aviation Corps Fast Hydroplane Pronto". According to the story, "Pronto" was owned by the U.S. Army and used as a tender and ambulance for the aviation school on North Island in San Diego Bay. This 20ft. hydroplane had a top speed of from 35 to 47 mph, according to various sources. To read the one page article, click here. Early in the twentieth century, fast motorboats were being produced in the U.S.. and Europe. An inverted -V design called the "sea sled" seemed very promising and the U.S.. Navy bought between forty and fifty for use as rescue boats before WW I. Variations of the "sea sled" design continued in development or testing through the early 1950s. Development of high speed launches by the navy continued through the 1930s as well as by civilians such as Gar Wood and various rumrunners. The experience with hull shapes and construction techniques would later prove useful for both PT boats and rescue boats in WW II. In the early 1930s the navy discontinued using the term "crash boat" in favor of "aircraft rescue boat" and the army appears to have gone to "air-sea rescue boat". However, by the time of the Korean War the USAF had resumed using the shorter term "crash boat'. The word Crash Boat refers to an armed rescue boat deployed to save air crews who crashed or had to ditch their plane. During WW II the boats were commonly referred to as Air Sea Rescue Boats or Emergency Rescue Boats in as much as those manned by US Army Air Force personnel were organized into Emergency Rescue Boat Squadrons (ERBS). They were officially designated Air Rescue Boats (ARB). However, that abbreviation was known to many as a Battle Damage Repair Ship. By the time of the Korean War the boats were manned by USAF personnel and the terminology for the squadrons had by then changed to Crash Rescue Boat Squadron (CRBS). Emergency Rescue Boat Squadrons 1st ERBS Mediterranean 2nd ERS No boats, OA-10A Catalinas assigned to the 5th Air Force in 7/44 3rd ERS No boats, 12 OA-10A Catalinas assigned to the 5th Air Force 4th ERS No boats, OA-10A Catalinas assigned to the 20th Air Force 5th ERBS European theater, then sent to the Pacific 7/45 6th ERBS Assigned to the 5th Air Force in the Pacific, Okinawa 7th ERBS Transferred from India to Okinawa 8/45 8th ERBS Based in the Mediterranean., apparently overlapping the 1st ERBS 9th ERBS Unknown 10th ERBS Alaska and all the Aleutian Chain, to the Kurilr Islands 11th ERBS Eastern Caribbean. 12th ERBS Western Caribbean, covering all of Panama and surrounding waters of the Pacific, and part of S. America. 13th ERBS Hawaii (previously the 927th Quartermaster Boat Company (AVN) 14th ERBS Assigned to the 5th Air Force, along with the 2nd ERBS in the Pacific 15th ERBS Assigned to the 13th Air Force in the Pacific. 6th CRBS Bermuda during the 1950s. 22nd CRBS Korea, Japan, and the Pacific during the Korean War. The “modern” day crash boat was developed during the battle of Britain in 1939. The American crash boats were a vital part of US military aviation for about twenty-five years but were always the “redheaded stepchild” of both the Army and later the USAF. The helicopter finally rendered them obsolete when it developed the lifting capacity and the reliability required for the job. Crash boat service was not the place to be if you were looking for promotion opportunities during either WW II or Korea. Since they were not part of the core mission of the bases to which they were assigned, they were not of much concern to most base commanders and operated somewhat out of the chain of command. In both the Army Air Force and later the USAF, the way to get promoted was to fly, plain and simple. To a large extent crash boaters were an unsupervised operation and thus unrewarded. One crash boater, to give an example, was stuck as a T/SGT for fourteen years. When he switched to SAC he made Chief Master Sargent very quickly. The skipper of one Korean War crash boat, Bob Frankovich, when asked about the availability of promotions responded, “Nil”. His Korean experience pretty well matches that of my father during WW II. The United States Army Air Force (USAAF or AAF) used boats for rescue work for several years prior to WWII, but these were local efforts by commanders at bases located near water, such as Mitchell, Langley, Hickham, etc. They saw the need to have some kind of vessel available to recover downed aircrew. After the Battle of Britain, well in advance of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the US Army sent a team to Britain to study the experiences of the British rescue boat program and report on Royal Air Force (RAF) methods etc. The team was impressed by the RAF use of high speed launches, manned by RAF crews, to rescue airmen in the water. When the report was sent back to Washington, General Henry H. Arnold, then Chief of the Army Air Corps, immediately requested that the US War Department provide the AAC with a similar water rescue capability at Air Corps bases with over water traffic patterns. Under his personal guidance the air-sea rescue program was initiated, crews trained, equipment procured, and units established. Most senior military and civilian leaders knew that the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans would no longer protect us from international events. Once Japan and Germany conquered their immediate objectives, the U.S.. would be the next target. In order to protect the vital shipping lanes along our east coast and the Caribbean, including the Gulf of Mexico, the U. S. government exchanged mostly obsolete surplus warships for leases to establish military bases at the British territories of Newfoundland, Bermuda, and its Caribbean territories of the Bahamas, St. Lucia, Jamaica, Trinidad, Antigua, and British Guiana. Many of these bases became bases for AAF air sea rescue boats during World War II. In 1941 the AAF was poorly prepared in terms of either experience or equipment to meet its need for rescue operations at sea. Within the limits of its own resources the US Navy readily assumed responsibility in areas of its primary jurisdiction for the rescue of Army as well as Navy fliers, not wanting the AAF to further develop its own rescue capability. In the UK and European Theater in late 1942 there was a formal agreement between the RAF and the US 8th AAF not to duplicate air-sea rescue resources. This agreement for a time also encompassed areas in North Africa, India and Burma. After several high level meetings and conferences with the US Navy and Coast Guard, the Army was authorized to undertake the mission outlined by General Arnold. The Navy did not want the AAF to operate its own crash boats but wanted them to depend on the Navy to rescue crashed AAF pilots. At another time during negotiations the Navy wanted to pass responsibility in U.S.. coastal waters to the Coast Guard. They simply were unable to furnish the coverage, equipment, personnel, and quick response required for air sea rescue over such a large area. As a side note, there have always been inter-service rivalries, but the rivalry between the US Navy and the US Army Air Force was particularly intense, at least among senior officers in Washington, DC. This dates back, at least, to the demonstration (Feb., 1921) arranged by Gen. Billy Mitchell to prove that even battleships could be sunk by aircraft, an idea that the Navy had denied until that time. The Japanese verified it again at Pearl Harbor, although with torpedoes in addition to bombs. Fortunately, the rivalry did not extend to the personnel in the field; the troops on the front lines were more interested in saving each other than their commanders in Washington seemed to be. The AAF wanted the responsibility and assets for recovery of its own pilots. They wanted the shortest line of communication to the boat skipper and did not want to be in the position of having to contact another service, especially the Navy, to rescue AAF pilots at the Navy's “earliest convenience”. The Army Air Corps wanted the service at any air base from which they would be operating, from the arctic to the tropics and in foreign countries if necessary. The US Navy had argued that they were already mobilizing their units for war and the USCG advised that they were willing to assist, but only in areas that they were then operating and supporting. Rescue operations were assigned to the Water Transport Division (ATC) of the Army Quartermaster Corps. Documenting crash boat contributions to the war efforts in both wars is complicated by the fact that boat commanders were to turn over their log books to the base commander where they were assigned and the commander only needed to retain them for a year. So, other than the memories of those who served on them, records of their accomplishments, hardships, and especially the “special ops”, are very limited. In contrast, the navy kept the log books of PT boats, which are of similar size, and today we still have good records of which boats, under who's command, were where and when, in addition to detailed descriptions of their missions. It should be pointed out that the boats were only a part of air-sea rescue operations. Aircraft played an equal, if not greater role. The amphibious PBY, Catalina, or OA-10 as the army referred to them, were the most common. Although dated, some would say obsolete even at the beginning of the war, it remained in production throughout the war. Unfortunately, Vickers of Canada, the producer of the army version, made unauthorized changes that significantly weakened the aft section of the aircraft. When combined with insufficient training of army pilots in water operation, poor maintenance, and a lack of spare parts, the performance of the aircraft was significantly degraded. European, Mediterranean, and CBI Theaters The British had primary responsibility for rescue operations in European, Mediterranean, and CBI (China, Burma, and India) Theaters of Operations although the AAF did have some relatively minor role. By 1943 an American presence in the Mediterranean was built around a few OA-10s but operated under the control of the RAF and supported the invasion of Sicily and operations out of northern Africa. The 1st ERBS, commanded by Lt. Col. Littlejohn Perdue was a composite Group (boats and planes) and was in theater in late 1943 or early 1944. It remained in theater and active throughout the Mediterranean until the end of the war. The 8th ERBS was based in the Mediterranean Sea and conducted operations from North Africa to Italy. Missions included clandestine operations across the Adriatic Sea in the area of German occupied Yugoslavia. Further operations included laying smoke on invasion beaches in support of allied operations. In the CBI theater I have information on only two 63 ft. boats, the P-563 and P-564 which were used by the OSS to run several "special operations" for the OSS Maritime Unit. They inserted OSS combat divers who sank Japanes cargo ships, among other things. Early on, the Pacific Theater of Operations was primarily a Navy operation, although the Army had primary responsibility for the Southwest Pacific, operationg out of Australia with Navy support. The Navy and Marines were responsible for most combat operations and turned the captured islands over to the Army after they were more or less secured. Often an entire island was not secured, but just enough of it to provide space for an airfield. Initially most aircraft flights were off carriers or Marine air fields on the islands. However, the AAF did play a significant role in the Pacific as the war progressed, but because of the large expanses of water and the long distances between crash boat bases, it was not always practical to use crash boats. Delivering the large boats to overseas units proved a difficult problem. To save the wear and tear of a long, rough voyage under their own power, they were shipped as deck cargo on larger vessels. Such passage was not always easy to arrange, for there was a constant shortage of deck space, and some overseas ports lacked the cranes necessary for handling such heavy loads. One of the challenges of organization in the Pacific was that the bases were continually moving as we advanced toward Japan. In Europe the bases pretty much stayed put, which made organization not easy, but easier. In the end, there were more rescues in the Pacific than in Europe since most flights were over water for extended periods. The 5th and 13th Army Air Forces were active in the Southwest Pacific, from Guadalcanal, New Guinea, the Celebes, Borneo, and up to The Philippines and operated crash boats throughout the area, saving many air crews. During the first year of the war there were no AAF rescue operations in the Southwest and Central Pacific, although the Navy was rescuing flyers during that time. In early 1943 the Fifth Air Force Emergency Rescue Service was established on New Guinea in the Southwest Pacific. When Major John Small, Jr., arrived in theater in late 1942, there was no rescue organization but widespread interest in its benefits. With one assistant he began to direct search and rescue operations with whatever resources he could borrow from the RAF for about six months until he received either two or four (sources conflict) OA-10s. By April of 1944 his cobbled together group had completed 455 rescues. In July of 1944 the 2nd ERBS & 14th ERBS arrived in theater, assigned to the Fifth Air Force and within six months had rescued 300 airmen. Shortly after that the Thirteenth Air Force received its own 15th ERBS. When these units were combined with air crews to form composite groups they became much more effective. Their role increased significantly after the arrival of the B29s in theater with their very long flights to bomb Japan combined with their engine overheating issues. In spite of the competitive nature of inter-service meetings in Washington early in the war, at an operational level it was realized that inter-service cooperation was essential to success of rescue operations in the Pacific Theater. Rescue operations often involved using PBY amphibious aircraft, which had their own shortcomings, in combination with the rescue boats, and “Dumbo” and “Super Dumbo” bombers to search large areas and to drop life rafts or small motor boats to the survivors until they could be picked up by subs or surface ships. Often, crash boats were based near airfields or would be assigned a more distant area to patrol when large numbers of planes would be passing through an area. It was not long after they arrived in theater that commanders also put them to use as fast supply boats for critical parts or equipment, and added special intelligence gathering operations. The care and supplying of the many coast watchers spread throughout the islands was a substantial portion of both crash boat and PT boat duties. Special operations remained a significant part of their role as long as they remained in the Pacific Theater, including the Korean War. Some Korean War vets maintain that over half of their missions were special ops. The AAF exchanged some of its relatively slow (18 knots) 104-foot rescue boats for 63-foot high-speed Navy craft, which Gen. Hap Arnold obtained from Admiral King. The 104s were valuable to the Navy as minesweepers. In late 1944 and 1945 the AAF received more of their own standard 85-foot air sea rescue boats. As the end of the war approached, plans for the invasion of Japan called for new efforts to increase rescue forces and to co-ordinate even more effectively the rescue activities of both the AAF and the Navy. The 5th ERBS was scheduled for re-deployment from ETO to the Pacific. The 6th ERBS was assigned to the Fifth Air Force, which stationed part of the squadron on Okinawa in July. In August two flights of the 7th ERBS were transferred to Okinawa from India, where they had assisted the RAF emergency service for the past few months. On 5 August representatives of AAF Headquarters and of the Fifth, Seventh, Thirteenth, and Twentieth Air Forces conferred at Manila. Agreement was reached for publication, after co-ordination with Admiral Nimitz, of instructions that would standardize all procedures in rescue operations during the coming invasion. My father’s temporary duty in the Pacific was extended specifically so that he could attend as part of the AAF Headquarters delegation. But the next day the first A-bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. The situation had been expected to change dramatically with the invasion of Japan as there would have been AAF planes operating out of bases close to Japan. Japan has many miles of coastline and it was anticipated that many damaged planes would ditch not far off the coastline where crash boats could be most effective. Japan was expected to be heavily defended and losses in personnel and aircraft were expected to be extremely high. Radio communication seems to have been a major issue, especially in the Pacific Theater, with some boats having no radios, and both aircraft and boats operating on multiple, but different frequencies. This resulted in messages having to be relayed through multiple commands when time was of the essence. At the end of WWII, Lt. Gen. Hoyt Vandenberg, Asst. Chief of Air Staff for Operations, declared all boats over 45’ to be “excess” and that the USCG was to take over all open ocean rescues. The USGC got much of the army fleet but the navy acquired fifteen of the AAF 85' crash boats as well as eighty-seven of the 104s. Yet five years later, the USAF was scrambling to get their hands on all the 63 and 85 footers they could get for use in Korea. In late 1945 the air sea rescue operations were renamed to the Air Rescue Service (ARS). Their Headquarters was moved three times in the first seven months of 1946. This was a period of turmoil for the service as the military shrank and the role of the service was questioned. In December of 1946 Col Richard T. Knight took over command of ARS and was tasked with either building it up or shutting it down. Fortunately he became a strong supporter and pushed for expansion of the service and its budget. In spite of the declaration that boats over 45 ft. were excess, the boats remained in the ARS until the fall 1956, although the focus was definitely on helicopters. The last crash boats, 46 footers, built for the USAF were built by Simms Brothers of Dorchester, MA in August of 1956. The Navy continued to use crash boats in a variety of roles before decommissioning the last of them in the late 1960s or early 1970s. Boats Transferred to U.S. Coast Guard During the latter part of World War II and continuing after the war, The USCG received boats from both the USN and the AAF. These boats were deployed around the coasts of the US and consisted primarily of 63 foot, model 314 and 416, boats. However, there were a few boats of other models in the mix. During the war the USCG received new boats pulled from USN and AAF production by the Navy, who then assigned “C” numbers and assigned the boats to the USCG. If a boat was pulled from a production run of boats originally intended for the Navy, they kept their USN hull number. The model 416 boats, which was the dedicated AAF design, lost their “P” or “Q” number and were assigned a USN number starting “C-77***” which had no relation to its previous number. British authors Dave Linley and Terry Holtham researched the 63 ft. crash boats extensively for their book Crash Boats. Their research indicates that boats were transferred from the Navy to the Coast Guard in late 1944. During this period the boats were renumbered using a then new USCG numbering system. The number started with CG (Coast Guard), then two numbers indicating the length of the boat. The third number was a design number and the boats transferred from the USN or AAF were generally designated by a “0” and the last two numbers served as the identification number for a specific hull. Other boats designed by outside sources used numbers one and two in the third position. Numbers 3 and higher were reserved for Coast Guard designed vessels. Various sources differ as to the number of boats transferred to the USCG but most are in the range of CG-63018 through CG-63105, which indicates the USCG received 88 boats but I consider that as only an estimate. Depending on its history, a single hull transferred to the Coast Guard could have four different numbers identifying it during its military service which made errors very possible. Assignment to a 63ft crash boat was considered “preferred duty” and only given to experienced seamen, generally those who had completed a tour of duty outside of U.S. waters. Typically they were skippered by an ensign plus four seamen, three engineers, a radio operator and a pharmacist. Coast Guard 63s generally had some unique equipment not found on the Army and Navy crash boats. They were often equipped with wet suits, asbestos firefighting suits, blood plasma, very basic diving gear, and oxygen tanks. Rescue boats did not remain in Coast Guard service very long. Most were retired by the end of 1947 as the Hall-Scott engines were considered “gas hogs” after the war. Due to the much smaller Coast Guard budgets, many of the boats were given to the Sea Scouts. USAF Era Starts Upon the formation of the US Air Force in 1947 most Army Air Force assets were transferred into the new service, which included the AAF Marine Rescue Craft along with many others. Once all the assets had been transferred, they were cataloged by the USAF. Technical Order No. 19-85-16 was issued entitled “Re-designation & Identification Survey of all Air Force Marine Equipment”. This T.O. allocated new hull numbers to all USAF craft which identified them by role and type. The purpose was re-designating all Air Force marine equipment in an orderly manner in order to provide for better identification and standardization. Basically, the re-designation system established an alphabetical designator: “A” for airborne rescue equipment, “R” for waterborne rescue equipment, and “U” for utility boat equipment. This was followed by a numerical designator which was assigned to each specific design. The numerical designator was followed by an assigned serial number - the number was in effect the new USAF hull number and had no relation to the original hull number. As an example: R-2-699, the “R” is for water Rescue equipment, “2” for the type designator for 63 ft. boats and “699” the new serial or hull number. The USAF placed some importance to rescue equipment as they were the first types listed in the plan. Thus all airborne lifeboats (typically dropped by B24s or B29s) were listed under the group A-1 with following serial numbers from 1 through to 650. A1 type Airborne Lifeboats laid up at Clark Field, Philippines in 1946 Referring to the above photo, the airborne lifeboat at Clark Field with number 419 became USAF A-1-419. In the plan the old AAF serial number was simply appended after the role and type designators – and went from A-1-3 up to A-1-449. The block A-1-501 through A-1-650 was not used. The next craft listed were the 85 ft. rescue boats under USAF R-1-652 through to R-1-687. The 63 ft. boats were R-2-688 through to R-2-733. Mk2 series boats were the WW II design 63 footers built in 1953-54 and were marked R-37 while the updated design Mk3 and Mk4 also built in 1953-54 wore R-37A. Later all 63 ft. boats were re-designated R-63. The End of an Era In the fall of 1956 when Rescue Boat Flights ( USAF term for squadrons) closed, a relatively few boats were transferred to special units and the rest surplused. Among the special units were Navy torpedo retrievers for recovery of practice and experimental torpedoes. The USAF retained a few boats as missile retrievers. By the early 1970s virtually all of these boats were out of military servic When MacDill closed its CRB Flight the boats were disbursed to other Florida bases and Panama. The Army Corps of Engineers got many R-37A boats (63 footers). Many of the older P-boats would eventually end up in the Sea Scout Program and became their property. The Sea Scouts and their sponsoring organization became responsible for the operation and maintenance of these vessels in sea worthy condition. Eventually, due to the increased maintenance that comes with age, and the fact that a 63' boat is a lot of boat for a group of teenagers, the boats were retired, one way or another. Some were converted to yachts, fishing boats, work boats and ferries while others were simply abandoned. Movies & TV I get occasional questions about rescue boats in motion pictures and TV shows. To the best of my knowledge there has never been a theatrical movie or TV show made about air sea rescue boats. However, there have been a few productions where crash boats were “dressed” to represent PT boats. Most of these productions were done in the early to mid-1960s and by that time PT boats were almost impossible to find. Most PT boats were overseas during WWII and not returned to the US at the end of the war. The navy did not “mothball” any wooden boats. Most of those in the Pacific were amassed at Samar Bay in the Philippines and burned. There is more detail elsewhere on this site. A relatively few that were stateside at the end of the war were sold as surplus and did survive for a time. They Were Expendable, filmed in 1945, was a film that received extensive support from the Navy Department, was shot on location in Key Biscayne, Florida and the Florida Keys. This region most closely approximated the South West Pacific Theater. Actual U.S. Navy 80-foot Elco PT boats were used throughout the filming, all be it remarked with hull numbers that would have been in use in late 1941 and early 1942. Because the movie was shot so close to the end of WWII there were still PT boats available and no rescue boats were used in making of the movie. Additional U.S. naval aircraft from nearby naval air stations in Miami, Fort Lauderdale and Key West were temporarily remarked and were used to simulate Japanese aircraft in the film. Certainly, the most famous movie was PT109, the film of President Kennedy’s disaster while skippering a PT boat in the Pacific. Warner Bros, the producers of the movie used 85 ft. crash boats to represent the 80 ft. Elco PT boats in the movie. This movie was heavily controlled by the Kennedy family and thus portrayed the president in a very positive manner, in spite of his boat being the only PT boat bisected by a Japanese ship during the war. I am still researching to determine how many crash boats were used in the movie but think it was less than five. The most I noticed in a single shot was three. There is very little documentation on the rescue boats used but they were probably located along the Florida and Alabama coats. Much of the movie was filmed at Little Palm Island (formerly Little Munson Island), now a resort in the Florida Keys. Power and fresh water were run out to the island for the film, allowing the resort to be built years later. When the set was being built for the film, it sparked rumors that another U.S. invasion of Cuba was in the works. Boats in the movie are painted standard AAF grey although the actual PT boats were painted a green camo. The 85 was very similar to the 80 ft Elco and was thus fairly easy to modify to closely resemble the Elcos. McHale’s Navy was a comic TV show that ran from1962 through 1966 that was filmed in B&W and portrayed a mythical PT boat base in the Pacific during WWII. Three boats were used to represent the PT73 in the show. One actual PT boat was for underway shots at sea and two 63-ft World War II Army Air Force Sea Rescue boats were reconfigured to resemble a PT boat were used for some of the static shots. The PT-73 was actually a 71-foot type II Vosper MTB (motor torpedo boat), a British design built in the U.S. for export to the Soviet Union. The boat was sold to the studio where they did a remodel, reconfiguring the Vosper 694 and the two air sea rescue boats (numbers unknown thus far) to resemble a World War II-era PT boat. The movies McHale’s Navy (1964) and McHale’s Navy Joins the Air Force (1967) probably used the TV boats for the first move but I have not seen the second movie and have not found any information on any boats used in its making. Sea Hunt was an adventure type TV series that ran from 1958 through 1961. The hero was Mike Nelson, played by Lloyd Bridges. Crash boat C-18368 was used for many episodes but was replace by a 33ft boat late in the series. Hawaii Five-O was a TV series that ran from 1968 through 1980 and, of course, was set in Hawaii. It was a police series starring Jack Lord as Steve McGarrett and James McArthur as Danny Williams. At the end of the show Steve often turned to Danny and said the most memorable line from the show, "Lock'em up Danno". The series ended when they finally captured the chief of the bad guys, Wo Fat, who lived on a luxury boat, which was actually the 63ft rescue boat C-18368. In 2002 she sank in Honolulu.	<urn:uuid:0bc60513-93ac-4bd1-9204-3c2ebddf7347>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://uscrashboats.org/cpage.php?pt=19	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00415.warc.gz	en	0.986195	6,446	3.546875	4	[ -0.36342471837997437, 0.20522835850715637, -0.0002617095597088337, -0.5160102844238281, -0.2796309292316437, 0.23616264760494232, -0.18116605281829834, 0.46923959255218506, -0.23400750756263733, -0.09104207903146744, 0.05828613042831421, 0.09815219044685364, 0.015199899673461914, 0.2530423...	1	In 1921 two guys watched a fabric covered WW I vintage jenny bi-plane flying over the Chesapeake Bay near Langley Field when suddenly the engine started popping and sputtering and then quit altogether. The pilot desperately tried to glide to shore, but just didn’t have the altitude to make it and crashed in the water a short distance from shore. One of the men turned to the other and they decided to row over and pull him out of the water. The pilot was saved by the first ever air-sea rescue (crash) boat. It turns out that the above may not be true. The March, 1916 issue of Pacific Motor Boat has a story about the "U.S. Aviation Corps Fast Hydroplane Pronto". According to the story, "Pronto" was owned by the U.S. Army and used as a tender and ambulance for the aviation school on North Island in San Diego Bay. This 20ft. hydroplane had a top speed of from 35 to 47 mph, according to various sources. To read the one page article, click here. Early in the twentieth century, fast motorboats were being produced in the U.S.. and Europe. An inverted -V design called the "sea sled" seemed very promising and the U.S.. Navy bought between forty and fifty for use as rescue boats before WW I. Variations of the "sea sled" design continued in development or testing through the early 1950s. Development of high speed launches by the navy continued through the 1930s as well as by civilians such as Gar Wood and various rumrunners. The experience with hull shapes and construction techniques would later prove useful for both PT boats and rescue boats in WW II. In the early 1930s the navy discontinued using the term "crash boat" in favor of "aircraft rescue boat" and the army appears to have gone to "air-sea rescue boat". However, by the time of the Korean War the USAF had resumed using the shorter term "crash boat'. The word Crash Boat refers to an armed rescue boat deployed to save air crews who crashed or had to ditch their plane. During WW II the boats were commonly referred to as Air Sea Rescue Boats or Emergency Rescue Boats in as much as those manned by US Army Air Force personnel were organized into Emergency Rescue Boat Squadrons (ERBS). They were officially designated Air Rescue Boats (ARB). However, that abbreviation was known to many as a Battle Damage Repair Ship. By the time of the Korean War the boats were manned by USAF personnel and the terminology for the squadrons had by then changed to Crash Rescue Boat Squadron (CRBS). Emergency Rescue Boat Squadrons 1st ERBS Mediterranean 2nd ERS No boats, OA-10A Catalinas assigned to the 5th Air Force in 7/44 3rd ERS No boats, 12 OA-10A Catalinas assigned to the 5th Air Force 4th ERS No boats, OA-10A Catalinas assigned to the 20th Air Force 5th ERBS European theater, then sent to the Pacific 7/45 6th ERBS Assigned to the 5th Air Force in the Pacific, Okinawa 7th ERBS Transferred from India to Okinawa 8/45 8th ERBS Based in the Mediterranean., apparently overlapping the 1st ERBS 9th ERBS Unknown 10th ERBS Alaska and all the Aleutian Chain, to the Kurilr Islands 11th ERBS Eastern Caribbean. 12th ERBS Western Caribbean, covering all of Panama and surrounding waters of the Pacific, and part of S. America. 13th ERBS Hawaii (previously the 927th Quartermaster Boat Company (AVN) 14th ERBS Assigned to the 5th Air Force, along with the 2nd ERBS in the Pacific 15th ERBS Assigned to the 13th Air Force in the Pacific. 6th CRBS Bermuda during the 1950s. 22nd CRBS Korea, Japan, and the Pacific during the Korean War. The “modern” day crash boat was developed during the battle of Britain in 1939. The American crash boats were a vital part of US military aviation for about twenty-five years but were always the “redheaded stepchild” of both the Army and later the USAF. The helicopter finally rendered them obsolete when it developed the lifting capacity and the reliability required for the job. Crash boat service was not the place to be if you were looking for promotion opportunities during either WW II or Korea. Since they were not part of the core mission of the bases to which they were assigned, they were not of much concern to most base commanders and operated somewhat out of the chain of command. In both the Army Air Force and later the USAF, the way to get promoted was to fly, plain and simple. To a large extent crash boaters were an unsupervised operation and thus unrewarded. One crash boater, to give an example, was stuck as a T/SGT for fourteen years. When he switched to SAC he made Chief Master Sargent very quickly. The skipper of one Korean War crash boat, Bob Frankovich, when asked about the availability of promotions responded, “Nil”. His Korean experience pretty well matches that of my father during WW II. The United States Army Air Force (USAAF or AAF) used boats for rescue work for several years prior to WWII, but these were local efforts by commanders at bases located near water, such as Mitchell, Langley, Hickham, etc. They saw the need to have some kind of vessel available to recover downed aircrew. After the Battle of Britain, well in advance of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the US Army sent a team to Britain to study the experiences of the British rescue boat program and report on Royal Air Force (RAF) methods etc. The team was impressed by the RAF use of high speed launches, manned by RAF crews, to rescue airmen in the water. When the report was sent back to Washington, General Henry H. Arnold, then Chief of the Army Air Corps, immediately requested that the US War Department provide the AAC with a similar water rescue capability at Air Corps bases with over water traffic patterns. Under his personal guidance the air-sea rescue program was initiated, crews trained, equipment procured, and units established. Most senior military and civilian leaders knew that the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans would no longer protect us from international events. Once Japan and Germany conquered their immediate objectives, the U.S.. would be the next target. In order to protect the vital shipping lanes along our east coast and the Caribbean, including the Gulf of Mexico, the U. S. government exchanged mostly obsolete surplus warships for leases to establish military bases at the British territories of Newfoundland, Bermuda, and its Caribbean territories of the Bahamas, St. Lucia, Jamaica, Trinidad, Antigua, and British Guiana. Many of these bases became bases for AAF air sea rescue boats during World War II. In 1941 the AAF was poorly prepared in terms of either experience or equipment to meet its need for rescue operations at sea. Within the limits of its own resources the US Navy readily assumed responsibility in areas of its primary jurisdiction for the rescue of Army as well as Navy fliers, not wanting the AAF to further develop its own rescue capability. In the UK and European Theater in late 1942 there was a formal agreement between the RAF and the US 8th AAF not to duplicate air-sea rescue resources. This agreement for a time also encompassed areas in North Africa, India and Burma. After several high level meetings and conferences with the US Navy and Coast Guard, the Army was authorized to undertake the mission outlined by General Arnold. The Navy did not want the AAF to operate its own crash boats but wanted them to depend on the Navy to rescue crashed AAF pilots. At another time during negotiations the Navy wanted to pass responsibility in U.S.. coastal waters to the Coast Guard. They simply were unable to furnish the coverage, equipment, personnel, and quick response required for air sea rescue over such a large area. As a side note, there have always been inter-service rivalries, but the rivalry between the US Navy and the US Army Air Force was particularly intense, at least among senior officers in Washington, DC. This dates back, at least, to the demonstration (Feb., 1921) arranged by Gen. Billy Mitchell to prove that even battleships could be sunk by aircraft, an idea that the Navy had denied until that time. The Japanese verified it again at Pearl Harbor, although with torpedoes in addition to bombs. Fortunately, the rivalry did not extend to the personnel in the field; the troops on the front lines were more interested in saving each other than their commanders in Washington seemed to be. The AAF wanted the responsibility and assets for recovery of its own pilots. They wanted the shortest line of communication to the boat skipper and did not want to be in the position of having to contact another service, especially the Navy, to rescue AAF pilots at the Navy's “earliest convenience”. The Army Air Corps wanted the service at any air base from which they would be operating, from the arctic to the tropics and in foreign countries if necessary. The US Navy had argued that they were already mobilizing their units for war and the USCG advised that they were willing to assist, but only in areas that they were then operating and supporting. Rescue operations were assigned to the Water Transport Division (ATC) of the Army Quartermaster Corps. Documenting crash boat contributions to the war efforts in both wars is complicated by the fact that boat commanders were to turn over their log books to the base commander where they were assigned and the commander only needed to retain them for a year. So, other than the memories of those who served on them, records of their accomplishments, hardships, and especially the “special ops”, are very limited. In contrast, the navy kept the log books of PT boats, which are of similar size, and today we still have good records of which boats, under who's command, were where and when, in addition to detailed descriptions of their missions. It should be pointed out that the boats were only a part of air-sea rescue operations. Aircraft played an equal, if not greater role. The amphibious PBY, Catalina, or OA-10 as the army referred to them, were the most common. Although dated, some would say obsolete even at the beginning of the war, it remained in production throughout the war. Unfortunately, Vickers of Canada, the producer of the army version, made unauthorized changes that significantly weakened the aft section of the aircraft. When combined with insufficient training of army pilots in water operation, poor maintenance, and a lack of spare parts, the performance of the aircraft was significantly degraded. European, Mediterranean, and CBI Theaters The British had primary responsibility for rescue operations in European, Mediterranean, and CBI (China, Burma, and India) Theaters of Operations although the AAF did have some relatively minor role. By 1943 an American presence in the Mediterranean was built around a few OA-10s but operated under the control of the RAF and supported the invasion of Sicily and operations out of northern Africa. The 1st ERBS, commanded by Lt. Col. Littlejohn Perdue was a composite Group (boats and planes) and was in theater in late 1943 or early 1944. It remained in theater and active throughout the Mediterranean until the end of the war. The 8th ERBS was based in the Mediterranean Sea and conducted operations from North Africa to Italy. Missions included clandestine operations across the Adriatic Sea in the area of German occupied Yugoslavia. Further operations included laying smoke on invasion beaches in support of allied operations. In the CBI theater I have information on only two 63 ft. boats, the P-563 and P-564 which were used by the OSS to run several "special operations" for the OSS Maritime Unit. They inserted OSS combat divers who sank Japanes cargo ships, among other things. Early on, the Pacific Theater of Operations was primarily a Navy operation, although the Army had primary responsibility for the Southwest Pacific, operationg out of Australia with Navy support. The Navy and Marines were responsible for most combat operations and turned the captured islands over to the Army after they were more or less secured. Often an entire island was not secured, but just enough of it to provide space for an airfield. Initially most aircraft flights were off carriers or Marine air fields on the islands. However, the AAF did play a significant role in the Pacific as the war progressed, but because of the large expanses of water and the long distances between crash boat bases, it was not always practical to use crash boats. Delivering the large boats to overseas units proved a difficult problem. To save the wear and tear of a long, rough voyage under their own power, they were shipped as deck cargo on larger vessels. Such passage was not always easy to arrange, for there was a constant shortage of deck space, and some overseas ports lacked the cranes necessary for handling such heavy loads. One of the challenges of organization in the Pacific was that the bases were continually moving as we advanced toward Japan. In Europe the bases pretty much stayed put, which made organization not easy, but easier. In the end, there were more rescues in the Pacific than in Europe since most flights were over water for extended periods. The 5th and 13th Army Air Forces were active in the Southwest Pacific, from Guadalcanal, New Guinea, the Celebes, Borneo, and up to The Philippines and operated crash boats throughout the area, saving many air crews. During the first year of the war there were no AAF rescue operations in the Southwest and Central Pacific, although the Navy was rescuing flyers during that time. In early 1943 the Fifth Air Force Emergency Rescue Service was established on New Guinea in the Southwest Pacific. When Major John Small, Jr., arrived in theater in late 1942, there was no rescue organization but widespread interest in its benefits. With one assistant he began to direct search and rescue operations with whatever resources he could borrow from the RAF for about six months until he received either two or four (sources conflict) OA-10s. By April of 1944 his cobbled together group had completed 455 rescues. In July of 1944 the 2nd ERBS & 14th ERBS arrived in theater, assigned to the Fifth Air Force and within six months had rescued 300 airmen. Shortly after that the Thirteenth Air Force received its own 15th ERBS. When these units were combined with air crews to form composite groups they became much more effective. Their role increased significantly after the arrival of the B29s in theater with their very long flights to bomb Japan combined with their engine overheating issues. In spite of the competitive nature of inter-service meetings in Washington early in the war, at an operational level it was realized that inter-service cooperation was essential to success of rescue operations in the Pacific Theater. Rescue operations often involved using PBY amphibious aircraft, which had their own shortcomings, in combination with the rescue boats, and “Dumbo” and “Super Dumbo” bombers to search large areas and to drop life rafts or small motor boats to the survivors until they could be picked up by subs or surface ships. Often, crash boats were based near airfields or would be assigned a more distant area to patrol when large numbers of planes would be passing through an area. It was not long after they arrived in theater that commanders also put them to use as fast supply boats for critical parts or equipment, and added special intelligence gathering operations. The care and supplying of the many coast watchers spread throughout the islands was a substantial portion of both crash boat and PT boat duties. Special operations remained a significant part of their role as long as they remained in the Pacific Theater, including the Korean War. Some Korean War vets maintain that over half of their missions were special ops. The AAF exchanged some of its relatively slow (18 knots) 104-foot rescue boats for 63-foot high-speed Navy craft, which Gen. Hap Arnold obtained from Admiral King. The 104s were valuable to the Navy as minesweepers. In late 1944 and 1945 the AAF received more of their own standard 85-foot air sea rescue boats. As the end of the war approached, plans for the invasion of Japan called for new efforts to increase rescue forces and to co-ordinate even more effectively the rescue activities of both the AAF and the Navy. The 5th ERBS was scheduled for re-deployment from ETO to the Pacific. The 6th ERBS was assigned to the Fifth Air Force, which stationed part of the squadron on Okinawa in July. In August two flights of the 7th ERBS were transferred to Okinawa from India, where they had assisted the RAF emergency service for the past few months. On 5 August representatives of AAF Headquarters and of the Fifth, Seventh, Thirteenth, and Twentieth Air Forces conferred at Manila. Agreement was reached for publication, after co-ordination with Admiral Nimitz, of instructions that would standardize all procedures in rescue operations during the coming invasion. My father’s temporary duty in the Pacific was extended specifically so that he could attend as part of the AAF Headquarters delegation. But the next day the first A-bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. The situation had been expected to change dramatically with the invasion of Japan as there would have been AAF planes operating out of bases close to Japan. Japan has many miles of coastline and it was anticipated that many damaged planes would ditch not far off the coastline where crash boats could be most effective. Japan was expected to be heavily defended and losses in personnel and aircraft were expected to be extremely high. Radio communication seems to have been a major issue, especially in the Pacific Theater, with some boats having no radios, and both aircraft and boats operating on multiple, but different frequencies. This resulted in messages having to be relayed through multiple commands when time was of the essence. At the end of WWII, Lt. Gen. Hoyt Vandenberg, Asst. Chief of Air Staff for Operations, declared all boats over 45’ to be “excess” and that the USCG was to take over all open ocean rescues. The USGC got much of the army fleet but the navy acquired fifteen of the AAF 85' crash boats as well as eighty-seven of the 104s. Yet five years later, the USAF was scrambling to get their hands on all the 63 and 85 footers they could get for use in Korea. In late 1945 the air sea rescue operations were renamed to the Air Rescue Service (ARS). Their Headquarters was moved three times in the first seven months of 1946. This was a period of turmoil for the service as the military shrank and the role of the service was questioned. In December of 1946 Col Richard T. Knight took over command of ARS and was tasked with either building it up or shutting it down. Fortunately he became a strong supporter and pushed for expansion of the service and its budget. In spite of the declaration that boats over 45 ft. were excess, the boats remained in the ARS until the fall 1956, although the focus was definitely on helicopters. The last crash boats, 46 footers, built for the USAF were built by Simms Brothers of Dorchester, MA in August of 1956. The Navy continued to use crash boats in a variety of roles before decommissioning the last of them in the late 1960s or early 1970s. Boats Transferred to U.S. Coast Guard During the latter part of World War II and continuing after the war, The USCG received boats from both the USN and the AAF. These boats were deployed around the coasts of the US and consisted primarily of 63 foot, model 314 and 416, boats. However, there were a few boats of other models in the mix. During the war the USCG received new boats pulled from USN and AAF production by the Navy, who then assigned “C” numbers and assigned the boats to the USCG. If a boat was pulled from a production run of boats originally intended for the Navy, they kept their USN hull number. The model 416 boats, which was the dedicated AAF design, lost their “P” or “Q” number and were assigned a USN number starting “C-77***” which had no relation to its previous number. British authors Dave Linley and Terry Holtham researched the 63 ft. crash boats extensively for their book Crash Boats. Their research indicates that boats were transferred from the Navy to the Coast Guard in late 1944. During this period the boats were renumbered using a then new USCG numbering system. The number started with CG (Coast Guard), then two numbers indicating the length of the boat. The third number was a design number and the boats transferred from the USN or AAF were generally designated by a “0” and the last two numbers served as the identification number for a specific hull. Other boats designed by outside sources used numbers one and two in the third position. Numbers 3 and higher were reserved for Coast Guard designed vessels. Various sources differ as to the number of boats transferred to the USCG but most are in the range of CG-63018 through CG-63105, which indicates the USCG received 88 boats but I consider that as only an estimate. Depending on its history, a single hull transferred to the Coast Guard could have four different numbers identifying it during its military service which made errors very possible. Assignment to a 63ft crash boat was considered “preferred duty” and only given to experienced seamen, generally those who had completed a tour of duty outside of U.S. waters. Typically they were skippered by an ensign plus four seamen, three engineers, a radio operator and a pharmacist. Coast Guard 63s generally had some unique equipment not found on the Army and Navy crash boats. They were often equipped with wet suits, asbestos firefighting suits, blood plasma, very basic diving gear, and oxygen tanks. Rescue boats did not remain in Coast Guard service very long. Most were retired by the end of 1947 as the Hall-Scott engines were considered “gas hogs” after the war. Due to the much smaller Coast Guard budgets, many of the boats were given to the Sea Scouts. USAF Era Starts Upon the formation of the US Air Force in 1947 most Army Air Force assets were transferred into the new service, which included the AAF Marine Rescue Craft along with many others. Once all the assets had been transferred, they were cataloged by the USAF. Technical Order No. 19-85-16 was issued entitled “Re-designation & Identification Survey of all Air Force Marine Equipment”. This T.O. allocated new hull numbers to all USAF craft which identified them by role and type. The purpose was re-designating all Air Force marine equipment in an orderly manner in order to provide for better identification and standardization. Basically, the re-designation system established an alphabetical designator: “A” for airborne rescue equipment, “R” for waterborne rescue equipment, and “U” for utility boat equipment. This was followed by a numerical designator which was assigned to each specific design. The numerical designator was followed by an assigned serial number - the number was in effect the new USAF hull number and had no relation to the original hull number. As an example: R-2-699, the “R” is for water Rescue equipment, “2” for the type designator for 63 ft. boats and “699” the new serial or hull number. The USAF placed some importance to rescue equipment as they were the first types listed in the plan. Thus all airborne lifeboats (typically dropped by B24s or B29s) were listed under the group A-1 with following serial numbers from 1 through to 650. A1 type Airborne Lifeboats laid up at Clark Field, Philippines in 1946 Referring to the above photo, the airborne lifeboat at Clark Field with number 419 became USAF A-1-419. In the plan the old AAF serial number was simply appended after the role and type designators – and went from A-1-3 up to A-1-449. The block A-1-501 through A-1-650 was not used. The next craft listed were the 85 ft. rescue boats under USAF R-1-652 through to R-1-687. The 63 ft. boats were R-2-688 through to R-2-733. Mk2 series boats were the WW II design 63 footers built in 1953-54 and were marked R-37 while the updated design Mk3 and Mk4 also built in 1953-54 wore R-37A. Later all 63 ft. boats were re-designated R-63. The End of an Era In the fall of 1956 when Rescue Boat Flights ( USAF term for squadrons) closed, a relatively few boats were transferred to special units and the rest surplused. Among the special units were Navy torpedo retrievers for recovery of practice and experimental torpedoes. The USAF retained a few boats as missile retrievers. By the early 1970s virtually all of these boats were out of military servic When MacDill closed its CRB Flight the boats were disbursed to other Florida bases and Panama. The Army Corps of Engineers got many R-37A boats (63 footers). Many of the older P-boats would eventually end up in the Sea Scout Program and became their property. The Sea Scouts and their sponsoring organization became responsible for the operation and maintenance of these vessels in sea worthy condition. Eventually, due to the increased maintenance that comes with age, and the fact that a 63' boat is a lot of boat for a group of teenagers, the boats were retired, one way or another. Some were converted to yachts, fishing boats, work boats and ferries while others were simply abandoned. Movies & TV I get occasional questions about rescue boats in motion pictures and TV shows. To the best of my knowledge there has never been a theatrical movie or TV show made about air sea rescue boats. However, there have been a few productions where crash boats were “dressed” to represent PT boats. Most of these productions were done in the early to mid-1960s and by that time PT boats were almost impossible to find. Most PT boats were overseas during WWII and not returned to the US at the end of the war. The navy did not “mothball” any wooden boats. Most of those in the Pacific were amassed at Samar Bay in the Philippines and burned. There is more detail elsewhere on this site. A relatively few that were stateside at the end of the war were sold as surplus and did survive for a time. They Were Expendable, filmed in 1945, was a film that received extensive support from the Navy Department, was shot on location in Key Biscayne, Florida and the Florida Keys. This region most closely approximated the South West Pacific Theater. Actual U.S. Navy 80-foot Elco PT boats were used throughout the filming, all be it remarked with hull numbers that would have been in use in late 1941 and early 1942. Because the movie was shot so close to the end of WWII there were still PT boats available and no rescue boats were used in making of the movie. Additional U.S. naval aircraft from nearby naval air stations in Miami, Fort Lauderdale and Key West were temporarily remarked and were used to simulate Japanese aircraft in the film. Certainly, the most famous movie was PT109, the film of President Kennedy’s disaster while skippering a PT boat in the Pacific. Warner Bros, the producers of the movie used 85 ft. crash boats to represent the 80 ft. Elco PT boats in the movie. This movie was heavily controlled by the Kennedy family and thus portrayed the president in a very positive manner, in spite of his boat being the only PT boat bisected by a Japanese ship during the war. I am still researching to determine how many crash boats were used in the movie but think it was less than five. The most I noticed in a single shot was three. There is very little documentation on the rescue boats used but they were probably located along the Florida and Alabama coats. Much of the movie was filmed at Little Palm Island (formerly Little Munson Island), now a resort in the Florida Keys. Power and fresh water were run out to the island for the film, allowing the resort to be built years later. When the set was being built for the film, it sparked rumors that another U.S. invasion of Cuba was in the works. Boats in the movie are painted standard AAF grey although the actual PT boats were painted a green camo. The 85 was very similar to the 80 ft Elco and was thus fairly easy to modify to closely resemble the Elcos. McHale’s Navy was a comic TV show that ran from1962 through 1966 that was filmed in B&W and portrayed a mythical PT boat base in the Pacific during WWII. Three boats were used to represent the PT73 in the show. One actual PT boat was for underway shots at sea and two 63-ft World War II Army Air Force Sea Rescue boats were reconfigured to resemble a PT boat were used for some of the static shots. The PT-73 was actually a 71-foot type II Vosper MTB (motor torpedo boat), a British design built in the U.S. for export to the Soviet Union. The boat was sold to the studio where they did a remodel, reconfiguring the Vosper 694 and the two air sea rescue boats (numbers unknown thus far) to resemble a World War II-era PT boat. The movies McHale’s Navy (1964) and McHale’s Navy Joins the Air Force (1967) probably used the TV boats for the first move but I have not seen the second movie and have not found any information on any boats used in its making. Sea Hunt was an adventure type TV series that ran from 1958 through 1961. The hero was Mike Nelson, played by Lloyd Bridges. Crash boat C-18368 was used for many episodes but was replace by a 33ft boat late in the series. Hawaii Five-O was a TV series that ran from 1968 through 1980 and, of course, was set in Hawaii. It was a police series starring Jack Lord as Steve McGarrett and James McArthur as Danny Williams. At the end of the show Steve often turned to Danny and said the most memorable line from the show, "Lock'em up Danno". The series ended when they finally captured the chief of the bad guys, Wo Fat, who lived on a luxury boat, which was actually the 63ft rescue boat C-18368. In 2002 she sank in Honolulu.	6,688	ENGLISH	1
A Brief History On December 9, 1872, P. B. S. Pinchback became the first ever African American governor of Louisiana, and in fact the first ever African American governor of any US State. Pinchback came to the governorship via the death of the serving Lieutenant Governor, a post to which he ascended from his position as President Pro Tempore of the Louisiana Senate, and then stepping up to the governorship when the elected governor, Henry Clay Warmoth was suspended from that office due to impeachment proceedings. Pinchback served only 34 days as Governor of Louisiana. Born Pinckney Benton Stewart in 1837 in Macon, Georgia, Stewart was the son of a former slave woman, a mulatto named Eliza Stewart, and a White plantation owner, a Major William Pinchback. Major Pinchback had been the owner of Eliza Stewart and had freed the woman in 1836. (Relationships were even more complicated then than they are now!) Although the Major had a “legitimate” White family, he fathered a total of 6 surviving children by Stewart, including little Pinckney. Along with White European and African ethnic heritage, Eliza also was part Native American. Major Pinchback moved both his families to Mississippi, to a larger plantation when PBS was still young. Despite the prejudices and discriminatory laws of the day, and the fact that the children of Eliza were considered “illegitimate,” Stewart raised his mixed race children with similar conditions and educations to his White children. Pinckney and his brother, Napoleon, were sent North to Cincinnati for formal schooling. Upon the death of Major Pinchback, Eliza moved her family to Ohio, a “Free” state, to avoid any claims on the “ownership” of her family by Pinchback’s surviving White relatives. Pinckney worked to help support his family, and by 1860 started a family of his own by marrying a “free” woman of “color.” (Mixed race person.) The family moved to New Orleans, but also maintained a summer home in New York State. In 1862 Pinckney joined the Union Army in New Orleans and helped raise much of the all-black 1st Louisiana Native Guards Regiment. The soldiers he recruited were both freemen and slaves that had escaped or been freed by action during the American Civil War. Pinckney was appointed a Captain in the Union Army, one of the rare men of color to be commissioned as an officer. “Pink” resigned his commission in 1863, disgusted by being passed over for promotion (twice) and the general discrimination he encountered within the Army. After the end of the Civil War Pinckney took the surname “Pinchback” after his father, and moved his family to Alabama, then back to Louisiana where he became active in post-war politics, joining the Republican party. Elected as a State Senator in Louisiana, Pinckney rose to become the President Pro Tempore of the Senate, the position he held when the Lieutenant Governor position became vacant, elevating him to that office. When the Governor was impeached, Pinckney was sworn in as Governor of Louisiana in 1872, the first American person with African heritage to hold such an office. Though he only served a little over a month in that office, his tenure marked a milestone in African American History. (Note: Governor Warmoth was not convicted and resumed his office when the charges against him were dropped.) Political pandemonium had manifested itself into Louisiana politics by 1872, with racial discord and a rising White Nationalism movement disrupting elections and political processes. Pinckney was elected as a US Representative from Louisiana, but wanted to be appointed as a US Senator, ceding his presumed seat in the US House to hold out for the Senate. The rise of White Democrats foiled his plan to become a Senator, and Pinckney encountered increasing opposition from White politicians. Still active in politics despite the hurdles encountered, Pinckney ended his political career as the Customs Surveyor of New Orleans in 1882. Having helped found the Southern University as a Black college, Pinckney began to study the Law at Straight University (later renamed Dillard when it merged with New Orleans University) in New Orleans, gaining admission to the Bar of Louisiana in 1886. He remained active in pursuit of Civil Rights for African Americans, and moved his family to Washington, D.C. in 1892. He became part of the Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson 1896 that established “separate but equal” schooling for Blacks and Whites was within the bounds of the Constitution. Along the way, Pinckney also served as a US Marshall for a while. PBS Pinchback had made a decent living for himself and his family, ascending into the upper crust of the mixed race society of his day. Pinchback died at the age of 84 in 1921, by then no longer a well known political name. The legacy of PBS Pinckney was somewhat muted by the fact that it took over a century for another African American to get elected (1989) and be sworn in (1990) as Governor of a state, in this case Governor Douglas Wilder of Virginia, the first African American elected to a governorship. The only other African American Governor of a US state was Governor David Paterson of New York, who ascended to that office as the sitting Lieutenant Governor when the serving Governor Eliot Spitzer resigned the office. While PBS Pinchback may not receive the historical notice of some other African American figures, he deserves to be remembered and honored for his considerable contributions to American society. Question for students (and subscribers): What US state will be the next to elect an African American governor? Please let us know in the comments section below this article. Your readership is much appreciated! For more information, please see… King, Kendra. African American Politics. Polity Press, 2010. Marsh, Carole. P.B.S. Pinchback: First African American Governor. Gallopade, 2005. Stewart, Jeffrey. 1001 Things Everyone Should Know About African American History. Three Rivers Press, 1898. The featured image in this article, a photograph by Infrogmation of New Orleans of the Tomb of Governor P.B.S. Pinchback, Metairie Cemetery, New Orleans, is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.	<urn:uuid:eb6500d9-6bbc-4d95-b1eb-00961a26959f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyandheadlines.com/who-was-the-first-african-american-governor-of-a-us-state/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00369.warc.gz	en	0.981025	1,344	4.03125	4	[ -0.15597397089004517, 0.21847662329673767, 0.35640794038772583, 0.17726922035217285, -0.07519248127937317, -0.10582611709833145, 0.22231779992580414, -0.20904125273227692, 0.17183667421340942, -0.14976561069488525, 0.14458300173282623, 0.10452064871788025, -0.020203400403261185, 0.17447274...	3	A Brief History On December 9, 1872, P. B. S. Pinchback became the first ever African American governor of Louisiana, and in fact the first ever African American governor of any US State. Pinchback came to the governorship via the death of the serving Lieutenant Governor, a post to which he ascended from his position as President Pro Tempore of the Louisiana Senate, and then stepping up to the governorship when the elected governor, Henry Clay Warmoth was suspended from that office due to impeachment proceedings. Pinchback served only 34 days as Governor of Louisiana. Born Pinckney Benton Stewart in 1837 in Macon, Georgia, Stewart was the son of a former slave woman, a mulatto named Eliza Stewart, and a White plantation owner, a Major William Pinchback. Major Pinchback had been the owner of Eliza Stewart and had freed the woman in 1836. (Relationships were even more complicated then than they are now!) Although the Major had a “legitimate” White family, he fathered a total of 6 surviving children by Stewart, including little Pinckney. Along with White European and African ethnic heritage, Eliza also was part Native American. Major Pinchback moved both his families to Mississippi, to a larger plantation when PBS was still young. Despite the prejudices and discriminatory laws of the day, and the fact that the children of Eliza were considered “illegitimate,” Stewart raised his mixed race children with similar conditions and educations to his White children. Pinckney and his brother, Napoleon, were sent North to Cincinnati for formal schooling. Upon the death of Major Pinchback, Eliza moved her family to Ohio, a “Free” state, to avoid any claims on the “ownership” of her family by Pinchback’s surviving White relatives. Pinckney worked to help support his family, and by 1860 started a family of his own by marrying a “free” woman of “color.” (Mixed race person.) The family moved to New Orleans, but also maintained a summer home in New York State. In 1862 Pinckney joined the Union Army in New Orleans and helped raise much of the all-black 1st Louisiana Native Guards Regiment. The soldiers he recruited were both freemen and slaves that had escaped or been freed by action during the American Civil War. Pinckney was appointed a Captain in the Union Army, one of the rare men of color to be commissioned as an officer. “Pink” resigned his commission in 1863, disgusted by being passed over for promotion (twice) and the general discrimination he encountered within the Army. After the end of the Civil War Pinckney took the surname “Pinchback” after his father, and moved his family to Alabama, then back to Louisiana where he became active in post-war politics, joining the Republican party. Elected as a State Senator in Louisiana, Pinckney rose to become the President Pro Tempore of the Senate, the position he held when the Lieutenant Governor position became vacant, elevating him to that office. When the Governor was impeached, Pinckney was sworn in as Governor of Louisiana in 1872, the first American person with African heritage to hold such an office. Though he only served a little over a month in that office, his tenure marked a milestone in African American History. (Note: Governor Warmoth was not convicted and resumed his office when the charges against him were dropped.) Political pandemonium had manifested itself into Louisiana politics by 1872, with racial discord and a rising White Nationalism movement disrupting elections and political processes. Pinckney was elected as a US Representative from Louisiana, but wanted to be appointed as a US Senator, ceding his presumed seat in the US House to hold out for the Senate. The rise of White Democrats foiled his plan to become a Senator, and Pinckney encountered increasing opposition from White politicians. Still active in politics despite the hurdles encountered, Pinckney ended his political career as the Customs Surveyor of New Orleans in 1882. Having helped found the Southern University as a Black college, Pinckney began to study the Law at Straight University (later renamed Dillard when it merged with New Orleans University) in New Orleans, gaining admission to the Bar of Louisiana in 1886. He remained active in pursuit of Civil Rights for African Americans, and moved his family to Washington, D.C. in 1892. He became part of the Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson 1896 that established “separate but equal” schooling for Blacks and Whites was within the bounds of the Constitution. Along the way, Pinckney also served as a US Marshall for a while. PBS Pinchback had made a decent living for himself and his family, ascending into the upper crust of the mixed race society of his day. Pinchback died at the age of 84 in 1921, by then no longer a well known political name. The legacy of PBS Pinckney was somewhat muted by the fact that it took over a century for another African American to get elected (1989) and be sworn in (1990) as Governor of a state, in this case Governor Douglas Wilder of Virginia, the first African American elected to a governorship. The only other African American Governor of a US state was Governor David Paterson of New York, who ascended to that office as the sitting Lieutenant Governor when the serving Governor Eliot Spitzer resigned the office. While PBS Pinchback may not receive the historical notice of some other African American figures, he deserves to be remembered and honored for his considerable contributions to American society. Question for students (and subscribers): What US state will be the next to elect an African American governor? Please let us know in the comments section below this article. Your readership is much appreciated! For more information, please see… King, Kendra. African American Politics. Polity Press, 2010. Marsh, Carole. P.B.S. Pinchback: First African American Governor. Gallopade, 2005. Stewart, Jeffrey. 1001 Things Everyone Should Know About African American History. Three Rivers Press, 1898. The featured image in this article, a photograph by Infrogmation of New Orleans of the Tomb of Governor P.B.S. Pinchback, Metairie Cemetery, New Orleans, is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.	1,375	ENGLISH	1
In the year 871, when Alfred was twenty-two years old, the Danes invaded various parts of England . Some great battles were fought, and Alfred's elder brother Ethelred, king of the West Saxons , was killed. Thus Alfred became king. The Danes still continued to fight the Saxons, and defeated Alfred in a long and severe struggle. They took for themselves the northern and eastern parts of England . Moreover, Danes from Denmark continued to cross the sea and ravage the coast of Saxon England . They kept the people in constant alarm. Alfred therefore determined to meet the pirates on their own element, the sea. So he built and equipped the first English navy, and in 875 gained the first naval victory ever won by the English. A few years after this, however, great numbers of Danes from the northern part of England came pouring into the Saxon lands. Alfred himself was obliged to flee for his life. For many months he wandered through forests and over hills to avoid being taken by the Danes. He sometimes made his home in caves and in the huts of shepherds and cowherds. Often he tended the cattle and sheep and was glad to get a part of the farmer's dinner in pay for his services. Once, when very hungry, he went into the house of a cowherd and asked for something to eat. The cowherd's wife was baking cakes and she said she would give him some when they were done. "Watch the cakes and do not let them burn, while I go across the field to look after the cows, " said the woman, as she hurried away. Alfred took his seat on the chimney-corner to do as he was told. But soon his thoughts turned to his troubles and he forgot about the cakes. When the woman came back she cried out with vexation, for the cakes were burned and spoiled. "You lazy, good-for-nothing man!" she said, "I warrant you can eat cakes fast enough; but you are too lazy to help me bake them." With that she drove the poor hungry Alfred out of her house. In his ragged dress he certainly did not look like a king, and she had no idea that he was anything but a poor beggar.	<urn:uuid:2f4c4f2c-c5f3-4d19-8202-b927e869fbca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/56/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00210.warc.gz	en	0.993822	474	3.390625	3	[ -0.09471951425075531, 0.6845331788063049, 0.12705154716968536, -0.09075377136468887, -0.12340962141752243, -0.11302419006824493, 0.04100581631064415, -0.07974623143672943, -0.2783782184123993, -0.06444605439901352, -0.03253326565027237, -0.5805703997612, 0.30256375670433044, 0.171098098158...	1	In the year 871, when Alfred was twenty-two years old, the Danes invaded various parts of England . Some great battles were fought, and Alfred's elder brother Ethelred, king of the West Saxons , was killed. Thus Alfred became king. The Danes still continued to fight the Saxons, and defeated Alfred in a long and severe struggle. They took for themselves the northern and eastern parts of England . Moreover, Danes from Denmark continued to cross the sea and ravage the coast of Saxon England . They kept the people in constant alarm. Alfred therefore determined to meet the pirates on their own element, the sea. So he built and equipped the first English navy, and in 875 gained the first naval victory ever won by the English. A few years after this, however, great numbers of Danes from the northern part of England came pouring into the Saxon lands. Alfred himself was obliged to flee for his life. For many months he wandered through forests and over hills to avoid being taken by the Danes. He sometimes made his home in caves and in the huts of shepherds and cowherds. Often he tended the cattle and sheep and was glad to get a part of the farmer's dinner in pay for his services. Once, when very hungry, he went into the house of a cowherd and asked for something to eat. The cowherd's wife was baking cakes and she said she would give him some when they were done. "Watch the cakes and do not let them burn, while I go across the field to look after the cows, " said the woman, as she hurried away. Alfred took his seat on the chimney-corner to do as he was told. But soon his thoughts turned to his troubles and he forgot about the cakes. When the woman came back she cried out with vexation, for the cakes were burned and spoiled. "You lazy, good-for-nothing man!" she said, "I warrant you can eat cakes fast enough; but you are too lazy to help me bake them." With that she drove the poor hungry Alfred out of her house. In his ragged dress he certainly did not look like a king, and she had no idea that he was anything but a poor beggar.	465	ENGLISH	1
A cash is a round coin with a square hole in the middle. The coin bears symbols that indicate its weight and the issuing authority. Such cash coins were cast in China for more than 2000 years. They were a perfect symbol of imperial authority. Both – the emperor and the coin – connected heaven and earth, yin and yang. The Chinese thought of the sky as a kind of dome that was allegorized by a circle. The world, however, was flat and symbolized by a square. The task of each emperor was to safeguard peace between heaven and earth, and to request good crops and prosperity from the Heavenly Emperor. The imperial coins took up this symbolism – they were round with a square hole. In this way the cash coins, the major Chinese money until the 19th century, reflected Chinese worldview perfectly.	<urn:uuid:d946667b-d95a-4cd3-9c7b-84bef2a33131>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://moneymuseum.com/en/coins?id=1109	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00002.warc.gz	en	0.982976	166	3.96875	4	[ -0.02008064277470112, -0.054887864738702774, 0.08943182229995728, -0.08181268721818924, 0.040013670921325684, 0.1552903801202774, 0.8248424530029297, -0.025894934311509132, -0.037434402853250504, 0.0699685662984848, 0.3895932734012604, -0.5448021292686462, 0.08746115863323212, 0.2486660331...	11	A cash is a round coin with a square hole in the middle. The coin bears symbols that indicate its weight and the issuing authority. Such cash coins were cast in China for more than 2000 years. They were a perfect symbol of imperial authority. Both – the emperor and the coin – connected heaven and earth, yin and yang. The Chinese thought of the sky as a kind of dome that was allegorized by a circle. The world, however, was flat and symbolized by a square. The task of each emperor was to safeguard peace between heaven and earth, and to request good crops and prosperity from the Heavenly Emperor. The imperial coins took up this symbolism – they were round with a square hole. In this way the cash coins, the major Chinese money until the 19th century, reflected Chinese worldview perfectly.	171	ENGLISH	1
On September 26th, 2017 the sixth grade went on a field trip to Diamond Fork Canyon in Spanish Fork. There, we did four different activities. For the first activity, we talked about the characteristics of plants. We learned about the varieties of leafs, and the different types of trees. After filling out a paper, and doing a group discussion, we did a scavenger hunt for different plants. We were given a card describing the plant, then we went to find it, and bring back a sample to our guide. After that, we went across a campsite to another camsite where we learned about birds. There, we talked to a nice guy about specific birds like falcons, owls, and hummingbirds. We learned that birds are the only animals in the world that have feathers, then we learned about the use of feathers and how the birds are light weight. They have hollow bones, no bladder, and a thin skull, as well as their impeccable eyesight and amazing hearing. Also, birds can’t digest bones or fur, so they are like a cat, and they cough up the bones and hair. We cracked some open, and we found a mouse skull! It was super gross, but super cool. From there we went on a beautiful hike. We got to pick a place in the trail to appreciate nature. Mrs.James’ class took data, and Mrs.Brown’s class and Mrs.Gregory’s class wrote ten word poems about the peaceful surroundings. There were many sites along the path. We first passed by a sign that told us about the organisms that live in the logs. Next we passed by a ripped up tee-pee. Then we saw some branches that swirled into a fort with a path going through it. The entire time we were there, we could hear the annoying MOOOOOOOO of cows across the river. The last one we went to was the river activity. First, we had a discussion of if the water was clean for us to drink and use or not, and we talked about little bugs that live in the water, which tell us if the river is a safe or not. We had to identify the three classes of bugs that are in the water. Then we put on wet and slimy wading boots, and went into the river. We had nets that we used to catch creatures. In partners, we stood in the cold water. One person would crouch at the bottom of a rock, while the other would lift up the rock. When they did, dirt, creatures, and smaller rocks would billow through the water into the waiting net of the other person. It was, in a lot of people’s opinions, the coolest station yet. Sadly, it was time to go home. We helped the rangers put away the supplies, then loaded back onto the gloomy bus for the long ride back to school. We had sooo much fun and we are looking forward to going again this winter, where we are going to do some fun snowshoeing.	<urn:uuid:088ca9b8-0a8c-45e2-a987-1a403f3e092d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://meadowbrook.nebo.edu/news/diamond-fork-canyon	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00458.warc.gz	en	0.981044	628	3.359375	3	[ 0.03693677484989166, -0.3080342710018158, 0.405362606048584, -0.15371793508529663, 0.01869484782218933, 0.06086698919534683, 0.4134737253189087, 0.39288806915283203, -0.08212056010961533, 0.20641782879829407, -0.03560304641723633, -0.45912814140319824, -0.14472952485084534, 0.0411652922630...	8	On September 26th, 2017 the sixth grade went on a field trip to Diamond Fork Canyon in Spanish Fork. There, we did four different activities. For the first activity, we talked about the characteristics of plants. We learned about the varieties of leafs, and the different types of trees. After filling out a paper, and doing a group discussion, we did a scavenger hunt for different plants. We were given a card describing the plant, then we went to find it, and bring back a sample to our guide. After that, we went across a campsite to another camsite where we learned about birds. There, we talked to a nice guy about specific birds like falcons, owls, and hummingbirds. We learned that birds are the only animals in the world that have feathers, then we learned about the use of feathers and how the birds are light weight. They have hollow bones, no bladder, and a thin skull, as well as their impeccable eyesight and amazing hearing. Also, birds can’t digest bones or fur, so they are like a cat, and they cough up the bones and hair. We cracked some open, and we found a mouse skull! It was super gross, but super cool. From there we went on a beautiful hike. We got to pick a place in the trail to appreciate nature. Mrs.James’ class took data, and Mrs.Brown’s class and Mrs.Gregory’s class wrote ten word poems about the peaceful surroundings. There were many sites along the path. We first passed by a sign that told us about the organisms that live in the logs. Next we passed by a ripped up tee-pee. Then we saw some branches that swirled into a fort with a path going through it. The entire time we were there, we could hear the annoying MOOOOOOOO of cows across the river. The last one we went to was the river activity. First, we had a discussion of if the water was clean for us to drink and use or not, and we talked about little bugs that live in the water, which tell us if the river is a safe or not. We had to identify the three classes of bugs that are in the water. Then we put on wet and slimy wading boots, and went into the river. We had nets that we used to catch creatures. In partners, we stood in the cold water. One person would crouch at the bottom of a rock, while the other would lift up the rock. When they did, dirt, creatures, and smaller rocks would billow through the water into the waiting net of the other person. It was, in a lot of people’s opinions, the coolest station yet. Sadly, it was time to go home. We helped the rangers put away the supplies, then loaded back onto the gloomy bus for the long ride back to school. We had sooo much fun and we are looking forward to going again this winter, where we are going to do some fun snowshoeing.	623	ENGLISH	1
Alaska is known as the last frontier. The state’s capital city, Juneau, has a rich history in native culture and gold mining. Today, the city thrives on tourism, but that wasn’t always so. One of the last lands for Europeans to explore, local natives were the first to live in Alaska. They fished the salmon-rich waters to feed their families. Mining for Gold In 1880, a German engineer named George Pilz hired people to search for gold and silver in the area. He also offered rewards to the natives for gold. Chief Cowee of the Auk Tlingits tribe gave him gold samples, so Pilz sent out miners to find more. Two miners were chosen: Joe Juneau and Richard Harris. The miners found gold ore. On October 18, they staked a 160-acre town site on the beach. The next month, boatloads of hopeful prospectors came to try their hand at gold mining. Harris named this area after himself, calling it Harrisburgh. The US Navy sent a steamboat of sailors to help keep order in the mining camp. One of the first town meetings was held in February 1881, where it was decided that too many American towns were already called Harrisburgh. The town’s name was changed to “Rockwell” in honor of Lieutenant Commander Charles Rockwell, the Navy commander who had been sent to help keep order. Joe Juneau complained that his name had not been used. After all, he and his partner Harris were had discovered the gold and brought miners to build up the small camp. The miners agreed, and the city’s name was changed to Juneau. - The US bought Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30, 1867, for $7.2 million. - Juneau was named Alaska’s capital in 1906. - Fishing and mining are still important to Juneau’s economy.	<urn:uuid:c3e6e5ad-184f-43ed-a2d4-90142dcfb9ed>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://lngenz.com/alaskas-golden-city/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00077.warc.gz	en	0.984661	403	3.6875	4	[ -0.13680671155452728, -0.012998568825423717, -0.11449871957302094, 0.12816660106182098, -0.029604531824588776, 0.11835090070962906, 0.26217925548553467, -0.058157507330179214, -0.5204820036888123, -0.25383302569389343, 0.5448410511016846, -0.36769622564315796, -0.15183505415916443, 0.22897...	3	Alaska is known as the last frontier. The state’s capital city, Juneau, has a rich history in native culture and gold mining. Today, the city thrives on tourism, but that wasn’t always so. One of the last lands for Europeans to explore, local natives were the first to live in Alaska. They fished the salmon-rich waters to feed their families. Mining for Gold In 1880, a German engineer named George Pilz hired people to search for gold and silver in the area. He also offered rewards to the natives for gold. Chief Cowee of the Auk Tlingits tribe gave him gold samples, so Pilz sent out miners to find more. Two miners were chosen: Joe Juneau and Richard Harris. The miners found gold ore. On October 18, they staked a 160-acre town site on the beach. The next month, boatloads of hopeful prospectors came to try their hand at gold mining. Harris named this area after himself, calling it Harrisburgh. The US Navy sent a steamboat of sailors to help keep order in the mining camp. One of the first town meetings was held in February 1881, where it was decided that too many American towns were already called Harrisburgh. The town’s name was changed to “Rockwell” in honor of Lieutenant Commander Charles Rockwell, the Navy commander who had been sent to help keep order. Joe Juneau complained that his name had not been used. After all, he and his partner Harris were had discovered the gold and brought miners to build up the small camp. The miners agreed, and the city’s name was changed to Juneau. - The US bought Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30, 1867, for $7.2 million. - Juneau was named Alaska’s capital in 1906. - Fishing and mining are still important to Juneau’s economy.	400	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 26/07/2012) Later years of Jawaharlal Nehru consisted of him being at the helm of government. He led the congress to a major victory in the 1957 elections, but his government was facing serious problem and criticism. Disenchanted by the alleged intra-party bickering and corruption, Pandit Nehru contemplated resigning but still continued to serve in the government. The election of his daughter Indira as President of Indian National Congress in the year 1959 aroused criticism for alleged nepotism, although in reality Nehru had condemned her election, partly because he considered it smacked of "dynastism" and refused her a position in his cabinet. Indira Gandhi herself was at loggerheads with her father over policy; most notably, she used his oft-stated personal deference to the Congress Working Committee to push through the dismissal of the Communist Party of Government of India in the Indian state , over his own objections. Jawaharlal Nehru actually began to be frequently mortified by her ruthlessness and disregard for parliamentary convention, and was "hurt" by what he saw as assertiveness with no purpose other than to stake out an identity independent of her father. In the 1962 elections, Nehru led the Congress to victory yet with a diminished majority. Communist of India and other socialist parties were the main beneficiaries although some right wing groups like Bharatiya Jana Sangh also did well. Nehru's health, after 1962, steadily started to decline and he spent months recovering in Jammu and Kashmir through 1963. Some historians attribute this dramatic decline to his surprise and chagrin over the Sino-Indian War, which he perceived as a betrayal of trust. Upon his return from Kashmir in May 1964, Nehru suffered a stroke and later a heart attack. He was "taken ill in early hours" of 27 May 1964 and died in "early afternoon" on same day, and his death was announced to Lok Sabha at 1400 local time; cause of death is believed to be heart attack. Nehru was cremated in accordance with Hindu rites at the Shantivana on the banks of the Yamuna River , witnessed by hundreds of thousands of mourners who had flocked into the streets of Delhi and the cremation grounds. Jawaharlal Nehru, the man and politician made such a powerful imprint on India that his death on 27 May 1964, left India with no clear political heir to his leadership (although his daughter was widely expected to succeed him before she turned it down in favour of Shastri). Indian English newspapers repeated Nehru's own words of the time of Mahatma Gandhi 's assassination: "The light has gone out of our lives and there is darkness everywhere."	<urn:uuid:ab240050-bedd-4bcd-bb94-83b5e7054b63>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indianetzone.com/62/later_years_jawaharlal_nehru.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00323.warc.gz	en	0.985291	577	3.359375	3	[ -0.23121356964111328, 0.339079350233078, 0.22750957310199738, -0.21979433298110962, -0.23892804980278015, 0.4604705274105072, 0.561346709728241, -0.10037721693515778, 0.026796098798513412, -0.28259554505348206, 0.36569786071777344, 0.06355112791061401, 0.17764954268932343, 0.08312289416790...	2	(Last Updated on : 26/07/2012) Later years of Jawaharlal Nehru consisted of him being at the helm of government. He led the congress to a major victory in the 1957 elections, but his government was facing serious problem and criticism. Disenchanted by the alleged intra-party bickering and corruption, Pandit Nehru contemplated resigning but still continued to serve in the government. The election of his daughter Indira as President of Indian National Congress in the year 1959 aroused criticism for alleged nepotism, although in reality Nehru had condemned her election, partly because he considered it smacked of "dynastism" and refused her a position in his cabinet. Indira Gandhi herself was at loggerheads with her father over policy; most notably, she used his oft-stated personal deference to the Congress Working Committee to push through the dismissal of the Communist Party of Government of India in the Indian state , over his own objections. Jawaharlal Nehru actually began to be frequently mortified by her ruthlessness and disregard for parliamentary convention, and was "hurt" by what he saw as assertiveness with no purpose other than to stake out an identity independent of her father. In the 1962 elections, Nehru led the Congress to victory yet with a diminished majority. Communist of India and other socialist parties were the main beneficiaries although some right wing groups like Bharatiya Jana Sangh also did well. Nehru's health, after 1962, steadily started to decline and he spent months recovering in Jammu and Kashmir through 1963. Some historians attribute this dramatic decline to his surprise and chagrin over the Sino-Indian War, which he perceived as a betrayal of trust. Upon his return from Kashmir in May 1964, Nehru suffered a stroke and later a heart attack. He was "taken ill in early hours" of 27 May 1964 and died in "early afternoon" on same day, and his death was announced to Lok Sabha at 1400 local time; cause of death is believed to be heart attack. Nehru was cremated in accordance with Hindu rites at the Shantivana on the banks of the Yamuna River , witnessed by hundreds of thousands of mourners who had flocked into the streets of Delhi and the cremation grounds. Jawaharlal Nehru, the man and politician made such a powerful imprint on India that his death on 27 May 1964, left India with no clear political heir to his leadership (although his daughter was widely expected to succeed him before she turned it down in favour of Shastri). Indian English newspapers repeated Nehru's own words of the time of Mahatma Gandhi 's assassination: "The light has gone out of our lives and there is darkness everywhere."	617	ENGLISH	1
The elect, or true Christians, have existed under different names at different times, viz.: the Novatians, Donatists, and Paulicians in the Middle Ages. The Albigenses, Cathari, and Waldenses were the most prominent societies who separated from the Catholic Church. They resembled each other very much in their doctrine and life. They were all agreed about the principles of the gospel. Peter Waldo gathered together a church in the year 1160. The Waldenses existed before the time of Waldo. Already in the year of 1120 they had published a work against the papal antichrist, in which they pointed out the false doctrines of the Catholic Church. They presented this as one reason why they had separated from the church. But Waldo did much to increase their number and activity. He was a rich merchant from Lyons, France. As he was reading the Holy Scriptures, he was seized with a holy longing after the apostolic church. He sold his property, distributed the money to the poor, and preached a pure practical Christianity. Many left their homes and became teachers. At first, they did not think of separating from the Roman Church, but they were at last compelled to do so, seeing they in no wise could agree with it. In 1532 they separated themselves fully from the papal church, adopting a short confession of faith. This common faith contained, however, the same doctrines which they had believed and followed for four hundred years. They were subjected to persecutions in 1332, 1400, and 1478. But after this time during about two hundred years they suffered a series of the most bloody persecutions. They were, especially in the middle of the seventeenth century, tormented in the most cruel manner. Yet their enemies did not succeed in subduing these brave mountaineers. In their extreme distress they defended themselves, and resisted successfully the armies of the Duke of Savoy. But their resistance against the government never went farther than necessity drove them. At the close of the seventeenth century they had to flee from the country of their fathers, overwhelmed by the superior force of their enemies. Some of them went to Switzerland and others to Germany, but the longing after the mountains of their own country caused them to return. In 1689 they gathered from all quarters in Switzerland under the leadership of Henry Arnold. After a bloody and adventurous campaign they again obtained possession of their native country. They are said to have fought not less than eighteen battles against the French, and to have lost only thirty men. It was, however, not before 1848 that they obtained the same rights as their Catholic fellow citizens. As a consequence of their incredible activity, the gospel was proclaimed in Italy in most of their cities. They sent out evangelists, partly clergymen, partly intelligent laymen. They worked diligently, preaching the word, scattering tracts, and organizing Protestant churches. Life and Doctrine of the Waldenses Waldo rendered great service by translating the Bible into the French language. This he did by the help of two clerical friends. He spent a large share of his property for the writing of numerous copies, which he distributed. His preaching fell like a kindling spark into many hearts, and before long they would burn like himself to proclaim the precious gospel to those who had not yet tasted its sweet comfort. Thus many obtained a living knowledge of the true Saviour, and experienced a genuine change of heart. In 1184 Waldo and his followers were excommunicated by the pope. They had to flee from their country, but they proclaimed the word of God more freely and publicly, diffusing it in their travels to all parts of the world. Many of the Cathari and other scattered believers united with them, and soon Protestants who were ready to sacrifice their lives for the faith of the Waldenses were found in France, Switzerland, Italy, Holland, Bohemia, and Hungary. Westermeyer says further of the Waldenses: “We rejoice to find in the doctrine of the Waldenses the purest evangelical profession, and before its clear light the errors and abuses of the ruling church disappeared. All the erroneous doctrines of the church originated from the fact that other writings were accepted besides the Scriptures. The Waldenses affirmed positively that the Scriptures contained everything necessary to salvation. Nothing but the revelation of God should be received as an article of faith. They found in the Scriptures only one God and one mediator, Jesus Christ. They would know nothing of the merits and worship of the saints. Christ, said they, is our advocate. He pleads for us before we give ourselves to Him. He wants every soul to seek refuge in Him alone. “They rejected most decidedly all those works by which the people burdened themselves in the established church, such as monastic vows, fasting, offering for the living and dead. Faith in Christ was the only way to obtain remission of sins and eternal life. Consequently the sale of indulgences looked to them as a terrible abuse. “If the true church was found anywhere, it was with the Waldenses. This not only their doctrine but also their life testifies. Their knowledge of the Holy Scriptures was admirable. Before their missionaries were admitted to office, they had to learn at least the gospels according to Matthew and John, and the epistles of the New Testament, besides many portions of the writings of David, Solomon, and the prophets.” The following are testimonies from their enemies: “They are mostly rude, uneducated people. They are often dressed in the skins of animals, and live in miserable huts and caves. Yet they can all read and write. We found peasants who could repeat the book of Job by heart. Others could repeat all of the New Testament, and every boy among them had a clear idea of their faith.” A friar who had been sent out to lead them back to the Roman Church came back much astonished, and acknowledged that in all his life he had not learned so much of the Scriptures as he had in those few days he had been conversing with the heretics. The word of God brought forth blessed fruit in those simple hearted people. Even their enemies were compelled to bear excellent testimonies of their uprightness. One of the clerical ambassadors who had received the commission to search for them and persecute them said: “The heretics are known by their manners. Their conduct is quiet and modest, and no pride is seen in their dress” Another says: “In their manners and life they are upright, truthful in their words, and of one accord in brotherly love, but their faith is obstinate and unsound.” Still another says: “They do not try to gather riches but are satisfied with the necessities of life,” “Their women are modest, not talebearers. They shun folly and levity.” People that receive such testimonies from their bitterest enemies must indeed have lived very exemplary lives. When they got up and when they went to bed, as well as before and after meals, they kneeled down before the Lord and offered up their supplication and thanksgiving. After each meal they instructed and exhorted one another. They showed faithfulness in all their affairs of life. Marriage was considered holy, and was never entered upon without the consent of the parents. They brought up their children in an excellent way. They understood how to leave their faith and uprightness as an inheritance to their posterity. “Keep your eyes on your daughters,” they said; “keep them at home, and let them not wander about. Dinah, the daughter of Jacob, was seduced when she was seen of strangers. Those who decorate their daughters are like those who put dry wood on the fire that it may burn better.” For the rest they were very submissive, and took care of their everyday work with the greatest faithfulness. They were known as hardworking people, and their manner of living was exceedingly plain. They were enemies of all extravagance and debauchery. Consequently their men were sought for servants, and their women for nurses and servant girls. The Waldenses believed that the Roman Church was the great harlot spoken of in Revelation 17. They rejected all the ordinances introduced since the ascension of Christ. They rejected the doctrine of purgatory and the feasts ordained by the church. Baptism was performed by immersion, which was used by the Catholics also at that time. They rejected infant baptism and maintained that it could be of no use for infant children because they could not believe. The Waldenses were also called Insabbati. One writer says: “They would not observe the holy days. For this reason they were falsely accused of breaking the Sabbath and therefore were called Insabbati.” Another writer says: “They were called Insabbati, not because they were circumcised, but because they kept the Jewish Sabbath.” The following paragraph from history shows plainly that they kept the seventh day: “When the king of France, Louis XII, was informed of the terrible crime whereof the Waldenses were accused by their enemies, he sent his own confessor with another man to the province of Provence to look into the matter. When they returned, they said that they had visited all the parishes where they lived and examined their meeting houses, but they found no images or things pertaining to the mass nor any of the ceremonies belonging to the Roman Church. Much less could they discover any trace of those crimes wherefore they were accused. On the contrary, they kept the Sabbath, practiced baptism like the apostolic church, and instructed their children in the Christian articles of faith and the commandments of God. When the king heard this report he said: They are indeed better people than I and my people.’“	<urn:uuid:0c7d23f6-258e-4862-813b-f65f6621630e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://jsd-cog.org/history-of-the-waldenses-sabbath-observers/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00232.warc.gz	en	0.988847	2,025	3.59375	4	[ 0.12342211604118347, 0.2878682017326355, -0.1811952143907547, -0.09052605926990509, -0.02078736200928688, 0.03016098588705063, -0.052491314709186554, 0.12859973311424255, 0.4159049391746521, 0.3058079779148102, -0.06760763376951218, 0.18325306475162506, 0.0645296722650528, 0.00103498098906...	14	The elect, or true Christians, have existed under different names at different times, viz.: the Novatians, Donatists, and Paulicians in the Middle Ages. The Albigenses, Cathari, and Waldenses were the most prominent societies who separated from the Catholic Church. They resembled each other very much in their doctrine and life. They were all agreed about the principles of the gospel. Peter Waldo gathered together a church in the year 1160. The Waldenses existed before the time of Waldo. Already in the year of 1120 they had published a work against the papal antichrist, in which they pointed out the false doctrines of the Catholic Church. They presented this as one reason why they had separated from the church. But Waldo did much to increase their number and activity. He was a rich merchant from Lyons, France. As he was reading the Holy Scriptures, he was seized with a holy longing after the apostolic church. He sold his property, distributed the money to the poor, and preached a pure practical Christianity. Many left their homes and became teachers. At first, they did not think of separating from the Roman Church, but they were at last compelled to do so, seeing they in no wise could agree with it. In 1532 they separated themselves fully from the papal church, adopting a short confession of faith. This common faith contained, however, the same doctrines which they had believed and followed for four hundred years. They were subjected to persecutions in 1332, 1400, and 1478. But after this time during about two hundred years they suffered a series of the most bloody persecutions. They were, especially in the middle of the seventeenth century, tormented in the most cruel manner. Yet their enemies did not succeed in subduing these brave mountaineers. In their extreme distress they defended themselves, and resisted successfully the armies of the Duke of Savoy. But their resistance against the government never went farther than necessity drove them. At the close of the seventeenth century they had to flee from the country of their fathers, overwhelmed by the superior force of their enemies. Some of them went to Switzerland and others to Germany, but the longing after the mountains of their own country caused them to return. In 1689 they gathered from all quarters in Switzerland under the leadership of Henry Arnold. After a bloody and adventurous campaign they again obtained possession of their native country. They are said to have fought not less than eighteen battles against the French, and to have lost only thirty men. It was, however, not before 1848 that they obtained the same rights as their Catholic fellow citizens. As a consequence of their incredible activity, the gospel was proclaimed in Italy in most of their cities. They sent out evangelists, partly clergymen, partly intelligent laymen. They worked diligently, preaching the word, scattering tracts, and organizing Protestant churches. Life and Doctrine of the Waldenses Waldo rendered great service by translating the Bible into the French language. This he did by the help of two clerical friends. He spent a large share of his property for the writing of numerous copies, which he distributed. His preaching fell like a kindling spark into many hearts, and before long they would burn like himself to proclaim the precious gospel to those who had not yet tasted its sweet comfort. Thus many obtained a living knowledge of the true Saviour, and experienced a genuine change of heart. In 1184 Waldo and his followers were excommunicated by the pope. They had to flee from their country, but they proclaimed the word of God more freely and publicly, diffusing it in their travels to all parts of the world. Many of the Cathari and other scattered believers united with them, and soon Protestants who were ready to sacrifice their lives for the faith of the Waldenses were found in France, Switzerland, Italy, Holland, Bohemia, and Hungary. Westermeyer says further of the Waldenses: “We rejoice to find in the doctrine of the Waldenses the purest evangelical profession, and before its clear light the errors and abuses of the ruling church disappeared. All the erroneous doctrines of the church originated from the fact that other writings were accepted besides the Scriptures. The Waldenses affirmed positively that the Scriptures contained everything necessary to salvation. Nothing but the revelation of God should be received as an article of faith. They found in the Scriptures only one God and one mediator, Jesus Christ. They would know nothing of the merits and worship of the saints. Christ, said they, is our advocate. He pleads for us before we give ourselves to Him. He wants every soul to seek refuge in Him alone. “They rejected most decidedly all those works by which the people burdened themselves in the established church, such as monastic vows, fasting, offering for the living and dead. Faith in Christ was the only way to obtain remission of sins and eternal life. Consequently the sale of indulgences looked to them as a terrible abuse. “If the true church was found anywhere, it was with the Waldenses. This not only their doctrine but also their life testifies. Their knowledge of the Holy Scriptures was admirable. Before their missionaries were admitted to office, they had to learn at least the gospels according to Matthew and John, and the epistles of the New Testament, besides many portions of the writings of David, Solomon, and the prophets.” The following are testimonies from their enemies: “They are mostly rude, uneducated people. They are often dressed in the skins of animals, and live in miserable huts and caves. Yet they can all read and write. We found peasants who could repeat the book of Job by heart. Others could repeat all of the New Testament, and every boy among them had a clear idea of their faith.” A friar who had been sent out to lead them back to the Roman Church came back much astonished, and acknowledged that in all his life he had not learned so much of the Scriptures as he had in those few days he had been conversing with the heretics. The word of God brought forth blessed fruit in those simple hearted people. Even their enemies were compelled to bear excellent testimonies of their uprightness. One of the clerical ambassadors who had received the commission to search for them and persecute them said: “The heretics are known by their manners. Their conduct is quiet and modest, and no pride is seen in their dress” Another says: “In their manners and life they are upright, truthful in their words, and of one accord in brotherly love, but their faith is obstinate and unsound.” Still another says: “They do not try to gather riches but are satisfied with the necessities of life,” “Their women are modest, not talebearers. They shun folly and levity.” People that receive such testimonies from their bitterest enemies must indeed have lived very exemplary lives. When they got up and when they went to bed, as well as before and after meals, they kneeled down before the Lord and offered up their supplication and thanksgiving. After each meal they instructed and exhorted one another. They showed faithfulness in all their affairs of life. Marriage was considered holy, and was never entered upon without the consent of the parents. They brought up their children in an excellent way. They understood how to leave their faith and uprightness as an inheritance to their posterity. “Keep your eyes on your daughters,” they said; “keep them at home, and let them not wander about. Dinah, the daughter of Jacob, was seduced when she was seen of strangers. Those who decorate their daughters are like those who put dry wood on the fire that it may burn better.” For the rest they were very submissive, and took care of their everyday work with the greatest faithfulness. They were known as hardworking people, and their manner of living was exceedingly plain. They were enemies of all extravagance and debauchery. Consequently their men were sought for servants, and their women for nurses and servant girls. The Waldenses believed that the Roman Church was the great harlot spoken of in Revelation 17. They rejected all the ordinances introduced since the ascension of Christ. They rejected the doctrine of purgatory and the feasts ordained by the church. Baptism was performed by immersion, which was used by the Catholics also at that time. They rejected infant baptism and maintained that it could be of no use for infant children because they could not believe. The Waldenses were also called Insabbati. One writer says: “They would not observe the holy days. For this reason they were falsely accused of breaking the Sabbath and therefore were called Insabbati.” Another writer says: “They were called Insabbati, not because they were circumcised, but because they kept the Jewish Sabbath.” The following paragraph from history shows plainly that they kept the seventh day: “When the king of France, Louis XII, was informed of the terrible crime whereof the Waldenses were accused by their enemies, he sent his own confessor with another man to the province of Provence to look into the matter. When they returned, they said that they had visited all the parishes where they lived and examined their meeting houses, but they found no images or things pertaining to the mass nor any of the ceremonies belonging to the Roman Church. Much less could they discover any trace of those crimes wherefore they were accused. On the contrary, they kept the Sabbath, practiced baptism like the apostolic church, and instructed their children in the Christian articles of faith and the commandments of God. When the king heard this report he said: They are indeed better people than I and my people.’“	2,002	ENGLISH	1
Reading this section reminded me of a course I took in freshman year, entitled Slavery in Virginia. When speaking of slavery in the U.S., Virginia is probably the first place mentioned or discussed. Virginia is rich in slave history. Many practices, traditions, and events were rooted in slavery and uplifted the system of slavery. During this time period in Virginia, no one seemed to do what was right or did anything positive for African-Americans. For decades and centuries, people were so accustomed to living among or in slavery, that it became normalized. Slaves were hung, lynched, beaten, separated from their families, dehumanized, and even after slavery, a system was created to oppress African-Americans similar to slavery. No matter how blacks pushed to be relieved from slavery and the life that degraded them, they were still oppressed in some way.	<urn:uuid:b8bd6587-70d6-426e-ba01-14a8279248f4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blog.richmond.edu/danceandcommemorativejustice/category/week-nine/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00146.warc.gz	en	0.990647	173	3.671875	4	[ -0.44036567211151123, 0.5408887267112732, 0.32237333059310913, -0.18898971378803253, 0.11281630396842957, -0.031179366633296013, -0.09027796238660812, -0.4043017327785492, -0.07901764661073685, 0.16598449647426605, 0.15863186120986938, 0.012405120767652988, -0.32916831970214844, 0.18633338...	13	Reading this section reminded me of a course I took in freshman year, entitled Slavery in Virginia. When speaking of slavery in the U.S., Virginia is probably the first place mentioned or discussed. Virginia is rich in slave history. Many practices, traditions, and events were rooted in slavery and uplifted the system of slavery. During this time period in Virginia, no one seemed to do what was right or did anything positive for African-Americans. For decades and centuries, people were so accustomed to living among or in slavery, that it became normalized. Slaves were hung, lynched, beaten, separated from their families, dehumanized, and even after slavery, a system was created to oppress African-Americans similar to slavery. No matter how blacks pushed to be relieved from slavery and the life that degraded them, they were still oppressed in some way.	170	ENGLISH	1
As children, we were perhaps taught to limit pronoun use when referring to members of our family. Have you ever tried to refer to your mom or dad as, “she” or “he” when in their presence? If you did, it’s likely that they weren’t too impressed with being referred to with these pronouns rather than a simple, “mom” or “dad”. Understanding why our parents feel disrespected when we refer to them by using pronouns involves understanding the underlying meaning these pronouns carry with them. Doing so serves to teach us lessons we can take outside the context of family matters, and into the world with us. She Takes Her Job Seriously Using “she,” and other pronouns to describe family members can be interpreted as trying to distance yourself from them. It shows a lack of respect for their identity and how that identity relates to you. Your mother may feel disrespected by this because the word, “she” can be used for anybody who identifies as a female. However, not every female can identify as your mother. Your mother cares about her role in your life, which is why she gets upset when you don’t recognize it by using pronouns such as, “she” or “her” in conversation. It may not seem like a big deal to you, but to her, being called, “mom” signifies that you’re empathetic to the job and hardships of what being a mother entails. This concept can be applied to feeling disrespected if others don’t refer to us by our proper titles. For example, if you were to walk into a doctor’s office for the first time and exclaim, “hello John,” towards your doctor, he may be taken back by your lack of respect for his position. Your doctor is referred to by, “Dr. Peterson” in his day-to-day interactions, and referring to him by just his first name shows a lack of respect for the work it took to get to his position. The same can be seen with professors, presidents, and military leaders. Your parents’ proper titles, as they relate to your communication with them are, “mom” and “dad,” respectively. People’s Interpretation of Pronouns Changes Based on Setting Using pronouns to describe someone when they’re in the same room as you removes them from the conversation. It makes them feel that they’re being gossiped about, even if the content of the conversation doesn’t point toward that fact. It also serves to imply that their input is not sought for, even though you’re talking about them. Visualize yourself in the situation in which your friends are talking about you. Rather than saying, “John, remember the time you totally blew that lay-up when we were up by two?” One says to the other, “Remember when he blew the lay-up when we were up by two?” The latter example sounds ill-intentioned, as though they are complaining about your performance rather than making a joke about it. When your parents are in the room and you refer to them with pronouns, you are excluding them from the conversation and perhaps being hurtful in doing so. Instead to referring to people as their pronouns when they’re in your presence, form a habit of including them in conversation. Call out their name and ask for their opinion on the matters which you’re talking about. Make it a priority to include the people you’re talking about in the conversation, and do not give others the opportunity to assume that you’re gossiping about them.	<urn:uuid:67edb908-6e7f-492f-8bfc-55c6d81674eb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kletische.com/mom-hates-refer-her-she/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00320.warc.gz	en	0.982852	779	3.53125	4	[ 0.13843993842601776, 0.2356305718421936, 0.2277141511440277, -0.3719252645969391, -0.6564611196517944, 0.0747700035572052, 1.027795433998108, -0.18843218684196472, 0.04275721684098244, -0.5062623023986816, 0.08132551610469818, -0.05704856663942337, 0.10152991116046906, 0.1550762802362442, ...	1	As children, we were perhaps taught to limit pronoun use when referring to members of our family. Have you ever tried to refer to your mom or dad as, “she” or “he” when in their presence? If you did, it’s likely that they weren’t too impressed with being referred to with these pronouns rather than a simple, “mom” or “dad”. Understanding why our parents feel disrespected when we refer to them by using pronouns involves understanding the underlying meaning these pronouns carry with them. Doing so serves to teach us lessons we can take outside the context of family matters, and into the world with us. She Takes Her Job Seriously Using “she,” and other pronouns to describe family members can be interpreted as trying to distance yourself from them. It shows a lack of respect for their identity and how that identity relates to you. Your mother may feel disrespected by this because the word, “she” can be used for anybody who identifies as a female. However, not every female can identify as your mother. Your mother cares about her role in your life, which is why she gets upset when you don’t recognize it by using pronouns such as, “she” or “her” in conversation. It may not seem like a big deal to you, but to her, being called, “mom” signifies that you’re empathetic to the job and hardships of what being a mother entails. This concept can be applied to feeling disrespected if others don’t refer to us by our proper titles. For example, if you were to walk into a doctor’s office for the first time and exclaim, “hello John,” towards your doctor, he may be taken back by your lack of respect for his position. Your doctor is referred to by, “Dr. Peterson” in his day-to-day interactions, and referring to him by just his first name shows a lack of respect for the work it took to get to his position. The same can be seen with professors, presidents, and military leaders. Your parents’ proper titles, as they relate to your communication with them are, “mom” and “dad,” respectively. People’s Interpretation of Pronouns Changes Based on Setting Using pronouns to describe someone when they’re in the same room as you removes them from the conversation. It makes them feel that they’re being gossiped about, even if the content of the conversation doesn’t point toward that fact. It also serves to imply that their input is not sought for, even though you’re talking about them. Visualize yourself in the situation in which your friends are talking about you. Rather than saying, “John, remember the time you totally blew that lay-up when we were up by two?” One says to the other, “Remember when he blew the lay-up when we were up by two?” The latter example sounds ill-intentioned, as though they are complaining about your performance rather than making a joke about it. When your parents are in the room and you refer to them with pronouns, you are excluding them from the conversation and perhaps being hurtful in doing so. Instead to referring to people as their pronouns when they’re in your presence, form a habit of including them in conversation. Call out their name and ask for their opinion on the matters which you’re talking about. Make it a priority to include the people you’re talking about in the conversation, and do not give others the opportunity to assume that you’re gossiping about them.	714	ENGLISH	1
What do people do more than anything else during the holidays? That’s right, spend money. So here are 5 random facts about the man on the face of the most popular piece of paper in America. - Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767 on the border between North and South Carolina. Although his exact birthplace is unknown, legend has it that he was born in a cabin just on the South Carolina side of the border. - Andrew Jackson was an able military commander. Jackson was able to win the Battle of New Orleans during the War of 1812, with a smaller force than the British had. His actions in the First Seminole War, and his later occupation of Pensacola, Florida, would lead Spain to cede its claim on Florida in 1821. His toughness on the battlefield led his soldiers to nickname him Old Hickory. - Andrew Jackson was the seventh President of the United States. However, he ran for president in 1824, and was almost the sixth president. In a hotly contested election that had four candidates, Jackson won the popular vote, and had a plurality in the Electoral College, but he did not have a majority. As such, the vote went to the House of Representatives, who elected John Quincy Adams. The ruling shocked Jackson, who believed that Adams had struck a corrupt bargain with Henry Clay (one of the other candidates), as Adams named Clay secretary of state in exchange for Clay’s support. - By 1835, Andrew Jackson had reduced the national debt to a mere $33,733.05. He would eventually pay off the national debt, and has been the only president to ever accomplish that feat. - Andrew Jackson was the first president to face an assassination attempt. On January 30, 1835, Richard Lawrence attempted to kill Jackson outside the Capitol building using two single-shot pistols. Lawrence pulled out the first pistol, aimed at the president’s heart, and squeezed the trigger. Nothing happened. As Lawrence calmly reached for the second pistol, Jackson charged at him with his cane. The second pistol misfired as well. Legend has it that Jackson attacked Lawrence with his cane, and had to be restrained by startled onlookers, which included Davy Crockett. Bonus: Andrew Jackson is on the $20 bill, which is ironic considering his opposition to having a central bank during his presidency. As a matter of fact, he allowed the charter on the Second National Bank of the United States to lapse during his presidency. Did you find this post interesting? You should check out American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House	<urn:uuid:7c42b972-40eb-4763-a199-54e1275a2f69>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.unosek.org/5-random-things-about-andrew-jackson/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00295.warc.gz	en	0.985029	529	3.484375	3	[ -0.28107234835624695, 0.24682477116584778, 0.34200090169906616, -0.07870060205459595, 0.2943967580795288, 0.289659321308136, 0.3852008283138275, 0.09874407947063446, 0.2038498818874359, 0.06425828486680984, 0.19746041297912598, 0.5099315643310547, -0.26517730951309204, 0.2619917392730713, ...	20	What do people do more than anything else during the holidays? That’s right, spend money. So here are 5 random facts about the man on the face of the most popular piece of paper in America. - Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767 on the border between North and South Carolina. Although his exact birthplace is unknown, legend has it that he was born in a cabin just on the South Carolina side of the border. - Andrew Jackson was an able military commander. Jackson was able to win the Battle of New Orleans during the War of 1812, with a smaller force than the British had. His actions in the First Seminole War, and his later occupation of Pensacola, Florida, would lead Spain to cede its claim on Florida in 1821. His toughness on the battlefield led his soldiers to nickname him Old Hickory. - Andrew Jackson was the seventh President of the United States. However, he ran for president in 1824, and was almost the sixth president. In a hotly contested election that had four candidates, Jackson won the popular vote, and had a plurality in the Electoral College, but he did not have a majority. As such, the vote went to the House of Representatives, who elected John Quincy Adams. The ruling shocked Jackson, who believed that Adams had struck a corrupt bargain with Henry Clay (one of the other candidates), as Adams named Clay secretary of state in exchange for Clay’s support. - By 1835, Andrew Jackson had reduced the national debt to a mere $33,733.05. He would eventually pay off the national debt, and has been the only president to ever accomplish that feat. - Andrew Jackson was the first president to face an assassination attempt. On January 30, 1835, Richard Lawrence attempted to kill Jackson outside the Capitol building using two single-shot pistols. Lawrence pulled out the first pistol, aimed at the president’s heart, and squeezed the trigger. Nothing happened. As Lawrence calmly reached for the second pistol, Jackson charged at him with his cane. The second pistol misfired as well. Legend has it that Jackson attacked Lawrence with his cane, and had to be restrained by startled onlookers, which included Davy Crockett. Bonus: Andrew Jackson is on the $20 bill, which is ironic considering his opposition to having a central bank during his presidency. As a matter of fact, he allowed the charter on the Second National Bank of the United States to lapse during his presidency. Did you find this post interesting? You should check out American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House	548	ENGLISH	1
5. Early Life Ferdinand Magellan was born a member of a noble Portuguese family. However, the details of his birth record are not known, except that he was born around the year 1480. Growing up as a child, he served as one of the pages to the Queen of Portugal. Magellan's early education revolved around cartography and navigation. He avidly pursued these two interests in his youth, and excelled in these endeavors. He continued his education while serving in the Portuguese Fleet, which took him to the Far East. While in the Portuguese Navy, Magellan also improved his fighting skills and navigational techniques, the proficiency of which proved invaluably useful in his career to come. For Ferdinand Magellan, joining the Portuguese fleet was the beginning of one of the greatest life’s works of exploration the world has ever seen. The greatest turning point in his life and career happened in Morocco, after he was dismissed from his post due to being accused of conducting illegal business with the Moors in the region. This dismissal prompted him to sail for Seville, Spain, where some of the latest, greatest ships of the day were being built. In Seville, he met a prominent fellow Portuguese expatriate named Diogo Barbosa. Magellan confided to Barbosa concerning his plans to find a new route to the Moluccas. Believing in Magellan, Barbosa set up an appointment with King Charles I, who financed the pursuit of the bold idea. Magellan was now set to become a great explorer. Although he did not make it back to Spain, Magellan's first and only expedition contributed much to the knowledge of ocean navigational techniques at that time. The date was August 10th, 1519 when Magellan set sail for the Moluccas with five ships. On the way, he explored the coastlines of what are now Brazil and Argentina. Magellan and his crew went through huge storms and hardships along the way but, finally, they discovered a small channel leading them straight into the Pacific Ocean. This narrow strait was later named the Strait of Magellan. This accomplishment facilitated the greater trip that would earn him the distinction of becoming the first explorer to circumnavigate the world. Magellan had many obstacles over the course of his career, but the whole time he saw only one thing, and that was to accomplish the goals he had set for himself. In his late twenties, while serving in the Portuguese Navy in Morocco, he was unfairly accused of conducting business with the Moors, which was against the Portuguese Navy's rules. The actions that followed were brilliant on his part, seeing him switch his allegiance to Spain to prove his worth, and this ultimately allowed him to realize his goals. Over the course of his explorations, Magellan was met with storms, mutinies, and hardships. Nonetheless, he faced it all with courage and determination to prove that he had the will to overcome them in order to meet his objectives. 1. Death and Legacy Magellan was a courageous soldier and navigator, but he often underestimated his foes. He was struck down by a native who he was trying to convert to Christianity in the Philippines. On April 27th, 1521, Magellan died in Cebu in the Philippines. The rest of Magellan's fleet was either shipwrecked or burned through various circumstances following his death, and only one ship reached the Moluccas to secure a cargo of spices. Sebastian del Cano, who captained the Victoria, an aptly named ship, finally returned to Spain with only 18 crew members after three years and one month of sailing. Magellan's feats not only brought him fame, but also respect from the scientific community and the world at large, and is held in high esteem to this day. Who Was Ferdinand Magellan? Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer who explored what is now Brazil and Argentina. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:dd4e6727-d492-4c17-a8d7-6e3fdf4ef66d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/ferdinand-magellan-explorers-of-the-world.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00228.warc.gz	en	0.98732	832	3.265625	3	[ -0.4169189929962158, 0.2755897641181946, 0.6090588569641113, -0.5462883114814758, -0.3918997049331665, -0.1735605001449585, 0.07960700988769531, 0.27811944484710693, -0.05971618741750717, -0.5533617734909058, 0.4951712489128113, -0.3807210326194763, -0.205158531665802, 0.6356014609336853, ...	1	5. Early Life Ferdinand Magellan was born a member of a noble Portuguese family. However, the details of his birth record are not known, except that he was born around the year 1480. Growing up as a child, he served as one of the pages to the Queen of Portugal. Magellan's early education revolved around cartography and navigation. He avidly pursued these two interests in his youth, and excelled in these endeavors. He continued his education while serving in the Portuguese Fleet, which took him to the Far East. While in the Portuguese Navy, Magellan also improved his fighting skills and navigational techniques, the proficiency of which proved invaluably useful in his career to come. For Ferdinand Magellan, joining the Portuguese fleet was the beginning of one of the greatest life’s works of exploration the world has ever seen. The greatest turning point in his life and career happened in Morocco, after he was dismissed from his post due to being accused of conducting illegal business with the Moors in the region. This dismissal prompted him to sail for Seville, Spain, where some of the latest, greatest ships of the day were being built. In Seville, he met a prominent fellow Portuguese expatriate named Diogo Barbosa. Magellan confided to Barbosa concerning his plans to find a new route to the Moluccas. Believing in Magellan, Barbosa set up an appointment with King Charles I, who financed the pursuit of the bold idea. Magellan was now set to become a great explorer. Although he did not make it back to Spain, Magellan's first and only expedition contributed much to the knowledge of ocean navigational techniques at that time. The date was August 10th, 1519 when Magellan set sail for the Moluccas with five ships. On the way, he explored the coastlines of what are now Brazil and Argentina. Magellan and his crew went through huge storms and hardships along the way but, finally, they discovered a small channel leading them straight into the Pacific Ocean. This narrow strait was later named the Strait of Magellan. This accomplishment facilitated the greater trip that would earn him the distinction of becoming the first explorer to circumnavigate the world. Magellan had many obstacles over the course of his career, but the whole time he saw only one thing, and that was to accomplish the goals he had set for himself. In his late twenties, while serving in the Portuguese Navy in Morocco, he was unfairly accused of conducting business with the Moors, which was against the Portuguese Navy's rules. The actions that followed were brilliant on his part, seeing him switch his allegiance to Spain to prove his worth, and this ultimately allowed him to realize his goals. Over the course of his explorations, Magellan was met with storms, mutinies, and hardships. Nonetheless, he faced it all with courage and determination to prove that he had the will to overcome them in order to meet his objectives. 1. Death and Legacy Magellan was a courageous soldier and navigator, but he often underestimated his foes. He was struck down by a native who he was trying to convert to Christianity in the Philippines. On April 27th, 1521, Magellan died in Cebu in the Philippines. The rest of Magellan's fleet was either shipwrecked or burned through various circumstances following his death, and only one ship reached the Moluccas to secure a cargo of spices. Sebastian del Cano, who captained the Victoria, an aptly named ship, finally returned to Spain with only 18 crew members after three years and one month of sailing. Magellan's feats not only brought him fame, but also respect from the scientific community and the world at large, and is held in high esteem to this day. Who Was Ferdinand Magellan? Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese explorer who explored what is now Brazil and Argentina. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	836	ENGLISH	1
In the 17th Century, shipbuilders had to balance the requirement for a heavy armament against sailing qualities. Ships were also the homes of many men so space had to be found for their accommodation, stores and provisions. One of the most fundamental principles dictating the design of a British warship, however, was that it had to be built to survive for as long as possible. By the middle of the century, all British warships carried most of their armaments at their sides. The weight of the armament itself was one of the key factors determining the dimensions of the ship and the size and nature of the timbers used in her construction. The batteries alone weighed between 130 and 165 tons, with the ships also carrying the weight of shot that these batteries could deliver, based on the traditional allocation of forty rounds’ worth of powder and shot to each ship. These weights increased through the course of the period, both reflecting and causing the increase in the sizes of warships of all rates. Notably, the objective to carry as many guns as possible often caused the ships to sit uncomfortably low in the water. Ships were often referred to by their number of complete gundecks, with the largest ships in the fleet having three gundecks, medium-sized ships having two, and the smallest warships having just one. The hold, containing storerooms for provisions, was located above the ‘floor’ of the ship and, from about the third quarter of the century onwards, the beams above this were planked over and became known as the orlop deck. This contained more storerooms, some cabins, the surgeon’s cockpit and the cable tiers. The main powder magazine was located under the gunner’s storeroom in the bows. The next deck was the gundeck, above which was the upper deck on a two-decker (a three-decker would have had a middle deck as well). The upper deck contained several structures, including a forecastle that contained the cook’s hearth and a lengthy quarterdeck for the ship’s officers.	<urn:uuid:1766b290-5129-4b83-a463-0878df66b103>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://thelondon.southendmuseums.org.uk/feature-content/design/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00102.warc.gz	en	0.988267	432	3.875	4	[ -0.024445587769150734, 0.21794889867305756, 0.23815341293811798, -0.6296689510345459, -0.18307551741600037, -0.1432386338710785, -0.06456299126148224, 0.3114267885684967, -0.36512473225593567, -0.4059487283229828, -0.006539161317050457, -0.5367640852928162, -0.18579433858394623, 0.20784543...	11	In the 17th Century, shipbuilders had to balance the requirement for a heavy armament against sailing qualities. Ships were also the homes of many men so space had to be found for their accommodation, stores and provisions. One of the most fundamental principles dictating the design of a British warship, however, was that it had to be built to survive for as long as possible. By the middle of the century, all British warships carried most of their armaments at their sides. The weight of the armament itself was one of the key factors determining the dimensions of the ship and the size and nature of the timbers used in her construction. The batteries alone weighed between 130 and 165 tons, with the ships also carrying the weight of shot that these batteries could deliver, based on the traditional allocation of forty rounds’ worth of powder and shot to each ship. These weights increased through the course of the period, both reflecting and causing the increase in the sizes of warships of all rates. Notably, the objective to carry as many guns as possible often caused the ships to sit uncomfortably low in the water. Ships were often referred to by their number of complete gundecks, with the largest ships in the fleet having three gundecks, medium-sized ships having two, and the smallest warships having just one. The hold, containing storerooms for provisions, was located above the ‘floor’ of the ship and, from about the third quarter of the century onwards, the beams above this were planked over and became known as the orlop deck. This contained more storerooms, some cabins, the surgeon’s cockpit and the cable tiers. The main powder magazine was located under the gunner’s storeroom in the bows. The next deck was the gundeck, above which was the upper deck on a two-decker (a three-decker would have had a middle deck as well). The upper deck contained several structures, including a forecastle that contained the cook’s hearth and a lengthy quarterdeck for the ship’s officers.	425	ENGLISH	1
According to historian Blom, the occupation of the Netherlands can be divided into 4 phases. The first phase was rather tranquil. By acting restrained, the German occupiers tried to gain the Dutch people’s sympathy. This lasted until early 1941. The February strike of 1941 as a reaction to the measures against Dutch Jews marked the beginning of the next phase. The occupiers became more stringent, especially after it became clear that they had not managed to get the Dutch population on their side. This phase lasted until the spring of 1943. The third phase started with the May strikes. Germany had made the Dutch economy secondary to the war efforts. Dutch men were forced to work in German factories, whereas before they had been recruited with propaganda campaigns. Blom says that the fourth phase began with the approach of the allied armies, Dolle Dinsdag (Mad Tuesday) and the railroad strike. This phase began in 1944 and was characterised by chaos and plundering by German troops and an increase in Dutch resistance activities. The first phase continued until the end of the war for the Wadden islands, with the exception of Texel. Even though the islands were aware of the occupiers becoming more repressive in the Netherlands, and that this resulted in chaos and pillaging, the German troops still tried to maintain a peaceful situation.	<urn:uuid:5876bbb6-a350-488a-8536-340c59c769aa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.atlantikwall-wadden.nl/en/verhalen/ooggetuigen	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00491.warc.gz	en	0.987162	267	3.328125	3	[ -0.157931849360466, 0.5473487377166748, 0.2947813868522644, -0.3878067433834076, 0.3002071678638458, 0.21517913043498993, -0.3511253893375397, 0.07462220638990402, -0.2284666746854782, -0.37322521209716797, -0.05801866948604584, -0.3269251585006714, -0.23348893225193024, 0.6138099431991577...	11	According to historian Blom, the occupation of the Netherlands can be divided into 4 phases. The first phase was rather tranquil. By acting restrained, the German occupiers tried to gain the Dutch people’s sympathy. This lasted until early 1941. The February strike of 1941 as a reaction to the measures against Dutch Jews marked the beginning of the next phase. The occupiers became more stringent, especially after it became clear that they had not managed to get the Dutch population on their side. This phase lasted until the spring of 1943. The third phase started with the May strikes. Germany had made the Dutch economy secondary to the war efforts. Dutch men were forced to work in German factories, whereas before they had been recruited with propaganda campaigns. Blom says that the fourth phase began with the approach of the allied armies, Dolle Dinsdag (Mad Tuesday) and the railroad strike. This phase began in 1944 and was characterised by chaos and plundering by German troops and an increase in Dutch resistance activities. The first phase continued until the end of the war for the Wadden islands, with the exception of Texel. Even though the islands were aware of the occupiers becoming more repressive in the Netherlands, and that this resulted in chaos and pillaging, the German troops still tried to maintain a peaceful situation.	280	ENGLISH	1
GRASS-LEASE FIGHT. The controversy over the leasing and settlement of state lands in West Texas, particularly in the Panhandle, traces its roots to the Annexation Resolution in 1845, by which Texas was allowed to retain ownership of its public domain. The state legislature divided this domain into three categories. Soldiers', or veterans', grants, each equivalent to several thousand acres in the unsettled areas, were to be awarded in lieu of cash for service rendered during the conflicts with Mexico. School and university lands were to be leased out, and the money was to be set aside for public education and a state university. Railroad grants were meant to induce rail companies to construct lines from settled areas in East Texas, from where supplies could be transported west. For every mile of track laid, the firm received sixteen sections of land in the state's undeveloped areas. In 1873 a law was passed by which railroads were required to sell these holdings within five years. In order to prevent the consolidation of large blocks of land by any one group or individual, the state developed a "checkerboard" surveying policy, in which alternating sections were parceled out to the schools and railroads. The system, however, did little to curb "land-grabbing" practices. Many cattlemen simply bought up railroad land certificates for as little as sixteen cents per acre, or $100 per section, and grazed their herds on both this land and the intervening school sections. When barbed wire became available, many ranchers simply enclosed entire pastures regardless of ownership. In 1883 the legislature passed the Land Board Act, which provided for the competitive sale of as many as seven sections of public land to an individual and a policy of leasing land to ranching operations. Many ranchers who had been utilizing these lands when grass was "free" either refused to pay for the leases altogether or would pay no more than four cents an acre annually, while the State Land Board, consisting of Governor John Ireland, Attorney General John D. Templeton and other executive officials, wanted eight cents an acre. Panhandle cowmen, led by Charles Goodnight, engaged in legal battles for what they felt would be an equitable lease law in Austin. Various newspapers throughout the state accused the cattle "kings" of blatantly defying the best interests of Texas and its people by fencing entire counties without paying one penny for their usage. Upon conducting thorough investigations, Templeton and other state officials discovered the extent to which West Texas cattlemen were enclosing the public domain. Millions of acres in the Panhandle alone were being grazed free, and school lands were being fenced illegally. Consequently, in 1884 about fifty Panhandle ranchers were indicted on charges of illegal enclosure. By late December 1885 Templeton had made arrangements for a trial at Clarendon, which was held the following summer. At the attorney general's bidding, W. H. Woodman, attorney for the Thirty-fifth Judicial District, presented the suits against the cowmen before Frank Willis, the Panhandle's first district judge. Templeton, however, was playing against a stacked deck; since the jury consisted mostly of cowboys and area ranchers, including Goodnight and others under indictment, the accused men were promptly acquitted. At the urging of Judge Thomas J. Brown of Sherman, the state then retained James N. Browning, who was completing his second term in the legislature, to go to bat for the settlers. Since Judge Willis had clearly sided with the cowmen, Templeton sought to bring impeachment proceedings against him. The trial, which was held at Austin in February 1887 and presided over by Templeton's successor, James S. Hogg, was a sensational one that attracted statewide attention. Several noted attorneys were hired to hear the case; some, including state senator Temple Houston, were employed by the Panhandle cattlemen to defend Willis, who was acquitted in the end and went home to a hero's welcome in Mobeetie. The main reason for the cattle companies' opposition to the influx of settlers was their belief that their semiarid ranges did not get enough rain for farming. However, most of the state legislators, including Browning and Houston, believed otherwise, and in 1887 passed a revision of the Land Board Act's lease law to encourage further settlement of the public domain. This new law continued both the sale and lease of state lands and also provided for their reclassification as farm and pasture land. No individual or family could purchase more than four sections, one of farm and three of pasture. The price of two dollars an acre was initially set up to be paid within three years, but that period was later extended to forty years. Even then, such a law was not easy to enforce. Some cowmen continued to use public land without paying for it. What was more, they were often able to get around the law's purchase provisions by having their cowhands file on land under the law, obtain titles, and then sell it to the cattle companies for a fraction of its value. Thus, while ranchlands were increased, many settlers were not always able to acquire the land they wanted. With the advent of railroads to the Panhandle, however, the problems of lease and enclosure were gradually worked out peacefully. Many cattlemen who had initially viewed the steel rails with apprehension soon came to realize the benefits the railway would bring. In 1895 the passage of the Four-Section Act, which among other provisions allowed settlers sufficient land for stock farming, was a major step toward the equitable division of land. After 1900 most of the public domain had been sold, much of it to the big land and cattle operations, and the leasing of state lands that had caused so much controversy ceased. Subsequent financial reverses compelled ranchers to sell their holdings piecemeal, and a more equal parceling of land resulted. By then, even Goodnight had mellowed in his attitude toward "progress," declaring that "nothing will ruin us that settles the country." The grass-lease fight, along with the coming of the railroads, figures prominently in Paul Green's outdoor drama Texas, which runs during the summer months in Palo Duro Canyon State Scenic Park. Image Use Disclaimer All copyrighted materials included within the Handbook of Texas Online are in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 related to Copyright and “Fair Use” for Non-Profit educational institutions, which permits the Texas State Historical Association (TSHA), to utilize copyrighted materials to further scholarship, education, and inform the public. The TSHA makes every effort to conform to the principles of fair use and to comply with copyright law. For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use, you must obtain permission from the copyright owner. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, H. Allen Anderson, "GRASS-LEASE FIGHT," accessed January 26, 2020, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/azg01. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	<urn:uuid:846172a0-b928-465f-8266-26a6e048592e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/azg01	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00208.warc.gz	en	0.980471	1,502	3.453125	3	[ -0.15313374996185303, -0.09288565814495087, 0.35202401876449585, 0.27176642417907715, 0.07263488322496414, -0.03112875297665596, -0.2845715880393982, -0.2945935130119324, 0.06363807618618011, 0.06704563647508621, -0.1611626148223877, -0.10086439549922943, 0.3136516809463501, 0.005483228713...	1	GRASS-LEASE FIGHT. The controversy over the leasing and settlement of state lands in West Texas, particularly in the Panhandle, traces its roots to the Annexation Resolution in 1845, by which Texas was allowed to retain ownership of its public domain. The state legislature divided this domain into three categories. Soldiers', or veterans', grants, each equivalent to several thousand acres in the unsettled areas, were to be awarded in lieu of cash for service rendered during the conflicts with Mexico. School and university lands were to be leased out, and the money was to be set aside for public education and a state university. Railroad grants were meant to induce rail companies to construct lines from settled areas in East Texas, from where supplies could be transported west. For every mile of track laid, the firm received sixteen sections of land in the state's undeveloped areas. In 1873 a law was passed by which railroads were required to sell these holdings within five years. In order to prevent the consolidation of large blocks of land by any one group or individual, the state developed a "checkerboard" surveying policy, in which alternating sections were parceled out to the schools and railroads. The system, however, did little to curb "land-grabbing" practices. Many cattlemen simply bought up railroad land certificates for as little as sixteen cents per acre, or $100 per section, and grazed their herds on both this land and the intervening school sections. When barbed wire became available, many ranchers simply enclosed entire pastures regardless of ownership. In 1883 the legislature passed the Land Board Act, which provided for the competitive sale of as many as seven sections of public land to an individual and a policy of leasing land to ranching operations. Many ranchers who had been utilizing these lands when grass was "free" either refused to pay for the leases altogether or would pay no more than four cents an acre annually, while the State Land Board, consisting of Governor John Ireland, Attorney General John D. Templeton and other executive officials, wanted eight cents an acre. Panhandle cowmen, led by Charles Goodnight, engaged in legal battles for what they felt would be an equitable lease law in Austin. Various newspapers throughout the state accused the cattle "kings" of blatantly defying the best interests of Texas and its people by fencing entire counties without paying one penny for their usage. Upon conducting thorough investigations, Templeton and other state officials discovered the extent to which West Texas cattlemen were enclosing the public domain. Millions of acres in the Panhandle alone were being grazed free, and school lands were being fenced illegally. Consequently, in 1884 about fifty Panhandle ranchers were indicted on charges of illegal enclosure. By late December 1885 Templeton had made arrangements for a trial at Clarendon, which was held the following summer. At the attorney general's bidding, W. H. Woodman, attorney for the Thirty-fifth Judicial District, presented the suits against the cowmen before Frank Willis, the Panhandle's first district judge. Templeton, however, was playing against a stacked deck; since the jury consisted mostly of cowboys and area ranchers, including Goodnight and others under indictment, the accused men were promptly acquitted. At the urging of Judge Thomas J. Brown of Sherman, the state then retained James N. Browning, who was completing his second term in the legislature, to go to bat for the settlers. Since Judge Willis had clearly sided with the cowmen, Templeton sought to bring impeachment proceedings against him. The trial, which was held at Austin in February 1887 and presided over by Templeton's successor, James S. Hogg, was a sensational one that attracted statewide attention. Several noted attorneys were hired to hear the case; some, including state senator Temple Houston, were employed by the Panhandle cattlemen to defend Willis, who was acquitted in the end and went home to a hero's welcome in Mobeetie. The main reason for the cattle companies' opposition to the influx of settlers was their belief that their semiarid ranges did not get enough rain for farming. However, most of the state legislators, including Browning and Houston, believed otherwise, and in 1887 passed a revision of the Land Board Act's lease law to encourage further settlement of the public domain. This new law continued both the sale and lease of state lands and also provided for their reclassification as farm and pasture land. No individual or family could purchase more than four sections, one of farm and three of pasture. The price of two dollars an acre was initially set up to be paid within three years, but that period was later extended to forty years. Even then, such a law was not easy to enforce. Some cowmen continued to use public land without paying for it. What was more, they were often able to get around the law's purchase provisions by having their cowhands file on land under the law, obtain titles, and then sell it to the cattle companies for a fraction of its value. Thus, while ranchlands were increased, many settlers were not always able to acquire the land they wanted. With the advent of railroads to the Panhandle, however, the problems of lease and enclosure were gradually worked out peacefully. Many cattlemen who had initially viewed the steel rails with apprehension soon came to realize the benefits the railway would bring. In 1895 the passage of the Four-Section Act, which among other provisions allowed settlers sufficient land for stock farming, was a major step toward the equitable division of land. After 1900 most of the public domain had been sold, much of it to the big land and cattle operations, and the leasing of state lands that had caused so much controversy ceased. Subsequent financial reverses compelled ranchers to sell their holdings piecemeal, and a more equal parceling of land resulted. By then, even Goodnight had mellowed in his attitude toward "progress," declaring that "nothing will ruin us that settles the country." The grass-lease fight, along with the coming of the railroads, figures prominently in Paul Green's outdoor drama Texas, which runs during the summer months in Palo Duro Canyon State Scenic Park. Image Use Disclaimer All copyrighted materials included within the Handbook of Texas Online are in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 related to Copyright and “Fair Use” for Non-Profit educational institutions, which permits the Texas State Historical Association (TSHA), to utilize copyrighted materials to further scholarship, education, and inform the public. The TSHA makes every effort to conform to the principles of fair use and to comply with copyright law. For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use, you must obtain permission from the copyright owner. The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, H. Allen Anderson, "GRASS-LEASE FIGHT," accessed January 26, 2020, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/azg01. Uploaded on June 15, 2010. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.	1,537	ENGLISH	1
BestEssay - the best place to get help with your history essay By Tim Lambert Dedicated to Lucinda Wilde The Romans founded London about 50 CE. Its name is derived from the Celtic word Londinios, which means the place of the bold one. After they invaded Britain in 43 AD the Romans built a bridge across the Thames. They later decided it was an excellent place to build a port. The water was deep enough for ocean-going ships but it was far enough inland to be safe from Germanic raiders. Around 50 CE Roman merchants built a town by the bridge. So London was born. The early settlement at London did not have stone walls but there may have been a ditch and an earth rampart with a wooden palisade on top. Then in 61 CE Queen Boudicca led a rebellion against the Romans. Her army marched on London. No attempt was made to defend London. Boudicca burned London but after her rebellion was crushed it was rebuilt. Rich people built houses of stone or brick with tiled roofs but most people lived in wooden houses. By the end of the 2nd century a stone wall was erected around London. The wall was 20 feet high. Outside the wall was a ditch. In the middle of the 3rd century, 20 bastions were added to the walls (a bastion was a semi-circular tower projecting from the wall). The population of Roman London rose to perhaps 45,000, which seems small to us but it was the largest town in Britain. In the center of Roman London was the forum. This was a square with shops and public buildings arranged around it. The most important building in the forum was the basilica or town hall, which was 500 feet long and 70 feet high. In Roman London, there were brickworks, potteries and glassworks. There were also donkey powered mills for grinding grain to flour and bakeries. Roman London was also an important port with wooden wharves and jetties. Grain and metal were exported and luxury goods were imported. (Things like wine, olive oil, glass, fine pottery, silk, and ivory). Rich citizens had baths in their homes but there were several public baths near the city gates. (Romans went to the baths to socialize not just to keep clean). Most people in the town got their water from wells and used cesspools but there were underground drains to remove rainwater. Roman London also had an amphitheater, which could hold 8,000 people. Here gladiators fought to the death. Cockfighting was also a popular sport. Life in Roman Britain The last Roman soldier left Britain in 407 CE. Afterwards London was probably abandoned. There may have been a few people living inside the walls by fishing or farming but London ceased to be a town. But soon it rose again. A new town appeared outside the walls on the site of Covent Garden. It was much smaller than Roman London with perhaps 10,000 inhabitants. In 597 monks from Rome began the task of converting the Saxons to Christianity. In 604 a bishop was appointed for London. By the 640's there was a mint in London making silver coins. In the 670's a Royal document called London 'the place where the ships land'. Early in the 8th century a writer called London 'a trading center for many nations who visit by land and sea'. Saxon London consisted of many wooden huts with thatched roofs. Slag from metal forges has been found proving there were many blacksmiths at work in the town. Archaeologists have also found large numbers of loom weights (used in weaving wool) Saxon craftsmen also worked with animal bones making things like combs. The main export from Saxon London was wool, either raw of woven. Imports included wine and luxury foods like grapes and figs. Pottery and millstones were also imported. Slaves were also bought and sold in London. Disaster struck London in 842 when the Danes looted London. They returned in 851 and this time they burned a large part of the town (an easy task when all buildings were of wood). Then the Danes gave up just raiding and turned to conquest. They conquered northern and Eastern England including London. King Alfred the Great totally defeated the Danes in 878 and they split the country between them. The Danes took eastern England including London while Alfred took the South and West. Despite the peace treaty, Alfred's men took London in 886. Alfred repaired the walls of the old Roman town. Until then Londoners lived outside the Roman walls but during Alfred's reign, they moved inside the walls for protection. Soon foreign merchants came to live in London. By the 10th century, there were wine merchants from France at Vintners Place and German merchants at Dowgate. The Danes returned in 994 but this time the Londoners fought them off. A writer said ' they proceeded to attack the city stoutly and wished to set it on fire but here they suffered more harm and injury than they ever thought any citizen could do them'. 'London Bridge is falling down'...so says the nursery rhyme. This is believed to be derived from an event that took place in the early 11th century. King Olaf of Norway attacked England but he was unable to sails up the Thames past London Bridge. So he ordered his men to erect wood and wicker canopies over their boats. They then approached London Bridge. Londoners on the bridge threw down missiles but they were unable to stop the Vikings. At that time London Bridge was made of wood. Olaf and his men tied ropes to the wooden struts supporting it. They then rowed away and London Bridge collapsed. Some historians question whether this event really happened or whether it was just a legend that grew up around King (later Saint) Olaf. Edward the Confessor (1042-1066) built a wooden palace at Westminster. Later Parliament met here. Because of this Westminster became the seat of government not the city of London itself. Edward also built Westminster Abbey, which was consecrated a few weeks before his death. Life in Saxon England After the battle of Hastings an advance guard of Normans approached London Bridge from the South but were beaten off. The Norman army then marched in a loop to the west of London to cut it off from the rest of England. William the Conqueror occupied the royal palace at Westminster and then won over the Londoners by making various promises. William was crowned king of England at Westminster on 25 December 1066. William gave London a charter, a document confirming certain rights. Nevertheless, he built a wooden tower to stand guard over London. It was replaced by a stone tower in 1078-1100. That was the beginning of the Tower of London The population of London at this time was perhaps 18,000, which seems very small to us but was very large by the standards of the time. London grew in size through the 12th century and some people began to build housed outside the walls. In 1176 the wooden bridge across the Thames was replaced with a stone one. A writer described London about the year 1180: 'London is happy in its clean air, in the Christian religion, in the strength of its fortifications, in its natural situation, in the honor of its citizens. The Cathedral is St Pauls but there is also in London and its suburbs 13 large monasteries, beside 126 parish churches. On the east side lies the tower, very large and strong with 4 gates and turrets at intervals and runs around the northern side of the city. To the north lie fields and meadows with small rivers flowing through them, by these water mills are driven with a pleasant murmur. To this city come merchants from every nation under heaven rejoicing to bring merchandise in their ships'. Someone else wrote about London: 'Among the noble and celebrated cities of the world, that of London, the Capital of the Kingdom of England is one of the most renowned, possessing above others, abundant wealth, extensive commerce, great grandeur and significance'. Medieval London was a lively place. There was a horse market at Smithfield (originally smooth field) where horse racing took place. Smithfield was also the site of public executions, which always attracted large crowds. Londoners also loved dancing in the open spaces that surrounded the town. They liked archery and wrestling and men fought mock battles with wooden swords and shields. In Winter people went ice skating on frozen marshes at Moorfield using skates made of animal bones. In the 12th or 13th century London was often spelled Lunden or Lundon. By the time of Chaucer in the late 14th century, it was spelled London. In the 13th century the friars came to London. Friars were like monks but instead of living lives separate from the world, they went out to preach. There were different orders of friars each with a different color of their costume. Dominican friars were called black friars because of their black costumes and the place where they lived in London is still called Blackfriars. There were also grey friars (Franciscans), white friars (Carmelites) and crutched friars. The word crutched is a corruption of crouche, the old English word for cross. Their proper name was Friars of the Holy Cross. The Jews suffered from persecution during the Middle Ages. The first Jews came to England after the Norman Conquest. Jews in London lived in a ghetto in Old Jewry. They were some of the first people since Roman times to live in stone houses. They had to as wooden houses were not safe enough! In 1189 a wave of persecution resulted in the deaths of about 30 Jews. In 1264 rioters killed about 500 Jews in London. Then in 1290, all Jews were expelled from England. In Medieval London streets were sometimes named after the trades carried on there. Bakers lived in Bread Street and Poultry was sold in that street. Cows were kept in Milk Street for milking. In 1381 the Peasants Revolt broke out. On 13 July the rebels marched on London and sympathizers opened the gates to them. The king and his ministers took refuge in the Tower of London while the rebels opened the prisons and looted the house of John of Gaunt, an unpopular noble. On 14 July the king met the rebels at Moorfield and made them various promises, none of which he kept. The next day the king went to mass at Westminster while he was away the rebels broke into the Tower of London and killed the Archbishop of Canterbury and several royal officials who had taken refuge there. They confronted the king on his way back from mass. The mayor of London stabbed the leader of the rebels, fearing he was going to attack the king. Afterward, the king managed to calm the rebels and persuaded them to go home. The population of London may have reached 50,000 by the middle of the 14th century making it far larger than any other town in England. However at least a third of the population died when the Black Death struck in 1348-49 but London soon recovered. Its population may have reached 70,000 by the end of the Middle Ages. Life in the Middle Ages The Tower of London LONDON IN THE 16th CENTURY AND 17th CENTURY The population of London may have reached 120,000 by the middle of the 16th century and about 250,000 by 1600. In the Middle Ages the church owned about 1/4 of the land in London. When Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries it released a great deal of land for new buildings. Banqueting House was built in 1622. In 1635 the king opened Hyde Park to the public. In 1637 Charles I created Richmond Park for hunting. Also in 1637 Queens House was completed in nearby Greenwich. Wool was still the main export from London but there were also exports of 'Excellent saffron in small quantities, a great quantity of lead and tin, sheep and rabbit skins without number, with various other sorts of fine peltry (skins) and leather, beer, cheese and other sorts of provisions'. The Royal Exchange where merchants could buy and sell goods opened in 1571. In the early 17th century rich men continued to build houses west of London. The Earl of Bedford built houses at Covent Garden, on the Strand and at Long Acre. He also obtained permission to hold a fruit and vegetable market at Covent Garden. Other rich people build houses at Lincoln Inn Fields and at St Martins in the Fields. On the other side of London the village of Whitechapel was 'swallowed up' by the expanding city. The village of Clerkenwell also became a suburb of London. Southwark also grew rapidly. All this happened despite outbreaks of bubonic plague. It broke out in 1603, 1633 and 1665 but each time the population of London quickly recovered. Then in 1642 Civil War began between king and parliament. The royalists made one attempt to capture London in 1643 but their army was met 6 miles west of St Pauls by a much larger parliamentary army. The royalists withdrew. However the Puritan government of 1646-1660 was hated by many ordinary people and when Charles II came to London from France in 1660 an estimated 20,000 people gathered in the streets to meet him. All the churches in London rang their bells. The last outbreak of plague in London was in 1665. But this was the last outbreak. In 1666 came the great fire of London. It began on 2 September in a baker's house. At first, it did not cause undue alarm. But the wind caused the flames to spread rapidly. People formed chains with leather buckets and worked hand operated pumps all to no avail. The mayor was advised to use gunpowder to create fire breaks but he was reluctant, fearing the owners of destroyed buildings would sue for compensation. The fire continued to spread until the king took charge. He ordered sailors to make fire breaks. At the same time, the wind dropped. About 13,200 houses had been destroyed and 70-80,000 people had been made homeless. The king ordered the navy to make tents and canvas available from their stores to help the homeless who camped on open spaces around the city. Temporary markets were set up so the homeless could buy food. but the crowds of homeless soon dispersed. Most of the houses in London were still standing and many of the homeless found accommodation in them or in nearby villages. Others built wooden huts on the charred ruins. To prevent such a disaster happening again the king commanded that all new houses in London should be of stone and brick not wood. Citizens were responsible for rebuilding their own houses but a tax was charged on coal brought by ship into London to finance the rebuilding of churches and other public buildings. Work began on rebuilding St Pauls in 1675 but it was not finished till 1711. In the late 17th century fashionable houses were built at Bloomsbury and on the road to the village of Knightsbridge. Elegant houses in squares and broad straight streets were also built north of St James Palace. Soho also became built up. As well as building attractive suburbs the rich began to live in attractive villages near London such as Hackney, Clapham, Camberwell and Streatham. In the east, the poor continued to build houses and Bethnal Green was 'swallowed up' by the growing city. French Protestants fleeing religious persecution arrived in London. Many of them were silk weavers who lived in Spitalfields which also became a suburb of London. In the 17th century wealthy Londoners obtained piped water for the first time. It was brought by canal from the countryside then was carried by hollow tree trunks under the streets. You had to pay to have your house connected. After 1685 oil lamps lighted the streets. Hackney carriages became common in the streets of London. In 1694 the Bank of England was formed. It moved to Threadneedle Street in 1734. Billingsgate was a general market until 1699 when an Act of Parliament made it a fish market. LONDON IN THE 18th CENTURY The population of London rose from about 600,000 in 1700 to 950,000 in 1800. The fashionable suburbs spread north along Tottenham Court Road and north west to the village of Paddington. By 1800 growth had spread to Islington and Chelsea. In the east growth spread to Stepney, Ratcliffe, Limehouse and Wapping. In the south the city spread to Bermondsey, Rotherhithe, Walworth and Kennington. Several hospitals were founded in London in the 18th century including Westminster (1720), Guys (1724), St Georges (1733), London (1740) and Middlesex (1745). Early in the 18th century London was severely affected by gin drinking. Gin was cheap and for the poor it offered a chance to forget their poverty. In the 1740's it was estimated that 1 house in 8 sold gin over the counter. In 1751 gin drinking was curtailed when duty was charged on the drink. Many new buildings were erected in Georgian London. Buckingham Palace was built in 1703 for the Duke of Buckingham. It was altered in the 19th century by John Nash (1752-1835) and the first monarch to live there was Queen Victoria in 1837. Marlborough House was built in 1711. The British Museum was founded in 1753. Also in 1753 Mansion House was built as a residence for the Lord Mayor of London. In 1757 the houses on London Bridge were demolished. In 1761 an Act of Parliament set up a body of men called Board of Commissioners power to pave and clean the streets of London. The walls of the city were demolished between 1760 and 1766 and new bridges were built Westminster in 1749 and Blackfriars in 1770. Somerset House was built between 1776 and 1786 by Sir William Chambers (1724-1796). On the South Bank were industries like leather tanning (in Bermondsey) and timber yards (in Lambeth). There were also many craftsmen in London who made luxury goods. Silk weavers in Spitalfields, watchmakers in Clerkenwell, coach makers and furniture makers in Long Acre. There were also makers of surgical and navigational instruments and jewelers. London was also the largest port in the country. By 1700 she was handling 80% of imports into England and 69% of her exports. There was also a large shipbuilding industry in London. London was also a huge market for the rest of the country's produce. In 1720 someone wrote that people all over England were employed to 'furnish something and I may add the best of everything to supply the city of London with provisions. I mean by provisions, grain, meat, fish, butter, cheese, salt , fuel, timber and cloth, also everything necessary for building'. Life in the 18th Century LONDON IN THE 19th CENTURY The population of London grew from 950,000 in 1800 to 6 million in 1900. At the beginning of the 19th century, rich men built estates at Somers Town, Camden Town, Walworth, Agar Town, Bromley, and Pentonville. Growth also spread to Battersea, Clapham, Camberwell, Brixton, Bayswater, and Peckham. By 1850 Deptford was part of London. Growth also spread to Fulham and Kensington. As late as 1839 Shepherds Bush was called a 'pleasant village' but it was soon swallowed up. In the east Hackney, Poplar and Cubitt Town were built up by 1850. Later in the century growth spread to East and West Ham. After 1850 growth spread to Acton, Chiswick, Brentford, Richmond, Twickenham and Ealing. In the North, it reached Willesden and Hampstead. Growth also spread to Hornsey and Tottenham. In the South, it spread to Putney, Wimbledon, Streatham, Dulwich, Catford, Lewisham and to Greenwich and Charlton. After 1850 Chinese immigrants started settling in Limehouse. There were also many Irish immigrants in the Docklands. By 1850 London had 20,000 Jews. Their numbers doubled in the 1880s when many refugees arrived from Russia and Eastern Europe. Part of the reason for the growth of London was the railway, which made it possible for people to live away from the city center and travel to work each day. Euston Station was built in 1837 by Philip Hardwick (1792-1870). Kings Cross Station was built in 1852 by Lewis Cubitt (1799-1883). St Pancras was built in 1868 by Sir George Gilbert Scott (1811-1878). However there were epidemics of cholera in London in 1831, 1848-49 and finally in 1866. In 1859 work began on building a system of sewers for the whole city but it was not complete till 1875. After that death from the disease fell drastically. In 1807 gas light was used for the first time at Pall Mall and by the 1840's was being used all over London. Electric light was first used in Holborn in 1883. By the 1840s there were horse drawn buses and from the 1870's horse drawn trams. The first underground railway opened in 1863. At first, carriages were pulled by steam trains. The system was electrified in 1890-1905. Meanwhile, the Thames Tunnel was built in 1843. In 1834 Parliament was destroyed by fire. It was rebuilt to a design by Charles Barry. The new parliament included a great clock, which is now known as Big Ben. Originally only the bell which struck the hour was called Big Ben (It was probably named after Sir Benjamin Hall, the Commissioner of Works) but in time people began to call the whole clock tower Big Ben. John Nash created Trafalgar Square in 1839 and Nelsons column was erected in 1842. Furthermore many parks were created in London in the 19th century. Regents Park opened to the public in 1838. Victoria Park opened in 1845. Battersea Park opened in 1858. Another great London landmark the Albert Hall was built in 1871 by Francis Fowke (1823-1865). New museums were created in Victorian London. The Victoria and Albert Museum opened in 1852. The Science Museum opened in 1857 and the Natural History Museum opened in 1881. New Scotland Yard was built in 1891 and the statue of Eros in Piccadilly Square was erected in 1892. Meanwhile London continued to be a great port. In the 18th century ships tied up at wharves on the Thames but the river became overcrowded so docks were built. West India Dock (1802), London Dock (1805), East India Dock (1806) St Katherines Dock (1828), Victoria Dock (1855), Millwall Dock (1868) South West India Dock (1870), Albert Dock (1880) and Tilbury Docks (1886). In the 19th century London was also a great manufacturing center. Food and drink were important industries. There were flour mills and sauce factories in Lambeth and sugar refineries in Whitehall and St Georges in the East. The first tinned foods were made in Bermondsey. There were also breweries all over London. Bermondsey and Southwark were famous for their leather industry and for hat making. Bethnal Green was noted for boot and shoemaking. The clothing trade was also important. Chemicals were made in Silvertown and West Ham. Clocks and watches and jewelry were made in Clerkenwell. There were shipyards in Poplar, Deptford, Millwall, and Blackwall. Other industries in London included furniture making, machine and tool making and the manufacture of horse drawn carriages. Life in the 19th Century LONDON IN THE 20th CENTURY In the early 20th century London continued to grow rapidly. Hendon and Finchley became built up. Growth also spread to Harrow and Wealdstone, Twickenham, Teddington and Kingston Upon Thames. Wimbledon and Surbiton also became suburbs of London. Furthermore in the early 20th century London County Council began to build estates of council houses on the edge of the city. In 1903 the first ones were built at Tooting. Later estates were built at Norbury, Tottenham, Roehampton, at Downham near Catford and at Becontree. Other estates were built at Watling and Morden. Despite these new council house estates 75% of houses built in London between 1919 and 1939 were private. The population of London rose from 6 million in 1900 to 8.7 million in 1939. Westminster Cathedral was built in 1903. The Victoria and Albert Museum moved to its present home in 1909. The Geological Museum opened in 1935. White City Stadium was built in 1908. Wembley Stadium was built in 1923 and Gunnersbury Park opened in 1925. Chiswick Bridge was built in 1933. In the early 20th century the old London industries (brewing, Sugar refining, flour milling, engineering) continued by new industries grew in the suburbs such as aircraft building, vehicle manufacturing and making electrical goods. London suffered badly during the Second World War. When the Blitz began in September 1940 Londoners started sleeping in the underground stations and soon 150,000 people were sleeping there overnight. In the blitz about 20,000 people were killed and 25,000 were injured. The first blitz ended in May 1941 but in 1944 Germany began firing missiles at London and killed about 3,000 people. In 1944 a plan for post war London was published. The authorities felt the city was overcrowded and they planned to create a ring of satellite towns 20-30 miles from London. But the new towns attracted the skilled workers away from London. The new towns had modern industries who wanted skilled workers. The unskilled and the old were left behind. As well as building new towns the council began building flats in London. The first were built in 1948. At first they were low rise but from 1964 high rise flats, up to 24 storeys high, were built to replace slums. Unfortunately rehousing slum tenants in high rise flats broke up communities. Then in 1968 came the Ronan Point disaster when a gas explosion partly destroyed a block of flats killing 4 people. After that the policy of demolishing slums changed and owners were given grants to modernize their houses. Waterloo Bridge was built in 1945. The Royal Festival Hall was built in 1951. Pollocks Toy Museum opened in 1956. The Shell Centre was built in 1962. Millbank Tower was built in 1963. One famous London landmark, the Post Office Tower opened to the public in 1966. Haywards Gallery opened in 1968. The Museum of London opened in 1976. A Museum of Garden History opened in 1979. The London Transport Museum opened in 1980. The Museum of the Moving Image opened in 1988. Somerset House opened to the public in 2000. It includes the Courtauld Gallery and the Gilbert Collection. In the 1950's London boomed. Car factories were very busy. So were the aircraft factories in north London. The docks were also very busy, employing 30,000 men. But in the 1960's the docks began to suffer from the breakup of the British Empire. The newly independent countries began to trade with countries other than Britain and London docks suffered as a result. Worse in 1973 Britain joined the EEC. Imports from commonwealth countries were limited by quotas or had to pay tariffs. This hurt London docks as most of their trade came from the Commonwealth. Imports from the EEC tended to go to ports like Felixstowe and Dover. The London Docks Authority tried to cut costs by shifting to a containerized dock at Tilbury but many of the old docks were forced to close. The old industries associated with them such as sugar refining and food processing suffered as well. In the early 1970's when London was still prospering the government tried to reduce congestion by encouraging companies to move out to the provinces. Then in the mid 70s came a recession and companies looked for ways to cut costs. One way was to leave London with its high rents and high labor costs. Engineering and electrical companies now left the capital in droves and unemployment soared. After 1976 the GLC vigorously opposed the policy of encouraging industry to leave London. Central government did a u-turn. In 1981 the Greater London Enterprise Council was set up to encourage investment in London. But unemployment remained high in the 1980s and 1990s. One industry did boom however - tourism, with several million foreign visitors arriving each year. In the 1950's West Indian immigrants started to arrive in London and by 1955 20,000 were arriving each year. They met with prejudice and hostility, which culminated in the race riots at Notting Hill in 1958. In the early 1960s Asians arrived as well. Many of them took over corner shops. Both Chinese and Indians opened restaurants. Central London Mosque was built in 1977. Despite immigration the population of London fell after 1945. However in the last years of the 20th century the population began to grow rapidly again. Life in the 20th Century LONDON IN THE 21st CENTURY At the beginning of the 21st Century London continued to grow rapidly. The Greater London Authority was created in 2000. The same year the Tate Modern opened in a former power station. Furthermore the London Eye opened to the public in 2000. In 2012 a new building was opened in London called the Shard. Also in 2012 the Olympics were held in London, confirming its status as one of the world's greatest cities. In 2016 the number of visitors to London hit a new record of 37.3 million, making it one of the most visited cities in Europe. Today the population of London is 8.1 million. A Timeline of London A brief history of Bermondsey A short history of Chelsea A brief history of Greenwich A brief history of Hampstead A brief history of Southwark A brief history of Westminster Famous people from London Tower of London The Museum of London Last revised 2019	<urn:uuid:6ad92206-bb22-49dc-a5a0-ee7bfa3325a5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.localhistories.org/london.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00486.warc.gz	en	0.982384	6,295	3.40625	3	[ 0.0553646981716156, -0.25154125690460205, 0.4987533688545227, 0.12242420762777328, -0.25274330377578735, -0.4796677529811859, -0.06494426727294922, 0.2709468603134155, 0.12659892439842224, -0.12556153535842896, 0.03506069630384445, -0.6576021909713745, -0.021576296538114548, 0.408518195152...	1	BestEssay - the best place to get help with your history essay By Tim Lambert Dedicated to Lucinda Wilde The Romans founded London about 50 CE. Its name is derived from the Celtic word Londinios, which means the place of the bold one. After they invaded Britain in 43 AD the Romans built a bridge across the Thames. They later decided it was an excellent place to build a port. The water was deep enough for ocean-going ships but it was far enough inland to be safe from Germanic raiders. Around 50 CE Roman merchants built a town by the bridge. So London was born. The early settlement at London did not have stone walls but there may have been a ditch and an earth rampart with a wooden palisade on top. Then in 61 CE Queen Boudicca led a rebellion against the Romans. Her army marched on London. No attempt was made to defend London. Boudicca burned London but after her rebellion was crushed it was rebuilt. Rich people built houses of stone or brick with tiled roofs but most people lived in wooden houses. By the end of the 2nd century a stone wall was erected around London. The wall was 20 feet high. Outside the wall was a ditch. In the middle of the 3rd century, 20 bastions were added to the walls (a bastion was a semi-circular tower projecting from the wall). The population of Roman London rose to perhaps 45,000, which seems small to us but it was the largest town in Britain. In the center of Roman London was the forum. This was a square with shops and public buildings arranged around it. The most important building in the forum was the basilica or town hall, which was 500 feet long and 70 feet high. In Roman London, there were brickworks, potteries and glassworks. There were also donkey powered mills for grinding grain to flour and bakeries. Roman London was also an important port with wooden wharves and jetties. Grain and metal were exported and luxury goods were imported. (Things like wine, olive oil, glass, fine pottery, silk, and ivory). Rich citizens had baths in their homes but there were several public baths near the city gates. (Romans went to the baths to socialize not just to keep clean). Most people in the town got their water from wells and used cesspools but there were underground drains to remove rainwater. Roman London also had an amphitheater, which could hold 8,000 people. Here gladiators fought to the death. Cockfighting was also a popular sport. Life in Roman Britain The last Roman soldier left Britain in 407 CE. Afterwards London was probably abandoned. There may have been a few people living inside the walls by fishing or farming but London ceased to be a town. But soon it rose again. A new town appeared outside the walls on the site of Covent Garden. It was much smaller than Roman London with perhaps 10,000 inhabitants. In 597 monks from Rome began the task of converting the Saxons to Christianity. In 604 a bishop was appointed for London. By the 640's there was a mint in London making silver coins. In the 670's a Royal document called London 'the place where the ships land'. Early in the 8th century a writer called London 'a trading center for many nations who visit by land and sea'. Saxon London consisted of many wooden huts with thatched roofs. Slag from metal forges has been found proving there were many blacksmiths at work in the town. Archaeologists have also found large numbers of loom weights (used in weaving wool) Saxon craftsmen also worked with animal bones making things like combs. The main export from Saxon London was wool, either raw of woven. Imports included wine and luxury foods like grapes and figs. Pottery and millstones were also imported. Slaves were also bought and sold in London. Disaster struck London in 842 when the Danes looted London. They returned in 851 and this time they burned a large part of the town (an easy task when all buildings were of wood). Then the Danes gave up just raiding and turned to conquest. They conquered northern and Eastern England including London. King Alfred the Great totally defeated the Danes in 878 and they split the country between them. The Danes took eastern England including London while Alfred took the South and West. Despite the peace treaty, Alfred's men took London in 886. Alfred repaired the walls of the old Roman town. Until then Londoners lived outside the Roman walls but during Alfred's reign, they moved inside the walls for protection. Soon foreign merchants came to live in London. By the 10th century, there were wine merchants from France at Vintners Place and German merchants at Dowgate. The Danes returned in 994 but this time the Londoners fought them off. A writer said ' they proceeded to attack the city stoutly and wished to set it on fire but here they suffered more harm and injury than they ever thought any citizen could do them'. 'London Bridge is falling down'...so says the nursery rhyme. This is believed to be derived from an event that took place in the early 11th century. King Olaf of Norway attacked England but he was unable to sails up the Thames past London Bridge. So he ordered his men to erect wood and wicker canopies over their boats. They then approached London Bridge. Londoners on the bridge threw down missiles but they were unable to stop the Vikings. At that time London Bridge was made of wood. Olaf and his men tied ropes to the wooden struts supporting it. They then rowed away and London Bridge collapsed. Some historians question whether this event really happened or whether it was just a legend that grew up around King (later Saint) Olaf. Edward the Confessor (1042-1066) built a wooden palace at Westminster. Later Parliament met here. Because of this Westminster became the seat of government not the city of London itself. Edward also built Westminster Abbey, which was consecrated a few weeks before his death. Life in Saxon England After the battle of Hastings an advance guard of Normans approached London Bridge from the South but were beaten off. The Norman army then marched in a loop to the west of London to cut it off from the rest of England. William the Conqueror occupied the royal palace at Westminster and then won over the Londoners by making various promises. William was crowned king of England at Westminster on 25 December 1066. William gave London a charter, a document confirming certain rights. Nevertheless, he built a wooden tower to stand guard over London. It was replaced by a stone tower in 1078-1100. That was the beginning of the Tower of London The population of London at this time was perhaps 18,000, which seems very small to us but was very large by the standards of the time. London grew in size through the 12th century and some people began to build housed outside the walls. In 1176 the wooden bridge across the Thames was replaced with a stone one. A writer described London about the year 1180: 'London is happy in its clean air, in the Christian religion, in the strength of its fortifications, in its natural situation, in the honor of its citizens. The Cathedral is St Pauls but there is also in London and its suburbs 13 large monasteries, beside 126 parish churches. On the east side lies the tower, very large and strong with 4 gates and turrets at intervals and runs around the northern side of the city. To the north lie fields and meadows with small rivers flowing through them, by these water mills are driven with a pleasant murmur. To this city come merchants from every nation under heaven rejoicing to bring merchandise in their ships'. Someone else wrote about London: 'Among the noble and celebrated cities of the world, that of London, the Capital of the Kingdom of England is one of the most renowned, possessing above others, abundant wealth, extensive commerce, great grandeur and significance'. Medieval London was a lively place. There was a horse market at Smithfield (originally smooth field) where horse racing took place. Smithfield was also the site of public executions, which always attracted large crowds. Londoners also loved dancing in the open spaces that surrounded the town. They liked archery and wrestling and men fought mock battles with wooden swords and shields. In Winter people went ice skating on frozen marshes at Moorfield using skates made of animal bones. In the 12th or 13th century London was often spelled Lunden or Lundon. By the time of Chaucer in the late 14th century, it was spelled London. In the 13th century the friars came to London. Friars were like monks but instead of living lives separate from the world, they went out to preach. There were different orders of friars each with a different color of their costume. Dominican friars were called black friars because of their black costumes and the place where they lived in London is still called Blackfriars. There were also grey friars (Franciscans), white friars (Carmelites) and crutched friars. The word crutched is a corruption of crouche, the old English word for cross. Their proper name was Friars of the Holy Cross. The Jews suffered from persecution during the Middle Ages. The first Jews came to England after the Norman Conquest. Jews in London lived in a ghetto in Old Jewry. They were some of the first people since Roman times to live in stone houses. They had to as wooden houses were not safe enough! In 1189 a wave of persecution resulted in the deaths of about 30 Jews. In 1264 rioters killed about 500 Jews in London. Then in 1290, all Jews were expelled from England. In Medieval London streets were sometimes named after the trades carried on there. Bakers lived in Bread Street and Poultry was sold in that street. Cows were kept in Milk Street for milking. In 1381 the Peasants Revolt broke out. On 13 July the rebels marched on London and sympathizers opened the gates to them. The king and his ministers took refuge in the Tower of London while the rebels opened the prisons and looted the house of John of Gaunt, an unpopular noble. On 14 July the king met the rebels at Moorfield and made them various promises, none of which he kept. The next day the king went to mass at Westminster while he was away the rebels broke into the Tower of London and killed the Archbishop of Canterbury and several royal officials who had taken refuge there. They confronted the king on his way back from mass. The mayor of London stabbed the leader of the rebels, fearing he was going to attack the king. Afterward, the king managed to calm the rebels and persuaded them to go home. The population of London may have reached 50,000 by the middle of the 14th century making it far larger than any other town in England. However at least a third of the population died when the Black Death struck in 1348-49 but London soon recovered. Its population may have reached 70,000 by the end of the Middle Ages. Life in the Middle Ages The Tower of London LONDON IN THE 16th CENTURY AND 17th CENTURY The population of London may have reached 120,000 by the middle of the 16th century and about 250,000 by 1600. In the Middle Ages the church owned about 1/4 of the land in London. When Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries it released a great deal of land for new buildings. Banqueting House was built in 1622. In 1635 the king opened Hyde Park to the public. In 1637 Charles I created Richmond Park for hunting. Also in 1637 Queens House was completed in nearby Greenwich. Wool was still the main export from London but there were also exports of 'Excellent saffron in small quantities, a great quantity of lead and tin, sheep and rabbit skins without number, with various other sorts of fine peltry (skins) and leather, beer, cheese and other sorts of provisions'. The Royal Exchange where merchants could buy and sell goods opened in 1571. In the early 17th century rich men continued to build houses west of London. The Earl of Bedford built houses at Covent Garden, on the Strand and at Long Acre. He also obtained permission to hold a fruit and vegetable market at Covent Garden. Other rich people build houses at Lincoln Inn Fields and at St Martins in the Fields. On the other side of London the village of Whitechapel was 'swallowed up' by the expanding city. The village of Clerkenwell also became a suburb of London. Southwark also grew rapidly. All this happened despite outbreaks of bubonic plague. It broke out in 1603, 1633 and 1665 but each time the population of London quickly recovered. Then in 1642 Civil War began between king and parliament. The royalists made one attempt to capture London in 1643 but their army was met 6 miles west of St Pauls by a much larger parliamentary army. The royalists withdrew. However the Puritan government of 1646-1660 was hated by many ordinary people and when Charles II came to London from France in 1660 an estimated 20,000 people gathered in the streets to meet him. All the churches in London rang their bells. The last outbreak of plague in London was in 1665. But this was the last outbreak. In 1666 came the great fire of London. It began on 2 September in a baker's house. At first, it did not cause undue alarm. But the wind caused the flames to spread rapidly. People formed chains with leather buckets and worked hand operated pumps all to no avail. The mayor was advised to use gunpowder to create fire breaks but he was reluctant, fearing the owners of destroyed buildings would sue for compensation. The fire continued to spread until the king took charge. He ordered sailors to make fire breaks. At the same time, the wind dropped. About 13,200 houses had been destroyed and 70-80,000 people had been made homeless. The king ordered the navy to make tents and canvas available from their stores to help the homeless who camped on open spaces around the city. Temporary markets were set up so the homeless could buy food. but the crowds of homeless soon dispersed. Most of the houses in London were still standing and many of the homeless found accommodation in them or in nearby villages. Others built wooden huts on the charred ruins. To prevent such a disaster happening again the king commanded that all new houses in London should be of stone and brick not wood. Citizens were responsible for rebuilding their own houses but a tax was charged on coal brought by ship into London to finance the rebuilding of churches and other public buildings. Work began on rebuilding St Pauls in 1675 but it was not finished till 1711. In the late 17th century fashionable houses were built at Bloomsbury and on the road to the village of Knightsbridge. Elegant houses in squares and broad straight streets were also built north of St James Palace. Soho also became built up. As well as building attractive suburbs the rich began to live in attractive villages near London such as Hackney, Clapham, Camberwell and Streatham. In the east, the poor continued to build houses and Bethnal Green was 'swallowed up' by the growing city. French Protestants fleeing religious persecution arrived in London. Many of them were silk weavers who lived in Spitalfields which also became a suburb of London. In the 17th century wealthy Londoners obtained piped water for the first time. It was brought by canal from the countryside then was carried by hollow tree trunks under the streets. You had to pay to have your house connected. After 1685 oil lamps lighted the streets. Hackney carriages became common in the streets of London. In 1694 the Bank of England was formed. It moved to Threadneedle Street in 1734. Billingsgate was a general market until 1699 when an Act of Parliament made it a fish market. LONDON IN THE 18th CENTURY The population of London rose from about 600,000 in 1700 to 950,000 in 1800. The fashionable suburbs spread north along Tottenham Court Road and north west to the village of Paddington. By 1800 growth had spread to Islington and Chelsea. In the east growth spread to Stepney, Ratcliffe, Limehouse and Wapping. In the south the city spread to Bermondsey, Rotherhithe, Walworth and Kennington. Several hospitals were founded in London in the 18th century including Westminster (1720), Guys (1724), St Georges (1733), London (1740) and Middlesex (1745). Early in the 18th century London was severely affected by gin drinking. Gin was cheap and for the poor it offered a chance to forget their poverty. In the 1740's it was estimated that 1 house in 8 sold gin over the counter. In 1751 gin drinking was curtailed when duty was charged on the drink. Many new buildings were erected in Georgian London. Buckingham Palace was built in 1703 for the Duke of Buckingham. It was altered in the 19th century by John Nash (1752-1835) and the first monarch to live there was Queen Victoria in 1837. Marlborough House was built in 1711. The British Museum was founded in 1753. Also in 1753 Mansion House was built as a residence for the Lord Mayor of London. In 1757 the houses on London Bridge were demolished. In 1761 an Act of Parliament set up a body of men called Board of Commissioners power to pave and clean the streets of London. The walls of the city were demolished between 1760 and 1766 and new bridges were built Westminster in 1749 and Blackfriars in 1770. Somerset House was built between 1776 and 1786 by Sir William Chambers (1724-1796). On the South Bank were industries like leather tanning (in Bermondsey) and timber yards (in Lambeth). There were also many craftsmen in London who made luxury goods. Silk weavers in Spitalfields, watchmakers in Clerkenwell, coach makers and furniture makers in Long Acre. There were also makers of surgical and navigational instruments and jewelers. London was also the largest port in the country. By 1700 she was handling 80% of imports into England and 69% of her exports. There was also a large shipbuilding industry in London. London was also a huge market for the rest of the country's produce. In 1720 someone wrote that people all over England were employed to 'furnish something and I may add the best of everything to supply the city of London with provisions. I mean by provisions, grain, meat, fish, butter, cheese, salt , fuel, timber and cloth, also everything necessary for building'. Life in the 18th Century LONDON IN THE 19th CENTURY The population of London grew from 950,000 in 1800 to 6 million in 1900. At the beginning of the 19th century, rich men built estates at Somers Town, Camden Town, Walworth, Agar Town, Bromley, and Pentonville. Growth also spread to Battersea, Clapham, Camberwell, Brixton, Bayswater, and Peckham. By 1850 Deptford was part of London. Growth also spread to Fulham and Kensington. As late as 1839 Shepherds Bush was called a 'pleasant village' but it was soon swallowed up. In the east Hackney, Poplar and Cubitt Town were built up by 1850. Later in the century growth spread to East and West Ham. After 1850 growth spread to Acton, Chiswick, Brentford, Richmond, Twickenham and Ealing. In the North, it reached Willesden and Hampstead. Growth also spread to Hornsey and Tottenham. In the South, it spread to Putney, Wimbledon, Streatham, Dulwich, Catford, Lewisham and to Greenwich and Charlton. After 1850 Chinese immigrants started settling in Limehouse. There were also many Irish immigrants in the Docklands. By 1850 London had 20,000 Jews. Their numbers doubled in the 1880s when many refugees arrived from Russia and Eastern Europe. Part of the reason for the growth of London was the railway, which made it possible for people to live away from the city center and travel to work each day. Euston Station was built in 1837 by Philip Hardwick (1792-1870). Kings Cross Station was built in 1852 by Lewis Cubitt (1799-1883). St Pancras was built in 1868 by Sir George Gilbert Scott (1811-1878). However there were epidemics of cholera in London in 1831, 1848-49 and finally in 1866. In 1859 work began on building a system of sewers for the whole city but it was not complete till 1875. After that death from the disease fell drastically. In 1807 gas light was used for the first time at Pall Mall and by the 1840's was being used all over London. Electric light was first used in Holborn in 1883. By the 1840s there were horse drawn buses and from the 1870's horse drawn trams. The first underground railway opened in 1863. At first, carriages were pulled by steam trains. The system was electrified in 1890-1905. Meanwhile, the Thames Tunnel was built in 1843. In 1834 Parliament was destroyed by fire. It was rebuilt to a design by Charles Barry. The new parliament included a great clock, which is now known as Big Ben. Originally only the bell which struck the hour was called Big Ben (It was probably named after Sir Benjamin Hall, the Commissioner of Works) but in time people began to call the whole clock tower Big Ben. John Nash created Trafalgar Square in 1839 and Nelsons column was erected in 1842. Furthermore many parks were created in London in the 19th century. Regents Park opened to the public in 1838. Victoria Park opened in 1845. Battersea Park opened in 1858. Another great London landmark the Albert Hall was built in 1871 by Francis Fowke (1823-1865). New museums were created in Victorian London. The Victoria and Albert Museum opened in 1852. The Science Museum opened in 1857 and the Natural History Museum opened in 1881. New Scotland Yard was built in 1891 and the statue of Eros in Piccadilly Square was erected in 1892. Meanwhile London continued to be a great port. In the 18th century ships tied up at wharves on the Thames but the river became overcrowded so docks were built. West India Dock (1802), London Dock (1805), East India Dock (1806) St Katherines Dock (1828), Victoria Dock (1855), Millwall Dock (1868) South West India Dock (1870), Albert Dock (1880) and Tilbury Docks (1886). In the 19th century London was also a great manufacturing center. Food and drink were important industries. There were flour mills and sauce factories in Lambeth and sugar refineries in Whitehall and St Georges in the East. The first tinned foods were made in Bermondsey. There were also breweries all over London. Bermondsey and Southwark were famous for their leather industry and for hat making. Bethnal Green was noted for boot and shoemaking. The clothing trade was also important. Chemicals were made in Silvertown and West Ham. Clocks and watches and jewelry were made in Clerkenwell. There were shipyards in Poplar, Deptford, Millwall, and Blackwall. Other industries in London included furniture making, machine and tool making and the manufacture of horse drawn carriages. Life in the 19th Century LONDON IN THE 20th CENTURY In the early 20th century London continued to grow rapidly. Hendon and Finchley became built up. Growth also spread to Harrow and Wealdstone, Twickenham, Teddington and Kingston Upon Thames. Wimbledon and Surbiton also became suburbs of London. Furthermore in the early 20th century London County Council began to build estates of council houses on the edge of the city. In 1903 the first ones were built at Tooting. Later estates were built at Norbury, Tottenham, Roehampton, at Downham near Catford and at Becontree. Other estates were built at Watling and Morden. Despite these new council house estates 75% of houses built in London between 1919 and 1939 were private. The population of London rose from 6 million in 1900 to 8.7 million in 1939. Westminster Cathedral was built in 1903. The Victoria and Albert Museum moved to its present home in 1909. The Geological Museum opened in 1935. White City Stadium was built in 1908. Wembley Stadium was built in 1923 and Gunnersbury Park opened in 1925. Chiswick Bridge was built in 1933. In the early 20th century the old London industries (brewing, Sugar refining, flour milling, engineering) continued by new industries grew in the suburbs such as aircraft building, vehicle manufacturing and making electrical goods. London suffered badly during the Second World War. When the Blitz began in September 1940 Londoners started sleeping in the underground stations and soon 150,000 people were sleeping there overnight. In the blitz about 20,000 people were killed and 25,000 were injured. The first blitz ended in May 1941 but in 1944 Germany began firing missiles at London and killed about 3,000 people. In 1944 a plan for post war London was published. The authorities felt the city was overcrowded and they planned to create a ring of satellite towns 20-30 miles from London. But the new towns attracted the skilled workers away from London. The new towns had modern industries who wanted skilled workers. The unskilled and the old were left behind. As well as building new towns the council began building flats in London. The first were built in 1948. At first they were low rise but from 1964 high rise flats, up to 24 storeys high, were built to replace slums. Unfortunately rehousing slum tenants in high rise flats broke up communities. Then in 1968 came the Ronan Point disaster when a gas explosion partly destroyed a block of flats killing 4 people. After that the policy of demolishing slums changed and owners were given grants to modernize their houses. Waterloo Bridge was built in 1945. The Royal Festival Hall was built in 1951. Pollocks Toy Museum opened in 1956. The Shell Centre was built in 1962. Millbank Tower was built in 1963. One famous London landmark, the Post Office Tower opened to the public in 1966. Haywards Gallery opened in 1968. The Museum of London opened in 1976. A Museum of Garden History opened in 1979. The London Transport Museum opened in 1980. The Museum of the Moving Image opened in 1988. Somerset House opened to the public in 2000. It includes the Courtauld Gallery and the Gilbert Collection. In the 1950's London boomed. Car factories were very busy. So were the aircraft factories in north London. The docks were also very busy, employing 30,000 men. But in the 1960's the docks began to suffer from the breakup of the British Empire. The newly independent countries began to trade with countries other than Britain and London docks suffered as a result. Worse in 1973 Britain joined the EEC. Imports from commonwealth countries were limited by quotas or had to pay tariffs. This hurt London docks as most of their trade came from the Commonwealth. Imports from the EEC tended to go to ports like Felixstowe and Dover. The London Docks Authority tried to cut costs by shifting to a containerized dock at Tilbury but many of the old docks were forced to close. The old industries associated with them such as sugar refining and food processing suffered as well. In the early 1970's when London was still prospering the government tried to reduce congestion by encouraging companies to move out to the provinces. Then in the mid 70s came a recession and companies looked for ways to cut costs. One way was to leave London with its high rents and high labor costs. Engineering and electrical companies now left the capital in droves and unemployment soared. After 1976 the GLC vigorously opposed the policy of encouraging industry to leave London. Central government did a u-turn. In 1981 the Greater London Enterprise Council was set up to encourage investment in London. But unemployment remained high in the 1980s and 1990s. One industry did boom however - tourism, with several million foreign visitors arriving each year. In the 1950's West Indian immigrants started to arrive in London and by 1955 20,000 were arriving each year. They met with prejudice and hostility, which culminated in the race riots at Notting Hill in 1958. In the early 1960s Asians arrived as well. Many of them took over corner shops. Both Chinese and Indians opened restaurants. Central London Mosque was built in 1977. Despite immigration the population of London fell after 1945. However in the last years of the 20th century the population began to grow rapidly again. Life in the 20th Century LONDON IN THE 21st CENTURY At the beginning of the 21st Century London continued to grow rapidly. The Greater London Authority was created in 2000. The same year the Tate Modern opened in a former power station. Furthermore the London Eye opened to the public in 2000. In 2012 a new building was opened in London called the Shard. Also in 2012 the Olympics were held in London, confirming its status as one of the world's greatest cities. In 2016 the number of visitors to London hit a new record of 37.3 million, making it one of the most visited cities in Europe. Today the population of London is 8.1 million. A Timeline of London A brief history of Bermondsey A short history of Chelsea A brief history of Greenwich A brief history of Hampstead A brief history of Southwark A brief history of Westminster Famous people from London Tower of London The Museum of London Last revised 2019	6,981	ENGLISH	1
The first Africans arrived in Virginia because of the transatlantic slave trade. Across three and a half centuries—from 1501 to 1867—more than 12.5 million Africans were captured, sold, and transported to the Americas. While Portugal and Spain were the first European powers engaged in this trade, eventually most of the European powers would get involved. It was as profitable as it was brutal. The Africans who came to Virginia in 1619 had been taken from Angola in West Central Africa. They were captured in a series of wars that was part of much broader Portuguese hostilities against the Kongo and Ndongo kingdoms, and other states. These captives were then forced to march 100-200 miles to the coast to the major slave-trade port of Luanda. They were put on board the San Juan Bautista, which carried 350 captives bound for Vera Cruz, on the coast of Mexico, in the summer of 1619. Nearing her destination, the slave ship was attacked by two English privateers, the White Lion and the Treasurer, in the Gulf of Mexico and robbed of 50-60 Africans. The two privateers then sailed to Virginia where the White Lion arrived at Point Comfort, or present-day Hampton, Virginia, toward the end of August. John Rolfe, a prominent planter and merchant (and formerly the husband of Pocahontas), reported that “20. and odd Negroes” were “bought for victuals,” (italics added). The majority of the Angolans were acquired by wealthy and well-connected English planters including Governor Sir George Yeardley and the cape, or head, merchant, Abraham Piersey. The Africans were sold into bondage despite Virginia having no clear-cut laws sanctioning slavery. The Treasurer arrived at Point Comfort a few days after the White Lion but did not stay long, quickly setting sail for the English colony of Bermuda. Prior to leaving port, however, it is possible that 7 to 9 Africans were sold, including a woman named “Angelo” (Angela) who was taken to Lieutenant William Pierce’s Jamestown property, which Jamestown Rediscovery archaeologists excavated in partnership with the National Park Service. By March 1620, 32 Africans were recorded in a muster as living in Virginia but by 1625 only 23 were recorded. These Africans, scattered throughout homes and farms of the James River Valley, were the first of hundreds of thousands of Africans forced to endure slavery in colonial English America.	<urn:uuid:5ac53c15-f019-4ba0-8514-2e4babd23490>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://historicjamestowne.org/history/the-first-africans/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00065.warc.gz	en	0.9827	513	4.40625	4	[ -0.08840004354715347, 0.4730575680732727, 0.17035049200057983, 0.033227402716875076, -0.02676311507821083, -0.18107253313064575, -0.13311293721199036, -0.3434191644191742, 0.05587203428149223, 0.2635860741138458, 0.3874119222164154, -0.319186806678772, -0.29937565326690674, 0.1940220594406...	1	The first Africans arrived in Virginia because of the transatlantic slave trade. Across three and a half centuries—from 1501 to 1867—more than 12.5 million Africans were captured, sold, and transported to the Americas. While Portugal and Spain were the first European powers engaged in this trade, eventually most of the European powers would get involved. It was as profitable as it was brutal. The Africans who came to Virginia in 1619 had been taken from Angola in West Central Africa. They were captured in a series of wars that was part of much broader Portuguese hostilities against the Kongo and Ndongo kingdoms, and other states. These captives were then forced to march 100-200 miles to the coast to the major slave-trade port of Luanda. They were put on board the San Juan Bautista, which carried 350 captives bound for Vera Cruz, on the coast of Mexico, in the summer of 1619. Nearing her destination, the slave ship was attacked by two English privateers, the White Lion and the Treasurer, in the Gulf of Mexico and robbed of 50-60 Africans. The two privateers then sailed to Virginia where the White Lion arrived at Point Comfort, or present-day Hampton, Virginia, toward the end of August. John Rolfe, a prominent planter and merchant (and formerly the husband of Pocahontas), reported that “20. and odd Negroes” were “bought for victuals,” (italics added). The majority of the Angolans were acquired by wealthy and well-connected English planters including Governor Sir George Yeardley and the cape, or head, merchant, Abraham Piersey. The Africans were sold into bondage despite Virginia having no clear-cut laws sanctioning slavery. The Treasurer arrived at Point Comfort a few days after the White Lion but did not stay long, quickly setting sail for the English colony of Bermuda. Prior to leaving port, however, it is possible that 7 to 9 Africans were sold, including a woman named “Angelo” (Angela) who was taken to Lieutenant William Pierce’s Jamestown property, which Jamestown Rediscovery archaeologists excavated in partnership with the National Park Service. By March 1620, 32 Africans were recorded in a muster as living in Virginia but by 1625 only 23 were recorded. These Africans, scattered throughout homes and farms of the James River Valley, were the first of hundreds of thousands of Africans forced to endure slavery in colonial English America.	537	ENGLISH	1
The tragic sinking of the Titanic nearly a century ago can be blamed on low-grade rivets that the ship's builders used on some parts of the ill-fated liner, two experts on metals conclude in a new book. The company, Harland and Wolff of Belfast, Northern Ireland, needed to build the ship quickly and at reasonable cost, which may have compromised quality, said co-author Timothy Foecke. That the shipyard was building two other vessels at the same time added to the difficulty of getting the millions of rivets needed, he added. "Under the pressure to get these ships up, they ramped up the riveters, found materials from additional suppliers, and some was not of quality," said Foecke, a metallurgist at the U.S. government's National Institute of Standards and Technology who has been studying the Titanic for a decade. The company denies book's conclusions. More than 1,500 people died when the Titanic, advertised as an "unsinkable" luxury liner, struck an iceberg on its maiden voyage in 1912 and went down in the North Atlantic less than three hours later. "The company knowingly purchased weaker rivets, but I think they did it not knowing they would be purchasing something substandard enough that when they hit an iceberg their ship would sink," said co-author Jennifer Hooper McCarty, who started researching the Titanic's rivets while working on her Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins University in 1999. On The Early Show Saturday, Jeff Glor asked McCarty if she felt the company was using sub-par iron. "Exactly," she responded. "A rivet works by holding two plates together on a ship. And, during the collision, pressure, or load on that plate would have caused the heads of the rivets to pop open. So, the theory really is that the sub-quality iron caused weak rivets, and therefore, the seams were weak, and opened up during the collision. McCarty says it was "an engineering decision" to use the rivets they did, "and, considering the other safety factors on the ship, they felt it would be OK to do so. I mean, it was a one-in-a-million chance that all of these events would come together and cause this disaster. So, it's difficult to say that they could have known something like this would happen." The company disputes the idea that inferior rivets were at fault. The theory has been around for years, but McCarty and Foecke's book, "What Really Sank the Titanic: New Forensic Discoveries," published last month, outlines their extensive research into the Harland and Wolff archives and surviving rivets from the Titanic. "It's difficult for them to be able to counterpoint all of our arguments," McCarty remarked to Glor, "given that there's so much in the (company) archives that we've gone through." McCarty spent two years in Britain studying the company's archives and works on the training and working conditions of shipyard workers. She and Foecke also studied engineering textbooks from the 1890s and early 1900s to learn more about shipbuilding practices and materials. "I had the opportunity to study the metallurgy of several rivets," McCarty said. "It was a process of taking thousands of images of the inside of these rivets, finding out what the structure was like, doing chemical testing and computer modeling. "Seeing the kind of levels we saw in different areas, in different parts of the ship led us to believe they would have ordered from different people," she said, adding this may have led to the weaker rivets. The two metallurgists tested 48 rivets from the ship and found that slag concentrations were at 9 percent, when they should have been 2 to 3 percent. The slag is a byproduct of the smelting process. "You need the slag but you need just a little to take up the load that's applied so the iron doesn't stretch," Foecke said. "The iron becomes weak the more slag there is because the brittleness of the slag takes over and it breaks easily." Foecke said the main question was not whether the Titanic would sink after hitting the iceberg, but how fast the ship went down. He believes the answer is provided by the weak rivets. His analysis showed the builders used stronger steel rivets where they expected the greatest stress and weaker iron rivets for the stern and the bow, where they thought there would be less pressure, he said. But it was the ship's bow that struck the iceberg. "Typically you want a four bar for rivets," Foecke said, using the measurement for the strongest rivets. "Some of the orders were for three bar." Harland and Wolff spokesman Joris Minne disputed the findings. "We always say there was nothing wrong with the Titanic when it left here," he said. When the iceberg hit the Titanic, it scraped alongside the ship. Foecke said this affected a number of seams in the bow and the weak rivets let go, putting more pressure on the strong rivets. "Six compartments flooded. If the rivets were on average better quality, five compartments may have flooded and the ship would have stayed afloat longer and more people would have been saved," Foecke said. "If four compartments flooded, the ship may have limped to Halifax." The company does not have an archivist, but it refers scientific questions on the Titanic to retired Harland and Wolff naval engineer David Livingstone, who also has researched the ship's sinking. He said he largely agrees with the authors' findings on the metallic composition of the rivets, but added their conclusions that the rivets were to blame for the sinking are "misleading and incorrect" because they do not consider the ship's overall design and the historical context. "You can't just look at the material and say it was substandard," Livingstone said. "Of course material from 100 years ago would be inferior to material today." He said he has found no document to support the argument that Harland and Wolff knowingly used substandard material. He pointed out that the Olympic, a ship the company built at the same time using the same materials, had a long life with no troubles. The third vessel turned out in the early 1900s was attacked and sunk in World War I. Livingstone said he is not sure why iron rivets were used in the bow and the stern but believes it may have been because a crane-mounted hydraulic rivet machine could not reach those points. He said the iron rivets were wider to compensate for the difference in strength. Contrary to Foecke's theory, Livingstone said, the Titanic did not go down fast compared to other ships that have sunk. He said the Titanic did not capsize - as do most sinking ships - but maintained an even keel until the last moment, going down after about 2 1/2 hours when the weight of the water it took on became too much. William Garzke, chairman of the forensics panel of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers based in New Jersey, said wrought iron was commonly used at that time, but steel was the newer, stronger choice. Garzke, who also has studied the Titanic sinking, said the two scientists made a good point about the variability of the rivets, but "the problem is not the metallurgy of the rivets, it was the design of the riveted joints." He said that the company used only two rivets at the site of impact, when three would have provided more strength and durability.	<urn:uuid:f606d337-e190-4d9f-b7ed-cd985cd02252>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cbsnews.com/news/did-weak-rivets-help-do-in-the-titanic/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00310.warc.gz	en	0.982048	1,603	3.328125	3	[ -0.16396230459213257, 0.12742877006530762, -0.025437653064727783, -0.24211499094963074, 0.03278783708810806, -0.28759270906448364, -0.1525774449110031, 0.15434496104717255, -0.1959555298089981, -0.4870220422744751, 0.2862589955329895, -0.030961953103542328, 0.10655461996793747, 0.142313897...	3	The tragic sinking of the Titanic nearly a century ago can be blamed on low-grade rivets that the ship's builders used on some parts of the ill-fated liner, two experts on metals conclude in a new book. The company, Harland and Wolff of Belfast, Northern Ireland, needed to build the ship quickly and at reasonable cost, which may have compromised quality, said co-author Timothy Foecke. That the shipyard was building two other vessels at the same time added to the difficulty of getting the millions of rivets needed, he added. "Under the pressure to get these ships up, they ramped up the riveters, found materials from additional suppliers, and some was not of quality," said Foecke, a metallurgist at the U.S. government's National Institute of Standards and Technology who has been studying the Titanic for a decade. The company denies book's conclusions. More than 1,500 people died when the Titanic, advertised as an "unsinkable" luxury liner, struck an iceberg on its maiden voyage in 1912 and went down in the North Atlantic less than three hours later. "The company knowingly purchased weaker rivets, but I think they did it not knowing they would be purchasing something substandard enough that when they hit an iceberg their ship would sink," said co-author Jennifer Hooper McCarty, who started researching the Titanic's rivets while working on her Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins University in 1999. On The Early Show Saturday, Jeff Glor asked McCarty if she felt the company was using sub-par iron. "Exactly," she responded. "A rivet works by holding two plates together on a ship. And, during the collision, pressure, or load on that plate would have caused the heads of the rivets to pop open. So, the theory really is that the sub-quality iron caused weak rivets, and therefore, the seams were weak, and opened up during the collision. McCarty says it was "an engineering decision" to use the rivets they did, "and, considering the other safety factors on the ship, they felt it would be OK to do so. I mean, it was a one-in-a-million chance that all of these events would come together and cause this disaster. So, it's difficult to say that they could have known something like this would happen." The company disputes the idea that inferior rivets were at fault. The theory has been around for years, but McCarty and Foecke's book, "What Really Sank the Titanic: New Forensic Discoveries," published last month, outlines their extensive research into the Harland and Wolff archives and surviving rivets from the Titanic. "It's difficult for them to be able to counterpoint all of our arguments," McCarty remarked to Glor, "given that there's so much in the (company) archives that we've gone through." McCarty spent two years in Britain studying the company's archives and works on the training and working conditions of shipyard workers. She and Foecke also studied engineering textbooks from the 1890s and early 1900s to learn more about shipbuilding practices and materials. "I had the opportunity to study the metallurgy of several rivets," McCarty said. "It was a process of taking thousands of images of the inside of these rivets, finding out what the structure was like, doing chemical testing and computer modeling. "Seeing the kind of levels we saw in different areas, in different parts of the ship led us to believe they would have ordered from different people," she said, adding this may have led to the weaker rivets. The two metallurgists tested 48 rivets from the ship and found that slag concentrations were at 9 percent, when they should have been 2 to 3 percent. The slag is a byproduct of the smelting process. "You need the slag but you need just a little to take up the load that's applied so the iron doesn't stretch," Foecke said. "The iron becomes weak the more slag there is because the brittleness of the slag takes over and it breaks easily." Foecke said the main question was not whether the Titanic would sink after hitting the iceberg, but how fast the ship went down. He believes the answer is provided by the weak rivets. His analysis showed the builders used stronger steel rivets where they expected the greatest stress and weaker iron rivets for the stern and the bow, where they thought there would be less pressure, he said. But it was the ship's bow that struck the iceberg. "Typically you want a four bar for rivets," Foecke said, using the measurement for the strongest rivets. "Some of the orders were for three bar." Harland and Wolff spokesman Joris Minne disputed the findings. "We always say there was nothing wrong with the Titanic when it left here," he said. When the iceberg hit the Titanic, it scraped alongside the ship. Foecke said this affected a number of seams in the bow and the weak rivets let go, putting more pressure on the strong rivets. "Six compartments flooded. If the rivets were on average better quality, five compartments may have flooded and the ship would have stayed afloat longer and more people would have been saved," Foecke said. "If four compartments flooded, the ship may have limped to Halifax." The company does not have an archivist, but it refers scientific questions on the Titanic to retired Harland and Wolff naval engineer David Livingstone, who also has researched the ship's sinking. He said he largely agrees with the authors' findings on the metallic composition of the rivets, but added their conclusions that the rivets were to blame for the sinking are "misleading and incorrect" because they do not consider the ship's overall design and the historical context. "You can't just look at the material and say it was substandard," Livingstone said. "Of course material from 100 years ago would be inferior to material today." He said he has found no document to support the argument that Harland and Wolff knowingly used substandard material. He pointed out that the Olympic, a ship the company built at the same time using the same materials, had a long life with no troubles. The third vessel turned out in the early 1900s was attacked and sunk in World War I. Livingstone said he is not sure why iron rivets were used in the bow and the stern but believes it may have been because a crane-mounted hydraulic rivet machine could not reach those points. He said the iron rivets were wider to compensate for the difference in strength. Contrary to Foecke's theory, Livingstone said, the Titanic did not go down fast compared to other ships that have sunk. He said the Titanic did not capsize - as do most sinking ships - but maintained an even keel until the last moment, going down after about 2 1/2 hours when the weight of the water it took on became too much. William Garzke, chairman of the forensics panel of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers based in New Jersey, said wrought iron was commonly used at that time, but steel was the newer, stronger choice. Garzke, who also has studied the Titanic sinking, said the two scientists made a good point about the variability of the rivets, but "the problem is not the metallurgy of the rivets, it was the design of the riveted joints." He said that the company used only two rivets at the site of impact, when three would have provided more strength and durability.	1,573	ENGLISH	1
Scaphognathus was a pterosaur, a type of flying reptile. It was not a dinosaur, though it lived during the same period. Scaphognathus lived during the Late Jurassic and resided in Europe. The first Scaphognathus fossil was discovered in 1861. If any dinosaur relative deserves to be called “cute”, perhaps it should be this late Jurassic pterosaur or “flying lizard” with a name meaning “boat-shaped jaw”, which it acquired in 1861. It's certainly tiny in comparison with most of its kind. It lived and preyed on small game in the same Solnhofen limestone area where the Archaeopteryx was found. But the pterosaur evolved into a warm-blooded flier without feathers. Like modern bats, its wings were made of skin. Unlike Archaeopteryx, Scaphgnathus was an aerobatic performer. Only three specimens are known, of which one is a half-grown form with a wingspan of less than two feet. Experts think the long tail acted to stabilise the creature in flight. The body was lightly furred, and each wing was a skin, held in place by a very long fourth finger. The pterosaur family began in the Triassic, with long tails and plenty of teeth. By the time they were wiped out 63 million years ago, tails were shorter and beaks tended to be toothless. What did Scaphoghathus eat? Scientists speculate that he skimmed the water and seized small fish near the surface in his long, narrow jaws. This is assumed to be a common feeding pattern, with flying insects as a supplementary form of food. Quick facts about Scaphognathus: - Existed from 167.7 million years ago to 145 million years ago - Lived in a marine environment - Was a piscivore - Could fly - 3 different specimens have been found by paleontologists All the Scaphognathus illustrations below were collected from the internet. Enjoy and explore:	<urn:uuid:2100f51e-ca9c-4ef1-be19-ca8f49e93a93>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://dinosaurpictures.org/Scaphognathus-pictures	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00015.warc.gz	en	0.980748	436	3.828125	4	[ -0.04955869913101196, 0.07053028792142868, 0.2354317009449005, -0.07956019788980484, -0.7254198789596558, -0.16598746180534363, 0.30352479219436646, 0.39904966950416565, -0.6106626391410828, 0.14791230857372284, 0.23680232465267181, -0.5538608431816101, 0.23995740711688995, 0.1470455527305...	6	Scaphognathus was a pterosaur, a type of flying reptile. It was not a dinosaur, though it lived during the same period. Scaphognathus lived during the Late Jurassic and resided in Europe. The first Scaphognathus fossil was discovered in 1861. If any dinosaur relative deserves to be called “cute”, perhaps it should be this late Jurassic pterosaur or “flying lizard” with a name meaning “boat-shaped jaw”, which it acquired in 1861. It's certainly tiny in comparison with most of its kind. It lived and preyed on small game in the same Solnhofen limestone area where the Archaeopteryx was found. But the pterosaur evolved into a warm-blooded flier without feathers. Like modern bats, its wings were made of skin. Unlike Archaeopteryx, Scaphgnathus was an aerobatic performer. Only three specimens are known, of which one is a half-grown form with a wingspan of less than two feet. Experts think the long tail acted to stabilise the creature in flight. The body was lightly furred, and each wing was a skin, held in place by a very long fourth finger. The pterosaur family began in the Triassic, with long tails and plenty of teeth. By the time they were wiped out 63 million years ago, tails were shorter and beaks tended to be toothless. What did Scaphoghathus eat? Scientists speculate that he skimmed the water and seized small fish near the surface in his long, narrow jaws. This is assumed to be a common feeding pattern, with flying insects as a supplementary form of food. Quick facts about Scaphognathus: - Existed from 167.7 million years ago to 145 million years ago - Lived in a marine environment - Was a piscivore - Could fly - 3 different specimens have been found by paleontologists All the Scaphognathus illustrations below were collected from the internet. Enjoy and explore:	436	ENGLISH	1
Mary, Queen of Scots Mary, Queen of Scots (8 December 1542 – 8 February 1587), was Queen of Scotland from 14 December 1542 until 24 July 1567, when she was forced to give up her kingdom (abdicate). She was executed because it was said she had been plotting to kill her cousin, Elizabeth I of England. \|Queen of Scots\| \|Reign\|\|14 December 1542 - 24 July 1567\| \|Coronation\|\|9 September 1543\| \|Predecessor\|\|James V of Scotland\| \|Successor\|\|James VI of Scotland and I of England\| \|Regents\|\|James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran\| Mary of Guise \|Queen consort of France\| \|Tenure\|\|10 July 1559 – 5 December 1560\| \|Born\|\|8 December 1542\| \|Died\|\|8 February 1587(aged 44)\| \|Father\|\|James V of Scotland\| \|Mother\|\|Mary of Guise\| Mary was the daughter of King James V of Scotland, who died just after she was born. She was crowned queen when she was only 6 days old. She went to live in France when she was very young. Scotland would be ruled by regents until she was 18 years old. The first regent was the Earl of Arran. After 1554, the regent was Mary's mother, Mary of Guise. King Henry VIII of England tried to get Lord Arran to agree that Mary would marry his son. This led to a series of battles called the "Rough Wooing". In the end, Lord Arran turned to the French for help. Lord Arran and King Henry II of France agreed that France would protect Scotland if Mary could marry the King's son Francis. When she was 15 years old, Mary married Francis, who was now King Francis II of France. But their marriage was short. Francis became very ill and later died from an ear infection that had spread to his brain, leaving Mary a widow shortly before her 18th birthday. When Mary was born, Scotland was a Catholic country. While she was living in France, Protestant ideas were spreading to Scotland. Her mother tried to stop this but could not. In 1560, the Parliament of Scotland said it wanted Scotland to be a Protestant country. Reign in ScotlandEdit In 1561, Mary returned to Scotland. She found that she was not popular in her kingdom. She had been brought up as a Catholic, but many people in Scotland had become Protestant. It was difficult for Mary to avoid siding with either the Catholics or the Protestants. As Mary was now free to marry again, there were lots of noblemen who wanted to become her husband. For her second husband, she chose an English lord named Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who was of royal blood. Darnley was good-looking and charming, but he was often very childish, and he was jealous of Mary's secretary, an Italian named David Rizzio. Mary became pregnant. While she was expecting the baby, Darnley and his friends got drunk one night and decided to kill David Rizzio. They came into Mary's private rooms at Holyrood Palace while she was talking with Rizzio and they stabbed him to death. Darnley got away with the murder because he was the queen's husband, but Mary never forgave him for murdering her friend Rizzio and avoided being with him again. When her baby was born, it was a boy, who would later become King James VI of Scotland. In 1567, Darnley was murdered. James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell was put on trial for the murder but found not guilty. He was a powerful Scottish nobleman who was loyal to Mary and hated Darnley. Mary then married him. This caused her problems, because Bothwell had many enemies and many still believed he had murdered Darnley. Mary's enemies forced her off the throne and made her young son king in her place. Mary was put in prison in Loch Leven Castle. She escaped and crossed the border into England, which was ruled by her cousin, Elizabeth, Queen of England. Imprisonment and executionEdit Mary hoped that Elizabeth would help her to get her throne back, but Elizabeth did not since it was always believed that Mary would try to take the throne from her. She kept Mary a prisoner for many years. Mary was eventually accused of making plans to murder Elizabeth. A jury of thirty noblemen convicted her of treason and she was executed. Even though Elizabeth signed the death warrant, she put it off for a long time as she was not comfortable with executing someone who was both a family member and another queen.	<urn:uuid:c5c997a6-6223-453d-a550-a12bd950a29c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Queen_of_Scots	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00047.warc.gz	en	0.993486	980	3.34375	3	[ -0.24712149798870087, 0.05283307656645775, 0.3477729558944702, -0.2206599861383438, -0.033249374479055405, -0.2073945552110672, -0.29281967878341675, -0.07667167484760284, 0.5733577013015747, 0.16512393951416016, -0.396487295627594, -0.5074219703674316, 0.1106896698474884, -0.1889808028936...	9	Mary, Queen of Scots Mary, Queen of Scots (8 December 1542 – 8 February 1587), was Queen of Scotland from 14 December 1542 until 24 July 1567, when she was forced to give up her kingdom (abdicate). She was executed because it was said she had been plotting to kill her cousin, Elizabeth I of England. \|Queen of Scots\| \|Reign\|\|14 December 1542 - 24 July 1567\| \|Coronation\|\|9 September 1543\| \|Predecessor\|\|James V of Scotland\| \|Successor\|\|James VI of Scotland and I of England\| \|Regents\|\|James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran\| Mary of Guise \|Queen consort of France\| \|Tenure\|\|10 July 1559 – 5 December 1560\| \|Born\|\|8 December 1542\| \|Died\|\|8 February 1587(aged 44)\| \|Father\|\|James V of Scotland\| \|Mother\|\|Mary of Guise\| Mary was the daughter of King James V of Scotland, who died just after she was born. She was crowned queen when she was only 6 days old. She went to live in France when she was very young. Scotland would be ruled by regents until she was 18 years old. The first regent was the Earl of Arran. After 1554, the regent was Mary's mother, Mary of Guise. King Henry VIII of England tried to get Lord Arran to agree that Mary would marry his son. This led to a series of battles called the "Rough Wooing". In the end, Lord Arran turned to the French for help. Lord Arran and King Henry II of France agreed that France would protect Scotland if Mary could marry the King's son Francis. When she was 15 years old, Mary married Francis, who was now King Francis II of France. But their marriage was short. Francis became very ill and later died from an ear infection that had spread to his brain, leaving Mary a widow shortly before her 18th birthday. When Mary was born, Scotland was a Catholic country. While she was living in France, Protestant ideas were spreading to Scotland. Her mother tried to stop this but could not. In 1560, the Parliament of Scotland said it wanted Scotland to be a Protestant country. Reign in ScotlandEdit In 1561, Mary returned to Scotland. She found that she was not popular in her kingdom. She had been brought up as a Catholic, but many people in Scotland had become Protestant. It was difficult for Mary to avoid siding with either the Catholics or the Protestants. As Mary was now free to marry again, there were lots of noblemen who wanted to become her husband. For her second husband, she chose an English lord named Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who was of royal blood. Darnley was good-looking and charming, but he was often very childish, and he was jealous of Mary's secretary, an Italian named David Rizzio. Mary became pregnant. While she was expecting the baby, Darnley and his friends got drunk one night and decided to kill David Rizzio. They came into Mary's private rooms at Holyrood Palace while she was talking with Rizzio and they stabbed him to death. Darnley got away with the murder because he was the queen's husband, but Mary never forgave him for murdering her friend Rizzio and avoided being with him again. When her baby was born, it was a boy, who would later become King James VI of Scotland. In 1567, Darnley was murdered. James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell was put on trial for the murder but found not guilty. He was a powerful Scottish nobleman who was loyal to Mary and hated Darnley. Mary then married him. This caused her problems, because Bothwell had many enemies and many still believed he had murdered Darnley. Mary's enemies forced her off the throne and made her young son king in her place. Mary was put in prison in Loch Leven Castle. She escaped and crossed the border into England, which was ruled by her cousin, Elizabeth, Queen of England. Imprisonment and executionEdit Mary hoped that Elizabeth would help her to get her throne back, but Elizabeth did not since it was always believed that Mary would try to take the throne from her. She kept Mary a prisoner for many years. Mary was eventually accused of making plans to murder Elizabeth. A jury of thirty noblemen convicted her of treason and she was executed. Even though Elizabeth signed the death warrant, she put it off for a long time as she was not comfortable with executing someone who was both a family member and another queen.	1,024	ENGLISH	1
In the early 20s the NSDAP had not made a real impression on the general public. German Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann even managed to bring down the reparations and was strongly trying to improve relations with their neighbors. The Roaring Twenties even reached Germany. Berlin was considered a party city, similar to Paris. With plenty of bars, dance halls, theaters and cinemas to enjoy the public. It was the time of Fritz Lang and Marlene Dietrich, and no longer to think about the horrors of the past war. On 1 December 1925 the Locarno Treaties were signed and it was decided that the Rhineland should be demilitarized permanently. Also the Allied forces would retreat from the Rhineland by June 1930. In all, this Treaty, also called the Spirit of Locarno, was introducing a new hope for international peace. On 8 September 1926 Germany would join the League of Nations. This event would further stabilize the international standings as well as give Germany an opportunity to seek help overseas for its massive debts as a result of the reparations. In the elections of 28 May 1928 the NSDAP only got 2.6% of the votes, which translated to 12 seats in the Reichstag. The Young plan is developed at the Second Reparations Conference in 1929. The committee, with as chairman the plan's name giver Owen D. Young, met first in Paris on 11 Feb 1929 and concluded with a report on 7 June 1929. It basically took the idea of the Dawes plan further and suggested the creation of a settlement agency. The plan reduced the total amount owned by about 17% and scheduled remaining payments to be completed over many years, the last one to be in 1988. Total reparations were fixed at 121 billion Reichsmarks to be paid in 59 annuities. It also contained a general description of the nature and functions of the international bank, which was setup under the Annexes of the Hague Agreements and included drafts of the bank's charter and its statues, as well as other relevant documents. In January 1930 the Young plan was ratified at the Hague conference and The Bank of International Settlements (BIS) was formally established. It stated purpose was to ensure timely and continuous German reparation payments to the Allied nations. In thus took over the Reparations Committee role which was created by the Treaty of Versailles. The title of the BIS comes from this original purpose. Germany did accept the terms, but not everybody was happy with the deal. Politicians like Adolf Hitler and Alfred Hugenberg, but also industrialist Dr. Fritz Thyssen did criticize the plan. Owen D. Young, who was part of the committee of experts to draft this plan, also served as member of the reparation commission in 1924 which created the Dawes plan. Germany after the defeat of World War I was quite unstable with various failed attempts to overthrow the existing government, this includes Hitler’s one too. However during the mid Twenties the government managed to stabilize the country and the situation for most Germans was improving. If the situation would have continued as is, Hitler would most likely never have gotten a majority in the Reichstag as his ideology did not appeal to many Germans in the Twenties. To break this status quo something needed to happen, and it did happen! Next Story: The Great Depression Read Again: The Road to World War 2 Read Again: The Treaty of Versailles Read Again: The Early 20s in Germany Read Again: Beer Hall Putsch	<urn:uuid:689769f5-58a7-4320-9226-0439722edd47>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://vanhout.name/roaring20s.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00202.warc.gz	en	0.982588	735	3.828125	4	[ -0.4241853356361389, 0.4671648144721985, -0.014455538243055344, 0.10617256164550781, -0.13712969422340393, -0.23587888479232788, -0.4199284315109253, 0.23614022135734558, -0.132512629032135, -0.4195101261138916, 0.4808412790298462, -0.11746343225240707, 0.2701600193977356, 0.57349401712417...	1	In the early 20s the NSDAP had not made a real impression on the general public. German Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann even managed to bring down the reparations and was strongly trying to improve relations with their neighbors. The Roaring Twenties even reached Germany. Berlin was considered a party city, similar to Paris. With plenty of bars, dance halls, theaters and cinemas to enjoy the public. It was the time of Fritz Lang and Marlene Dietrich, and no longer to think about the horrors of the past war. On 1 December 1925 the Locarno Treaties were signed and it was decided that the Rhineland should be demilitarized permanently. Also the Allied forces would retreat from the Rhineland by June 1930. In all, this Treaty, also called the Spirit of Locarno, was introducing a new hope for international peace. On 8 September 1926 Germany would join the League of Nations. This event would further stabilize the international standings as well as give Germany an opportunity to seek help overseas for its massive debts as a result of the reparations. In the elections of 28 May 1928 the NSDAP only got 2.6% of the votes, which translated to 12 seats in the Reichstag. The Young plan is developed at the Second Reparations Conference in 1929. The committee, with as chairman the plan's name giver Owen D. Young, met first in Paris on 11 Feb 1929 and concluded with a report on 7 June 1929. It basically took the idea of the Dawes plan further and suggested the creation of a settlement agency. The plan reduced the total amount owned by about 17% and scheduled remaining payments to be completed over many years, the last one to be in 1988. Total reparations were fixed at 121 billion Reichsmarks to be paid in 59 annuities. It also contained a general description of the nature and functions of the international bank, which was setup under the Annexes of the Hague Agreements and included drafts of the bank's charter and its statues, as well as other relevant documents. In January 1930 the Young plan was ratified at the Hague conference and The Bank of International Settlements (BIS) was formally established. It stated purpose was to ensure timely and continuous German reparation payments to the Allied nations. In thus took over the Reparations Committee role which was created by the Treaty of Versailles. The title of the BIS comes from this original purpose. Germany did accept the terms, but not everybody was happy with the deal. Politicians like Adolf Hitler and Alfred Hugenberg, but also industrialist Dr. Fritz Thyssen did criticize the plan. Owen D. Young, who was part of the committee of experts to draft this plan, also served as member of the reparation commission in 1924 which created the Dawes plan. Germany after the defeat of World War I was quite unstable with various failed attempts to overthrow the existing government, this includes Hitler’s one too. However during the mid Twenties the government managed to stabilize the country and the situation for most Germans was improving. If the situation would have continued as is, Hitler would most likely never have gotten a majority in the Reichstag as his ideology did not appeal to many Germans in the Twenties. To break this status quo something needed to happen, and it did happen! Next Story: The Great Depression Read Again: The Road to World War 2 Read Again: The Treaty of Versailles Read Again: The Early 20s in Germany Read Again: Beer Hall Putsch	778	ENGLISH	1
that this period was a period of widespread unhappiness. The first of these is the extraordinary apathy of the population to political events. They saw one upstart pretender to empire succeed another with complete indifference. Such things did not seem to matter to them; hope had gone. When presently the barbarians poured into the empire, there was nothing but the legions to face them. There was no popular uprising against them at all. Everywhere the barbarians must have been outnumbered if only the people had resisted. But the people did not resist. It is manifest that to the bulk of its inhabitants the Roman Empire did not seem to be a thing worth fighting for. To the slaves and common people the barbarian probably seemed to promise more freedom and less indignity than the pompous rule of the imperial official and grinding employment by the rich. The looting and burning of palaces and an occasional massacre did not shock the folk of the Roman underworld as it shocked the wealthy and cultured people to whom we owe such accounts as we have of the breaking down of the imperial system. Great numbers of slaves and common people probably joined the barbarians, who knew little of racial or patriotic prejudices, and were openhanded to any promising recruit. No doubt in many cases the population found that the barbarian was a worse infliction even than the tax-gatherer and the slave-driver. But that discovery came too late for resistance or the restoration of the old order. And as a second symptom that points to the same conclusion that life was hardly worth living for the poor and the slaves and the majority of people during the age of the Antonines, we must reckon the steady depopulation of the empire. People refused to have children. They did so, we suggest, because their homes were not safe from oppression, because in the case of slaves there was no security that the husband and wife would not be separated, because there was no pride nor reasonable hope in children any more. In modern states the great breeding-ground has always been the agricultural countryside where there is a more or less secure peasantry; but under the Roman Empire the peasant and the small cultivator was either a worried debtor, or he was held in a network of restraints that made him a spiritless serf, or he had been ousted altogether by the gang production of slaves.	<urn:uuid:ee165c5a-760c-427a-b7e0-31a4b84ea055>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/561	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00402.warc.gz	en	0.98306	468	3.3125	3	[ -0.47965288162231445, 0.45032885670661926, 0.1533501148223877, -0.020530426874756813, -0.12544052302837372, -0.24941924214363098, -0.15337607264518738, 0.10492955893278122, -0.06444784998893738, 0.021108945831656456, 0.49330586194992065, -0.21407510340213776, -0.04606480151414871, 0.305718...	1	that this period was a period of widespread unhappiness. The first of these is the extraordinary apathy of the population to political events. They saw one upstart pretender to empire succeed another with complete indifference. Such things did not seem to matter to them; hope had gone. When presently the barbarians poured into the empire, there was nothing but the legions to face them. There was no popular uprising against them at all. Everywhere the barbarians must have been outnumbered if only the people had resisted. But the people did not resist. It is manifest that to the bulk of its inhabitants the Roman Empire did not seem to be a thing worth fighting for. To the slaves and common people the barbarian probably seemed to promise more freedom and less indignity than the pompous rule of the imperial official and grinding employment by the rich. The looting and burning of palaces and an occasional massacre did not shock the folk of the Roman underworld as it shocked the wealthy and cultured people to whom we owe such accounts as we have of the breaking down of the imperial system. Great numbers of slaves and common people probably joined the barbarians, who knew little of racial or patriotic prejudices, and were openhanded to any promising recruit. No doubt in many cases the population found that the barbarian was a worse infliction even than the tax-gatherer and the slave-driver. But that discovery came too late for resistance or the restoration of the old order. And as a second symptom that points to the same conclusion that life was hardly worth living for the poor and the slaves and the majority of people during the age of the Antonines, we must reckon the steady depopulation of the empire. People refused to have children. They did so, we suggest, because their homes were not safe from oppression, because in the case of slaves there was no security that the husband and wife would not be separated, because there was no pride nor reasonable hope in children any more. In modern states the great breeding-ground has always been the agricultural countryside where there is a more or less secure peasantry; but under the Roman Empire the peasant and the small cultivator was either a worried debtor, or he was held in a network of restraints that made him a spiritless serf, or he had been ousted altogether by the gang production of slaves.	470	ENGLISH	1
kidzsearch.com > wiki Explore:images videos games The war began when Egypt planned to capture Israel, which was seen by the Arab world as an illegitimate state. Egypt also wanted to liberate the Palestinian state. The war also began because of fear of an attack from Israel as suggested by soviet intelligence and from internal pressure within Egypt. Egypt, Syria and Jordan gathered troops and prepared for battle, while Arab authorities made clear their intentions for the destruction of Israel. Israel began the mounting precautionary troops against their borders with Syria, Egypt and Jordan as their prime reason. The Israeli air raids were described as a preemptive, or first, strike against the Egyptians. This attack was against the Egyptian airfields. The Egyptians had 50 runways and about 960 attack aircraft, while the Israelis had 300 attack craft. Israel attacked while Egypt's planes were still on the ground. In three hours nearly the entire Egyptian air force was wiped out. This surprised the Egyptians, and Israel went on to attack on the ground. Israel was then attacked by Syria and Jordan and defeated them both. The entire war took only six days from beginning to end, which is how it got its name. As a result Israel claimed lands that had great strategical and historical importance for Israel. Eventually Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt, but kept the lands acquired from Jordan under military control and started building settlements. The UN requested Israel to retreat to the pre-1967 borders and to help form an Arab-Palestinian state. Negotiations have been taken place over the Palestinian state in Gaza and the West Bank. Fighting continues to stall peace talks in the region.	<urn:uuid:2c3a009d-9cc9-4485-b3f8-4329160ecebf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wiki.kidzsearch.com/wiki/Six-Day_War	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00413.warc.gz	en	0.980579	330	3.4375	3	[ -0.3711051046848297, 0.654536247253418, -0.025530772283673286, 0.04337061569094658, -0.4250291585922241, 0.3864988684654236, 0.23134735226631165, 0.2391873002052307, 0.04808179661631584, 0.27503544092178345, 0.15982969105243683, -0.21927142143249512, -0.14823918044567108, 0.488656669855117...	2	kidzsearch.com > wiki Explore:images videos games The war began when Egypt planned to capture Israel, which was seen by the Arab world as an illegitimate state. Egypt also wanted to liberate the Palestinian state. The war also began because of fear of an attack from Israel as suggested by soviet intelligence and from internal pressure within Egypt. Egypt, Syria and Jordan gathered troops and prepared for battle, while Arab authorities made clear their intentions for the destruction of Israel. Israel began the mounting precautionary troops against their borders with Syria, Egypt and Jordan as their prime reason. The Israeli air raids were described as a preemptive, or first, strike against the Egyptians. This attack was against the Egyptian airfields. The Egyptians had 50 runways and about 960 attack aircraft, while the Israelis had 300 attack craft. Israel attacked while Egypt's planes were still on the ground. In three hours nearly the entire Egyptian air force was wiped out. This surprised the Egyptians, and Israel went on to attack on the ground. Israel was then attacked by Syria and Jordan and defeated them both. The entire war took only six days from beginning to end, which is how it got its name. As a result Israel claimed lands that had great strategical and historical importance for Israel. Eventually Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt, but kept the lands acquired from Jordan under military control and started building settlements. The UN requested Israel to retreat to the pre-1967 borders and to help form an Arab-Palestinian state. Negotiations have been taken place over the Palestinian state in Gaza and the West Bank. Fighting continues to stall peace talks in the region.	340	ENGLISH	1
Wood was already an important raw material for the first humans. Wood’s adaptability for many uses without much processing led to mankind discovering its many applications, as fuel, tools and its usability for making homes, objects and vehicles. Over the centuries, people discovered even more ways to use wood, and they became better at working and processing it. Many craftsmen in the Kempen region made wooden items. What did the carpenters, joiners, cartwrights, coopers, cabinetmakers and clog makers each do? Carpenter and joiner A woodworker in rural areas performed a wide variety of assignments. There was more or less defined division of labour between carpenters and joiners in the cities. The carpenter usually did the coarser and bigger work while the joiner worked in a finer way. The carpenter was closely involved in house building. He not only implemented the construction, often he also provided the necessary resources to the builder. Usually the joiner did the finer work. He not only made furniture but also wall panelling, doors, windows, stairs, chests, coffins, winnowing machines (machines for separating grain from chaff), etc. In rural areas, the carpenter was often a ‘Jack of all trades’. In addition to houses, he made windmill sails, a variety of stables, stores and sheds, furniture, spinning wheels, toys, etc. The carpenter's importance in society reduced as an increasing number of constructions were built of stone. His role became less prominent. As soon as building in stone gained popularity, he only made the roof trusses, window frames and doorframes. Cartwright and wheelwright The cartwright made a variety of wheelbarrows, three-wheeled carts, handcarts, carts, etc. Sometimes, there was a separate wheelwright. In smaller villages, one skilled craftsman might combine both jobs. The cartwright not only manufactured various means of transport, but also had to check, lubricate and repair the carts. For the wheels, the wheelwright used mostly elm or oak and sometimes ash or willow. The cartwright or wheelwright started by making the hub, the central cylindrical part of the wheel that rotates around shaft or axle. Then he sawed the spokes, using a template. He had one for each wheel size. Once the wheel was assembled and finished, it went to the smith for an iron strap that encircled the wheel and kept it together. The stronger the cart had to be, the more important the smith's role. The cartwright and the smith had to work together closely, and therefore often lived in the same neighbourhood. There were coopers in both the cities and most rural communities. They made beer barrels, vats, buckets and tubs. The smith made the hoops (metal bracing bands) that hold the wood together but the cooper fitted them onto the barrel. The hoops were not always metal. Sometimes, coopers also used wooden hoops, which they bought from a hoop cutter. Some coopers had specific specialities, such as dry or wet barrels (for dry substances or liquids) or produced very specific types of barrels. Additional treatments were sometimes required, depending on the vessel’s function. For example, beer vessels had to be swelled and treated on the inside because beer should not be exposed to raw wood due to the risk of mould formation. The profession of cabinetmaker only arose in the nineteenth century. Before that time, carpenters or joiners made furniture. People often regarded chair making as a separate speciality. In the nineteenth century, there were several chair makers' centres. Around 1900, the largest centre, in Mechelen, produced about 100,000 chairs every year. But even the Kempen region had two chair makers’ villages: Zandhoven and Sint-Huibrechts-Lille (Neerpelt). However, specialized carpenters and furniture makers disappeared quite quickly with the arrival of mechanization in the twentieth century. The clog maker also worked with wood. In Flanders clog makers usually used willow and poplar wood. Willow clogs were better quality, but twice as expensive as the poplar clog. The clog maker used all kinds of tools and accessories, which he often made himself. The types of tools and their names were very regional. A clog maker tried to produce fifty pairs from a cubic meter of wood. They wanted to waste as little wood as possible. The first processes, sawing the wood in blocks of the desired length for the clog and splitting them into pieces from which he could make many clogs usually occurred outdoors, perhaps because they were large pieces and the work involved a lot of mess. The clog maker made the uppers, sawed out the heel, the foot arch and did the final finishing work under a roof or in a workshop. Then the clogs had to dry, in open air during sunny weather or in the attic during winter. The clog maker often hung the clogs on the façades, where there was a lot of wind, which also made it possible for people to see from far where the clog maker lived. Self- built properties Those who could afford it took on a carpenter to build their home. Others built their own homes, often with help from neighbours. Tenants and big farmers mainly used the carpenter. Many smaller farmers could not afford a carpenter and did as many things as possible themselves, e.g. repair work. People also made many tools and implements themselves. Farmers and other craftsmen made their tools (partly) because they needed very specialized ones, which they designed themselves. Children often made their own wooden toys, such as spinning tops, made of willow, poplar or lime tree (linden) wood. They shot unripe elder berries, peas or balls of flax fibre with their wooden peashooters. They usually made their shooter of elder or ash wood. Other toys that children often made of wood included catapults, bows and arrows, a kind of Mikado, etc.	<urn:uuid:72af40e9-7ecb-4330-8635-b3fbb8074887>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bokrijk.be/en/bkrk/wood/carpenters-cartwrights-and-more	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00258.warc.gz	en	0.980904	1,280	3.9375	4	[ 0.0010850443504750729, 0.06802500784397125, 0.35292333364486694, -0.33694782853126526, -0.20490601658821106, -0.31205540895462036, 0.18395954370498657, -0.07767020910978317, -0.03191864490509033, 0.04900927469134331, -0.032510511577129364, -0.18475255370140076, -0.14527633786201477, 0.2304...	1	Wood was already an important raw material for the first humans. Wood’s adaptability for many uses without much processing led to mankind discovering its many applications, as fuel, tools and its usability for making homes, objects and vehicles. Over the centuries, people discovered even more ways to use wood, and they became better at working and processing it. Many craftsmen in the Kempen region made wooden items. What did the carpenters, joiners, cartwrights, coopers, cabinetmakers and clog makers each do? Carpenter and joiner A woodworker in rural areas performed a wide variety of assignments. There was more or less defined division of labour between carpenters and joiners in the cities. The carpenter usually did the coarser and bigger work while the joiner worked in a finer way. The carpenter was closely involved in house building. He not only implemented the construction, often he also provided the necessary resources to the builder. Usually the joiner did the finer work. He not only made furniture but also wall panelling, doors, windows, stairs, chests, coffins, winnowing machines (machines for separating grain from chaff), etc. In rural areas, the carpenter was often a ‘Jack of all trades’. In addition to houses, he made windmill sails, a variety of stables, stores and sheds, furniture, spinning wheels, toys, etc. The carpenter's importance in society reduced as an increasing number of constructions were built of stone. His role became less prominent. As soon as building in stone gained popularity, he only made the roof trusses, window frames and doorframes. Cartwright and wheelwright The cartwright made a variety of wheelbarrows, three-wheeled carts, handcarts, carts, etc. Sometimes, there was a separate wheelwright. In smaller villages, one skilled craftsman might combine both jobs. The cartwright not only manufactured various means of transport, but also had to check, lubricate and repair the carts. For the wheels, the wheelwright used mostly elm or oak and sometimes ash or willow. The cartwright or wheelwright started by making the hub, the central cylindrical part of the wheel that rotates around shaft or axle. Then he sawed the spokes, using a template. He had one for each wheel size. Once the wheel was assembled and finished, it went to the smith for an iron strap that encircled the wheel and kept it together. The stronger the cart had to be, the more important the smith's role. The cartwright and the smith had to work together closely, and therefore often lived in the same neighbourhood. There were coopers in both the cities and most rural communities. They made beer barrels, vats, buckets and tubs. The smith made the hoops (metal bracing bands) that hold the wood together but the cooper fitted them onto the barrel. The hoops were not always metal. Sometimes, coopers also used wooden hoops, which they bought from a hoop cutter. Some coopers had specific specialities, such as dry or wet barrels (for dry substances or liquids) or produced very specific types of barrels. Additional treatments were sometimes required, depending on the vessel’s function. For example, beer vessels had to be swelled and treated on the inside because beer should not be exposed to raw wood due to the risk of mould formation. The profession of cabinetmaker only arose in the nineteenth century. Before that time, carpenters or joiners made furniture. People often regarded chair making as a separate speciality. In the nineteenth century, there were several chair makers' centres. Around 1900, the largest centre, in Mechelen, produced about 100,000 chairs every year. But even the Kempen region had two chair makers’ villages: Zandhoven and Sint-Huibrechts-Lille (Neerpelt). However, specialized carpenters and furniture makers disappeared quite quickly with the arrival of mechanization in the twentieth century. The clog maker also worked with wood. In Flanders clog makers usually used willow and poplar wood. Willow clogs were better quality, but twice as expensive as the poplar clog. The clog maker used all kinds of tools and accessories, which he often made himself. The types of tools and their names were very regional. A clog maker tried to produce fifty pairs from a cubic meter of wood. They wanted to waste as little wood as possible. The first processes, sawing the wood in blocks of the desired length for the clog and splitting them into pieces from which he could make many clogs usually occurred outdoors, perhaps because they were large pieces and the work involved a lot of mess. The clog maker made the uppers, sawed out the heel, the foot arch and did the final finishing work under a roof or in a workshop. Then the clogs had to dry, in open air during sunny weather or in the attic during winter. The clog maker often hung the clogs on the façades, where there was a lot of wind, which also made it possible for people to see from far where the clog maker lived. Self- built properties Those who could afford it took on a carpenter to build their home. Others built their own homes, often with help from neighbours. Tenants and big farmers mainly used the carpenter. Many smaller farmers could not afford a carpenter and did as many things as possible themselves, e.g. repair work. People also made many tools and implements themselves. Farmers and other craftsmen made their tools (partly) because they needed very specialized ones, which they designed themselves. Children often made their own wooden toys, such as spinning tops, made of willow, poplar or lime tree (linden) wood. They shot unripe elder berries, peas or balls of flax fibre with their wooden peashooters. They usually made their shooter of elder or ash wood. Other toys that children often made of wood included catapults, bows and arrows, a kind of Mikado, etc.	1,248	ENGLISH	1
Late on Friday, citizens living in the Canadian provinces of Labrador and Newfoundland were proud and happy people. They had received an apology from Justin Trudeau for the atrocities that had happened to them and their ancestors. The apology is said to have been emotional and broad. These two provinces are inhabited mostly by indigenous people. According to the apology, the Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau said that he was sorry on behalf of the previous governments that compelled people in these areas to send their children to boarding school. As a result, some of the children ended up being abused while others were suffered emotional torture after being separated from the only people they knew. They were further forced to abandon their cultures. These acts are said to have happened until 1980. In total, 900 students were affected by the mandatory schooling where they were forced to attend five boarding schools. The 900 former students will share a sum of 50 million Canadian dollars after the government settled a lawsuit they had filed years earlier. The decision was reached despite a controversy that had engulfed the federal government for more than 20 years. Nine years ago, people from the rest of Canada received a heartfelt apology from Stephen Harper. Mr. Harper is the prime minister who came before Justin Trudeau. He said that the Canadian government was sorry for a residential program that had been operated by the Canadian government in these areas. The program is said to have begun in the 19th century and came to an end in 1996. This is a system that was described as a cultural genocide by a commission that had been established to look into the issue. The commission was referred to as the National Truth and Reconciliation Commission. However, the reason why Labrador and Newfoundland didn’t receive the initial apology in 2008 is because they joined Canada in 1949. Therefore, they were in a different boarding system that had a similar legacy as the one run in Canada. As a result, the previous government argued that the evils committed in these two provinces had nothing to do with the federal government at the moment. The apology was issued at a ceremony that was held in Goose Bay-Happy Valley. During the event, some of the victims were provided with an opportunity to speak. Some said that they were happy that the Canadian government was appreciating its history.	<urn:uuid:c824c977-87aa-49db-b421-1410499bc3fd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://premiergazette.com/2017/11/justin-trudeau-issues-an-apology-on-behalf-of-his-government/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00477.warc.gz	en	0.995095	449	3.578125	4	[ -0.1425928771495819, 0.7278608083724976, 0.5270267724990845, 0.08393127471208572, 0.06096643581986427, -0.23572216928005219, 0.12169813364744186, 0.10346466302871704, 0.15377342700958252, 0.39138612151145935, 0.29448702931404114, -0.13596436381340027, 0.1530074030160904, 0.0658228099346160...	1	Late on Friday, citizens living in the Canadian provinces of Labrador and Newfoundland were proud and happy people. They had received an apology from Justin Trudeau for the atrocities that had happened to them and their ancestors. The apology is said to have been emotional and broad. These two provinces are inhabited mostly by indigenous people. According to the apology, the Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau said that he was sorry on behalf of the previous governments that compelled people in these areas to send their children to boarding school. As a result, some of the children ended up being abused while others were suffered emotional torture after being separated from the only people they knew. They were further forced to abandon their cultures. These acts are said to have happened until 1980. In total, 900 students were affected by the mandatory schooling where they were forced to attend five boarding schools. The 900 former students will share a sum of 50 million Canadian dollars after the government settled a lawsuit they had filed years earlier. The decision was reached despite a controversy that had engulfed the federal government for more than 20 years. Nine years ago, people from the rest of Canada received a heartfelt apology from Stephen Harper. Mr. Harper is the prime minister who came before Justin Trudeau. He said that the Canadian government was sorry for a residential program that had been operated by the Canadian government in these areas. The program is said to have begun in the 19th century and came to an end in 1996. This is a system that was described as a cultural genocide by a commission that had been established to look into the issue. The commission was referred to as the National Truth and Reconciliation Commission. However, the reason why Labrador and Newfoundland didn’t receive the initial apology in 2008 is because they joined Canada in 1949. Therefore, they were in a different boarding system that had a similar legacy as the one run in Canada. As a result, the previous government argued that the evils committed in these two provinces had nothing to do with the federal government at the moment. The apology was issued at a ceremony that was held in Goose Bay-Happy Valley. During the event, some of the victims were provided with an opportunity to speak. Some said that they were happy that the Canadian government was appreciating its history.	473	ENGLISH	1
Before Alexander the Great set out to conquer Asia, his father, Philip II Of Macedon had waged a highly successful campaign against Greece. By defeating the Thebans and Athenians at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 B.C. the Macedonian ruler consolidated his power in Greece and became leader of the Corinthian League. It was Philip who began designs to conquer Asia when his assassination left the twenty year old Alexander in charge. Not only did Alexander take over his father’s role as leader of the rebellious city states of Greece at such a young age but pressed ahead with a Persian invasion on an enormous scale. After securing his position in Macedon and the mainland, he set out to create a reputation that has lasted for two thousand years and is still known as one of the greatest military minds that there has ever been. The Star of Vergina is best known nowadays as a symbol of the Macedonian dynasty. Found upon all forms of art, this symbol became a typical emblem of Alexander’s legacy. The star is considered a solar symbol and the number of points ranges from 6, 12 or 16. Some scholars say it represents the four elements and twelve Olympian deities. There is still debate as to what the star actually stands for and it is likely to have several meanings during the Classical and Hellenistic ages. It can be seen before the rise of Philip and Alexander but is more commonly linked with their accomplishments. An impressive gold chest with a relief of the star on the top was discovered in a tomb thought to belong to Philip in the 1970s and still resides in Vergina. Alexander also used the symbol on his coins and several of his successors followed suit. This burst of rays can been seen in relief sculpture and vase painting from earlier works and it is not clear when the Macedonians began to use the symbol. An old tale from Herodotus links Perdiccas, Alexander’s ancestor and an early Macedonian royal, with the sun but again the star has been a topic of much debate. While we do not know its origins, archaeological discoveries in Macedon directly connect the Star of Vergina to Alexander’s legacy. Widely circulated during the 3rd century B.C., it would have been abundantly clear to Greeks and Persians alike that this symbol represented Macedonian power. During his life, Alexander manipulated his image to suit his needs as a commander and ruler. According to the historians, he was eager to emphasise his divine ancestry on both sides of his family. This was a common practice among kings and even famous Romans attempted to tie themselves to the gods. On his father’s side he was related to Heracles and therefore Zeus. On his mother’s he claimed to be descended from Achilles, who was born of a nymph and so not quite mortal anyway. During his later life Alexander supposedly stated that Zeus himself was his direct father having slept with Olympias, Alexander’s mother. This did not sit so well with his followers but equally it could be a rumour exaggerated by Alexander’s fame. Connections to immortals gave a ruler authority and a divine right to rule. It is obvious that Zeus, the supreme Olympian, is the first choice for a king but the use of Heracles and the Nemean lion suggests strength and brute force. Other coins show Alexander wearing the lionskin, personally imitating Heracles. The Madeconian army conquered most of Asia through warfare, ingenious strategies and revolutionary siege machinery. Heracles, along with Athena and Nike, goddesses of war, intelligence and victory are perfect symbols to promote a successful general. On the reverse of the Alexander and Athena coin, Lysimachos uses the goddesses and image of Alexander to promote his own reign and by doing so implies he will imitate his predecessor in success. Along with Greek deities, Alexander also took on characteristics of Amun-Ra, the Egyptian sun god, by sporting rams horns. During his time in Egypt he took on the role of Pharaoh and founded Alexandria (where many have searched in vain for his lost tomb!). By adopting the cultures of those he ruled Alexander encouraged a greater following. Almost all portraits of Alexander feature his leonine hair, brow creased with thought and large eyes gazing straight ahead as if considering his next move. Leochares, the artist on whose sculptures our replicas busts are based, lived in Athens around the 4th century B.C. and also sculpted busts of Philip and Olmpyias. The famous Diana of Versailles is thought to be a Roman copy of his original as well as the Apollo Belvedere. It was important for a ruler to be recognised throughout his empire and coins and busts of Alexander have been found throughout Greece and the Near East. His successors imitated his curly Apollo-like hair and far off gaze in their own designs. Author: Tasha Dempster For our full range of replica Greek art and jewellery visit itsallgreek.co.uk	<urn:uuid:d09cc190-630b-4d56-adb6-93849b8dfab9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://itsallgreeklondon.wordpress.com/2014/10/23/alexander-the-great/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00303.warc.gz	en	0.982465	1,034	3.765625	4	[ -0.3738662600517273, 0.478392094373703, 0.11165253818035126, -0.4778584837913513, -0.7095058560371399, -0.4189818203449249, 0.28999853134155273, 0.2549912631511688, -0.10811001807451248, -0.09762834757566452, 0.028834564611315727, -0.32411694526672363, 0.09337042272090912, -0.0044054659083...	1	Before Alexander the Great set out to conquer Asia, his father, Philip II Of Macedon had waged a highly successful campaign against Greece. By defeating the Thebans and Athenians at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 B.C. the Macedonian ruler consolidated his power in Greece and became leader of the Corinthian League. It was Philip who began designs to conquer Asia when his assassination left the twenty year old Alexander in charge. Not only did Alexander take over his father’s role as leader of the rebellious city states of Greece at such a young age but pressed ahead with a Persian invasion on an enormous scale. After securing his position in Macedon and the mainland, he set out to create a reputation that has lasted for two thousand years and is still known as one of the greatest military minds that there has ever been. The Star of Vergina is best known nowadays as a symbol of the Macedonian dynasty. Found upon all forms of art, this symbol became a typical emblem of Alexander’s legacy. The star is considered a solar symbol and the number of points ranges from 6, 12 or 16. Some scholars say it represents the four elements and twelve Olympian deities. There is still debate as to what the star actually stands for and it is likely to have several meanings during the Classical and Hellenistic ages. It can be seen before the rise of Philip and Alexander but is more commonly linked with their accomplishments. An impressive gold chest with a relief of the star on the top was discovered in a tomb thought to belong to Philip in the 1970s and still resides in Vergina. Alexander also used the symbol on his coins and several of his successors followed suit. This burst of rays can been seen in relief sculpture and vase painting from earlier works and it is not clear when the Macedonians began to use the symbol. An old tale from Herodotus links Perdiccas, Alexander’s ancestor and an early Macedonian royal, with the sun but again the star has been a topic of much debate. While we do not know its origins, archaeological discoveries in Macedon directly connect the Star of Vergina to Alexander’s legacy. Widely circulated during the 3rd century B.C., it would have been abundantly clear to Greeks and Persians alike that this symbol represented Macedonian power. During his life, Alexander manipulated his image to suit his needs as a commander and ruler. According to the historians, he was eager to emphasise his divine ancestry on both sides of his family. This was a common practice among kings and even famous Romans attempted to tie themselves to the gods. On his father’s side he was related to Heracles and therefore Zeus. On his mother’s he claimed to be descended from Achilles, who was born of a nymph and so not quite mortal anyway. During his later life Alexander supposedly stated that Zeus himself was his direct father having slept with Olympias, Alexander’s mother. This did not sit so well with his followers but equally it could be a rumour exaggerated by Alexander’s fame. Connections to immortals gave a ruler authority and a divine right to rule. It is obvious that Zeus, the supreme Olympian, is the first choice for a king but the use of Heracles and the Nemean lion suggests strength and brute force. Other coins show Alexander wearing the lionskin, personally imitating Heracles. The Madeconian army conquered most of Asia through warfare, ingenious strategies and revolutionary siege machinery. Heracles, along with Athena and Nike, goddesses of war, intelligence and victory are perfect symbols to promote a successful general. On the reverse of the Alexander and Athena coin, Lysimachos uses the goddesses and image of Alexander to promote his own reign and by doing so implies he will imitate his predecessor in success. Along with Greek deities, Alexander also took on characteristics of Amun-Ra, the Egyptian sun god, by sporting rams horns. During his time in Egypt he took on the role of Pharaoh and founded Alexandria (where many have searched in vain for his lost tomb!). By adopting the cultures of those he ruled Alexander encouraged a greater following. Almost all portraits of Alexander feature his leonine hair, brow creased with thought and large eyes gazing straight ahead as if considering his next move. Leochares, the artist on whose sculptures our replicas busts are based, lived in Athens around the 4th century B.C. and also sculpted busts of Philip and Olmpyias. The famous Diana of Versailles is thought to be a Roman copy of his original as well as the Apollo Belvedere. It was important for a ruler to be recognised throughout his empire and coins and busts of Alexander have been found throughout Greece and the Near East. His successors imitated his curly Apollo-like hair and far off gaze in their own designs. Author: Tasha Dempster For our full range of replica Greek art and jewellery visit itsallgreek.co.uk	1,014	ENGLISH	1
The sight of a plant can lower work-related stress. A study by Japanese scientists, published in the American Society for Horticultural Science found that plants can significantly reduce work-related anxiety or stress. While there are other studies on the same subject, these were conducted in a lab or quasi-office setting. This was the first such study in a real office setting. The study was carried out on 63 office workers from an electric company based in Japan. The study was split in two phases, the control and the intervention phase. The control period was without plants. In the intervention period, the participants were provided with a small plant, which they had to care for. They were instructed to take a 3-minutes break whenever they felt under stress or fatigued. They would, therefore, gaze at the plant in this period when in the intervention phase. The researchers evaluated changes in the physiological and psychological stress among the participants by measuring it before and after a plant was placed on their desks. The researches found that stress lowered significantly during the intervention period. Additionally, more participants showed lowered stress in this period. The study indicated that intentionally gazing at plants on their desk or in their workspace can reduce the physiological and psychological stress among office workers.	<urn:uuid:0c9ff4df-5a6a-4f22-b4a2-5c8fadd207c2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.organicfacts.net/plants-stress	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00540.warc.gz	en	0.982989	251	3.34375	3	[ 0.3662794232368469, 0.27316248416900635, 0.5121299028396606, 0.2310522347688675, 0.41224992275238037, 0.310861200094223, 0.4633377492427826, -0.12670744955539703, 0.1708277016878128, -0.084958516061306, 0.04418624937534332, 0.05917811766266823, 0.6202412247657776, 0.6220278739929199, -0....	12	The sight of a plant can lower work-related stress. A study by Japanese scientists, published in the American Society for Horticultural Science found that plants can significantly reduce work-related anxiety or stress. While there are other studies on the same subject, these were conducted in a lab or quasi-office setting. This was the first such study in a real office setting. The study was carried out on 63 office workers from an electric company based in Japan. The study was split in two phases, the control and the intervention phase. The control period was without plants. In the intervention period, the participants were provided with a small plant, which they had to care for. They were instructed to take a 3-minutes break whenever they felt under stress or fatigued. They would, therefore, gaze at the plant in this period when in the intervention phase. The researchers evaluated changes in the physiological and psychological stress among the participants by measuring it before and after a plant was placed on their desks. The researches found that stress lowered significantly during the intervention period. Additionally, more participants showed lowered stress in this period. The study indicated that intentionally gazing at plants on their desk or in their workspace can reduce the physiological and psychological stress among office workers.	250	ENGLISH	1
While the fellow gladiators always competed against each other and were highly vulnerable to death at any time, these brave men shared a feeling of brotherhood among themselves. It is known that they organized trade unions among themselves. They used to elect their protector deities and leaders too. Whenever a warrior died in a fight these groups made sure that the deceased gladiator received proper funeral along with a grave inscription that honored his achievements. In case he had a wife and children, the union would ensure that they also received the necessary monetary compensation for their loss. 12. The Jews and Christians Despised The Gladiators The Jews and Christians were always against the gladiator fights and they were of the view that these fights were in favor of inherent idolatry. This is mainly because these spectacles were often a part of religious festivals that glorified pagan worship featuring idols and pagan gods. Thus, the sport of gladiator fights never managed to appease the Christians and Jews. The First Christian Ruler of Rome, Constantine when he came to power. He gave reasons that the gladiator fights cannot and should not be a part of a civil and domestic society. Though there is no proof that the ban was put into practice on humanitarian grounds. This is because it is known that the prospective gladiators were all sent to work in mines under inhuman conditions in order to maintain a steady flow of labor in the country. Further evidence also state that the games had become over-expensive and more “Christianizing” in the country resulted in less number of combatants. So, with this we have come to know a great deal about the gallantry and glory of the Roman Gladiators. They were indeed bravehearts unmatchable in their determination and spirit to fight and win. Though the murderous sport was an injustice to the human in them, we really need to salute their dignity and courage for living with such undying strength of mind and body.	<urn:uuid:dc6ee1b2-e18a-46ba-bf45-344bb6e0279a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyly.com/rome-history/ancient-roman-gladiators-facts/3/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00351.warc.gz	en	0.989772	392	3.515625	4	[ -0.4748816192150116, 0.6823029518127441, -0.1313287913799286, -0.03697967901825905, -0.18270307779312134, 0.11779860407114029, 0.4702349901199341, 0.44423216581344604, 0.3518984913825989, -0.06254010647535324, -0.4967357814311981, -0.27913975715637207, 0.09411264955997467, 0.30885347723960...	2	While the fellow gladiators always competed against each other and were highly vulnerable to death at any time, these brave men shared a feeling of brotherhood among themselves. It is known that they organized trade unions among themselves. They used to elect their protector deities and leaders too. Whenever a warrior died in a fight these groups made sure that the deceased gladiator received proper funeral along with a grave inscription that honored his achievements. In case he had a wife and children, the union would ensure that they also received the necessary monetary compensation for their loss. 12. The Jews and Christians Despised The Gladiators The Jews and Christians were always against the gladiator fights and they were of the view that these fights were in favor of inherent idolatry. This is mainly because these spectacles were often a part of religious festivals that glorified pagan worship featuring idols and pagan gods. Thus, the sport of gladiator fights never managed to appease the Christians and Jews. The First Christian Ruler of Rome, Constantine when he came to power. He gave reasons that the gladiator fights cannot and should not be a part of a civil and domestic society. Though there is no proof that the ban was put into practice on humanitarian grounds. This is because it is known that the prospective gladiators were all sent to work in mines under inhuman conditions in order to maintain a steady flow of labor in the country. Further evidence also state that the games had become over-expensive and more “Christianizing” in the country resulted in less number of combatants. So, with this we have come to know a great deal about the gallantry and glory of the Roman Gladiators. They were indeed bravehearts unmatchable in their determination and spirit to fight and win. Though the murderous sport was an injustice to the human in them, we really need to salute their dignity and courage for living with such undying strength of mind and body.	394	ENGLISH	1
Marriage. Marriages were arranged by parents between opposite-sex cross cousins. Marriage with parallel cousins, first or classificatory, was prohibited, as they were considered siblings. Arranged marriages ensured that the son-in-law would be a good hunter and provider. The levirate and sororate were practiced. Sororal polygyny was permitted and was an indication of the bride's parental approval. Bilateral cross-cousin marriage tended to establish or maintain cooperative relations between hunting groups, and the marriage of sibling pairs (two brothers to two sisters, or a brother and sister to a sister and brother) was considered exceptionally good. Some marriages were arranged with more distant groups, and with the advent of the fur trade, marriage of a daughter to an important fur trader was highly desirable. Following marriage, there was temporary matrilocal residence involving bride-service, until a child was born. The groom hunted for his parents-in-law and performed other services. After the birth of a child, residence was patrilocal. Divorce in the past was highly informal, but marriages are now performed in Roman Catholic or Anglican churches or by civil authorities and are subject to religious restraints and civil law. Domestic Unit. The typical residential unit was an extended family, adjacent to another related unit. Inheritance. Property was minimal and on the death of an individual was abandoned. Later, as material goods accumulated, survivors inherited appropriate items, but Canadian law is now applicable in the new village and urban context. Socialization. Children were raised permissively, and Control and discipline were instilled gradually. Mothers trained their daughters, and boys were gradually taught hunting and trapping skills by their fathers. A boy usually killed his first big game at about the age of fourteen, marking him a true hunter. Girls were secluded at first menses and regularly thereafter. These traditional practices are rapidly disappearing. In recent generations, many Cree children were sent to boarding schools, but now elementary and secondary schools are commonly found on the reserves, and some children go on to university or other postsecondary institutions.	<urn:uuid:ebc266eb-c2e1-46b6-ade3-a25b3e193329>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Cree-Western-Woods-Marriage-and-Family.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00481.warc.gz	en	0.98725	426	3.8125	4	[ 0.15165388584136963, 0.4274083077907562, -0.010843348689377308, -0.2817775309085846, 0.04891607165336609, -0.13995032012462616, -0.0250911433249712, -0.061790984123945236, 0.0885893851518631, 0.08818432688713074, 0.2957344055175781, -0.08835279196500778, 0.4343290328979492, 0.2214847356081...	4	Marriage. Marriages were arranged by parents between opposite-sex cross cousins. Marriage with parallel cousins, first or classificatory, was prohibited, as they were considered siblings. Arranged marriages ensured that the son-in-law would be a good hunter and provider. The levirate and sororate were practiced. Sororal polygyny was permitted and was an indication of the bride's parental approval. Bilateral cross-cousin marriage tended to establish or maintain cooperative relations between hunting groups, and the marriage of sibling pairs (two brothers to two sisters, or a brother and sister to a sister and brother) was considered exceptionally good. Some marriages were arranged with more distant groups, and with the advent of the fur trade, marriage of a daughter to an important fur trader was highly desirable. Following marriage, there was temporary matrilocal residence involving bride-service, until a child was born. The groom hunted for his parents-in-law and performed other services. After the birth of a child, residence was patrilocal. Divorce in the past was highly informal, but marriages are now performed in Roman Catholic or Anglican churches or by civil authorities and are subject to religious restraints and civil law. Domestic Unit. The typical residential unit was an extended family, adjacent to another related unit. Inheritance. Property was minimal and on the death of an individual was abandoned. Later, as material goods accumulated, survivors inherited appropriate items, but Canadian law is now applicable in the new village and urban context. Socialization. Children were raised permissively, and Control and discipline were instilled gradually. Mothers trained their daughters, and boys were gradually taught hunting and trapping skills by their fathers. A boy usually killed his first big game at about the age of fourteen, marking him a true hunter. Girls were secluded at first menses and regularly thereafter. These traditional practices are rapidly disappearing. In recent generations, many Cree children were sent to boarding schools, but now elementary and secondary schools are commonly found on the reserves, and some children go on to university or other postsecondary institutions.	415	ENGLISH	1
\|Education · Religion · Mythology\| \|Architecture · Engineering · Roads\| \|Army · Agriculture · Cuisine\| \|Kingdom of Cusco · Inca Empire\| \|(Civil War · Spanish conquest)\| Inca cuisine originated in pre-Columbian times within the Inca civilization from the 13th to the 16th century. The Inca civilization stretched across many regions, and so there was a great diversity of plants and animals used for food, many of which remain unknown outside Peru. The most important staples were various tubers, roots, and grains. Maize was of high prestige, but could not be grown as extensively as it was further north. The most common sources of meat were guinea pigs and llamas, and dried fish was common. There were also several types of edible clay, like pasa, which was used as sauce for potatoes and other tubers, and chaco, something used by the poor or religiously devout. As in the rest of Central and South America, chili peppers were an important and highly praised part of their diet. The Inca realm stretched north-south, encompassing a great variety of climate zones. In Peru in particular, the mountain ranges provide highly varied types of growing zones at different altitudes. The staples of the Incas included various plants with edible tubers and roots like potato and sweet potato, in hundreds of varieties. Slightly over 4,000 types are known to Peru. There was also oca, which came in two varieties, sweet and bitter. The sweet variety could be eaten raw or preserved and was used as a sweetener before the arrival of sugar. The insipid, starchy root ullucu, and arracacha, something like a cross between carrot and celery, were, like potatoes, used in stews and soup. Achira, a species of Canna, was a sweet, starchy root that was baked in earth ovens. Since it had to be transported up to the power center of Cuzco, it is considered to have been food eaten as part of a tradition. Although the roots and tubers provided the staples of the Inca, they were still considered lower in rank than maize. Several species of seaweed were part of the Inca diet and could be eaten fresh or dried. Some freshwater algae and blue algae of the genus Nostoc were eaten raw or processed for storage. In post-colonial times it has been used to make a dessert by boiling it in sugar. Pepino, a refreshing and thirst-quenching fruit, was eaten by common folk, but scorned by "pampered folk" and were considered difficult to digest. Peoples of the Altiplano had two large domesticated animals: llamas and alpacas. They were kept for their wool and used as pack animals that were often used in large caravans. The llama in particular was highly valued, and a white llama adorned in red cloth with gold earrings would often go before the Inca ruler as a royal symbol. Animals were believed to represent various gods depending on what color they had and were sacrificed in great number and the blood was used as a ritual anointment. The control over the sacred animals was very rigorous. Shepherds had to preserve every last part of any animal that died and present a full animal to the Inca or risk severe punishment. Among the food products made from the Peruvian camelids was sharqui, strips of freeze-dried meat, the origin of modern-day jerky. The meat of the common folk was the cuy, guinea pig. They were domesticated by 2000 BC and were easy to keep and multiplied rapidly. Guinea pigs were often cooked by stuffing them with hot stones. The entrails would often be used as an ingredient in soups along with potatoes, or made into a sauce. They could also be used for divination, which later brought them into disfavor by the Catholic Church. The Incas hunted game including the wild camelids vicuña and guanaco, whitetail deer, and viscacha, a kind of chinchilla which was hunted with lassos. Hunting rights were controlled by the state and any meat would go into the state warehouses for storage. In massive royal hunts, hunting teams would force huge herds into enclosures, and there are reports of several thousand animals being caught in a single great hunt, including puma, bear, fox and deer. One mainstay of the Inca army and the general population was dried fish. Limpets, skates, rays, small sharks of the genus Mustelus, mullets and bonito were among the fish caught off the Peruvian coast. Other sea creatures like seabirds, penguins, sea lions and dolphins were eaten, as were various crustaceans and chitons, mussels, chanque (an abalone-like animal). Like other American peoples, the Inca ate animals that were often considered vermin by many Europeans, such as frogs, caterpillars, beetles, and ants. Mayfly larvae were eaten raw or toasted and ground to make loaves that could then be stored. The Inca often got through times of food shortage because they were able to preserve and store many of their crops. It is estimated that at any given time in Incan history, there were three to seven years worth of food in the state warehouses. In the high elevations of the Andes, setting out potatoes and similar tubers out in the dry days and cold nights would freeze-dry them in a matter of days. The farmers would help the process by covering the crops to protect them from dew, and by stomping on them to release the excess water quickly. In addition to fruits, vegetables and roots, the Inca also preserved meat by drying and salting it, making for complete nutritional stores. These food preservation techniques, combined with their far-reaching road system, allowed the Inca Empire to withstand droughts and to have the means to feed a standing army. - Coe p. 179-180 - Coe p. 169-170 - Coe pp. 180-183 - Coe pp. 181-190 - Coe p. 171-175 - Coe p. 176-7 - Coe p. 177-8 - Coe p. 175 - Popenoe et al. 1989	<urn:uuid:e347f202-4ae2-4392-b3ed-6dbfee7e8b4e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://yowlink.com/?rdp_we_resource=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FInca_cuisine	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00004.warc.gz	en	0.983857	1,327	3.671875	4	[ -0.13409408926963806, -0.04386278986930847, 0.36680084466934204, 0.2801967263221741, -0.040673259645700455, -0.18404021859169006, 0.22864730656147003, -0.13399448990821838, 0.04004363343119621, -0.03976786881685257, -0.021047567948698997, -0.7975213527679443, -0.08668223023414612, 0.230364...	1	\|Education · Religion · Mythology\| \|Architecture · Engineering · Roads\| \|Army · Agriculture · Cuisine\| \|Kingdom of Cusco · Inca Empire\| \|(Civil War · Spanish conquest)\| Inca cuisine originated in pre-Columbian times within the Inca civilization from the 13th to the 16th century. The Inca civilization stretched across many regions, and so there was a great diversity of plants and animals used for food, many of which remain unknown outside Peru. The most important staples were various tubers, roots, and grains. Maize was of high prestige, but could not be grown as extensively as it was further north. The most common sources of meat were guinea pigs and llamas, and dried fish was common. There were also several types of edible clay, like pasa, which was used as sauce for potatoes and other tubers, and chaco, something used by the poor or religiously devout. As in the rest of Central and South America, chili peppers were an important and highly praised part of their diet. The Inca realm stretched north-south, encompassing a great variety of climate zones. In Peru in particular, the mountain ranges provide highly varied types of growing zones at different altitudes. The staples of the Incas included various plants with edible tubers and roots like potato and sweet potato, in hundreds of varieties. Slightly over 4,000 types are known to Peru. There was also oca, which came in two varieties, sweet and bitter. The sweet variety could be eaten raw or preserved and was used as a sweetener before the arrival of sugar. The insipid, starchy root ullucu, and arracacha, something like a cross between carrot and celery, were, like potatoes, used in stews and soup. Achira, a species of Canna, was a sweet, starchy root that was baked in earth ovens. Since it had to be transported up to the power center of Cuzco, it is considered to have been food eaten as part of a tradition. Although the roots and tubers provided the staples of the Inca, they were still considered lower in rank than maize. Several species of seaweed were part of the Inca diet and could be eaten fresh or dried. Some freshwater algae and blue algae of the genus Nostoc were eaten raw or processed for storage. In post-colonial times it has been used to make a dessert by boiling it in sugar. Pepino, a refreshing and thirst-quenching fruit, was eaten by common folk, but scorned by "pampered folk" and were considered difficult to digest. Peoples of the Altiplano had two large domesticated animals: llamas and alpacas. They were kept for their wool and used as pack animals that were often used in large caravans. The llama in particular was highly valued, and a white llama adorned in red cloth with gold earrings would often go before the Inca ruler as a royal symbol. Animals were believed to represent various gods depending on what color they had and were sacrificed in great number and the blood was used as a ritual anointment. The control over the sacred animals was very rigorous. Shepherds had to preserve every last part of any animal that died and present a full animal to the Inca or risk severe punishment. Among the food products made from the Peruvian camelids was sharqui, strips of freeze-dried meat, the origin of modern-day jerky. The meat of the common folk was the cuy, guinea pig. They were domesticated by 2000 BC and were easy to keep and multiplied rapidly. Guinea pigs were often cooked by stuffing them with hot stones. The entrails would often be used as an ingredient in soups along with potatoes, or made into a sauce. They could also be used for divination, which later brought them into disfavor by the Catholic Church. The Incas hunted game including the wild camelids vicuña and guanaco, whitetail deer, and viscacha, a kind of chinchilla which was hunted with lassos. Hunting rights were controlled by the state and any meat would go into the state warehouses for storage. In massive royal hunts, hunting teams would force huge herds into enclosures, and there are reports of several thousand animals being caught in a single great hunt, including puma, bear, fox and deer. One mainstay of the Inca army and the general population was dried fish. Limpets, skates, rays, small sharks of the genus Mustelus, mullets and bonito were among the fish caught off the Peruvian coast. Other sea creatures like seabirds, penguins, sea lions and dolphins were eaten, as were various crustaceans and chitons, mussels, chanque (an abalone-like animal). Like other American peoples, the Inca ate animals that were often considered vermin by many Europeans, such as frogs, caterpillars, beetles, and ants. Mayfly larvae were eaten raw or toasted and ground to make loaves that could then be stored. The Inca often got through times of food shortage because they were able to preserve and store many of their crops. It is estimated that at any given time in Incan history, there were three to seven years worth of food in the state warehouses. In the high elevations of the Andes, setting out potatoes and similar tubers out in the dry days and cold nights would freeze-dry them in a matter of days. The farmers would help the process by covering the crops to protect them from dew, and by stomping on them to release the excess water quickly. In addition to fruits, vegetables and roots, the Inca also preserved meat by drying and salting it, making for complete nutritional stores. These food preservation techniques, combined with their far-reaching road system, allowed the Inca Empire to withstand droughts and to have the means to feed a standing army. - Coe p. 179-180 - Coe p. 169-170 - Coe pp. 180-183 - Coe pp. 181-190 - Coe p. 171-175 - Coe p. 176-7 - Coe p. 177-8 - Coe p. 175 - Popenoe et al. 1989	1,348	ENGLISH	1
Influence of Atticus Finch Throughout our lives, we are influenced and taught by many. It can have an effect on the way we view problems and events. We can be influenced by anyone, such as a family member, friend, teacher, or a fictional character. Atticus Finch, one of the main characters in the novel To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, was a person who showed and taught me a lot. Atticus Finch was a man who fought for what he believed in. He always stood up for what was right, not what was popular believing that success was not just winning, but instead trying to fight for a good cause. This showed me that winning is not the only measure of accomplishment. Even if you failed, Atticus believed you were successful. Atticus once said that you should still fight even when you know you’re beaten. He didn’t just go with the popular opinion that blacks were bad. Instead, he gathered up his courage and fought against the court. This was a big pointer for me and one of the major influences, not just because I want to become a lawyer in the future like him. This showed me that with courage you can achieve a lot, and to never lose your self-confidence. Many people think that if you lose a battle then you were not successful and I do admit that I am one of these people. When I lose, I feel very discouraged. Atticus did not think this. He believed that being successful was only to try to do something for a good cause. Even if you lose what you were fighting for, you are still successful because you fought for what you thought was right. This was what touched me and taught me to never feel inferior when I lose. Atticus did not believe in racism. He had raised his kids to feel the same way. He taught them that everyone was equal. Atticus noted how in the court there was no way for a black man to win against a white man when it’s the white man who gets to decide what happens. No matter how good of a case Atticus gave the jury, it was still racism that came out on top. He was always for equality. He believed that all men were created equal and blacks shouldn’t be treated badly. Here, Atticus taught me that equality comes first. For example, today people of many different religions and backgrounds are friendly to each other. For instance, there are different students of various backgrounds in a classroom. This promotes diversity, which is the only thing that can combat racism. People of these different backgrounds today contribute so much to the world they live in. I believe nobody should be deprived of their rights no matter what their gender, background, or religion is. Even though the jury and judge were against Atticus, he still fought and tried which showed me that you should never give up fighting for what you think is right. Family was always something that Atticus took pride in. He loved his family with all his heart and would do anything for them. Atticus believed that he was a failure as a father sometimes. He tried very hard to be a good one but always seemed to think he could have been better .Atticus would put family first before anything else. I love my family very much and my parents put a lot of time and effort into raising me to become someone who would never give up on something that’s important to me. They taught me priceless lessons like tying my shoelaces, making my bed, how to use silverware, and so on. They have made a great impact on my life. My father is quite similar to Atticus. When he sees or hears something wrong, he speaks out. He always tells me not to give up when I think I won’t be able to achieve something and always tells me to do my best at school every day. He gives a lot of motivation, and encourages me not to back down. I am a very shy person and he reminds me to speak up and not to be hesitant when speaking. Atticus Finch was a successful and courageous man who did not believe in racism, teaching his family that equality always comes first. He taught me so much throughout the book, like how to make myself stronger however circumstances would become and to never give up, fight hard for the truth, and don’t ever lose your self-esteem to any negativity occurring. When I enter college, I will be more than happy to share my opinion and listen to the opinions of others. I will contribute whatever I can as I bring my confidence, work ethic, and will-power to every aspect of my life.	<urn:uuid:e97fb273-718e-40a6-ae1f-25b8430cd51a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://newyorkessays.com/essay-influence-of-atticus-finch/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00234.warc.gz	en	0.9896	949	3.46875	3	[ 0.13855300843715668, 0.4078570604324341, -0.012658016756176949, -0.06930793821811676, 0.13565358519554138, 0.2865447402000427, 0.6788266897201538, 0.47390204668045044, -0.08536215126514435, -0.05866634100675583, 0.0341905914247036, -0.24139761924743652, -0.16398504376411438, 0.017013492062...	5	Influence of Atticus Finch Throughout our lives, we are influenced and taught by many. It can have an effect on the way we view problems and events. We can be influenced by anyone, such as a family member, friend, teacher, or a fictional character. Atticus Finch, one of the main characters in the novel To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, was a person who showed and taught me a lot. Atticus Finch was a man who fought for what he believed in. He always stood up for what was right, not what was popular believing that success was not just winning, but instead trying to fight for a good cause. This showed me that winning is not the only measure of accomplishment. Even if you failed, Atticus believed you were successful. Atticus once said that you should still fight even when you know you’re beaten. He didn’t just go with the popular opinion that blacks were bad. Instead, he gathered up his courage and fought against the court. This was a big pointer for me and one of the major influences, not just because I want to become a lawyer in the future like him. This showed me that with courage you can achieve a lot, and to never lose your self-confidence. Many people think that if you lose a battle then you were not successful and I do admit that I am one of these people. When I lose, I feel very discouraged. Atticus did not think this. He believed that being successful was only to try to do something for a good cause. Even if you lose what you were fighting for, you are still successful because you fought for what you thought was right. This was what touched me and taught me to never feel inferior when I lose. Atticus did not believe in racism. He had raised his kids to feel the same way. He taught them that everyone was equal. Atticus noted how in the court there was no way for a black man to win against a white man when it’s the white man who gets to decide what happens. No matter how good of a case Atticus gave the jury, it was still racism that came out on top. He was always for equality. He believed that all men were created equal and blacks shouldn’t be treated badly. Here, Atticus taught me that equality comes first. For example, today people of many different religions and backgrounds are friendly to each other. For instance, there are different students of various backgrounds in a classroom. This promotes diversity, which is the only thing that can combat racism. People of these different backgrounds today contribute so much to the world they live in. I believe nobody should be deprived of their rights no matter what their gender, background, or religion is. Even though the jury and judge were against Atticus, he still fought and tried which showed me that you should never give up fighting for what you think is right. Family was always something that Atticus took pride in. He loved his family with all his heart and would do anything for them. Atticus believed that he was a failure as a father sometimes. He tried very hard to be a good one but always seemed to think he could have been better .Atticus would put family first before anything else. I love my family very much and my parents put a lot of time and effort into raising me to become someone who would never give up on something that’s important to me. They taught me priceless lessons like tying my shoelaces, making my bed, how to use silverware, and so on. They have made a great impact on my life. My father is quite similar to Atticus. When he sees or hears something wrong, he speaks out. He always tells me not to give up when I think I won’t be able to achieve something and always tells me to do my best at school every day. He gives a lot of motivation, and encourages me not to back down. I am a very shy person and he reminds me to speak up and not to be hesitant when speaking. Atticus Finch was a successful and courageous man who did not believe in racism, teaching his family that equality always comes first. He taught me so much throughout the book, like how to make myself stronger however circumstances would become and to never give up, fight hard for the truth, and don’t ever lose your self-esteem to any negativity occurring. When I enter college, I will be more than happy to share my opinion and listen to the opinions of others. I will contribute whatever I can as I bring my confidence, work ethic, and will-power to every aspect of my life.	928	ENGLISH	1
which Asoka began to reign and the First Punic War began, the first recorded gladiatorial combat took place in the forum at Rome, to celebrate the funeral of a member of the old Roman family of Brutus. This was a modest display of three couples, but soon gladiators were fighting by the hundred. The taste for these combats grew rapidly, and the wars supplied an abundance of captives. The old Roman moralists, who were so severe upon kissing and women's ornaments and Greek philosophy, had nothing but good to say for this new development. So long as pain was inflicted, Roman morality, it would seem, was satisfied. If republican Rome was the first of modern self-governing national communities, she was certainly the "Neanderthal" form of them. In the course of the next two or three centuries the gladiatorial shows of Rome grew to immense proportions. To begin with, while wars were frequent, the gladiators were prisoners of war. They came with their characteristic national weapons, tattooed Britons, Moors, Scythians, negroes, and the like, and there was perhaps some military value in these exhibitions. Then criminals of the lower classes condemned to death were also used. The ancient world did not understand that a criminal condemned to death still has rights, and at any rate the use of a criminal as a gladiator was not so bad as his use as "material" for the vivisectors of the Museum at Alexandria. But as the profits of this sort of show business grew and the demand for victims increased, ordinary slaves were sold to the trainers of gladiators, and any slave who had aroused his owner's spite might find himself in an establishment for letting out gladiators. And dissipated young men who had squandered their property, and lads of spirit, would go voluntarily into the trade for a stated time, trusting to their prowess to survive. As the business developed, a new use was found for gladiators as armed retainers; rich men would buy a band, and employ it as a bodyguard or hire it out for profit at the shows. The festivities of a show began with a ceremonial procession (pompa) and a sham fight (prælusio). The real fighting was heralded by trumpets. Gladiators who objected to fight - Seyffert, op cit.	<urn:uuid:72bc6fb3-172b-4fd5-b8ee-76d36757e9cc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/514	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00250.warc.gz	en	0.987102	491	3.34375	3	[ -0.38538432121276855, 0.6542738080024719, 0.4128774106502533, -0.08072114735841751, -0.4970581531524658, 0.023145228624343872, -0.005201707128435373, 0.36893430352211, 0.030167507007718086, -0.3636859059333801, -0.04037556052207947, -0.26734018325805664, 0.12084850668907166, 0.716408848762...	1	which Asoka began to reign and the First Punic War began, the first recorded gladiatorial combat took place in the forum at Rome, to celebrate the funeral of a member of the old Roman family of Brutus. This was a modest display of three couples, but soon gladiators were fighting by the hundred. The taste for these combats grew rapidly, and the wars supplied an abundance of captives. The old Roman moralists, who were so severe upon kissing and women's ornaments and Greek philosophy, had nothing but good to say for this new development. So long as pain was inflicted, Roman morality, it would seem, was satisfied. If republican Rome was the first of modern self-governing national communities, she was certainly the "Neanderthal" form of them. In the course of the next two or three centuries the gladiatorial shows of Rome grew to immense proportions. To begin with, while wars were frequent, the gladiators were prisoners of war. They came with their characteristic national weapons, tattooed Britons, Moors, Scythians, negroes, and the like, and there was perhaps some military value in these exhibitions. Then criminals of the lower classes condemned to death were also used. The ancient world did not understand that a criminal condemned to death still has rights, and at any rate the use of a criminal as a gladiator was not so bad as his use as "material" for the vivisectors of the Museum at Alexandria. But as the profits of this sort of show business grew and the demand for victims increased, ordinary slaves were sold to the trainers of gladiators, and any slave who had aroused his owner's spite might find himself in an establishment for letting out gladiators. And dissipated young men who had squandered their property, and lads of spirit, would go voluntarily into the trade for a stated time, trusting to their prowess to survive. As the business developed, a new use was found for gladiators as armed retainers; rich men would buy a band, and employ it as a bodyguard or hire it out for profit at the shows. The festivities of a show began with a ceremonial procession (pompa) and a sham fight (prælusio). The real fighting was heralded by trumpets. Gladiators who objected to fight - Seyffert, op cit.	486	ENGLISH	1
Germany had become heavily influenced by the Nazi Party in 1933-1939 under Adolf Hitler's growing power. Hitler's authority as fuhrer of Germany granted him the ability to reinforce Nazi ideology into German society. The changing social aspects in Germany aimed to exclude the Jewish population from the entertainment and many other factions as well as to purify Germany's social values with Nazi ideology. The cultural aspects in Nazi Germany had heavily influenced the youth, family life, sports, work, education, arts and religion by Hitler Nazifying Germany. A significant group that was targeted in this transformation was the 'Hitler Youth' which aimed to indoctrinate children with Nazi ideology. Because of this, women were also indoctrinated and as a result, they were classed as housewives whose sole purpose was to give birth to healthy Aryan children. The impact of the Nazi state under Hitler's rule was absolute. Hitler had utilised the constitution in favour of his Nazi Party to pass laws that would benefit Germany by segregating the Jewish people from social and cultural activities. The Jewish population was excluded from social and cultural activities as a result of the Nuremburg Laws. Consequently, terror and purges were inflicted upon the Jewish population by the Gestapo, whose role was significant during the event of 'The Night of Broken Glass'. The effort Hitler put forward in Nazi Germany would forever change the lives of the German people as his aim was to Nazify Germany in the period 1933-1939. . Nazi Germany in 1933 was a significant period which involved Hitler's self-election of fuhrer and the Nazis signing an agreement with the Catholic Churches. The transformation of Germany under the influence of the Nazis was granted by Hitler's absolute power as 'the father of Germany'. The treaty between the Nazi Party and the Catholic Churches was significant to the social and cultural life of German society as both sides had agreed to not interfere with each others' politics.	<urn:uuid:8e7984ce-49a6-40f1-b17b-2551dcca1b26>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/214058.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00064.warc.gz	en	0.986299	386	3.921875	4	[ -0.026412516832351685, 0.8122767806053162, 0.03634946048259735, -0.1885586529970169, 0.00340207084082067, 0.5754438042640686, 0.1878441721200943, 0.23364634811878204, -0.21175676584243774, -0.3773755431175232, 0.35789957642555237, -0.016154291108250618, 0.13791024684906006, -0.021565590053...	2	Germany had become heavily influenced by the Nazi Party in 1933-1939 under Adolf Hitler's growing power. Hitler's authority as fuhrer of Germany granted him the ability to reinforce Nazi ideology into German society. The changing social aspects in Germany aimed to exclude the Jewish population from the entertainment and many other factions as well as to purify Germany's social values with Nazi ideology. The cultural aspects in Nazi Germany had heavily influenced the youth, family life, sports, work, education, arts and religion by Hitler Nazifying Germany. A significant group that was targeted in this transformation was the 'Hitler Youth' which aimed to indoctrinate children with Nazi ideology. Because of this, women were also indoctrinated and as a result, they were classed as housewives whose sole purpose was to give birth to healthy Aryan children. The impact of the Nazi state under Hitler's rule was absolute. Hitler had utilised the constitution in favour of his Nazi Party to pass laws that would benefit Germany by segregating the Jewish people from social and cultural activities. The Jewish population was excluded from social and cultural activities as a result of the Nuremburg Laws. Consequently, terror and purges were inflicted upon the Jewish population by the Gestapo, whose role was significant during the event of 'The Night of Broken Glass'. The effort Hitler put forward in Nazi Germany would forever change the lives of the German people as his aim was to Nazify Germany in the period 1933-1939. . Nazi Germany in 1933 was a significant period which involved Hitler's self-election of fuhrer and the Nazis signing an agreement with the Catholic Churches. The transformation of Germany under the influence of the Nazis was granted by Hitler's absolute power as 'the father of Germany'. The treaty between the Nazi Party and the Catholic Churches was significant to the social and cultural life of German society as both sides had agreed to not interfere with each others' politics.	403	ENGLISH	1
Originally published August 2006. Houses in Early Medieval Ireland During the last fifty years about 250 houses dating from the early Medieval period of Ireland have been discovered and excavated, providing some insights into the way of life during that time. Most of these houses were located in ring forts, ecclesiastical enclosures, or the island habitations known as “crannogs” and date after the seventh These houses were circular, and about 6 to 7 meters in diameter, with walls consisting hazel rods woven together in a wicker-like manner. Foundations for these types of houses have been exposed in excavations showing arcs of holes for the upright posts of the wicker walls. Occasional larger figure-eight shaped structures have also been discovered in which the smaller room was used as a back room or kitchen area which is probably the “backhouse” that was mentioned in some early Medieval written sources.. The houses do not seem to have been further divided into rooms, but the remains of post holes in the ground suggest beds, or sitting areas against the inside walls. One of the most significant of these finds is a group of houses which were discovered in the excavation of a ring fort at Deer Park Farms, Glenarm, County Antrim in 1986-87. This find has gone a long way towards confirming the theories that previously could only be speculated on based on remains of post holes in the ground. As a result of tree-ring dating techniques, the surviving timbers from a door frame showed that the tree have been felled in approximately AD 648. At some point, the residents of the Deer Park Farms site decided to raise the elevation of the surrounding ring fort. and the houses were emptied of re-usable materials and filled with gravelly soil. The fill material was apparently taken from a ditch that was dug around the ring fort. As a result, the buried lower walls of the houses, the floors, and even bedding material were so well preserved that they appeared as if the site had only been abandoned recently. The houses of Deer Park Farms actually were of a double-wall construction with grassy packing for “insulation” between the walls. (Other evidence of double-walled construction have been found in the remains of largest known wicker house on the Moynagh Lough Crannog in County Meath.) The main house had a stone-kerbed hearth at it’s center and beds against the walls on either side. The beds consisted of a platforms of branches covered in twigs and vegetable matter reminiscent of a large bird’s nest. On either side of the large central house were two smaller houses each with stone pathways leading from the entrance of the ring fort. An interesting note about the houses is that there was little evidence of farming activities such as threshing winnowing, or grain storage, and it is believed that livestock were kept outside of the ring fort. There were signs of craft work taking place however in the form of staples used for fastening hoops on wooden containers, as well as unfinished staves other parts apparently intended for wooden tubs. A seventh-century document, the “Crith Gabhlach” describes the household of a young or lower noble as having a a house around 19 feet across with a “back house” about 13 feet across. The house was to be interwoven and the owner would have a share in a kiln, a barn and a mill. -One of the most significant finds at the Deer Park Farms site was a discard hub and paddle from a horizontal watermill. Thus it seems fairly clear that the Deer Park Farms houses seems to conform with that of a lower level landowner and his family.	<urn:uuid:e09cdbb9-fbb1-416e-a7fd-d909dc0d46f7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.kilts-n-stuff.com/Blog/houses-in-early-medieval-ireland/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00213.warc.gz	en	0.983322	764	3.3125	3	[ -0.21906901895999908, 0.18892230093479156, 0.3921351432800293, 0.2684977054595947, 0.05418133735656738, -0.039771176874637604, -0.17192016541957855, -0.37613463401794434, -0.1655093878507614, -0.09022043645381927, 0.09205193817615509, -0.5278503894805908, -0.10165718197822571, 0.4459559619...	2	Originally published August 2006. Houses in Early Medieval Ireland During the last fifty years about 250 houses dating from the early Medieval period of Ireland have been discovered and excavated, providing some insights into the way of life during that time. Most of these houses were located in ring forts, ecclesiastical enclosures, or the island habitations known as “crannogs” and date after the seventh These houses were circular, and about 6 to 7 meters in diameter, with walls consisting hazel rods woven together in a wicker-like manner. Foundations for these types of houses have been exposed in excavations showing arcs of holes for the upright posts of the wicker walls. Occasional larger figure-eight shaped structures have also been discovered in which the smaller room was used as a back room or kitchen area which is probably the “backhouse” that was mentioned in some early Medieval written sources.. The houses do not seem to have been further divided into rooms, but the remains of post holes in the ground suggest beds, or sitting areas against the inside walls. One of the most significant of these finds is a group of houses which were discovered in the excavation of a ring fort at Deer Park Farms, Glenarm, County Antrim in 1986-87. This find has gone a long way towards confirming the theories that previously could only be speculated on based on remains of post holes in the ground. As a result of tree-ring dating techniques, the surviving timbers from a door frame showed that the tree have been felled in approximately AD 648. At some point, the residents of the Deer Park Farms site decided to raise the elevation of the surrounding ring fort. and the houses were emptied of re-usable materials and filled with gravelly soil. The fill material was apparently taken from a ditch that was dug around the ring fort. As a result, the buried lower walls of the houses, the floors, and even bedding material were so well preserved that they appeared as if the site had only been abandoned recently. The houses of Deer Park Farms actually were of a double-wall construction with grassy packing for “insulation” between the walls. (Other evidence of double-walled construction have been found in the remains of largest known wicker house on the Moynagh Lough Crannog in County Meath.) The main house had a stone-kerbed hearth at it’s center and beds against the walls on either side. The beds consisted of a platforms of branches covered in twigs and vegetable matter reminiscent of a large bird’s nest. On either side of the large central house were two smaller houses each with stone pathways leading from the entrance of the ring fort. An interesting note about the houses is that there was little evidence of farming activities such as threshing winnowing, or grain storage, and it is believed that livestock were kept outside of the ring fort. There were signs of craft work taking place however in the form of staples used for fastening hoops on wooden containers, as well as unfinished staves other parts apparently intended for wooden tubs. A seventh-century document, the “Crith Gabhlach” describes the household of a young or lower noble as having a a house around 19 feet across with a “back house” about 13 feet across. The house was to be interwoven and the owner would have a share in a kiln, a barn and a mill. -One of the most significant finds at the Deer Park Farms site was a discard hub and paddle from a horizontal watermill. Thus it seems fairly clear that the Deer Park Farms houses seems to conform with that of a lower level landowner and his family.	757	ENGLISH	1
Wangari Maathai was a Kenyan political activist, an internationally known environmentalist, and a Nobel laureate. She was the first black African woman to win the Nobel Prize and the only environmentalist to win the Nobel Peace Prize. She was awarded the prize for her role in sustainable development and democracy. As a politician, Wangari Maathai served as a member of National Assembly and also as an assistant minister for environment and natural resources. She is a celebrated heroine in Kenya for her role in fighting for the conservation of natural resources, which often times landed her in problems with the authorities. 5. Early Life Wangari was born on April 1, 1940, in the central highlands of Kenya. Her family relocated to the colonial-owned farm in Nakuru town, Rift Valley where her father had secured some manual jobs in in 1943. In 1947, Wangari returned to Nyeri with her mother to start schooling as there were no schools on the farm where her father worked. She joined Ihithe Primary School but was later transferred to St. Cecilia’s Intermediate School. She came top of her class and was granted admission at Loreto High School. Because of her exemplary performance, Wangari received a scholarship through Joseph P Kennedy Jr Foundation to study at Benedictine College in Kansas. She later joined the University of Pittsburgh for a master’s degree in Biology. In January 1966, Wangari Maathai was appointed a research assistant at the Kenyan University of Nairobi. However, upon returning to Kenya to begin her new job she was informed that the opportunity was no longer available and that someone else had been offered the job. Two months later, she secured a job as a research assistant in the microanatomy department in the Department of Veterinary Anatomy, a new department in the University College of Nairobi. In 1969, she was promoted to the position of an assistant lecturer and in 1975 she became a senior lecturer in anatomy and an associate professor in 1977. 3. Major Contributions As a senior lecturer and one of the top university leaders, Wangari championed for the equal benefits for the female university staff, going as far as attempting to transform the academic staff association into a union. She founded the Envirocare Ltd, a business company which was involved in planting trees and promoting environmental conservation. In 1977, she founded the “Green Belt Movement” that encouraged women of Kenya to engage in planting tree nurseries throughout the country. The movement is one of the most successful environmental movements in East Africa. Through the movement, Wangari fought several attempts by the government to turn clear parks for development including the famous Uhuru Park and Karura Forest. She championed for democracy and free and fair elections in Kenya. Although Wangari Maathai was an accomplished environmentalist and politician, her achievements came at a huge cost. In 1977, she was divorced by her husband who claimed that she was "too strong-minded to be controlled.” Most of the activities of the Green Belt Movement were opposed by the government. Maathai was also considered a threat to the government since she opposed the government’s effort to privatize some of the public lands. President Moi even labeled her “crazy woman” for opposing the construction of a facility at the Uhuru Park. Her protest march through the city of Nairobi was often met with violent resistance from the police. She was detained without trial several times and sometimes false charges were preferred on her. 1. Death and Legacy Maathai died on September 25, 2011, of ovarian cancer while receiving treatment in Nairobi. Her body was cremated a few days later. She left behind a rich legacy that continues to live on today. She was also the first president of the Africa Union’s Economic, Social and Cultural Council. A corner at the Uhuru Park has been named “Freedom Corner” in her honor. She was the first East African woman to receive a Ph.D. and received several international awards for her role in environmental conservation. Who Was Wangari Maathai? Wangari Maathai was the first black African woman to win a Nobel Prize and the first and only environmentalist to win the Nobel Peace Prize. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:c641138e-7646-4f87-8ee4-756235f0a9c3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/wangari-maathai-important-figures-in-history.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00402.warc.gz	en	0.982325	938	3.3125	3	[ 0.08425064384937286, 0.6867194175720215, 0.2701796293258667, 0.20909912884235382, 0.07213419675827026, -0.09172731637954712, 0.10499373823404312, -0.13385619223117828, -0.44048649072647095, 0.5111072063446045, 0.19141125679016113, -0.6850758790969849, 0.22003385424613953, 0.317900717258453...	1	Wangari Maathai was a Kenyan political activist, an internationally known environmentalist, and a Nobel laureate. She was the first black African woman to win the Nobel Prize and the only environmentalist to win the Nobel Peace Prize. She was awarded the prize for her role in sustainable development and democracy. As a politician, Wangari Maathai served as a member of National Assembly and also as an assistant minister for environment and natural resources. She is a celebrated heroine in Kenya for her role in fighting for the conservation of natural resources, which often times landed her in problems with the authorities. 5. Early Life Wangari was born on April 1, 1940, in the central highlands of Kenya. Her family relocated to the colonial-owned farm in Nakuru town, Rift Valley where her father had secured some manual jobs in in 1943. In 1947, Wangari returned to Nyeri with her mother to start schooling as there were no schools on the farm where her father worked. She joined Ihithe Primary School but was later transferred to St. Cecilia’s Intermediate School. She came top of her class and was granted admission at Loreto High School. Because of her exemplary performance, Wangari received a scholarship through Joseph P Kennedy Jr Foundation to study at Benedictine College in Kansas. She later joined the University of Pittsburgh for a master’s degree in Biology. In January 1966, Wangari Maathai was appointed a research assistant at the Kenyan University of Nairobi. However, upon returning to Kenya to begin her new job she was informed that the opportunity was no longer available and that someone else had been offered the job. Two months later, she secured a job as a research assistant in the microanatomy department in the Department of Veterinary Anatomy, a new department in the University College of Nairobi. In 1969, she was promoted to the position of an assistant lecturer and in 1975 she became a senior lecturer in anatomy and an associate professor in 1977. 3. Major Contributions As a senior lecturer and one of the top university leaders, Wangari championed for the equal benefits for the female university staff, going as far as attempting to transform the academic staff association into a union. She founded the Envirocare Ltd, a business company which was involved in planting trees and promoting environmental conservation. In 1977, she founded the “Green Belt Movement” that encouraged women of Kenya to engage in planting tree nurseries throughout the country. The movement is one of the most successful environmental movements in East Africa. Through the movement, Wangari fought several attempts by the government to turn clear parks for development including the famous Uhuru Park and Karura Forest. She championed for democracy and free and fair elections in Kenya. Although Wangari Maathai was an accomplished environmentalist and politician, her achievements came at a huge cost. In 1977, she was divorced by her husband who claimed that she was "too strong-minded to be controlled.” Most of the activities of the Green Belt Movement were opposed by the government. Maathai was also considered a threat to the government since she opposed the government’s effort to privatize some of the public lands. President Moi even labeled her “crazy woman” for opposing the construction of a facility at the Uhuru Park. Her protest march through the city of Nairobi was often met with violent resistance from the police. She was detained without trial several times and sometimes false charges were preferred on her. 1. Death and Legacy Maathai died on September 25, 2011, of ovarian cancer while receiving treatment in Nairobi. Her body was cremated a few days later. She left behind a rich legacy that continues to live on today. She was also the first president of the Africa Union’s Economic, Social and Cultural Council. A corner at the Uhuru Park has been named “Freedom Corner” in her honor. She was the first East African woman to receive a Ph.D. and received several international awards for her role in environmental conservation. Who Was Wangari Maathai? Wangari Maathai was the first black African woman to win a Nobel Prize and the first and only environmentalist to win the Nobel Peace Prize. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	946	ENGLISH	1
Sadigh Gallery on the Mythological Animal – Sphinx Mythology is quite an interesting, abstract, and an odd concept in itself, the creatures and their abilities, and the purposes some of these mythological creatures possess is anything but realistic. A perfect example of these theoretical and unreal characteristics is that of the ancient Greek creature known as the sphinx. The Sphinx was depicted within Greek Mythology as a ruthless and ill hearted creature who would ask riddles, and if answered incorrectly would face the wrath of the Sphinx in full form. The sphinx had a body of a lion, the wings of a powerful bird, and the face and breasts of a woman, explains New York-based gallery Sadigh Gallery. However, contrary to the belief and depiction of the Greek mythological sphinx, the Egyptian sphinx was actually a male, who instead of being malicious and evil was sought as a guardian who was destined to keep the city and its people safe from intruders. The lore differs quite drastically between the two depictions of the sphinx however, aesthetically the animals look very similar. The Greeks definition of the origin of sphinx comes from the very sphingo, which means to squeeze or tighten. Often times this is thought to depict the strength of the sphinx’s agile lion-like body, which only further perpetuates the connotation that the Greek Sphinx was an evil and unique demon known for its bad fortune and chaos, notes Sadigh Gallery. The Sphinx was born from Echidna and Typhon, who were Greek gods that did not necessarily intend for their offspring to become such a benevolent and evil creature. The Egyptians viewed the mythological creature of the sphinx quite differently, as it was not a single creature born from the gods, but rather guardians whose origins are cloudy, as there are many theories of how these creatures came to exist. There are many famous Egyptian sphinxes, because of the innate belief that sphinxes did not actually interact with the Egyptians in the real world, but were rather serving as protectors of the underworld or of the town, explains Sadigh Gallery. The first depiction of the sphinx within the Egyptian culture was thought to be Queen Hetepheres II, as she had a sphinx head and image that was carved to look similar to her. Most of the sphinxes are famous, as they are usually put on the head of a pharaoh as a form of their beliefs, one of the most famous being the head of a pharaoh such named Hatshepsut. However, the largest and most famous sphinx is the Great Sphinx of Giza, which lies on the west bank of the Nile River.	<urn:uuid:01edde6e-3232-459f-8923-b0c3352256ca>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.sadighgalleryblog.com/uncategorized/sadigh-gallery-on-the-mythological-animal-sphinx/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00306.warc.gz	en	0.983954	558	3.28125	3	[ 0.17034219205379486, 0.4971826374530792, 0.3822749853134155, 0.8182817697525024, -0.6771508455276489, -0.148467019200325, 0.4479166269302368, 0.0540122389793396, -0.0688701644539833, 0.16088424623012543, -0.1562284380197525, -0.6746139526367188, 0.008107004687190056, 0.28261256217956543, ...	6	Sadigh Gallery on the Mythological Animal – Sphinx Mythology is quite an interesting, abstract, and an odd concept in itself, the creatures and their abilities, and the purposes some of these mythological creatures possess is anything but realistic. A perfect example of these theoretical and unreal characteristics is that of the ancient Greek creature known as the sphinx. The Sphinx was depicted within Greek Mythology as a ruthless and ill hearted creature who would ask riddles, and if answered incorrectly would face the wrath of the Sphinx in full form. The sphinx had a body of a lion, the wings of a powerful bird, and the face and breasts of a woman, explains New York-based gallery Sadigh Gallery. However, contrary to the belief and depiction of the Greek mythological sphinx, the Egyptian sphinx was actually a male, who instead of being malicious and evil was sought as a guardian who was destined to keep the city and its people safe from intruders. The lore differs quite drastically between the two depictions of the sphinx however, aesthetically the animals look very similar. The Greeks definition of the origin of sphinx comes from the very sphingo, which means to squeeze or tighten. Often times this is thought to depict the strength of the sphinx’s agile lion-like body, which only further perpetuates the connotation that the Greek Sphinx was an evil and unique demon known for its bad fortune and chaos, notes Sadigh Gallery. The Sphinx was born from Echidna and Typhon, who were Greek gods that did not necessarily intend for their offspring to become such a benevolent and evil creature. The Egyptians viewed the mythological creature of the sphinx quite differently, as it was not a single creature born from the gods, but rather guardians whose origins are cloudy, as there are many theories of how these creatures came to exist. There are many famous Egyptian sphinxes, because of the innate belief that sphinxes did not actually interact with the Egyptians in the real world, but were rather serving as protectors of the underworld or of the town, explains Sadigh Gallery. The first depiction of the sphinx within the Egyptian culture was thought to be Queen Hetepheres II, as she had a sphinx head and image that was carved to look similar to her. Most of the sphinxes are famous, as they are usually put on the head of a pharaoh as a form of their beliefs, one of the most famous being the head of a pharaoh such named Hatshepsut. However, the largest and most famous sphinx is the Great Sphinx of Giza, which lies on the west bank of the Nile River.	541	ENGLISH	1
HEN Duncan the Meek reigned King of Scotland there lived a great thane, or lord, called Macbeth. This Macbeth was a near kinsman to the king, and in great esteem at court for his valor and conduct in the wars, an example of which he had lately given in defeating a rebel army assisted by the troops of Norway in terrible numbers. The two Scottish generals, Macbeth and Banquo, returning victorious from this great battle, their way lay over a blasted heath, where they were stopped by the strange appearance of three figures like women, except that they had beards, and their withered skins and wild attire made them look not like any earthly creatures. Macbeth first addressed them, when they, seemingly offended, laid each one her choppy finger upon her skinny lips, in token of silence; and the first of them saluted Macbeth with the title of Thane of Glamis. The general was not a little startled to find himself known by such creatures; but how much more, when the second of them followed up that salute by giving him the title of Thane of Cawdor, to which honor he had no pretensions; and again the third bid him, "All hail! that shalt be king hereafter!" Such a prophetic greeting might well amaze him, who knew that while the king's sons lived he could not hope to succeed to the throne. Then turning to Banquo, they pronounced him, in a sort of riddling terms, to be lesser than Macbeth, and greater! not so happy, but much happier! and prophesied that though he should never reign, yet his sons after him should be kings in Scotland. They then turned into air and vanished; by which the generals knew them to be the weird sisters, or witches. While they stood pondering on the strangeness of this adventure there arrived certain messengers from the king, who were empowered by him to confer upon Macbeth the dignity of Thane of Cawdor. An event so miraculously corresponding with the prediction of the witches astonished Macbeth, and he stood wrapped in amazement, unable to make reply to the messengers; and in that point of time swelling hopes arose in his mind that the prediction of the third witch might in like manner have its accomplishment, and that he should one day reign king in Scotland. Turning to Banquo, he said, "Do you not hope that your children shall be kings, when what the witches promised to me has so wonderfully come to pass?" "That hope," answered the general, "might enkindle you to aim at the throne; but oftentimes these ministers of darkness tell us truths in little things, to betray us into deeds of greatest consequence." But the wicked suggestions of the witches had sunk too deep into the mind of Macbeth to allow him to attend to the warnings of the good Banquo. From that time he bent all his thoughts how to compass the throne of Scotland. Macbeth had a wife, to whom he communicated the strange prediction of the weird sisters and its partial accomplishment. She was a bad, ambitious woman, and so as her husband and herself could arrive at greatness she cared not much by what means. She spurred on the reluctant purpose of Macbeth, who felt compunction at the thoughts of blood, and did not cease to represent the murder of the king as a step absolutely necessary to the fulfilment of the flattering prophecy. It happened at this time that the king, who out of his royal condescension would oftentimes visit his principal nobility upon gracious terms, came to Macbeth's house, attended by his two sons, Malcolm and Donalbain, and a numerous train of thanes and attendants, the more to honor Macbeth for the triumphal success of his wars. The castle of Macbeth was pleasantly situated and the air about it was sweet and wholesome, which appeared by the nests which the martlet, or swallow, had built under all the jutting friezes and buttresses of the building, wherever it found a place of advantage; for where those birds most breed and haunt the air is observed to be delicate. The king entered, well pleased with the place, and not less so with the attentions and respect of his honored hostess, Lady Macbeth, who had the art of covering treacherous purposes with smiles, and could look like the innocent flower while she was indeed serpent under it. The king, being tired with his journey, went early to bed, and in his state-room two grooms of his chamber (as was the custom) beside him. He had been unusually pleased with his reception, and had made presents before he retired to his principal officers; and among the rest had sent a diamond to Lady Macbeth, greeting her by the name of his most kind hostess. Now was the middle of night, when over half the world nature seems dead, and wicked dreams abuse men's minds asleep, and none but the wolf and the murderer are abroad. This was the time when Lady Macbeth waked to plot the murder of the king. She would not have undertaken a deed so abhorrent to her sex but that she feared her husband's nature, that it was too full of the milk of human kindness to do a contrived murder. She knew him to be ambitious, but withal to be scrupulous, and not yet prepared for that height of crime which commonly in the end accompanies inordinate ambition. She had won him to consent to the murder, but she doubted his resolution; and she feared that the natural tenderness of his disposition (more humane than her own) would come between and defeat the purpose. So with her own hands armed with a dagger she approached the king's bed, having taken care to ply the grooms of his chamber so with wine that they slept intoxicated and careless of their charge. There lay Duncan in a sound sleep after the fatigues of his journey, and as she viewed him earnestly there was something in his face, as he slept, which resembled her own father, and she had not the courage to proceed. She returned to confer with her husband. His resolution had begun to stagger. He considered that there were strong reasons against the deed. In the first place, he was not only a subject, but a near kinsman to the king; and he had been his host and entertainer that day, whose duty, by the laws of hospitality, it was to shut the door against his murderers, not bear the knife himself. Then he considered how just and merciful a king this Duncan had been, how clear of offense to his subjects, how loving to his nobility, and in particular to him; that such kings are the peculiar care of Heaven, and their subjects doubly bound to revenge their deaths. Besides, by the favors of the king, Macbeth stood high in the opinion of all sorts of men, and how would those honors be stained by the reputation of so foul a murder! In these conflicts of the mind Lady Macbeth found her husband inclining to the better part and resolving to proceed no further. But she, being a woman not easily shaken from her evil purpose, began to pour in at his ears words which infused a portion of her own spirit into his mind, assigning reason upon reason why he should not shrink from what he had undertaken; how easy the deed was; how soon it would be over; and how the action of one short night would give to all their nights and days to come sovereign sway and royalty! Then she threw contempt on his change of purpose, and accused him of fickleness and cowardice; and declared that she had given suck, and knew how tender it was to love the babe that milked her, but she would, while it was smiling in her face, have plucked it from her breast and dashed its brains out if she had so sworn to do it as he had sworn to perform that murder. Then she added, how practicable it was to lay the guilt of the deed upon the drunken, sleepy grooms. And with the valor of her tongue she so chastised his sluggish resolutions that he once more summoned up courage to the bloody business. So, taking the dagger in his hand, he softly stole in the dark to the room where Duncan lay; and as he went he thought he saw another dagger in the air, with the handle toward him, and on the blade and at the point of it drops of blood; but when he tried to grasp at it it was nothing but air, a mere phantasm proceeding from his own hot and oppressed brain and the business he had in hand. Getting rid of this fear, he entered the king's room, whom he despatched with one stroke of his dagger. Just as he had done the murder one of the grooms who slept in the chamber laughed in his sleep, and the other cried, "Murder," which woke them both. But they said a short prayer; one of them said, "God less us!" and the other answered, "Amen"; and addressed themselves to sleep again. Macbeth, who stood listening to them, tried to say "Amen" when the fellow said "God bless us!" but, though he had most need of a blessing, the word stuck in his throat and he could not pronounce it. Again he thought he heard a voice which cried: "Sleep no more! Macbeth doth murder sleep, the innocent sleep, that nourishes life." Still it cried, "Sleep no more!" to all the house. "Glamis hath murdered sleep, and therefore Cawdor shall sleep no more, Macbeth shall sleep no more." With such horrible imaginations Macbeth returned to his listening wife, who began to think he had failed of his purpose and that the deed was somehow frustrated. He came in so distracted a state that she reproached him with his want of firmness and sent him to wash his hands of the blood which stained them, while she took his dagger, with purpose to stain the cheeks of the grooms with blood, to make it seem their guilt. Morning came, and with it the discovery of the murder, which could not be concealed; and though Macbeth and his lady made great show of grief, and the proofs against the grooms (the dagger being produced against them and their faces smeared with blood) were sufficiently strong, yet the entire suspicion fell upon Macbeth, whose inducements to such a deed were so much more forcible than such poor silly grooms could be supposed to have; and Duncan's two sons fled. Malcolm, the eldest, sought for refuge in the English court; and the youngest, Donalbain, made his escape to Ireland. The king's sons, who should have succeeded him, having thus vacated the throne, Macbeth as next heir was crowned king, and thus the prediction of the weird sisters was literally accomplished. Though placed so high, Macbeth and his queen could not forget the prophecy of the weird sisters that, though Macbeth should be king, yet not his children, but the children of Banquo, should be kings after him. The thought of this, and that they had defiled their hands with blood, and done so great crimes, only to place the posterity of Banquo upon the throne, so rankled within them that they determined to put to death both Banquo and his son, to make void the predictions of the weird sisters, which in their own case had been so remarkably brought to pass. For this purpose they made a great supper, to which they invited all the chief thanes; and among the rest, with marks of particular respect, Banquo and his son Fleance were invited. The way by which Banquo was to pass to the palace at night was beset by murderers appointed by Macbeth, who stabbed Banquo; but in the scuffle Fleance escaped. From that Fleance descended a race of monarchs who afterward filled the Scottish throne, ending with James the Sixth of Scotland and the First of England, under whom the two crowns of England and Scotland were united. At supper, the queen, whose manners were in the highest degree affable and royal, played the hostess with a gracefulness and attention which conciliated every one present, and Macbeth discoursed freely with his thanes and nobles, saying that all that was honorable in the country was under his roof, if he had but his good friend Banquo present, whom yet he hoped he should rather have to chide for neglect than to lament for any mischance. Just at these words the ghost of Banquo, whom he had caused to be murdered, entered the room and placed himself on the chair which Macbeth was about to occupy. Though Macbeth was a bold man, and one that could have faced the devil without trembling, at this horrible sight his cheeks turned white with fear and he stood quite unmanned, with his eyes fixed upon the ghost. His queen and all the nobles, who saw nothing, but perceived him gazing (as they thought) upon an empty chair, took it for a fit of distraction; and she reproached him, whispering that it was but the same fancy which made him see the dagger in the air when he was about to kill Duncan. But Macbeth continued to see the ghost, and gave no heed to all they could say, while he addressed it with distracted words, yet so significant that his queen, fearing the dreadful secret would be disclosed, in great haste dismissed the guests, excusing the infirmity of Macbeth as disorder he was often troubled with. To such dreadful fancies Macbeth was subject. His queen and he had their sleeps afflicted with terrible dreams, and the blood of Banquo troubled them not more than the escape of Fleance, whom now they looked upon as father to a line of kings who should keep their posterity out of the throne. With these miserable thoughts they found no peace, and Macbeth determined once more to seek out the weird sisters and know from them the worst. He sought them in a cave upon the heath, where they, who knew by foresight of his coming, were engaged in preparing their dreadful charms by which they conjured up infernal spirits to reveal to them futurity. Their horrid ingredients were toads, bats, and serpents, the eye of a newt and the tongue of a dog, the leg of a lizard and the wing of the night-owl, the scale of a dragon, the tooth of a wolf, the maw of the ravenous salt-sea shark, the mummy of a witch, the root of the poisonous hemlock (this to have effect must be digged in the dark), the gall of a goat, and the liver of a Jew, with slips of the yew-tree that roots itself in graves, and the finger of a dead child. All these were set on to boil in a great kettle, or caldron, which, as fast as it grew too hot, was cooled with a baboon's blood. To these they poured in the blood of a sow that had eaten her young, and they threw into the flame the grease that had sweaten from a murderer's gibbet. By these charms they bound the infernal spirits to answer their questions. It was demanded of Macbeth whether he would have his doubts resolved by them or by their masters, the spirits. He, nothing daunted by the dreadful ceremonies which he saw, boldly answered: "Where are they? Let me see them." And they called the spirits, which were three. And the first arose in the likeness of an armed head, and he called Macbeth by name and bid him beware of the Thane of Fife; for which caution Macbeth thanked him; for Macbeth had entertained a jealousy of Macduff, the Thane of Fife. And the second spirit arose in the likeness of a bloody child, and he called Macbeth by name and bid him have no fear, but laugh to scorn the power of man, for none of woman born should have power to hurt him; and he advised him to be bloody, bold, and resolute. "Then live, Macduff!" cried the king. "What need I fear thee? But yet I will make assurance doubly sure. Thou shalt not live, that I may tell pale-hearted fear it lies, and sleep in spite of thunder." That spirit being dismissed, a third arose in the form of a child crowned, with a tree in his hand. He called Macbeth by name and comforted him against conspiracies, saying that he should never be vanquished until the wood of Birnam to Dunsinane hill should come against him. "Sweet bodements! good!" cried Macbeth; "who can unfix the forest, and move it from its earth-bound roots? I see I shall live the usual period of man's life, and not be cut off by a violent death. But my heart throbs to know one thing. Tell me, if your art can tell so much, if Banquo's issue shall ever reign in this kingdom?" Here the caldron sank into the ground, and a noise of music was heard, and eight shadows, like kings, passed by Macbeth, and Banquo last, who bore a glass which showed the figures of many more, and Banquo, all bloody, smiled upon Macbeth, and pointed to them; by which Macbeth knew that these were the posterity of Banquo, who should reign after him in Scotland; and the witches, with a sound of soft music, and with dancing, making a show of duty and welcome to Macbeth, vanished. And from this time the thoughts of Macbeth were all bloody and dreadful. The first thing he heard when he got out of the witches' cave was that Macduff, Thane of Fife, had fled to England to join the army which was forming against him under Malcolm, the eldest son of the late king, with intent to displace Macbeth and set Malcolm, the right heir, upon the throne. Macbeth, stung with rage, set upon the castle of Macduff and put his wife and children, whom the thane had left behind, to the sword, and extended the slaughter to all who claimed the least relationship to Macduff. These and such-like deeds alienated the minds of all his chief nobility from him. Such as could fled to join with Malcolm and Macduff, who were now approaching with a powerful army which they had raised in England; and the rest secretly wished success to their arms, though, for fear of Macbeth, they could take no active part. His recruits went on slowly. Everybody hated the tyrant; nobody loved or honored him; but all suspected him; and he began to envy the condition of Duncan, whom he had murdered, who slept soundly in his grave, against whom treason had done its worst. Steel nor poison, domestic malice nor foreign levies, could hurt him any longer. While these things were acting, the queen, who had been the sole partner in his wickedness, in whose bosom he could sometimes seek a momentary repose from those terrible dreams which afflicted them both nightly, died, it is supposed, by her own hands, unable to bear the remorse of guilt and public hate; by which event he was left alone, without a soul to love or care for him, or a friend to whom he could confide his wicked purposes. He grew careless of life and wished for death; but the near approach of Malcolm's army roused in him what remained of his ancient courage, and he determined to die (as he expressed it) "with armor on his back." Besides this, the hollow promises of the witches had filled him with a false confidence, and he remembered the sayings of the spirits, that none of woman born was to hurt him, and that he was never to be vanquished till Birnam wood should come to Dunsinane, which he thought could never be. So he shut himself up in his castle, whose impregnable strength was such as defied a siege. Here he sullenly waited the approach of Malcolm. When, upon a day, there came a messenger to him, pale and shaking with fear, almost unable to report that which he had seen; for he averred, that as he stood upon his watch on the hill he looked toward Birnam, and to his thinking the wood began to move! "Liar and slave!" cried Macbeth. "If thou speakest false, thou shalt hang alive upon the next tree, till famine end thee. If thy tale be true, I care not if thou dost as much by me"; for Macbeth now began to faint in resolution, and to doubt the equivocal speeches of the spirits. He was not to fear till Birnam wood should come to Dunsinane; and now a wood did move! "However," said he, "if this which he avouches be true, let us arm and out. There is no flying hence, nor staying here. I begin to be weary of the sun, and wish my life at an end." With these desperate speeches he sallied forth upon the besiegers, who had now come up to the castle. The strange appearance which had given the messenger an idea of a wood moving is easily solved. When the besieging army marched through the wood of Birnam, Malcolm, like a skilful general, instructed his soldiers to hew down every one a bough and bear it before him, by way of concealing the true numbers of his host. This marching of the soldiers with boughs had at a distance the appearance which had frightened the messenger. Thus were the words of the spirit brought to pass, in a sense different from that in which Macbeth had understood them, and one great hold of his confidence was gone. And now a severe skirmishing took place, in which Macbeth, though feebly supported by those who called themselves his friends, but in reality hated the tyrant and inclined to the party of Malcolm and Macduff, yet fought with the extreme of rage and valor, cutting to pieces all who were opposed to him, till he came to where Macduff was fighting. Seeing Macduff, and remembering the caution of the spirit who had counseled him to avoid Macduff, above all men, he would have turned, but Macduff, who had been seeking him through the whole fight, opposed his turning, and a fierce contest ensued, Macduff giving him many foul reproaches for the murder of his wife and children. Macbeth, whose soul was charged enough with blood of that family already, would still have declined the combat; but Macduff still urged him to it, calling him tyrant, murderer, hell-hound, and villain. Then Macbeth remembered the words of the spirit, how none of woman born should hurt him; and, smiling confidently, he said to Macduff: "Thou losest thy labor, Macduff. As easily thou mayest impress the air with thy sword as make me vulnerable. I bear a charmed life, which must not yield to one of woman born." "Despair thy charm," said Macduff, "and let that lying spirit whom thou hast served tell thee that Macduff was never born of woman, never as the ordinary manner of men is to be born, but was untimely taken from his mother." "Accursed be the tongue which tells me so," said the trembling Macbeth, who felt his last hold of confidence give way; "and let never man in future believe the lying equivocations of witches and juggling spirits who deceive us in words which have double senses, and, while they keep their promise literally, disappoint our hopes with a different meaning. I will not fight with thee." "Then live!" said the scornful Macduff. "We will have a show of thee, as men show monsters, and a painted board, on which shall be written, 'Here men may see the tyrant!' " "Never," said Macbeth, whose courage returned with despair. "I will not live to kiss the ground before young Malcolm's feet and to be baited with the curses of the rabble. Though Birnam wood be come to Dunsinane, and thou opposed to me, who wast never born of woman, yet will I try the last." With these frantic words he threw himself upon Macduff, who, after a severe struggle, in the end overcame him, and, cutting off his head, made a present of it to the young and lawful king, Malcolm, who took upon him the government which, by the machinations of the usurper, he had so long been deprived of, and ascended the throne of Duncan the Meek among the acclamations of the nobles and the people.	<urn:uuid:2a72faf2-6603-47e1-b205-2b0501da5b43>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=lamb&book=shakespeare&story=macbeth	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00215.warc.gz	en	0.98802	5,210	3.265625	3	[ -0.2904720902442932, 0.12947192788124084, 0.25518032908439636, -0.05184856802225113, 0.06965471804141998, -0.5095085501670837, 0.6487617492675781, 0.22317679226398468, -0.08060494065284729, -0.05632719025015831, -0.2981746196746826, -0.4102826714515686, 0.06967934966087341, 0.1968862563371...	2	HEN Duncan the Meek reigned King of Scotland there lived a great thane, or lord, called Macbeth. This Macbeth was a near kinsman to the king, and in great esteem at court for his valor and conduct in the wars, an example of which he had lately given in defeating a rebel army assisted by the troops of Norway in terrible numbers. The two Scottish generals, Macbeth and Banquo, returning victorious from this great battle, their way lay over a blasted heath, where they were stopped by the strange appearance of three figures like women, except that they had beards, and their withered skins and wild attire made them look not like any earthly creatures. Macbeth first addressed them, when they, seemingly offended, laid each one her choppy finger upon her skinny lips, in token of silence; and the first of them saluted Macbeth with the title of Thane of Glamis. The general was not a little startled to find himself known by such creatures; but how much more, when the second of them followed up that salute by giving him the title of Thane of Cawdor, to which honor he had no pretensions; and again the third bid him, "All hail! that shalt be king hereafter!" Such a prophetic greeting might well amaze him, who knew that while the king's sons lived he could not hope to succeed to the throne. Then turning to Banquo, they pronounced him, in a sort of riddling terms, to be lesser than Macbeth, and greater! not so happy, but much happier! and prophesied that though he should never reign, yet his sons after him should be kings in Scotland. They then turned into air and vanished; by which the generals knew them to be the weird sisters, or witches. While they stood pondering on the strangeness of this adventure there arrived certain messengers from the king, who were empowered by him to confer upon Macbeth the dignity of Thane of Cawdor. An event so miraculously corresponding with the prediction of the witches astonished Macbeth, and he stood wrapped in amazement, unable to make reply to the messengers; and in that point of time swelling hopes arose in his mind that the prediction of the third witch might in like manner have its accomplishment, and that he should one day reign king in Scotland. Turning to Banquo, he said, "Do you not hope that your children shall be kings, when what the witches promised to me has so wonderfully come to pass?" "That hope," answered the general, "might enkindle you to aim at the throne; but oftentimes these ministers of darkness tell us truths in little things, to betray us into deeds of greatest consequence." But the wicked suggestions of the witches had sunk too deep into the mind of Macbeth to allow him to attend to the warnings of the good Banquo. From that time he bent all his thoughts how to compass the throne of Scotland. Macbeth had a wife, to whom he communicated the strange prediction of the weird sisters and its partial accomplishment. She was a bad, ambitious woman, and so as her husband and herself could arrive at greatness she cared not much by what means. She spurred on the reluctant purpose of Macbeth, who felt compunction at the thoughts of blood, and did not cease to represent the murder of the king as a step absolutely necessary to the fulfilment of the flattering prophecy. It happened at this time that the king, who out of his royal condescension would oftentimes visit his principal nobility upon gracious terms, came to Macbeth's house, attended by his two sons, Malcolm and Donalbain, and a numerous train of thanes and attendants, the more to honor Macbeth for the triumphal success of his wars. The castle of Macbeth was pleasantly situated and the air about it was sweet and wholesome, which appeared by the nests which the martlet, or swallow, had built under all the jutting friezes and buttresses of the building, wherever it found a place of advantage; for where those birds most breed and haunt the air is observed to be delicate. The king entered, well pleased with the place, and not less so with the attentions and respect of his honored hostess, Lady Macbeth, who had the art of covering treacherous purposes with smiles, and could look like the innocent flower while she was indeed serpent under it. The king, being tired with his journey, went early to bed, and in his state-room two grooms of his chamber (as was the custom) beside him. He had been unusually pleased with his reception, and had made presents before he retired to his principal officers; and among the rest had sent a diamond to Lady Macbeth, greeting her by the name of his most kind hostess. Now was the middle of night, when over half the world nature seems dead, and wicked dreams abuse men's minds asleep, and none but the wolf and the murderer are abroad. This was the time when Lady Macbeth waked to plot the murder of the king. She would not have undertaken a deed so abhorrent to her sex but that she feared her husband's nature, that it was too full of the milk of human kindness to do a contrived murder. She knew him to be ambitious, but withal to be scrupulous, and not yet prepared for that height of crime which commonly in the end accompanies inordinate ambition. She had won him to consent to the murder, but she doubted his resolution; and she feared that the natural tenderness of his disposition (more humane than her own) would come between and defeat the purpose. So with her own hands armed with a dagger she approached the king's bed, having taken care to ply the grooms of his chamber so with wine that they slept intoxicated and careless of their charge. There lay Duncan in a sound sleep after the fatigues of his journey, and as she viewed him earnestly there was something in his face, as he slept, which resembled her own father, and she had not the courage to proceed. She returned to confer with her husband. His resolution had begun to stagger. He considered that there were strong reasons against the deed. In the first place, he was not only a subject, but a near kinsman to the king; and he had been his host and entertainer that day, whose duty, by the laws of hospitality, it was to shut the door against his murderers, not bear the knife himself. Then he considered how just and merciful a king this Duncan had been, how clear of offense to his subjects, how loving to his nobility, and in particular to him; that such kings are the peculiar care of Heaven, and their subjects doubly bound to revenge their deaths. Besides, by the favors of the king, Macbeth stood high in the opinion of all sorts of men, and how would those honors be stained by the reputation of so foul a murder! In these conflicts of the mind Lady Macbeth found her husband inclining to the better part and resolving to proceed no further. But she, being a woman not easily shaken from her evil purpose, began to pour in at his ears words which infused a portion of her own spirit into his mind, assigning reason upon reason why he should not shrink from what he had undertaken; how easy the deed was; how soon it would be over; and how the action of one short night would give to all their nights and days to come sovereign sway and royalty! Then she threw contempt on his change of purpose, and accused him of fickleness and cowardice; and declared that she had given suck, and knew how tender it was to love the babe that milked her, but she would, while it was smiling in her face, have plucked it from her breast and dashed its brains out if she had so sworn to do it as he had sworn to perform that murder. Then she added, how practicable it was to lay the guilt of the deed upon the drunken, sleepy grooms. And with the valor of her tongue she so chastised his sluggish resolutions that he once more summoned up courage to the bloody business. So, taking the dagger in his hand, he softly stole in the dark to the room where Duncan lay; and as he went he thought he saw another dagger in the air, with the handle toward him, and on the blade and at the point of it drops of blood; but when he tried to grasp at it it was nothing but air, a mere phantasm proceeding from his own hot and oppressed brain and the business he had in hand. Getting rid of this fear, he entered the king's room, whom he despatched with one stroke of his dagger. Just as he had done the murder one of the grooms who slept in the chamber laughed in his sleep, and the other cried, "Murder," which woke them both. But they said a short prayer; one of them said, "God less us!" and the other answered, "Amen"; and addressed themselves to sleep again. Macbeth, who stood listening to them, tried to say "Amen" when the fellow said "God bless us!" but, though he had most need of a blessing, the word stuck in his throat and he could not pronounce it. Again he thought he heard a voice which cried: "Sleep no more! Macbeth doth murder sleep, the innocent sleep, that nourishes life." Still it cried, "Sleep no more!" to all the house. "Glamis hath murdered sleep, and therefore Cawdor shall sleep no more, Macbeth shall sleep no more." With such horrible imaginations Macbeth returned to his listening wife, who began to think he had failed of his purpose and that the deed was somehow frustrated. He came in so distracted a state that she reproached him with his want of firmness and sent him to wash his hands of the blood which stained them, while she took his dagger, with purpose to stain the cheeks of the grooms with blood, to make it seem their guilt. Morning came, and with it the discovery of the murder, which could not be concealed; and though Macbeth and his lady made great show of grief, and the proofs against the grooms (the dagger being produced against them and their faces smeared with blood) were sufficiently strong, yet the entire suspicion fell upon Macbeth, whose inducements to such a deed were so much more forcible than such poor silly grooms could be supposed to have; and Duncan's two sons fled. Malcolm, the eldest, sought for refuge in the English court; and the youngest, Donalbain, made his escape to Ireland. The king's sons, who should have succeeded him, having thus vacated the throne, Macbeth as next heir was crowned king, and thus the prediction of the weird sisters was literally accomplished. Though placed so high, Macbeth and his queen could not forget the prophecy of the weird sisters that, though Macbeth should be king, yet not his children, but the children of Banquo, should be kings after him. The thought of this, and that they had defiled their hands with blood, and done so great crimes, only to place the posterity of Banquo upon the throne, so rankled within them that they determined to put to death both Banquo and his son, to make void the predictions of the weird sisters, which in their own case had been so remarkably brought to pass. For this purpose they made a great supper, to which they invited all the chief thanes; and among the rest, with marks of particular respect, Banquo and his son Fleance were invited. The way by which Banquo was to pass to the palace at night was beset by murderers appointed by Macbeth, who stabbed Banquo; but in the scuffle Fleance escaped. From that Fleance descended a race of monarchs who afterward filled the Scottish throne, ending with James the Sixth of Scotland and the First of England, under whom the two crowns of England and Scotland were united. At supper, the queen, whose manners were in the highest degree affable and royal, played the hostess with a gracefulness and attention which conciliated every one present, and Macbeth discoursed freely with his thanes and nobles, saying that all that was honorable in the country was under his roof, if he had but his good friend Banquo present, whom yet he hoped he should rather have to chide for neglect than to lament for any mischance. Just at these words the ghost of Banquo, whom he had caused to be murdered, entered the room and placed himself on the chair which Macbeth was about to occupy. Though Macbeth was a bold man, and one that could have faced the devil without trembling, at this horrible sight his cheeks turned white with fear and he stood quite unmanned, with his eyes fixed upon the ghost. His queen and all the nobles, who saw nothing, but perceived him gazing (as they thought) upon an empty chair, took it for a fit of distraction; and she reproached him, whispering that it was but the same fancy which made him see the dagger in the air when he was about to kill Duncan. But Macbeth continued to see the ghost, and gave no heed to all they could say, while he addressed it with distracted words, yet so significant that his queen, fearing the dreadful secret would be disclosed, in great haste dismissed the guests, excusing the infirmity of Macbeth as disorder he was often troubled with. To such dreadful fancies Macbeth was subject. His queen and he had their sleeps afflicted with terrible dreams, and the blood of Banquo troubled them not more than the escape of Fleance, whom now they looked upon as father to a line of kings who should keep their posterity out of the throne. With these miserable thoughts they found no peace, and Macbeth determined once more to seek out the weird sisters and know from them the worst. He sought them in a cave upon the heath, where they, who knew by foresight of his coming, were engaged in preparing their dreadful charms by which they conjured up infernal spirits to reveal to them futurity. Their horrid ingredients were toads, bats, and serpents, the eye of a newt and the tongue of a dog, the leg of a lizard and the wing of the night-owl, the scale of a dragon, the tooth of a wolf, the maw of the ravenous salt-sea shark, the mummy of a witch, the root of the poisonous hemlock (this to have effect must be digged in the dark), the gall of a goat, and the liver of a Jew, with slips of the yew-tree that roots itself in graves, and the finger of a dead child. All these were set on to boil in a great kettle, or caldron, which, as fast as it grew too hot, was cooled with a baboon's blood. To these they poured in the blood of a sow that had eaten her young, and they threw into the flame the grease that had sweaten from a murderer's gibbet. By these charms they bound the infernal spirits to answer their questions. It was demanded of Macbeth whether he would have his doubts resolved by them or by their masters, the spirits. He, nothing daunted by the dreadful ceremonies which he saw, boldly answered: "Where are they? Let me see them." And they called the spirits, which were three. And the first arose in the likeness of an armed head, and he called Macbeth by name and bid him beware of the Thane of Fife; for which caution Macbeth thanked him; for Macbeth had entertained a jealousy of Macduff, the Thane of Fife. And the second spirit arose in the likeness of a bloody child, and he called Macbeth by name and bid him have no fear, but laugh to scorn the power of man, for none of woman born should have power to hurt him; and he advised him to be bloody, bold, and resolute. "Then live, Macduff!" cried the king. "What need I fear thee? But yet I will make assurance doubly sure. Thou shalt not live, that I may tell pale-hearted fear it lies, and sleep in spite of thunder." That spirit being dismissed, a third arose in the form of a child crowned, with a tree in his hand. He called Macbeth by name and comforted him against conspiracies, saying that he should never be vanquished until the wood of Birnam to Dunsinane hill should come against him. "Sweet bodements! good!" cried Macbeth; "who can unfix the forest, and move it from its earth-bound roots? I see I shall live the usual period of man's life, and not be cut off by a violent death. But my heart throbs to know one thing. Tell me, if your art can tell so much, if Banquo's issue shall ever reign in this kingdom?" Here the caldron sank into the ground, and a noise of music was heard, and eight shadows, like kings, passed by Macbeth, and Banquo last, who bore a glass which showed the figures of many more, and Banquo, all bloody, smiled upon Macbeth, and pointed to them; by which Macbeth knew that these were the posterity of Banquo, who should reign after him in Scotland; and the witches, with a sound of soft music, and with dancing, making a show of duty and welcome to Macbeth, vanished. And from this time the thoughts of Macbeth were all bloody and dreadful. The first thing he heard when he got out of the witches' cave was that Macduff, Thane of Fife, had fled to England to join the army which was forming against him under Malcolm, the eldest son of the late king, with intent to displace Macbeth and set Malcolm, the right heir, upon the throne. Macbeth, stung with rage, set upon the castle of Macduff and put his wife and children, whom the thane had left behind, to the sword, and extended the slaughter to all who claimed the least relationship to Macduff. These and such-like deeds alienated the minds of all his chief nobility from him. Such as could fled to join with Malcolm and Macduff, who were now approaching with a powerful army which they had raised in England; and the rest secretly wished success to their arms, though, for fear of Macbeth, they could take no active part. His recruits went on slowly. Everybody hated the tyrant; nobody loved or honored him; but all suspected him; and he began to envy the condition of Duncan, whom he had murdered, who slept soundly in his grave, against whom treason had done its worst. Steel nor poison, domestic malice nor foreign levies, could hurt him any longer. While these things were acting, the queen, who had been the sole partner in his wickedness, in whose bosom he could sometimes seek a momentary repose from those terrible dreams which afflicted them both nightly, died, it is supposed, by her own hands, unable to bear the remorse of guilt and public hate; by which event he was left alone, without a soul to love or care for him, or a friend to whom he could confide his wicked purposes. He grew careless of life and wished for death; but the near approach of Malcolm's army roused in him what remained of his ancient courage, and he determined to die (as he expressed it) "with armor on his back." Besides this, the hollow promises of the witches had filled him with a false confidence, and he remembered the sayings of the spirits, that none of woman born was to hurt him, and that he was never to be vanquished till Birnam wood should come to Dunsinane, which he thought could never be. So he shut himself up in his castle, whose impregnable strength was such as defied a siege. Here he sullenly waited the approach of Malcolm. When, upon a day, there came a messenger to him, pale and shaking with fear, almost unable to report that which he had seen; for he averred, that as he stood upon his watch on the hill he looked toward Birnam, and to his thinking the wood began to move! "Liar and slave!" cried Macbeth. "If thou speakest false, thou shalt hang alive upon the next tree, till famine end thee. If thy tale be true, I care not if thou dost as much by me"; for Macbeth now began to faint in resolution, and to doubt the equivocal speeches of the spirits. He was not to fear till Birnam wood should come to Dunsinane; and now a wood did move! "However," said he, "if this which he avouches be true, let us arm and out. There is no flying hence, nor staying here. I begin to be weary of the sun, and wish my life at an end." With these desperate speeches he sallied forth upon the besiegers, who had now come up to the castle. The strange appearance which had given the messenger an idea of a wood moving is easily solved. When the besieging army marched through the wood of Birnam, Malcolm, like a skilful general, instructed his soldiers to hew down every one a bough and bear it before him, by way of concealing the true numbers of his host. This marching of the soldiers with boughs had at a distance the appearance which had frightened the messenger. Thus were the words of the spirit brought to pass, in a sense different from that in which Macbeth had understood them, and one great hold of his confidence was gone. And now a severe skirmishing took place, in which Macbeth, though feebly supported by those who called themselves his friends, but in reality hated the tyrant and inclined to the party of Malcolm and Macduff, yet fought with the extreme of rage and valor, cutting to pieces all who were opposed to him, till he came to where Macduff was fighting. Seeing Macduff, and remembering the caution of the spirit who had counseled him to avoid Macduff, above all men, he would have turned, but Macduff, who had been seeking him through the whole fight, opposed his turning, and a fierce contest ensued, Macduff giving him many foul reproaches for the murder of his wife and children. Macbeth, whose soul was charged enough with blood of that family already, would still have declined the combat; but Macduff still urged him to it, calling him tyrant, murderer, hell-hound, and villain. Then Macbeth remembered the words of the spirit, how none of woman born should hurt him; and, smiling confidently, he said to Macduff: "Thou losest thy labor, Macduff. As easily thou mayest impress the air with thy sword as make me vulnerable. I bear a charmed life, which must not yield to one of woman born." "Despair thy charm," said Macduff, "and let that lying spirit whom thou hast served tell thee that Macduff was never born of woman, never as the ordinary manner of men is to be born, but was untimely taken from his mother." "Accursed be the tongue which tells me so," said the trembling Macbeth, who felt his last hold of confidence give way; "and let never man in future believe the lying equivocations of witches and juggling spirits who deceive us in words which have double senses, and, while they keep their promise literally, disappoint our hopes with a different meaning. I will not fight with thee." "Then live!" said the scornful Macduff. "We will have a show of thee, as men show monsters, and a painted board, on which shall be written, 'Here men may see the tyrant!' " "Never," said Macbeth, whose courage returned with despair. "I will not live to kiss the ground before young Malcolm's feet and to be baited with the curses of the rabble. Though Birnam wood be come to Dunsinane, and thou opposed to me, who wast never born of woman, yet will I try the last." With these frantic words he threw himself upon Macduff, who, after a severe struggle, in the end overcame him, and, cutting off his head, made a present of it to the young and lawful king, Malcolm, who took upon him the government which, by the machinations of the usurper, he had so long been deprived of, and ascended the throne of Duncan the Meek among the acclamations of the nobles and the people.	5,116	ENGLISH	1
By Sarah Yenesel In a world where there was no computers, telephones, or quick modes of transportation, it was much more difficult to travel. Only the wealthy could afford to travel throughout Europe to experience far off places. Some of them spent months at a time, even years, traveling to immerse themselves in the culture and to collect art as souvenirs, which was known as a Grand Tour (Allum 32). The British elite in the 17th century to the 19th century were known to take Grand Tours to visit and learn more about continental Europe. They were particularly intrigued by Rome. It was a city that was only considered an imagined, dreamed of place that was written about in books (Wrigley 551). Duly so because of its Roman ruins, romantic language, and delicious food and wine. Although, Italy was primarily Catholic and ruled by the Pope at the time. During this time, the United Kingdom was experiencing a civil war between Catholics and Protestants. This affected the way British Protestants traveled to Rome as part of the Grand Tour. The purpose of this exhibit is to inform the viewer on why British travelers went to the ancient Catholic city and to teach them how the England’s religious conflict affected the British’s view on Rome. One British traveler, Edward Thomas, wrote that Rome was “a mistress of the world” in his travel journal (Black 46). It was a truly mesmerizing place for all who visited. Rome was a sought after destination on the Grand Tour by British travelers for this reason, even though it was one of the farthest cities in a tour and the most difficult to travel to. One of the main reasons that Rome was a desired destination despite the long journey was its unmatchable paintings, sculptures, antiques, fabrics, and overall art scene. Specifically, its Classical and Baroque arts spread throughout the city through architecture and sculpture made “many tourists [treat] it as the cultural goal of their travels” (Black 47). British travelers brought home various Italian art pieces as souvenirs that also acted as a representation of their well cultured lives (Allum 32). Although, there was plenty of Christian art as well since the Papacy ruled the city. Most British travelers did not treat the art any differently than non-religious art, but there was critiques from Anglican clergymen. These clergymen treated it as a threat to British society when it was brought home by tourists (Black 191). Although, British tourists were not threatened by the Catholicism that influenced so much of the city. They instead saw it as a tourist attraction. Most British Protestants took on a pitiful view of the religious influence in Rome, which made it more like a tourist attraction than a threat. “The majority of of the educated elite who came to Rome in the eighteenth century viewed Catholicism less as a potent danger to true religion or the Protestant interest than as a system of corruption and abuse…” (Sweet 148). Churches were not taken seriously as places of worship because of this, which made them destinations to be awed at for their art. They were written as such in travel guides created by the British (Sweet 148). While some of those back home in England thought that the exposure to the papacy in Rome would affected those traveled, they were relieved of their worries by the travelers treatment of the church as a collection of art and theatrical performance (Sweet 148-149). Although, when there was an actual theatrical play performed in London that displayed Roman Catholics, it had little attendance due to that reason. Aphra Behn wrote this play in the late 17th century called The Feigned Courtesans, which had English Protestant and Italian Catholic characters set in Rome. Even the mention of the “popish plot” was seen as a political controversy that decreased interest in the play (Lowe 99). Nunneries and monasteries were also a common tourist attraction besides the churches. The nuns and monks were seen as foolish people who were giving in to false preaching. They were commended for being faithful, but also seen as irrational (Black 167). It is another example of how the Protestants were demeaning to the Catholics while traveling, which turned it into an attraction of sorts. Some native Roman Catholics did not appreciate the treatment of their religion this way, but they were tolerant of it due to the amount of money that was spent by tourists that Rome became “financially dependent” on (Sweet 149). While the Romans tolerated the English to keep up the economy, it was difficult for travelers and locals to avoid discussing religion and for it to not turn into a conflicting matter. British tourist Hester Thrale had a “controversial chat” during a dinner in Italy that the debate “grew very wearisome and a little dangerous,” and she thought they were trying to convert her (Dolan 169). Most protestants back in England thought British tourists were susceptible to be converted, but it could also be said that Catholics thought Protestants would convert them too. Catholic playwright Aphra Behn displays this in The Feigned Courtesans through her characters that are English Protestants on a Grand Tour in Rome, known as Sir Tickletext and Sir Signal. In the very beginning of the play, Tickletext speaks with an Italian about his anticipated interaction with a Roman courtisant. He says, “I may chance to turn / her, who knows?” (Behn I.ii.25-26). This shows how common it was to think that one person of faith could “turn” another, in this case, a Protestant turning a Catholic. There is even a heated discussion between Tickletext, Julio and Filamour about religion, not too far from the heated interactions most tourists had with locals. “Convince me; talk to me of being / convinced, and that in favour of popery? No, sir, by your favour, / I shall not be convinced,” Tickletext says to the two after they ask what he thinks of the churches in Rome and the conversation develops into religious conflict (Behn I.ii. 269-271). While there is no source that can confirm that Behn deliberately wanted to make the English Protestants look like fools and stubborn in their defense of religion, it surly can be interpreted as such based on the interaction between the characters. Behn was in fact Catholic, so it could be that this is her way of expressing her dislike of Protestants by negatively displaying them as fools and trying to start conflict based on religion because it is possible that she had a religious bias. Between the 17th and up to the 19th century, British Protestants traveled to Italy as part of a Grand Tour. Due to Rome’s vast art scene and unique culture, most Brits made the challenging trip. Even though Rome was seen as a not to miss cultural destination, there was some conflict based on religion when the English traveled there. The British treated Roman Catholics as if their religious life and culture were all a pitiful and naive cause that was on display for their view. Both sides thought their religion was better than the other, which lead to some conflicting and awkward interactions, which was also reflected in English culture back home in Aphra Behn’s play. In the end, the Grand Tour was supposed to be an immersive culture experience, but it came at a price not only payed with money. The Catholic Church that ruled Rome and the Protestants from England who visited the city had a demeaning view on it because of their demeaning view of Catholics that came from the religious conflict in their own country. - Allum, Marc. “Grand Tour Souvenirs.” Period Living, Feb. 2018, p. 32. This is a good source that focuses more on art and the grand tour. I used it a few times when speaking about art collecting. - Behn, Aphra. “The Feigned Courtesans.” The Rover and Other Plays, Edited by Michael Cordner, New York, NY : Oxford University Press, 1995., 2008, pp. 101-107. I used lines from this play to show how Behn displayed the treatment of Roman Catholics by English Protestants in her play that was performed in London. This was useful to show the treatment in the English’s own culture back home. - Black, Jeremy. Italy and the Grand Tour. New Haven, CT : Yale University Press, 2003., 2003. This source was extremely helpful for this project because it focused on Italy as a Grand Tour destination and I was able to pull information from multiple sections. - Dolan, Brian. Ladies of the Grand Tour : British Women in Pursuit of Enlightenment and Adventure in Eighteenth-Century Europe. New York, NY : HarperCollins Publishers, 2001., 2001. I used this book to get a better understanding of the religious conflict in Rome between the travelers and locals. - Lowe, Leah. “Gender and (Im)Morality in Restoration Comedy: Aphra Behn’s The Feigned Courtesans.” Theatre Symposium, 2007, p. 92. I found this source while looking for religious analysis on the play, but it is actually more focused on gender roles in the play. Although, I found an interesting bit of information on religion that I used. - Sweet, Rosemary. Cities and the Grand Tour : The British in Italy, c.1690-1820. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2012., 2012. This was a very well organized book that helped me focus on how British travelers treated Christian Rome. - Wrigley, Richard. “Making Sense of Rome.” Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies, vol. 35, no. 4, Dec. 2012, pp. 551–564. When I originally thought this project was about Rome as a Grand Tour destination without the focus on religion, this was a good source. It mostly focuses on what you would sense when in Rome, which is not very helpful when I switched my focus to religion. Although, it’s introduction was useful when I was writing my own introduction.	<urn:uuid:fcd8df11-c4a3-4ce4-b288-9d5cd0f4676c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brewminate.com/british-protestants-in-catholic-rome-during-the-grand-tours/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00135.warc.gz	en	0.981137	2,108	3.953125	4	[ 0.43262016773223877, 0.06129740923643112, 0.49585089087486267, -0.06654783338308334, -0.18383964896202087, -0.08492505550384521, 0.03977663069963455, 0.0716833621263504, 0.058323610574007034, -0.4289233982563019, -0.2691144049167633, -0.12027867883443832, -0.06912143528461456, 0.4358201622...	4	By Sarah Yenesel In a world where there was no computers, telephones, or quick modes of transportation, it was much more difficult to travel. Only the wealthy could afford to travel throughout Europe to experience far off places. Some of them spent months at a time, even years, traveling to immerse themselves in the culture and to collect art as souvenirs, which was known as a Grand Tour (Allum 32). The British elite in the 17th century to the 19th century were known to take Grand Tours to visit and learn more about continental Europe. They were particularly intrigued by Rome. It was a city that was only considered an imagined, dreamed of place that was written about in books (Wrigley 551). Duly so because of its Roman ruins, romantic language, and delicious food and wine. Although, Italy was primarily Catholic and ruled by the Pope at the time. During this time, the United Kingdom was experiencing a civil war between Catholics and Protestants. This affected the way British Protestants traveled to Rome as part of the Grand Tour. The purpose of this exhibit is to inform the viewer on why British travelers went to the ancient Catholic city and to teach them how the England’s religious conflict affected the British’s view on Rome. One British traveler, Edward Thomas, wrote that Rome was “a mistress of the world” in his travel journal (Black 46). It was a truly mesmerizing place for all who visited. Rome was a sought after destination on the Grand Tour by British travelers for this reason, even though it was one of the farthest cities in a tour and the most difficult to travel to. One of the main reasons that Rome was a desired destination despite the long journey was its unmatchable paintings, sculptures, antiques, fabrics, and overall art scene. Specifically, its Classical and Baroque arts spread throughout the city through architecture and sculpture made “many tourists [treat] it as the cultural goal of their travels” (Black 47). British travelers brought home various Italian art pieces as souvenirs that also acted as a representation of their well cultured lives (Allum 32). Although, there was plenty of Christian art as well since the Papacy ruled the city. Most British travelers did not treat the art any differently than non-religious art, but there was critiques from Anglican clergymen. These clergymen treated it as a threat to British society when it was brought home by tourists (Black 191). Although, British tourists were not threatened by the Catholicism that influenced so much of the city. They instead saw it as a tourist attraction. Most British Protestants took on a pitiful view of the religious influence in Rome, which made it more like a tourist attraction than a threat. “The majority of of the educated elite who came to Rome in the eighteenth century viewed Catholicism less as a potent danger to true religion or the Protestant interest than as a system of corruption and abuse…” (Sweet 148). Churches were not taken seriously as places of worship because of this, which made them destinations to be awed at for their art. They were written as such in travel guides created by the British (Sweet 148). While some of those back home in England thought that the exposure to the papacy in Rome would affected those traveled, they were relieved of their worries by the travelers treatment of the church as a collection of art and theatrical performance (Sweet 148-149). Although, when there was an actual theatrical play performed in London that displayed Roman Catholics, it had little attendance due to that reason. Aphra Behn wrote this play in the late 17th century called The Feigned Courtesans, which had English Protestant and Italian Catholic characters set in Rome. Even the mention of the “popish plot” was seen as a political controversy that decreased interest in the play (Lowe 99). Nunneries and monasteries were also a common tourist attraction besides the churches. The nuns and monks were seen as foolish people who were giving in to false preaching. They were commended for being faithful, but also seen as irrational (Black 167). It is another example of how the Protestants were demeaning to the Catholics while traveling, which turned it into an attraction of sorts. Some native Roman Catholics did not appreciate the treatment of their religion this way, but they were tolerant of it due to the amount of money that was spent by tourists that Rome became “financially dependent” on (Sweet 149). While the Romans tolerated the English to keep up the economy, it was difficult for travelers and locals to avoid discussing religion and for it to not turn into a conflicting matter. British tourist Hester Thrale had a “controversial chat” during a dinner in Italy that the debate “grew very wearisome and a little dangerous,” and she thought they were trying to convert her (Dolan 169). Most protestants back in England thought British tourists were susceptible to be converted, but it could also be said that Catholics thought Protestants would convert them too. Catholic playwright Aphra Behn displays this in The Feigned Courtesans through her characters that are English Protestants on a Grand Tour in Rome, known as Sir Tickletext and Sir Signal. In the very beginning of the play, Tickletext speaks with an Italian about his anticipated interaction with a Roman courtisant. He says, “I may chance to turn / her, who knows?” (Behn I.ii.25-26). This shows how common it was to think that one person of faith could “turn” another, in this case, a Protestant turning a Catholic. There is even a heated discussion between Tickletext, Julio and Filamour about religion, not too far from the heated interactions most tourists had with locals. “Convince me; talk to me of being / convinced, and that in favour of popery? No, sir, by your favour, / I shall not be convinced,” Tickletext says to the two after they ask what he thinks of the churches in Rome and the conversation develops into religious conflict (Behn I.ii. 269-271). While there is no source that can confirm that Behn deliberately wanted to make the English Protestants look like fools and stubborn in their defense of religion, it surly can be interpreted as such based on the interaction between the characters. Behn was in fact Catholic, so it could be that this is her way of expressing her dislike of Protestants by negatively displaying them as fools and trying to start conflict based on religion because it is possible that she had a religious bias. Between the 17th and up to the 19th century, British Protestants traveled to Italy as part of a Grand Tour. Due to Rome’s vast art scene and unique culture, most Brits made the challenging trip. Even though Rome was seen as a not to miss cultural destination, there was some conflict based on religion when the English traveled there. The British treated Roman Catholics as if their religious life and culture were all a pitiful and naive cause that was on display for their view. Both sides thought their religion was better than the other, which lead to some conflicting and awkward interactions, which was also reflected in English culture back home in Aphra Behn’s play. In the end, the Grand Tour was supposed to be an immersive culture experience, but it came at a price not only payed with money. The Catholic Church that ruled Rome and the Protestants from England who visited the city had a demeaning view on it because of their demeaning view of Catholics that came from the religious conflict in their own country. - Allum, Marc. “Grand Tour Souvenirs.” Period Living, Feb. 2018, p. 32. This is a good source that focuses more on art and the grand tour. I used it a few times when speaking about art collecting. - Behn, Aphra. “The Feigned Courtesans.” The Rover and Other Plays, Edited by Michael Cordner, New York, NY : Oxford University Press, 1995., 2008, pp. 101-107. I used lines from this play to show how Behn displayed the treatment of Roman Catholics by English Protestants in her play that was performed in London. This was useful to show the treatment in the English’s own culture back home. - Black, Jeremy. Italy and the Grand Tour. New Haven, CT : Yale University Press, 2003., 2003. This source was extremely helpful for this project because it focused on Italy as a Grand Tour destination and I was able to pull information from multiple sections. - Dolan, Brian. Ladies of the Grand Tour : British Women in Pursuit of Enlightenment and Adventure in Eighteenth-Century Europe. New York, NY : HarperCollins Publishers, 2001., 2001. I used this book to get a better understanding of the religious conflict in Rome between the travelers and locals. - Lowe, Leah. “Gender and (Im)Morality in Restoration Comedy: Aphra Behn’s The Feigned Courtesans.” Theatre Symposium, 2007, p. 92. I found this source while looking for religious analysis on the play, but it is actually more focused on gender roles in the play. Although, I found an interesting bit of information on religion that I used. - Sweet, Rosemary. Cities and the Grand Tour : The British in Italy, c.1690-1820. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2012., 2012. This was a very well organized book that helped me focus on how British travelers treated Christian Rome. - Wrigley, Richard. “Making Sense of Rome.” Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies, vol. 35, no. 4, Dec. 2012, pp. 551–564. When I originally thought this project was about Rome as a Grand Tour destination without the focus on religion, this was a good source. It mostly focuses on what you would sense when in Rome, which is not very helpful when I switched my focus to religion. Although, it’s introduction was useful when I was writing my own introduction.	2,159	ENGLISH	1
- City offices will be closed on January 20, 2020 in observance of Martin Luther King, Jr. Day. Offices will reopen on January 21, 2020 at normal business hours. It has a colorful past and is a tale worth retelling. The earliest inhabitants of the Texas coast were members of the Karankawa Indian tribe. Made up of several bands, including the Cocos, and the Kopans, the Karankawas were a nomadic people, moving with the change in climate and the availability of food. They ranged all along the Gulf from near Galveston Bay to present day Corpus Christie. Their name is generally believed to mean “dog raisers” due to the canine-like animals kept by the tribes for hunting game. Archeological evidence from skeletal remains indicates that the Karankawa were an unusually tall race, with strong limbs and broad facial features. They were excellent runners and swimmers capable of long endurance. First-hand accounts from the first Spanish explorers mention the practice of using rendered alligator grease for protection against mosquitoes and flying gnats. The smell must have been overpowering! One of the most persistent stories regarding this tribe is the alleged practice of cannibalism. While there is actually some evidence to support these stories, most acts of cannibalism were performed on an enemy to gain their strengths, NOT out of pure hunger. Feared and hated by the settlers, the struggle to defeat them was ruthless. Despite coming to the aide of the Texans during the revolution, the tribes were forever treated as enemies. Numerous attempts at treaties would fail and by 1858, the few remaining members of the tribe were annihilated by Texan forces led by Juan N. Cortina.	<urn:uuid:50c1ce04-f501-437f-bcc5-838ed5647bf4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://anahuac.us/living-visiting/tourism/history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00265.warc.gz	en	0.983218	347	3.46875	3	[ -0.0353672057390213, -0.19136455655097961, 0.5176249742507935, 0.37628138065338135, -0.19859036803245544, -0.09016614407300949, -0.16816933453083038, -0.13363409042358398, -0.4811347723007202, -0.04012210667133331, 0.05680248513817787, -0.11689362674951553, 0.030040208250284195, 0.13981018...	1	- City offices will be closed on January 20, 2020 in observance of Martin Luther King, Jr. Day. Offices will reopen on January 21, 2020 at normal business hours. It has a colorful past and is a tale worth retelling. The earliest inhabitants of the Texas coast were members of the Karankawa Indian tribe. Made up of several bands, including the Cocos, and the Kopans, the Karankawas were a nomadic people, moving with the change in climate and the availability of food. They ranged all along the Gulf from near Galveston Bay to present day Corpus Christie. Their name is generally believed to mean “dog raisers” due to the canine-like animals kept by the tribes for hunting game. Archeological evidence from skeletal remains indicates that the Karankawa were an unusually tall race, with strong limbs and broad facial features. They were excellent runners and swimmers capable of long endurance. First-hand accounts from the first Spanish explorers mention the practice of using rendered alligator grease for protection against mosquitoes and flying gnats. The smell must have been overpowering! One of the most persistent stories regarding this tribe is the alleged practice of cannibalism. While there is actually some evidence to support these stories, most acts of cannibalism were performed on an enemy to gain their strengths, NOT out of pure hunger. Feared and hated by the settlers, the struggle to defeat them was ruthless. Despite coming to the aide of the Texans during the revolution, the tribes were forever treated as enemies. Numerous attempts at treaties would fail and by 1858, the few remaining members of the tribe were annihilated by Texan forces led by Juan N. Cortina.	358	ENGLISH	1
The story of the Rev. Joseph Moody, who preached with a handkerchief over his face, was too good for Nathaniel Hawthorne to pass up. The legend of the Puritan preacher in colonial Maine was passed down for generations, and Hawthorne (who lived in Maine as a teenager and young adult) got wind of it. He wrote a fictional short story about Moody called The Minister’s Black Veil.. But Joseph Moody had already written the story of his own life in a diary written in coded Latin. The real Joseph Moody was born in 1700 in York, Maine, graduated from Harvard in 1718 and died in 1753. As the minister of the Second Church of York, he was greatly esteemed, according to an epitaph. He was also …an excelling instance of knowledge, ingenuity, learning, piety, virtue and usefulness, was very serviceable as a school master, clerk, register, magistrate and afterwards as a minister was uncommonly qualified and spirited to do good Joseph Moody was the son of Parson Samuel Moody, a longwinded, eccentric and irritable minister. Parson Moody served as chaplain to Sir William Pepperell’s regiment during the siege of Louisbourg in 1745. There are several stories about when – and why – Joseph Moody wore the handkerchief over his face, as well as its color. According to one version, he was happy for 14 years in various local jobs — as schoolmaster, York’s registrar of deeds, county clerk and judge. But his father thought he should preach, and prevailed upon the town to incorporate a second parish in York. Preaching didn’t suit Joseph Moody. He sank into melancholy, his mind became disordered and he started wearing the black handkerchief knotted above his forehead and hanging below his chin. . As townspeople began to shun him, he became more of a recluse, wandering the churchyard at night. According to another version, Joseph Moody was disappointed when his cousin Mary Hirst wouldn’t marry him. He grew increasingly eccentric, finally donning the black silk handkerchief. According to a third story, he killed a friend in a hunting accident and wore the handkerchief ever after. His father made him stay up all night with the body of his friend as atonement. The Real Joseph Moody Richard Bowen, a program specialist at the Museums of Old York, offered a fourth – and more plausible – explanation: Joseph Moody was vulnerable to depression and guilt. After years of overwork, he suffered a mental and physical breakdown when his wife and infant daughter died in childbirth. Only during that period did he wear a white handkerchief over his face. He recovered, and his parishioners welcomed him back. He went on to become the esteemed minister described in his epitaph. When Joseph Moody turned 20 years old, he began to keep a diary, in code and in Latin. The book was tiny, about five inches long by three inches wide. (You can read excerpts from it here.) His diary, later deciphered, records life on the Maine frontier. It contains news of conflicts with Indians, of pirates and of dangerous voyages by boat to Marblehead, Gloucester and Newbury in Massachusetts. On May 25, 1723, for example, he wrote, Tis said that Sergeant Card was beset by two Indians about 9 or 10 o’clock last night near Capt Harmon’s barn one of which fired on him and pierced the breast of his Jacket we scarce know what to think of so strange a story. On April 5, 1724, he reported: Several vessels lately taken by Nutt ye Pirate and kindly treated. Joshua Elwells was taken from him. Joseph Moody also seemed preoccupied with death, often recording only that someone had died – even as far away as Boston. Joseph Moody died in 1753 at the age of 52. People said he sang hymns in his room during his last hours. Today, you can find his tombstone at the old Second Parish Burying Ground on Route 91 in York. It reads: Although this stone may moulder into dust, Yet Joseph Moody’s name continue must. This story was updated in 2019.	<urn:uuid:95153d79-f8a7-46cc-b7df-282f8ae086d1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/joseph-moody-colonial-minister-wore-handkerchief-face/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00440.warc.gz	en	0.986605	891	3.296875	3	[ -0.03278876841068268, 0.33750495314598083, 0.1408751904964447, -0.299880713224411, -0.4226312041282654, 0.4167006313800812, 0.3223903775215149, 0.34828630089759827, -0.3495323956012726, 0.32893106341362, -0.0462590791285038, -0.05219801142811775, 0.1252535879611969, 0.33284902572631836, ...	3	The story of the Rev. Joseph Moody, who preached with a handkerchief over his face, was too good for Nathaniel Hawthorne to pass up. The legend of the Puritan preacher in colonial Maine was passed down for generations, and Hawthorne (who lived in Maine as a teenager and young adult) got wind of it. He wrote a fictional short story about Moody called The Minister’s Black Veil.. But Joseph Moody had already written the story of his own life in a diary written in coded Latin. The real Joseph Moody was born in 1700 in York, Maine, graduated from Harvard in 1718 and died in 1753. As the minister of the Second Church of York, he was greatly esteemed, according to an epitaph. He was also …an excelling instance of knowledge, ingenuity, learning, piety, virtue and usefulness, was very serviceable as a school master, clerk, register, magistrate and afterwards as a minister was uncommonly qualified and spirited to do good Joseph Moody was the son of Parson Samuel Moody, a longwinded, eccentric and irritable minister. Parson Moody served as chaplain to Sir William Pepperell’s regiment during the siege of Louisbourg in 1745. There are several stories about when – and why – Joseph Moody wore the handkerchief over his face, as well as its color. According to one version, he was happy for 14 years in various local jobs — as schoolmaster, York’s registrar of deeds, county clerk and judge. But his father thought he should preach, and prevailed upon the town to incorporate a second parish in York. Preaching didn’t suit Joseph Moody. He sank into melancholy, his mind became disordered and he started wearing the black handkerchief knotted above his forehead and hanging below his chin. . As townspeople began to shun him, he became more of a recluse, wandering the churchyard at night. According to another version, Joseph Moody was disappointed when his cousin Mary Hirst wouldn’t marry him. He grew increasingly eccentric, finally donning the black silk handkerchief. According to a third story, he killed a friend in a hunting accident and wore the handkerchief ever after. His father made him stay up all night with the body of his friend as atonement. The Real Joseph Moody Richard Bowen, a program specialist at the Museums of Old York, offered a fourth – and more plausible – explanation: Joseph Moody was vulnerable to depression and guilt. After years of overwork, he suffered a mental and physical breakdown when his wife and infant daughter died in childbirth. Only during that period did he wear a white handkerchief over his face. He recovered, and his parishioners welcomed him back. He went on to become the esteemed minister described in his epitaph. When Joseph Moody turned 20 years old, he began to keep a diary, in code and in Latin. The book was tiny, about five inches long by three inches wide. (You can read excerpts from it here.) His diary, later deciphered, records life on the Maine frontier. It contains news of conflicts with Indians, of pirates and of dangerous voyages by boat to Marblehead, Gloucester and Newbury in Massachusetts. On May 25, 1723, for example, he wrote, Tis said that Sergeant Card was beset by two Indians about 9 or 10 o’clock last night near Capt Harmon’s barn one of which fired on him and pierced the breast of his Jacket we scarce know what to think of so strange a story. On April 5, 1724, he reported: Several vessels lately taken by Nutt ye Pirate and kindly treated. Joshua Elwells was taken from him. Joseph Moody also seemed preoccupied with death, often recording only that someone had died – even as far away as Boston. Joseph Moody died in 1753 at the age of 52. People said he sang hymns in his room during his last hours. Today, you can find his tombstone at the old Second Parish Burying Ground on Route 91 in York. It reads: Although this stone may moulder into dust, Yet Joseph Moody’s name continue must. This story was updated in 2019.	897	ENGLISH	1
One of the most common learning disabilities is dyslexia. It is a "receptive language-based learning disability that is characterized by difficulties with decoding, fluent word recognition, rapid automatic naming, and/or reading comprehension skills," according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. It has been an officially identified disorder since 1881. Despite the official recognition and the prevalence of the learning disability, it seems to remain one of the disabilities that allows children to slip through the cracks. Parents often have to fight with schools or school districts just to get the help that their child desperately needs to succeed. Children with dyslexia don't actually visually mix up letters or words, their cognitive pathway for analyzing information or images is different and requires more steps. In some cases, children have been found to learn better with alternative methods. Take a young boy from San Diego named Zachary. He had significant trouble reading. With hard work and the assistance of a private tutor using movement, sound and sight to help him, he is now reading at his grade level. Where was the help from the school? She found out early that the San Diego Unified School District doesn't test for the disorder, even though she highly suspected it was behind her son's struggles with reading when she learned her husband was dyslexic. When she finally got an outside assessment, the school provided the same program that autistic children get at the school. The problem is that autistic and dyslexic children don't learn in the same way. If your child has been diagnosed with a learning disability or requires an individualized education program for any reason, an attorney can help ensure that the school works with you not against you.	<urn:uuid:0524fbbf-30a5-4417-9b6f-203bcbb843cc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sdspecialattorney.com/blog/2014/10/dyslexia-a-common-learning-disability-but-help-is-rare.shtml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00523.warc.gz	en	0.981276	340	3.6875	4	[ -0.029465893283486366, -0.3137581944465637, 0.2865535318851471, -0.15700237452983856, -0.6741899251937866, 0.29448720812797546, 0.10444390028715134, 0.17533756792545319, -0.19650503993034363, -0.41542354226112366, 0.41165152192115784, -0.0358474999666214, 0.33334341645240784, 0.32517006993...	1	One of the most common learning disabilities is dyslexia. It is a "receptive language-based learning disability that is characterized by difficulties with decoding, fluent word recognition, rapid automatic naming, and/or reading comprehension skills," according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. It has been an officially identified disorder since 1881. Despite the official recognition and the prevalence of the learning disability, it seems to remain one of the disabilities that allows children to slip through the cracks. Parents often have to fight with schools or school districts just to get the help that their child desperately needs to succeed. Children with dyslexia don't actually visually mix up letters or words, their cognitive pathway for analyzing information or images is different and requires more steps. In some cases, children have been found to learn better with alternative methods. Take a young boy from San Diego named Zachary. He had significant trouble reading. With hard work and the assistance of a private tutor using movement, sound and sight to help him, he is now reading at his grade level. Where was the help from the school? She found out early that the San Diego Unified School District doesn't test for the disorder, even though she highly suspected it was behind her son's struggles with reading when she learned her husband was dyslexic. When she finally got an outside assessment, the school provided the same program that autistic children get at the school. The problem is that autistic and dyslexic children don't learn in the same way. If your child has been diagnosed with a learning disability or requires an individualized education program for any reason, an attorney can help ensure that the school works with you not against you.	335	ENGLISH	1
Who is Xerxes I? Xerxes I (Xerxes the Great) was the fourth and probably the most famous king of the Archaemenid dynasty of Persia. He inherited the throne from his father Darius I and attained Kinghood without proving himself worthy of it. Xerxes became one of the most widely known rulers in those times due to his keen eye for architecture and some great monuments he built, but he lost war with Greece in 480 BCE, which harmed his credibility as a strong ruler. To fight the Greek forces, he formed some allies and assembled a powerful force, which was considered unbeatable. It was the strongest known force to humans until that time. When his father handed over the throne to him, several nearby states such as Egypt and Babylon were in revolt, but Xerxes managed to crush them. But against the Greek forces, his preparations fell short and in the 480 BCE, he faced defeat. Xerxes later captured the northern Greece for some time, only to lose it again a year later in the battles of Salamis and Plataea. Xerxes I Childhood, Early Life & Rise to Power Xerxes was born in the royal Persian family around 518 BC to the king of Persia, Darius I and Atossa. His mother was the daughter of Cyrus the great, which played a big role in his coronation as the king, despite not being the eldest son of Darius. The uprising in Egypt had his father leaving for a dangerous expedition and as per the Persian customs; he had to choose a successor before setting out for Egypt and he chose Xerxes to be his successor. However, King’s poor health halted him from leaving for Egypt and he died in 486 BC, making 36 year old Xerxes the king of a vast and powerful empire. His half brother and eldest of Darius’s sons, Artabazenes, claimed the throne in front of the council as it was the norm in Persia and rest of the world. But somehow, due to the reason that his mother was a commoner and Xerxes’ mother was the daughter of a powerful monarch, Cyrus the Great, Artabazenes lost his claim. Mardonius, the cousin of Xerxes and commander-in-chief of the Persian army, manipulated Xerxes to lead the army to capture Greece, a feat his father too had tried to achieve. The Greeks were an accomplished warrior race and weren’t easy to crush, and hence, Xerxes’ uncle and chief advisor Artabanus tried his best to put some sense in his nephew, but failed. Xerxes was an impressionable young ruler and hence, he gathered and led a massive army to Greece. But before that, he needed to do something, during what his father died, crush the rebellion forces in Egypt and Babylon. Xerxes I Invasion of Greece Once he managed to restore peace in the vast Persian Empire, he diverted his attention to capture Greece, which was known for its fearless savage warriors, who were not exactly known to bend the knees to foreign invaders, even in the face of death. Xerxes was well aware of that and also knew in detail about his father’s failures to defeat the Greeks. He spent at least half a decade preparing himself and his forces to attack Greece and summoned men from all corners of his empire to fight for him. By then, Xerxes’ ruthlessness was heard loud as he disrespected the gods of Egyptians and Babylonians, the two close allies of the Persian state during his father’s rule. And on his way to fight the Greeks, when a bad omen showed up, Pythias, one of his closest allies requested Xerxes to release his son from the army, for he wanted at least one heir for the throne of Sardis alive. Xerxes’ being an atheist got enraged at this demand and killed Pythias’s son by cutting him in half. The massive force of Xerxes contained about a couple of million men and a few thousand ships, enough to crush Greece, or so he thought. Several omen showed up during his march to Thermopylae, but Xerxes ignored his advisors and led his army across bridges to enter Hellespont. Bad omen also made Greeks hesitant to go on an all out war and the King Leonidas of Sparta had to lead a much smaller army against Xerxes. The battle was fought and against all odds; Leonidas led his army to a seemingly impossible victory, but betrayal from a Greek man, Ephialtes, caused defeat and hence Thermopylae fell in hands of Xerxes. After defeating Leonidas, Xerxes marched for Athens and quickly captured it in a matter of days, giving himself the control of almost entirety of Northern Greece mainland. Overconfidence allowed him to enter in a war at Salamis with Greek troops without knowledge of enemy’s powers and the terrains, and as a result, he faced defeat. This forced Xerxes to retreat back to Asia, leaving Mardonius on the battleground with a fleet. Mardonius couldn’t stand for long and lost at the battle of Plataea in 479 BCE. Xerxes I Construction Work Xerxes lost in Greece and in order to fulfil another wish of his father, he went to Susa to oversee the construction of monuments his father started. His taste in architecture was grandiose and he built the monuments such as the building of Gate of All Nations and Hall of Hundred Columns, bigger than his father intended. He also oversaw the construction of the Palace of Darius and built his own palace, which was more than twice the size of Darius’s palace in Persepolis. He also built the Royal Road, and devoted much larger funds than his father to provide an architectural supremacy to his empire. The heavy funds spent on these monuments put a great stress on the treasury and hence, the burden of taxes increased on general population, leading to a widespread chaos in the land. Somehow, the historians believe that the heavy expenses on lost wars in Greece and uncalculated construction work in Susa and Persepolis initiated the decline of Archaemenid Empire. Xerxes I Personal Life & Death Xerxes married Amestris, daughter of Otanes, and she gave birth to six of his children - four sons and two daughters. Xerxes was a notorious womanizer and his fondness towards beautiful women led him to pursue his brother Masistes’s young wife. She refused him, but Xerxes wasn’t a patient or a righteous man and in the pursuit of starting an affair with her, he married her daughter to one of his sons. But when he saw Masistes’s daughter Artaynte, he fell head over heels for her and the constant pressure from his side compelled Artaynte to give up on his wishes and they started an affair. When Xerxes’ wife came to know of the affair, she planned and captured the mother, eventually executing her. This led to an extreme bitterness between Xerxes and his brother Masistes. As a result of this Xerxes killed his brother, along with all his sons. All these actions led to widespread discontent and Xerxes became a despised ruler in the kingdom. Several plots were hatched to kill him and one of them succeeded. In August 465 BC, Xerxes was assassinated by Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court. Artabanus executed the plan with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. After his death, Xerxes’ oldest son Darius went on to seek revenge and killed Artabanus to recapture the throne of Persia. Xerxes had several children with queen Amestris. They were Amytis (wife of Megabyzus), Darius (murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus), Hystaspes ( murdered by Artaxerxes I), Artaxerxes I, Achaemenes (murdered by Egyptians) and Rhodogune. Apart from queen Amestris, he fathered a number of children with several other women as well. They were Artarius (satrap of Babylon), Tithraustes, Arsames or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas (satrap of Egypt), Parysatis, and Ratashah. Xerxes I biography timelines - After defeating Leonidas, Xerxes marched for Athens and quickly captured it in a matter of days, giving himself the control of almost entirety of Northern Greece mainland. Overconfidence allowed him to enter in a war at Salamis with Greek troops without knowledge of enemy’s powers and the terrains, and as a result, he faced defeat. This forced Xerxes to retreat back to Asia, leaving Mardonius on the battleground with a fleet. Mardonius couldn’t stand for long and lost at the battle of Plataea in 479 BCE.479 BC - All these actions led to widespread discontent and Xerxes became a despised ruler in the kingdom. Several plots were hatched to kill him and one of them succeeded. In August 465 BC, Xerxes was assassinated by Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court. Artabanus executed the plan with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres.465 BC - Xerxes was born in the royal Persian family around 518 BC to the king of Persia, Darius I and Atossa. His mother was the daughter of Cyrus the great, which played a big role in his coronation as the king, despite not being the eldest son of Darius.518 Frequently asked questions about Xerxes I What is Xerxes I birthday? Xerxes I was born at Where is Xerxes I's birth place? Xerxes I was born in Iran What is Xerxes I nationalities? Xerxes I's nationalities is Iranian Who is Xerxes I spouses? Xerxes I's spouses is Amestris Who is Xerxes I siblings? Xerxes I's siblings is Achaemenes, Ariabignes, Ariomardos, Arsamenes, Arsames, Artobarzanes, Gobryas, Hyperantes, Hystaspes, Masistes Who is Xerxes I childrens? Xerxes I's childrens is Amytis, Artaxerxes I of Persia What is Xerxes I's religion? Xerxes I's religion is Zoroastrianism Who is Xerxes I's father? Xerxes I's father is Darius I Who is Xerxes I's mother? Xerxes I's mother is Atossa When was Xerxes I died? Xerxes I was died at 466	<urn:uuid:3153392d-6ace-42d8-acde-965fcb5106ef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://famousbio.net/xerxes-i-12567.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00305.warc.gz	en	0.980509	2,261	3.359375	3	[ -0.31759029626846313, 0.7274134159088135, 0.6935532093048096, -0.13187187910079956, -0.5324347615242004, -0.7606989741325378, 0.1961960792541504, 0.35899215936660767, -0.24197113513946533, -0.15323373675346375, -0.3174217939376831, -0.25, -0.04288943111896515, 0.14785629510879517, -0.062...	1	Who is Xerxes I? Xerxes I (Xerxes the Great) was the fourth and probably the most famous king of the Archaemenid dynasty of Persia. He inherited the throne from his father Darius I and attained Kinghood without proving himself worthy of it. Xerxes became one of the most widely known rulers in those times due to his keen eye for architecture and some great monuments he built, but he lost war with Greece in 480 BCE, which harmed his credibility as a strong ruler. To fight the Greek forces, he formed some allies and assembled a powerful force, which was considered unbeatable. It was the strongest known force to humans until that time. When his father handed over the throne to him, several nearby states such as Egypt and Babylon were in revolt, but Xerxes managed to crush them. But against the Greek forces, his preparations fell short and in the 480 BCE, he faced defeat. Xerxes later captured the northern Greece for some time, only to lose it again a year later in the battles of Salamis and Plataea. Xerxes I Childhood, Early Life & Rise to Power Xerxes was born in the royal Persian family around 518 BC to the king of Persia, Darius I and Atossa. His mother was the daughter of Cyrus the great, which played a big role in his coronation as the king, despite not being the eldest son of Darius. The uprising in Egypt had his father leaving for a dangerous expedition and as per the Persian customs; he had to choose a successor before setting out for Egypt and he chose Xerxes to be his successor. However, King’s poor health halted him from leaving for Egypt and he died in 486 BC, making 36 year old Xerxes the king of a vast and powerful empire. His half brother and eldest of Darius’s sons, Artabazenes, claimed the throne in front of the council as it was the norm in Persia and rest of the world. But somehow, due to the reason that his mother was a commoner and Xerxes’ mother was the daughter of a powerful monarch, Cyrus the Great, Artabazenes lost his claim. Mardonius, the cousin of Xerxes and commander-in-chief of the Persian army, manipulated Xerxes to lead the army to capture Greece, a feat his father too had tried to achieve. The Greeks were an accomplished warrior race and weren’t easy to crush, and hence, Xerxes’ uncle and chief advisor Artabanus tried his best to put some sense in his nephew, but failed. Xerxes was an impressionable young ruler and hence, he gathered and led a massive army to Greece. But before that, he needed to do something, during what his father died, crush the rebellion forces in Egypt and Babylon. Xerxes I Invasion of Greece Once he managed to restore peace in the vast Persian Empire, he diverted his attention to capture Greece, which was known for its fearless savage warriors, who were not exactly known to bend the knees to foreign invaders, even in the face of death. Xerxes was well aware of that and also knew in detail about his father’s failures to defeat the Greeks. He spent at least half a decade preparing himself and his forces to attack Greece and summoned men from all corners of his empire to fight for him. By then, Xerxes’ ruthlessness was heard loud as he disrespected the gods of Egyptians and Babylonians, the two close allies of the Persian state during his father’s rule. And on his way to fight the Greeks, when a bad omen showed up, Pythias, one of his closest allies requested Xerxes to release his son from the army, for he wanted at least one heir for the throne of Sardis alive. Xerxes’ being an atheist got enraged at this demand and killed Pythias’s son by cutting him in half. The massive force of Xerxes contained about a couple of million men and a few thousand ships, enough to crush Greece, or so he thought. Several omen showed up during his march to Thermopylae, but Xerxes ignored his advisors and led his army across bridges to enter Hellespont. Bad omen also made Greeks hesitant to go on an all out war and the King Leonidas of Sparta had to lead a much smaller army against Xerxes. The battle was fought and against all odds; Leonidas led his army to a seemingly impossible victory, but betrayal from a Greek man, Ephialtes, caused defeat and hence Thermopylae fell in hands of Xerxes. After defeating Leonidas, Xerxes marched for Athens and quickly captured it in a matter of days, giving himself the control of almost entirety of Northern Greece mainland. Overconfidence allowed him to enter in a war at Salamis with Greek troops without knowledge of enemy’s powers and the terrains, and as a result, he faced defeat. This forced Xerxes to retreat back to Asia, leaving Mardonius on the battleground with a fleet. Mardonius couldn’t stand for long and lost at the battle of Plataea in 479 BCE. Xerxes I Construction Work Xerxes lost in Greece and in order to fulfil another wish of his father, he went to Susa to oversee the construction of monuments his father started. His taste in architecture was grandiose and he built the monuments such as the building of Gate of All Nations and Hall of Hundred Columns, bigger than his father intended. He also oversaw the construction of the Palace of Darius and built his own palace, which was more than twice the size of Darius’s palace in Persepolis. He also built the Royal Road, and devoted much larger funds than his father to provide an architectural supremacy to his empire. The heavy funds spent on these monuments put a great stress on the treasury and hence, the burden of taxes increased on general population, leading to a widespread chaos in the land. Somehow, the historians believe that the heavy expenses on lost wars in Greece and uncalculated construction work in Susa and Persepolis initiated the decline of Archaemenid Empire. Xerxes I Personal Life & Death Xerxes married Amestris, daughter of Otanes, and she gave birth to six of his children - four sons and two daughters. Xerxes was a notorious womanizer and his fondness towards beautiful women led him to pursue his brother Masistes’s young wife. She refused him, but Xerxes wasn’t a patient or a righteous man and in the pursuit of starting an affair with her, he married her daughter to one of his sons. But when he saw Masistes’s daughter Artaynte, he fell head over heels for her and the constant pressure from his side compelled Artaynte to give up on his wishes and they started an affair. When Xerxes’ wife came to know of the affair, she planned and captured the mother, eventually executing her. This led to an extreme bitterness between Xerxes and his brother Masistes. As a result of this Xerxes killed his brother, along with all his sons. All these actions led to widespread discontent and Xerxes became a despised ruler in the kingdom. Several plots were hatched to kill him and one of them succeeded. In August 465 BC, Xerxes was assassinated by Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court. Artabanus executed the plan with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. After his death, Xerxes’ oldest son Darius went on to seek revenge and killed Artabanus to recapture the throne of Persia. Xerxes had several children with queen Amestris. They were Amytis (wife of Megabyzus), Darius (murdered by Artaxerxes I or Artabanus), Hystaspes ( murdered by Artaxerxes I), Artaxerxes I, Achaemenes (murdered by Egyptians) and Rhodogune. Apart from queen Amestris, he fathered a number of children with several other women as well. They were Artarius (satrap of Babylon), Tithraustes, Arsames or Arsamenes or Arxanes or Sarsamas (satrap of Egypt), Parysatis, and Ratashah. Xerxes I biography timelines - After defeating Leonidas, Xerxes marched for Athens and quickly captured it in a matter of days, giving himself the control of almost entirety of Northern Greece mainland. Overconfidence allowed him to enter in a war at Salamis with Greek troops without knowledge of enemy’s powers and the terrains, and as a result, he faced defeat. This forced Xerxes to retreat back to Asia, leaving Mardonius on the battleground with a fleet. Mardonius couldn’t stand for long and lost at the battle of Plataea in 479 BCE.479 BC - All these actions led to widespread discontent and Xerxes became a despised ruler in the kingdom. Several plots were hatched to kill him and one of them succeeded. In August 465 BC, Xerxes was assassinated by Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court. Artabanus executed the plan with the help of a eunuch, Aspamitres.465 BC - Xerxes was born in the royal Persian family around 518 BC to the king of Persia, Darius I and Atossa. His mother was the daughter of Cyrus the great, which played a big role in his coronation as the king, despite not being the eldest son of Darius.518 Frequently asked questions about Xerxes I What is Xerxes I birthday? Xerxes I was born at Where is Xerxes I's birth place? Xerxes I was born in Iran What is Xerxes I nationalities? Xerxes I's nationalities is Iranian Who is Xerxes I spouses? Xerxes I's spouses is Amestris Who is Xerxes I siblings? Xerxes I's siblings is Achaemenes, Ariabignes, Ariomardos, Arsamenes, Arsames, Artobarzanes, Gobryas, Hyperantes, Hystaspes, Masistes Who is Xerxes I childrens? Xerxes I's childrens is Amytis, Artaxerxes I of Persia What is Xerxes I's religion? Xerxes I's religion is Zoroastrianism Who is Xerxes I's father? Xerxes I's father is Darius I Who is Xerxes I's mother? Xerxes I's mother is Atossa When was Xerxes I died? Xerxes I was died at 466	2,300	ENGLISH	1

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